ABERRANT birds’ eggs. . . + . 421

Abnormal skeleton

Accommodation, Ocu lar 431

— oe Inheritance of ae

Acti tinian Varia vind 74

Adriat spong . 334

Moliai nature of ‘White River Ter-

MOG o a a ee ek a 403

Africa, Neolithic period of human

culture in Northe Nee be

frican Lakes, Fauna of 530

African skulls. 333

African studies, West 514

Agardh’s alg 543

Aldehyde i ves . 539

Alder root tubercles 450

Aldrich, J. M., and Turley, L. A

A ye n-ma 809

Algz, Agardh’s SNe ts 8 ORS

Alge, fnras - 544

Allen, J. A., North American arbo-

real squirrels > 635

American, Anthro opo olo ogist 512

American Association ar the Ad-

kyra e of Science . , Sa

American 166

American Journal of Physiology = 253

Ameri . 831

m . 66

Amphibia, Chiasma of optic n nerves 895

Amphibia, New York . - 620

Amphibia, Optic nerves . . - 630

Anatomy, Present ngs a 185

Ancestry, Vertebra 512

Ancient Toa Comala nen i

\ncylus, Reversal of f cleavage i in . 871

Animal gr . 6

Animal hypnoti SS >.: - ae

Animal intelligence. . . . 58, 613

Prese photographs 1o S

Annales du Musée du Congo i EAM

Annelids Eyes | of l TA

b \inolis of Jamaica : . G01

pen Continent, An ncient . . 97

Anthropological notes, n 517,

» 740, 831

ann Seegi of Anes

Bolander, Dr.

PAGE

Appointments, 91, 181, 284, 357

457, 557, 625, 682, 759, 840,

913, rs

Aquatic Oligocheta .

Archeology of British Columbia . pr

Ar adien al Brazil, Bows and 158

Art, Prehis 425

Arthro eer Doai organs d. rE

pree ern Regene i . 671

Artiodactyla, Distribution of 443

Associations for the advancement

of science — American and Brit-

pared :

ish — compar _

Astacidz, Key to «, 007

Astacoid Crustacea, Key to. 819

Asterias, Development of . . . 45

trali MEMS = > ck ee

Autodax . . 691

BA ACTERIA, are od Sg . 169

Bacteriology, Moo <: ee

B as, er 267

Balloon-making fl 809

Basalts of Steiermark 353

ion, Habits of ; 597

Bascanion,

ena rocks of Ivrea . 353

r, George, Life and writings of. 15

eien Emb ea

Beiträge zur Biologie d r Pflanzen 332

Bella Coola Toinne, , Mythology of fos

roe ard Zoö 55

euran “n plotting 259

SOT eae ph 429

Bi a 894

Bipolarity pr marine faunas. 583

ird migration : . 422

Birds’ eggs, Aberrant . < 42t

irds, Evans’s : : 523

Birds of Indiana. . . . z 65

Birds and eny

Bisons, Fossil, of North Avietics | rie 5

Black snake, Habits of

Bladders of turtles, A ccesso ry

Blind-fishes of wed caves . 526, ts

Blissus.

A species . .

Blood oaeiai; Nucleus of . cad

Blood spots in hens’ eggs . . . 530

: <: 170

iv INDEX.

PAGE

ng age Pues T nervous

syst w -9

Bo Zi ‘Dut 7

Botanic Garden, Catalogue of

Library of Royal .

Botanical rE, E ¢ ue . 331

Botanical Garden

Botanical notes, 82, 171, 2 7%, ; 48,

452, 545, 677, 754, 908, Sa

t, Teaching .

Boats of Philadelphia .

Botany, Ele Y 345

Bot Soper Gametophyte of 271

Botrytis a t 5

Bows mr arrows sd Central Brazil 1 58

ic et agen Albatro. 32

Braman, H. D., ripe AA Natural

History Societ 905

Brazil, Bows and arrows `of Cen-

tral 158

eae Association for the Advance-

of Sci 53

prish Association, Botanical pa-

. 980

British Columbia, Archeology o ot. 741

British Entomos -16

ae! in fr regs 343

Bryophyte + i+ 537

pes Key to fresh-water 5

Bum rik J.C. Facts and theories

of te mee ny. 917

Butterfly book, Holland’s. 673

CACTACEÆ, Schumann’s . 347

, 749

California, Flora of 299

California rocks 499

Campbell, D. H., "California flora . 299

Campbell, D. H., Northern Pacific

Coast, Vegetation of Se or

Card catalogue summaries ` . 661

Caridea, Key to Ree fee

Cartilages of head, Origin of - 674

Cat, Digestive tract of - 670

Catskill Mountains pice and flora 166

Caves, Blind-fishes of . 26, 895

Cells, ’Spe ecia aie Daite of . . 604

Centropa mye see

Cerem - 333

onial stones

Cenoaes of Mar supia ials

T Wentworth,S Sketch

of. . 643

Chel of lobster . Poa a r Sa

Chess and playing cards . 426

Children, Feeble-mi 158

ra of Prague, Physical quali-

es of

Chinch bug, American species o of . 81 4

Clipperton Islan nd hee - 744.

Coccide, Mauriti oo . 899

PAGE

Pokan E A. Habits and

cture o the Coccid genus

Margarodes- TA 5

Cockerell, T. D. A Vernal phe-

nomena in Ge ‘arid re A on 39

Collops bipunctatus b: 02

Colorado potato bee tle a . 027

Colors of de p animals : 662

Colors of flow ea rO

Comsto J H. and Needham,

J.G. Wings of Bia s M7,

573; 845

Cook, Aa F. Four or of

Spec +

Corn slats s 677

Corpus rate bes pig and man . 532

Costa Rica flor: . 170

Crepidula, Danhi 160

Cretaceous cycads 4 274

Cretaceous Foraminifera of New

Je 275

Cretaceous s plan 276

Derape Bemis - 267

Cru sige rida 267

Crus rway . whe 343

Crystalline pie. and grits . 176

Crystals, Kries; of ao o Ole

Culture, Origin 255

Cycads, Crei ous. . 274

Cycas, Fertilization of . 751

Cytology . 972

LWP- Phe eerie.

ti o i ;

Daly, R. A. The peneplain .° wig

Davenport, C. B. Key-to'fre:

hed = 393

Deaths, 92, 182, 284, 357, 459,

26, 683, et 841, 914» 986

Deep-sea anim: mals, Colo . 662

Deep-sea fishes "a Fald 436

Denmark, Rotifer <. e O34

Dero vaga n 2 200

Desert areas, Uiilization JE. Wits.

Desmognathus . . o eae

Diabase . 279

Dicyemids, History ot: 674

Digestive tract of cat . es 670

Dike rocks Portland, Me: ©... 281

imorphism in Crepidula . 160

Dinoleste 977

Dioritic rocks of Pusterthal . 176

Distribution and variation . . . 440

rsal organs of arthropods . . 75

NT rrr - 4

ee a

Easy Science . 738.

cology... . mo

Economic pare

Ecuador, Fishes . 344

ides, R. T. Relating to the chirp-

ing of CA T m bre canthus

temper iois

niveus 35

Editorials :

berrant birds’ eggs . a en

American Anthropolo ogist £1518

American and British Associa-

tion for the Advancement

of Science compare 3

— Journal of Physi

ogy

Anaha photographs .

Annales du Musée du Congo. Py

—— zur Biologie der

flan

P eR er ore E A

Bird atv a ae aoe

Bothuical calendar PRS EAT

Card catalogue s . 661

Colors of Aani apir . 662

Duties vod born i 57

Easy Sci > 73

Gypsy te and economic

olo

omo

Ensaio of ‘exotic ani-

al . 66

Pn for determination ‘of in-

rtebra iTi

ey of a rity 253

Mesenchyme vs. Mesenchyma

735

Natural Science =... <<) 4932

rine MOY ee ew BE

New species... se o 735

a Pdi col et OB

hade-tr i wR 35

cf il of } Morphologists mies

United States Fish Com mis:

si À

Utilization of desert a areas... 56

Vertebrate ancestry .

Ten Su, of Morpholo-

gis ;

Zoblogical bibliography. Maree

5480

ZoGlogical instruction 2

Eel, aioe ~ 345

Eggs, Aberrant birds’ 421

Eggs and salt solution

Embryos without EKA, ‘nuclei

mpis, balloon-making 809

‘Entomology, Economic vce AIG

Entomostraca, British . oe. o

N Entomostrac aoi Karela. . . . 268

ostraca and light : 978

Epithelial cells, Budding i in. 618

Equilibrium, Maintenance of 313

Eskimo, Lamp of Ame ©

Eur ropean races: 4, 827

Evolution of reo crates os a8

Evolution of S47

otic an ak acdan of . 662

Experimental morphology . . . 519

inkang petrography gae

De Regeneration E 62

Eyes of penn 74

Far North, Russell's . 514

O: G: European Mu-

pkoi

ute 183

Feeble- saloia childr TEN A E

Feeding and fertilization . i 445

Fertility inherited š 663

Fertilization of Cyca as. 751

preii and feeding . 445

“ibrin sat rmation of 833

Fishes . 166

F shes, Claes | in names , of fossil 783

Fishes of Ecuador - 344

Fishes of inp Guiana. 897

Fishes, Lateral fins of . eee

shes, New South Wales xii MIDs ORS

shes of Peru rey

aig Psychology eae 923

of Revillagigedos . 527

a of Santa Catalina. 528

agellata from the Rhine 438

leas, Position of . . . gol

f California . 299

Flora of New Zealand . 983

e zA Bn 276

orida Cru 267

J Gaes Coas matter cf 451

Flowers, Colors of . . icon. DOR

Flowers and ee i 736

Fly, balloon-ma . 809

F piven at N New Jersey, Creta-

Forestry ‘and Geology in New Jer- :

Fossil plants, Seward” s 1

nch m a fishes . 897

ae sh-wate "Ostracoda, “South

Am » 437

aang Teod - 343

ng in

Fruits, Evolution of na I71

Fungi, Light and the aaia of 540

GAGE, S. P. Unver of the

United S tates zo s 350

Gametophyte of Botrychium 271

Gastre : . 747

Coa ra Preoce cup ied. 36

eroe and Forestry in New Jer

sey. ; L, 109

Geotaxis, Problem of oe iy ee

Gneiss of Loon Lake 1 EO

Goby from aagana Island 744

Gonionemus vert 939

Gordiacea, American . 345

Gordiacea, Key to 647

rafts, A imal . 62

Grains, Poisono ‘ I7I

riaren Sadoni ‘ 84

Gra 279

Granitic Oceanic “Islands . 279

Greenland alge 544

Grits and crystalline schists . 176

Grouse, North America 259

Gypsy moth ae economic ento-

mology - 41

HAIR worms, Key to . 647

Harrington, N. R. Life habits of

Poea + 72i

F: Changes of names of

fossil fishes 83

Hay, W. P. Key t to Astacidæ of

North America - 95

oe tees š - 674

Hea x 43°

Helminthologtaal studies . . 528

Hemiascez, Spore natap in 540

Hens’ eggs, Blood spots ee

Heredity and Variability > 59

Herrick, . 409

F.H: Ova 6 Ovo

Hollick, A. Relation A SSSA for-

estry and geology in New Jer-

se eee te ee E

Holmes, S. J. Reversal of cleav-

age in Ancylus $ 871

Hopkins seaside labora tory . . 629

Hrdlicka, A. Needs of Aumeticnn

anthropologists 84

Hubrecht, Placenta of Tarsius and

of Tupaja - 894

. Huichol Indians of Mexic + 427

Human culture in N heen Africa,

Neolithic porion Wwa gaa = 42

Human t orm, New ee

> fens Nes “Of ectoderm in . » 505

Hydroid, New . Šor

irae Regeneration in . 939

Hymenoptera, Sting 2

Hypnotism, Animal. 434

Hyracoid, Fossil . . 894

ICELAND, Deep-sea fishes of - 436

Ichthyologia Ohiensis . . 668

Illinois River Protozoa... 338

Illinois River Rotifera . - 338

Indiana, Birds of . . ee.

ria, Biol of : -48

e and geotaxis Ce

- 439

Infusoria, 1 ms TN 2

Takor sye gy of 83

i characters 522

TE weeresamtts j . 66

Insects and e eaae OR NSE

. 461

‘Insects, Be ag of head .

- 835

Insects, Win “117, 573 845

Soa te: “Ani imal . 58, 613

troduction of exotic animals « + 662

Heck: tec Keys for > 511

Ivrea, Basic rocks of tea

JAMAICA Anolis . . 6or

Japanese Pulmonates

Jennings, Reactions

stimuli i in unicellular a. 373

Johnson, R. H. Pads on palm and

sole of hum

Ju dd, S. D.

ing insects from bir

Ka peri Seba NY of .

Kello O88 . L. Hopkins seaside

labor. nid

Keys A determination of inverte-

rates.

Kidney of pulmonates . į

Kingsley, J. S. Ke to astacoid

and thalassinoid Crustac . 819

Kingsley siege to North: pires

n Caridea. - 709

Kingsley, ut S., and Ruddick, w.

H. cula ia and ma

cate ean try EE e

PA NIA Bipedal ee |

a, Distribution of . - 443

Lamp o a the Eskimo rea

Lat tarak, fins of fishes =" » 895

Vater! ` TE yAn)

Lavas of two volcanoes j Ae

Laws of priority w. 283

Leman, Rotifers of the 163

se oa ater . 450

Lichen 540

Li ight and entomostraca - 978

Limfiord, Plankton of the 430

Lizard eeth 669

Lobster, Chelz of - 744

Lovell, J. Co lors of northern

monocotyledonous flowers

MacBripE, E. W. Rev

Goto on PE e pe Ash eri

McGregor Salvia coccinea,

an ornithophilous plant

McMurrich, J. P. Present status

of anatomy :

rmed toad š a

Malformed snake .

onas

ammals, Anc estry o k.

Mammals, — of .

Mammals, Origin of

Man, Cores luteum in

s - 729

Adaptations protect-

ds . 461

Man, Keane’s i

Man, es parasite a

Margarodes hiemal

Marin C ioaad of

fate OW.

ver Ty ertiary Zolian

auritius ge 5

an enemy of the Colorado

ati beetle: 25, See

du i

Mexico, H uichol Indians ot:

chi

- 4

Michigan, Co “ie ct phenomena in :

Microscopic tec technique

Migration of anit aay Dianat

ei a aR of birds

Miller , L lea Ritter, W. E

Miller’s t í

Biioniioey, "Determinative :

Minerals in rock sectio

E arta eee ge in the

Is the White

; 40

INDEX. vii

- 899

gw C. E. Collops bipunctatus

Sue + 344

Manweuers TH. Key to Gordi-

acea eens 47

: Montgomery, 1e n, Owls and

their feeding habits - 563

Morgan, T. [Re eneration in

si Hydromedusa, Gonionemus“

s -Y9

Mireghoioas. Experimental : 519

Mosses of New Brunswick 81

Mount Ranier, Rock 553

Muscular variatio 63

Museums of Europe 763

Myristicac ee 80

Mythology of Bella Coola Indians male

Myxosporidia, Position of 748

NATURAL Science = 332

hasta and philosophy . 889

Nature study .

oam, de G. See Comstock,

Nematode parasites - 349

todes - 9o2

Neolithic period of human culture

in Northern Africa . ~ 423

Neomylodon 166

Nepenthes, Proteolytic enzyme of 272

hridi f pulm 7

~ Nervous system of bony fishes 977

New prog Mosses 8

New ba Cretaceous. Forami-

nifer 5

New Fises, Forestry and Geology

wmo a ee. ae, FOO

PAGE

New South Wales Fishes . 437, 843

os w Species ee.

w York Amphibia Ce eae

New Zealand flora .

News, 89, ee 282, 355). 455) 5

I, 758, ee a st

Nicaragua jaa route, Geol

gi ia excreta, how pn Sig

ater

N aori Pacific Coast, Vegetation

No orway, “Crustacea of . 343

Nuclei, PERASA without maternal 256

Nuclei, Pro 258

N ucleus of aai AEE < 742

Nuttall, ©: H. F. — given

off by parasitic worm -B47

Nutting, C. C. Phosphorescence

in deep-sea animals . - 793

iret nannane sh Equilibrium and

the ral Nervous a m -« -7 3

Oceanic 1 “Islands, ‘Gran niti eos 275

Ocu ommodat . 431

Ocular iene ah Jon tempera-

ein Plankton of ho ae =

ecanthus piveus . . . . 2: 7935

i æta, Aquatic -Soy

Oligochæta of Japan 615

hæta, Littor - 5

1 ountains, Trout 527

Optic nerves of Amphibia 836, 895

Orchids of Sikkim Himalaya . . 81

Odin oes vit OLYEN «os. 28

of mammals

Origin of vertebaae from € rusta-

Orincherkepicsas breeding habits . 743

pes oat plan < oes

Orthopte coe allata of 8

Ortmann, A. E. BT of ma-

e fau : :

Genel coma i Eas -Ši

Osteology of Percesoces < 977

| Ostracoda, Key to fresh- water . <8)

Ostracoda, South American fresh-

ater s - 437

Ouramaba mes pa ee FOF

vy HOO

Owls a their feeding habits . 563

Oxygen and organis <> = aee

Lie per Lome of human fetus. . je

Palolo

ee | Geological history of ie

Isthmus of . ;

Paramecium, Psychology d o l 32

rasites oS 3

Pisasites, Poison given off by = o aay

vill INDEX.

PAGE PAGE

Parasites of stock . . +340 | Psychology of fishes oo gee

Parker, See Whi ipple, G G Psychology of Paramecium aa eee

Parthenogenesis i in the sea urchin, Pueblo ruins a E

Artifici 979 | Pulmonates, Japanese . 2 nis 343

Patten, rigin “of. vertebrates Pulmonates, Nephridia of tie OTA

from Crustacea Pusterthal, Dioritic TOCKS Gh à. 176

Pegmatite, Acid 17

Peneplain Pipe Caine te: QUAIL, N. American . E 259

Penilia, Embry olo ogy o of 1979 Gn, Geology ~ 1.) 5 gee

Pennaria tiarella, a, Morphology ; . 861

Penycuik exper 428, 920 sot Uterus masculinus of. . 894

koliini Ouesiogs of . - 977 Europe =. 3: ye O27

: 619 Rational vitalism

Peripatu :

Perissodactyla, Distribution of. 442

Per tte ar

Peru Fis of . 89

harnesses te notes, 8 5 178, 281,

353) 554 756

oe os

-etrography, Ex xpe erimental .

Pha arynx, “Innovation of . .

Phenocryst oe + 756

iladelphia ers i O82

Philosophy and Kape science . 899

gpa in deep-sea ani-

Physical ‘characters of children 60 5 611

- 429

hysics and biolog

Ph ogy, Overton’s . apiece yy

Physiology, Hoon So oe ee ee

Pig, Corpus luteum . 532

Plankton, Diurnal migration of » 338

Plankton of the Limfiord . 430

Plankton of the Oder . +o 3339

; t anatomy . . eee JAS

Plant ene re

Plant relat fe <a eget

Plants, Evolution i ‘ c 537

Platt, S c gravity of

animals in Piaras to geo 31

Playing cards, Chess and : 426

Plotting biological data 259

Poi pis > — - 429

Poisonous grain = s I}

Panoni i em off by parasites e r 2y

Polypterus, — T r

Pond Infuso < a A309

Po oa, Me. Dike rocks of 281

p ı W. E. Habits of black

: . + 397

Prehistoric se de £28

Preoceupied g generic names . 436

Priority, Laws of « 263

Proto Praachis, Morphology o. 671

Protoplasm, Energy of living - 663

pe nee budding in epithelia ]

Prot zoa of Illinois River ee

Protozoan nuclei < -258

Pseudopods, Movements of . 1903 |

Psychological met methods . . OFF

- 967

Reactions of unicellular organisms 373

Reason, Dawn o < OEE

Reed, H. $. Abnormal ` wave in

Lake Erie

Regeneration i in arthropo ds : -67

Regeneration of extirpated limbs . 62

Regeneration in Hydra a E

Regeneration in Hydrom edusa . » 937

Be ape Benge AEE and

rate of

io eoa gee

Re spelen North America . bs re

en. csr organ s e -62t

Rev

Abbott, Marine fishes of Peru 897

nag

- 743

-Agardh, Algæ eco aee

Alaska, Map of 87

Anderson, Miller’s thumb of

Europe 528

Atkinson, Elementary —

TE Evolution of our na

Adloff, ee of rodent

Eai _ Specialized nature A

Biter Granitic oceanic islands,

and the nature of laterite . 279

Davey, Marine Mollusca in the

Suez Canal

- 344

Beer, Oc ular accommodation Ati

ts aaae generic

Birch, Physio slo . 833

Blanc, sea migration of

the 33

Boas, Rrytholey of the Bella

Coola India - 516

Boas, Peripatus. ... ... . 619

Bodmer-Beder, Diabase . . 279

Botanical text-books .

Boulenger, Fishes of Eucador

moe T Recent papers on 344

Bragg, Cretaceous Foraminif.

era of New Jersey . . ee

INDEX. 1X

PAG PAGE

Reviews : Reviews:

Brauer, Brooding in frogs . . 343

vaga 2

Broo sa Habits of Thylacoleo . 174

Brush, Determinative minera

ogy . . 85

Butler, Birds of Indiana ieee OOS

Byrnes, Regeneration of extir-

pated limbs 2

Calkins, Protozoan nucle bas 250

Callaway, Grits metamo

pie into coysialiiae

schis - 17

Campbell, Evolution of plants 537

Canna, Py eee velopm

Charmoy, FLOA of Mauri-

+ 699

Chelan Botanical ‘Garden s 677

— Muscular varia

tion

Clark, Tori luteum i in the

pig and man RELAT

Clark, N. American grouse and

+ 259

Clements, Contact phenom-

ena in Michi

Clubb, Valoa in actinians 74

Cobb, Parasites of stoc

Conklin, EER in Crep-

idula

Corning, Origin of the car-

Hiep of a M OG

Costa a flor: eo TO

CA ‘Plant har iiag $

Culin, Chess and playing

e 42

Dana, A di y 912

prre mann, jis sa E

tural sciences 26

Dannenbe erg, Types of volcanic i

280

aaan, ‘Experimental

morphology . E e

Davenport Statistical

metho

Davidson, pR reader for

childre

e Embryos without ma- ;

erna 2

Dexter, Digestive tract of the

cat . 670

Df, Embryos ‘of Bdellos-

Drew, Mo Morphology of of the Pro-

. 671

Driesch, Rational vitalism . 967

Dunker, Variation statistics . 521

Eckstein, Zoologie 342

Eigenmann, Blind-fishes of the

t 5

Elementary Science Bulletins” 450

Emery’s Z

Errara, Organisms and oxygen 258

q 522

Evans, B + 523

Ewart, Penycuik experiments 428

Fewkes, Pueblo ruins . on

Folsom, eeu of in-

head .

a DIS

Friedländer, Palolo orm. . 445

Frit a nerves of amp hib-

Frobenius, Origin ‘of culture re » 255

nf: - 540

Fuess, Catalogue. . . . . 554

Gage, Toad . <73

Ganong, Teaching botanist . 906

Garbowski, Histology an

ph er: of the Gastreadz 747

di s Flo 79

Garm nin Soke ‘from Chipper:

ton Island .

vebrates Anatomy of ver:

German dee eep-sea expedition =- 87

Gilbert, ee of Santa Cata-

lina fe ;

Goebel, "ona phytes 37

Goto, Development ‘of Aste-

eo and Hatai, Oligochæta

revé, Distribution of Perisso-

dactyla, roson an

actyla .

Grieg, Mesoplodon soe owe

Gruber, Green Amcebe. . . 664

Guerin, aE gim 1a PN:

ah Cytology. < 972

Harper, Ceremonial stones -333

tanists of

Hars hberger,

Philadelph 2

Harshberger, Mexican flora

Hastings and Beach, Physics

and general biology . - . 429

Hatai, Aquatic Oligocheta . 617

al Route

a Ancient antarctic t con-

-975

Heiden ae Pro toplasmi c

budding in epithelial cells . 618

INDEX.

PAGE

Reviews:

Pie i pat ie pai, Trae

Herrick, “Peripheral nervous

fishe

system of bony fishes - 977

Herrmann, Quarry industry

and quarry geology - 755

Hertwig, Summaries in sys-

tematic zodlogy . . . . 344

Hervey, Colors of fi - 905

ow:

Heymons, soe aie sy of

the Orthopte . QOI

— Santai position

of the fleas

Hill, Geological history of the

Ist 1:350

a at ena of

alder

= KARO

Holland, Butterfly baok. 673

st ee Feeble-minded chil-

Hrdlicka, Normal tibi = ae 4

lizuka, Littoral Oligoc . 615

e a, Rhizopod parasite of

Honk Fertilization of Cyca a4 51

Iwanzow, - Is fertilization . a

process a feedin . 445

Jacobi, Japanese pulmonate. 343

a ti Acid pegma 178

pe A Gametophyte or Bo:

- 27

Jennings 1 Psychology of Para-

- 83

toate mg gay re fis hes

of he Revillagigedos < 627

apaa of comparative neu-

ogy - 3

cone Man, past and present 738

Keegan, Red and blue color-

ing matter of flowe I

Kent, Bipedal Lacertilia 94

and Pantling, Orchids of

_the Sikkim-Him 81

alaya

ingsley, West African stud-

ies

Kirk, Flora of New Zealand . ons 3

Kno owlton, ‘Cretaceous and

iary plants - 276

_ König, Development thè

: 5

: Kolbswitz, seis and therespi- *

ration of Tg . 540

Moore, Bacteri

Moore,

PAGE

Reviews:

Kowalevski, Helminthologi-

cal studies 8

Povar Ta eamatode a

Ruiner: Palolo w worm . ; 445

prg aa Flagellata

from the Rhin 4

Le Date c, Sex 604

pcs te Adriatic sponges . - 334

Lev ys eth of liza rds and

Lin ie Nemato des

Locard and Van den oeh,

Distribution and vadiecn, - 440

Loeb, Artificial part eee

sis in gir sea urchin 979

Loew, Tone of T, proto-

plas

Lord, Dike rocks of Portland,

Lucas, Fossil bisons of North

America o e 2 ee a

Lütken, Deep-sea fishes of Ice-

lan : i

Liitken, Spoli a A tlantica ne 430

Lumholtz, Huichol Indians of

Mexico.

Lund, Rotifer:

Lundborg, Origin ot the < car-

tilages of the hea - 674

Lu pe rtin Minerals in rock s sec-

MeLain, Reptiles of North sate

Mar so ok Animal ‘gr rafts ‘

ge oP am oh ae “270

Massee, Plant dis . 907

Masel Fo on sof fibrin-

ogen

Matiegka, Physical qualities

of the children of Prague . 605

Mears, Fauna

Meek, ToN of the Ole

Mountains 527

TREE Primitive pul:

monate kidney . - 674

eyer, Bows and arrows of

Central Brazil 158

Meyer, Microscopic technique 346

Milch, Granites 279

Mills, Perean intelligence . 8 613

ee ata, Blood spot

53°

Montgomery, American Gor-

-345

olo: ogy . i

Fauna of Central

African Lakes .

INDEX.

PAGE

Reviews:

tions u

Sei degwicz, Experimental pe-

trography . 352

Moser me Hay, Mosses of

New Br ick

Moses, CATRO of crystals 912

Müller, Adaptive modifications

rgans . 620

Morgan, pr of salt solu-

gs 2 Oe

Naturze te

Negri, Nucleus of mammalian

blood uscl 42

Neumayer, Innervation of the

pha . 672

New York Bota inical Garden « 677

NATET Botrytis and i

hos

N aban and Schreiber, Dor- š

sal organs of arthropods 75

Osborn, Fossil hyracoid

Overton, Physiology 4

Palmer, gen of Rodents 70

m Physiology

Ools

Pearson and okers. Pertiiyy

Eai

Foki ies, T emperature and fee

of regeneration 257

Penard, Movements ‘of. pseu-

t =» O93

Petersen, | Plankton of e

vean, Accessory bladders a

plateau, Rõle of "vexillary

a Ichthyologia Ohi-

a ge e i

ches Albatross Brachyura 532

thbun, Crustacea of Florida

per the Bahamas 267

Reinke and Braunmilller “AL

de saat n lea ae

Rhodor PRE 7

Ripley, Ra aces of Europe . 827

Rosenvinge, Greenland sie 544

ic Gardens, Cata-

logue of ye ary . 982

Russell, Explorations i in the

Far Nor

pega River of N or "t h

Am i

Salensky, Lateral ‘fins of

fish ; -DOS

"hooting Comm plants . 677

\ Sree ire . 348

Sars. a of Norway - 343

Schacht, Eae yaidin 164

r, Basic rocks of deren 353

PAGE

Reviews:

Se Lavas of two vol-

Schreiner, Eyes u of annelids

Sch ein the Oder 3 ey

aro eri Cact

Scourfield, British Tiatoa

161

Scourfield, Plotting biological

ata

Seward, Fossil plants ois a6

Sherwood, New York Am-

phibi . 620

Shipley, Sipunculids. + s 444

Shrubsall, can skulls . < 333

Sigmund, aait of Steiermark 355

nae or geen habits of Or-

ithor H =

553

539

Sluiter, ‘Sipuncul lids

Smith, R of Mt. ‘Rainier.

— Volcanic of San Cle-

nte

Société a’ Anthropologie “de

ris

Solereder, Systematic plant

Spechtenhauser and Cathrein n,

ocks of the Puster-

176

re Chelæ of the lobster . 744

Starks, Osteolo Percesoces 97

TR sonnan eni of Dino-

este:

Steffan, Sen

Sten shins Encomok ak Tak

Sarik, Variation’ in Veneridæ 4 39

organs

Kar 2

Sterzi, Envo of the spinal

893

ieai like

cord . .

Stimpson, Cl

Unionidae. -> i se

Stone and Smith, Nematode

parasites... - mo- im G

Sudler, Reade yoloey. of Penilia 979

Svec, Pond Infusoria 439

Teacher's leaflets . - 449

Thomas, Genera of rodents ii O

Thompson, W Wild anim I

av ;

Trouessart, Catalogue of mam-

True, Common ‘salt as a plant

poiso

ciate Water lenticels

Turner, California rocks . . 177

ranitic rocks of the

das

Urban, West Indian dors . 4 . 170

Fishes of French `

ana . 897

xii INDEX.

R z PAGE PAGE

a ; Rotifers of the Leman . . . . 163

Van Tieghem, Eléments de Rotifers, Swiss . 531

botaniqu 168 | Ruddick, W. H. See Kingsley, J.

Vavra, Fresh-water Ostracoda

of South Ameri + A 37

Vermon, Nitr ree X-

creta removed from’ ite - 605

Verworn, Animal hypnotism . 434

Vines, Proteolytic ree of

Nepenthes

Vines, Text-books - 449

Vogt, Marble . 176

Vohsen, prak of hearing . = haz

Wager, Nucleus of yeast

p are

Wagner, Natural science and

philosophy 9

Waite, Fishes of New South

Wales . 437

Walcott, Fossil Medusæ - 910

Warburg, Myristicaceen 80

Ward, Cretaceous cycads i . 274

Ward, N

Weber, Cac 749

Weber, Rotifers of the Leman 163

ha a iiey pte s egi

ew vey man tapeworm . ie

ot . OI

Wieler. Life hior of Dicy e-

mids 6

Willey, Zoölogical results, 7 5 442

Wilson, Prehistoric art

che

Winc sedimen rte ar y

granite 84

Wright, Uterus masculinus of

the rabbi

Yerkes, herio of Eai

mostraca to light 978

Zaborowski, Neolithic period

- sea culture in north-

Zander Sting ‘of Hymenop-

- 902

Zeiller, Permian flora 276

Zschokke, Cestodes of Apia:

-7

centali 45

Revillagigedos fishes 527

Rhine Flagellata 438

Rhizopod — of man 165

Rhodora ves 20.

Ritter, W. E., and Mille r, L. Life

historyof a Saona minae 691

Rivers of North 8

.ock sections, Min 3

Rocks of New York high sla ds . 178

odents, Develo eat of teeth of ue

Rodents, Ge wate of 70

Rodents, eoa so yo

Root raheroles of aide ok 450

Rotifera of Denmar ene Be

Tontoa i of Illinois River. 338 |

Russell, F. Human remains from

Trenton gravels . I

SALAMANDER, Life history of .

Salamanders, oe ee of a 231

Salt as a plant p 429

Salt oo pute ne 825

Salvia coccinea . ORS

“se Clem enia Volcanics of + te oe

a Catalina Bshes . -10V n Gam

Sciences, History of oy 826

Scientia . 60

Scientific expeditions oy 3

Sea urchin, Artificial abcess

3 979

dime: nite 84

Segmentation ay insect head 835

Sense er pee se gdi

Bras z ses re 604

a ee

Shark, New type o of Ep

Sierra vi ae 2 Granitic rocks of 553

Sigerfoo newhydroid . 801

Sikkim- “Flimalaya One Oe. 4. 8

Silva, Sargen Pius 7

Sipunculids

Slater, F. W. ` Ege-carrying K

of Zaitha

oE prai Haüy A coim bútioá

to the morphology cf Pennaria

tiarella 861

Smith, E. F. Society for Plant toraa

phology . - 199

Snake be malformed head . . 2 51

Snake teeth. ke

de of Morphologists | “4 oe BGS

Society for Plant Morphology =. 199

South American fresh-water Ostra-

coda . = ant ig te SF

a a , categories of . vient Dee

el $ 231

Spinal sie. Envelopes of 893

Spolia Atlantica. . . 1 Pie oe R

Sponges, Adri atic 334

Squirrels, Arboreal, ‘of North

Ameri see + 635

Starfish, ‘Development ee 45

Statistical metho cokes 074

Steiermark, Basalts of . 35

Ste oe sgn L- Malformed snake’s

251

Stejneger, L. New w names for the J

| ested ‘Anolis of “gag ica . 601

Stock ag 340°

. Sor

Sues Cakal, Marine Molluscai in the 344

INDEX. X111

PAGE PAGE

Summa ones. =. . . . 661 yea pe DT ee an S0

Swiss r Gat riation in acti ae

Syno fe iar North American i inver- Variat tion and distribution 440

tebra Variation statistics = . ioa e ne SA

E af. 593 | Variation in Veneridæ . 439

. Gordiacea 647 | Variations, Muscu 63

IH. Caridea - 709 eneridz, Variation in =a

a jare and Thalassinoid ernal phenomena in the arid re-

Crusta . 819 aaa ‘

V. Freshowatin Ostracoda . . 871 rtebrate 2 ancest ry : PR . 512

VI. Astacidæ woe SE Tekale ose of 264

Vertebrates, Man 892

TAPEWORM, New human . 72 | Vexillary organs. . 736

Tarsius, Placenta bf 2.40 ov Boa] Vit aem iosas : 967

Teaching botanist . 906 | Vol ocks ; 280

Teeth of rodents, Development of 743 Volcanic. of the Absaroka : 756

Teeth of snakes and lizards . 669 | Volcanoes, Lavas of two. . . . 84

Telegony 917

Temperature, Ocular changes and ARD, H. B. ETNA US.

ee a es Mesenchyma .

Temperature and rate of regenera- Mhea aans Fi d peculiar

ao to . I 139

Temperature : and tree cricket a 5 Water lenticels :

Tertiary plan 27 Waugh,F. A. The terms heredity “

Tertiary of White River, Æolian 403 and “ variabilit xa a = §SO

Thalassinoid Crustacea, Key . 819 | Wave, eee . 653

di Bue Paye holos] of Webster, F. M. A species

fishes.-. Peeve e gai of Bliss ae

a ae Habits of. ee ee ee Ae Indian flo ora

ir Cire Ors Cran ee oe hb mas a. nd “Morphologists tas

oad, Abnormal. a AR ae ewe r, W.M. Georg Baur’s life

Toad, G rage’s 73 writi ngs eas

Tower, W. L. "Loss of ectoderm of Whipple, GGs and Parker, H.N.

Hydra mn ROR Distribution of Mallomonus . . 485

bie cricket and temperature s. 935 F Wida . 66

ease, W Sketch of A. W. Wilder, H. pi Desmognathus and

pm ` 643 elerpes cos 231

Trematode anatom EEr. haass of insects 117, 573, 845

Trenton gravels, Remains of manin 143 erican . 908

Trout of Olympic nts oa Worcester Natural History So-

Tunicata, fdo lia ee ie Do7 iety . o5

Popájà, Placenta of. . 894 acme Poisons given ‘off by para-

Turley, L. A. See Aldrich, 3 M. BU ec 8 Ke ee

pets c. H. Key to fresh-water

Ost gue Gee ur) es:

Hires, ory bladders of. . 976

UNICELLULAR or pne Reac-

Unionidze classification Lag

nited States Fish Com 157

University of the United ‘States, 97, 358

Uterus masculinus of rabbit . 894

N tilization of desert areas ‘

_ Yeast, plant nucleus . s272

LATRA ge ie ee a ee

odlogia, Emery’s . . . . - + 890

Zoologie, Eckstein’s . - > + 342

Zoological bibliography Poe S M

Zoölogical instruction .

Zoölogical notes, 75, 166, 268,4 146,

533, 621, 675, 74 836, 904, 9

Zodlogy, Summaries in Pies a

VOL. XXXIII, NO. 385 JANUARY, 1899

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

eon Forestry and dipseapncgiert sus Jersey (with

map) _ Dr. ARTHUR ‘HOLLICK

George Baur’ Lite and Wri ritings : ` asang a:

On the Specife Gravity of Spirostomum, am, Patamacium, and the ee o,

in Relation to the Problem of Geotaxis . ‘ JULIA B. PLATT

Vernal Phenomena in the Arid Region Professor T. D. A. COCOKERELL

A Review and Criticism of Seitaro Goto's Work on the Dev | ; es

ment of Asterias Pallida Prof

Editorials: The American vs. the B ritish Ässbċist

The Utilization of Desert Areas, Animal Photograph ee

s of Recent Literature: Mill’s Animal Paphalsay, Robert Mac Dougall ; no

Nairi Novitates — Pang Biology: Animal Grafts ; Regeneration of Extir- _

22 e Jou

pology: Observations o n the Muscular Variations of the Human

lications of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, Frank Russell — Zoology: :

Butler’s Birds of Indiana, Leonhard page oe Trouessart’s Catalogue z ae

Mammals, Living and Extinct, J. A. A Generic aod Family _ Names of e

Smith ; ay aa r Myristic ; ;

Brunswick, /. F. C5 The Orchids of the Sikkim-Himalaya, “$

ican Flora, Botanical Notes — Petr r: The

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

J. A. ALLEN, Pu.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York.

E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D., Johns fee — Baltimore.

WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, Pu.D., Colby University, Waterville.

CHARLES E. BEECHER, Pu.D., Yale Guiones, New Haven

DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland E Junior niorit. Cal.

J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, [tha

WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard Sater sty; R idge.

D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Zeland Stanford Junior e — Ornia.

CHARLES A. KOFOID, PH.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, 7il.

D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McGill Salmi, Mosii.

H. M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, New York.

W. E RITTER, Pu.D., Hoge re of California, SEA

FRANK RUSSELL, Pu.D., Harvard University, Cambridge.

ERWIN F. SMITH, S. =a v. S. Department of jp ENA Washington.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, -e

W. TRELEASE, S.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis

S. WATASÉ, PH.D., University of Chicago.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine

of Natural History, and will aim to present to its readers the leading

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day, critical reviews of recent literature, and a final department for

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N & COMPANY, , Puniisuns.

MAP OF

= Port Jervis

Milford ya

J "i “a

P ‘N

‘N

Bushkill of 6 Mahwah

” r

WaterGap l O

\ N

J aiat rane aes y;

Belviderae a Padi zat 4 é

loa Morristo wr f

( X a NEW YORK’

BPhillipsburgh. (a) EN JERSEY CITY

j Oaea 2 w

ii x gg 2 Ki J

Woodbridge

Q K]

~ 9)

IN Perth Amt

\ D PT $ K \ Sandy Hook

Sy Q

\ Monmouth Junction

À Eatontown oj Long Branch

IN ~ °F; ehold

\ ae SY ermingaale

Burlington. Lakewood TPoint Pleasant

New E;

PHILADELPHIA seth «ahd 3 |

> oVincehttown

a? a

< S |

s » = Sickle ruille VV

Barnegat

town ; © 5

á »

Salem. 9

Bridgeton ° > A if

S w4

Q IS Atlantic Cily

Gore Norns Jrakukka

2 4%

NEW JERSEY

‘Tilustrating Dr. Hollick’s paper

THE

AMERICAN NAIURALDI

VoL. XXXIII. January, 1899. No. 385.

THE RELATION BETWEEN FORESTRY AND

~ GEOLOGY IN NEW JERSEY.

ARTHUR HOLLICK.

I. PRESENT CONDITIONS.

THE problems of plant distribution, or, in other words, the

reasons why certain species, genera, or classes of plants occupy

certain regions, have long received attention from those who

have observed the facts. If the earth as a whole be viewed in

connection with the entire vegetable kingdom, it is at once

apparent that the most powerful factor in limiting the distribu-

tion of plants is climate, and that isothermal lines are closely

identified with lines of plant limitation. If, however, smaller

geographic areas and smaller aggregations of plants be con-

sidered, it will at once be seen that climatic conditions alone

are not sufficient to account for all the facts of distribution

and limitation which obtain, but that physiographic conditions,

including altitude, presence or absence of moisture in the

ground and atmosphere, surface configuration, etc., are among

the factors which are the most influential. Finally, it may be

noticed that there are some facts of distribution which are more

or less independent of both climatic and physiographic condi-

: I

2 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

tions. They appear to depend upon soil characteristics, either

mechanical or chemical, and these characteristics constitute

what may be termed the geologic factor, for the reason that

the nature of the soil in any locality is directly dependent upon

the nature of the geologic formation in that locality. It is

with this phase of the subject that this paper is specially

concerned.

It is unfortunate that by far the greater number of areal

investigations which have been undertaken have been restricted

by artificial boundaries, generally political, such as state or

country lines, instead of having been extended to their natural

limits, either physiographic or geologic, and many interesting

problems, for this reason, have been only partially solved or

outlined.

In New Jersey two distinctly defined forest zones have long

been recognized,! vz., a deciduous and a coniferous — the

contrast between the two being so obvious as to attract the

attention of even a superficial observer. On first sight the

fact that the former zone is roughly confined to the northern

part of the state, and the latter one to the southern part, might

seem to indicate that the limits of the zones were determined

by purely climatic conditions. If, however, the line of demar-

cation between them be followed across the state, or, better yet,

beyond the confines of the state, it will at once be apparent

that it does not coincide with any parallel of latitude or with

any isothermal line, and also that it is not entirely dependent

on topography or the physiographic conditions.

If, however, a geological map of the region be examined, the

line of demarcation between the two zones will be seen to par-

allel very closely the general trend of the geologic formations,

whose outcrops extend in a northeast and southwest direction

across the state and southward beyond; and the inference is

natural that this coincidence is not accidental, and that the rea-

sons for it must be taken into account in studying the problem

of the limitations of the zones.

1 For a brief discussion of the subject, see Dr. N. L. Britton’s Catalogue of

Plants found in New Jersey, introductory chapter, Final Report State Geologist,

vol. ii (1889), pt. i.

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 3

It was from this point of view that investigations were com-

menced, and as they proceeded it became more and more appar-

ent that not only were the two great classes of angiosperms

and gymnosperms strongly identified with certain geologic

formations, but also that the distribution of many species within

each of the zones was capable of being similarly identified, and

their limits more or less accurately defined.

This line of investigation could, of course, be almost indefi-

nitely extended, so as to include a much larger number of

species, and if the entire flora of the state could be written up

from the same standpoint, an exceedingly interesting contribu-

tion would result. If, further than this, the investigation could

be made to cover a natural geologic area, instead of an artificial

political one, the value of the work would be correspondingly

enhanced.

The above-mentioned facts having been recognized by pre-

liminary exploration, steps towards more detailed investigation

were taken by traversing the state in a series of routes as nearly

as possible at right angles to the trend of the geologic out-

crops, thus crossing these in succession and noting whatever

changes in the vegetation were apparent from place to place.

In pursuing the investigations in this manner the following

facts were ascertained:

If an irregular line be drawn between Woodbridge and

Trenton, and a similar one between Eatontown and Salem, the

typical deciduous zone will be found to lie north of the former,

and the typical coniferous zone south of the latter, while be-

tween the two is an area about sixteen miles wide, which may

be termed the “tension zone,” because it is there that the two

floras meet and overlap, producing a constant state of strain or

tension in the struggle for advantage.}

Within the limits of the deciduous and coniferous zones the

conditions are more or less uniform ; the typical or characteristic

species in each have become firmly established in the environ-

ment most favorable to their growth, or unfavorable for others,

1 An excellent general discussion of floral tensions may be found in Mr. Con-

way MacMillan’s Metaspermz of the Minnesota Valley, pp. 594-600, Refts. Geol.

and Nat. Hist. Sur., Minn. Botanical Series I 892.

AL THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIIL.

and the struggle for existence is largely between individuals of

the same species. In the tension zone, however, the struggle

is not only between individuals of the same species, but also

between individuals and aggregations of different species. The

elements in the deciduous flora are always ready to seize upon

any advantage which will give them a foothold further south,

while the elements in the coniferous flora are always ready

for an opposite move. The former is a southward-moving, the

latter a northward-moving flora. In consequence of these con-

ditions, the area between their borders is in a state of unstable

equilibrium, so far as its vegetation is concerned. The tension

is constant, and any change in or interference with the environ-

ment releases the tension and causes a disturbance of the rela-

tions between the two floras until new conditions have become

established. Each such disturbance is marked to a greater or

less extent by changes of species, and lines of limitation thus

vary from time to time. |

The influence of civilization has been the most marked factor

in this connection. Fire and cultivation have caused, directly

and indirectly, great changes in the interrelations of species.

In places certain species have been removed for economic pur-

poses, and other species, less valuable, allowed to remain undis-

turbed; and this gives at once a direct advantage to the latter

in the subsequent struggle for place. In other localities all

species have been removed, and such a change wrought in the

environment that foreign species, better able to adapt them-

selves to the new conditions, become established there.

Fire is probably the most destructive agency, as it not only

destroys the living vegetation above ground, but often also the

roots and seeds beneath. It is also to be borne in mind that

in poor soil, such as obtains in the pine barrens, the ruin is

more complete than in richer soil. In the latter case the soil

will soon recuperate and be in a condition to start and nourish

a new growth by reason of the diverse elements contained in it;

_ but in the case of a sand or gravel soil, almost entirely com-

posed of quartz, practically all the plant food is concentrated in

a the surface layer of humus, which has been slowly built up by

ae the growth and decay of the vegetation itself, and when this is |

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. . 5

destroyed the process of again enriching the soil is an exceed-

ingly slow one. Fire-swept areas in the coniferous zone are,

therefore, naturally barren for a much longer time than are simi-

lar areas in the deciduous zone. A corollary to the foregoing

propositions is that changes wrought within the limits of the

deciduous or coniferous zones would not normally lead to such

extensive changes in species as would be the case under similar

circumstances within the limits of the tension zone. In the

former instances the original species would be likely to reappear

again, as their relatives would be their nearest neighbors. In

the latter instance, however, any change might afford just the

advantage which some species of one of the border zones

required for their establishment in new territory. It is in the

tension zone, undoubtedly, that the greatest change in species

and in the limits of species, has occurred, especially since the

advent of civilization, as it is there that cultivation has been

extended over the greatest area. In the marl belt the original

forest was destroyed at a very early period, on account of the

value of the soil for farming purposes, so that we do not know

just what was the original condition throughout that region ;

but the indications are that coniferous trees were formerly

more abundant than they are now, both in actual numbers and

relatively to the deciduous trees; while in the bordering zones

the relative proportions of the several species have probably

always been about the same as now.

In the following table an attempt has been made to give an

idea of the general character of the forests in the deciduous

and coniferous zones by listing the species which were found

to be the most conspicuous and characteristic in each.

DECIDUOUS (NORTHERN) ZONE.

Gymnosperme : Pinus Strobus L., Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr., Juni-

perus Virginiana L.

Angiosperme : Juglans nigra L., Hicoria ovata (Mill.) Britton, H. glabra

(Mill.) Britton, Æ. alba (L.) Britton, Carpinus Caroliniana Walt., Betula

lenta L., B. lutea Michx. f., Fagus atropunicea (Marsh.) Sudw., Castanea

dentata (Marsh.) Sudw., Quercus Prinus L., Q. rubra L., Q. coccinea

ang., Q. velutina Lam., Q. alba L., Ulmus Americana L., Liriodendron

tulipifera L., Platanus occidentalis L., Cornus florida L., Rhododendron

6 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

maximum L., Fraxinus Americana L., F. Pennsylvanica Marsh., F.

lanceolata Borck.

Scattering from the coniferous zone :

Gymnospermæ : Chamecyparis thyoides (L.) B. S. P., Pinus rigida Mill.

Angiospermæ : Diospyros Virginiana L., [lex opaca Ait.

CONIFEROUS (SOUTHERN) ZONE.

Gymnospermæ : Pinus rigida Mill., P. echinata Mill, P. Virginiana

Mill., Chamacyparis thyoides (L.) B. S. P.

Angiospermae: Quercus Phellos L., Q. nigra L., Q. minor (Marsh.)

Virginiana L., Crategus uniflora Münch., Prunus maritima Wang., Ilex

opaca Ait., Diospyros Virginiana L.

Scattering from the deciduous zone :

Gymnospermæ : Pinus Strobus L., Tsuga Canadensis (L.) Carr.

Angiospermæ : Castanea dentata (Marsh.) Sudw., Hicoria alba (L.)

Britton, Liriodendron tulipifera L.

SPECIES MORE OR LESS ABUNDANT IN BOTH ZONES.

Populus tremuloides Michx., Salix nigra Marsh., Betula nigra L., B.

populifolia Marsh., Alnus rugosa (Ehrh.) Koch., Quercus ilicifolia Wang.,

Sassafras sassafras (L.) Karst., Liguidambar styraciflua L., Prunus

serotina Ehrh., Acer rubrum L., Nyssa aquatica L.

It may be noted that three species (Q. alba, Q. coccinea, and

Q. velutina) are listed as characteristic trees in both zones.

This means that they are so abundant in both that any descrip-

tion of the prevailing vegetation in either would be incomplete

unless they were mentioned.

On the other hand, the species listed as abundant in both

zones are equally wide in their distribution with the three

species just mentioned, but none of them is so abundant

as to be characteristic, being more or less scattered and usu-

ally following minor surface features, such as water courses.

swamps, roadsides, etc.

If a complete enumeration of the trees which inhabit each

zone be studied, it may be readily seen that the deciduous zone

contains the greatest number and diversity of genera and spe-

_ cies, and that they are, as a rule, well mixed; no one species

forming the bulk of the forest over any considerable area. In

| the coniferous zone, on the contiary, the monotonous uniformity

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 7

of the forests, due to extensive aggregations of a few predomi-

nant species, is conspicuous over hundreds of square miles.

Pinus rigida, for example, is not only the predominant, but

almost the exclusive species over extensive areas, but no such

example can be quoted in regard to any one species in the

deciduous zone. If the geology and topography of the zones

be considered, it may be seen that the deciduous is exceedingly

varied in each of these features. The geological formations

represented are numerous; the soil in consequence varies

greatly, while the surface presents every gradation between

low level plains and hills of considerable altitude. Its southern

line is quite sharply coterminous with the southern edge of the

Triassic formation, while in all other directions it extends up

to and beyond the state lines. On the other hand, the conifer-

ous zone presents but little diversity in either geology or topog-

raphy. The geological formations represented are few. The

soil has an almost uniform character throughout, and the sur-

face irregularities are relatively small. Its northern border

is coterminous with the northern border of the Tertiary gravels,

sands, and sandy clays, and it is limited on its southern and

eastern borders by a fringe of modern sand beaches and salt

marshes, while southwestward it extends beyond the limits of.

the state. It is more restricted in area and less capable of

expansion, by reason of its geographic position, than is the

deciduous zone.

The tension zone includes practically the whole of the Creta-

ceous plastic clays and the Cretaceous and Tertiary clay-marls

and marls. It is intermediate geographically, and in its geologic

and topographic features, between the other two.

These facts may be observed to advantage at several critical

localities, as, for example, in the vicinity of Farmingdale. At

this locality there is an area of marl, like an oasis in a desert,

located well within the border of the sands and gravels. If a

line be traversed, starting from the vicinity of Lakewood, in

the heart of the coniferous zone, little else than Pinus rigida,

P. echinata, Quercus alba, Q. velutina, etc., are to be seen until

the border of the marl area is reached, when the pines disappear

and are replaced by deciduous trees, amongst which may be

8 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII:

noted Quercus rubra, Hicoria alba, Ulmus Americana, Populus

tremuloides, Castanea dentata, Liquidambar styraciflua, Betula

nigra, etc.; and these prevail until the marl area is crossed, and

the sands and gravels are again encountered, when the condi-

tions are reversed, pines once more become predominant; and

this condition prevails until the main marl belt is reached near

Eatontown, where deciduous trees again replace the pines. The

lines of demarcation in crossing from one geological formation

to the other are so sharply defined by the vegetation as to be

apparent within a fraction of a mile.

If the same marl area be crossed in a direction at right

angles to the previously described route, beginning in the

deciduous zone near Monmouth Junction, an equally significant

series of facts may be noted. In this vicinity the trees are

almost wholly deciduous, consisting largely of Quercus rubra,

Q. alba, Q. velutina, Hicoria alba, H. glabra, H. ovata, Ulmus

Americana, Fraxinus Americana, Fagus atropunicea, Castanea

dentata, Liriodendron tulipifera, Liquidambar styraciflua, Pop-

ulus tremuloides, Carpinus Caroliniana, Platanus occidentalis,

Acer rubrum, Cornus florida, etc., with occasional groups or

individuals of Juniperus Virginiana and Pinus Strobus, all of

large size or young vigorous growth.

In crossing the clay belt, towards Jamesburg, the first thing

which attracts attention is that several of these species become

less prominent, or disappear entirely, and that those which

continue are noticeably smaller in size and less vigorous in

growth. Several new species make their appearance, such as

Quercus ilicifolia, Q. nigra, Pinus Virginiana, etc.; and these

conditions prevail until well within the borders of the marl belt

near Englishtown, when the trees again become somewhat

larger in size. This variation in the size of the trees was

found to be coincident in most cases with the presence or

absence of local areas of sand and gravel—the smaller trees

occurring in connection with these areas, which areas were also

coincident with the distribution of certain species. For example,

in one locality, about a mile north of Englishtown, the road

passes through quite a deep cut, in a sand hill of considerable

o Ste — and m On this hill is quite a growth :

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 9

of Pinus rigida and Diospyros Virginiana, although both

species are conspicuous by their absence elsewhere in the

vicinity.

In the neighborhood of Freehold some of the species which

were sparsely represented before become more prominent, and

then a marked change occurs as soon as the border of the main

marl belt is passed. In place of the almost exclusively decidu-

ous vegetation, patches of Pinus rigida become prominent; and

these continue until the marl area at Farmingdale is reached,

when the pines disappear and are not again met with until the

area is crossed. By this route it may be seen that the entire

- width of the tension zone is crossed where the relations of the

two floras are the most complicated.

Another interesting locality is the vicinity of Perth Amboy,

where the terminal moraine extends beyond the Triassic border

and encroaches for a short distance on the Cretaceous. Here

the typical deciduous flora, which elsewhere is coterminous

with the border of the Triassic, is in existence beyond, follow-

ing the edge of the moraine, where it is in sharp contrast with

the tension zone representatives of the coniferous flora, which

here reach their most northern limit in the state.

At many other localities the same or similar facts may be

noted, but the above instances are probably sufficient to illus-

trate the general facts of distribution.

In order to illustrate some facts of specific distribution, the

following examples are taken :

Tsuga Canadensis. — More or less abundant in the deciduous

zone, especially in hilly and rocky regions along the borders of

streams. Not recorded south of the tension zone, except indef-

initely as very rare, in Ocean and Monmouth Counties. The

only exact localities known to me south of the Triassic border

are New Egypt, Vincenttown, and Burlington, all within the

tension zone.

Rhododendron maximum. — Abundant in the deciduous zone,

often forming dense thickets along streams and lake borders.

Recorded from but one locality south of the tension zone, at

Sicklerville, and from two within the zone, at Burlington and

Kinkora.

IO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII

Pinus Virginiana. — More or less abundant in the coniferous

zone, often forming small forests. Locally quite frequent in

the tension zone, especially on the clay belt, but only recorded

from within the deciduous zone, at widely separated localities

— New Brunswick, Milford, and Riegelsville.

Pinus echinata. — Most abundant in the tension zone, often

forming groves of considerable extent. Less abundant in the

coniferous zone and not recorded from the deciduous zone.

Chamecyparis thyoides. — Forms the bulk of the vegetation

in the cedar swamps of the coniferous zone. Rare in the ten-

sion zone. Locally abundant in certain swamps in the decidu-

ous zone.

Ilex opaca. —Common in wet woods in the coniferous zone.

Less abundant in the tension zone. Reported from but one

locality in the deciduous zone, at Carpentersville.

Quercus Phellos.— More or less abundant in the southern

part of the state, especially in the tension zone, where it occurs

close to the Triassic border, but has not been recorded from

the deciduous zone.

Quercus nigra. — Practically the same range as the last.

That the distribution of these species is not wholly due to

climatic conditions is evident. In the case of Chamecyparts

we have a species which occurs as far north as Massachusetts,

and as far south as Florida, its occurrence being determined by

physiographic conditions.

In considering others of the species we may even eliminate

these conditions. Quercus Phellos and Q. nigra, for example,

extend northward in the eastern part of the state as far as

Perth Amboy, while in the western part they are not known

north of Trenton. A line drawn between these two places

defines the northern limit of distribution for these species.

The topographic features in the immediate vicinity on both

sides of this imaginary line are the same, and yet they do not

cross it. The fact which is at once apparent, however, is that

_ this line is coincident with the line of demarcation between the

Triassic and Cretaceous formations, and the rational inference

is that this feature is the important one to be studied. These

ts two species are taken as special examples in this connection,

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. II

because their limits of distribution are so sharply defined; but

careful tabulation of similar facts in regard to others would

prove equally interesting and significant.

If the foregoing facts be carefully considered, one feature is

sure to attract attention -by reason of its constant reiteration.

This is the influence apparently exerted by the geologic forma-

tions upon the distribution of certain classes and species of

trees, or, for the sake of argument, the coincidence which

exists between certain geologic formations and certain facts of

plant distribution.

From whatever point of view we may regard the matter, it

finally resolves itself into an examination of the soil condi-

tions, which are directly dependent upon the structure and com-

position of the geologic formations from which the soils were

derived. Soil influence is indicated in all the facts of plant distri-

bution throughout the state as one of the most potent factors,

and in some instances as the only one, to be taken into consid-

eration; and here it seems pertinent to remark that the name

which any geologic formation may bear is of no consequence

in this connection, except for purposes of identification. The

only matter of any moment is its lithological characters, either

mechanical or chemical, irrespective of age or stratigraphic

position. A sandy soil, whether a recent dune deposit or one

formed from the disintegration of Paleozoic sandstone in place,

would be of equal importance so far as sand-loving plants are

concerned. In the same way a heavy soil, whether of creta-

ceous marl or glacial till, might be equally available as a home

for species which must have such a mechanical condition for

their proper growth. Those which merely require a rocky soil

would also be indifferent as to whether the rock was Eozoic

granite or Triassic trap.

This line of argument, therefore, infers that the mechanical

structure of the soil is of equal importance with its chemical

constitution ; and this is apparently the fact. The observations

made seem to indicate that the former is the more powerful in

influencing the original location and distribution of species,

while the latter more largely affects their subsequent growth.

Upon this basis of reasoning we may account for the fact that

12 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

species from the deciduous zone, where the soils are compara-

tively heavy, are able to push their way southward into the

marl of the tension zone, and we may also note the effect of

the chemical composition of the soil on the growth of these

species, as indicated by their decreased size wherever they

occur on areas of sand or gravel. In similar manner we can

understand the reason for the northward extension of Pinus

Virginiana at Perth Amboy, on account of the sandy or gravelly

surface soil, and its abrupt limitation in that locality, at the

terminal moraine, the soil of which is more compact and heavy.

Quercus Phellos and Q. nigra are, without doubt, limited in

their distribution by the same causes, and we are justified in

assuming that if the soil conditions which favor them, or, what

is the equivalent, the geological formation on which they grow,

had a further northward extension, the species mentioned would

be found upon it irrespective of climatic conditions.?

One thing, however, which should not be ignored in regard

to characteristic species of any zone is that they do not always

exist where they are found by reason of the environment being

the most favorable one for them, but because the environment

may be unfavorable for other species. For example, Pinus

rigida, as previously noted, exists in parts of the sand barrens

of Burlington, Ocean and Atlantic Counties, almost to the ex-

clusion of all other trees; but it is stunted and conspicuously

less vigorous in appearance as a whole than where it. occurs as

scattering groves or individuals further north in richer soil.

The natural inference is that it would exist to better advantage

in a different soil from that in which it is most abundant, but

that other more aggressive species are able to occupy and hold

such soils against it, and that in the sand barrens it merely

exists by reason of freedom from competition. This inference

is further strengthened if we consider its wide geographic

range, which extends from New Brunswick to Georgia and

1 a following references may be found of interest in this connection :

- Britton, N. L. the Existence of a Peculiar Flora on the Kittatinny

Saue of Northwestern New Jersey, Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, vol. xi (1884),

p- 126.

2 Hollick, ER Plant Distribution. as a Factor in the Interpretation of

Geological Me Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xii (1893), p- =

No. 385.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 13

includes a great diversity of soil and climate. It is doubtful

whether the sand barrens in many localities could ever be

reforested by deciduous trees after the complete destruction

of the pines. Certainly many such areas have remained com-

pletely devoid of any growth for many years, whereas in the

deciduous zone clearings quickly become reforested, often by

pines and cedars which were not before to be found in the

region. i

When the soil characters of each zone are studied, it becomes

easy to understand why the character of the vegetation in each

is so different. In the deciduous zone the rocks are partially

weathered and disintegrated for a considerable depth, and this

disintegration is unceasingly going on, constantly adding new

material to the soil from the variety of the mineral constituents

in the rocks. New soil is constantly being made and the old

soil being renovated, so that plant food is in process of manu-

facture all the time. The character is also such that it is

capable of retaining moisture for a considerable period, which is

a valuable factor in periods of drought.

On the other hand, in the coniferous zone the rock has long

been almost completely disintegrated, and as it is practically

composed of but one constituent, quartz, which is of little or

no value for plant food, any further disintegration is incapable

of yielding any other element, and but little is added to the

soil which could serve to support vegetation.' Further than

this, in many places no rock disintegration is going on, but, on

the contrary, rock is in actual process of formation. Sand-

stones and conglomerates are being formed by cementation

with limonite, and where this occurs, a hard layer results which

limits the downward growth of roots, while if the conditions

are such that an open porous sandy soil prevails, it becomes

impossible for water to be retained in it, and an arid sand

barren is the result.

The logical conclusion is that if the flora of the coniferous

zone should be destroyed, its reéstablishment in the zone would

be a very difficult matter on account of the hostile physical

conditions which are ceaselessly at work there; while in the

deciduous zone its struggle for existence, even if it gained a

14 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST.

foothold there, could not be maintained against the more aggres-

sive deciduous flora. That these adverse conditions, physical,

and biological, have long been active in modifying the character

of the coniferous flora, and circumscribing its limits, we know

from the geological records, and that they may be expected to

continue in the future we have every reason to believe. In

other words, we have to regard the coniferous flora, taken as

a whole, as representing a waning type of vegetation, which

reached its maximum of development in past geologic time, and

which has since then been slowly but inevitably giving way to

the deciduous type, which is now in the ascendant.

The relation between the historical development or evolution

of the living floras and the facts of their present distribution _—

will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS.

WILLIAM MORTON WHEELER.

GreorG HERMANN CarL Lupwic Baur was born in Weiss-

wasser, Bohemia, Jan. 4, 1859, into a family noted for its

learning. His father and three of his father’s brothers were

professors in German universities. Among the latter was the

theologian Gustav Baur, professor at Leipzig. George Baur’s

father, Franz v. Baur, was

professor of forestry and

director of the -f Forst-

wissenschaftliche Ver-

suchsanstalt ’’ at Munich

from 1878 to 1897, and

rector of the university

from 1895 to 1806.

The year after George

Baur’s birth Franz Baur,

who had been chief for-

ester (“ Oberforster”’) of

Weisswasser, left Bohe-

mia and after a short stay

in Giessen occupied a

lonely “ Forsthaus” be-

tween Frankfurt and

Darmstadt. George

Baur’s earliest memories

went back to this secluded dwelling in the forest of which

his father was superintending forester. Here, too, the family

did not tarry. In 1864 Prof. Franz Baur accepted the chair

of forestry in the Academy of Hohenheim, near Stuttgart.

Here he remained till he was called to Munich in 1878. It was

in Hohenheim that George Baur passed the happiest years of

his childhood. He was sent to school in the spring of 1865.

According to his own statement, he learned with difficulty.

GEORGE BAUR.

16 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIIL

Memorizing, especially, was irksome to him, and in later years

he often complained of the absurd pedagogical methods in

vogue during his boyhood. Such time as he could spare from

his lessons he passed in the woods about Hohenheim, and he has

left a charming little description of himself and playmates act-

ing Fenimore Cooper’s Mohicans, chasing one another through

the woods with bows and tomahawks. There was only a

“ Lateinschule”’ in Hohenheim, so George Baur’s parents de-

cided to send him to a “Realgymnasium”’ at Stuttgart. He

accordingly left Hohenheim and entered on his further studies

during Easter, 1873. The“ Realgymnasium ” had an excellent

director, Dr. Dillmann, a man of whom Dr. Baur always spoke

with gratitude and affection. The final examinations in the

Stuttgart “Gymnasium” appear to have been very severe, for Dr.

Baur has often told me that the horror of these examinations

kept recurring to him in his dreams years after he had grown

to manhood. These dreadful examinations, however, were suc-

cessfully passed, and he left the last class of the “Gymnasium”

during the autumn of 1877. During the year following he

returned to Hohenheim and entered the academy with the inten-

tion of becoming a forester like his father. He became Pro-

fessor Niess’s assistant in geology and paleontology and soon

decided to change his plans and make these subjects his life’s

work. In the fall of 1878 he entered the University of Munich.

There he studied chemistry with Bayer, zoology with v. Siebold,

and botany with Nägeli, till he had completed the summer

semester of 1880. Thereupon he went to Leipzig, and dur-

ing the winter of 1880-81 and the following summer semester

studied comparative anatomy with Leuckart, geology with Cred-

ner, and phylogenetics with Carus. During the autumn of 1881

he again returned to Munich to complete his university work.

He studied paleontology with v. Zittel, physiology with Voit,

and histology and embryology with v. Kupffer. He defended

his inaugural dissertation, entitled “The Tarsus of Birds and

Dinosauria, a morphological study,” July 18, 1882. The guaestio

inauguralis referred to Gegenbaur’s archipterygium. theory.

Baur had now fully decided to follow a university career, and

= the = det in this direction he became assistant in his-

No. 385.] GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS. EF

tology to Professor v. Kupffer in the “Anatomisches Institut”

of his alma mater. In March, 1884, he was called to New

Haven to act as Professor Marsh’s assistant. During the same

year he married Fräulein Auguste Wachter of Munich. Dr.

Baur served Professor Marsh till Feb. 1, 1890, when, owing to

certain difficulties with that gentleman, he resigned his position

and left Yale University. During the summer of 1890 he

collected fossil reptiles and fishes in western Kansas for Pro-

fessor v. Zittel. In the autumn he accepted the position of

docent of comparative osteology and paleontology at Clark

University, Worcester, Mass. The calm atmosphere of inves-

tigation pervading that institution allayed the excitement into

which he had worked himself on leaving Yale, and having en-

tered on a position where free and independent investigation

and publication were not merely tolerated but required, he began

to plan several extensive works. One of these was an elaborate

monograph of the North American tortoises, to be published

by the National Museum as a companion volume to Cope’s

Batrachia. Another was the investigation of the faunas and

floras of oceanic islands. During the two years that Dr. Baur

held his position at Clark he made great progress in both of

these undertakings. In 1891, through the kindness of Mr.

Salisbury of Worcester, Professor H. F. Osborn, and others in-

terested in Clark University, he was enabled to fit out an expe-

dition to the Galapagos Islands. Accompanied by Mr. C. F.

Adams, he left in May and returned in October, after visit-

ing nearly all the islands of the archipelago. The study of

his extensive collections of the plants and animals of these

islands has since occupied Dr. Baur and several zoologists

and botanists both in this country and in Europe. The

various reports, embodying descriptions of many new species,

had been nearly all published, and just before his last illness

Dr. Baur was planning a general work on the Galapagos

Islands to include all the results of the expedition, together

with an elaborate introductory chapter by himself. The

valuable collections were recently purchased by the Tring

Museum, which is undertaking a further study of the Gala-

pagos fauna.

18 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

In 1892 Dr. Baur was called to the University. of Chicago as

assistant professor of comparative osteology and paleontology,

and three years later was advanced to an associate professorship

in the same institution. Here he bent all his energies to

developing the department of which he had charge. For the

purpose of increasing the paleontological collections of the

university two expeditions were sent out, one to eastern

Wyoming, in charge of Dr. Baur himself, and a few years later

another to Texas, in charge of Dr. E. C. Case. Besides the

work on the material collected on these expeditions, his turtle

monograph, and the Galapagos material, Dr. Baur spent much

time in working out elaborate courses of lectures on vertebrate

osteology and phylogenetics. His classes were never large,

owing partly to the advanced and highly specialized nature of

the subjects presented and partly to his inability to express

himself in a clear and attractive manner in the English language.

Incessant work along so many different lines wore on his highly

nervous organization. During September, 1897, his friends

feared that his mental health was giving way, and he was

persuaded to go abroad, in the hope that a year’s sojourn with

his relatives in Munich and southern Tyrol might restore him

to health. His illness (general paresis) was not dispelled by

the change. It was found necessary to transfer him to an

asylum, where he soon succumbed, June 25, 1898. He was

buried at Munich. Prof. v. Kupffer, who helped to equip the

young scientist for his brief but brilliant career, placed the

merited laurel wreath upon the grave. Very near Dr. Baur

reposes George Ebers, who died a month later.

Such was Dr. Baur’s external and uneventful life; his true

inner life was one of constant and enthusiastic investigation,

which is but imperfectly indicated in the list of his published

works appended to this article. The hundred and forty odd

papers bequeathed to science are only a prodromus of the greater

things which he hoped to accomplish in the near future. Like

Professor Cope, whom he greatly admired and whose successor

in herpetology he had hopes of becoming, he possessed a very

active mind and wide interests. That he was always busy with

= a number of problems simultaneously is shown by a perusal of

No. 385.] GEORGE BAUR S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 19

the list of his writings. None of his works are of considerable

length, many of them are mere notices, but prolixity is not one

of their faults. He often condensed much patient research,

both in the laboratory and the library, into an astonishingly

small space. He cannot always be excused from the fault of

publishing too hastily and having subsequently to change his

opinions. Nor did he always succeed in maintaining his ground -

against his opponents without undue emphasis and unpleasant-

ness of expression. This unpleasantness of expression was

unintentional, however; being due to a certain abruptness in

the use of the English language. Most of his papers appeared

in a comparatively small number of journals, many of them in

the American Naturalist and the Zoologischer Anzeiger.

Dr. Baur’s inaugural dissertation on the tarsus of birds and

Dinosaurs is the keynote to much of his later work. It begins

with a study of the developing limb skeleton of the bird and

branches out into a comparative study of the limbs of the

extinct Dinosaurs. The closing paragraph of the paper seems

to contain the germ of his later views on the origin of variation,

views which were practically identical with those of the Neo-

Lamarckian school. In this paragraph he maintains that the

appendages of oviparous animals are more variable than those

of ovo-viviparous and viviparous forms, “as a viviparous animal

which develops in the uterus, far from disturbing external influ-

ences, especially those of a mechanical nature, when born ex-

hibits a tolerably truthful picture of its ancestors, since what

it possesses at birth is inherited. An oviparous animal, on the

other hand, will present a much less truthful picture of its

ancestry,” etc. Dr. Baur would probably have dissented from

this crude view in after years, but he never altogether abandoned

the assumption that variations in living organisms are traceable

to the inherited effects of the environment.

Dr. Baur made the Reptilia the center of his researches in

paleontology and osteology. His thorough and extensive knowl-

edge of the diversified structure of living and fossil reptiles

enabled him to arrive at very correct conclusions respecting

mooted questions in the osteology of the fishes on the one hand,

and the birds and mammals on the other. Dr. O. P. Hay, who

20 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXI.

studied with Dr. Baur, has published in Science (July, 1898,

pp. 69 and 70) a brief but excellent account of Dr. Baur’s work

in herpetology :

“ Dr. Baur’s especial interest was in. the morphology of the

vertebrate skeleton. Although he recognized the great value

of descriptive osteology, such work alone did not satisfy the

demands of his mind. Although he wrote much on vertebrate

paleontology, he was the describer of few new genera and

species. His constant effort was to discover the relationships

of forms and the way in which they had originated. He was

thus impelled to study the homologies of the various bones,and

to attempt to connect them with the skeletons of more primi-

tive forms. In many of his papers we find attempts made to

unravel the genealogy of groups and to base classifications on

this genealogy. His views regarding the scope and the methods

of comparative osteology may be learned from a lecture pub-

lished in Sczence, 1890, vol. xiv, p. 281.” * * * “In studying

the development of the limbs, Dr. Baur held that the Amniota

which possessed more than five fingers were highly specialized

forms and not primitive ones, presenting transitions from the

fishes. His view is now probably very generally accepted.

«A number of his papers related to the structure and the

systematic position of the leather-back turtle Dermochelys. He

opposed strongly the views of Cope, Dollo, Boulenger, and

Lydekker, that this reptile forms a suborder distinct from all

other living tortoises. He regarded it as belonging to merely

a highly specialized branch of the Pinnata, a group which

contains our living sea turtles.

“The structure and relationships of the Mosasauridz form

the subject of several interesting papers. In opposition to Pro-

fessor Cope, who maintained that these extinct reptiles bore

special relationship to the snakes, Dr. Baur held that they

were true lizards, closely related to the Varanidze, but modified

for adaptation to an aquatic existence. An excellent paper on

_ the structure of the skull of the Mosasauridze was published in

n the Journal of Morphology for 1892. :

= “ As early as 1886 Dr. Baur wrote a paper on the homologies

r z of e aasa of the otic and epora repaos His interest in

No. 385.] GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 21

the subject never relaxed, and some of his latest papers were

written in a discussion of the subject with Professor Cope.

“In the same year above mentioned, 1886, Dr. Baur became

interested in the morphology of the vertebral column, and he

published a paper of considerable length in the Bzologisches

Centralblatt of that year, stating his conclusions. He gave his

adherence to the opinion of Cope, who held that the vertebral

centrum in all the Amniota has developed from the pleuro-

centrum, an element which is found distinct in the Stegocephali.

He found confirmation of his views in the vertebral axis of the

Pelycosaurian reptiles, in Sphenodon, certain lizards, birds, and

even mammals. He advocated the same views in one of his

latest papers.

“In the American Naturalist for May, 1891, occurs an impor-

tant paper by Dr. Baur on the reptiles known as the Dinosauria.

In a characteristic manner he gives the history and the litera- —

ture of the subject and his own conclusions. His opinion was

that ‘the Dinosauria do not exist.’ He believed that this

group is an unnatural one, and is made up of three special

groups of archosaurian reptiles which have no close relation to

one another.

“Two of Dr. Baur’s most important later efforts are probably

one entitled ‘ The Stegocephali,’ a phylogenetic study published

in the Anxatomischer Anzeiger for March, 1896, and one, a joint

paper with Dr. E. C. Case, having the title ‘On the Morphology

of the Skull of the Pelycosauria and the Origin of the Mam-

malia, and appearing in the Awmatomtscher Anzeiger, 1897,

pp. 109-20. In the first-mentioned paper Dr. Baur compares

the skeletal structure of the Stegocephali with that of various

fishes, and comes to the conclusion that the Batrachia took

their origin from the Crossopterygia, rather than from the

Dipnoi. The second paper was based on the fine materials

collected by Dr. Case in the Permian formation in Texas. The

authors concluded, on the one hand, that the Pelycosauria are

closely related to the Rhynchocephalia, and that, on the other

hand, they could not have been the ancestors of mammals.

The authors were inclined to regard the Gomphodontia as

the ancestors of the mammals.”

22 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Dr. Baur’s interest in the more general problems of morphol-

ogy, such as the origin of variations, was first keenly aroused

at Clark University at a time when Weismann’s essays were

the subjects of much general discussion. He always remained

a steadfast Neo-Lamarckian, never forsaking the position he

had taken in his inaugural dissertation, A perusal of Wagner’s

and Eimer’s works convinced him that isolation and environment

are potent factors in producing variation. A previous study of

the giant land tortoises of the Galapagos, in connection with

his turtle monograph, and further studies on a genus of lizards

(Tropidurus) which has produced different so-called species on

the various islands of the archipelago, led him to conclusions

which his subsequent visit to the islands did not modify. It

was, perhaps, fitting that one born in the year of the publi-

cation of the Origin of Species should gain inspiration from

the spot where the idea of the “ Origin ” was conceived. At

the very outset, however, he announced a far-reaching opinion

utterly at variance with Darwin’s view of the origin of the

Galapagos. The great English scientist believed that the

Galapagos were oceanic islands that had never been connected

with the mainland —a view which Alex. Agassiz has supported

after renewed study of the region. Dr. Baur rejected the

hypothesis of the consistency of continents and oceans and

asserted that the Galapagos, like the Antilles, were formed by

subsidence and not by upheaval, and that they were at one

time connected with Central America through Cocos Island.

This contention Dr. Baur attempted to prove by showing that

each separate island has its own peculiar and harmonious fauna

and flora—a condition which could hardly exist if the archipelago

were of volcanic origin and had acquired its plants and animals

through accidental importation by means of currents from the

mainland. Dr. Baur insisted on the harmonious distribution

over the various Galapagos Islands of such organisms as the

giant land tortoises, the lizards of the genus ‘Tropidurus, the

species of Nesomimus and other passerine birds, and the plant

known as Euphorbia viminea. Since there was no evidence

_of intermigrations between the various islands to disturb the

_ pronounced individual character of their faunas and floras, how

No. 385.] GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 23

could one suppose that the islands had been originally peopled

from the mainland six hundred miles away? Surely, he con-

tended, isolation of faunas and floras, produced by the gradual

subsidence of a mountainous area and its conversion into islands,

would be a far simpler and more adequate explanation of the

facts than the Darwinian theory of upheaval. Dr. Baur’s view

met with derision in some quarters, but recently investigators

of repute, like Günther, Ratzel, Böttger, Ortmann, and Hems-

ley, have cast their vote in his favor against Darwin, Wallace,

A. Agassiz, Stearns, Dall, and Wolf. Ridgway, who has studied

the birds, and Robinson and Greenman, who have studied the

Galapagos plants collected by Dr. Baur, have taken a safe neu-

tral ground and await further evidence before expressing an

opinion.

Encouraged by the recognition. of the subsidence theory,

Dr. Baur began to test the faunas and floras of other islands in

the Pacific in the same manner as he had tested those of the

Galapagos. In his last paper in the American Naturalist he

took up the distribution of various groups of animals (crusta-

ceans, ants, frogs, lizards, and birds) on the Solomon and

Fiji Islands, and in New Caledonia, in an endeavor to show

that these islands, too, were of continęntal origin, contrary to

prevailing opinion. He did not live to complete this paper,

his last effort to break the bonds of authority and open to

renewed discussion the question of the origin of island faunas

- and floras. The man to continue this work worthily has not

yet risen among us.

A LIST OF DR. BAUR’S WRITINGS.

1. Der Tarsus der Vögel und Dinosaurier. Eine Morphologische Studie.

Inaugural-dissertation. Univers. Miinchen. Leipzig, 1882, Wilh.

Engelmann, pp. 1-44, 2 Taf. Same in Morph. Jahré., Ba. 8, 1883,

pp. 417-456, Taf. XIX and XX.

2. Der Carpus der Paarhufer. Eine Morphogenetische Studie. (Vorl.

Mittheil.) Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 9, 1884, pp. 597-603.

3. Dinosaurier und Vögel. Eine Erwiederung an Herrn Prof. W. Dames

in Berlin. Morph. Jahrd., Bd. 10, 1885, pp. 446-454.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

Note on the Pelvis in Birds and Dinosaurs. Aw. Naturalist, Vol.

18, Dec. 1884, pp. 1273-1275

. Bemerkungen über das Becken der Vögel und Dinosaurier. Morph.

Jahrb., Bd. 10, 1885, pp. 613-616.

Zur Morphologie des Tarsus der Säugethiere. Morph. Jahrò., Bd. 10,

1885, pp. 458-461.

On the Morphology of the Tarsus in the Mammals. Am. Naturalist,

Vol. 19, Jan. 1885, pp. 86-88

Uber das Centrale Carpi der Saugethiere. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. to

1885, pp. 455-457

On the Centrale Carpi of the Mammals. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 19,

Feb. 1885, pp. 195-196.

Das Trapezium der Cameliden. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 10, 1885, pp. 117-

118.

. The Trapezium of the Camelida. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 19, Feb. 1895,

pp. 196-197.

. A Second Phalanx in the Third Digit of a Carinate-Bird’s Wing.

Science, Vol. 5, May 1, 1885, p. 355

A Complete Fibula in an Adult Living Carinate-Bird. Science, Vol. 5,

May 8, 1885, p. 375-

On the Morphology of the Carpus and Tarsus of Vertebrates. Am.

Naturalist, Vol. 19, July, 1885, pp. 718-720.

Zur Morphologie des Carpus und Tarsus der Wirbelthiere. Zoo/og.

Anz., No. 196, 1885, pp. 326-329.

Zur V6gel-Dinosaurier-Frage. Zoolog. Anz., No. 200, 1885, pp. 441-443.

Nachträgliche Bemerkungen zu : Zur Morphologie des Carpus und Tar-

. sus der Wirbelthiere (Zoolog. Anz., No. 196, 1885). Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 202, 1885, pp. 486-488

. Zum Tarsus der Vogel. Zoolog. Anz., No. 202, 1885, p. 488.

. Note on the Sternal Apparatus in Iguanodon. Zoolog. Anz., No. 205,

1885, pp. 561-562.

Einige Bemerkungen iiber die Ossification der “langen” Knochen.

Zoolog. Anz., No. 206, 1885, pp. 580-581

. Bemerkungen über den “ Astragalus” und das “ Intermedium tarsi”

der Saugethiere. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 11, 1886, pp. 468-483, Taf.

Zur Morphologie des Carpus und Tarsus der Reptilien. (Vorl. Mit- |

theil.) Zoolog. Anz., No. 208, 1885, pp. 631-639

. Uber das Archipterygium und die Entwicklung des Cheiropterygium

aus dem Ichthyopterygium. (Vorl. Mittheil.) Zoolog. Anz. No.

209, 1885, pp. 663-66

Preliminary Note on the Origin of Limbs. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 19,-

Nov. 1885, p. 1112.

; Historische Bemerkungen. Znternat. PR f. Anat. u. Hist.,

a 3 ee PP. 3-7:

(on

.385.]. GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 25

. Der älteste Tarsus (Archegosaurus). Zoolog. Anz., No. 216, 1886,

-I

The Oldest Tarsus (Archegosaurus). Am. Naturalist, Vol. 20, Feb.

1886, pp. 173-174.

W. K. Parker’s Bemerkungen über Archaeopteryx, 1864, und eine

Zusammenstellung der hauptsdchlichsten Litteratur über diesen

Vogel. Zoolog. Anz., No: 216, 1886, pp. 106-10

The Intercentrum of Living Reptilia. Am. Nadimelic. Vol. 20, Feb.

1886, pp. 174-175.

. The Proatlas, Atlas and ‘Axis of the Crocodilia. Am. Naturalist,

Vol. 20, March, 1886, pp. 288-293, 5 Fi

. Die zwei Centralia im Carpus von Sphenodon (Hatteria) und die

Wirbel von Sphenodon und Gecko verticillatus Laur (G. verus

Gray). Zoolog. Anz., No. 219, 1886, pp. 188-190

. Herrn Prof. K. Bardeleben’s Bemerkungen über “ Centetes madagas-

cariensis.” Zoolog. Anz., No. 220, 1886, pp. 219-220.

. Uber die Kanäle im Humerus der Amnioten. Morph. Jahré., Bd. 12,

Pp. 299-305.

Bemerkungen über Sauropterygia und Ichthyopterygia. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 221, 1887, pp. 245-252

Ueber das Quadratum der Säugethiere. Sttzungsber. Gesell. Morph.

u. Physiol, München, 1886, pp. 45-57.

. On the Quadrate in the Mammalia. Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci., Vol.

28, new ser., 1886, pp. 169-180.

. Ueber die Morphogenie der Wirbelsäule der Amnioten. Biol. Cen-

trailbl., Bd. 6, Nos. 11, 12, 1886, pp. 332-342, 353-363

. The Intercentrum in Sphenodon (Hatteria). Am. Naturalist,. Vol.

20, May, 1886, pp. 465-466.

Berichtigung. Zoolog. Anz., No. 223, 1886, p. 323

. The Ribs of Sphenodon (Hatteria). Am. Naturalist, Vol. 20, Nov.

1886, pp. 979-981.

. Ueber die Homologien einiger Schadelknochen der Stegocephalen und

Reptilien. Amat. Anz., Jahrg. 1, 1886, pp. 348-350.

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Zoolog. Anz., No. 238, 1886,

pp. 685-690

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Fortsetzung I. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 240, 1886, pp. 733-743.

. On the Morphogeny of the Carapace of the Testudinata. Am. Natu-

ralist, Vol, 21, Jan. 1887, p. 89.

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Fortsetzung II. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 244, 1887, pp. 96-102.

. Erwiederung an Herrn Dr. A. Günther. Zoolog. Anz., No. 245, 1887,

pp. 120-12

. Ueber Lepidosiren paradoxa Fitzinger. Zoolog. cath Bd. 2, 1887,

pp- 575-583.

Wa o ee

a Oe

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL: XXXIII.

. Nachträgliche Notiz zu meinen Bemerkungen: “Ueber die Homo-

logien einiger Schddelknochen der Stegocephalen und Reptilien”

in No. 13 des ersten Jahrgangs dieser Zeitschrift. Anat. Anz.,

Jahrg. 2, No. 21, 1887, pp. 657-658.

On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida. Journ. Morph.,

Vol. 1, No. 1, 1887, pp. 93-104

Ueber die Abitasnin ¢ der A priod Wirbelthiere. Biol. Centralbl.,

Bd. 7, No. 16, 1887, pp. 481-493

On the Morphology and Origin of the Ichthyopterygia. Am. Watu-

ralist, Vol. 21, Sept. 1887, pp. 837-840.

. On the Morphology of Ribs. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 21, Oct. 1887,

PP. 942-945

. Beiträge zur Morphogenie des Carpus und Tarsus der Vertebraten.

I Theil. Batrachia. Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1888, pp. 1-86, Taf.

I-III.

. Ueber den Ursprung der Extremitäten der Ichthyopterygia. Bericht

uber die 20. Versam. d. Oberrhein. Geolog. Vereins, Jan. 16, 1888,

pp., 1 Taf.

- Dermochelys, Dermatochelys oder Sphargis. Zoolog. Anz., No. 270,

1888, pp. 44-45.

- Unusual Dermal Ossifications. Science, Vol. 11, March 23, 1888, p. 144.

Notes on the American Trionychide. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 22, Dec.

1888, pp. 1121-1122.

The Theory of the Origin of Species by Natural Selection. Ay.

Naturalist, Vol. 22, Dec. 1888, p. 1144

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Fortsetzung III. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 285, 1888, pp. 417-424.

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Fortsetzung IV. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 291, 1888, pp. 592-597.

- Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. Fortsetzung V. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 296, 1888, pp. 736-740.

. Osteologische Notizen über Reptilien. RENS VI. Zoolog. Anz.,

No. 298, 1889, pp. 40-47.

. Revision meiner Mittheilungen im loologiechen Anzeiger, mit Nach-

trägen. Zoolog. Anz., No. 306, 1889, pp. 238-243.

. Neue Beiträge zur Morphologie des Carpus der Säugethiere. Anat.

Anz., Jahrg. 4, 1889, No. 2, pp. 49-51, 4 Figs.

. The Systematic Position of Meiolania, Owen. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

(6) Vol. 3, Jan. 1889, pp. 54-62.

. On “ Aulacochelys,” Lydekker, and the Systematic Position of Ano-

steira, and Pseudotrionyx, Dollo. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6) Vol. 3,

1889, pp. 273-276.

- On Meiolania and Some Points in the Osteology of the Testudinata:

a Reply to Mr. G. A. Boulenger. Ann. a Nat. Hist., (6) Vol. 4,

a 1889, PP- 37-45, Pl. VI.

(on

.385.] GEORGE BAUR’S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 27

. Mr. E. T. Newton on Pterosauria. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1889, pp.

171-174.

= Die arae iiiche Stellung von Dermochelys Blainv. Biol. Centralbl.,

Bd. 9, Nos. 5 und 6, 1889, pp. 149-153, 180-191.

. Nachträgliche Bemerkungen über die systematische Stellung von Der-

mochelys Blainv. Biol. Centralbl., Bd. 9, Nos. 20 und 21, 1889,

pp. 618-619

. Palæohatteria Credner and the Proganosauria. Am. Journ. Sci.,

Vol. 37, April, 1889, pp. 310-313.

. Kadaliosaurus priscus Credner, a new Reptile from the Lower Permian

of Saxony. Am. Jour. Sci., Feb. 1890, pp. 156-158.

. Bemerkungen über den Carpus der Proboscidier und der Ungulaten

im Allgemeinen. Morph. Jahrb., Bd. 15, Heft 3, 1889, pp. 478-

482, 1 Fig.

. On the Morphology of Ribs and the Fate of the Actinosts of the

Median Fins in Fishes. Journ. Morph., Vol. 3, No. 3, 1889, pp.

463-466, 7 Figs.

. On the Morphology of the Vertebrate-Skull. Journ. Morph., Vol. 3,

No. 3, 1889, pp. 467-474.

. A Review of the Charges against the Paleontological cis SOR of

the U. S. Geological Survey, and of the Defense made by P

O. C. Marsh. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 24, March 26, 1890, pp. oe

304.

. Note on Carettochelys, Ramsay. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 23, Nov.

1889, p. 1017.

. The Gigantic Land Tortoises of the Galapagos Islands. Am. Watu-

ralist, Vol. 23, Dec. 1889, pp. 1039-1057.

. The Relationship of the Genus Dirochelys. Am. Naturalist, Vol.

23, Dec. 1889, pp. 1099-I 100

. The Genera of the Podocnemidide. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 24, May,

1890, pp. 482-484.

. Note on the Genera Hydraspis and Rhinemys. Am. Naturalist, Vol.

24, May, 1890, pp. 484-485.

. The Genera of the Cheloniide. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 24, May, 1890,

. On the Classification of the Testudinata. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 24,

June, 1890, pp. 530-536.

. Professor Marsh on Hallopus and Other Dinosaurs. Am. Naturalist,

Vol. 24, June, 1890, pp. 569-571.

. An Apparently New Species of Chelys. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 24,

Oct. 1890, pp. 967-968.

. On the Characters and Systematic Position of the Large Sea Lizards,

Mososauridz. Science, Vol. 16, No. 405, Nov. 7, 1890, p. 262.

. Two New Species of Tortoises from the South. Science, Vol. 16, No.

405, Nov. 7, 1890, pp. 262-263.

87.

“I

88.

œo

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL: XXXII].

The Problems of Comparative Osteology. Sczence, Vol. 16, No. 407,

1890, pp. 281—282.

Das. Variieren der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Gala-

pagos Inseln und Bemerkungen über den Ursprung der Insel-

gruppe. Briol. Centralbl., Bd. 10, Nos. 15 und 16, 1890, pp. 475-

403.

. The Very Peculiar Tortoise, Carettochelys Ramsay, from New Guinea.

Science, Vol. 17, No. 426, Apr. 3, 1891, p. 190.

. American Box-Tortoises. Science, Vol. 17, No. 426, Apr. 3, 1891,

pp. 190-191

. The Horned Saurians of the Laramie Formation. Science, Vol. 17,

No. 428, Apr. 17, 1891, pp. 216-217.

. The Lower Jaw of Sphenodon. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 25, May, 1891,

pp. 489-490.

. Notes on the Trionychian Genus Pelochelys. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

(6) Vol. 7, May, 1891, pp. 445-44

. Remarks on the Reptiles generally called Dinosauria. Am. Natural-

ist, Vol. 25, May, 1891, pp. 434-454.

. On the Origin of the Galapagos Islands. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 25,

March and April, 1891, pp. 217—229, 307-326.

On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 25,

July, 1891, pp. 631-639, Pls. XIV-XVI.

. On Intercalation of Vertebre. Journ. Morph., Vol. 4, No. 3, 1891,

pp- 331-336.

. The Pelvis of the Testudinata, with Notes on the Evolution of the

Pelvis in General. Journ. Morph., Vol. 4, No. 3, 1891, pp. 345-

359, 13 Figs.

Notes on Some Little-known American i: Tortoises. Proceed.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 1891, pp. 411

[Dr. Baur’s Trip to the Galapagos [slanga A m. Naturalist, Vol. 25,

Oct. 1891, pp. 902-90

. The Galapagos i Proceed. Am. Antiquar. Soc, Oct. 21,

1891, pp. 3-8.

. Das Variieren der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Galapagos-

Inseln. Festschr. 2.70. Geburtstage R. Leuckarts. Leipzig, 1892,

Wilhelm Engelmann, pp. 259-277.

. Professor Alexander Agassiz on the Origin of the Fauna ant Flora of

the Galapagos Islands. Science, Vol. 19, No. 477, March.25, 1892,

p. 17

. Der Carpus der Schildkröten. Anat. Anz., Jahrg. 7, 1892, Nos. 7

und 8, pp. 206-211, 4 Figs.

. On the Taxonomy of the Genus Emys, C. Duméril. Proc. Am. Phil.

Soc., Vol. 30, 1892, pp. 40-44.

: Addition to the Note on the Taxonomy of the Genus SARAS G Du-

méril. Edw Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. 30, 1892, p. 245:

.385.] GEORGE BAUR S LIFE AND WRITINGS. 29

. On Some Peculiarities in the Structure of the Cervical Vertebrz in the

Existing Monotremata. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 26, Jan. 1892, p. 72.

. [Visit to the Galapagos DE s Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. 25, March, 1892,

The Cervical pea of the A E Am. Naturalist, Vol. 26,

May, 1892, p. 4

. Bemerkungen a ee Arten von Schildkröten. ‘Zoo/og.

Anz., No. 389, 1892, pp.

. Ein Besuch der Galapagos- ae "Biol. Centralbl., Bd. 12, 1892,

pp. 221-250.

On the Morphology of the Skull inthe Mosasauride. Journ. Morph.,

Vol. 7, No. 1, 1892, pp. 1-22, Pls. I and II

Notes on the Classification and Taxonomy of the Testudinata.

Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. 31, May 5, 1893, pp. 210-225.

Notes on the Classification of the Cryptodira. Am. Naturalist,

Vol. 27, July, 1893, pp. 672-6

Two New Species of North Awiériean Testudinata. Am. Naturalist,

Vol. 27, July, 1893, pp. 675-677.

Further Notes on American Box-Tortoises. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 27,

July, 1893, pp. 677-678.

. G. Jager und die Theorie von der Continuitat des Keimprotoplasmas.

Zoolog. Anz., No. 425, I

893, p. 300

. Ueber Rippen und ähnliche Gebilde sad deren Nomenclatur. Anat.

Anz., Jahrg. 9, 1893, No. 4, pp. 116-120.

The Discovery of Miocene Amphisbenians. Am. Naturalist, Vol.

27, Nov. 1893, pp. 998-999.

. The Relationship of the Lacertilian Genus Anniella Gray. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. 17, No. 1005, pp. 345-351.

. Bemerkungen über die Osteologie der Schlafengegend der höheren

Wirbelthiere. Anat. Anz., Bd. 10, No. to, Dec. 1894, pp. 315-330.

. Ueber den Proatlas einer Schildkröte (Platypeltis spinifer Les.).

Anat. Anz., Bd. 10, No. 11, Jan. 1895, pp. 349-354, 6 Figs.

. Die Palatingegend der Ichthyosauria. Anat. Anz., Bd. 10, No. 14,

1895, pp. 456-459, I Fig.

The Differentiation of Species on the Galapagos Islands and the Origin

of the Group. Biol. Lect. M. B. L. Woods Holl, 1895, pp. 67-78.

. Pithecanthropus erectus. Journ. Geol., Vol. 3, No. 2, F eb. and March,

1895, pp. 237-238

The Fins of Ichthyosaurus. Journ. Geol, Vol. 3, No. 2, Feb. and

March, 1895, pp.

238-240.

- The ry tater Investigation of Evolution. Zhe Dial, May 1,

1893, p. 2

. Cope on the aes Part of the Skull, and on the Systematic Posi-

tion of the Mosasauride. A Reply. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 29,

Nov. 1895; pp. 998-1002.

129.

138.

139.

140.

—_

I4t.

142.

143.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Ueber die Morphologie des Unterkiefers der Reptilien. Anat. Anz.,

Bd. 11, No. 13, 1895, pp. 410-415, 4 Figs.

. Das Gebiss von Sphenodon (Hatteria) und einige Bemerkungen über-

Prof. Rud. Burckhardt’s Arbeit über das Gebiss der Sauropsiden.

Anat. Anz., Bd. 11, No. 14, 1895, pp. 436-439

. The Paroccipital of the Squamata and the Affinities of the Mosasau-

ridz Once More. A Rejoinder to Prof. E. D. Cope. Am. Natu-

ralist, Vol. 30, Feb. 1896, pp. 143-147, Pl. IV.

. Nachtrag zu meiner Mittheilung über die Morphologie des Unter-

kiefers der Reptilien. Anat. Anz., Bd. 11, Nos. 18 und 19, 1896,

. Review of Dr. A. E. Ortmann’s “ Grundzüge der marinen Thiergeo-

graphie.” Science, Vol. 3, No. 62, March 6, 1896, pp. 359-367.

. The Stegocephali. A Phylogenetic Study. Anat. Anz. Bd. it,

No. 22, 1896, pp. 657-673, 8 Figs.

. Mr. Walter E. Collinge’s. “ Remarks on the Preopercular Zone and

Sensory Canal of Polypterus.” Anat. Anz., Bd. 12, Nos. 9 und 1o,

1896, pp. 247-248.

Professor Cope’s Criticisms of my Drawings of the Squamosal Region

of Conolophus subcristatus Gray (Am. Naturalist, Feb. 1896,

pp. 148-149), and a Few Remarks about his Drawings of the Same

Object from Steindachner. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 30, April, 1896,

PP- 327-329.

. Bemerkungen zu Prof. Dr. O. Béttger’s Referat über : Seeley, H. G.

on Thecodontosaurus and Palæosaurus. Zoolog. Centralbl., Jahrg. 3,

No. 11, 1896, p. 896.

Der Schädel einer neuen grossen Schildkröte (Adelochelys) aus dem

zoologischen Museum in München. Azat. Anz., Bd. 12, Nos. 12

und 13, 1896, pp. 314-319, 4 Figs.

Bemerkungen über die Phylogenie der Schildkröten. Anat. Anz.,

Bd. 12, Nos. 24 und 25, 1896, pp. 561-570.

On the Morphology of the Skull of the Pelycosauria and the Origin

of Mammals (with E. C. Case). . Anat. Anz., Bd. 13, Nos. 4 und

5, 1897, PP- Ped 3 Figs.

Remarks on the Question of Intercalation of Vertebre. Zoolog.

Bulletin, Hho 1, No. 1, Aug. 1897, pp. 41-55.

Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago: A Criticism of Mr. Robert

Ridgway’s Paper. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 31, Sept. 1897, pp. 777-

754.

Archegosaurus [ Review of O. Jäckels’s “ Die Organisation von Arche-

gosaurus ”]. Am. Naturalist, Vol. 31, Nov. 1897, pp. 975-980.

New Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands, with

Remarks on the Geological Age of the Pacific Ocean. Am. Natu-

- ralist, Vol. 31, Aug. Pies pp. 661-680, and Oct. 1897, pp. 864-

ee ash oo

ON THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SPIROSTOMUM,

PARAMA:CIUM, AND THE TADPOLE IN

RELATION TO THE PROBLEM

OF GEOTAXIS!

JULIA B. PLATT.

Ir is known that some algz and Infusoria tend to collect

near the surface of the water in which they live. A number

of experiments have been made which seem to demonstrate

that the tendency thus manifest cannot be ascribed altogether

to the attraction of light, or to the source of oxygen supply,

since these algze and Infusoria still move upwards when the

experimental conditions are such as destroy or reverse the

normal relations to air and light. It is, therefore, affirmed

that these organisms react to the force of gravity. This

reaction, or negative geotaxis, is attributed by Schwarz (84) to

the direct influence of gravity on the organism, which incites

motion in the opposed direction, while Jensen ('93) attributes

the reaction to the indirect influence of gravity on the organism

by means of the difference in hydrostatic pressure at different

depths, The experiments of these authors seem to show that

the possibly excentric position of the center of gravity in the

organism cannot be regarded as a factor one the direc-

tion of motion.

Dr. C. B. Davenport suggested that a simple and hitherto

unrecorded method of approaching the problem of geotaxis

might be by means of solutions of varying density in which

the infusorian would still live. Obviously, if the conclusion

of Schwarz (84) were right, the negatively geotactic organism

should become positively geotactic in solutions of greater spe-

cific gravity than its own, supposing the animal to be normally

heavier than water.

1 This short study was undertaken as laboratory work in connection with

Dr. C. B. Davenport’s course in Experimental Morphology. My cordial thanks

are due Dr. Davenport for the kind interest with which he followed the work.

32 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII

Unfortunately, for the success of the experiment, I have

been unable to obtain in Cambridge, Paramzecia which showed

decided geotactic reaction. My results may, nevertheless, serve

as a basis for further experiment by those more fortunate in

the material at their command.

The Method.

The specific gravity of the organism was to be obtained by

finding the density of a solution in which the animal, either

dead or paralyzed, remained suspended without rising or fall-

ing. This known, the movements of the living infusorian in

solutions of the same, of greater, and of less specific gravity

were to be recorded. It was, therefore, necessary to find a

substance in solutions of which Infusoria will live, and a rea-

gent that will kill or paralyze the animal with little apparent

change of form.

I found that in solutions of salt, sugar, and glucose, of suffi-

cient density to be serviceable, Infusoria do not live, but in

dying increase their specific gravity, probably owing in great _

part to loss of water. Gelatine was not satisfactory, since even

weak solutions tend to become stiff when cold. After fail-

ing with the above-mentioned substances, I found gum arabic

admirably adapted to my purpose. Solutions surpassing the

specific gravity of protoplasm are easily obtained, and Para-

mzecia or Spirostoma live for hours in solutions heavier than

their specific gravity, not only surviving, but also multiplying,

when kept for days or weeks in solutions of less weight.

To exclude the small error that might arise from water con-

tained in the gum, the specific gravity of the solution has not

been determined by adding a known weight of the gum toa

given volume of water, but in each case the solution has been

weighed and compared directly with the weight of the same

volume of water.

Spirostomum.

_ Although Spirostoma frequently lie on the bottom of the

vessel in which they are cultivated, they are also often found

No. 385.] THE PROBLEM OF GEOTAXIS. 33

suspended in the water with their long axis in a vertical plane,

and with the anterior end of the body directed upwards. As

it is possible that the maintenance of this position is in reaction

to gravity, I tried the effect of placing Spirostoma in solutions

denser than water. When Spirostomum moves, it usually

advances first the smaller end of its elongated body, or the

.end which is opposite the large contractile vacuole; and this I

consequently call the anterior end of the body. Spirostomum

occasionally reverses its cilia and moves backwards, but the

regression is of momentary duration, and the small organism

returns directly to its usual manner of motion.

` A fortunate accident by which a faint trace of some un-

known poison must have been present in the culture jar to

which a number of Spirostoma were transferred, rendered these

Infusoria motionless without killing them. When examined

under the microscope it was found that their cilia did not

move, yet an occasional spasmodic contraction demonstrated

that life still continued. I was thus enabled to obtain the

weight of ving Infusoria, and the result was subsequently

confirmed by similar experiments with Spirostoma that were

not poisoned, but merely exhausted by long cultivation in the

laboratory.

To avoid currents that would arise from introducing water

with the Spirostoma into the gum arabic solution, they were

first drawn from the culture jar with a pipette and ejected into

a watch glass, which was gently shaken so that the Spirostoma

gathered at the bottom. The water that had been taken up

with them was then withdrawn, and gum arabic of the same

density as the solution to which they were about to be trans-

ferred was substituted. In this solution of gum arabic the

Spirostoma were again drawn into a pipette and ejected gently

into the midst of the solution with which their specific gravity

was to be compared.

In determining the specific gravity of these Infusoria, the

reaction during the first fifteen or twenty minutes is alone to

be trusted, since Spirostoma, and also Paramzecia, whether liv-

ing or dead, increase their specific gravity on remaining long

in a solution of greater density than water. The paralyzed,

34 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

but still living Spirostoma were placed in solutions of differing

densities with the following result :

In H,O, every Spirostomum immediately fell to the bottom.

In gum arabic solutions of sp. grav. 1.0110, all of the Spirostoma fell to

the bottom within fifteen minutes, except two or three that were

still falling.

sp. grav. 1.0165, the Spirostoma were carried by the slight currents. For

the first five minutes indifferently. They then slowly rose, but not

to the surface, then fell, but not to the bottom. They were evi-

dently nearly balanced.

1.0165, the above experiment was repeated, and the Spirostoma

remained scattered for twenty to thirty minutes. Then all drifted

upwards except six which lay on the bottom.

1.0180, Spirostoma remain still for a long time.

1.0190, Spirostoma remain still for a short time, and then rise,

several coming to the surface.

1.0190, the above experiment was repeated with the same result.

1.0208, Spirostoma slowly rise.

1.0230, after ten minutes thirteen Spirostoma were floating on the

surface, and but two still remained in the solution. Both of these

were rising. When the solution was shaken, all were scattered,

and then rose to the surface again. After two hours all fell to

the bottom.

pas

From these experiments it appears that the specific gravity

of Spirostomum lies between 1.0165 and 1.0180, or very near

to 1.017.

Jensen (93) also attempted to obtain the specific gravity of

an infusorian, Paramzecium, by finding the density of a solution

in which the infusorian would neither rise nor fall. He chose

for the experiment, however, potassium carbonate, which imme-

diately kills the organism. By means of solutions of potassium

carbonate, Jensen decided that the specific gravity of Paramæ-

cium was 1.25. Since his conclusions differ so greatly from

the results obtained with gum arabic and living Spirostoma, I

repeated the experiment by placing Spirostoma in a solution of

potassium carbonate of 1.25 specific gravity, and found that

this infusorian rose at once to the surface, and then fell directly

back into the solution, where it remained in fact suspended.

Evidently potassium carbonate of this density rapidly reduces

_ the protoplasm of the organism to its own weight. Only the

No. 385.] THE PROBLEM OF GEOTAXIS. 35

extent of the change (from 1.017 to 1.25) was surprising, for I

had already found that Spirostomum changed its weight slightly

when living in a medium denser than water, and had also found

that, when killed with any one of several reagents, the specific

gravity of Spirostomum increases. For example, when Spiro-

stomum is killed with quinine, it sinks in solutions of gum arabic

of 1.028 specific gravity, although the living but motionless

Spirostomum quickly rises to the surface in a solution of this

density.

On placing Spirostomum in a solution of gum arabic slightly

denser than its own protoplasm, I found that the infusorian did

not remain still in a vertical position, as is its habit in water,

but wandered restlessly about. Of those individuals which at

the time of observation occupied a vertical, or nearly vertical

position, the number with the anterior extremity directed up-

wards was 48. The number of those with the-anterior extremity

directed downwards was 81. The larger number of individuals

having their anterior extremity directed downwards suggests

a tendency to reverse the normal position maintained in water,

where the anterior extremity is directed upwards. I doubt,

however, if the difference in the numbers should be thus inter-

preted; for if Spirostomum merely wandered back and forth

between the upper and lower surfaces of the liquid, it would

rise in a dense solution more rapidly than it would descend.

There would thus be at any moment more individuals going

downwards than upwards. The power of nice adjustment

between the force of the cilia and the force of gravity, which

maintains Spirostomum suspended in water, was lost in those

individuals which I observed when placed in solutions of greater

specific gravity than theirown. My conclusions regarding their

reaction to gravity are, therefore, purely negative.

Paramecium.

To obtain the specific gravity of Parameecia, I tried to para-

lyze them with ether, quinine, and nicotine, but invariably killed

the Paramezcia, which in dying went to pieces. I therefore

added a few drops of 0.5 per cent acetic acid to the water con-

36 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. < VOL. XXXIII.

taining the Infusoria. As acetic acid is said to swell proto-

plasm, I also killed Paramzecia by the fumes of osmic acid.

Both these reagents caused the Paramzecia to change their

shape somewhat in dying, by becoming wider and shorter.

Their form, however, remained symmetrical in both cases, and

seemed neither enlarged nor distorted.

The results obtained by the two methods were similar.

When the killed Paramzcia were placed in a gum arabic solu-

tion of 1.018 specific gravity, they remained long suspended in

the solution. In a solution of 1.024 specific gravity they rose

to the surface as rapidly as they fell when placed in water.

The reaction in solutions of nearly the same specific gravity as

- Paramzecium is less certain than with Spirostomum, since the

smaller size of Paramzecium makes it more liable to drift up or

down with chance currents, and less rapid in its response to

gravity. There is, however, no doubt that the specifie gravity

of Paramecium thus killed differs but little from that of living

Spirostomum, and differs very greatly from the specific gravity

assigned this infusorian by Jensen (93).

The Paramzcia found in the cultures of our laboratory and

in the water of the pools about Cambridge did not show geo-

tactic tendencies. If one were placed in clear water, and were

drawn into a capillary tube held vertical, it would rise to the

upper surface of the water drawn into the tube, and if the tube

were now directly reversed, the Paramzecium would rise again ;

but if the tube were retained in its original vertical position,

the Paramzecium wandered back and forth between the up-

per and lower surfaces of the water. The water of the cul-

ture vessels, which contained dead leaves, bacteria, etc., soon

swarmed throughout with Paramezecia, which were found in great-

est quantities at the surface where a scum of bacteria gathered.

If these superficial bacteria were placed in a glass of clear water,

they wandered up and down indifferently.

Tadpoles.

: Some toad tadpoles that had just left their gelatinous enve-

2 lope were observed by Dr. Davenport to swim at once to the

No. 385. ] THE PROBLEM OF GEOTAXTS. +. 37

surface of .the water in which they were kept. He therefore

suggested that the negative geotaxis they thus manifested

should also be tested in solutions of gum arabic of differing

densities.

I found that between the lengths of 9% mm. and 12 mm.,

the specific gravity of the tadpoles decreased from 1.044 for

the smaller, to 1.017 for the larger. The smaller tadpoles,

which showed marked geotactic tendency, were placed in a

phial filled to the brim with a solution of gum arabic heavier

than the tadpoles, and the phial was then inverted with care

that no bubbles of air were admitted. The tadpoles, which

could not have been attracted upwards by the light, since light

was admitted at all sides through the glass of the phial, imme-

diately swam upwards, as they had done in water. As there was

no air between the bottom of the inverted bottle and the upper

surface of the solution, it was equally improbable that the tad-

poles were attracted upwards by the air.

When placed in solutions of the same specific gravity as

- themselves, it was found that the tadpoles still swam to the

upper surface of the solution, which as before was in immedi-

ate contact with the bottom of the inverted phial. From these

experiments it appears that the attraction upwards is neither

air nor light, and that the direct action of gravity as expressed

in the weight of this organism does not act as the incentive to

negative geotaxis. It is possible that gravity may act, however,

on some internal organ which is unaffected by the change in

the density of the surrounding medium, and may by this means

induce the movement upwards. Loeb (91) has shown that

the semicircular canals of the ear in sharks act as balancing

organs. Should this also be true for tadpoles, we might find

here the: explanation of their constant motion upwards, even

when the direction of the action of gravity on the organism

as a whole has been changed by placing the organism, normally

heavier than water, in a medium of greater specific gravity than

itself.

It is, moreover, by no means impossible that the action of

gravity, which determines the direction in which the Infusoria

move, may be through the internal organization of the animal.

38 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

In this case the density of the surrounding medium might be

expected to effect little, if any, change in the direction in which

the organism moves.

Results.

(1) The specific gravity of living Spirostomum lies between

1.016 and 1.018, or is near to 1.017.

(2) The specific gravity of Paramzcium killed by acetic e

or by the fumes of osmic acid, differs little, if any, from the

specific gravity of living Spirostomum, and is about 1.017.

(3) Small tadpoles that are negatively geotactic do not

become positively geotactic when placed in solutions heavier

than their own specific gravity, as one would expect were their

upward motion in direct response to the action of gravity on

the organism as a whole. These tadpoles show constant neg-

ative geotaxis in water, in a solution of their own specific

gravity, and in heavier solutions.

RADCLIFFE COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,

June 11, 1896.

LIST- OF PAPERS REFERRED TO:

JENSEN, P. '93. Die absolute Kraft einer Flimmerzelle. Arch. f. d. ges.

Physiol. Vol. liv, pp. 537-551. June 24, 1893.

Logs, J. ‘91. Ueber Geotropismus bei Thieren. Arch. f.d. ges. Physiol.

Vol. xlix, pp. 175-189.

ScHWARZ, F. '84. Der Einfluss der Schwerkraft auf die Bewegungsrich- —

tung von Chlamidomonas und Euglena. Berichte d. deutschen botan.

Ges. Vol. ii, pp. 51-72.

VERNAL PHENOMENA IN THE ARID REGION.

T. DD. A. COCKERELL,

New Mexico AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION.

Ir has recently! been laid down by Dr. C. H. Merriam that

“the northward distribution of terrestrial animals and plants

is governed by the sum of the positive temperatures for the

entire season of growth and reproduction,” and that “ the south-

ward distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a

brief period during the hottest part of the year.” Dr. Merriam

further explains that, “in computing the sum of the positive or

effective temperatures, a minimum temperature of 6° C. (43° F.)

has been assumed as marking the inception of the period of

physiological activity in plants, and of reproductive activity in

animals.” Let us now consider the facts as observed at Mesilla

Park, New Mexico (altitude 3800 feet), and then discuss their

bearing on Dr. Merriam’s theories. From the meteorological

data collected by observers at the Mesilla Park Experiment

Station, I have selected tae PONNE 2 as illustrative :

iz apris een | MAXIMUM MINIMUM PeR

E (F.). TEMPERATURE. || TEMPERATURE | NCHES).

|| 1893. 1896. | 1893. 1896. | 1893. 1896. | 1893 1896.

January -o o 43-4 | 41-4 73 71 10 9 07 -31

February... < <i 44.81 ALS 71 75 14 10 || 1.26 -II

March 9.5. 24 SOOT wri oF 89 21 15 Of | o

AP fee so eh GS aaa -OF 87 29 23 0 | .II

May = o 3 2 60 ee 93 | 101 33 31 77 10

June. a < Si a 77:3 1-765 || 105 104 46 46 00 | 1.01

The following are the latest dates on which the thermometer

fell to 30° F. during six years:

1893- 30° on tis 29. 1896. 29° on April 20 (23° on April 17).

1394. 30 1 2. 1897. H o~ Ig

Ios Fe Poy ae S E

1 Life Zones and C ed Zones of the United States, 1898, ational Geographic

Magazine, December,

40 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

The mean temperatures, even in January and February, are

high enough to stimulate growth zu those plants which have

been introduced from more humid regions, but the native vegeta-

tion remains backward, notwithstanding the warmth. The in-

troduced fruit trees at Mesilla Park, many of them, bloom early

and have the flowers or fruit annually destroyed by frost. Mr.

F. Garcia has kindly given me the following illustrative data :

Kelsey plum blooms March 5-11. Bidswell Late peach — March 5-7.

Huanhume plum t<- Peb: 19, 20. Peento peach March 5, 6.

Bungoune apricot “ Feb. 19, 20. Foster peach “a. : March 16-22.

Moorpark apricot “ March 8-10. Elberta peach «March 17-22.

The two last-mentioned peaches do not always fail.

There is one native flower which is earlier than any of the

above fruit trees, namely, Sophia halictorum Ckll. I have found

this in bloom as early as January 31, and it is not injured by

the subsequent frosts.

This year (1898) Miss Ivah R. Mead made some studies of

the life of the tornillo or Pluchea zone at Mesilla Park, which

she submitted as a thesis for the degree of B.S. at the New

Mexico Agricultural College. The following observations were

made by her on a small selected area of the zone in question :

March 12. Everything seemed dead, all that I could find being two tiny

plants less than 3 cm. high. These plants were sprouts growing from

perennial roots.

March 29. Ten species of plants were found growing ; six were too small

for identification; the greatest heights of any of the others were :

Pluchea borealis... . 100M.

Gutierrezia sarothre . 5 cm.

ophia halictorum. . . . 9.5m. (just beginning to flower).

Spheralcea lobata . . . . I1 Cm.

All were perennials or biennials, except the Sophia. The cottonwood

trees (Populus fremonti) were in bud. The mesquite (Prosopis

glandulosa) and tornillo (P. pubescens) showed no signs of life.

April 5. Grass getting quite green. The grass in protected places under

the tornillo bushes is doing much better than in the open places

April 12. Two cottonwood trees in flower. The tornillo bushes still show

no sign of life. Sophia halictorum is ripening its seeds.

April 23. Tornillo still dormant. Lyctum torreyi is quite green. A bush

of Atriplex canescens in full leaf.

_ April 25. Mesquite bushes show the first tiny green leaves, but Serie

os still dormant. caren torreyi shows the first blossoms.

No. 385.] THE ARID REGION. 41

April 28. One tornillo bush showed signs of life.

By May 11 the mesquite was in full leaf, as also the cottonwood. Lycium

torreyi was in fruit, but the berries were still green. By May 18 all the

tornillo bushes were in full foliage, and the mesquites were flowering.

Miss Mead’s notes are considerably more detailed than the

above extracts, but it hardly seems necessary to quote them in

full. Speaking generally, the facts are these: With one or two

exceptions, the native vegetation is backward, notwithstanding

the warm weather ; but after the period of the latest killing frosts

zt comes out with remarkable rapidity, and a couple of weeks

mark the change from barrenness to verdure. At Mesilla Park

the domestic honeybee is abroad more or less. even in January,

but the native bees behave like the native vegetation. That is

to say, they do not appear at all until late in March; but then

come on very vapzdly, so as to be very numerous in species and

individuals early in April. In 1894 the first bees in this vicinity

were taken on March 26, at Little Mountain; but this is above

the cultivated area and is warmer than it, the cold air settling

in the bottom land. On April 9, however, bees were abundant

at the plum blossoms at Mesilla Park, the genera Osmia,

Nomada, Synhalonia, Podalirius, Anthidium, Andrena, Prosa-

pis, Halictus, and Agapostemon being represented. At the

beginning of May the willows were in flower and attracted

various bees.

In 1896 I took two specimens of Halictus pruinosus Rob.,

at Mesilla Park, as early as March 18, and this is my earliest

date for a wild bee in that locality. By way of contrast with

the above, we may now consider the state of affairs in Wash-

ington State. The following meteorological data have been

kindly furnished by Mr. G. N. Salisbury, of the Weather

Bureau, at the request of Mr. T. Kincaid:

(1) Average temperature (F.):

TATOOSH ISLAND

(CAPE FLATTERY). SEATTLE. KENNEWICK.

January > o oe on a 40.6 23.2

February 41.8 41.0 34.2

March 45.8 44.6 51.3

April 47.2 48.5 54-5

May 51.7 55.0 64.3

42 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

(2) Average precipitation (inches):

TATOOSH ISLAND. SEATTLE. KENNEWICK.

january: ss 5: Stes 4.80 1.54

February .-....- «.. - $.§0 3-41 0.42

Mache mn eae O 3-42 0.30

AD a oY T 4-01 0.39

May oS Se ee 2.65 0.50

TNO igs ee . 404 1.35 0.49

Tatoosh Island has 233 cloudy days in the year, Seattle 159,

and Kennewick 58. Of these localities, the first two belong to

the excessively humid coast belt ; the third is east of the coast

range and partakes more of the characters of the arid region.

, It will be seen at once that the moist region has a compara-

tively warm winter but a cool summer; the difference between

the mean temperatures of January and June being from 13° to

20° F. The inland region, on the other hand, has a colder

winter climate, and a considerably hotter summer, with nearly

50° difference between January and June. Comparing the

average temperatures at Mesilla Park with these, we find that

the first two months nearly agree with those at Seattle, the last

four much more nearly with those at Kennewick.

Yet the season at Seattle is ahead of that at Mesilla Park,

so far as flowers and wild bees are concerned. Mr. T. Kincaid

wrote me from thence on March 13, 1898:

“The willows are now blooming, as well as several on

plants, such as Rubus spectabilis, Nuttallia cerasiformis, Ribes

sanguineum, etc. Only a few species of bees have appeared so

far.” ;

Mr. Kincaid sent me a series of Andrena perarmata Ckll.,

taken at Seattle on March 15 and 16; while Mr. Dunning

(Canad. Entom., 1898, p. 269) reports Seattle specimens of this

species taken from February 16 to March 14. Many other

facts of this kind will doubtless be published by Mr. Kincaid,

who is studying the bees of his region.

I do not know when the bees first fly at Kennewick, but it

is probably later than at Seattle, for the same reasons that

affect the Mesilla Valley.

So much for the facts; how do they affect the theory set

forth at the beginning?

No. 385. THE ARID REGION.

It appears to me that throughout the arid region, where the

sky is clear and the radiation great, the development of plants

and insects 1s controlled largely by the distribution of frosts

throughout the year. By a process of natural selection the

native species (except such as are frost-proof) have learned not

to appear or develop until the danger of frost is over. That

this tardiness is not due to lack of warmth per se, is shown by

the fact that introduced plants, such as the fruit trees, rush

into bloom and get nipped in consequence. In the cloudy

Seattle region it is very different. The climate is more uni-

form, and there is much less danger of frosts following warm

weather. Consequently, both bees and flowers appear early.

The climate of the arid region is thus peculiar and presents

a barrier to the ingress of plants and animals from without.

For tropical and subtropical species the winters are too cold;

for species of moist temperate regions the late frosts following

warm spells are usually destructive. It is a curious anomaly

that, in a locality having more than tropical summer tempera-

tures, fruits of the temperate zone should fail on account of

frost!

Fortunately for the horticulturist, we already know many

good late varieties of fruit trees, which escape even the latest

frosts at Mesilla Park. But there can be no doubt that the

true path to success will be that of selection, and the origina-

tion of new and specially adapted varieties ; that is to say, man

will have to imitate, in as short a while as he can, the process

of nature in the case of the native productions. When he has

accomplished this, he will reap the full benefit of the many

excellent qualities of the climate, the dryness, sunshine and

warmth, with moisture under control through a system of irri-

gation.

A REVIEW AND CRITICISM OF SEITARO

GOTO’S! WORK ON THE DEVELOPMENT

OF ASTERIAS PALLIDA.

E. W. MacBRIDE, M.A.

FELLow oF St. JoHN’s, CAMBRIDGE, ENGLAND, PROFESSỌR OF ZOOLOGY, McGILL UNIVERSITY,

MontTrEAL, P. Q.

THE study of echinoderm development has till recently

remained in what may be described as a tantalizing condi-

tion. The course of the ontogeny in its main outlines has

been known since the days of Johannes Müller, whose work,

together with that of Professor Agassiz ('64), may be said to

have given us a sketch the details of which had to be filled in.

Leaving out of sight the crinoids, which are separated by a

deep anatomical gulf from the other echinoderms, we had the

researches of Ludwig ('82) on the development of Asterina gib-

bosa, followed by those of Semon on Synapta digitata (7), of

Bury ('89, '95) on the pelagic larve generally, and of Théel ('94)

on the development of Echinocyamus pusillus, to mention only

the most important contributions to our knowledge of the sub-

ject. The general disappointing feature about the situation

was that whilst there were plenty of half-worked-out problems

presented, and suggestive new facts brought to light, there was

an absence of any attempt to thoroughly and exhaustively ex-

amine the development of any one form, so that instead of cer-

tainties we had surmises as to the meaning and fate of larval

structures.

This want I endeavored to meet some years ago by a study

of the development of Asterina gibbosa ('96) from the blastula

to the young starfish with ovaries already developed, using the

most refined methods, and having at my disposal an immense

amount of material. The larva of Asterina gibbosa is, however,

1 Goto, Seitaro. The Metamorphosis of Asterias pallida, with special reference

to the fate of the body cavities, Journal of the College of Science, vol. v. Imperial

University, Tokio.

46 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXII

as all know, a modified one, and it was, therefore, my earnest

desire that the results obtained by the examination of this form

should be tested by a comparison with the development of a

normal pelagic larva. And it was, therefore, with considerable

pleasure that I awaited the publication of Dr. Goto’s researches.

Speaking broadly, aremarkable similarity is disclosed between

the two types of development. Some of Goto’s figures are

almost identical with those which I have already published. I

shall first, therefore, sketch the general scope of the paper, and

then discuss the principal points of difference between Dr. Goto

and myself.

The paper commences with a description of a young bipin-

naria, practically quite bilaterally symmetrical, lettered by Goto

as stage B, the stages considered in the paper being denoted

B, C, D, E, F, G, H. [I assume, although Dr. Goto does not say

so, that the lettering has been chosen to correspond as far as

possible with the lettering of the stages of Asterina gibbosa

given by me; stages Æ, F, G, and H appear to be identical in the

two cases, and unless this were so, I utterly fail to grasp why

Dr. Goto calls the first stage B. It is to be desired that this

should be explicitly stated, since it is undesirable to introduce

an independent lettering with every new species examined.]

The changes in external form are then carefully explained ; the

plane of the developing disk of the starfish is at first par-

allel to the sagittal plane of the larva; but as development pro-

ceeds it is shifted backwards until it occupies the posterior pole

of the larva, and is then perpendicular to both the sagittal and

frontal planes — so that the direction right to left in the larva is

parallel to the disk, as well as the direction dorsal to ventral.

As development proceeds, three “ brachiolar” arms are de-

veloped on the przoral lobe surrounding a thickened patch

of ectoderm, and so the bipinnaria becomes a _ brachiolaria.

Dr. Goto was unable to observe any fixation during the meta-

morphosis, such as has been seen by Bury (95) in the case of

Asterias rubens, and by myself in Asterina gibbosa ('96).

_ As in the case of Asterina gibbosa, and contrary to what was

~ believed to take place in the case of bipinnaria, both the larval

= gesophagus and the larval rectum atrophy ; — the przoral lobe

No. 385.] DEVELOPMENT OF ASTERIAS FALLIDA: 47

gradually shrinks, and thus the metamorphosis is complete. . It

is interesting to note that, according to Goto, the permanent

cesophagus is fashioned out of the endodermal stump of the

larval one.

The fate of the ccelomic cavities next claims Dr. Goto’s atten-

tion. Originally represented by two completely separated right

and left sacs, these spaces have at the period of the first stage

studied completely fused in the region of the przoral lobe.

The left one is sharply constricted into anterior and posterior

portions, and the right undergoes a similar constriction some-

what later. In Asterina gibbosa, it will be remembered, there

is not only constriction, but also complete separation into two

parts in the case of both cavities. The left posterior coelom

assumes a U-shaped form, sending out dorsal and ventral horns.

A portion of the right posterior enteroccele is cut off from the

rest and forms a closed sac, the “epigastric” coelom subse-

quently occupying an aboral position in the young starfish.

The remainder of the right posterior coelom fuses with the left

posterior ccelom. The anterior coelom becomes completely cut

off from the posterior coelomic sacs, and with the diminishing

przoral lobe becomes largely obliterated, a portion persisting,

however, as the axial sinus. In the septum dividing it from

the left posterior ccelom, the stone canal is formed as a groove;

this accordingly takes place long after the formation of the pore

canal,

Simultaneously with the diminution in size of the anterior

cœlom, the watervascular rudiment, present from the first stage

as a posterior swelling on the anterior coelom, becomes com-

pletely separated from the axial sinus, the only communication

remaining being that vza the stone canal.

The axial sinus gives off a diverticulum, which forms the

dorsal sac of Bury —a structure denominated by me the right

hydroceele. According to Goto, it originates on the left side

of the larva.

A peculiar diverticulum of the left posterior coelom, mistaken

by Ludwig (82) for a rudiment of the “heart,” gives rise to a

space surrounding the adult oesophagus, and is named by Goto

pericesophageal ccelom. It was called by me “oral coelom.”’

48 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL; XXXIII.

Lastly, Dr. Goto discusses cavities of ‘‘mesenchymatous ”

origin. Under this heading he includes the peribranchial cav-

ities surrounding the dermal gills, or papulæ, and the radial

perihemal canals, together with the outer perihzmal ring.

These spaces, according to him, originate entirely independ-

ently of the ccelom by the hollowing out of originally solid

masses of mesenchyme cells. The inner perihzemal ring, on

the contrary, is an outgrowth of the axial sinus.

Seitaro Goto confirms my statements as to the total want of

homology between the aboral poles of the asteroid and crinoid,

the origin of the axial sinus and the stone canal, and the per-

sistence of a communication between them, and the origin of

the pericesophageal coelom and of the inner perihzemal ring.

On the other hand, the results of my investigations, which

seemed to me the most interesting and important, namely, the

primitive segmentation of the ccelom, the existence of a right

watervascular rudiment or hydroccele, the presence of a per-

manently fixed stage in the ontogeny, and the denial of the

existence of any spaces of mesenchymatous origin, are not

confirmed by Goto. |

It will conduce to brevity and clearness if I state shortly

and definitely my position with regard to this discordance in

opinion. I am convinced, from the general outline given by

Goto, that the development of Asterina gibbosa and the devel-

opment of Asterias pallida are in all essential points identical

in character. I have submitted my own sections to reéxamina-

tion, after reading Dr. Goto’s paper, and find them decisive ;

and I find enough imperfection in Dr. Goto’s methods to more

than account for all the differences between us.

My work was based on hundreds of complete series of sec-

tions of larva fixed by a method which was selected, after a

long series of trials, as preserving the outlines of the organs

with the sharpness of the lines in a steel engraving. I find

no evidence whatever that Dr. Goto examined anything com-

parable to the number of larvæ seen by me, and the method

= of preservation adopted by him is one of the worst suited for

the purpose.

3 > not t question the ey of Dr. Goto’s statement as —

No. 385.] DEVELOPMENT OF ASTERIAS PALLIDA. 49

to the backward displacement of the disk of the young starfish ;

but I regard the coincidence between the sagittal plane of the

larva and the vertical plane drawn through the madreporic pore

_ and the mouth of the adult as an accidental agreement of no

deep significance. The backward movement of the disk does

not take place to anything like the same extent in Asterina

gibbosa. It remains true there, in spite of Dr. Goto’s denial,

that right to left in the larva is nearly dorsal to ventral in the

adult. Sections orientated parallel to the frontal larval plane

have given longitudinal sections of the stone canal which would

be impossible were the relations of adult and larval planes such

as described by Dr. Goto.

With regard to the absence of the fixed stage, it is to be

regretted that Dr. Goto has given us no information as to how

he obtained his larva — whether they were reared from the

egg, or whether they were obtained by the use of the tow net.

Ludwig failed to find the fixed stage in Asterina gibbosa, prob-

ably because the larvæ were not provided with a suitable sub-

stratum ; and if Dr. Goto fished his metamorphosing larve out

of the sea, it is quite conceivable that the time when fixation

could occur was past, or that no suitable basis was provided for

fixation. Glass is assuredly not such a substance; I never saw

an Asterina larva fixed to glass; and it is surely not probable

that the brachiolarian arms are developed for no purpose.

I come now to what I regard as one of the most serious

points of difference, namely, the meaning of the sac called by

me the right hydroccele. In support of this position, I gave

not only a clear account of its appearance unequivocally on the

right side of the larva, but I also described a number of cases

where exceptionally the sac had undergone further development,

and produced lobes similar to those formed by the left hydro-

ceele. Now, Goto has not seen the origin of the structure at

all; this occurring at a stage considerably previous to any which

he has figured, and his statements as to its later connection with

the axial sinus are entirely due to the preservation of his larve.

Many times in the earlier portion of my work was I tempted to

make the same statement before I found out that corrosive sub-

limate was unsuited for the preservation of these larve.

50 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | (VOL. XXXHL

The account given by Goto of the segmentation of the body |

cavity is also most unsatisfactory, and raises the suspicion of

many stages having been missed out. At any rate, he gives no

ground whatever for his belief that the “epigastric ” cœlom is

only a portion of the right posterior cœlom, for he has not

shown how he can define the latter space. The stages he

describes recall the period in Asterina development when the

segmentation of the cœlom, after being formed, has to some

extent broken down; and as it is in the highest degree improb-

able that Asterina gibbosa has a more circuitous development

than Asterias pallida, a reéxamination of this point, based on

more abundant material, would probably put a different com-

plexion on the affair.

The criticisms made above with reference to the right hydro-

coele apply with tenfold greater force to the origin of the peri-

hæmal cavities. These originate long before Seitaro Goto saw

the first trace of them. As to their origin from the ccelom, not

the slightest doubt can exist in the mind of any one who has

seen a properly prepared section of a metamorphosing Asterina

larva. I have figured one of these rudiments under the mag-

nification obtained by a Leitz immersion, putting in the outline

of every cell, in Fig. 139 of my paper ('96), and the communica-

tien with the ccelom is no dubious slit, but a broad opening.

This opening surprisingly soon closes up, and in later stages

one could imagine the space to be of mesenchymatous origin,

if one had not seen the earlier stages.

I may say definitely that I am very sceptical as to the mesen-

chymatous origin of any cavity. The mesenchyme is primarily

a series of amoebocytes floating in a-cavity, which answers retro-

spectively to the jelly of ccelenterata, and prospectively to the

hæmocæœæle of the higher animals. That these amcebocytes

should first coalesce, and then hollow out to form a cavity

within a cavity, seems exceedingly improbable, especially when

one remembers how easy it is by missing out stages to lose

entire sight of the genetic connections of two organs.

In conclusion, I must remark that Seitaro Goto’s work is

7 : not suited to solve the problems he attacks. Echinoderm

a Tarvee are most ‘difficult ober.) to handle. Bury himself (95)

No. 385.] DEVELOPMENT OF ASTERIAS PALLIDA. KI

remarks that his early results are unreliable, because he had

not imbedded in celloidin, —a statement with which I fully

concur, — and it never seems to have occurred to Goto to use

celloidin. Osmic acid, again, is the only reagent which will

preserve the delicate epithelia so that one can be sure of their

actual extent. And Goto used corrosive sublimate mixed with

glycerine, an absolutely fatal compound for histology. Again,

so far as one can judge, a most insufficient amount of material

was used. And there is no subject on which it is so easy to

go fatally wrong as mreeoresny) except an unbroken series of

stages be obtained.

We have now reached a stage in embryological research

where progress can only be made by the most refined methods,

and by the exercise of abundant caution. The day of break-

ing ground is past. Of course the method of thorough explora-

tion by sections is slow and laborious, and in these days of

impatience for quick results it is apt to be shirked; but in my

opinion it is the only one which will lead us any farther in our

acquaintance with developmental processes. _

MONTREAL, October 22, 1898.

LIST OF PAPERS REFERRED TO.

Acassiz, A. ‘64. Embryology of the Starfish. eee 1864; also

as Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, vol.

Bury, H. ’89. Studies in the Embryology of enn Quart. Journ.

Mic. Sci., vol. xxix.

Bury, H. '95. The Metamorphosis of Echinoderms. Quart. Journ. Mic.

Sci., vol. xxxviii.

Lupwic, H. '82. Entwickelungsgeschichte der Asterina gibbosa. Zeit-

schrift f. Wiss. Zool., Bd. xxxvii.

MacBRIDE, E. W. '96. The Development of Asterina gibbosa. Quart.

Journ. Mic. Sci., vol. xxxviii.

MÜLLER,'J. '48~55. Ueber die Larven und Metamorphose der Echino-

dermen. Abh. kel. Acad. Wiss, Berlin. 1848-55

SEMON, R. '89. Die Entwickelung der Synapta digitata. /enaische Zeit-

schrift, Bd. xxii.

THÉEL, H. '94 The Development of Echinocyamus pusillus. Mov. Acta

Reg. Soc. Sci., Upsala, Ser. 3, vol. xv. 1892.

EDITORIALS.

The American vs. the British Association for the Advancement

of Science. A Comparison.— Comparisons may be odious, espe-

cially to the less favored party, but they nevertheless afford the best

means for determining shortcomings and the way to improvement.

For years we in America have been asking why our Association is

so inferior to that of Great Britain; why it is so much less represent-

ative of science in the country. Perhaps a detailed comparison of

the two Associations will tell us.

The British Association has a membership of about 5000; the

American Association of about 2000. The British Association has

invested funds, including balance in banks, of nearly $70,000; the

American Association has about $6,000. The meetings of the Brit-

ish Association are attended by from 1300 to 4000 paying members

and “associates ”; the American Association had an attendance at

its Detroit meeting, in 1897, of less than 300 ; at its Boston meeting,

in 1898, of about goo “ registered delegates.” The published Report

of the British Association for 1897 contained 1132 pages; the Praceed-

ings of the American Association for 1897 had 579 pages, very largely

matter of transitory value. The membership of the British Asso-

ciation admittedly and evidently includes practically all the scientific

men of Great Britain. In the American Association it is the absence

of many of the most important names which is striking. Thus, of

the professors of all grades in the twenty principal universities and

colleges of the United States, we find that the members of the Amer-

ican Association constituted in physics about 54 per cent; in chem-

istry, 51 per cent; in geology, 74 per cent ; in biology, 27 per cent.

The British Association voted, in 1897, $5295 in grants; the Ameri-

can Association, $400. On the other hand, while the British Asso-

ciation expended $2770 in salaries, rent, and office expenses, the

American Association spent $2867 on these items. Thus, while the

British Association spends 24 per cent of its receipts upon research,

ours spends less than 7 per cent; but while our cousins devote

t3 per cent of the gross receipts to salaries and office expenses, we

spend thus 48 per cent.

Various causes have been assigned for this difference between the

two Associations. The small membership and attendance at the

54 AHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXII

meetings of our Association have been ascribed to the large size of

our country. Nearly all the British meetings are held in Great Britain

proper, the extreme distance between meeting places on this island

being less than 500 miles. - On the other hand, the average distance

between the successive meeting places of the last seven meetings

of the American Association was 767 miles, and the extreme range

about 1700 miles. To have attended all the meetings since the one

in Boston in 1880, a Boston member must have traveled about 28,000

miles, or one and a half times the distance around the earth at this

latitude. Even at a two-thirds fare this would have cost him over

$500 in car fare alone, not to mention the discomforts of long jour-

neys. The Boston member who has to economize is fortunate if he

can attend two meetings in a decade, and the same is true of the

member from Washington or Minneapolis. Thus the great distance

between successive meeting places prevents a continuity in the attend-

ance, and this results in loss of interest and interferes with that con-

tinuity of endeavor which is essential to the systematic direction of

scientific research and the attainment of increased facilities for scien-

tific men. On the contrary, our society seems itself to lack direction.

The council of one year votes to cut out all abstracts of papers from

the Proceedings, and that of the next year rescinds the vote. One

year, at one place, a member arouses enthusiasm enough to get a

committee appointed to conduct some investigation; and next year,

at a place rooo miles away, nobody hears about the committee,

which is discontinued or continued with the “personnel the same as

last year.” There are only two remedies for this state of things;

either to break up the Association into Atlantic, Mississippi, and

Pacific branches, or else to make the meetings so interesting and val-

uable that members will attend them despite expense. The latter

solution seems to us the best one to work toward.

What can be done to secure this increased interest? This is the

vital question. No doubt the determination by the best scientific

men of the country to attend the meetings, at the sacrifice of time

and money, is the first step. To get this step, however, seems to

demand certain reforms. First, the finances should be improved.

Cut down salaries, office rent, and office expenses. ‘The American

‘Society of Naturalists, which issues Records of nearly fifty pages,

_ pays less than $50 per year for clerical assistance. Why cannot the

American Association get along on $1000 a year for salaries? This

_ would release over $1000 for grants for research. The grants would ©

~ call forth new committees. Formal reports should be required from

No. 385.] EDITORIALS. 55

each committee, and these should be printed in the Proceedings. The

value of the Proceedings will be thus enhanced and a more general

interest will be awakened among scientific men in the work of their

Association.

To carry on the enlarged work of the Association, additional funds

will have to be acquired. The plan adopted by the British Associ-

ation, of making visitors and ladies accompanying members pay

for the privileges of the meetings, seems to us in every way admira-

ble. The income of the British Association in 1897 was £580 from

annual assessments, but £2242 from non-members. Thus the non-

scientific contributed to the support of science. Finally, to increase

the membership of the Association, a systematic canvas should be

made of the scientific societies of the country, to the ends that their

quality may be determined ; that we may accept, as it were, “on cer-

tificate” and without special election, any member of a suitable

society ; and that these societies may be led to coöperate with the

national association in promoting the interests of science in the land.

Zoological Bibliography. — The second report of the committee

of the Royal Society upon Zoological Bibliography and Publication

has been issued. It contains the following suggestions:

(1) That each part of a serial publication should have the date of

actual publication, as near as may be, printed on the wrapper, and,

when possible, on the last sheet sent to press.

(2) That authors’ separate copies should not be distributed pri-

vately, before the paper has been published in the regular manner.

(3) That authors’ separate copies should be issued with the origi-

nal pagination, and plate numbers clearly indicated on each page

and plate, and with a reference to the original place of publication.

(4) That it is desirable to express the subject of one’s paper in

its title, while keeping the title as concise as possible.

(5) That new species should be properly diagnosed, and figured

where possible.

(6) That new names should not be proposed in irrelevant footnotes

or anonymous paragraphs,

(7) That references to previous publications should be made fully

and correctly, if possible, in accordance with one of the recognized

sets of rules for quotation, such as that recently adopted by the

French Zoological Society.

With all of which the American Naturalist is in the closest sympathy.

A few comments, however, may be of interest. The second of the

56 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.. [VOL XXXIII.

above rules meets with objection on the part of some, who claim that

in the case of societies which publish irregularly and at long intervals,

it seems wrong to withhold the extras until the whole volume is pub-

lished. This frequently would result in a delay of months, or even

of years. For instance, one volume of the Transactions of the Con-

necticut Academy of Arts and Sciences has been kept incomplete for

over a dozen years, awaiting the dilatoriness of an author who has

failed to submit the manuscript of an article accepted for publication.

All such difficulties, it seems to us, would be obviated by following

the course adopted by several societies, among them the Boston

Society of Natural History and the American Academy of Arts and

Sciences, of issuing each paper separately as soon as it is ready.

In regard to Article 4, we wish that the committee could have

gone farther, and have expressed its opinion of a tendency to split

up what should form a single article into a number of articles, each

with its own heading. We recall one extreme case of a single vol-

ume, in which an author had over a dozen articles upon the larval

stages of as many different Lepidoptera, each with its own title, and

each, by all rules of bibliography, entitled to rank as a separate

article, while all might readily be embraced under a single heading.

Similar cases abound in the literature of species describing; and

their only excuse seems to be that the authors wished to have as

many titles as possible to their credit (?) in the bibliographies.

The sixth suggestion is one that if followed will eventually bring _

to an end a host of trials and tribulations of the systematist. Such

names are almost sure to be lost for years. For instance, the late

Dr. Haldemann years ago described the crustacean genus Abacura.

How many carcinologists know of the description? Then, what

shall be done with isolated descriptions in school books? And what

with suggestions like the following? In Science, Vol. viii, No. 201,

p. 613, Dr. Dall, in a notice of Bitners’s Lamellibranchs of the trias of

St. Cassian, speaks of the preoccupied name Arcoptera and says,

“We would suggest that the preoccupied name be replaced by Bitt-

nerella.” This occurs in an article which would be apt to be over-

looked by the systematist ; and again this able conchologist does not

actually rename the genus but suggests that it be renamed, as if fully

cognizant of the incongruity of time and place.

The Utilization of Desert Areas. — With the increase of our pop-

ee ulation the extent of our desert areas has constantly diminished -

on. “aa the use o ere pae to the climate and by irrigation,

No. 385.] EDITORIALS. 57

so that lands once thought to be uninhabitable are now veritable

gardens. One of the most forlorn-appearing regions is the Red

Desert of Southwestern Wyoming, which has of late years become

an important winter pasture ground for the herds and flocks which

feed by summer in the adjacent states. A careful study of the for-

age plants of the Red Desert, by Prof. Aven Nelson, has just been

issued by the Department of Agriculture. It enumerates a large num-

ber of salt sages, sagebrushes, grasses, and sedges found in the des-

ert, and figures many of them. The work is important, not merely

economically, as giving suggestions for agricultural plants adapted

to desert regions, but also as a contribution to the knowledge of the

adaptations of desert animals.

Animal Photographs. — Photography is rapidly becoming in a

variety of ways one of the necessary tools of a working naturalist,

and one of its most important uses is in connection with the produc-

tion of process figures to illustrate zoological works. The immense

superiority of such figures over the conventional woodcuts could not

be better shown than in Dr. R. W. Schufeldt’s article on “Some Char-

acteristic Attitudes of the Red Squirrel,” in the June Photographic

Times. A zoological text-book, illustrated by such figures as these,

would be a pleasure to every lover of animals, as well as a source of

information. 5

We learn that entomological books of all kinds can be imported

into Canada free of all customs duties. We, in the United States,

have a tariff expressly designed for the protection of ignorance.

Books in the English language can be imported duty free only

when over twenty years old.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

Animal Psychology.'— Every book which comes to us from the

direct and faithful observer of psychical development in the lower

animals is doubly to be welcomed: first, for our abiding interest in

them which makes every trait of theirs worth knowing for its own

sake ; and, second, for the light which a study of their nature throws

upon the problems of human psychology. Among the latest of these

contributors is Prof. Wesley Mills, of McGill University, Montreal,

who has been known for a score of years as a successful breeder of

dogs and a close student of the habits and development of this and

allied species of animals. The book consists of four parts. The

first of these comprises a group of essays and addresses upon the

methods and the value of Comparative Psychology; the second deals

with the phenomena of hibernation, feigning and allied states among

animals, and with analogous states obtaining in human subjects ; the

third and most important section of the work consists of detailed

original observations upon the physical and psychical development of

animals, supplemented freely by constructive criticism ; and in the

fourth is added the reprint of a series of discussions upon the nature

of instinctive tendencies, which appeared originally in Science, 1896.

The papers which form the preceding parts of the book were first

published in Science, Popular Science Monthly, and other periodicals,

and in the Zransactions of the Royal Society of Canada.

Professor Mills comes to his work well fitted by years of patient

and direct study of animals in his own warrens and breeding kennels ;

and only such work as his will be of final value for the science of

animal and comparative psychology. ‘Closet psychology,” he says,

“cannot hope to accomplish much.” “He who would understand

animals thoroughly must live among them, endeavor to think as they

think and feel as they feel, and this at every stage in their develop-

ment.”

At the outset the author makes plain his conception of the impulse

to animal study and the nature of its problems. Our interest is based

: 1 Mills, Sead M.A., M.D., F.R.S.C., etc., Professor of Physiology in McGill

-o University, M treal, Canada. The Nature and Development 7 Animal Intelli-

m The Macosiltan pees en 8vo., PP- 3o ;

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 59

upon an interpretation of animal nature through the analogy of our

own. “We make the world of animal life about us a reflection of

ourselves; we spontaneously implant in the bird and the squirrel

qualities that are our own. ‘They interest us in proportion as they

seem to embody the same thoughts and feelings as ourselves.” But

this is not the only, nor, indeed, the most important aspect of the

study. The science of physiology has grown up almost wholly

through experiments performed upon the lower animals; we must

apply the same method to psychology; to understand adequately

the processes of the human mind, we must study the nature and

development of more primitive forms of life. A few words will indi-

cate the relations in which the results of animal psychology have an

important bearing upon the questions of human psychology.

It is scarcely a generation since the first psychological laboratories

were founded; but in the brief years which have intervened between

that time and this there have grown up dozens of such experimental

stations, in which skilled observers carry on patient and detailed

study of the phenomena of our mental life.

One of the chief difficulties which these experimental psychologists

have to solve is the production of a naive attitude in the subject of

the experiment. The mature human being is a mass of ingrained

conventions which very greatly transform his original impulses. The

primary reaction, the elementary motif, the native trend of desire, the

unqualified conviction, are overlaid and. disguised by a thousand

modifying considerations and restraints imposed upon him by the

very form of his social life. He clothes himself in inhibitions as: in

a garment, and anything which will aid in stripping off this fabric of

secondary impulses, and secure for the student a direct observation

of the naked tendency, is to be welcomed for the light it throws upon

the complex object of his study.

To simplify the conditions under which the mental process takes

place, and at the same time to maintain its typical character, is the

problem of the psychological investigator ; and to fulfill these require-

ments he goes far afield from the study of the normal adult subject

and calls many diverse observers to his aid.

The pursuit of these simpler conditions has gone in two main

directions : first, into the province of pathology, where abnormal

variations have presented certain elements so heightened in value

that the network of ordinary inhibitions has been torn away and the

exaggerated impulses can be observed with a directness unattainable

in the normal individual ; and, second, into the realm of more primi-

60 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

tive forms of life, in which the activities common to them and the

mature human subject have not been obscured by the counter-play of

motives and restraints. Observations in both these fields are accu-

mulating at an immensely rapid rate. Psychiatry has a literature of

its own, while the index to works on hypnotism, hysteria, and allied

states fills a volume of itself. One can scarcely take up a periodi-

cal — popular or technically psychological — without running across

either a monograph on this or that phase of child-study, or a notice

of some new book on the subject. The habits and peculiarities of

the lower species of animals, the character of their sense perceptions,

and the nature of their intelligence have long been studied, but

rather as classes apart from each other and from man, and not as

members of a common genetic group. We need a truly comparative

psychology, which, by diligent study of the psychic life of all orders

accessible to observation, will seek to show us what the intimate

nature of the process of mental development actually is, and to trace

back the developed processes manifested in the higher species to

their roots in the primitive forms of action and reaction which com-

prise the mental activities of the more elementary forms of life.

The reflex and subliminal regions of consciousness are full of

unsolved problems; instincts, automatisms, whims, and idiosyn-’

crasies, and all such marginal phenomena are things out of the

unplumbed depths of our nature upon which biological psychology

is bound to pour a flood of light. We need a paleontology of the

soul, and the only instrument at hand by which we can probe the

region of its vanished growth is that of comparison with the activi-

ties of those simpler forms which are now to be found in the child

and the lower animal. The child is always with us, and it needs

but patience and faithfulness of observation to exploit its nature;

but for the study of lower forms of life we need laboratories, of

which aquaria and vivaria are but the beginning, in which systematic

observation of a wide variety of animal life shall be carried on.

Already a move in this direction has been made by more than one

university ; an increasing number of students are coming to us from

zoological museums and laboratories, and many signs point to a

rapid and extensive development of biological psychology.

The work which the laboratory of biological psychology shall carry

on more systematically and comprehensively, — the patient and sym-

pathetic study of wild and domestic animals, vertebrate and inverte-

brate alike, — has already assumed great importance at the hands of

many individual investigators, who, like our author, look upon the

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 61

whole animal kingdom as parts of one genetic scheme, in which the

activities and traits of the beasts find their significance not through

any fanciful analogy, but because they are the actual prototypes of

the mental processes of the human mind itself. “If we regard man

as the outcome of development through lower forms, according to vari-

ation with natural selection — in a word, if man is the final link ina

long chain binding the whole animal creation together, we have the

greater reason for inferring that comparative psychology and human

psychology have common roots. We must, in fact, believe in a

mental or psychical evolution as well as in a physical (morphological)

one” (p. 20).

Into the detailed results of Professor Mills’s work we cannot enter

here, but the problems with which comparative psychology has mainly

to grapple can be stated in a few lines.

1, Imagination in animals, the power to frame mental pictures of

absent objects.

2. The fact and extent of the power to count and deal with meas-

urable quantities in general.

3. The capacity to generalize upon details and to form abstract

ideas.

4. The sense of right and wrong, and the nature of moral sanction

among the brutes.

5. Their comprehension of man’s various forms of expression and

the extent of their power of communication between each other.

6. The homing and migrating instincts of animals and their reap-

pearance in man.

7. The laws of heredity and susceptibility of animals to modifica-

tion through environment. ;

Towards the solution of these problems Mr. Mills professes to

contribute only material ; he is sparing in his deductions and faith-

ful to the fact. “Plainly,” he says, “it will be desirable to keep our

facts very sharply apart from our explanations. The science of psy-

chology is a very youthful one ; that of comparative psychology still

more so; and at the present stage of the science any one who con-

«tributes a single fact will be a real friend to its progress.” The

book is chiefly contributory of material, it is true, and such work Er

long in process, and its conclusions concerning individual functions

and species of animals are fragmentary and tentative ; but such delv-

ing must necessarily precede and underlie all constructive theory.

Mr. Mills’s work shows in a marked degree a qualification upon

which must be founded all really successful study of animal life;

62 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoOu. XXXIII.

he is a lover of dumb beasts as well as a student of their ways; and

throughout his writing there breathes a frank and open spirit of

inquiry, and a fitness of style which increases the acceptability of

his work. In its sympathy and kindly appreciation for animals, its

modesty, and its sanity and moderation of statement, the book is one

of the most hopeful of recent contributions to the study of animal

intelligence. ROBERT MacDouca.t.

CAMBRIDGE, MASS.

We have received the volume of Nature Novitates for 1897 from

the publishers, R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin. This useful work,

comprising, as it does, notices of all the more important books and

articles of the year in Natural History and the exact sciences, together

with valuable Personalia, deserves to be more widely known and used

in this country.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Animal Grafts. — In the Sitzungsberichte der Gesellschaft zu Mar-

burg, Jahrgang 1897, F. Marchand describes several sets of suc-

cessful experiments in grafting one part of the body upon another

part. Thus, in the rabbit he has transplanted the cornea of the eye

from one animal to:the eye of another, and the transplanted part has

taken root, as it were, so that in time the eye appears normal. He

has repeated the older experiment of ingrafting the tail of a young

rat under the skin of its own back. The tail continues to grow as it

would have done in its normal position. The tail makes connections

with the blood system of the body in its new location, and these con-

necting vessels become large enough to carry on the nutrition of the

parasitic tail. It is a case of perfect adjustment of the organism to

new conditions.

Regeneration of Extirpated Limbs.— Miss Byrnes (Anat. Anz.,

1898) has destroyed, by means of a hot needle, the body-wall muscula-

ture in young tadpoles at the point where limbs were about to arise. `

Soon after the operation the cells lying ventral to the wound pushed

up and closed it. From this tissue, which normally has nothing to

do with forming the limb, the limb arises in normal form and size.

[It may be added that this result is less properly called regeneration,

_ which more frequently implies development from a rudiment of the

_ regenerating organ, than regulation, by which a part— the ventral

No. 385.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 63

body-wall — assumes an entirely new function — the formation of a

limb — because of the peculiar needs of the organism.] çp, D.

The Journal of Comparative Neurology’ begins its eighth volume

with a commendable number of original contributions and its usual

full series of literary notices. Dr. Alfred Schaper gives an account

of the finer structure of the Selachian cerebellum, as shown by

chrome-silver preparations. Dr. P. A. Fish describes the brain of

the fur seal, Ca//orhinus ursinus, and discusses the nerve cell as a unit.

C. L. Herrick contributes three articles: one on the “ Physiological

Corollaries of the Equilibrium Theory of Nervous Action and Control”;

a second “ On Cortical Motor Centres ”; and a third, in conjunction

with G. E. Coghill, on the “Somatic Equilibrium and the Nerve

Endings in the Skin.” The number of collaborators on the Journal

has been increased, and now includes Prof. H. H. Donaldson, Prof.

L. Edinger, Prof. A. van Gehuchten, Prof. G. C. Huber, Dr. B. F.

Kingsbury, Prof. F. S. Lee, and Dr. A. Meyer. G. H. P.

Physiological Archives. — The University of Chicago has pub-

lished a second volume of Physiological Archives, under the editorship

of Professor Jacques Loeb. The volume contains seventeen contri-

butions, mostly reprints from articles by Professor Loeb and his

pupils, and affords substantial evidence of the activity of the Hull

Physiological Laboratory. EHP

We are glad to see that the Macmillan Company announce for early

publication General Physiology; an Outline of the Science of Life, by

Max Verworn, M.D., Ph.D., Professor of Physiology in the Medical

Faculty of the University of Jena. Translated from the second

German edition and edited by Frederic S. Lee, Ph.D., adjunct Pro-

fessor of Physiology in Columbia University. :

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Observations on the Muscular Variations of the Human Races.’

— Notwithstanding the exhaustive studies that have been devoted to

the human skeleton, there yet remain many unsolved problems per-

taining to the relation of culture, environment, and race to the

1 The Journal of Comparative Neurology, vol. vii, July, 1898, Nos. 1 and 2.

2 Chudzinski, Th. Observations sur les variations musculaires dans les races —

humaines, Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris; 1, ti, Fasc. i, 1898.

64 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vow XXXIIL

form of the skeleton. Much less is known concerning the effect of

these factors upon the more perishable portions of the body. The

material is not agreeable to handle and the opportunity comes to

but few. Dr. Théophile Chudzinski improved the opportunity which

presented itself to him during the period of twenty years in which

he was connected with the lakoratory of the School of Anthropology

of Paris, and published the results of his indefatigable investigations

in the field of comparative myology in a number of papers upon the

variation of the muscles in the different races. From the vast quan-

tity of laboratory notes and manuscripts which he had accumulated

Professor Manouvrier announces in an introductory note that a num-

ber of papers are to be published soon. The present memoir deals

with thirty-five muscles, chiefly those of the upper extremities. The

known variations of each muscle are considered with frequent allu-

sions to dissections by the author other than those represented in

the succeeding tables ; then a section is devoted to the comparative

anatomy of the muscle; this is followed by a presentation of the

“« Anthropological ” characters, with tables showing the mean, max-

imum, and minimum dimensions, insertions, etc. The ‘Conclu-

sions” briefly recapitulate the facts presented in the case of each

muscle. The use of a different kind of type in these summaries

would have enhanced the value of the work. It is not claimed that

the results are final, nor is the classification of the subjects dissected,

as noire or jaune, above criticism. However, the memoir contains

a rich store of information for the somatologist.

Publications of the Société d’Anthropologie de Paris. — The

publications of the French society consist of its well-known Bud/etins

and a series of original Memoirs. In No. 1, Vol. ix, of the Bulletins

appears a reprint of the constitution and by-laws of the society,

together with a list of its members. Four prizes, amounting to

4500 francs, are awarded by the society for papers upon anthropo-

logical subjects; neither “sex, nationality, nor profession” debars

any one from competition.

In the first article of the constitution it is stated that the object

of the society is the “ scientific study of the races of mankind.” By

this definition the scope of its operations is so broad that we turn to

_ its publications to learn how this study is carried on. The number

_ of the Bulletins mentioned contains nine articles, including abstracts,

_ three of which are upon somatological, and the remainder upon

oe poor subjects. — Important ethnographic papers are occa-

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 65

sionally published in both Bulletins and Memoirs, but the field of

activity of the society is, for the most part, limited to two divisions

of the science of anthropology.

Professor Manouvrier, in Bulletin No. 2, Vol. ix, reports the exist-

ence of a remarkable case of ichthyosis in a peasant forty-seven years

of age, from the Department of Lot-et-Garonne. Nearly the entire

surface of his body is covered with scales, generally quadrangular,

and in places imbricated. The deformity is congenital and has not

affected the health of the subject. That it is a case of atavism is

suggested, but the supposition cannot be proven. M. Zaborowski

gives an interesting account of the affinities of the tribes of Western

Siberia, particularly of the ancient peoples whose skeletons are found

in the dolmens of that region. It is a relief to note that a very mod-

erate number of measurements is considered sufficient to establish

the racial type ; brevity is the soul of craniology. After a careful

investigation, in which he rejected the usual indices, M. R. Anthony

arrived at the conclusion that the variations of the sternum in the

mammalian series can best be represented by an index derived from

the breadth and thickness of the presternum. This index is higher

and more ape-like in the Australians, Negritoes, and Hottentots

(above 40) than among Europeans (32.4). Dr. Adolphe Bloch pre-

sents the results of his investigations upon the number of phalanges

in the fifth toe of the human foot. He states that the anomaly of

two phalanges instead of three occurred, according to Pfitzner, in

37.2 per cent of the 799 feet examined. Dr. Bloch’s observations —

upon a smaller series resulted in the discovery of so large a number

of cases that the toe with two bones seemed to be the normal one,

and the toe with three phalanges the anomaly. He inclines to

accept Testut’s opinion that the reduction in the number of phalanges

in the fifth and other toes is a progressive modification due to the

adoption of the erect attitude by man. FRANK RUSSELL.

ZOOLOGY.

The Birds of Indiana. — The previous catalogues of Indiana

birds having become antiquated and out of print, Mr. Amos W.

` Butler has given us the results of twenty-one years of study of the

birds of his native state in a stout volume of 673 pages,’ forming a

1 Butler, Amos W., Indianapolis, Ind. 7%e Birds of Indiana. A descriptive

catalogue of the birds that have been observed within : the state,

with an account :

66 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

useful handbook, containing keys for the determination of the species,

as well as brief but sufficient descriptions of each bird undoubtedly

observed within the confines of the state. By strictly following the

nomenclature adopted by the American Ornithologists Union, he has

avoided the necessity of synonymic lists, and on the whole the tech-

nical matter has been reduced with commendable discretion to the

smallest practicable compass, thus leaving ample space for observa-

tions regarding distribution, habits, economic importance, etc. The

technical matter is chiefly compiled from well-known manuals, for

which due credit is given, and calls for no comment here, except

that the compilation seems to have been done with care and judg-

ment.

The chief value of the book lies in the original observations of

the author, and the student will here find a rich store of facts to

ponder upon. The agricultural man will learn which birds to regard

as friends, and which to treat as enemies; he will find many of his

prejudices and superstitions combated, but he has been given large

and convincing series of facts ascertained by the author, or gathered

by him from other reliable sources, notably from the publications of

Dr. Merriam’s division of ornithology of the United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture. The lover of the feathered tribes will find

many interesting bits of information concerning the habits of his

favorites, and special attention has evidently been paid to the calls

and songs of the various species. Young beginners and local orni-

thologists will find the book a reliable guide among their specimens,

and sportsmen have an easy means of identifying the contents of their

bags. Ornithologists of wider sphere will find it a treasure of detailed

facts relating to distribution and migration, which it will repay them

to exploit.

Ornithology is even now looked upon by many zoologists more as

a pleasant pastime than a serious science, more fit for an amateur

than for a working natural philosopher. It is true that ornithology,

perhaps more than any other branch of zoology, is burdened with

the ills resulting from a large number of irresponsible amateurs, but

_I think it is equally true that no branch, on the other hand, is indebted

to non-professional co-workers for most valuable help to the same

extent as ornithology. The book before us not only illustrates this

_ point to perfection, but a perusal of it will also convince the most

sceptical that in exactness and methods the ornithology of to-day is

of their habits. From the 22d Report of the Department of Geology and Natural

a Resources moe frags 1897. W. S T State Geologist, pp. 515-1187.

No. 385.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 67

not behind the other sections of descriptive zoology; nay, it may

even be said in truth that it has shown the way to many of them.

But if the technical part of this science is not behindhand, certainly

the object itself is not inferior in general philosophic interest to that

of any other branch of zoology. The study of birds has helped

throw light on many obscure questions in geology, paleontology, and

evolution, and the sooner the ornithologist is enabled to settle all the

little questions of detail, which seem so unimportant to outsiders,

the sooner will he be able to contribute to the solution of the higher

problems. The avifauna of this country is probably better known

than that of any other area of even approximately similar extent, yet

much is to be done, and in bringing forward its share of the material

the book under review is valuable to the most advanced student.

Take the case of Kirtland’s warbler (p. 1070), for instance. The

history of this bird as there set forth is most suggestive and extraor-

dinary. The first specimen was taken at sea, off Abaco Island,

one of the Bahamas, in 1841, and the species has since been dis-

covered to pass the winters in that archipelago. Ten years later a

specimen was captured near Cincinnati, Ohio, by Dr. Kirtland, for

whom Professor Baird named the species. Mr. Butler enumerates

twenty specimens as having been seen or killed in North America

since then; all these were observed during the spring or fall migra-

tions with possibly one exception, and outside of its winter haunts

this species has not been met with elsewhere. Where does it pass

the summer; where does it lay its eggs and rear its young? Nobody

knows, and we have only surmises. If we draw a straight line from

the northwestern end of the Bahamas to the middle of the state of

Michigan, we will see that the localities where specimens of this

curiously rare bird have been found are either situated nearly on

this line or close to it on both sides, v7z., in South Carolina, Ohio,

hern Michigan ; while a few others have been taken

as near Minneapolis, St. Louis,

all the facts which the ornitholo-

have been able to bring together

Indiana, and sout

at points considerably off the line,

and Washington, D. C. These are

gists, in spite of the utmost efforts,

during a search of nearly fifty years! And what do these facts sug-

gest? First, let it be stated, that nearly all the facts have been

brought to light by non-professional observers; next it may be noted

that as ornithology became more popular, and amateurs more numer-

ous, the observations also became more frequent; it is also highly

suggestive that the country between South Carolina and Ohio, through

which the annual migrations of this bird almost to a certainty take

68 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [VoL. XXXIII.

place, is less frequented by amateur ornithologists than probably any

other part of eastern North America; the inference then is pretty

plain that if we had more of the right kind of amateurs we should

probably also have more facts with which to answer the question —

where does this bird summer, and where lies its exact migration

route?

The importance of this question is very great, for, seemingly at

least, the distribution of this warbler suggests a migration route

almost unique. Yet, if we accept as our working theory of migration

-the only rational one which has been offered to the present day, z7z.,

Palmén’s, that the annual migration route of a species indicates the

way by which it originally immigrated into its present breeding home,

how are we going to explain the apparent uniqueness of the route of

Dendroica kirtlandi? It must not be forgotten that it is extremely

difficult, if not impossible, to trace the individual migration paths of

a homogeneous species covering a large area and occupying a multi-

tude of routes between its vast summer habitat and its equally exten-

sive winter quarters, and that, even in cases where the birds of a

widely distributed species have evolved slightly differentiated forms

traveling on their own migration routes, it requires the keenest power

of discernment in the sharpest bird expert to trace these routes.

How can we tell but that many of the homogeneous species occupy-

ing the whole area of eastern North America do not in part follow

a route similar to that of Kirtland’s warbler? It will now be seen

how desirable it is to trace step by step the progress of this species

from the Bahamas to Michigan, and possibly beyond. Here is a

species so very strongly differentiated as not to be mistaken for any

other, and so limited in numbers that it probably follows only a single

narrowly limited route. When we shall have solved this problem we

shall also know a good deal more about the road by which in past

ages part of our fauna entered their present habitat.

There remain only a few words to be said about the illustrations

in Mr. Butler’s book. None, as far as I have discovered, are new,

and they would have received no special mention had the selection

been good in all cases. We notice with pleasure all the character-

istic and accurate bird portraits from John L. Ridgway’s pen, fur-

nished by Dr. Merriam’s division in the Department of Agriculture,

but we must earnestly protest against the presence of a number of

antique caricatures — borrowed, it is true, from a book which still

periodically appears in the market — which neither illustrate, because

it is eure in most of them to recognize the birds they are

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 69

intended to represent, nor lend artistic charm to the page, since they

are equally vile, whether meant for pictures only or for ornithological

drawings. As startling examples, we may mention the figures on

PP- 737, 760, 817, and 997, labeled, respectively, Golden Plover,

Passenger Pigeon, Snowy Owl, and Tree Swallow. It is also to be re-

gretted that any of the woodcuts from Brehm’s Zhierleben (pp. 606,

1oo1) should still be used in an American book, after all that has

been written about them. Otherwise the book, which has several

interesting introductory chapters and ‘an exhaustive bibliography, is

gotten up very well and takes a high rank among similar works.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

Trouessart’s Catalogue of Mammals, Living and Extinct.’ —

Mammalogists owe to Dr. Trouessart a large debt of gratitude for his

Catalogue of Recent and Extinct Mammals, the publication of which

is now nearing completion, four of the five fasciculi having already

appeared. Considering the magnitude and difficulties of the task,

the work is well done; we detect few omissions, and the number

of clerical and typographical errors is not greater than is natural

to expect in a work of this character. The classification followed is

essentially that of Flower and Lydekker’s “ Introduction to the Study

of Mammals,” but the order of treatment is reversed, Dr. Trouessart

beginning with the Primates and ending with the Monotremes.

No one can be expected to have expert knowledge of all the

varied forms of even the class mammalia in this period of rapid

advance in the discovery of new forms and of the relationships of

hitherto obscurely known types. As the work before us is essen-

tially bibliographical, serving as a systematic index to the species,

genera, and higher groups of the mammalia, a few slips here and

there in the allocation of species and subspecies, genera and sub-

genera, can readily be overlooked in view of the utility of this

immense undertaking. The specialist will not be misled by the

occasional lapses he may detect in the case of groups he has especially

investigated, and they can hardly detract from the general useful-

ness and convenience of a work which will prove an enduring monu-

ment to the patience, industry, and scientific acumen of its author.

1 Catalogus Mammalium tam Viventium quam fossilium a Doctore E. i

Trouessart, Parisiis. Nova Editio (Prima completa). Berolini: R. Friedländer

& Sohn, 8vo. Fasc. i, Primates, Prosimiæ, Chiroptera, Insectivora, pp. 1-218,

ia, Rodentia, pp. 219-452, 1897; Fasc. iii,

1897; Fasc. ii, Carnivora, Pinnipedi

Rodentia, pp. 453-664, 1897; Fasc. iv, Tillodontia et Ungulata, Pp. 665-998,

70 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

About 6000 species and 1183 genera, with probably nearly as

many subspecies and subgenera, are marshaled in due order in the

first four fasciculi aside from synonyms, with full bibliographical

references to each, including not only the original place of descrip-

tion but nearly all of the more important subsequent references,

including geographical references to localities. The labor involved

in this compilation is thus beyond easy conception, and its value to

Dr. Trouessart’s fellow-workers is inestimable. KAA

Generic and Family Names of Rodents. — Since the comple-

tion of that portion of Dr. Trouessart’s Catalogus Mammalium

treating of the Rodents, two important papers have appeared relat-

ing especially to the generic and family names of this numerous

order of mammals. The first, by Mr. Oldfield Thomas, curator of

mammals in the British Museum, is entitled “On the Genera of

Rodents: an attempt to bring up to date the current arrangement

of the order.” ! The other, by Dr. T. S. Palmer, of the Biological

Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture, is entitled “A List of the

Generic and Family Names of Rodents.” ?

As noted by Mr. Thomas, one of the most important previous

papers on the same subject was Mr. Alston’s “ On the Classification

of the Order Glires,” published in 1876. Mr. Alston was extremely

conservative in his views, recognizing only 18 families and 100

genera, as against 21 families and 159 genera admitted by Mr.

Thomas. ‘Of the additional 59 genera,” says Mr. Thomas, “just

about one-half are formed by the breaking up of old genera, and half

are altogether new discoveries.” Many old names, however, have

had to be changed to bring them into conformity with current rules

of nomenclature. On this point Mr. Thomas says: “It is with the

greatest regret that I have had to use a good many names unfamiliar

to English naturalists, but the evidence in every case is so clear as

to leave no room for doubt, and none are mere matters of opinion.

Recognizing that the ultimate-use of these names is inevitable, I think

the sooner a knowledge of them is disseminated the sooner will the

intermediate stage of confusion be passed through and done with.”

Not only are we glad to see so eminent an authority take this sensi-

ble position, but we are also gratified to find that he rejects emen-

dations, using names in all cases as originally published by the

author pepe them. A seriously disturbing element in the sta-

a a Procetlinine of the Zoological Society of London, 1896, pp. 1012-28.

a 2 Proc. ee tended hast ie vol. xi seh oe 7, 1897), PP- 241-70.

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 71

bility of names is the tendency, on the part of a few wiseacres, to

change names to suit their ideas of correct classical form, often to

the extent of a radical transformation of an old name into a prac-

tically new one. It seems, for purposes of convenience, far better

to extend the law of priority to the form of names as well as to the

names themselves, since it is coming to be more and more generally

accepted that a name is merely a convenient handle to a fact and

need have no necessary significance. While it is desirable that all

new names should be correctly formed, it is not necessary nor even

desirable that old names should be discarded on account of faulty

construction, nor even emended to suit our ideas of propriety.

Mr. Thomas divides the Rodents, as has long been customary,

into two suborders — Simplicidentati and Duplicidentati, the latter

consisting of the Hares and Picas, and the former including the rest

of the order. The Simplicidentati are divided into five superfamily

groups — Anomaluri, Sciuromorpha, Aplodontia, Myomorpha, Hys-

tricomorpha. The families admitted in addition to those recognized

by Alston are Bathyergidæ, Heteromyide, Erethizontide, and Pede-

tide. The American Porcupines are for the first time distinguished

as a family from those of the Old World. References are given to

the place of original description of the genera, but not for the higher

groups; subgenera and synonyms are not included in the list.

Dr. Palmer’s paper admirably supplements Mr. Thomas’s, inas-

much as it gives references for the higher groups and includes sub-

genera and synonyms, The references here given for the higher

groups are a great convenience, as they are generally omitted; a

glance at Dr. Palmer’s list, however, shows which among several

names for the same group has priority. Dr. Palmer’s paper is

further “an attempt to bring together a// the names, generic and

subgeneric, ever proposed for Rodents.” Reference to the place

of publication is omitted, only the name of the author, the date of

publication, and the type species, whenever determinable, being

given, or in the absence of a type species all the species originally

referred to the genus. Great care has been taken to give the actual

date of publication, as distinguished from the ostensible or apparent

date, wherever possible, as is the case in a large number of instances.

According to Dr. Palmer, the present list contains more than 600

i i ) than twice the number given

generic and subgeneric names, or more

by Marschall in 1873, and comprises about “15 per cent of the

entire number of generic and subgeneric names ever proposed for

mammals.” The arrangement is strictly alphabetical as regards not

72 AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL. XXXIIL

only the families but the genera and subgenera within the families,

except in the case of the Muridz, with its 200 names, which are

alphabetized under the subfamilies.

These three lists— Dr. Trouessart’s, Mr. Thomas’s, and Dr.

Palmer’s — supplement each other admirably, the omissions in one

being supplied by the other two, so that the work of the specialist

in this group has now become greatly simplified and lightened as

regards its nomenclatorial side. EAA

A New Human Tapeworm.— In 1896 Prof. H. B. Ward, of the

University of Nebraska, announced the discovery of a new human

tapeworm, two specimens of which had been received by him from

a Lincoln, Nebraska, physician. The new species was described as

possessing characters in many respects intermediate between those

of the two well-known species of Tænia found in man (Z7. saginata

and 7: solium), and for that reason was named by Ward Zenia

confusa.

Only one of the two specimens received by Ward bore the scolex or

head, which was “ remarkably small,” and unfortunately was detached

by him for more careful study than was possible in its natural posi-

tion. Ward’s published description and figure of this scolex, he

admits, would answer well for that of Dipylidium, and he is not now

himself certain that he did not confuse the scolex, in the course of its

preparation for microscopic examination, with that of a Dipylidium.

- That important portion, therefore, of the description of the new

species, which concerns the scolex, must be held in abeyance until

additional specimens are obtained.

Michael F. Guyer, a pupil of Professor Ward, in a recently pub-

lished paper, gives a detailed account of the anatomy of the new

species as made out from a careful study of the specimens received

by Ward in a headless condition and, unfortunately, none too well

preserved.

Guyer finds that the proglottides of the new species are about as

numerous as those of 7. solium, but much longer and narrower, mak-

ing its total length two or three times that of Z. solium, and about

the same as that of 7: saginata, which, however, bears nearly twice

as many proglottides. The branches of the uterus, one of the most

conspicuous characters of a ripe proglottis, number from fourteen

to twenty; in Z. solium there are from seven to ten branches, and in

T. saginata from twenty to thirty.

1 Zool. Jahr., Bd. xi (1898), pp. 1-24, Taf. 28.

No. 385] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 73

Calcareous bodies are few in number, as in 7: so/ium, but only about

one-tenth as large; they are of about the same dimensions as those

of 7: saginata, but much less numerous.

Other characters enumerated by Guyer might be mentioned, in

respect to which 7: confusa occupies an intermediate position between

T. saginata and T. solium. How widely the new species occurs is, of

course, unknown. It may be that the existence of this intermediate

species has merely been overlooked heretofore; another possibility

suggests itself — can it be that these apparently rare specimens are

hybrids between 7: solium and T. saginata, a thing, to be sure, unheard

of heretofore, but not for that reason impossible. WEL:

Zoological Results of Dr. Willey’s Collecting Trip.! — Natural-

ists have been looking with eager anticipation for the publication of

the results of the three years’ expedition of Dr. A. Willey to New

Britain, New Guinea, and the Loyalty Islands. These results have

now begun to appear in book form. Part I has just come to hand.

This volume comprises papers by Dr. Willey on the Anatomy and

Development of Peripatus Nove-britannie ; P. Mayer, Metaprotella

Sandallensis, x.s. [Caprellida]; Boulanger, on a Little-known Sea

Snake from the South Pacific; Pocock, Report on the Centipedes

and Millipedes ; Sharp, Account of the Phasmidz, with notes on the

eggs; Pocock, Scorpions, Pedipalpi, and Spiders.

The account of the new Peripatus is perhaps of most general inter-

est. It represents a new-subgenus, Paraperipatus. The ova are small

and without yolk, and many embryos, in all stages of development,

may occur in the uteri of one female. The embryos lying in the

uteri receive nourishment from the mother and are born in a more

complete condition than in any other species of the genus. This

paper is accompanied by four plates.

The Common Toad. — It is a matter of congratulation for teachers

of nature studies in our schools when a well-trained scientific worker

will turn aside to put in an attractive form the story of a common

object. This has been done by Prof. S. H. Gage, who in a pamphlet

of some twenty pages has given an account of the life history and

habits of the common toad.2 The treatment of the subject, while

1 Zoological Results, based on material from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty

Islands, and elsewhere, collected during the years 1895, 1896, and 1897, by Arthur

Labia! D.Sc., London. Pt. i, Cambridge, 1898. 11 pls. The Macmillan Company.

- 2 Gage, S. H. The Life History of the Toad, 7eacher’s Leaflets, pe by

the College of Apicaltare, Cornell Univ. as 1898), No. 9.

“74 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

thoroughly accurate, is noteworthy for its simplicity and straightfor-

wardness, and Professor Gage has shown himself a master in this

form of composition. Not a little of the success of the pamphlet is

due to the illustrations, which show a happy blending of informational

and decorative purposes. In one respect only does the text seem

open to some criticism ; the occasional endowment of the toad with

semi-human faculties, while adding to the interest of the composition,

is perhaps not wholly consistent with nature. The account is full of

suggestions for outdoor studies, and concludes with some appropriate

book references for the teacher. GH- P.

Eyes of Annelids. — The histological structure of the eyes of the

free-living marine annelids has been investigated by K. E. Schreiner.’

In Nereis the retina consisted of pigmented retinal cells and non-

nervous supporting cells. In all other annelids examined, Eunice,

Hesione, Lepidonotus, Phyllodoce, Asterope, and Alciope, only pig-

mented retinal cells were óbserved. This difference the author

believes to be of fundamental importance, and he therefore separates

Nereis, so far as its eyes are concerned, from the other annelids.

The remaining forms then make a natural series, from those with open

cup-like eyes, such as are found in Eunice, to the closed vesicular

eyes of Alciope. GH >

Mesoplodon on the Norway Coast.— J. A. Grieg records the

capture in August, 1895, on the Norway coast, of two specimens of

the whale, Mesoplodon bidens Sow.” Previously this species had been

noted in Scandinavian waters only five times. Of one specimen,

presumably a female, only the skeleton was obtained ; the other, a

male, received with the flesh on it, was photographed, and a cast

made of it. Both specimens were mounted as skeletons for the

Bergen Museum, and Grieg’s paper is occupied largely with an

account of their osteology. It is reported that when the first one,

which was found stranded alive, was shot, it made a noise like a calf

being butchered. GHP

Variation in Actinians. — J. A. Clubb has undertaken to examine

large numbers of the common species of actinians found in the

neighborhood of Liverpool, England, with the intention of ascertain-

1 Schreiner, K. E. Histologische Studien über die Augen der freilebenden

marinen Borstenwiirmer, Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1897, No. 8.

- Grieg, J. A. Mesoplodon bidens Sow, Bergens Museums Aarbog, 1897, No. 5.

No. 385.] AEVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 75

ing the extent to which they are open to structural variations.’ The

first species reported on is Actinia eguina, of which 165 specimens

were examined. In all these the mesenteries were hexamerous in

arrangement, but in seven, or 4.24 per cent, abnormalities were noted

in the siphonoglyphs. Four of these seven specimens had one sipho-

noglyph each ; one had three, and two had two, which, however, were

not opposite each other. In all cases the siphonoglyphs were accom-

panied with directive mesenteries, and no such mesenteries were

found except associated with siphonoglyphs. This enumeration shows

that A. eguina is far more stable as a species than other actinians,

such as Metridium marginatum, in which the abnormal individuals

far outnumber the normal ones. enr

Dorsal Organs of Arthropods.

clude that the various structures in the arthropods, — some median

and others paired, — known as dorsal organs, are cænogenetic in

character, and have as their function the reduction of the vitellocyte

layer, while in a few cases it produces a secretion which in Idotea

fixes the embryo to the chorion. In other cases the secretion may

serve as a protective layer between chorion and embryo.

Zoological Notes. — We have already referred to the failure of the

Senff expedition to northern Africa in its endeavor to obtain mate-

rials illustrating the embryology of the Dipnoan Protopterus. We

learn, however, that the University of Cambridge has received a

large series of embryos of the closely allied Lepidosiren from South

America, which, we hope, may give us a better knowledge of this

interesting group. =

The United States Fish Commission has been actively engaged in

the study of the tile fish, and this year finds them very abundant

and extending over a larger range than was known before.

The discovery of a fourth specimen of the rare rail, Wotorius hoch-

stetteri, in New Zealand, is announced.

Goppert concludes, as the result of detailed studies on the laryn-

geal apparatus of the Amphibia,’ that the whole laryngeo-tracheal

skeleton — that is the arytenoids and the cricoids, as well as the

1 Clubb, J. A. The Mesenteries and (Esophageal Grooves of Actinia been :

Linn. Zrans. Liverpool Biol. Soc., vol. xii, pp. 390-311. .

2 Biol. Centralblatt, Bd. xviii (1898), p. 736.

8 Morph. Jahr., Ba. xxvi (1898), p. 282.

76 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

tracheal and bronchial rings — arise from the seventh visceral (fifth

branchial) arch, and that the laryngeal muscles arise from the mus:

culature of the same arch. In the same number of the journal,

Hochstetter continues his researches on the blood vessels, this time

discussing the arteries of the alimentary canal. Bolk describes an

abnormal condition in the shorter head of the biceps femoris muscle

of the orang, and discusses its bearings upon the morphology of

this muscle. Maurer describes the vacuolization of the epidermis of

the anura at the time of metamorphosis, while Gegenbaur has some

remarks upon anatomical nomenclature, urging the retention of per-

sonal names as a guide to the history of the subject, as well as con-

sidering the terminations -ideus or -oides.

BOTANY.

A New Text-book on Fossil Plants.'— Of late years an increas-

ing interest in the study of plant-fossils has been developed among

botanists, especially with reference to the bearing of these fossil

remains upon the origin of existing plants.

The great importance of a thorough knowledge of fossil plants in

the study of the evolution of plant forms is sufficiently obvious; but

unfortunately, much of the descriptive work upon fossil plants has

_ been done by men who were not botanists, and whose knowledge

of living plants was of the slightest. This fact has helped to dis-

credit much of the work in paleobotany, and a great deal of really

important work has not, perhaps, received the attention it deserved.

There is at present almost hopeless confusion in the nomenclature of

fossil plants, names having frequently been given to unrecognizable

fragments of more than dubious autonomy, and often enough shown

later not to be plant remains at all. It is most encouraging then

when we find trained botanists entering the field; men who are really

competent to interpret the specimens with which they have to deal,

and not so much interested in adding to the already overgrown list

of doubtful fragments as in doing something to throw light upon the

real affinities of the forms already described.

Professor Seward’s thorough training, both as botanist and geolo-

gist, has prepared him admirably for the task he has set himself, and

it must be admitted that he has acquitted himself in a most satis-

1 Seward, A. C., M.A., F.R.S; Fossil Plants, vol. i. T University

Press, 1898.

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 27

factory manner. Both the botanist and geologist will find his work

of the greatest value — quite indispensable, indeed, in a study of the

fossil flora of the earth.

The rich collections of the British Museum, as well as other great

collections in Britain and elsewhere, have furnished the author with

a great mass of valuable materials, of which he has made most excel-

lent use. aes

The first three chapters of the present volume comprise, first, a

comprehensive sketch of the development of the science of paleo-

botany; a chapter on the relation of paleobotany to botany and

geology; and an extremely clear account of the succession and limits

of the principal geological periods. A most interesting chapter

follows, dealing in a striking way with the factors concerned in the

preservation of plant remains. As plants are for the most part

destitute of skeletal tissues, except wood, it is not surprising that

they have left relatively few remains when compared with animals.

This is especially the case among the lower non-vascular plants.

Many interesting illustrations are given to show how the process of

fossilization is going on at the present day. One of the most strik-

ing is the description of the great masses, or rafts of vegetation,

drifted out to sea from the mouths of large rivers, like the Missis-

sippi or Amazon. The harder and less perishable structures, like

the trunks of trees, and hard seeds or fruits, finally sink to the

bottom of the sea, often hundreds of miles away from their original

habitat, and, gradually buried in the sediment at the bottom, may in

future ages appear as fossils, mingled with various marine forms. It

is probable that the occurrence of terrestrial, or fresh-water organ-

isms in fossil beds of marine origin is to be accounted for in this

manner.

It is rather startling to learn that not only may such structures as

the cuticle and cell walls of the epidermis be preserved, but that

delicate parenchyma cells with traces of the contained protoplasm

and nuclei can occasionally be recognized in a fossil condition! The

most perfect fossils are those in which there has been an infiltration of

silicious matter, and such petrifactions often have the tissues so per-

fectly preserved that microscopic sections reveal most beautifully the

details of the cellular structure. It is the study of such sections

that has done more, perhaps, than anything else to explain the real

affinities of the plants in question. ee

Chapter V deals with the difficulties and sources of error encoun-

tered in dealing with fossil plant remains, and shows how cautious

78 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

the investigator must be in drawing conclusions from mere impres-

sions, no matter how clear they may be. The extraordinary external

resemblances between unrelated forms is shown by a number of illus-

trations; e.g., Equisetum, Casuarina, Ephedra.

The second part of the volume is systematic and deals with the

fossil forms from the lowest plants, Bacteria and Schizophycez, and

other simple unicellular organisms, and comprises the Algæ, Fungi,

Mosses, and part of the Pteridophytes.

Among the lowest forms, as might be expected, fossils are

comparatively few, and often of more than doubtful authenticity.

Nevertheless, there are evidences of the existence of Bacteria and

blue-green Alga in very old formations, although in most cases these

evidences consist rather in the results of their growth than in the

presence of the organisms themselves, e.g., calcareous nodules formed

by Cyanophycez, partially decomposed tissues attacked by Bacteria.

Among the Algze, only such forms as have a calcareous or silicious

skeleton have left fossils whose nature is unmistakable. Professor

Seward is very cautious about accepting the validity of many such

doubtful forms as the so-called “ Fucoids,” for instance, which are

merely impressions of extremely doubtful character. There are,

however, very perfect fossils whose algal nature is perfectly evident.

Of these, the Diatoms, the calcareous Coralline Algz or “ Nulli-

pores,” and the calcareous green Algæ, belonging to the Characee

and Siphonez, are the best known. The latter group and the Cor-

allines have played an important part in the formation of certain

limestones. As at the present day, in the warmer seas, they grew

about the coral reefs which owe their growth to no inconsiderable

degree to the activity of these calcareous Algae. According to Pro- |

fessor Seward, there are reliable evidences of the existence of Cor-

allines as far back as the upper Cambrian and lower Silurian, and

the calcareous Siphonew were evidently abundant in the ancient

seas. The Diatoms are a much more recent development, and no

certain evidences of their existence have been found below the

secondary formations.

The true Phzophycex, or brown Algae, never develop a calcareous

or silicious skeleton, and have left practically no fossil remains that

are certainly recognizable. “Many casts from the older formations

have been attributed to Algz of this group, but these casts are usually

of very doubtful origin. The most probable remains of Pheophycez

belong to the gemus Nematophycus, from Devonian and Silurian

deposits. This genus shows some evidences of a structure compara-

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 79

ble to that of the existing giant kelps, like Lessonia or Macrocystis.

Remains of Fungi and Mosses are too scanty and imperfect to throw

much light upon the geological history of these two groups of plants.

Space will not permit of more than a reference to the rest of the

contents of the volume in hand. Of the Pteridophytes, the Equise-

tineæ are fully and clearly treated, and the volume concludes with an -

account of the genus Sphenophyllum, which is considered to be the

type of a class, Sphenophyllales, coordinate with the other phyla

of the Pteridophytes. A full bibliography and index complete the

volume.

The work may be recommended unqualifiedly as a thoroughly

reliable and clear presentation of a most interesting and important

subject. It is to be hoped that the second volume may be soon

before us. ; DoucLas HOUGHTON CAMPBELL.

Illustrierte Flora von Deutschland. — The eighteenth revised

edition of Garcke’s German flora is now at hand. This admirable

work is too well known to need description. The new edition,

although embodying many minor corrections in keys, plant ranges,

etc., maintains in all more important matters the same form as the

edition of 1895. Like this, it is illustrated by some 760 block cuts,

scattered in the text. ‘These figures, although in some cases a trifle

stiff and wooden in general appearance, are very clear and accurate

in detail. The work is more than ordinarily interesting to Americans

from a sort of parallelism with Dr. Gray’s well-known Manual of

Botany. Both were first issued in 1848, and have alike, in succes-

sive editions, received repeated and painstaking revision by their

authors. Both follow the De Candollean arrangement of families

and what is now regarded as a conservative nomenclature. Both

italicize distinctive characters, scatter their specific keys through the

text, cite authorities and important synonyms, but omit all bibliog-

raphy. Both have been exceptionally useful books and still enjoy

wide popularity.

The German work describes 718 genera and 2614 species of vascu-

lar plants. Its introductory key, still based upon the classes and

orders of Linnæus, seems something of an anachronism, but is skill-

fully managed and certainly lucid. A feature of questionable taste

is the use of authorities after vernacular family names. Such expres-

sions as “ Campanulaceen Juss.,” “Compositen Adans.,” and the

like, are, it is true, not seriously misleading, yet they are, strictly

speaking, inaccurate and therefore to be aided. BLS

80 . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

Moore’s Bacteriology.’

in the form of mimeograph sheets for the use of students in the bac-

teriological laboratory at Cornell University, and its statements have

consequently been tried in the fires of actual use. Now that these

directions have been printed in a simple and inexpensive form, it is

to be hoped that they will find their way into many schools and

laboratories where bacteriology is studied. No claim is made to

completeness or infallibility, but at the same time it would be diffi-

cult to find anywhere in the world, in the same number of pages,

as many important and useful suggestions. Dr. Moore’s courses in

bacteriology in the veterinary school at Cornell are among the very

best in the country, and this book is to be welcomed as an extension

of the influence of a conscientious teacher who is at the same time

a competent investigator. The book contains 89 pages, beginning

with the cleaning of glassware and ending with the bacteriological

examination of water. It is arranged in 59 chapters, designed for as

many separate laboratory exercises. Migula’s system of classifica-

tion is adopted. The occasional imperfections and omissions will

no doubt be rectified in subsequent editions, of which we trust there

may be many.

Erwin F. SMITH.

Monographie der Myristicaceen.* — In few even of the tropical

groups of plants have generic lines been so poorly understood as in

the Myristicacez, the nutmeg family. From time to time attempts .

have been made to separate from the large and evidently heterogene-

ous Myristica various independent genera, but hitherto the herbarium

materials of the whole family have been so fragmentary, and the diffi-

culty of constructing from them a satisfactory group of genera so

great, that even in 188o it still seemed best to Bentham and Hooker

to treat the whole family as a single complex genus

For some years Dr. Otto Warburg, of the Botanical Museum in

Berlin, has been engaged on an exhaustive revision of this confused

group, and his completed work, now before us, shows that the task

could not have fallen into better hands. The monograph (filling a

thick folio of some 680 pages) is of a kind that only Germans have

patience to prepare. A liberal space has been allotted to the treat-

1 Laboratory a Jor Beginners in Bacteriology. By Veranus A. Moore,

B.S., M.D., Professor of Comparative Pathology and Bacteriology and of Meat

Inspection, N. Y. Sec Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y.

Published by the author, I

Tanoe raoe, DE Cari; Abad: Bd. Ixviii. Halle, 1897.

No. 385.} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 81

ment of the history, affinities, anatomy, morphology, biology, distri-

bution, paleontology, and economic significance of the Myristicacez,

yet all this is introductory to the elaborate systematic subdivision of

the family. Fifteen genera are recognized, of which no less than

eleven have been proposed by Dr. Warburg himself. Of these gen-

era, five are American, six African, and four Asiatic. Probably no

feature of the work,-not even its full descriptions and excellent plates,

will add more to its systematic value than the detailed citation of

ranges and herbarium specimens.

Like some other compendious German monographs, Dr. Warburg’s

work is provided with several special indices, which, for convenience,

might much better have been united into a general one. p Į, R,

List of Mosses of New Brunswick.'— In their recently pub-

lished catalogue of New Brunswick mosses, Messrs. Moser and Hay

enumerate 245 numbered species and varieties, and thirteen unnum-

bered varieties, with localities appended. About fifty stations are

recorded which are not found in Macoun’s Catalogue. Fifteen “new

species ” and one “new variety” (six of which are briefly character-

ized) are included, all of which were described in 1892,” or (in three

instances) prior to that date.* A noticeable lack of uniformity is

_ caused by the omission of the author’s name after more than a score

of the specific and a majority of the varietal names. Every page

contains a few minor typographical errors in scientific names. But

even with these defects the list will be found useful. LRG

The Orchids of the Sikkim-Himalaya.— The most sumptuous

publications of any botanical garden in the world, not even excepting

that at Buitenzorg, are those which emanate from the Royal Botanic

Garden at Calcutta. The eighth volume of the Azna/s of this gar-

den,* consisting of four parts, put up in two thick portfolios, is

devoted to an elaborate monograph of the orchids of the Himalayan

range, which for completeness and elaborateness of execution is only

to be compared with Dr. King’s Anonacee of British India, Gamble’s

1 Compiled by John Moser and edited by G. U. Hay. Bulletin xvi, Nat. Hist.

Soc., N. B. (pp. 23-31). St. John, N. B., 1898. (Price 50 cents.)

*Macoun. Catalogue of Canadian See Part vi. (Musci.)

3 Ottawa Naturalist, vol. iv, and Lesq. and James’s Manual.

t King, G. and Pantling, R. The Orchids of the Sikkim-Himalaya, Arnals of ;

the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, vol. viii. iv + 342 pp-» 448 — Calcutta, ;

is = Sq. Ft. £6-6, plain; £9-9, half-colored.

82 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

Bambusee of British India, or, to make a long story short, the other

members of this remarkable series. Like its predecessors, the eighth

volume is well printed, and in a portion of the edition certain parts

of each plate are colored so as to represent the natural tints of the

flowers. . T.

Dr. J. W. Harshberger, who made an incursion into Mexico in

1896, has recently published a paper entitled “ Botanical Observations

on the Mexican Flora, especially on the Flora of the Valley of Mexico,” 1

in which he gives an annotated list of the plants found in the latter

region, prefaced by a short diary and a topographic account of the

district. Additional lists are also given for Orizaba and Cordoba.

Unfortunately for ordinary use, the catalogue is broken up into a

number of separate lists, classified according to habitat, instead of

being consolidated into a single enumeration with the ecological infor-

mation arranged under the several species. T.

Botanical Notes. — Afios Priceana is the name given by Dr. Rob-

inson, in the Botanical Gazette for June, to a very interesting plant

from Kentucky, discovered by Miss Sadie F. Price, who appears to

be making a thorough study of the flora about Bowling Green.

Curtis’s Botanical Magazine for October contains a plate of Ame-

lanchier Canadensis var. oblongifolia, which is sometimes treated by

botanists as a distinct species.

The Nepenthes of Australia are discussed by F. M. Bailey in the

Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society for October. Five cuts,

illustrating the leaves of as many species, are given.

A fifth contribution to the knowledge of Melocacti, by the late

Professor Suringar, appears in Vol. vi of the Vers/agen of the Royal

Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam.

Opuntia Galapageia is well figured in its natural surroundings in

the Gardeners’ Chronicle of October 8, in connection with a short

note on the cacti of the Galapagos Islands, by Mr. Hemsley.

“The Date Palm” is the subject of Bulletin No. 29 of the

Arizona Agricultural Experiment Station, by Professor Toumey, who

concludes that southern Arizona has the requisite climate and soil

conditions necessary for a profitable cultivation of this tree for the

apres onic of fruit on a commercial scale.

1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, August 1898.

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 83

A comparative histological study of Veratrum viride and V. album

is published by R. H. Denniston in No. 3 of the current volume of

Pharmaceutical Archives.

“ Economic Grasses ” is the title of Buletin No. rg of the Division

of Agrostology of the United States Department of Agriculture. The

paper is virtually an abbreviated edition of Buletin No. 3 of the same

Division, and, like that, is well illustrated, a number of good half-tone

plates being introduced into the present edition. Professor Scribner

appears as its author.

Nos. 9 and 1o of the first Abtheilung of the Botanische Zeitung for

1898 contain a study of the male prothallus of Hydropterides, by

Belajeff.

In the Jahrbücher für Wissenschaftliche Botanik, Vol. xxxii, Heft

3, Heinricher publishes a second paper on “Die grünen Halb-

schmarotzer,” dealing with the genera Euphrasia, Alectorolophus,

and Odontites.

Rimbach contributes an extensive illustrated article on the growth

of rhizomes to a characteristic depth in the soil, to Fiinfstiicks Bei-

träge sur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik, Vol. iii, Abteilung 1, in contin-

uation of an article in the preceding volume of the same publication

on contractile roots and their action.

The possible fiber industries of the United States is the subject of

an illustrated article, by C. R. Dodge, in Popular Science Monthly for

November.

The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society for October devotes

something over forty pages to papers by Mr. Burbidge on perfumes,

and the plants which afford them, an important part of the collection

being a list of books on perfumes.

Twelve of Idaho’s worst weeds are described and figured by Pro-

fessor Henderson in Bulletin No. rg of the Agricultural Experiment

Station of the University of Idaho. The article is prefaced by an

account of the source and mode of dispersal of weeds.

Instructive little handbooks by Dr. Niederlein on the Republic of

Guatemala, the State of Nicaragua, and the Republic of Costa Rica

have recently been issued by the Philadelphia Commercial Museum.

Their scope, while ultimately economic, includes topography, geology,

soil, flora, and fauna, so they should be of value to scientific trav-

84 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII,

elers as well as to persons directly interested in the development of

the countries of which they treat.

The Botanical Gazette for October contains a sketch, by Mr.

Norton, of the life of the late Joseph F. Joor, a botanist of Texas

and Louisiana.

PETROGRAPHY.

The Lavas of Two Volcanoes in the Eifel.

small volcanoes Hochsimmer and Bellerberg, near Mayen, in the

Eifel, were thought to be similar in composition by the earlier geol-

ogists. Schottler,t however, reports the Hochsimmer lava to be a

porphyritic leucitite with phenocrysts of augite, biotite, olivine, and

hauyne in a groundmass composed of leucite, augite; and glass. The

Bellerberg lavas are augite-andesites, with phenocrysts of augite and

biotite in a groundmass composed of augite, plagioclase, a little leu-

cite, and glass. Olivine, hauyne, and quartz are also present in some

specimens as porphyritic crystals. The rock approaches in char-

acter the tephrites. Large numbers of inclusions are imbedded in

the lavas. Some of them are unquestionably endogenous, while

others are certainly exogenous. A few consisting of single min-

erals exhibit no evidence as to their origin. All have been deeply

corroded by the action of the enclosing magma. ‘The isolated min-

erals represented among the foreign inclusions are: hauyne, zircon,

corundum, garnet, olivine, feldspar, and quartz. The rock inclu-

sions are fragments of graywackes, slates, quartz-feldspar-aggregates,

cordierite and sillimanite-bearing schists, hornblende-schists and bio-

tite-schists, augite-feldspar-aggregates, limestone, and sanidine-aggre-

gates. The limestone inclusions often contain cavities, and in these

crystals of chalcomorphite, ettringite, and quartz have been deposited.

The action of the magma on the limestone is seen in the formation of

feldspars, augite, and glass in the rock surrounding the inclusion,

and in the production of wollastonite, quartz, and nepheline in the

inclusion itself.

A Sedimentary Granite. — Professor Winchell? points out the

fact that the oldest rocks in Minnesota are the archean greenstones.

The granites which intrude these are believed to be fused sediments.

1 Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., Beil. Bd. xi, p. 554.

nAn EEE vol. EE p. 299.

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. A 85

On the shores of Kekequabic Lake is an augite-granite so closely asso-

ciated with greenstone-conglomerates (probably tuffs) or greenstone-

schists that gradations between the two are thought to have been

discovered. Grant, who has studied the same granite, considers it a

normal intrusive.

Brush’s Manual of Determinative Mineralogy! appears in an

entirely new edition, — the fifteenth. The book has been completely

rewritten by Penfield since the thirteenth edition was published, only

the plan of the original having been retained. The contents are

entirely new. The present edition differs from its immediate prede-

cessor in the addition of a chapter on the physical properties of

minerals and in an entirely new set of analytical tables.

The introductory portion of the volume occupies 244 pages, the

tables 58 double pages, and the indices 12 pages. In the index to

minerals are found the names of 1015 kinds, a fact that indicates

the thoroughness with which the tables cover the field they are

intended to cover. There are very few minerals known, except the

rarest, that may not easily be identified by following the scheme of

analysis indicated by the author.

The chapter on physical properties is devoted mainly to an outline

discussion of the principles of crystallography based on the theory

of thirty-two classes of symmetry. It treats also very briefly of cohe-

sion, luster, color, and density. All the explanations are clear and

the descriptions lucid, so that the student need not have the least

difficulty in following them.

There is no question that Professor Penfield’s book will rapidly

achieve the highest favor among teaching mineralogists. Were it

not for the fact that it is somewhat expensive for a book of its kind,

it would no doubt soon nearly supplant all other manuals of a

similar character among English-speaking students. W.S.B.

Notes. — The interesting group of lava flows for which the name of

latite has been proposed by Ransome’? is carefully described in a

recent Bulletin of the Survey. These rocks have already been re-

ferred to in those notes. From the discussion of the relations of

the effusives intermediate in character between the trachytes and

1 Manual of a. nibs — an Introduction on Blowpipe Analy-

sis, by George J. Bru Revised an larged, with entirely new tables for the

identification of iaa by Samuel Penfield. Fifteenth edition. x + 312 pp

375 figs. New York, Wiley & Sons, 1898. $3.50.

? Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No; 89, Washington, 1898.

86 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

the andesites to one another it appears that the author proposes the

name to cover a group of different rock types, and not as the name

of any special type. The latites embrace all the effusive forms of

the monzonite magmas.

Derby + has examined a large number of specimens of kodini. peg-

matites, and muscovitic granites and gneisses from different parts

of Europe with respect to their rare components. In many of them

he has discovered xenotime and monazite.

Watson? has studied the mesozoic diabases near Chatham, Va.,

and their decomposition products, following the lines laid down by

Merrill in the reports of his investigations on weathering. The

changes undergone by an olivine diabase in weathering are shown

by the first three of the following lines of figures. The fourth line

gives the percentage of loss of each constituent in passing from the

fresh to the decomposed condition.

SiO. AA Fee! FeO CaO MgO Na,O KO noO Total.

Fresh rock 45:73 X34 9.92 16.40. 3.24 47 gi = 100.78

Weathered rock 47.87 14.43 11.55 10.45 10:56 -3-47 „61 1,02. 5 100.78

Decomposed rock 37.09 13.19 35.69 „4I KS Ee 43. 33,83. = 100: 86

73-64 68.19 0.00 : 98.

The total loss is 70.31 per cent of the original, z.e. fresh, rock.

Nitze and Wilkens ° have given us an excellent account of the

methods employed in the gold mines of North Carolina and the adja-

cent southern states, and good descriptions of the mines themselves.

Their report appears as a Bulletin of the North Carolina Survey.

Another Bulletin of this energetic and progressive survey is en-

titled “Clay Deposits and Clay Industry in North Carolina.” It is

by Ries,* and is one of the best reports on clay that has appeared in

this country. It contains the records of numerous analyses, both

chemical and mechanical, and a fine description of the special char-

acteristics of clays of economic value.

One of the alterative products of the paleopicrite® of Medenbach,

- near Herborn, is sahlite. It occurs as acicular crystals imbedded in

serpentinized olivine and as fringes of needles bordering brown

augite, especially on that side of the augite facing olivine grains.

A marekanite obsidian from Corinto, Nicaragua, is mentioned by

1 pc ees Magaxine, vol. xi, p. 304.

2 Amer. Geol., vol. xxii (1898), p. 85.

3 pata H.B. C, and Wilkins, H. A. J. Gold Mining in North Carolina and

Adjacent staan Regions, Bull. No. zo, N. C. Geol. ETD 1897.

4 Bull. No. 13, N. C. Geol. Survey, 1

5 5 Brauns, R. wae, es Jahrb. FE m etc., ok ii 41898), p- 79:

No. 385.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 87

Peterson’ as being represented by specimens in the Natural History

Museum at Hamburg. An analysis gave :

SiO, AlO FeO MnO MgO CaO K,O NaO H,O Total.

76.68 14.49 1.09 tr. 84 1.53 1.20 3-92 +36 = 100.11

The rock is a colorless glass ome numerous globulites, etc.,

arranged in flowage lines.

GEOGRAPHY.

Map of Alaska.— There has recently been published, by the

United States Geological Survey, a Map of Alaska, on a scale of

I: 3,600,000. The map is printed in colors, showing the location of

gold and coal, and the distribution of principal gold-bearing series.

There are also inserted a map of the principal trails to the head-

waters of the Yukon and a map of the Klondike Gold Region, both

on a scale of 1: 1,447,000. A descriptive text contains sketches of

the geography and geology of Alaska, with an account of the gold

fields and the routes to them.

The German Deep-Sea Expedition. — We copy from the Geo-

graphical Journal the following account of this expedition up to last

November :

“The German Deep-Sea Expedition of 1898 started under the

most favorable auspices as regards the vessel itself, the arrangements

made to adapt it for carrying on deep-sea investigations, and for the

accommodation of the members of the scientific staff, and the appa-

ratus and appliances to be used in carrying on the work, which are

of the latest and most approved description. The ‘ Valdivia’ is about

the same size as H. M.S. ‘Challenger’; she steams ro to 11 knots;

— the bacteriological, chemical, and biological laboratories and work-

rooms are commodious and well fitted up; the cabins occupied by

the scientific staff are large and handsome, the principal cabin con-

taining a splendid scientific library, including a complete set of the

Challenger Reports, and there is ample accommodation for storing

the marine and other collections made throughout the cruise.

“ Prof. Carl Chun, professor of zoology in the University of Leip-

zig, the originator and leader of the expedition, is accompanied by a

staff of eleven scientific men, to assist him in carrying on the various

1 Brauns, R. Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., vol. ii (1888), p. 156.

88 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

observations, as shown in the following complete list of the members

of the expedition :

“A, Oficial Members.— Prof. Carl Chun, leader; Prof. W.

Schimper (Bonn), botanist; Dr. Karl Apstein (Kiel), zoologist; Dr.

Ernst Vanhöffen (Kiel), zoologist; Dr. Fritz Braem (Breslau), zool-

ogist; Dr. Gerhard Schott (Hamburg Seewarte), oceanographer ; Dr.

Paul F. Schmidt (Leipzig), chemist; Officer Sachse (Hamburg-

American Line), navigator; Dr. M. Bachmann (Breslau), physician

and bacteriologist.

“B. Non-Oficial Members. — Dr. August Brauer (Marburg), zool-

ogist; Dr. Otto L. zur Strassen (Leipzig), zoologist; Herr Fr. Winter

(Frankfort a/M.), scientific draughtsman and photographer.

“ Each member of the scientific staff receives eight marks per day

from the government, and their lives are insured for 30,000 marks

each in case of death.

“ The ‘Valdivia’ sailed from Hamburg on August 1 last, and is

expected to be absent about nine months. The route to be followed

may be divided into three portions: (1) From Hamburg round the

north of Scotland to the Canary Islands, past the Cape Verde Islands,

touching at the mouths of the Kameruns and Congo Rivers and

Walfisch Bay, to Cape Town; (2) from the Cape of Good Hope, the

Agulhas Bank will be examined, then southwards past Prince Edward

Island to the edge of the antarctic ice, returning northwards through

the center of the Indian Ocean to the Cocos and Christmas Islands,

and thence to Padang in Sumatra; (3) from Padang to Ceylon,

thence calling at the Chagos, Seychelles, and Amirante group of

islands to Zanzibar, returning home by the way of Sokotra, the Red

Sea, Suez Canal, and the Mediterranean.

“On August 4 all the members of the expedition which had sailed

to Edinburgh visited the ‘ Challenger ’ office there and examined the

specimens of deep-sea deposits, etc., brought home by the‘ Challenger.’

In the evening, after being entertained at dinner by Sir John Murray,

the expedition sailed for the Faröe Channel and the Canary Islands.

Preliminary accounts of the first dredgings, trawlings, and tempera-

ture observations in the North Atlantic had been received in October,

the expedition having safely arrived at the Cape Verde Islands. The

expedition was to have reached Cape Town in November.”

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. C. W. Hircucock, of Dartmouth, is spending the year in

making geological explorations in the Hawaiian Islands.

Asa Van Wormer, a wealthy merchant of Cincinnati, has given

$56,000 to the University of Cincinnati, to be used for the erection of

a fireproof library.

Mr. S. W. Loper, curator of the museum of Wesleyan University,

has returned from a very successful collecting trip of seven weeks in

the Rocky Mountains. From the Tertiary Eocene beds at Fossil,

Wyoming, he obtained 400 specimens of fossil fishes, insects, and

plants. In Utah and Colorado he also collected large numbers of

valuable fossils. All told he secured about 1300 specimens.

On the twenty-second of October, Toland Medical College was form-

ally transferred with appropriate ceremony to the keeping of the board

of regents of the University of California. Toland Medical College

was founded in 1863 by Dr. Hugh Huger Toland, who gave $75,000

for that purpose. Eventually Dr. Toland presented the college to

the University of California, but until October it was still known as

Toland College.

The late Franklin Story Conant, who died of yellow fever con-

tracted in Jamaica, in the summer of 1897, was a graduate of Wil-

liams College, in the class of 1893. His classmates have established

a prize of $25 annual value, open to students of Williams College,

and available towards defraying the expenses of the winner at the

Woods Holl Laboratory.

The city of Hamburg has established a station for plant investiga-

tions, under the directorship of Dr. Carl Brick. Dr. Ludwig Reh, for .

some time assistant of Dr. Field, in his bibliographical institute, goes

to the new station as zoologist.

Dr. David D. Cunningham, professor of physiology in the Calcutta

Medical School, has resigned and has returned to England.

Prof. W. Adolf Bastian, director of the ethnological museum in Ber-

lin, has returned from a trip of two and a half years in Farther India.

James Ingraham Peck, assistant professor of biology in Williams

College, died of pneumonia, Nov. 4, 1898, aged thirty-five. He was

born at Seneca Castle, New York, graduated at Williams in 1887, re-

90 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

mained there a year, and then went to Johns Hopkins for graduate

studies. After receiving the degree of Ph.D from the latter institu-

tion, he returned to Williams, as assistant in biology, in 1892, and

two years later was made assistant professor. During recent years

he has carried almost the entire instruction at Williams, and during

the summer has acted as assistant director of the Marine Biological

Laboratory at Woods Holl. His published papers are upon the vari-

ations of the spinal nerves in different varieties of pigeons, the anat-

omy and histology of pteropods, and upon the plankton food supply

of fishes.

Among recent exploring expeditions we notice the following : An

English Antarctic expedition, under the patronage of Sir George

Newnes, with Borchgrevinck as leader ; Louis Bernacchi, of the Mel-

bourne Observatory, as meteorologist ; Nicolai Hansen and Hugh B.

Evans as zoologists and collectors. The government of New South

Wales has sent out a deep-sea expedition under the charge of Edgar

R. Waite, of the Australian Museum. Its explorations will be con-

fined to the adjacent regions. The Dutch government has assisted

in a natural history exploration of the East Indian Archipelago,

under the charge of Max C. W. Weber, the professor of zoology in

the University of Amsterdam. Frau Weber accompanies him as

botanist, while Dr. Jan Versluijs, of Amsterdam, and Herr H. F.

Nierstrasz, of Utrecht, will assist upon the zoological side. Prof.

P. Knuth, of Kiel, goes round the world on a scientific trip. He

expects to spend some time in Buitenzorg, Java. Prof. K. Goebel,

of Munich, takes a botanical trip to Australia and New Zealand.

The association of Deutscher Naturforscher und Aertze ‘will meet

next September in Munich. Over two thousand members were pres-

ent at the meeting at Düsseldorf in 1898. >

In recent years, as in times past, the University of Oxford has

ranked far behind the other large English universities in scientific

lines. At Cambridge investigators have been numerous, and they

have had abundant facilities for their work, while at Oxford the

students were few and the accommodations meager. Oxford loses

still further in the recent appointment of her prominent zoologist,

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, who goes to London as director of the Nat-

ural History Museum at South Kensington.

Charles William Andrews, of the geological section of the British

Museum, has returned to London after a fifteen months’ trip to Christ-

mas Island.

No. 385.] SCIENTIFIC NEWS. QI

Recent appointments: Mr. C. A. Barber, government botanist at

Madras, India. — Dr. Friedrich Becke, of Prague, professor of miner-

alogy in the University of Vienna. — Dr. Friedrich Blochmann, of

Rostock, professor of zoology in the University of Tiibingen. — Prof.

Oskar Brefeld, of Miinster, professor of botany in the University of

Breslau, as successor to Cohn. — Dr. Steven Crowe, tutor in bacteri-

ology in the College of Physicians and Surgeons in San Francisco. —

Dr. Frederick E. Clements, lecturer in botany in the University of

Nebraska, — Dr. Franz W. Dafert, of Sao Paulo, Brazil, director of

the Agricultural Experiment Station in Vienna. — Dr. O. V. Darbi-

shire, lecturer and demonstrator in botany in Owens College, Man-

chester. — Dr. Dieudonné, privat-docent for bacteriology in the

University of Wiirzburg. —Dr. Hermann Dingler, professor of botany

in the forestry station at Aschaffenburg. — Mr. Frederick O. Grover,

professor of botany in Oberlin College. —G. T. Hastings, assistant

in botany in Cornell University. — G. M. Holman, assistant in biology

in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. — Dr. Honl, privat-

docent for bacteriology in the Bohemian University in Prague. —

Dr. Hans Hausrath, extraordinary professor of forestry in the Karls-

ruhe Technical School. — Dr. J. Jablonowski, assistant in anthropol-

ogy in the Dresden Museum. — Dr. Friedrich Katzer, of the museum

at Para, Brazil, geologist of the museum at Sarajevo, Bosnia. — Dr.

Georg Klebs, of Basel, professor of botany in the University of Halle.

— Dr. Fr. Kopsch, privat-docent for anatomy in the anatomical-bio-

logical institute of the University of Berlin. — Dr. Robert Lauterborn,

of Ludwigshafen, privat-docent for botany in the University of Hei-

delberg. — Dr. Hans Lenk, professor of mineralogy and geology in

the University of Erlangen. — Dr. Ritter Lorenz von Liburnau, docent

in zoology in the Vienna School of Agriculture. — Prof. Lugui Luciani,

rector of the University of Rome. — George Grant McCurdy, instruc- —

tor in prehistoric anthropology in Yale University. — Dr. Albert

Matthews, assistant professor of physiology in the Medical School of

Tufts College. —W. A. Merrill, assistant in botany in Cornell Uni-

versity. — Dr. B. Moore, professor of physiology in the Medical

School of Yale University. — Dr. D. Morris, of the Kew Gardens,

head of a department to direct the practical applications of botany in

the West Indies. — Dr. Lubomir Niederle, professor of archzxology

and ethnology in the Bohemian University of Prague. — Dr. E. S.

Pillsbury, tutor in bacteriology in the College of Physicians and

Surgeons in San Francisco. — Dr. Philipp Potta, professor of pale-

ontology in the Bohemian University of Prague. — James Pollock, _

92 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

instructor in botany in the University of Michigan. — Dr. C. H.

Richardson, instructor in geology and assistant in chemistry in Dart-

mouth College. — Dr. Adalar Richter, chief of the botanical section

of the Hungarian Museum at Budapesth. — Prof. A. F. W. Schimper,

of Bonn, professor of botany in the University of Basel. — Dr. Karl

Camillo Schneider, privat-docent for zoology in the University of

Vienna. — Dr. Paul Schultz, privat-docent for physiology in the Uni-

versity of Berlin. — Julia W. Snow, instructor in botany in the Uni-

versity of Michigan. — Dr. Ernst Stolley, custodian of geology and

mineralogy in the museum at Buenos Ayres.— Dr. F. E. Suess,

privat-docent for mineralogy and geology in University of Vienna.

— Hamilton Timberlake, instructor in botany in the University of

Michigan. — Dr. Josef Velenovsky, professor of botany and phyto-

paleontology in the Bohemian University of Prague. — Prof. W.

Waldeyer, rector of the University of Berlin for the coming year.—

C. F. Myers-Ward, lecturer in physiology in University College, Shef.

field, England: — Dr. Julius Nikolaus Wagner, of St. Petersburg,

professor of zoology in the newly established polytechnic institute at

Kieff, Russia. — Dr. Werner, docent in zoology in the University of

Vienna. — Dr. Heinrich Ernst Ziegler, of Freiburg, i.B., Ritter pro-

fessor of phylogeny in the University of Jena. — Dr. Zukal, professor

of vegetable pathology in the Vienna Agricultural School.

- Recent deaths: Professor Arzruni, professor of mineralogy in the

Ecole Polytechnique at Aix. — Lugui Balzan, arachnologist and pro-

fessor of natural history in the University of Paraguay. — Dr. Evert

Julius Bonsdorf, formerly professor of anatomy in the University of

Helsingfors, aged 88. — Dr. Vicenzo Diamare, assistant in the Insti-

tute of Comparative Anatomy of the University of Naples. — Alfred

Hart Everett, ornithologist and student of the fauna of the Sunda

Islands, June 18.— Dr. C. G. Gibeli, professor of botany in the Uni-

versity of Turin. — Prof. Karl Wilhelm von Giimbel, of Munich, a

well-known geologist, July 18, aged 75.— C. W. A. Hermann, for-

merly a well-known mineralogist in New York, aged 97.— Dr. B.

Kotula, botanist. — E. H. Lonsdale, of the U. S. Geological Survey,

at Columbia, Missouri, March 7.— João Maria Moniz, botanist, at

Funchal, Madeira Islands, July 11, aged 75.— A. Pomel, director

of the School of Sciences and the Geological Survey of Algiers in

Oran, Algiers. — Dr. H. Prascholdt, formerly teacher of geology and

paleontology in the gymnasium in Meiningen, by suicide in an Aus-

trian prison. — Dr. de Windt, geologist, near Lake Tanganyika, Africa.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

Books.

ATKINSON, GEORGE FRANCIS. —- Elementary Botany. H. Holt & Co., 1898. Vol.

xxiii, 444 pp.

BRUSH, GEORGE J. — Manual of Determinative Mineralogy, with an introduction

on Blowpipe Analysis. Revised and enlarged by Samuel L. Penfield. 15th

edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1898. 2 pp.

Dana, E. S.— A Text-Book of Mineralogy, with an extended Treatise on Crystal-

lography and Physical Mineralogy. New edition, entirely rewritten and

> 593 PP.

Davipson, Mrs. ALICE M. — California Plants in their Homes. A Botanical

Reader for children and Supplement. B. R. Baumgardt & Co., Los Angeles,

1898. 216 + 133p 1.50.

FROBENIUS, L. — Der Uraruay der afrikanischen Kulturen. Berlin, Gebrüder

Borntraeger. Erster Band, 368 pp. 10 marks.

WALCOTT, C. S. — Fossil Medusez. Washington, U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898.

Reprints.

AGUILAR Y ae R. — Bibliografia Geologica y Minera de la Republica

Mexicana. Mexico, 1898.

Bancs, O. — On some “Hinds from the Sierra Nevada de Santa P Colombia.

Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington. Vol. xii, pp. 171-182. Oct. 31,

On Sciurus Variabalis from the Santa Maria Region of inaia Proc.

Biol. Soc., Washington. Vol. xii, pp. 183-186. Nov. 16, 1898.

. A New Rock Vole from Labrador. Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington.

Vy 188. Nov. 16, 18

BATHER, F. A. — Petalocrinus, Weller & Davidson. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.

Vol. liv, pp. 401-441. Pls. xxv, xxvi. 1898.

BOETTGER, O. — Katalog der Reptilies; riii im Museum der Seuckew

ber, en naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Frankfurt am Main. II. Theil

(Schlangen). May, 1

Broom, R. — On the Affinities and Habits of Thinis Proc. Linn. Soc., New

South Wales, 1898. 3

COULTER, J. M. — The Origin of oe and the Seed Habit. Botan.

Gazette. Vol. xxvi, pp. 153-168

mai A. Ae — The Meaning of “ "Merina." American Antiquarian, Chicago.

Sept., Oc -3 t., 1898.

Guver, M. F. — On the Structure of Tania confusa, Ward. Zool. Jahrb. Abth.

J. System. Vol. xi, 24 pp. 1 pl. 1898.

Harve, É. — Une Machoire de Dryopithéque. Bull. Soc. Geol. de France (3)-

Vol. xxvi, pp. 377-383: 1898.

94 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

Jorpan, D. S. — Description of a Species of Fish (Mitsukurina steiner from

Japan, the Type of a Distinct Family of Lamnoid Sharks. Contrib. to Biol.

_from the Hopkins Seaside Lab., vol. xv, also Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. a. Zool.,

vol. i, 4 pp-, 2 pls.

Kunz, G. F. — The Fresh-Water Pearis and Pearl Fisheries. Bull. U. S. Fish Com.

Jor 189r, 4x 373-426. Pls.

RATTEBUN, MARY J. — The Dehin of the Biological Expedition to the Florida

Keys and the Bahamas in 1893. Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist., State Univ. Iowa.

June, 1898. pp. 250-294, 9 pls

TARR, R. S. — The Peneplain. pee Geol. Vol. xxi, pp. 351-370. June, 1808.

Wave-formed Cuspate Forelands. Amer. Geol. Vol. xxii, 12 pp., 4 pls.

July, 1898.

UDDEN, J. A. — The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits. Augustana

Library Publications No. 1

WHITEAVES, J. F. — On some esl Cephalopoda in the Museum of the Geo-

logical Survey of Canada, with descriptions of Eight Species that appear to be

new. Ottawa Naturalist, pp. 116-127. Sept., 1898.

Serials.

The American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Vol. xx, No. 4. July and

August, 1898.

Annales del Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Tome iii. Fas.ix. Montevideo, 1898.

Annotationes pee habe Vol. ii. Pt ii:

Asa Gray Bulleti vi, No. 4

Bericht d. scion idee Gesellschaft Frankfurt a. Main. 1898.

Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History. Vol. v, Article IV, 18

The North American oe belonging to the Genera Gookin,

Limnocalus, and Epischura, by F. W. Schacht.

Bulletin Nat. Hist. Soc. New P No. xvi. St. John, N. B., 1898.

Bulletin Soc. Belge de ox 5 Ann. 24, 1897

Bulletin U. S. Nat. Mus Joulan, D. S., aa Evermann, B. W., The

shea of Sage Be ae pte Pt. ii, pp. xxix and 1243-2183; Pt. iii,

PP- d 2184-3136.

Field Ceinia Museum. Public. ge ae 1898. Ruins of Xkichmook, Yucatan,

E. H. Thompson and G. A

The Geographical Journal. Vol. xii a : ie, No. 5, Nov., 1898.

Michigan State Agricultural College Experiment Station. alice 159, A Stu

of Normal Temperatures and the Tuberculin Test, by C. E. Marshall ; Bulletin

160, Some Insects of the Year 1897, by W. B. Barrows; Bulletin 161, Ferti-

lizer Analysis, by R. C. Kedzie. June, July, 18

Nature Novitates. Bibliographie neuer Bdchathdvenh aller Lander auf dem Ge-

biete der Naturgeschichte und der exacten Wissenschaften fiir 1897. Heraus-

gegeben von R. Friedlander & Sohn, Berlin

North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 150, June,

edicinal Plants, by C. W. Hyams; Bulletin 151, The Fertilizer Castrol for

1897; Report of Director for 1897 and 1898 (half Je

Proceedings vie the Towa Acad. 28 Sciences m 1897. Vol. v, 247 pp. Des mom

Iowa, I

No. 385.] PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 95

Proceedings Natural Science Association of Staten Island. Vol.vi, No. 19. Sept. 10,

1898.

Proceedings U. S. Nat. Museum. No. 1141. L. F. Ward, Descriptions of the

Species of Cycadeoidea, or Fossil Cycadea Trunks, thus far determined from

the lower Cretacean Rim of the Black Hills. pp. 195-229. 1898.

o. 1142. L. O. Howard, On Some New Parasitic Insects of the Sub-

Family Encyrtine. pp. 231-248. 1898.

M. L. Linell, On the Coleopterous Insects of Galapagos

No. II

ees pp- 249-268. 1898.

. No. 1144. L. Stejneger, The Birds of the Kurile Islands. pp. 269-296.

N . S. Eakle, Topaz Crystals in the peels Collection

of ‘the ut geen Museum. Vol. xxi, pp. 361-3

No. 1149. R. E. C. Stine; Notes on Cytherea trld crassatelloides.

Conrad, a “angela of many varieties. Vol. xxi, pp. 371-378

Hugh M. Smith, On the es les of Amphiuma, the so-

id ana Saako, in Virginia. Vol. xxi, pp. 379-380.

No. rte- L ee Description of a new Species of Spiny-Tailed

Iguana from Guatemala. xxi, pp. 381-383.

Société Royale ree X Pia Annales. Tome xxx. Procès-verbeux

des Séan pp. xxvi, xxvii, 1897-1898.

U. S. i. pt ey. Mineral Products of the United States. Calendar years

1888 to 1897 [Chart]. Aug., 1898. ;

Wyoming Exper. Station. Bull. No. 37. June, 1898. B.C. Buffum, The Stool-

ing of Grains

nae ay Renta based on Material from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalt

sl and apg collected during the years 1895-1897 by Arthur Willey,

odd: . M. A. Cantab. Pt. i. Cambridge at the University

Press. 1808.

The Zoologist (4). Vol. ii, No. 21. Sept., 1898. .

(Number 384 was mailed December 15.)

EPARATZ: of the papers of

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I. On the Proposed University of the United States and Its Possible

Relations to Scientific Bureaus of the Government

II. The Relation between Forestry and Geology in New r Jersey. Part

II. Historical Development of the Flora Dr. ARTHUR HOLLICK

III. The Wings of Insects, IV. Continued

Professors J. H. COMSTOCK and J. G. NEEDHAM

IV. The Peneplain: A Review . . eoa ee A DT

V. A Peculiar T : . Professor F. L. WASHBURN

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VII. Editorial

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of the Catskills, Notes — i tae California Plants in their Homes, Van

Tieghem’s Eléments de Botanique, Are Bacteria Fungi? Dr. Bolander, The —

Costa Rica Flora, Urban’ s West edie Flora, Bailey’s Evolution of our Native

Fruits, Poisonous Grains, Botanical Notes — Paleontology, Habits of Thyla-

coleo — Bingi Marble, Grits Metamorphosed into Crystalline Schists, —

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in a Basic Rock, Notes — ewe

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VOL: XXXIII. February, 1899. No. 386.

ON THE PROPOSED UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED

STATES AND ITS POSSIBLE RELATIONS TO

THE SCIENTIFIC BUREAUS OF THE

GOVERNMENT.

WILLIAM HEALEY DALL.

For some years the proposition has been discussed that a

National University should be established in Washington to

represent that projected by Washington himself, and for which

he provided, as he supposed, in his will. The foundation, for

various reasons, did not materialize, and though one of the

reservations in the original plat of the capital city was desig-

nated by Washington as a site for the proposed university, no

funds being forthcoming, the scheme until lately has remained

dormant.

Recently, owing to the interest and enthusiasm of a number

of friends of education, the scheme has been revived and much

popular interest expressed ; several bills have been laid before

Congress, and steps taken toward securing popular subscrip-

tions, and the use of a site in the District of Columbia, on one `

of the public reservations for projected buildings, to be used in

connection with the work of the university. :

_ 1 The origi t was afterwards used for the Naval Observatory,

and has st bese abandoned, partly on account of the prevalence of malara

98 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

As far as university instruction of the ordinary American

type is concerned, the District of Columbia is already well sup-

plied with the means of furnishing it. It is only necessary to

refer to the names of the Georgetown University, the Catholic

University, the Columbian University, Howard University, the

National University, the proposed American University, and

their associated special schools, to make this plain. While

nearly all these institutions are more or less distinctly under

the control of some religious denomination, I believe none of

them confine their educational efforts to students of any one

particular faith, and in most of them instruction is sufficiently

free from sectarian bias to render the denominational control a

matter of little importance to their students, except in so far as

it tends to preserve a good standard of morals.

It is, I believe, admitted by the friends of the projected insti-

tution that there is no sufficient reason for establishing a new

competitor for the opportunity of giving undergraduate instruc-

tion. Few friends of liberal education would advise that to the

workers in a field already so well occupied, and most of whom

are so poorly endowed, should be added another institution of

similar character and aims. Generous givers might far better

contribute to the strengthening of those already established.

But it is claimed, and with some show of reason, that there is

still room for an institution. of a different character, in which

those who have already acquired the essentials of a liberal edu-

cation could pursue special branches of study, utilizing the

opportunities which might be afforded by the government labo-

ratories in various departments of science, to make of them-

selves highly skilled specialists, for whom the growth of the

country is beginning to open a career.

Assuming, for the purposes of argument, that this contentior —

is just, the present paper is intended to discuss, from the poi.

of view of the official man of science, the practical questions of ©

what relations between such an institution and the executive

departments of the government are practicable and advisable ;

and also the organization best suited to promote harmonious

and successful coöperation between the departmental labora-

tories and the members of such a university.

No. 386.]} UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES. 99

It must be said that the projectors of the enterprise have so

far dealt chiefly in generalities, and have hardly touched upon

the practical side of the question, which, nevertheless, is a

factor upon which the success or failure of the scheme must

very largely depend. In fact, most of the documents relating

to the proposed university which I have been able to consult

absolutely ignore this side of the matter, and even display an

apparent ignorance of the conditions which have to be met. It

is in the hope of throwing some light upon them, without par-

tiality for or against the project, and in the hope of eliciting

further information by discussion from those especially qualified

to give it through their connection with the okie yan labora-

tories, that this paper has been prepared.

Some thirty-four years’ experience in the ditn work of |

the government has given the writer a tolerably good insight

into the methods now or formerly in use and the conditions of

this side of the problem. During this time the expansion of

the scope of this work has been very great, and with the ex-

pansion has necessarily come more or less severity of restriction

for the purpose of fixing responsibility, controlling expenditures,

and defining the limits of work to be authorized. These restric-

tions have much increased the labor and difficulty of carrying on

the work, and to some extent the expense of it. Every worker

has realized this, and most have felt disposed to criticise it.

The restrictions are frequently double-edged; made by legisla-

tors unfamiliar with the methods of science, and having one

object in view, they sometimes, whether accomplishing that

object or not, bear very severely on the worker in some other

direction not at all originally in contemplation. Nevertheless

the government has, on the whole, been generous, and the re-

strictions for the most part beneficial in that, if rigidly lived up

to, they protect the scientific bureaus from ignorant and unjust

attacks from those with a morbid appetite for scandal. In the

last instance, somebody always has to be trusted, and the nar-

rower the field for the exercise of untrammeled judgment, the

less subject to unreasonable criticism is the person upon whom

the responsibility is laid. This responsibility is divided be-

tween the executive head of a bureau and his subordinates

100 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIIL

in various measure, but the chief part of it is shared by the

Director and the “heads of divisions” who have the direct

superintendence of the details of the work. The former, subject

to the approval of the Secretary (which in most cases is given as

a matter of course), decides the policy of the bureau in its special

functions, the allotment of money and work to the different

divisions, and the general character and quality of work which

shall represent the bureau. He is also the general intermediary

between the Department and Congressional committees con-

cerned with the special work of the bureau, explaining the

necessity for particular expenditures for which authority is

asked, or the propriety of any action about which question

has arisen.

The “head of a division ” has generally the immediate con-

trol of work decided upon and of the special workers, super-

vises methods and estimates cost, is responsible for accuracy

and economy in the use of the fund allotted to the work of his

division, and the attendance and efficiency of those engaged in

it. Upon him the Director relies for most details, and to him

the individual workers look for their instructions.

Both the directors and the “heads of divisions” are usually

overworked, and the latter are almost invariably underpaid.

The necrology of the scientific staff from year to year shows a

lamentable number of early deaths from causes directly or in-

directly connected with overwork, “ burning the candle at both

ends.” The temptation of the opportunity for research offered

by government laboratories, and unequaled elsewhere, is re-

sponsible for the presence in them of many men who in private

life would be enjoying the frugal living, high thinking, and

long summer vacations of colleges, or from five to ten times

their present salaries as consulting experts. Another feature

of life in the laboratories is exemplified by the presence there

of men who, by years of labor in their specialty, are known

around the world as experts of the highest rank, whose contri-

butions to science in a single year far outweigh the best college

thesis for the doctorate of philosophy or science, and yet to

whom the grant, by some appreciative Faculty, of this modest

badge of honor would rouse from the mass of educators a storm

No. 386.] UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES. IOI

of protest. Such instances could be mentioned, and show con-

clusively how little general knowledge exists among educated

men, not scientists, of the kind and quality of work turned out

by the scientific bureaus. This brief statement of conditions

is necessary for the clear understanding of the points which are

to follow. Addressed to an audience of officials it would be

unnecessary.

It is the writer’s opinion that the university should be free

from the trammels of government control, and that it should

ask from Congress only its charter and the privileges of the

laboratories; that it should not be a government institution,

but should stand on its own merits. Perhaps the grant of a

site for the university offices, on one of the larger reservations

near the government buildings, might be accepted, as in the

case of the Smithsonian ; provided it was clearly understood

that this did not constitute the university a governmental en-

tity. The objections to its becoming such are many and serious,

and will not be enlarged upon here; that it would dry up the

springs of private bounty is certain, and is sufficient to con-

demn the proposition.

On the other hand, the grotesque project of forming its

governing board of a dozen active presidents of existing col-

leges is so preposterous that it only needs to be stated to meet

its fate with thinking people.

The university should have for executive purposes a govern-

ing board solely its own, and as small as possible, both for

efficiency and economy. The faculty should decide on all

matters connected with teaching and discipline, and the

alumni be granted advisory status on large questions. One or

two members of the executive board should be taken from the

list of directors of scientific bureaus, but in their private, not

their official capacity. A board wholly inexperienced in gov-

ernment routine and conditions would be constantly in hot

water.

Various branches of university training stand somewhat out-

side the laboratory work, though more or less dependent upon

the libraries and archives of the city. For these the appoint-

ment of professors would be required. There should probably

102 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST... [VoL. XXXIII.

be a few administrative members of the faculty covering the

branches which did avail themselves of the laboratories, but

more to act in an advisory capacity to the student than to teach

him. The laboratory student while at work should know but

‘one executive head, the chief of division in whose laboratory

his work is done. Any division of authority here would be

fatal.

We would have then a small executive board, a small fac-

ulty, and, as it naturally follows, small administrative expenses.

Concentration of power in the hands of competent men is the

soul of efficiency and the warranty of success.

No funds should be sunk in pretentious buildings. A single

building, with one large acoustically perfect hall, and as many

smaller lecture rooms as seemed requisite, with offices for the

archives, bursar, and administrative men, would be all that

would be really necessary or useful, at.all events for some time

to come. Under these circumstances the funds contributed

could be almost wholly devoted to the true purpose of such a

university, the production of highly trained experts, and the

endowment of research.

It is obvious that the interests of the government’s own work

would permit of only a small number of students in any one

laboratory, such a number, in each case, as the chief of division

felt certain could be advantageously utilized and controlled. It

would be impracticable to admit professors or classes into any

laboratory except as rare visitors, such as occasionally come

now.

The laboratory student must come, if at all, as the regularly

employed workers come, to keep the same hours, observe the

same rules, and render to the chief the same obedience. For

the class of men we are considering as possible students this

would not be a grievous requirement. The method of instruc-

tion would necessarily be that of Agassiz. Actual work on

actual material, with results in sight from the first, and methods

absorbed through contact and experience not merely experi-

mental. I think there are few chiefs of division who would not

welcome one or two well-trained enthusiastic students under

such conditions.

No. 386.] UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES. 103

The question then arises as to how the reception of students

might be controlled and organized. A simple resolution or bill

in Congress, authorizing the scientific bureaus to admit, sub-

ject to the approval of the director and chief of division, such

students as they may find qualified, and who can be employed

with advantage to the work of the bureau, would be all the

legislation that is needed; unless Congress should require that

their presence should involve the government in no expense

or responsibility, and authorize the officers above mentioned

to make rules to cover the conditions. As these are different in

each laboratory, the rules should be left to the authorities of

each laboratory. The function of the university, as such, in

the case of these students would then be limited, as in the case

of London University, to a determination of their qualifications

and the issuing of an equivalent degree, not necessarily by oral

examination, but on the record of work accomplished, if it

proved desirable. For such men the acquisition of the qualifi-

cations should regulate the duration of study, not some arbi-

trary period of time. The Director of the bureau should be

authorized to accept or reject students, because he is responsible

for the work of the bureau, and the Chief of division because

upon him falls the responsibility for the success and proper `

conduct of his own divisional work, and whatever labor and

time is required to direct and utilize the student. The position

of the Chief of division with relation to the student and the

university will then be that of a tutor or docent, and in return

for his services to the student the university should provide a

modest honorarium which might be refunded to the university

by the student, or deducted from the amount of a scholarship

if the student held one, or paid by the university as endow-

ment of research. It would be better that no private arrange-

ment between teacher and pupil should be permitted, but that

such transactions should be handled by the university authori-

ties, for obvious reasons. If the university were a govern-

ment institution, it could not pay fees to any government

official under the present law, which is not likely to be changed.

It would be obviously unjust to add to the regular official duties

of a laboratory chief the responsibility involved in the recep-

104 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

tion and supervision of pupils, without some remuneration.

For the infinitesimal cost which might indirectly fall upon the

United States through the presence in the laboratory of one

or two students, the government would be amply repaid, both

by the gratuitous labor of the student and by the creation of a

body of experts already trained to government methods who

might be available for sudden emergencies.

There remains to be provided for, the method of selecting

from among candidates those who should be admitted to the

privileges of the laboratories.

Candidates might be required to present to the proper officer

of the university certificates of graduation, proficiency, experi-

ence, and moral character, with a statement of the line of work

they desired to take up. These having been classified, the

directors of the bureaus concerned, on notification, might ap-

point the chiefs of those divisions for whose privileges appli-

cation had been made, and who should meet as a board or

committee to discuss applications and report their decisions to

the various directors.. The conclusions of the committee hav-

ing been ratified by the directors, and referred back to the

board, could by it be transmitted to the university authorities,

who could then announce to the successful candidates that, on

matriculation and payment of university fees, they would be

duly accredited to the laboratories concerned.

This method would enable the university annually to allot a

small but picked body of the most promising students of the

country to those places where they could get unique oppor-

tunities for special work; and would, in the course of time,

produce a body of experts, many of whom would naturally

gravitate into the government service, and all of whom would

be available for special services to the government, if needed, in

a way no other method of training could supply. If the univer-

sity graduated only twenty such men in a year, it would more

than justify its existence. It would thus not compete with

any other institution, and would supply a training and experi-

ence not to be gained elsewhere.

There are of course, as in all human affairs, opportunities

for friction and criticism in the plan proposed. The general

No. 386.] UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES. 105

proposition that such a body as the proposed university should

be admitted to such privileges is one upon which differences of

opinion might naturally exist, and which is not discussed in this

paper. Here I have assumed the affirmative reply to the gen-

eral question, and merely presented for criticism and discussion

the outline of a comparatively simple scheme by which the

proposed relation between such a university and the govern-

ment laboratories might be carried into effect. That it is prac-

ticable I am convinced from the experience of former days,

when the towers of the Smithsonian sheltered a body of mostly —

impecunious but enthusiastic volunteer students, under the

supervision of Henry and Baird, almost every one of whom

in later days became distinguished for services rendered to

science.

Should the plan suggested fail to recommend itself to the

promoters of the new university, it would still be possible for

any existing institution of learning, or any number of them in

association, to avail themselves of the undoubted opportunities

herein pointed out. The formulation of plans to this end would

be simple and easy. In this connection I may quote a few

paragraphs from an abstract of the current annual report of the

Secretary of Agriculture, which has appeared in the daily press

since the preceding paper was written.

THE DEPARTMENT AS AN AID TO POST-GRADUATE WorK.!

Regarding the facilities of the department for post-graduate instruction,

the secretary says there is no university in the land where the young farmer

may pursue post-graduate studies in all the sciences relating to production,

but that the scientific divisions of the Department of Agriculture can to

some extent provide post-graduate facilities.

The chiefs of divisions are very proficient in their lines, the apparatus

the best obtainable, the libraries the most complete of any in the country,

and the studies of a few bright people could be directed in each division, so

that when the department requires help, as it often does, the services of

these young scientists would be available.

These students should be graduates of agricultural colleges, and should

come to the department through an examination that would bring the best

young men. The capacity of the department is limited ; but assistants are

1 Washington Evening Star, Dec. 2, 1898.

106 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

often tempted to accept higher salaries in state institutions, and the opening

of the laboratories to post-graduate work would provide an eligible list to

fill vacancies as they occur, supply temporary agents, and be a source from

which state institutions might get assistance in scientific lines.

ADDENDUM. — The preceding paper, for the purpose of elicit-

ing discussion and suggestions, was read at a meeting of the

Philosophical Society of Washington, Dec. 10, 1898, and some

of the points raised may advantageously be noted here. x

The discussion took a turn toward the distinct proposition

of a governmental university, which was considered by Prof.

Lester F. Ward and Surgeon-General Sternberg, but which

the present writer regards as impracticable, even if desirable,

under present conditions.

The points bearing on the proposition advanced in this paper,

and which it seems desirable to notice, are as follows :

1. That the organization proposed would not constitute “a

university.”

The writer is entirely indifferent as to the title of the pro-

posed institution. What he has tried to show is a practicable

means of utilizing certain at present unused opportunities of

great value to special students.

2. That the plan would not accommodate all who might

apply, and that some bureaus ani not be willing to accom-

modate any students.

This is, of course, the essence of the problem. It would in

any event be impracticable and unwise to hamper the bureaus

by undesired additions to their corps. But the competition

for the opportunities would make them even more desirable

to the ambitious student, and secure for them the most promis-

ing men. The plan is essentially intended as selective of, and

only of, the very best.

3. That while in certain lines there might be opportunities

for a fair number of students, the fact that there were other

‘lines in which no students could be accommodated would ren-

der the distribution of the men among the different branches

of science unequal, or, to use the phrase of one of the critics,

the “university would be lopsided.”

I have never heard of any university in which the number of

No. 386.] UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES. 107

students pursuing special post-graduate courses was equal, or

nearly equal, in the different specialties. Tastes are not equally

represented in the graduate population any more than opportu-

nities in the world at large. At any rate, no more could be

utilized than exist, and if the numbers in different lines are

unequal, this is no reason why any of them should be wasted.

Doubts as to the workability of the scheme here proposed

were only expressed by one or two persons, none of whom had

had practical experience in the laboratory work, and I would

repeat that I have entire confidence in its practicability, know-

ing from my own experience that many students have passed

from temporary post-graduate employment in the laboratories

to lucrative and successful employment elsewhere.

THE RELATION BETWEEN FORESTRY AND

GEOLOGY IN NEW JERSEY.

ARTHUR HOLLICK.

II. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE FLORA.

WITHIN the boundaries of the state are geological formations

representing all the great time divisions — Eozoic, Palzeozoic,

Mesozoic, and Neozoic — and rocks of all the included geologic

periods, with the exception of the Carboniferous and Jurassic.

In -tracing the development of plant life through geologic

time the fact is well recognized that the flora of Eozoic and

Palzeozoic times is not related to our living flora by any closer

ties than those of sub-kingdoms or classes. In Mesozoic time

generic relationships may be traced, while in Neozoic time

many species either identical with or closely related to living

ones may be recognized. _

It has also been accepted as a broad generalization that bio-

logic development has been coincident with geologic sequence,

or, in other words, that the farther back in geologic time we

begin our investigations the lower in the scale of life we find

the plants to be; and, conversely, that the nearer we approach

modern time the higher they are in development. Plants have

developed in the past in accordance with changes in their

environments, as they do to-day, so that in order to understand

the evolution of any living flora it is necessary to know some-

thing about the changes which have preceded the existing con-

ditions.

For the purposes of this discussion we need not begin any

farther back in geologic time than the Triassic period, when

the shore line of the North American continent, so far as New

Jersey is concerned, extended irregularly from about the vicin-

ity of Mahwah to a few miles south of Phillipsburg. This was

evidently a period of slow subsidence, and the Triassic deposits

were largely laid down in shallow estuaries or lagoons, which

: | 109

IIO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vot XXXIII.

were alternately covered with the tides and exposed to the at-

mosphere. The rocks are mostly conglomerates, sandstones,

and shales, evidently shore or shallow water deposits, often

ripple-marked or sun-cracked, and occasionally bearing the

footprints of land animals or amphibians which wandered over

them.

The vegetation of the period is but sparsely represented in

the collections which have been made in New Jersey, but these

probably fairly represent its general characters. Dr. J. S. New-

berry has described about ten species from the state,! of which

three are pteridophytes, and the remainder probably all refer-

able to the gymnosperms. One living genus (Equisetum) is

recognized.

Thus far, in any collection of Triassic plants which has been

made, nothing higher in development than the monocotyledons

is even indicated, and we may regard the Triassic flora as one

composed almost wholly of ferns, cycads, and conifers, with

cycads as the dominant type.

Towards the close of the Triassic period great physical

changes occurred, of which the extrusion of trap dikes was one

of the most prominent features. The indications also are that

that portion of the continent now represented by New Jersey

and vicinity was raised above its former level and remained so

for a long time, while farther south it was depressed, as in this

state we know of no deposits which can be even provisionally

referred to the next succeeding period, the Jurassic, which, how-

ever, occur in Maryland and southward. In New Jersey, there-

fore, we havea break at this period in the geologic sequence, and

in consequence a hiatus in the line of plant development which

has been at least partially bridged by Prof. Wm. M. Fontaine

and Dr. Lester F. Ward in their studies of the Potomac flora

of Maryland and Virginia.? The exact geologic age of the

lower strata of this formation has not been definitely settled,

1 Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of the Triassic Rocks of New Jersey and the

ee Valley, Monographs of the United States Geological Survey, vol. xiv.

2 Fontaine, Wm. M. The Potomac or ey See Flora, Monographs

of ed United States Geological Survey, vol. xv, pts. :

ard, L. The Potomac Formation, Fi Saar gost Report of the United

phd Geological Survey, pp. 307-397.

No. 386.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. III

but all the evidence thus far adduced from the fossil plants

indicates a transition from the Triassic flora below to the typi-

cal Cretaceous flora above.

In this transition flora, accompanying the pteridophytes and

gymnosperms, are numerous archaic types of angiosperms and

others in which generic relationships with living plants are

more or less definitely indicated. Others more closely related

are described under such names as /icophyllum, Sapindopsis,

Saliciphylium, Quercophyllum, Eucalyptophyllum, etc., while not

a few living genera are recognized (Torreya, Sequoia, Araucaria,

Taxodium, Sassafras, Myrica, etc.). The number of pteri-

dophytes and gymnosperms as compared with the angiosperms

is about 4 to 1, so that the lower types of vegetation were

evidently yet in the ascendant.

The limited number of modern elements contained in this

and the preceding flora render a comparison with our living

flora somewhat hazardous so far as any conclusions as to climate

are concerned, but we may safely say that in their general char-

acter they indicate tropical or subtropical conditions.

The strata next succeeding the Triassic in New Jersey con-

sist of clays, sands, and gravels, which are apparently Middle

Cretaceous in age. This indicates a later submergence of the

New Jersey area, when the shore line was approximately where

we now find the southern edge of the Triassic outcrop to be,

extending from Woodbridge to Trenton.

This was evidently a period of quietude and slow subsidence,

as the deposits are largely clays and fine sands in which im-

mense quantities of land vegetation are entombed, many of

the specimens being so delicate that it is difficult to understand

how they could have been preserved at all, except in very quiet

or exceedingly sluggish waters. The occurrence of a few marine.

molluscs indicates that the waters were at times subject to tidal

influence, but essentially they must have been fresh or perhaps

brackish.

This flora has been described by Dr. Newberry,! who recog-

nized in it 156 species, of which all but about thirty are angio-

1 The Ase of the Amboy Clays, Monographs of the United States mea

Survey, vol. xx

II2 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXIII.

sperms, nearly all of them included under living genera. Many

of these now inhabit the region, such as Dzospyros, Juglans,

Liriodendron, Magnolia, Populus, Salix, etc. ; but others are

of more southern distribution, such as Bauhinia, Cinnamomum,

Eucalyptus, Ficus, Laurus, Passiflora, Sequoia, etc.

No living species is recognized, although close specific rela-

tionship is commented upon in several instances, and is indi-

cated in at least one of the names adopted (Magnolia glaucoides).

The most significant feature of the flora as a whole is the

complete reversal of the proportions between the angiosperms

and gymnosperms as compared with their proportions in the

preceding flora, the angiosperms being now overwhelmingly in

the ascendant, while in the gymnosperms the conifers are more

abundant than the cycads.

The genera also indicate a less tropical climate than that

which previously prevailed, but one which was considerably

warmer than now obtains in the region.

After the clays had been laid down as estuary or brackish

water deposits, the submergence continued, and we next find

the clay marls, representing the transition to marine condi-

tions. In these the land vegetation is less abundant, but is

not noticeably different in its general characters from that

which preceded it.!

The subsidence continued and true marine conditions super-

vened. The marls were deposited, and in them nothing but

marine organisms are preserved. Thus far we have not found

any record of the land vegetation which occupied the region

during this period, but in the west the conditions were differ-

ent, and the remains of Upper Cretaceous plants are abundantly

preserved in the Laramie and allied deposits. In these most of

the Middle Cretaceous genera are found to continue, and a

number of new ones to appear, but the species in all but a very

few instances are different, and the monocotyledons begin to

assume prominence for the first time, in the form of fan palms.

Generically this flora is more closely related to our living

flora than was that which had preceded it. The number of

1 Hollick, Arthur. The Cretaceous Clay Marl Exposure at Cliffwood, N. J.,

Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xvi (1897), pp. 124-136.

No. 386.] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 113

living genera included in it was actually and relatively greater,

and the species are of a more modern aspect; but none is

apparently identical with any now living.

The ratios between the pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and

angiosperms were approximately about as we find them to be at

the present time, and the climatic conditions were apparently

yet subtropical.

During the early and middle parts of the next succeeding

period, the Tertiary, the indications are that while there were

minor oscillations of level, the previous gradual subsidence con-

tinued until the shore line had advanced far inland, covering

the entire region which we know as the coastal plain, and

causing the sediments to be deposited which we recognize in

the aggregate as the Yellow Gravel formation. In places this

is undoubtedly of marine origin, while in others it is apparently

due to floods of fresh water. At one locality only, in the

vicinity of Bridgeton, has the flora of this period been found in

the state. Fortunately the remains there preserved were col-

lected in abundance and in excellent condition. Probably about

fifty well-defined species are represented in the collections

which have been made; all of them angiosperms; many of

them referable to living species, or so closely identical that it

is not possible to separate them; some of the latter the same

as species now growing in the vicinity of Bridgeton (Vex opaca,

Nyssa aquatica, etc.).

A comparison between, this fossil flora and the living flora of

eastern North America indicates a close identity between the

former and that now in existence somewhat farther south, say

at about the latitude of Virginia.

Theoretically this Bridgeton flora should be Pleiocene or late

1 The study of this flora has not yet set Pn but the preliminary con-

clusions may be found in the following pa

Palæobotany of the Yellow Gravel at APSR N.J. Arthur Hollick. Bul.

seks 4 Bot. Club, vol. xix (1892), pp. 330-333-

New Species of Leguminous Pods from the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, N. J.

Ibid., vol. xxiii (1896), pp. 46-49.

A New Fossil Monocotyledon from the Yellow Gravel at Bridgeton, N. J. Zdid.,

vol. xxiv (1897), pp. 329-331.

n the above papers may also be found references to the work of others in the

same loca

114 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST: [VoL. XXXIII.

Miocene in age, but in many of its elements it is unique, and

is distinct from that of any other American Tertiary locality.

The collections of Eocene and Miocene plants which have been

made in the west contain different species, and those from

Bridgeton are rare or else entirely wanting in them. As a

whole, however, the flora seems to be more nearly comparable

with that of certain European Miocene localities, and this idea

is also in accordance with the well-recognized fact that plant

development was more advanced in Europe than in America.

Thus European Eocene plants are in part represented by

Miocene plants in America. European Miocene by American

Pliocene, and European Pliocene by our present living flora.

From its general character I am inclined to consider it as more

recent in age than that of any other recognized Tertiary horizon

in America.

Towards the close of the Tertiary period an era of elevation

began which raised the northern part of the North American

continent many hundreds of feet above its former level and

extended the shore line out far beyond its former or present

position, so that the edge of the continent was about where we

now find the one hundred fathom contour to be.

Up to this time in the world’s history we have every reason

to believe that there were no extremes of climate between the

poles and the equator such as prevail to-day. The temperature

of the entire earth’s surface was more or less uniform during

each of the several periods, up to and including the Tertiary,

although a constant change had been in progress from tropical

to temperate conditions.

The elevation which began in the Tertiary period, however,

caused, or at least was coincident with, the greatest changes,

climatic and biologic, which are anywhere recorded in geologic

history. The climate gradually became more and more severe,

and finally culminated in what we call the Glacial epoch of the

Quaternary period.

That the changes wrought were gradual, extending over a

long period of time, we are justified in concluding, for the

reason that the vegetation which was in existence at the time

when it was finally overwhelmed by the accumulations of ice

No. 386. ] FORESTRY AND GEOLOGY. 115

and snow was identical in all respects with that of to-day over

the same region. In other words, the flora of the Tertiary

period had become modified to the new conditions before its

final extermination by the ice sheet, which extended southward

in New Jersey as far as Perth Amboy in the east and Belvidere

in the west. Every species thus far discovered in the Quater-

nary clays and gravels, or in old peat bogs beneath the bowlder

till, is identical with some living species, and this evidence of

modification to meet changing conditions implies a long period

of time. Such species as were located within the area of

glaciation were of course absolutely exterminated, while others

were driven southward, and only such as could exist under

these vicissitudes remained to reéstablish themselves after the

final recession of the ice.

I do not know of any remains of the vegetation of this period

having been found in New Jersey, and such as have been found

elsewhere are scanty in amount.

The final recession of the ice was accompanied by a albeit

ence of the land, and this subsidence was probably the cause

of the recession in the same way that the previous elevation

had been the cause of its accumulation. Several oscillations of

level occurred, and finally the land assumed the contour and

topography of to-day.

At the present time, so far as New Jersey is concerned, a

slow subsidence of the land is recognized as taking place, which

amounts to about two feet per century. This rate of move-

ment, while very slow, is probably no greater than that which

produced such tremendous changes of level and such far-reach-

ing effects in the past, and we have but to consider the

cumulative effects in order to appreciate that a few centuries

hence great changes in topography may be effected. Even

within historic times the subsidence of the land has caused the

Coast line to advance inland in many localities, so that what was

once upland has become salt meadow, while salt meadow turf

and tree stumps are found far out in the ocean bottom, beyond

the present shore line.

Recognizing these facts, the question analy arises as to

the ultimate result, provided the present conditions continue.

116 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Manifestly the flora which occupies the coast region will have

its habitat more and more restricted in area, and will be driven

more and more towards the tension zone, where the struggle

for existence will become fiercer and the weaker elements will

succumb. Thus not only are the physical changes in the

environment inimical, but also the trend of biologic evolution.

The sequence of events in the evolution of the vegetable

kingdom show conclusively that the gymnosperm type is a

waning one, and that the more highly developed angiosperms

have been slowly but inevitably crowding it out since early

Cretaceous times, and at the present time, in any competition

for the occupancy of a region at all favorable for the angio-

sperms, these latter are sure to prevail, and the conclusion

appears to be inevitable that the flora of the coniferous zone

is destined to be ultimately obliterated or only to exist over

limited areas, often for the negative reason that in such areas

the conditions may not be favorable for the growth of other

types. The influence of man may produce temporary changes

and give temporary advantage one way or the other, as may

often be seen in the occupation by cedars or pines of land

which has been recently cleared of deciduous trees ; but such

changes are artificial and sporadic and cannot prevail over

the constant and inevitable progress of physical and organic

evolution.

Not only is the gradual extinction of the gymnosperm type

thus indicated, but by the same method of reasoning the angio-

sperms characteristic of the coniferous zone must of necessity

be the first to die out in that class, not only because of the

gradual restriction of the area which they occupy, but also

because, as is well known, the genera represented are older and

the flora as a whole is less modern in its characteristics than

obtain in the angiosperm flora of the deciduous zone. The

genera of the coniferous zone are largely confined to America,

whereas those of the deciduous zone are largely common to

both America and Europe. These latter are thus of wide and

_ varied distribution ; they occupy a region practically unre-

stricted in area, and represent more recently evolved types of

vegetation.

THE WINGS OF INSECTS.

J. H. COMSTOCK anp J. G. NEEDHAM.

CHAPTER IV (continued).

The Specialization of Wings by Addition.

IV. THE VENATION OF THE WINGS OF EPHEMERIDA.

Tue determination of the homologies of the wing-veins of

May-flies appears, at first sight, to be an extremely difficult

problem; for the wings of these insects are very different

from those of any other order. But, as soon as one under-

stands the ways in which the wings have been modified, it is

easy to identify the principal veins.

In this order a marked cephalization of the flight function

has taken place, which has resulted in a great reduction of the

hind wings of all living forms. In some cases (Cenis et al.)

this has gone so far that the hind wings are wanting.

In a few genera (Oligoneura et al.) both pairs of wings are

furnished with but few veins. It requires only a little study,

however, to convince one that these genera with few-veined

wings are degraded and not generalized. It is in the fore

wings of those forms in which many wing-veins have been

retained that the homologies of the wing-veins are most easily

determined.

Fig. 69 represents the venation of a species which will serve

well as a type of the recent May-flies; and the lettering of

the figure indicates our conclusions regarding the homologies

of the veins. But the most characteristic feature of the wings

is not shown in the figure. If the reader will examine one of

the larger May-flies, he will see that the corrugation of the

wings is much more perfect than in any other order of insects,

extending to all parts of the wings.

This fan-like structure of the ephemerid wings has been

referred to by many writers. But it is worth while to point

: 117 a

118 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

out in this place the degree of perfection that has been reached

in the alternation of convex and concave veins. In the accom-

panying table the names of the convex veins, those veins that

follow the crests of ridges, are printed in Italics; while the

names of concave veins, those veins that follow the furrows,

are printed in Roman type.

TABLE OF WING-VEINS OF EPHEMERIDA.

f Costa ; E;

Sc. Subcosta . Sc.

R Radi : : : i : i e Ki

: Vem’ R; =. x -e Ra

í Yee Rra | Ven R; ; io ae

Rs. Radial sector < Chief accessory radial vein . 1

; Vein Ry ; . i Ry

| Vein Ruts (ous oe

E Vein M: : gras ee) ©

M. Pa" Mita vein Eon

- Vein M, : : ; M,

Vein Cu; . 2 : ; : i ; Cu;

Cu. Cubitus f Chief accessory cubital vein. so

Vein Cu, . . Í ; ; j Cus

Ist A. rst Anal vein ist A

2d A. 2d Anal vein 2d A

3d A. 3d Anal vein 3d A

One of the most characteristic features in the venation of

the wings of May-flies is that the radial sector plays the part

of a principal vein; it originates near the base of the wing;

and, as a rule, it is detached, in the adult, from the main stem

of the radius.! For this reason it is given the position of a

principal vein in the table.

If this modification be made, it will be seen that, when the

principal veins are considered, there is a strict alternation of

convex and concave veins; and that in the case of the forked

veins (the radial sector, the media, and the cubitus) the prin-

cipal branches of a vein are of the same nature as the main

stem

It will also be seen that this alternation of convex and con-

cave veins exists in the distal portion of the wing. In those

1In certain Plecoptera and Trichoptera the radial sector of ie hind wings is

detached in a similar manner.

No. 386.] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. IIQ

cases where a vein has an even number of branches (the radial

sector and the cubitus) the alternation has been attained by the

development of an accessory vein. These are indicated in the

table as chief accessory veins, and are lettered 1 in the figure.

Many other accessory veins are developed at the margin of the

wing in a mere or less irregular manner; but whenever a sec-

ond accessory vein extends far into the disk of the wing it is

accompanied by a third, one being convex, the other concave.

The anal area of the wing, where the accessory veins are more

of the nature of braces, like cross-veins, is not included in this

statement, nor in that which follows.

Correlated with the development of a triangular form of

wing, which involves an expanding of its outer margin, is the

fact that the accessory longitudinal veins are all added distally

in the May-flies. But the method of development of these

veins appears to be radically different from what it is in the

Neuroptera.! There the accessory longitudinal veins are pre-

ceded by tracheze, which arise as fine twigs at the tips of older

trachea, and which in the course of phylogenetic development

branch off from the parent trachez farther and farther from the

margin of the wing, thus making room for the development of

other twigs. Here, in the May-flies, the accessory longitudinal

veins are evidently thickened folds, which arise more or less

nearly midway between other veins. A similar thickening of a

fold occurs in the Diptera, where, in certain Asilidæ, the anal

furrow is vein-like in structure.

A fact of prime importance in the study of the homologies

of the wing-veins of May-flies is that the corrugations of the

wing are the most persistent features of it. Hence the most

important criterion for determining the homology of a vein is

whether it is a concave or a convex one. The basal connec-

tions of the veins are very inconstant, and are often misleading.

We have already referred to the separation of the radial sector

from the main stem of the radius in the adult (its true origin is

easily seen when the tracheation of the wings of certain nymphs

is studied) ; and other separations and secondary attachments

are common. A good illustration is furnished by the wings

1See American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, pp. 771, 772-

120 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

represented by Fig. 69. In the hind wing, vein C2 is appar-

ently a branch of the first anal vein (marked A in the figure) ;

but in the fore wing, which is less modified, its primitive con-

nection is preserved; although even here a prominent bend

has brought it near to the anal vein, and only a step more

would be required, the fading out of the basal section, to reach

Fie. 69. — Wings of Ephemera.

the condition attained in the hind wing. But the concave

nature of this vein in the hind wing indicates its homology in

spite of its misleading basal connection.

It should be remembered that the convex or concave nature

of a vein is the result of a corrugation of the wing and not the

cause of this corrugation. The theory of Adolph that the two

sets of veins have a different ontogenetic development has abso-

lutely no foundation in fact, as will be seen when we come to

study the development of wing-veins, and as was suspected by

Brauer and Redtenbacher.!

The primitive insect wing was doubtless flat. It makes no

1 Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1888, p. 443-

No. 386. ] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. r21

difference, so far as this point is concerned, whether we believe

that the wing is a modified tracheal gill or a transformed para-

chute-like expansion of the body wall. In either case it is

highly improbable that it was fanlike at first. It was not until

the wing became an organ of flight that a corrugation of it was

beneficial; and even then this corrugation did not spring into

existence suddenly, only to be lost in most of the orders of

insects ; as must be inferred, if we accept the theory of Adolph,

that the wing of a May-fly represents the primitive type of this

organ.

The stiffening of the costal margin of the wing by the for-

mation of a subcostal furrow has been attained in most of the

orders of insects; and in several of them the formation of folds

has extended, to a greater or less degree, to other parts of the

wing. But, as a rule, this method of specialization has not

been the most important one in perfecting the wing. In the

Odonata it has been carried farther than elsewhere, among liv-

ing insects, except in the Ephemerida. But in the Odonata

it has been supplemented by other methods of specialization,

already discussed, with the result that an exceedingly efficient *

organ of flight has been developed in that order; while in the

Ephemerids the cephalization of the flight function and the

corrugating of the wings have been the chief lines along which

specialization has extended. The former has doubtless added

much to the efficiency of the wings ; but a too close adherence

to the latter method of specialization has resulted in the forma-

tion of a rather indifferent organ; although it is the most per-

fect development of its peculiar type.

We have studied the tracheation of many nymphs of May-

flies, but with results much less satisfactory than those we have

reached in the study of other orders of insects with many-

veined wings. In all nymphs of May-flies that we have ex-

amined, a greater or less reduction of the trachez appears to

have taken place; and in many of them a large proportion of

the longitudinal veins contain no trachez. And, too, the pres-

ence or absence of a trachea in a vein appears to have little sig-

nificance. As an example of this the wings of two nymphs are

before the writer, in which the venation is so similar that there

122 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL: XXXIII.

is not the slightest difficulty in tracing the homologies of the

veins. In one the radial sector and the media contain well-

` preserved trachez ; in the other there is not the slightest trace

of a trachea in these veins. On the other hand, in the latter

the cubital trachea is forked, one of the branches traversing

vein Cz2; while in the former the cubital trachea is simple,

there being not the slightest indication of a trachea in vein C72.

The basal connections of the trachea of the wing are very

different from what we have seen elsewhere. In the Plecoptera

there are two distinct groups of tracheze which enter the wing ;!

the same is true of certain cockroaches ;? in all other forms

Fic. 70.— The tracheation of a wing of a May-fly nymph.

that we have studied, except the May-flies, a transverse basal

trachea connects these two groups, and from this transverse

trachea (transverse in relation to the wing, but longitudinal in

relation to the body) the principal trachez of the wing extend

more or less nearly at right angles to it.? In the May-flies a

single trachea arises from the principal longitudinal trachea of

one side of the thorax, and, after giving off a branch to the

corresponding leg, passes directly to the base of the wing.

Here it divides into several branches which continue in approxi-

mately the same direction and become the principal trachez

of the wing.

In some cases this trachea extends into the wing before it

divides. But in other forms, which we regard as more general-

1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, p. 238, Fig. 8; p. 239, Fig. 9.

2 Loc. cit p. 773, Fig. 56. 8 Loc. cit., p. 772, Fig. 54.

No. 386.] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 123

ized, it separates into two trunks in the thorax near the base of

the wing (Fig. 70); from one of these arises the costo-radial

group of tracheze, and from the other the cubito-anal group.

Fig. 70 will serve to illustrate what may be considered the

type of tracheation of the wings in this order. It was made

from a study of the nymphs referred to above. The positions

of those longitudinal veins that contained no trachez in these

nymphs are indicated by dotted lines.

The discussion of the venation of the wings of Ephemerida

brings up the question of the venation of the primitive insect

wing. For, in several of the more important papers on the

homologies of wing-veins, it has been assumed that the wings

of May-flies resemble closely the wings of the primitive winged

insect. :

The great preponderance of the many-veined type among the

insect wings that have been found in the Carboniferous rocks

has doubtless strengthened the quite generally accepted view

that the primitive winged insect had many wing-veins. Thus

Redtenbacher states : 1

The geologically older Orthoptera and Neuroptera show a much richer

venation than the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera ;

likewise among the Rhyncota, the oldest forms, the Cicadas and the Ful-

goridæ, possess much more numerous veins than the Hemiptera. There is

apparently, then, no doubt that the oldest insect forms were provided, to a

certain extent, with a superfluity of veins, and that, in the course of devel-

opment, all the superfluous veins disappeared by reduction, and in this way

a simple system of venation was brought about.

But we have shown that all the existing types of insect wings

can be derived from one in which there are but few wing-veins

— our hypothetical type, already figured several times. The

deviations from this type in the more generalized members of

the greater number of the orders of insects is slight. And

we have pointed out the ways in which it is being modified, on

the one hand by the coalescence of veins, and on the other

by the development of accessory veins. While this is easy

to understand, it is very difficult to conceive how the wings of

the Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera could have been

1 Annalen des k. k. nat. Hofmuseums, Bd. i, p. 153-

124 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

evolved from a wing of either the ephemerid or neuropterous

type. After a wing had been strengthened by many cross-

veins, it is not probable that these should disappear with the

exception of the few to which we have applied names! in

so many different orders, in so nearly an identical manner.

Forms with reduced venation occur in most of the orders, but

the results of these independent reductions differ greatly from

each other. It is necessary, therefore, to examine again the

paleontological evidence.

The great preponderance of many-veined wings in the Car-

boniferous rocks is probably due to the fact that doubtless then,

as now, insects with many wing-veins were the ones that lived

near water, and were, therefore, the ones most likely to be pre-

served as fossils.

Another point which should be taken into account is that,

notwithstanding the great antiquity of the Carboniferous times,

it was a comparatively late period in the history of insects,

for winged insects appeared in the Silurian. We are carrying

our investigations back only a step, although it is a long one,

towards the period when wings were first developed by studying

Carboniferous fossils.

Unfortunately, our knowledge of Silurian insects is meager.

Moberg has figured an insect from the upper part of the lower

Silurian ; and Brongniart has figured and described a wing from

the middle Silurian sandstone of Calvados, France. This we

believe is all that is known regarding the insect fauna of the

Silurian ; and when we take into account the immensity of the

period of time occupied by the deposition of the Silurian rocks,

we are forced to admit that we know almost nothing regarding

the older insects.

Of the Devonian insects, the remains of several are known.

Those which are best preserved are Homothetus fossilis (Fig.

71), Xenoneura antiquorum (Fig. 72), and Platephemera antiqua

(Fig. 73). (The figures given here are reproduced from Plate

VII of Mr. Scudder’s Pretertiary Insects.) A glance at these

figures will convince the reader that the insects of the Devonian

times varied greatly in the structure of their wings. For

; 1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, pp. 233, 234-

No. 386. ] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 125

these three insects differ as much from each other as do the

more generalized members of widely separated orders of living

insects.

Evidently, comparatively high specializations in widely

oor

--*

nonn”

s..

..-

PONOSNA

Paawrsiesaee x

Fic. 73. — Platephemera antigua.

different directions had been attained already at that early time.

But the point to which we wish to call especial attention is

that, of the three better-preserved Devonian insects, one (Xeno-

neura) had but few wing-veins. And when we consider the

126 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

slight amount of data that we have, the numerical preponder-

ance of the many-veined type has no significance.

It is easy to conceive of the development of the wings of all

living insects from forms allied to Xenxoneura, by the different

methods of specialization which we have pointed out; for it

will be seen that the wing of this insect closely resembles our

hypothetical type. And we can say, therefore, that the paleon-

tological evidence does not contradict the conclusions drawn

from a study of the ontogeny of living forms.

THE PENEPLAIN—A REVIEW.

R. A. DALY.

ALL workers in Physical Geography are agreed that, given

time enough and a constant position of the baselevel, the gen-

eral processes of denudation on the land will produce, as the

result of wearing down any massif, a nearly plane surface ap-

proximately coincident with the baselevel of the region. Pro-

fessor Davis and his followers believe that this ideal condition

is represented by actual examples in nature, examples which

deviate from the ideal in features that are the expected con-

comitants of even long-continued denudation. Chief among

these is the occurrence of isolated areas of higher ground than

the general plain, existent as such because of greater initial

elevation of those parts of the massif or because of their being

composed of exceptionally hard rocks; they are the ‘ monad-

nocks” dominating the otherwise nearly featureless plain.

That, in such a case, we have to do with an almost-plain, a

peneplain, is regarded as none the less certain on account of

the presence of these residual hills; on the contrary, they fur-

nish one of the strongest arguments for the fact of denudation.

The nearly plane surface of the rest of the massif can be quite

independently recognized in the field and on the map. In a

recent number of the American Geologist! Professor Tarr

states his opinion that, while conceding the possibility of pene-

plains on an ideal planet, they do not exist, have not existed,

and, if I understand him aright, can not exist on this earth of

shifting baselevels, moving up and down within time limits

represented by one or more geological periods.

Professor Tarr’s arguments against the theory of peneplains

are both general and special. In the former category are the

following : (1) The theory is faulty because it demands too

much time. (2) Closely correlated therewith is the objection

1 June, 1898.

127

128 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

that continental oscillations of level are too pronounced, both

from the point of view of amplitude and of frequency, to allow

of the amount of beveling requisite to reduce a mountain-built

region to the faint relief of a peneplain. (3) There is no

known case of a modern extensive peneplain standing at its

baselevel. (4) The paper is, however, largely occupied with

a concrete argument against the peneplain from an analysis of

the facts of land-form in two of the classic regions where the

peneplain was first described, namely, in New England and New

Jersey.

Before proceeding to a detailed discussion of these various

points it is necessary to observe that, in order adequately to

demolish the theory, it must be inspected, not only in the writ-

ings of the American physiographers, but also in those of Euro-

pean authorship. The peneplain is an American idea, but it

has taken firm root in Europe. Men like Penck, Philippson, De

Margerie, and De Lapparent are recognizing its truth, and we

read of the peneplains of Bohemia, Russia, and the Rhine dis-

trict; yet we cannot say that these men are specially omniv-

orous of American geological and geographical conclusions.

We may most heartily agree with Professor Tarr in his calling

a halt on the wholesale discovery of peneplains on insufficient

evidence, but that criticism does not apply to the examples

cited.

1. Professor Tarr refers to the difficulty of finding time

enough for the process of the peneplanation of a mountainous

tract, from the fact that, since the glacial period, there has been

sufficient time neither to “strip off the till left by the ice upon

the hillsides [of New England], nor to notably modify the very

perfect form of drumlins, eskers, and deltas formed when the

ice was here.” ‘When we see the slowness of denudation in

a hilly country, even a single peneplain seems most difficult to

conceive.” Is it easier to conceive (i.e. actually measure out

in the imagination) a stretch of time long enough even to per-

mit of the excavation of the Colorado Canyon or the retreat of

the Niagara escarpment fifty miles or more from the former

edge of the Niagara limestone, or to produce the bewildering

network of valleys in the West Virginia plateau? Whether we

No. 386.] . THE PENEPLAIN. 129

can conceive many geological processes or not does not alter

the facts of geology. The velocities of the planets are real,

though never adequately conceived by the astronomer. The

work has been done — “ How?” is the question. To reason

truly and effectively about the genesis of a land-form, we must

put away from our minds any proneness to measure the scale

of the operations by reference to the standards of a human

life. It is safe to say that the best work in geology has been

done by those observers who have thus put themselves in a

sympathetic relationship with the earth and have looked upon

her as a great organism whose age is to be evaluated in pro-

portion as her activities become known. The culture of the

imagination is an academic bi-product. This argument of Pro-

fessor Tarr would, then, as seriously militate against any im-

portant modification of the lands by denudation as it does

against that last stage where the forces of erosion have car-

ried it down to a condition approaching a plain. The same

criticism can be applied to his illustration of the slowness of

geologic changes taken from the behavior of the Penobscot

River in time of summer freshet. It is true that there is but

little sediment in the running water of the stream, but does

Professor Tarr deny that the neighboring mountain, Katahdin,

has been worn out of an enormously greater terrane than that

represented in the present mountain-root? We may note, in

passing, that in any case the actual work of the Penobscot can-

not be gauged by mere observations on a summer freshet ; it is

in the spring, after the frost has loosened débris from the’

mountain-sides, that most of the transportation is effected for

the year.

2. The second objection referred to is more concrete and

withal more scientific; yet it may be met in the same way.

Each of many of the greater unconformities in the geologic —

scale means a stand of the land long enough to remove almost

completely a mountainous relief of surpassing magnitude by

the self-same process of slow denudation as that characteristic

of the lands to-day. Witness the pre-Palzeozoic land surface of

the crystalline shield of Canada, the wonderfully even surface

of the Archzean underlying the fossiliferous rocks of European

130 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. {VOL XXXIIL

Russia or of the plateaus of the Colorado Canyon. A striking

example of these buried plains of denudation has recently been

seen by the writer in that treasury of physiographic illustra-

tions, the Crimea. As the steamer coasts the southwest shore

of the peninsula, one sees a dark line running through the cliffs

with almost ideal straightness for many miles; this line repre-

sents an old land surface on the well-flexed Jurassic, in which

the steeply dipping beds are truncated as nicely as if pared

down by a huge knife. Upon them lie the light-tinted Eocene

sediments, horizontal, and signifying a perfect case of uncon-

formity. Now we believe that this smoothing of the older

terrane in each case is capable of explanation, and as yet only

two theories have been advanced to serve the purpose. The

first, the theory of subaerial denudation, has by far the weight

of evidence in its favor; the second, that of marine denudation

(sea-benching on a large scale), is in the highest degree im-

probable, for reasons that need not concern us here. Both

theories alike demand a fairly constant relation of land and sea,

not absolute quiescence from up and down movement of the

land, but comparatively faint oscillations of the land during a

long period. If we are going to explain these fossil land sur-

faces at all, then we are forced to posit a more or less constant

baselevel for each. We have, furthermore, in these same

regions positive evidence that they have since been capable of

a long-continued absence of important movement of the land

with respect to their common baselevel, the level of the sea. As

far as the wild Archzan tracts of Canada are known, it seems

to be the fact that at least one million square miles of that

country have remained above the sea during most of Palzeozoic

time and all of Mesozoic and Tertiary time. Conversely, from

the Cambrian to the Triassic, the Russian terrane was sunk

below the sea.

3. We must again join issue with Professor Tarr, when he

contends that there are no extensive peneplains of modern date

existing on the earth. The Russian Plain, from St. Petersburg

eastward and northward, is essentially in this condition ; while,

considering its vast extent, the whole of the European part of

the empire has suffered but a minimum amount of warping from

No. 386.] THE PENEPLAIN. 131

the original position of the same peneplain. But, granted that

there be no recent peneplain at or near the present sea level, it

would not prove that such plains have not been formed in past

geologic ages. Late Tertiary time has been that of excep-

tional energy in mountain-building on the lands, and very prob-

ably in drowning of parts of the continental ridges in the

ocean. Both of these correlated causes might well bring about

an important lowering of the sea level simultaneously about all

the continents. The result of such movements would be to

raise some of these plains above their ideal position near the

sea, to tilt others either toward or from the sea, and, possibly,

to leave one in about its original attitude with respect to the

ocean level.

4. Professor Tarr goes farther and denies that there has yet

been adduced evidence that there exist peneplains of ancient

date, z.e., those which have been uplifted and are being dis-

sected in a new cycle of geographic development, or those that

have been buried in sediments after depression ; the peneplain

theory is useless because there is no peneplain to need expla-

nation. To establish this doctrine he gives us the results of

his study of the uplands of New Jersey and New England.

He finds five hundred feet of difference in the tops of the

New Jersey hills, and about as much in “ the very even-topped

Kittatinny Mountains.” “There is a very distinct lack of uni-

formity in the elevation of the upland crests”; it is truly a

distinct lack, but is it, even on the showing of Professor Tarr’s

figures, sufficient to remove the topographic facet represented in

the average level of these higher points from the category of

an almost-plain? He tabulates the ranges of elevation on the

survey sheets of Connecticut as follows:

Cornwall . . . . 1787-1215 feet, a range of 572 feet.

Winsted aE ee a “ a 44o &

Granby $ + 0. 1240-720... * eta. n

Monn o a lowland

Tolland naen e Oeo EE aAA T Petal

Woodstock . = . = 761-540 “ i MRS Oe

He concludes that it is more important to emphasize the

total range of elevation of the crests in this 91 miles than to

142°" THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIII1.

emphasize the fact that in any given sheet the total range is

relatively very small and decreases with the decreasing absolute

heights of the hills in going from west to east. Is this strik-

ing accord of elevations to be ignored in an explanation of

Connecticut scenery? Professor Davis has regarded it as indic-

ative of a peneplain of the last geographic cycle, now tilted

towards the east and somewhat dissected, especially on the

softer rocks, in the present immature stage of a new cycle. It

is a theory at once clear, definite, and involving no processes

other than those actually illustrated on the earth at the present

time. It explains the existing uplands and valleys of the

regions under discussion, and, above all, the presence of this

otherwise inexplicable topographic facet which is once more

established by the foregoing table of Professor Tarr.}

A second point that he makes against the New England

peneplain shows a disregard of patent facts which it is most

difficult to understand in the most superficial survey of New

England geography. He writes: “In Maine, New Hamp-

shire, Vermont, western Massachusetts, and the Adirondack

region, with similar structure to that of the region above men-

tioned, and so near them that they must have been subjected

to the same general degradation, the lack of uniformity of up-

land crests is very much more marked.” The elevation of the

latter “is 2000 to 4000 feet above the sea.” Now, so far as

the present writer is aware, neither Professor Davis nor any

one else has contended that these summits represent any part

of the peneplain ; they are, on the contrary, stated to be local

and regional monadnocks interrupting the general surface of

the peneplain for very good reasons. Among the latter is one

which has met with contradiction in an expression of the pas-

sage just quoted, namely, that there is similarity of “structure ”’

1 I should not hesitate to speak of an extensive mountain range as a ‘“‘ pene-

plain” if it no longer showed a range of elevations greater than 572 feet in a

stretch of gt miles. It is, however, true that the ranges of elevation cited by

Professor Tarr are determined from the position of streams which have strongly

incised their beds because of the Tertiary uplift. On the other hand, some of the

_ higher points may represent extremely low monadnocks overlooking the pene-

plain of Professor Davis’s definition (range of elevations through 200 or 300 feet)

_ from altitudes of 100 or 200 feet.

No. 386. THE PENEPLAIN. ee

between these terranes and that underlying the peneplain.

Whether ‘structure’? means “ position ” alone or “ position ”

plus “texture ” (as it manifestly ought not to do), we cannot

agree with the statement. The granites, granitites, syenites,

and quartz porphyries of Osceola, Tripyramid, the eastern

Kearsarge, Red Hill, and the New Hampshire Whiteface, are

entirely different in structure and mineralogical characters from

the foliated rocks of Massachusetts or even the batholites of

coarse porphyritic granite of New Hampshire and Massachu-

setts, and we believe that no practical worker in the field rela-

tions of these areas finds difficulty in putting in similar contrast

the Massachusetts foliated rocks and the heavier, more massive

gneisses and schists of the White Mountains proper. Is the

structure of the Adirondack granite massif “ similar ” to that of

the Berkshire plateau, the structure of Mount Ascutney, Ver-

mont, with its three great stocks of deep-seated intrusives, ‘simi-

lar’’ to the structure of the surrounding phyllites and gneisses,

or that of the granitic Katahdin “similar ” to the Calciferous

slates through which the granites came?

Professor Tarr goes on to say that he has stood on the

“higher ” peaks of Maine and looked in vain for any series of

peaks that even to the eye appeared uniform in level. For any

one to advance this observation as an argument against the

New England peneplain seems to us quite incomprehensible.

To look for a fairly chosen peneplain sky-line a thousand feet

or two thousand feet above the level at which the advocates of

the peneplain ask us to find it, and to look for that sky-line in

a nest of granitic monadnocks, is hardly likely to be the mode

of procedure by which to successfully attack the theory of the

peneplain.

He questions any serious lack of “sympathy between the

level-topped hills and the rock texture and position.” He

notes the fact that the soft gneisses and the limestones of New

Jersey lie in regions of average lowland, and the hard gneisses

underlie areas of greater elevation. This is the sole argument

he makes to support this lack of sympathy. He then states,

without the shadow of proof, that, “although the rocks are

complex in kind and position, they now stand in very general

134 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

harmony with topography.” In the next paragraph he admits

that “the region is a lowered mountain mass, evidently once of

a very rugged topography, but now much reduced and traversed

by drainage lines of a somewhat mature form, the result of ele-

vation.” But that there be or not a lack of sympathy between

structure and land-form will evidently depend, among other con-

ditions, upon the degree of the lowering. The make-up of the

New England upland certainly indicates the former existence

in the district of massifs of flexed rocks at least as imposing

from their altitude as the modern Alps (one resulting conclu-

sion from the detailed work of Emerson in western Massachu-

setts, of Shaler and Woodworth in the faulted and folded

region of Narragansett Bay, of Pumpelly, Wolff, and Dale in the.

Green Mountain axis, to say nothing of the older work of the

Hitchcocks and others). Where are the ridges corresponding

to the folds of the Boston Basin, or the fault-scarps of Rhode

Island or of the Connecticut Valley? It is, in other words, im-

possible to speak of sympathy between the topography and the

structures of New England, when the latter demand displace-

ments of thousands of feet, especially in view of the fact that

the valleys and hills of the upland run at all angles to the axes

of folds or the lines of fault. There zs some sympathy between

topography and the hardness of the rock-members, but it is

only with the extremest rarity that there can be traced any cor-

respondence of structure (position) and the land-form in New

England outside-of the Narragansett Basin or the Triassic

lowland.

The evident adaptation of many of the valleys and broader

lowlands of New England to the superior softness of the rocks

they cover is just what we should expect to find on any theory

of New England topography that recognizes a period of uplift,

recent, but long enough ago to allow of the excavation of the

valleys to their present levels. This uplift Professor Tarr

acknowledges, but claims that “there is no evidence to prove”

that this uplift has been differential, that is, that there has been

-a tilting toward the southeast. If there has been no such tilt-

ing, it is necessary, following Professor Tarr, to consider that

while the Deerfield has cut its canyon-like valley, and is still

No, 386.] THE PENEPLAIN. 135

cutting downward with energy, the eastern part of Massachu-

setts has been lowered to a degree where, in Professor Tarr’s

words, ‘there may well have been an approach toward the con-

dition of a local peneplain.”’ That is, the relatively insignificant

amount of work necessary to hew out the Deerfield valley must

have taken as much time as the wasting to an almost-plain of a

coastal belt from twenty to thirty miles broad at least. From

his own point of view, Professor Tarr would explain this strong

contrast in the rate of cutting by the fact that the“ coastal

region is the locus of river systems with short courses to the

sea, and, consequently, great head and erosive power. But how

is it that the plateau of western Massachusetts is not similarly

worn down by the rivers which have a quick course to the sea

via the long-opened-up Triassic lowland on the west? (This

implication, in the last quotation, that subaerial erosion may pro-

duce a peneplain near the coast on the scale permitted by the

range of elevations in Massachusetts, seems to be a virtual aban-

donment of his whole position on the part of Professor Tarr.)

The theory of differentiat uplift is antecedently probable, and

the facts of present geographic form are exactly those that

would be expected to result from the elevation of New England

at the close of a former complete cycle of denudation. A tilt-

ing toward the east and south would give the revived rivers of

the northern and western parts of the peneplained region power

to etch out of the terrane narrow valleys on the hard rocks and

broader valleys on the less resistant ones. The broadening of

the valleys would progress as the time allowed, as the area of

soft rocks permitted, and as the river was strong. Where the

second and third conditions are satisfied, as in the case of

the Connecticut, we have a broad open (Triassic) lowland of the

new cycle; when the second is not so well fulfilled, the same

river gives us a much narrower lowland, that on the “ Calciferous

mica-schists’’ of southern and central Vermont.

One of the most strongly emphasized objections of Professor

Tarr to the theory of peneplanation is based on the occurrence

of monadnocks, or residual hills, on the New England upland. -

He asks: “Are the monadnock rocks essentially harder than

the other hilltops of the neighborhood ? ” and answers the ques-

I 36 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

tion in the negative on page 363 of the article under review, and

in the affirmative on page 369.!_ If an affirmative answer be not

possible, there is no possible explanation of these higher crests

in the light of our present geological knowledge. Monadnocks

like the Blue Hills near Boston, Ascutney Mountain, Chocorua,

Katahdin, are made of plutonic rocks, necessarily crystallizing

under the pressure of overlying masses of the same lithological

character as the rocks now seen in the immediate vicinity of

these eruptive centers. The overlying rocks are gone, the sur-

rounding rocks are well beveled down; the stock-rocks stand

up as knobs — Why ? — because they are harder. If there can

be suggested a simpler, more probable explanation, it is high

time that geologists should find it out.

It has been my fortune to map geologically one of these typi-

cal monadnocks, Mount Ascutney, and, on all sides of it, to

meet with striking illustrations of the fact that it stands above

the general level solely because it is more resistant to destructive

agents. The streams running across the syenites and granitite

far up the mountain are slowly cutting their gorges, continued

in radial arrangement, across the contacts on all sides. At the

contacts there is almost universally an abrupt fall where the

streams escape on to the thinly foliated schists or basic intru-

sives that encircle the main mountain. This exhibition of

differential hardness is correlated with an only less important

steepening of slope where not the perennial streams, but the

general process of wasting and wash, “creep,” has developed a

sudden fall-off just at the zone of contact of intrusive and

country-rock. In the reconnaissance of the mountain this lat-

ter slope was used as a rapid means of locating the contact.

Now “hese are the test cases. It is, indeed, difficult to say why

the gneissoid and schistose rocks of Mount Monadnock have

refused to weather down as rapidly as the similar schists round

1 On page 363 we read: “I believe that I am correct in saying that there are no

very distinct differences between the rocks of the monadnocks and the lower hills,

in point of durability.” On pages 368 and 369 we have: “ There will be a bevel-

ing of hilltops where the harder gneissic and granitic rock exists, the stream

valleys standing near the base level, and hills of softer strata standing at levels

still lower, in which on rock is semen ... Can any evidence be adduced to -

show that New E g d further in devel han this stage?”

No. 386.] THE PENEPLAIN. 137

about ; but, by all the laws of analogy, it is simplest to believe

that the same explanation of differential hardness applies here.

(I would go so far as to say that, on the basis of direct observa-

tion in the field, it is not differential e/evation that explains the

existence of Mount Monadnock.)

Following his criticism of the peneplain theory, Professor

Tarr attempts some constructive theorizing on the present relief

of such regions as New England and New Jersey. He regards

it in each case as a mountainous area in the condition of “full

maturity of topography,” “reduced mountains, lowered to the

stage of full maturity.” “By this explanation it is held that

the region was never reduced to the peneplain stage, but has

always been, as it still is, a mountainous section, though once

less mountainous than now, because of the recent uplift.”” But,

disregarding the uplift, is it correct to speak of such relief as’

that of Massachusetts as characterized by a stage of “mature”

dissection? Will the average inhabitant of the upland be flat-

tered in learning that the tract in which he lives ought, by the

laws of distribution, to be occupied by a few miserable, impov-

erished individuals, isolated by a labyrinth of valleys and hills

from their fellows? For such is the condition of most of the

maturely dissected areas of the earth’s surface; the moon-

shiners of West Virginia eloquently represent one result of

mature dissection. Fortunately for the needs of man, a ma-

turely dissected region is almost as rare as one that is char-

acterized by chronic earthquakes of destructive violence. But

when, in addition, Professor Tarr states that, by “mature”

topography he did not mean even the present relief, but a

topography made “more rugged” by the recent uplift, it is all

the more difficult to subscribe to his nomenclature of that ear-

lier surface. So far is the Berkshire plateau, for example, from

being of “mature ” form, made more rugged by uplift, that an

unprofessional observer, returning from a walking tour across

the plateau, has remarked to me in very definite language

that the plateau is “flat,” so strong was the impression upon

him of the even-topped character of the whole. Yet how likely

is the untrained student of land-forms to overlook the existence

of a topographic facet, however faintly it may be dissected!

138 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

The most valuable part of the paper is that in which Pro-

fessor Tarr emphasizes the effect of the tree-zone in retarding

the progress of denudation and the consequent tendency of the

higher summits: of a mountain range. Pike’s Peak is a good

example in point, the rounded slopes below that zone contrast-

ing finely with the serrate spurs of rapidly degrading naked

rock far up. Professor Tarr would find in the halting of one

peak at the snow-line until overtaken in the downward journey

by its neighbors an explanation of the even tops of “ mature ”

mountains, in particular those of New England. But the very

rough accordance of levels expected in this ideal scheme, and

represented in parts of the Alps and Carpathians, is not in the

slightest degree comparable with the New England conditions,

nor with the “ very even-topped Kittatinny Mountains,” referred

to in the article. Thus it is impossible to conceive that the

New England facet can be accounted for as formed at a van-

ished tree-zone. Having reached the tree-zone, the forces of

denudation then tend to reduce the mountains still further, but

now according to the law of soft and hard. Now, since the

effective tree-zone may be roughly put at an elevation of be-

tween 4000 and 5000 feet in New England, we are as badly off

as ever in arriving at a conception of how a nearly plane surface

can be produced on the rocks of differing hardness composing

the mountains, unless that surface is the result of the beveling

down of all the terranes nearly to baselevel. Finally, there _

are well-established peneplains, such as that on the old rocks of

Missouri, where the tree-zone theory cannot avail, because the

_ district was undoubtedly never raised, at any time during the

geographical cycle represented, to a height that would bring

about the differentiation of a tree-zone. It is an old plateau of

horizontal or but gently folded rocks. ,

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, December 10, 1898.

A PECULIAR TOAD.

F. L. WASHBURN, A.M.

In 1896 Mr. J. R. Wetherbee, a student in our biological

laboratory, was the recipient of a curious specimen, a toad

(Bufo Columbiensts Baird and Girard) having an extra arm

projecting at an angle from the left side just in front of the

normal left arm. The species is not uncommon in parts of

Oregon, but the finding of one with a fifth limb is of rare

occurrence, possibly unknown hitherto. The abnormal arm

was 3 centimeters in length. Apart from this peculiarity the

specimen appeared and acted like any other toad, apparently

in no way inconvenienced by this extraordinary lavishness of

nature. The extra arm was supplied with 7 digits, and, though

not provided with an elbow joint, it could be moved and was

moved to a slight extent at the proximal joint next the body.

139

140 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

A photograph of this curious animal was taken by the author

and is reproduced on the preceding page.

A drawing of the pectoral girdle and fore limbs is reproduced

below (Fig. 1). The ulna and radius of the abnormal arm are

separate bones, not fused as they are normally; the proximal

Fic. 1.

end of each is attached to the humerus by intervening carti-

lage; there are no distinct carpalia, but the metacarpals are

joined by cartilage directly to the two long bones, and are

grotesquely noduled at the proximal end: 1, sternum; 2, clav-

icle of right side; 3, coracoid of right side; 4, normal coracoid

of left side; 5, normal clavicle of left side; 6 is opposite

abnormal coracoid ; 7, over abnormal clavicle; 8, humerus of

abnormal arm; 9, 10, abnormal radius and ulna; 11 is over

scapula and supra scapula of right side; 12 is the left scapula.

The following sketch (Fig. 2) by Mr. Wetherbee, and kindly

FIG. 2.

loaned for this article, was made from his dissection of the

superficial muscles of the parts in question. Both Figs. 1 and

2 disclose peculiarities of internal structure which one would

expect to find from a consideration of the exterior. There is,

No. 386.] A PECULIAR TOAD. I4I

apparently, in connection with the abnormal arm a duplication

of some of the muscles of the chest and normal arm.

a = abdominal portion of pectoral muscle.

6= posterior sternal portion of pectoral muscle.

c = anterior sternal portion of pectoral muscle.

J is evidently intended by Mr. Wetherbee to represent the

normal sterno-radialis, and g is probably the duplicate of f for

the abnormal arm. The letter g is not distinct in the cut; it

lies just below &.

k, e, and 7 I am in some doubt about from Mr. Wetherbee’s

description, and hesitate to name them. Quoting from his

notes: “%, origin anterior edge of abnormal arm and a few

fibres on sternum, insertion Ą'; e, superficial, origin precora-

coid, insertion humerus; 7, attached to dorsal surface of abnor-

-mal arm and to under surface of normal arm.”

He also says in his notes: “The infra spinalis muscle was

nearly twice normal size, and was inserted by two tendons to

the fifth arm and [by] one to the normal arm.”

The blood system did not offer enough peculiarities to

warrant a reproduction of the drawing; the in-going and out-

going blood of the abnormal arm passed through extra branches

of the subclavian artery and subclavian vein, respectively.

BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

UNIVERSITY OF tes Sept. 20, 1898.

HUMAN REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON

GRAVELS.

Dr. FRANK RUSSELL.

In the long controversy regarding the age of the implements

or “paleoliths”’ from the Trenton gravels little attention has

been given to the human remains from the same beds. Believ-

ing that some account of them would prove to be of general

interest, I have undertaken? their study in the attempt to

determine whether or not they resemble the remains of recent

Indians of that region. As the Delaware Valley was occupied

by the Lenni Lenapé until 1737, the crania found near the

surface, at least about Trenton, are, P of members

of that tribe.

Material. — The most interesting of these relics is an imper-

fect calvarium (Fig. 1) found at a depth of twelve feet from the

surface in the stratified gravels. It was discovered by a laborer

who was leveling the bottom of the pit which had been dug for

the gasometer of the Trenton Gas Company. The workman’s

spade cut away a large portion of the left parietal, which was

not recovered. The skull was taken by the foreman in charge

of the excavation to a druggist, who displayed it in the window

of his store, where it was seen by Dr. Abbott and obtained by

him for the Peabody Museum at Cambridge. Both the fore-

man and the druggist are now dead, so that no statement can

be obtained of the circumstances, though diligent inquiries were

made at the time by Dr. Abbott. As no one received any com-

pensation for the skull, there was no evident motive for decep-

tion. This skull, together with all the specimens described in

this paper, is now in the possession of the Peabody Museum of

Harvard University. In the report of the curator of the mu-

seum, F. W, Putnam, for 1879, we find this statement: “The

1 With the kind permission of Prof. F. W. Putnam. I have also to thank

Dr. C. C. Abbott and Mr. Ernest Volk for information about the position of the

specimens.

143

144 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

two human crania received from Dr. Abbott are of particular

interest; one probably being the skull of a Shawnee Indian,

while the other, which is of entirely different shape, small,

long, and very thick, was found in the gravel under such cir-

cumstances as to lead to a belief in its very great antiquity.”

The calvarium (Fig. 2) from Burlington County, New Jersey,

was found by Michael Newbold in 1879, while plowing a field

Fic. 1.

where the “gravel came to the surface.” It would have been

classed as that of a recent Indian had it not been found in the

gravel, not accompanied by the remainder of the skeleton, and

had it not resembled the Trenton skull in being low vaulted.

Another calvarium (Fig. 3), exhibited with the two preceding

and usually regarded at the Peabody Museum as of the same

type, was found in Riverview Cemetery at Trenton in 1887.

The workman who found it states that the skull was lying two

and one-half to three feet from the surface in clear greenish sand.

“ The place where it was found is on a knoll, one of the highest

No. 386.] REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS. 145

points in the cemetery. No other bones were found with it.

There were a few black lines near the skull; they may have

been caused by the decayed roots of trees, or bones. No trace

of black soil was noticed with the sand. Numerous Indian

relics were noticed in the top soil.” 1

Three fragments have been found by Dr. Abbott himself,

in the cuts made by the railway in the stratified gravels at

Trenton. One of these is a left temporal bone (Fig. 4), the

petrous portion of which is broken; and its whole appearance

Fic: 2.

strongly corroborates the statement of the finder, that it was

taken from the undisturbed glacial gravels at a depth of

thirteen feet.

A portion of the left ramus of a human jaw (Fig. 5) was

found by Dr. Abbott at the same locality in 1884. It was

lying at a depth of sixteen feet from the surface and appears to

have been subjected to rough usage by the gravels. The jaw

is that of an individual, having a prominent chin, and exhibits

neither primitive nor simian characters.

1 Statement made recently to Mr. Volk and communicated in a letter dated

Dec. 7, 1898.

146 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Still another specimen found by Dr. Abbott at this place

is a human tooth, a third molar, an account of which was given

in a paper read by him before the Boston Society of Natural

History in October, 1882.1

In the attempt to identify the single skull, or, assuming that

the Burlington and Riverview specimens are also ancient, the

three skulls from Trenton, we must necessarily proceed by the

Pioa

comparative method. A number of Indian skeletons have been

discovered by Mr. Volk-during his excavations upon the Lalor

Farm at Trenton, but these specimens are “in boxes and not

accessible.” The only crania from that region available for

comparison with the Trenton skulls are one from West Chester,

Penn., in the Delaware Valley, and one from a Delaware

peat bog.

I have also included in the table of measurements the aver-

ages of a series of five from the stone graves of Tennessee,

selected from a large number as being nearly if not quite free

1 Proceedings Boston Society of Natural History, vol. xxii, p. 96.

No. 386.] REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS. 147

from artificial deformation. To the northward of the region

in question but two crania are available, and these from Central

New York, probably those of Indians belonging to the Iro-

FIG. 4.

quoian stock. From the east a series of Massachusetts crania

is taken. For additional comparison a series of skulls from

Santa Cruz Island, off the coast of California, is introduced;

these have the same cranial index as the average of the three

Fic. 5.

from New Jersey. Accounts of most of these have been pub-

lished by Mr. Lucien Carr, the accuracy of whose measurements

is unquestioned; yet I have re-measured all because of some

differences in methods of procedure, and in order to eliminate,

148 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

as far as possible, the probability of error arising from the

personal equation in general.

Discussion of the Measurements.— A general similarity will

be noted in the absolute dimensions of the individual crania,

except in the case of the male calvarium from Delaware, which

is somewhat larger than the others. The condition of the three

New Jersey specimens is such that the capacity cannot be

gauged by the usual methods. However, the Trenton skull,

the smallest, is neither so short, so narrow, nor so low as two

adult crania in the Massachusetts series. In all transverse

diameters the Trenton skull closely resembles the modern skull

trom West Chester (Fig. 6), while in the sagittal diameters

and the projections from the auricular axis it stands nearer the

Burlington and Riverview skulls. The marked brachycephaly

Fic. 6.

of the Burlington skull (Fig. 7) is rare among Algonquian crania,

and upon the evidence of this character alone the investigator is

inclined to exclude it from furthér comparison with the Trenton

No. 386.) REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS. 149

skull. The Riverview skull (Fig. 8) has an open metopic suture

and is both lower and broader than the Trenton specimen.!

An exhaustive comparison of the absolute measurements

would lead to nothing; the indices are more suggestive. The

Fic. 7.

cranial index is, of course, the most important of these. In this

respect the Trenton skull (Fig. 9) stands near the mean of the

whole numbers represented in the table of measurements.

The average cranial index of four female crania from Maryland,”

described by Cope, is 75.1. These crania “ are inferably those

of Nanticokes,’’? closely related, of course, to the Lenni Lenapé

of the Delaware Valley. The index of the Trenton skull, 77.8,

is well within the limits of mesaticephaly and is about the aver-

1 Harrison Allen has described a Lenni Lenapé metopic cranium having a

cranial index of 75, vertical 76, orbital 92, and nasal 53, Crania from the Mounds

of vg ge e 408). ;

Physical Characters of the Skeletons found in the Indian Ossu-

ary on pe Cott Estuary, Maryla (p. 99).

8 Mercer, H. C. Exploration of an Indian Ossuary on the Choptank River,

Dorchester ae Maryland (p. 98).

150 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. — [VOL. XXXIII.

age of Algonquian female crania; the broken parietal gives it a

deceptive appearance of narrowness. Its vertical index (72.5)

resembles that of the West Chester skull, and is widely removed

from those of the Burlington and Riverview specimens. The

relative height is not notably less than that of the Massachu-

setts series, in which the range of this index is from 67.8 to 8.5.

The superior facial index could not be calculated in many cases

because of the broken condition of the crania. The naso-malar

index, which expresses the degree of projection of the interor-

bital region, is quite uniform and within the limits of individual

variation for the whole series. The racial averages given by

Thomas! are :

9- Mongols > -e Fa Os O Tange 105.1 to 106.9

5 Andannanese . . yo pee CEG SOG BE

25 West African Negroes ok ORO Os. SORES FES

16 Caucas ; Eoee tot STORE Ke ata

is not ents

ADDITIONAL EXAMPLES OF AMERICAN CRANIA.

ro 9 Massachusetts Indians. . 108.6, range 105.6 to 111.2

16 9 Santa Cruz Island Indians 107.4 © -TOLI “ L11.4

Ọ Tennessee Indians . . toag = o DOI 816s

15 Q Labrador Eskimos . . . 1058 “ 104.1 “ 108.2

The orbital index is*higher in the Trenton skull than in the

Eastern Algonquins, in only one of which is the index above

90. In the shape of the orbit the New Jersey and West

Chester skulls stand apart from the others and fall within the

megaseme group. Unfortunately, the nasal index cannot be

calculated for the Trenton skull; the West Chester and River-

view crania both have lower nasal indices than the skulls from

the region north and west of them. The evidence of the re-

maining indices is inconclusive and comment is unnecessary.

Condition of the New Jersey Crania.— The sutures of the

Trenton skull are obliterated, and its thickness is sufficient

to insure its preservation where an ordinary skull would be

crushed to fragments. However, it does not present the

appearance of having been rolled about for any length of time

in the gravels; the left styloid process projects for a distance

1 Oldfield, Thomas. Journ. Anth. Inst, vol. xiv, p. 333-

No. 386.] REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS. I51

of 10 millimeters (Fig. 1), and the surface of the brain-case is

almost without a scratch. The lower portion of the face has

been broken away in a manner similar to that seen in many

skulls from recent graves, and not directly through the stronger

parts of the bone, as in the case of the Calaveras skull. The

worn appearance of the margins of the orbits and the portions

that remain of the zygomatic arches may be ascribed to the

Fic. 8.

vicissitudes of a brief journey in the waters of the Delaware

River or Assunpink Creek. Though the surface of the ground

where the skull was found is twenty feet above the ordinary

level of the Delaware, the locality has been overflowed in recent

years, so that existing agencies could have swept skull and

gravels into place and buried them beneath succeeding strata

of sand and gravels and huge ice-rafted boulders. The length

of time that has elapsed since the skull was deposited in the

gravels is probably very great, though of course it is not

geologically ancient. The presence of the fragments of crania

152 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vol. XXXIII.

in the gravel pits along the railway may be accounted for by

the same hypothesis advanced by Dr. Abbott to explain the

position of the rude implements in that locality. The railroad

cutting passes through an old channel of Assunpink Creek,

and Dr. Abbott states that “it was always along the old creek

bed that the chipped argillites were found, along the railroad

excavations east of the site of the gas works where the skull

was found; and when the excavations continued beyond the

FIG. 9.

area of the immediate creek valley they disappeared.” ! The

thickness of the Trenton skull is not rare in American crania.

The Delaware skull, No. 48,974, furnishes an example close at

hand of an even greater thickness.

The Burlington and Riverview skulls are thin and fragile,

and their sutures are open (Figs. 7, 8). They are unworn and -

present no evidence of ever having been moved by flowing

water, torrential or otherwise. They do not closely resemble

the Trenton skull, though the morphological differences are

1 In a letter to the writer, December, 1898.

No. 386.) REMAINS FROM THE TRENTON GRAVELS. 153

well within the limits of variation of a tribal group. The three

skulls are distinguished from those from the regions to the

north, east, and west, and are related to the skull from West

Chester by their orbital and nasal indices and minor characters.

Conclusion. — From the evidence supplied by the Trenton

skulls themselves the conclusion is inevitable that they are

of modern Indians, probably of the Lenni Lenapé.

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EDITORIAL.

THE department of scientific investigation of the United States

Fish Commission has awakened to new life under the able super-

vision of Professor Bumpus, and it aims to aid science in every way

not incompatible with the fisheries industry. The laboratory at

Woods Holl is to be kept open throughout the year, and students

are welcomed there at any time. The facilities of the various

stations are placed at the command of those who wish embryological

or other material. In the line of research we learn that the depart-

ment has arrived at the conclusion that the late increase in the

number of starfish in the oyster beds of southern New England, and

especially in Narragansett Bay, is directly related to the seining of

the menhaden and other fishes for the oil and fertilizer factories.

These surface feeding fishes formerly destroyed large numbers of

starfish eggs and larve, but since they have been fished so per-

sistently, the starfish have got the upper hand. It is incumbent

upon Rhode Island, if it wishes the best for its oyster industry, to

place some restrictions upon the foreign corporation at Tiverton.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Report of the Smithsonian Institution.!— The report for 1896

contains an account of the ‘“ Pueblo Ruins” near Winslow, Arizona,

by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes. The exploration of these ruins brought

to light a large number of specimens of great interest and value,

several of which are depicted in the accompanying illustrations.

The character of these plates is noteworthy; they represent the art

motives and the symbolism of the ancient Hopi rather than the

colors and general appearance of the objects. The small but well-

made specimens of turquoise mosaic figured in this paper suggest

the more elaborate turquoise-covered objects from ancient Mexico.

The chief interest in these investigations arises from their bearing

upon the migration legends of the Hopi; we cannot but believe that

the examination of the numerous skeletons collected would supple-

ment and enhance the value of Dr. Fewkes’s conclusions.

A second paper of anthropological interest is by Professor Her-

mann Meyer upon the “ Bows and Arrows of Central Brazil.’ This

is announced to be an introduction to a larger treatise in prepa-

ration. The author based his work upon the ethnographic material

contained in the museums of Northern Europe, and deplores the well-

known difficulties in the way of ascertaining the exact place of origin

of such specimens. A number of illustrations and a map of the

central portion of the continent show the distribution of the several

types of bows and arrows found in that region. As a preliminary

paper this is suggestive and helpful, but with such scanty data the

author’s deductions regarding the ethnographic character of the Mato

Grasso peoples would seem to be ree to considerable modification

as the investigation proceeds.

Report of the Anthropological Work in the State Institution

for Feeble-Minded Children.*—-This paper of nearly a hundred

1 Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 1896.

Washington, Government Printing Office, 1898.

2 Forty-Eighth Annual Report of the Masapies of the Syracuse State Institution

Jor Feeble-Minded Children, for the year 1898. Supplement by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka.

' Syracuse, N. Y., State Printers.

158

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. : 159

pages embodies the results of an examination of the case-book rec-

ords of the Syracuse Institution and of the Newark Asylum for

feeble-minded women, together with the physical examination of

patients with reference to reflexes and structures in the mouth. A

comparison is made between the normal birth rate and that in the

feeble-minded for the several months of the year. Data are want-

ing for the state as a whole, but the records of New York City show

a decided maximum of births in August, while among the feeble-

minded the maxima are in May and December. ‘The proportion of

feeble-minded is not materially affected by immigration. The numeri-

cal position of the patient in the family is of interest as the propor-

tion of first or only children is above the average. The etiological

factors receive careful consideration, and in his concluding remarks

the author advocates the employment of men for the purpose of

gathering information regarding the history of each individual ad-

mitted to these institutions. There can be no doubt but that the

accumulation of such statistics would contribute toward the ameliora-

tion of the condition of these unfortunates, and possibly to legislation

that would remove in some degree the “ varied and numerous ” causes

of the mentally defective. A careful study of this class will also show

its intimate relation to the criminal and other abnormal classes; “ it

will demonstrate the fact that the feeble-minded are simply a link in

‘the great chain of the degenerate class and not an isolated class by

itself.”

Anthropological Notes. — In the November number of the American

Anthropologist is published an article entitled “ Study of the Normal

Tibia,” by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, which gives the results of his examina-

tion of over 2000 normal adult bones. In addition to the study of

the degree of variation in the individual, between the sexes, and in

different races, the form of the shaft at the middle was investigated

and classified in six more or less evident groups. A series of casts

of these types must prove to be of great value to instructors in

somatology; it is to be hoped that Dr. Hrdlicka will add to the

comparative value of the series by a further study of the tibia of the

anthropoid apes.

In the November number of the same journal appears an abstract

of a paper read before the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science upon the “Physical Differences between White

and Colored Children.” The paper is too much condensed for the

reviewer to make a satisfactory abstract. However, the general con-

160 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL. XXXIII.

clusions are that the “white children present more diversity, negro

children more uniformity, in all their normal physical characters.”

The American Antiquarian for the year 1899 will contain a list of

accessions to, and of the specimens available for exchange in, the

anthropological museums of America. This novel feature com-

mends itself to the attention of curators. The appearance of Anti-

guarian would be greatly improved by more careful proof reading.

FRANK RUSSELL,

ZOOLOGY.

Dimorphism in Crepidula. — An interesting instance of environ-

mental and sexual dimorphism is described by Prof. E. G. Conk-

lin? in the sedentary gasteropod Crepidula. In C. convexa there

are marked local varieties depending upon the immediate environ-

ment; for example, when found upon the shells of Illyonassa or

Littorina it is deeply convex and darkly pigmented, but on oyster

shells it is very much flatter and lighter in color. Also among the

larger species, C. fornicata and plana, marked differences in the form

of the shell occur, which are due to the nature of the substratum —

to which they are attached. These irregularities in form are not

inherited and are cited as examples of “environmental poly-

morphism.” Dimorphism in Crepidula plana is exhibited by the

occurrence of a dwarf form in addition to the normal one. The

latter is found inside of dead shells of Neverita inhabited by the

large hermit crab Aupagurus bernhardus, while the dwarf is found in

the smaller shells of Illyonassa and Littorina, inhabited by the little

hermit Zupagurus longicarpus. ‘The disproportion between the nor-

mal and dwarf forms is considerable, the former being about thirteen

times as large as the latter, as was determined by measurement of

body volumes. Age and sexual maturity are attained in the dwarf

as in the normal type. All of the organs of the body are reduced in

size in about the same proportion, but the cell size in homologous

organs of the two forms, including the ova and embryos, is constant.

There is thus a smaller number of cells present in the various organs

and also in the entire body of the dwarf than in the giant. The

dwarfed form is correlated with the small size of the shell in which

1 Conklin, E.G. Environmental and Sexual Dimorphism in game Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia (1898), pp. 435-444, Pls. XXI-XXII

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 161

it has found lodgment, but some other factor — as yet undiscovered

— than diminished supply of food and of oxygen, reduction of loco-

motion, or limitation of growth by pressure, is involved in its pro-

duction. Whatever the cause, it operates by stopping cell growth ©

and division. The dwarfs are not a permanent race, but are con-

stantly recruited from the young of the giants. A few specimens

have been found whose shell structure indicates the growth of a

typical form from the dwarf condition in consequence of a change to

amore roomy home. The dwarfs are what they are by reason of

external conditions and not of inheritance. They present a “ physi-

ological variety” in which the shape and size of the body, as well as

the number of cells in the entire organism, are modified by the direct

action of the environment. There is no evidence that these modifi-

cations have become heritable. Sexual dimorphism is also well

marked in C. plana, the average female being about fifteen times as

large as the average male. As in the case of the dwarfs, the smaller

size is due to the smaller number of cells in the body. Measure-

ments of individual cells of the intestine, stomach, liver, kidney,

muscles, and epithelium show that cell size remains the same in the

male and female. Whatever the ultimate cause of the smaller size

of the male, it operates, as in the dwarf, by causing a cessation of

cell growth and division. EAE.

British Entomostraca. — The natural history of the fresh-water

Entomostraca of Epping Forest, a woodland tract of 35,000 acres, is

given by Mr. D. J. Scourfield, from observations extending through

a number of years. The author records 102 species, the most com-

plete local list hitherto published for the British Isles, from which

a total of 190 species has been reported. One American form,

Ceriodaphnia scitula Herrick, and several continental species are

reported for the first time from this region. The cosmopolitan dis-

tribution of this group is further emphasized by the fact that, with

one or two doubtful exceptions, all British species occur in conti-

nental Europe, and most of them have been found in North America,

and not a few in South America, South Africa, Australia, and New

Zealand. On the other hand, districts of limited extent, with char-

acteristic physical features, ofttimes exhibit great differences in their

Entomostracan fauna. Hydrological rather than climatic factors

1 Scourfield, D, J. The Entomostraca of Epping Forest, with some general

remarks on the group, The Essex Naturalist, vol. x (1898), pp. 193-210, 259-

274, 313-334-

162 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. {[VoL. XXXIII.

determine to a large extent the distribution of this group. The

local and seasonal occurrence of each species is given in tabulated

form. The Cladocera reach their maximum development, as regards

species, in September, and their minimum in January, The Ostracoda

exhibit two maxima in March and in September, the latter being

more marked, and two minima in August and in January. The

Copepoda exhibit but a slight variation in the number of species

during the year, though there is some suggestion of maxima and

minima similar to those detected among the Ostracoda. The sea-

sonal distribution of males and ephippial females of the Cladocera is

given for 34 species. In this group, considered as a whole, there

are two seasons of sexual activity, the first reaching a maximum

in May and affecting only 10 species, and the second extending

throughout the autumn months, culminating in October, and affecting

30 species. Thus in the majority of the species the period of sexual

activity is confined to the autumn months, though a small number

is affected during both seasons, and a few exhibit but a single .

annual period in the spring. In only a single species, Daphnia

longispina, does sexual reproduction continue from May to October.

Colonies of a given species found in different aquatic habitats may

present marked differences in sexual activity, the size of the body of

water seeming to be correlated with the variations. Thus males and

ephippial females of Simocephalus vetulus have been found in the

spring only, in tiny pools and ditches, and again in the fall in bodies

of water of slightly larger size, while no trace of either sexual form

was observed in a larger pond examined repeatedly during a period

of three years. The author is inclined to attribute these differences

to the direct action of the environment.

A second paper’ by the same author deals with the biology of a

common water-flea in an interesting way. A respiratory function is

assigned to the anal cecum, a thin-walled triangular sac, with glan-

dular cells in the dorsal wall. It is constantly dilating and contract-

ing, and produces a circulation of water that suggests its respiratory

function. As in the Cladocera generally, parthenogenesis prevails

with alternating periods of sexual activity. The sexually mature

female produces the so-called winter or resting eggs, which, unlike

the parthenogenetic or summer eggs, require fertilization in order to

develop. The ephippium, which carries the resting egg, is formed

in Chydorus from the cast-off shell, which is somewhat thickened,

1 Scourfield, D. J. Chydorus sphericus, 7he Annual of Microscopy (1898),

pp- 62-67, 1 plate.

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 163

especially along the posterior margin. The author suggests the name

proto-ephippium for this primitive protective covering of the resting

egg. This structure is formed quite independently of fertilization,

but before the resting eggs leave the ovaries and are transferred to

the ephippium it is necessary that they be fertilized. In the absence

of the male the empty ephippium is cast off and resting egg re-

tained. If fertilization does not ensue, this process may be repeated

several times in succession, as Weismann has already shown for the

larger Cladocera. Some of the secondary sexual characters of the

male, as, for example, the form of the intromittent post-abdomen, are

not assumed until the last molt preceding the adult condition, the

structure preceding this molt being of the female type. Attention is

called to the cosmopolitan distribution of the species, and to its prefer-

ence for small bodies of water rich in vegetation. ” It is, however,

not infrequently found in our largest American lakes. Like some

other Cladocera, Chydorus exhibit two periods of sexual activity in

each year, one in April and May, the other in November and Decem-

ber; the former is the more important, and affects only those in-

dividuals found in small ponds likely to be dried up during the

summer, while the latter is confined to colonies in larger bodies of

water. It seems probable that some colonies. may never have a

sexual period at all; at least some large ponds most thoroughly

examined never once yielded a male or an ephippial female.

CABE

Rotifers of the Leman. — The first part of a superbly illustrated

monograph of the rotiferan fauna of this Swiss lake and its neigh-

borhood has been published by Dr. Weber.’ Owing to the absence

of swamps and small bodies of water in this alpine environment the

number of species recorded is not so great as in England or in

Germany, though a very extensive list is presented. Each species is

briefly described, the synonymy and the bibliography are given, and

figures, often in natural colors, are liberally provided. The males

and resting eggs are illustrated in some instances. We regret the

absence of references to several important American lists in the

bibliographies of the various species. American workers on this

group will, however, find the paper of much interest, as many of the

species figured are abundant in this country. GAK

1 Weber, E. F. Faune rotatorienne du basin du Léman, Kevue Suisse de Zool.,

tome v (1898), pp. 263-354, Pls. X-XV

164 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

Classification of the Centropagide.'

F. W. Schacht has given us a revision of the North American

species of this family of Copepoda. On account of the widespread

interest in this group among students of organisms in potable water,

and of the food of fresh-water fishes, we reproduce here in tabular

form the criteria for distinguishing the family and also its con-

stituent genera.

ay. Division of the body into cephalothorax and abdomen between the

thoracic segment bearing the fifth a of feet and the segment bear-

ing the genital apertures. GYMNOPLEA.

4, In male: Anterior antenne symmetrical or nearly so; and its

secondary sexual characters not confined to peculiarities in

structure of trunk, the antenna, the fifth pair of feet, and the

abdomen. Marine. AMPHASKANDRIA.

č, In male: Anterior antenne unsymmetrical and secondary sexual

characters generally confined to points enumerated above in

(4;)- HETERARTHRANDRIA.

cy Rostrum present.

d, In female abdomen 3 or fewer segments; antennz

with 24 or fewer joints. Male with inner ramus

of fifth feet rarely rudimentary. Marin

Family Pontelttle:

d, In female abdomen never fewer than 3 segments ;

antenne never fewer than 24 segments, In male,

fifth pair feet are grasping organs.

Family Centropagide.

ca Rostrum wanting. Family Candacide.

a;. Division of the body into anterior and posterior parts in front of last

(fifth) thoracic segment. ODOPLEA.

Subdivisions of the family Centropagide.

äı. Thorax 6-jointed. Subfamily CENTROPAGINA.

az. Thorax 5-jointed.

bı. Fifth pair feet degenerate; inner ramus, o-1 jointed; puter

ramus, 1-3 jointed. Abdomen of 9, 3-jointed.

Subfamily TEMORINA.

ł Schacht, F. W. The North American Species of Diaptomus, Bull. ZH.

State Lab. Nat. Hist, vol. v (1897), Art. 3, pp- 97-208, Pls. XXI-XXXV. The

North American Centropagide belonging to the Genera Osphranticum, Lim-

nocalanus, and Epischura, Bull. Jli. State Lab. Nat. Hist, vol. v (1898), Art. 4,

pp. 225-269

No. 386.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 165

cx. Furca with 3 large terminal sete to each ramus.

Genus Epischura.

ĉa Furca with 4 large terminal sete to each ramus;

Inner ramus, legs 2—4, 3-jointed.

d, Inner ramus first pair legs, 2-jointed.

Genus Diaptomus.

d. Inner ramus first pair legs, 3-jointed.

é, Fifth pair legs of 9 with sines on

inner side of last joint of outer ramus.

In male, outer ramus of fifth leg,

2-jointed on left side; 3-jointed on

. right side. Genus Osphranticum.

en» Fifth pair of legs of Ọ with long,

plumose hairs on inner side of last

joint of outer ramus. In male, both

outer rami of fifth pair of legs 2-

jointed. Genus Limnocalanus.

bı In female, abdomen 4-jointed and fifth pair of feet with 3-

jointed outer ramus and 2-3 jointed inner ramus. In male,

fifth pair of feet subchelate.

Subfamily LEUCKARTIINA.

b, In female, abdomen 3- or 4-jointed. The fifth pair of legs has

a 3-jointed outer ramus and a I-3 jointed inner ramus;

, chete undeveloped or wanting in male.

Subfamily HETEROCHAETINA.

A New Rhizopod Parasite in Man. — Professor Ijima? has de-

scribed a new species of Rhizopod, Amæbæe miurai, parasitic on the

human being. The patient in whom these parasites were found

was a young woman suffering from abdominal tumors and an ascites-

like accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity. She finally died

of peritonitis and pleuritis endotheliomatosa. The amcebe were found

in abundance in the fluids of the peritoneal and pleural cavities as

well as in the hemorrhagic discharges from the intestine. As many

of the amcebzx in the abdominal fluid were dead, and as they died

rapidly when kept in this fluid at the temperature of the body, it was

suspected that the abdominal fluid was not a natural habitat. The

living organisms were spherical or ellipsoidal in form, with a diameter

from 15 to 38m, and had at one pole a small villous knob. Specimens

1 Ijima, I. On a New Rhizopod Parasite of Man, Annotationes Zoologica

Japonenses, vol. ii (October, 1898), p- 86.

166 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXII.

with two or three nuclei were as frequent in occurrence as those with

only one nucleus. Most specimens exhibited two or more large

vacuoles. Their movements were at most sluggish, çG, H.P.

American Fishes. — The second part of Jordan and Evermann’s

comprehensive work on the Fishes of North and Middle America is

just issued (Oct. 3, 1898) from the Government Printing Office.

This volume of 943 pages contains detailed descriptions of 1883

species of fishes. The Sparoid, Sciznoid, Labroid, and Cottoid

families and their allies make up the bulk of the present volume.

The third part of the catalogue of Zhe Fishes of North and Mid-

dle America appeared about November 25. This concludes the

text of the work, the remaining fourth part being devoted to plates

and to a recapitulatory Check List. The three volumes, which are

continuously paged, contain 3136 pages; 3127 species are described

in detail, these being arranged in 1077 genera. The large number

of genera recognized is in accord with the views of Dr. Gill and

Dr. Bleeker, which other ichthyologists were slow in accepting.

There is no doubt, however, that the convenience of the systematic

zoologist is best met by the recognition of every tangible and con-

stant structural difference as having value for generic distinction.

‘The four volumes constitute Bulletin 47 of the United States

National Museum. HSI

Fauna and Flora of the Catskill Mountains.'— This paper

contains a list of 58 trees and shrubs collected in the valleys of

Schoharie Creek and Upper Katerskill and the surrounding moun-

tains; 9 gastropods and a Sphærium, mostly from the Creek; Cam-

banes bartoni, 8 fishes, 8 batrachians, 2 snakes, and a fairly complete

list of the mammals with copious notes.

Mr. W. P. Pycraft will study the megapodes collected by the

Willey Expedition. Materials for the embryology were obtained.

[he article by Ameghino upon an ‘existing species of Mylodon

(Meomylodon listai) is reproduced in Natural Science for November.

The evidence is a piece of skin from Patagonia, the outer surface of

which presents a continuous, not scaly, epidermis, covered with stiff,

reddish hair about two inches in length. In the deeper layer of the

1 Mears, L. A. Notes on the Mammals of the Catskill Mountains, New York,

with General Remarks on the Fauna and Flora of the Region, Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus., vol. xxi, pp. 341-360.

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 167

skin are dermal ossicles similar to but somewhat smaller than those

of the extinct Mylodons. The only white person to see the animal

alive was the traveler, the late Ramon Lista, who described it as

about the same shape and size as the Indian pangolin.

Professor Poteat has recently shown that Leidy’s genus Ourameeba

is really Amceba plus mycelial hyphe.

BOTANY.

California Plants in their Homes.’ — This little book of Mrs.

Davidson has more successfully brought together the choicest spirit

of the ecology and physiology of plants than any other which has

come the way of the writer of ‘this notice. Being made for children,

it has from this very fact all the more to teach the adult devotee of

the science. In some sixteen chapters we are introduced to many

kinds of plants and come away with more than a bowing acquaint-

ance. We are introduced to many of the innermost mysteries of

their lives and learn their innocent and contriving ways of obtaining

for themselves the coveted advantages over their neighbors. While

the book is written so that it may be used as a reader, the “supple-

ment for the use of teachers,” together with the style of the writing,

make it one of the most possible of laboratory books for the younger

student; in fact, the temptation to follow out the suggestions of the

author to do this and to do that is so fascinating and so easy that it

needs only the chance, supplied by the teacher, to be done. The book

is, unfortunately, Californian only, but the lesson to teachers is as

wide as the subject taught. Our text-books run now to physiology and

ecology, but simply as classifications of physiological and ecological

facts, from the consideration of which the poor student comes away

knowing well that certain things are so, but with little notion of the

reason why the teacher has been to such extraordinary pains to

make him aware of it. But Mrs. Davidson is a teacher, —a teacher

of teachers in fact, — and has realized the folly of thinking that we

really get away from the evils of the old systematic teaching in

botany by changing simply the subject-matter without changing the

method and point of view.

While confessedly an elementary book, this is to be compared

1 Davidson, Alice Merritt. 4 Botanical Reader for Children. Los Angeles,

B. R. Baumgardt & Co.

168 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

with many of the books which have been issued for students of a

higher grade than those technically for children. The facts brought

forward are those usually taught only in books for the higher grades, _

but they are presented in such a way as to be equally intelligible to

“children,” with the farther advantage that the significance of the

detail is never lost sight of — an advantage inestimable in its results.

In the headings to the chapters, too, the author has displayed great

ingenuity, and the results are not open to such criticism as may

be directed toward those of some popular books and articles on

botanical subjects.

The most unsatisfactory features of the book are the illustrations.

They are too coarse to convey the idea desired in most cases, and

the grace and delicacy of most of the plants figured have been lost

entirely. :

We feel that the teacher in California who attempts to realize from

“nature study ” in the lower grades that which is hoped for from it,

will find a way pointed out by this book which is both clear and

certain, and that the teachers in other states will realize their need

of a similar book and find much assistance by using it and adapting

it to their local needs. W. A. SETCOHELL

Van Tieghem’s Eléments de Botanique.? — While the first vol-

ume of this text-book, as would be expected from the author’s many

important contributions to vegetable anatomy and morphology, pre-

sents a clear and sound statement of this part of botany, the second

volume, in the present edition, merits special mention as being the

first readily accessible synopsis of the vegetable kingdom in which

the dicotyledonous flowering plants are classified according to their

seed and ovule structure along the line laid down by Professor Van

Tieghem in a series of articles published some two years ago.’

Excluding the Nymphzacee, which, with the Graminez, he places

in a class considered as being exactly intermediate between the

Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons, the author divides the latter

into two subclasses, Insemineæ and Semineæ, the first destitute of

detachable seeds at maturity of the fruit, and the second bearing

seeds. The first of these is then divided into groups marked by the

presence or absence of transient ovules (which, when present, are

1 Van Tieghem, Ph. Ziéments de Botanique. Troisième édition. Paris, Mas-

son et Cie., 1898. 2 vols., 12 mo. i. Botanique générale. ii. Botanique spéciale.

2 Van Tieghem. Sur les Phanérogames sans graines, formant le groupe des

Inséminées, Comptes Rend. 124: 22 mars-3 mai,

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 169

homologized with carpellary leaflets, the embryo sac otherwise origi-

nating in the tissues of the simple carpel), and both subclasses are

further subdivided according to the number and character of their

ovule coats, while the ultimate grouping of families, though to a cer-

tain extent dictated by grosser characters, is influenced largely by the

results reached in late years by the students of systematic plant

anatomy.

_As might be expected, the sequence of families is greatly modified

from that which represents the conclusions of the English and Ger-

man schools, though of the two it naturally conforms more closely to

the latter, by which a more consistent effort has been made to repre-

sent phylogenetic affinities as indicated by anatomical as well as

more obvious structure.

Whatever may be the general verdict on the new basis of primary

classification and its present exemplification, — and it is likely to find

more opponents than supporters, — the author is to be congratulated

on having presented his views in a suggestive and convenient form

for the guidance of future investigators; and the attempts which are

sure to be made both to strengthen and overthrow it by the histo-

logical taxonomists can but result in laying further foundation

stones for a truly natural system of the flowering plants. r,

Are Bacteria Fungi? — In Centralblatt f. Bakteriologie, etc., 2te.

Abt., Bd. iii, Nos. 11 and 12, Dr. Johan-Olsen argues that bacteria

are simply one stage in the development of fungi and supports his

text, Zur Pleomorphismusfrage, with two well-drawn plates. Unfor-

tunately, some of his most striking examples are drawn from species

of Oospora which mycologists for many years have classed as fungi,

and whose only claim to be classed as bacteria is the fact that when

their extremely tenuous hyphe break up into conidia, or oidia, the

latter closely resemble rod-shaped bacteria in size and form. These

conidia, however, grow into genuine branched mycelia. Some of the

other cases which he cites, ¢.g., branched tubercle and diphtheria

bacilli, may well be involution forms, as Dr. Migula has suggested,

since they are usually found only in old cultures, sparingly, and under

conditions unfavorable to the organism. More difficult to explain is

his account of the change of the mycelium of Dematium casei into

bacteria bearing endospores, the germination of which spores he suc-

ceeded in witnessing. Possibly Dr. Ol. Johan-Olsen was working

with mixed cultures. Much is said of Dr. Brefeld’s System, but if

Dr. Johan-Olsen’s culture methods are not a very decided improve-

170 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

ment on those of his master, which have been described to me in

recent years by a number of people who have studied at Minster,

and which are certainly very crude, then we are fully warranted in

calling in question the results. One is the more inclined to do this

because in another paragraph we are told that: “ Almost all bacteria,

which I have had in cultivation in recent years, form a branched

mycelium in course of time, especially all bacilli.” We are also

rendered suspicious by the statement that species of Aspergillus and

Mucor may appear in the form of ameeba. It is possible, of course,

that bacteria are only “incompletely known fungi,” but up to this

time the evidence is certainly not very conclusive, and to the writer

it seems not at all improbable that they may have had quite a dif-

ferent origin — at least many of them. Erwins F Suir

Dr. Bolander. — In Ærythea for October, 1898, Willis L. Jepson

writes interestingly of Dr. Henry N. Bolander, botanical explorer,

who died in Portland, Oregon, Aug. 28, 1897. He was born in Ger-

many, but most of his life was spent in Ohio and on the Pacific coast.

He was educated for a clergyman, but through the influence of Leo

Lesquereux his energies were turned into scientific channels. The

article is accompanied by a half-tone picture of the botanist. Thirty-

seven species of flowering plants were named after Dr. Bolander.

E F. S.

The Costa Rica Flora.—The second volume of the Primitie

flore Costaricensis, begun by Pittier and Durand, is continued by

the first-named author alone. But Part I of this volume, concerned

with the Polypetalz, is from the pen of Capt. John Donnell Smith,

whose work on the flora of Guatemala is everywhere well known. As

might be expected, several species are here described for the first

time. Descriptions of a number of species previously published in

the Botanical Gazette are reprinted, for obvious reasons.

Urban’s West Indian Flora.!— The first fascicle of this work,

with which Dr. Urban has been known to be occupied for some years

past, reaches page 192, and is entirely devoted to a botanical bibli-

ography of the West Indies. The botanical treatment itself is awaited

with much eagerness. T.

rban, Symbolæ Antillanæ seu fundamenta floræ Indiæ occidentalis, 1.

1. Berolini, Fratres Borntraeger, 1898.

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. I7I

Bailey’s Evolution of our Native Fruits.'— Though Professor

Bailey is a horticulturist and commonly writes for horticulturists, he

is well known to botanists as an accomplished botanist. To say that

the nine chapters comprised in the present book are devoted to the

rise of the American grape, the strange history of the mulberries, the

evolution of American plums and cherries, the native apples, the origin

of American raspberty-growing, evolution of blackberry and dewberry

culture, various types of berry-like fruits, various types of tree fruits,

and general remarks on the improvement of our native fruits, tells

little of the wealth of detail that it contains. Group after group is

monographed, and people in search of disentangled snarls of nomen-

clatural detail need seek little further than the present work for

models of conservative upheaval when upheaval becomes necessary.

- As to the horticultural side of the book, little need be said: it was

written for horticulturists. T.

Poisonous Grains.— It has long been believed that the fruit of

Lolium temulentum is poisonous, and chemists have had something

to say about its toxic principles. In the Journal de Botanique for

August, M. Guérin publishes an article embodying the results of a

study made at the École supérieure de pharmacie of Paris, in which

he records the constant occurrence of fungal hyphæ in the nucellus

of the ovule and the layer of the caryopsis lying between the aleurone

layer and the hyaline portion of the wall. These hyphæ, which ap-

pear not to have been identified with any fruiting form, are referred

to as, perhaps, the cause of the toxicity of the Loliums in which they

occur (Z. temulentum, L. arvense, and L. linicola), and they are stated

not to have been found in Z. /ta/icum, and only once in L. perenne.

The fungus is compared with Ændoconidium temulentum, Pril. &

Delacr., found in diseased grain of the rye, and believed to be the `

cause of some of the cases of poisoning attributed to that grain,

though it is believed to differ from the fungus named, and the con-

clusion is reached that, unlike this species and Claviceps, it lives in

the maturing grain symbiotically rather than as a parasite.

Botanical Notes. — The issue of Möllers Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung

of October 22 may be called a Clematis number. It is well illustrated

and contains a number of articles on the cultivated forms of this

attractive genus by well-known writers.

1 Bailey, L, H. Sketch of the Evolution of our Native Fruits. New York, The

Macmillan Company, 1898. 8vo, xiii + 472 pp» 125 ff.

172 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Ranunculus Andersonii Gray is made the type of a new genus,

Beckwithia, by Jepson, in the October number of Ærythea. Unfortu-

nately, the fact that the two are identical was not discovered soon

enough to prevent the one species from appearing on the plate as

B. Andersonit, and in the text as B. Austine.

Anton Pestalozzi’s revision of the Capparidaceous genus Boscia,

reprinted from the Bulletin of the Boissier Herbarium, forms No. 7 of

the “ Mittheilungen aus dem botanischen Museum der Universitat

Zürich.”

The acaulescent violets of the eastern states are the subject of

further observations by C. L. Pollard, in the Botanical Gazette for

November. Twenty-seven species of this type are now distinguished

in the key, but even then the author adds that he fully realizes “ the

futility of constructing any key in the hope that it will afford conclu-

sive determinations of every unusual form.” “Habit as well as

habitat, the texture of the herbage, color of the flowers, position of

the cleistogenes, nervation, shape and degrees of pubescence of the

leaves, nature of the surrounding vegetation,” are all taken into

consideration in the separation of species for which herbarium

material is said to be absolutely worthless unless one is fortified by

previous familiarity with the growing plant.

Hydrophyllum tenuipes is the name given by Heller in the Buletin

of the Torrey Club for November to a plant from the state of

Washington.

The hybrid between Lodelia syphilitica and L. cardinalis, which

sometimes occurs spontaneously in this country, appears to have

been produced in cultivation in France, and to have been again

crossed on ZL. cardinalis (Annales Soc. Bot. de Lyon. 22: 8).

Part III of Professor Comes’s memoir on tobacco’ is a classified

account of the introduction, cultivation, and use of tobacco in Asia

and Oceania.

M. C. de Candolle contributes a paper entitled “ Piperaceæ

Bolivian ” to the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for Novem-

ber. Two new species of Piper and ten of Peperomia are described.

Actinidia Kolomicta, a climbing plant, the foliage of which is quite

as brilliantly colored as that of the commonly cultivated and popular

Acalyphas, is figured in color in Die Gartenwelt of November 6.

1 Comes, O. Del tabacco. Storia, geografia, statistica, eo agrologiz

patologia. III. Napoli, 1898. (Adi R. Ist. d’/ncorrag. di Napoli.)

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 173

An interesting paper is that by Rowlee and Hastings in the

Botanical Gazette for November, on the seeds and seedlings of some

Amentiferee.

Septal nectaries, quite common in several of the larger families of

Monocotyledons, are now noted by Van Tieghem for Cxeorum tricoccum,

for which it is proposed to create the new combination Chamelea

pulverulenta(Vent.). (Bull. Muséum a’ Hist. Nat. Paris, 1898: 241).

Luszula campestris and related species form the subject of a neat

little brochure, with a good plate, reprinted by Buchenau from the

Oesterreichische Botanische Zeitschrift of 1898.

The Cyperacee of British India have been tabulated by C. B.

Clarke in the Journal of the Linnean Society, Botany, No. 235, with

reference to their geographical distribution. Eleven areas are rec-

ognized from this point of view. The paper is thus virtually an

appendix to the Zora of British India of Sir Joseph Hooker.

Dr. Elliott Coues, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, 1898, Part II, publishes a critical article on

the localities for the plants of Lewis and Clark’s herbarium, a list of

which, apparently rather inaccurate in some respects, was some time

ago published by Mr. Meehan.

“« A Few Notes on Canadian Plant-lore,” by Carrie M. Derick, and

“ A Review of Canadian Botany from 1800 to 1895,” by D. P. Pen-

hallow, are the titles of Nos. 6 and 7 of the Papers from the Depart-

ment of Botany of McGill University, reprinted, respectively, from the

Canadian Record of Science and the Transactions of the Royal Society

of Canada.

From its title, the Queensland Agricultural Journal would not be

turned to by the systematic botanist, but its current issues contain a

goodly number of descriptions of new species of Australian and Papuan

plants by F. Manson Bailey, the colonial botanist of Queensland.

Science, of November 18, contains a preliminary paper on the fauna

and flora about Coldspring Harbor, L. I., by Professor Davenport,

and an article by Dr. Mead on an unusually abundant occurrence of

a species of Peridinium in the waters of Narragansett Bay last

summer, giving an intense red color and a very disagreeable odor to

the water, and killing many fish and crustacea.

The last part of the Wissenschaftliche Meeresuntersuchungen of the

Kommission zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung der deutschen

Meere in Kiel is largely occupied by phycological plankton studies.

174 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vow. XXXIII.

Heft 5 of Hedwigia for 1898 is occupied by the conclusion of

C. Mueller’s “ Analecta bryographica Antillarum,” and the first install-

ment of Hennings’s “Fungi Americani-boreales.” Among the latter

Hennings is still finding a good grist of new species.

Bolander, well known by name at least to all students of Cali-

fornian botany, is the subject of a biographical sketch, with portrait,

in Erythea for October.

In the Proceedings of the Linnean Society, October, 1898, is given

a half-tone figure of the special gold medal presented to Sir Joseph

Hooker by the Society on the occasion of the completion of his Mora

of British India. The obverse bears a relief bust of Dr. Hooker,

modeled very faithfully by Bowcher, while the reverse is margined

by a wreath of Sikkim rhododendrons, surrounding a suitable in-

scription.

The American Botanist is the name under which another journal-

istic effort is launched by Charles Russell Orcutt. While his previous

papers have hailed from the Pacific coast, this, of which Vol. I, No. 1,

appeared in September, seems to come from the Gray Herbarium of

Harvard University, though a note by Dr. Robinson in the Botanical

Gazette makes it appear that it is not to be regarded in any way as

an official publication of the herbarium. The initial (and unique ?)

number is devoted to “an attempt at forming a record for the botanic

garden of Harvard University, aiming to present the history and

individuality of each specimen plant,”—a point in which Mr. Orcutt

is believed to consider most American gardens very defective, — and

deals with the cacti, not even excluding the glass moal of the Ware

Collection.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Habits of Thylacoleo. — In a recent number of*the Proceedings

of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, Dr. R. Broom revives

the question of the habits of a remarkable extinct Australian form,

which led to a famous controversy between Sir Richard Owen and

Sir William Flower. In 1859 Owen presented Thylacoleo as “ one

of the fellest and most destructive of predatory beasts, with affinities

to the Dasyuride.” Later, moreover, in 1866, he adhered to this

interpretation of the large back cutting teeth, although in the mean

time a pair of procumbent tusks had been discovered, which appar-

No. 386.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 175

ently related this form to the herbivorous diprotodont marsupials.

In 1868 Flower presented the entirely contradictory view, that Thyla-

coleo differed in every respect from the carnivorous marsupials, and

was simply a harmless vegetable feeder, totally unfitted for preying

upon the large contemporary marsupials. This called forth a violent

reply from Owen in 1871. But subsequently Flower’s position was

supported by Krefft and Lyddeker, and is the one now generally

received.

Dr. Broom’s excuse for reviving this question is, that in general

he has concluded to support Owen’s opinion. He says there are

insuperable difficulties in the way of considering Thylacoleo as a

bulb or fruit eater. With its remarkable dentition such an animal

would be unable to do more than slice its fruits and vegetables, even

if it could have procured both in abundance. With succulent roots

and bulbs the same difficulty arises as with the fruits; that even the

most succulent, if we could suppose them digestible in slices, cannot

be had in a succulent condition all the year round. When we look

at Thylacoleo, he continues, we find not only the enormous temporal

muscles and only moderate masseters, as in carnivorous animals, but

that everything about the skull seems to be built on carnivorous

lines. There is thus in his opinion no other conclusion tenable than

that Thylacoleo was a purely carnivorous animal, and one which

would be quite able to kill and probably did kill animals as large or

larger than itself. He then proceeds to show in what manner

Thylacoleo could have originated from small, shrew-like forms of

Phalangers.

In the reviewer’s opinion this revival of Owen’s view is quite

unjustifiable. It appears that the main argument of Dr. Broom is

based upon the relations of the muscles of the jaw, and in reply it

may be observed that all the early types of North American Her-

bivora of the Eocene period have enormous temporal fosse and power-

ful sagittal crests as an inheritance from. their Unguiculate or clawed

ancestors. These temporal fossz are so different from the rounded

skulls of recent Herbivora, that one is very apt to be misled. The

reviewer recalls very distinctly his discovery twenty years ago of the

back portion of the skull of Palzosyops, an ancestral Titanothere,

with its powerful zygomatic arches and large sagittal crest. These

carnivorous structures led to the entirely mistaken belief that. this

peaceful herbivore was a new and exceptionally large carnivore.

Dr. Broom’s reasoning appears to be entirely similar and equally

false. H. F. 0.

176 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIIL

- PETROGRAPHY.

Marble. — Vogt! has given an abstract of the geology of marble

deposits, together with an account of the structure and mechanical

properties of the rock. He defines marbles as metamorphosed lime-

stones in which complete crystallization has occurred, and divides

them into regionally metamorphosed marbles and those produced by

contact action. The latter are characterized by the presence of

garnets, vesuvianite, scapolite, wollastonite, etc., and the former by

the presence more particularly of quartz, grammatite, actinolite, and

other hornblendes. Nearly all the marbles of commerce are dynam-

ically metamorphosed rocks. The difference in microscopic structure

between the two classes of marbles is illustrated by several figures

representing thin sections, and the difference between calcite and

dolomite marbles is illustrated by several other figures. Grains of

dolomite are shown to interlock by much less complicated contours

than those of calcite. The reasons for their variations in structure

are discussed at some little length. The article is a thorough one

in every respect and is well worth study.

Grits Metamorphosed into Crystalline Schists. — Callaway? de-

scribes the transformation of a series of grits and shales into what

he regards as true crystalline schists. The phenomena were observed

near Amlwch, North Anglesey. Grits, which in their original form

are clearly clastic, have been changed by dynamic agencies into

chlorite schists. ‘The quartz grains of the original rocks have been

changed into areas of interlocking grains, and the matrix in which

they were imbedded has been altered to a felt of chlorite, of mica,

or a mixture of the two. In extreme cases the quartzes have been

squeezed out into lenticules and bands of quartz mosaic, and between

these have developed bands of chlorite and muscovite.

and Cath-

tein* give us very thorough accounts of the dioritic dikes and

stocks at St. Lorenzen in the Pusterthal. The former describes the

dike forms as diorite-porphyrites and norite-porphyrites. The diorite-

porphyrites include quartz-mica-porphyrites, quartz-hornblende-por-

1 Zeits. f. prakt. Geol. (1898), pp. 4 and 4

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. liv pose P- 374.

8 Zeits. d. deutsch. geol. Ges., vol. 1 (1898), p. 1.

4 Thid., p. 257.

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 177

phyrites, and augite-diorite-porphyrites (kersantites). The norite-

porphyrites are all quartzose. Besides these he gives a few notes on

some granular stock-rocks that are intermediate in composition be-

tween quartz-diorites and quartz-norites.

Cathrein points out the fact that the porphyrites have a granular

groundmass and in other respects are closely allied to granular

diorites. Among these he mentions the existence of téllites, vint-

lites, and suldenites. The töllites differ from the tonalite-porphyrites

in being more basic and in containing a very little quartz but a large

quantity of garnet. The vintlites contain dihexhedra of quartz as

phenocrysts in a fine-grained green matrix. The type is not that

described by Rosenbusch in his “ Physiographie.” The author

would include all the rocks above described and those of Klausen

under the name “ Klausenite.”” They vary in composition between

biotite-hornblende-diorites and corresponding rocks in which ortho-

rhombic and monoclinic pyroxenes and often some quartz occur.

The variation in their structure appears to be due to their varying

composition rather than to their mode of occurrence. From the

fact that diorites, norites, and gabbros are often found to intergrade,

he regards them as constituting a great’ family. The Klausenites

are the quartziferous forms of thése. The author concludes his

discussion with an argument against the use of different names to

designate the dike and effusive forms of the porphyrites. He would

class them together as diorite, norite, and gabbro-porphyrites.

Three California Rocks. — A peculiar dike rock cutting the

granodiorite on the ridge between Butte and Plumas Counties,

California, consists of quartz, plagioclase, and needles of an amphi-

bole in a granitic aggregate. The amphibole is in largest quantity.

Turner! reports its composition as follows:

rg igs frk FeO se NiO CaO BaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O<r10° Pee e

-64 s3 05 7-74 :05 «111.86 tot 2

i new EE ae rock is also described by the same author

from Mariposa County, California, and a quartz-alunite rock from In-

dian Gulch in the same county. The former is made up of augite and

amphibole grains, a little quartz, and some pyrrhotite, forming a

matrix through which are scattered large phenocrysts of brown

amphibole. The quartz-alunite rock is a metamorphosed clastic.

An analysis of the alunite separated from it gave:

SiO, TiO, AlO, FeO; CaO K,O NaO H,O at 100°+ SO, Total

2.64 4 OF +23 55 4.48 2.78 11.92 38.50 = 99-55

1 Amer. Journ. Sci, vol. v (1898), p- 421.

178 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

An Acid Pegmatite in a Basic Rock. — An interesting occurrence

of an acid pegmatite in a basic rock is described by Jaggar.’ It

exists as lenticular or vein-like masses that merge gradually into the

diabase forming the Medford dike in the Boston basin. As the

pegmatite, which is a quartz-microcline aggregate, is approached,

the white plagioclases of the diabase acquire a salmon-colored zone

of more acid material. The plagioclase finally disappears and micro-

cline takes its place. At the same time quartz replaces all the bisili-

cates. In some places the pegmatite appears to have been infiltrated

into miarolitic spaces. Quartz inclusions in the diabase are often

surrounded by inner zones of micropegmatite and outer ones of

augite. The latter are the usual reaction rims so frequently dis-

covered around acid inclusions in basic magmas. Within these the

liquids bearing the pegmatite-producing minerals deposited their

burdens and at the same time corroded the quartz of the nucleus.

The conclusion arrived at, to the effect that granophyric intergrowths

of quartz and feldspar are not necessarily primary growths, seems to

be well substantiated.

Notes. — Vogt? gives a résumé of the facts bearing on the theory

of deposition of ore bodies by differentiation processes in eruptive

magmas. He points out that in the same magma we often find

oxidation products, sulphides and metals, all of which must be

regarded as normal differentiation products of the rocks in which

they occur. The facts of differentiation are well known, but of the

cause of differentiation we are yet ignorant.

Three kersantite® dikes cut the kamm-granite north of the Leber-

thal near Markich in Elsass, and several sheets and dikes of quartz

porphyry occur in the Robinatthal.

The crystalline rocks of southeastern New York, east of the

Hudson, are granites, gneisses, mica-schists, serpentine and basic

and acid intrusives. Merrill* reports the oldest of these rocks to be

a hornblende granite. This forms the central mass of the Highlands.

On its flanks are banded gneiss composed of orthoclase and quartz,

biotite and hornblende and containing beds of magnetite; and

associated with this is the well-known mica-schist of the district.

1 Amer. Geol., vol. xxi (1898), p. 203.

2 Compte-rendu du cong. géol. intern. 6e Sér. (1894), p. 382.

3 Bruhus, W. Mitth. d. geol. Landesanst. v. Elsass-Loth., vol. iv (1897),

p. Cxxix.

4 Merrill, F. J. H. New York State Museum Report (1896), p. 21.

No. 386.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE, 179

These rocks are intruded by redbiotite-granite, diorite, norite, ser-

pentine and gray granite. The mica-schist is regarded as a meta-

morphosed sediment. Under the sediments, but above the archean

granites and gneisses, is the gray banded Fordham gneiss composed

of alternating quartzose and biotite bands and injected parallel to

the banding by pegmatite or granite. This, it is thought, may be

an Algonkian sediment. The Yonker’s gneiss, which in an earlier

article the writer concluded to be a metamorphosed sediment is now

thought to be an intrusive. All the serpentines of the district are

also believed to have been derived from igneous rocks.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. W. R. Ocitvy Grant, of the British Museum, and Mr. H. O.

Forbes, of the Liverpool Museum, have gone on a collecting trip to

the Island of Sokotra.

The University of Indiana will locate its biological station this

year at Warsaw, Ind. Applications for accommodations should be

addressed to Professor C. H. Eigenmann, at Bloomington, Ind.

Tufts Collége opened a temporary zoological station last summer

on the shores of Casco Bay. The authorities now have under con-

sideration the establishment of a permanent station in that locality,

which is remarkably rich in animal life.

The University of Kasan is sending out an expedition to Central

Asia under the direction of Professor Sorolin. Geology, geography,

and ethnology will be the most prominent subjects of investigation.

Dr. Charles F. Millspurgh, of the Field Museum of Chicago, gues

on his fourth expedition to Yucatan, where he will continue his

studies of the flora of that country.

Mr. D. G. Fairchild, of the United States Department of Agricul-

ture, has started on a second long journey around the world, his first

objective point being South America.

We regret to announce the death of Mr. Gilbert H. Hicks, bota-

nist in charge of the seed control work of the United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture. Mr. Hicks died on December 5, after a brief

illness, aged 37. His official position was that of First Assistant in

the Division of Botany. The Asa Gray Bulletin was also under his

editorial charge. He leaves much unfinished scientific work.

The Munich Academy of Sciences has elected Professor Barrois,

of Lille (geologist), and Professor Hartig, of Munich (botanist), to

membership.

Professor George T. Allmann, well known for his investigations upon

. the Fresh-water Polyzoa and upon the Gymnoblastic Hydroids, died

in November. He was born in Ireland in 1812, was appointed pro-

fessor of natural history in the University of Dublin in 1844. In

1855 he was called to a similar chair in the University of Edinburgh,

180

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 181

where he remained until 1870, when he was succeeded by the late

Prof. Wyville Thompson.

Cornell University will maintain summer schools during the coming

summer in botany, entomology, geology, and zoology.

Dr. G. K. Niemann, professor of geography and ethnology in the

Indian Institute in Delft, Holland, has resigned after twenty-five

years of service.

Professor F. W. C. Areschoug, the well-known botanist, has resigned

from his chair in the University of Lund, Sweden.

The Natural History Society of St. Petersburg has established a

biological station on the shores of Lake Bologoy.

Recent appointments: Dr. R. T. Anderson, instructor in histology

and embryology in Harvard Medical School. — V. H. Blackman,

fellow in botany in St. John’s College, Cambridge. — Dr. G. Bodi,

assistant in the botanical institute at Innsbruck, Austria. — Dr. G.

P. Eaton, assistant in osteology in the Peabody Museum of Yale

College. — Dr. Marcus S. Farr, curator of the zoological collections

in the state museum at Albany, N. Y. — Stanley Flower, of Bang-

ko, superintendent of the Cairo Zoological Gardens. — Dr. A. Y.

Grevillius, of Miinster, assistant in botany in the agricultural experi-

ment station at Kempen on the Rhine. — Professor Hofer, of Munich,

. professor of geography in the University of Würzburg. — Mr. F.

Hopkins, lecturer in chemical physiology in the University of

Cambridge. — Dr. K. Keller, professor of zoology in the University

of Ziirich. — John Alden Loring, assistant director of the New York

Zoological Gardens. — Mr. Horace Middleton, fellow in zoology and

physiology in Magdalen College, Cambridge. — E. A. Minchin,

lecturer on biology in Gray’s Hospital Medical School, London. —

Herbert Osborn, of Ames, Iowa, professor of zoology in the Univer-

sity of Ohio at Columbus. — Wladimir I. Palladin, professor of

botany in the newly established technical school in Warsaw. —

Alexander Hamilton Phillips, assistant professor of mineralogy in

Princeton University. — Dr. Mark V. Slingerland, of Cornell, state

entomologist of New York. — Dr. F. R. Stubbs, instructor in his-

tology in Harvard Medical School. — Dr. C. O. Townsend, botanist

and plant pathologist of Maryland. — Mr. Swale Vincent, Sharpey

physiological scholar and chief assistant in the physiological labora-

tory of University College, London. — Dr. Frederick A. Woods,

instructor in histology and embryology in Harvard Medical School.

182 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Recent deaths: Prof. Rudolf Adamy, director of the ethnological

museum at Darmstadt, aged 48. — Dr. James Edward Tierney

Aitchison, author of numerous papers on the flora of India, in Kew,

England, September 30, aged 63. — Dr. C. J. Backman, the Swedish

botanist, May 1, in Stockholm. — James Behrens, formerly an active

student of the Lepidoptera, at San José, Cal., March 6, aged 74. —

Pasquale Conti, botanist in Lugano. — Sir George Gray, well known

for his investigations of the resources of Australia and New Zealand,

Sept. 19, 1898, aged 86. — G. E. Grimes, assistant on the geological

survey of India, April 11, aged 26.— James Hardy, of Cockburns-

path, England, a student of the zoology of northern England, Octo-

ber, aged 84. — Max Hauer, microscopist and mineralogist in Ober-

hausen, Germany, August 10, aged 51.— Dr. W. Kochs, privat

docent for physiology in the University of Bonn. — Dr. Luigi Lom-

bardini, professor of the anatomy of domesticated animals in the

University of Pisa, June 27, aged 67. — Dr. Karl Mettenheimer,

formerly a student of the invertebrates, in Schwerin, Germany, Sep-

tember 18, aged 74. — Johnson Pettit, entomologist, at. Grimsby,

Canada, Feb. 18, 1898. — Dr. Alexandre Pélliet, curator of the

anatomical collections of the Musée Dupuytren in Paris. — Edward

Tatnall, a student of the flora of Delaware, at Wilmington, May 30,

aged 79. — Dr. Giambattista Valenzia, zoologist, at Pantelleria,

June 15.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(The regular exchanges of the American Naturalist are not included.)

ECKSTEIN, KARL. Repetitorium der Zoologie. Ein Leitfaden fiir Studirende.

Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1898. viii + 435 pp» 281 figures. 8 Marks. — HERT-

wic, R. Summaries in Systematic Zoology. Translated and adapted by Albert

A. Wright. Second edition. Oberlin, O., E. F. Goodrich, 1898. 35 pp. — PEA-

BODY, J. E. Laboratory Exercises in Anatomy and Physiology. Ne ew York,

Henry Holt, 1898. x + 79 pp- 8vo.— VERWORN, Max. Beiträge zur Physiologie

des Centralnervensystems. Erster Theil. Die sogenannte Hypnose der Thiere.

Jena, Gustav Fischer, 1898. vi + 92 pp., 18 figures. 2.50 Marks.

Bressry, E. A. Comparative Morphology of the Pistils of a oe a

Alismacez, and Rosaceæ. Bot. Gazette. Vol. xxvi, No. 5.— D, L.

The Frogs and Toads Found in the Vicinity of New York Cay. Proc. Linn.

Soc. of N.Y. 1897-1898, No. 10.

Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Dee Vol. ix, No. 92. November. — Geo-

graphical Journal. Vol. xii, No. 6. mber. — Zndiana Academy of Science.

Proceedings. 1897. — Maryland P EEA Experiment Station. Bulletin

Report on the San José Scale in Maryland, by W. G. Johnston. —

Sciencias Naturaes e Sociaes. Vol. v, No. 20. Porto, 1808: -= Roya al Society of

crise Vol. xi (N-S), Pt. i. — ES Cientifica “Antonio Alzate ” (Mexico),

Memorias y Revista. Tom . 9-12. 1897-1898. — &. Universita degli

Studi p Siena, Bull. del Scala a Orto Botanico. Anno I, Fasc. 2, 3, June.

(No. 385 was mailed January II.)

183

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VOL. XXXIII, No. 387” MARCH, 1899

THE

AMERICAN

NATURAL IS£

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. The Present Status of Anatomy Professor J. PLAYFAIR M°MURRICH

II. The — Annual Meeting of the Society for Plant Morphology and

Physiology . Professor ERWIN F. SMITH

III. The Ossicula Auditus na ‘Mammalian hon neestry

Professor J. S. KINGSLEY and W. H. RUDDICK

IV. Desmognathus Fusca (Rafinesque) and Spelerpes Bilineatus (Green)

Professor HARRIS H. WILDER

V. The Poisons Given Off by Parasitic Worms in Man and

VI. A Curious Malformation of the Shields on a Snake’s Head

STEJNEG:

VII. Editorial: The een of Morphologists, The ‘American Journal of Phys-

iology, Laws of Priori

VIII. Reviews of Recent ig ae ee Anthropology: The Origin of Culture —

General Biology: Embryos without Maternal Nuclei; Temperature and

Rate of Regeneration; Organisms and Oxygen ; The sie Dee Sig-

Plants; e eous

ria bane Geological Survey — Petrography: Granites

tic Oceanic Islands and the Nature of Laterite; Isenite and Tai i

hsi Types of Volcanic Rocks; Dike Rocks of P ortland, Me.; Notes

News

X. Publications Received

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WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard University, Cambridge.

D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Zeland Stanford Junior University, California.

CHARLES A. KOFOID, Pu.D., University of Soars Urbana, Lil.

ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, Pu.D., Princeton Uni

D P. PENHALLOW, S.B, FR. M. S., McGill Univer Montreal.

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FRANK RUSSELL, PH.D., Harvard Univer. Ja aan

ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, LL.D., University BEA higan, A rbor.

~ ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D., U. S. Department of Apinthive, Washington

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fay CE its foundation in 1867 by four of the pupils of Louis

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American magazine of Natural History and has played an important

part in the advancement of science in this country.

When the new series of the Narura.ist began in January, 1898,

with volume thirty-two, the new management determined to broaden

the scope and character of the journal so that it should keep pace

with the progress of the natural sciences in all parts of the world,

giving, however, special attention to the work of American natural-

ists, in order that it might be fully representative of the best that is

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The journal aims to present to its readers the leading facts and

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The scientific and literary excellence of the magazine is assured

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the list, on the opposite page, of associate editors. This list

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from Maine to California.

In the selection of material the editors set for themselves the

difficult task of choosing that which shall be strictly scientific and

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the general scientific reader. With this end in view, in the new

series, they avoid the publication of mere descriptions of new

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The editors feel that a movement is well under way toward a

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The Natura List is issued monthly. Each number contains about

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LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vot: XXXIII, ~ March, 1899. No. 387.

THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY?

J. PLAYFAIR McMURRICH.

It is a prevalent belief among the laity that anatomy is a

practically completed study, that there is little or nothing to be

added to our knowledge of the structure of the human body ;

and for such a belief there is a certain amount of excuse. The

human body has been an object of anatomical study and inves-

tigation for centuries ; hundreds of volumes, ranging from duo-

decimos to folios, have been written about its structure; thou-

sands on thousands of bodies have been dissected; and why,

then, are we not in possession of a full knowledge of the

subject ?

Such reasoning overlooks the fact that in every science there

is not one but two elements, the material and the intellectual,

which react upon one another, new observations producing new

generalizations, and these again pointing the way to new fields

for observation. But the misconception as to the present

status of anatomy depends upon a misconception of a more fun-

damental idea, z.e., of what is meant by science. To the popu-

lar mind science is merely the collecting of natural facts. The

1 An address before the Catholepistemiad Club of the University of Michigan,

Dec. 16, 1898.

: 185

186 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIII.

scientist is pictured as an inquiring Gradgrind, who seeks for

facts, facts, and nothing but facts; he weighs, he measures,

and he describes; and weighing, measuring, and describing con-

stitute science. No! Thecollection of facts, no matter how

accurately accomplished, is no more science than the alphabet

is literature. As Huxley has well put it, “the mere accumula-

tion of facts without generalization and classification is as great

an error intellectually as, hygienically, would be the attempt to

strengthen by accumulating nourishment without due attention

to the primal vie, the result in each case being chiefly giddi-

ness and confusion in the head.” Observation alone is not

science; facts without deduction are merely the clay without

the straw. Observations, accurate and extensive, are a primal

necessity, but observation alone merely furnishes the crude

material from which, by reflection and deduction, scientific

facts may be obtained.

So then, what is usually regarded as the whole of anatomy —

descriptive anatomy — is not necessarily a science; it consti-

tutes merely an aggregate of facts upon which deduction may

act, and it is the sum-total of the observations and deductions

that constitutes the science.

The purpose of this address is to consider chiefly the general

standpoint of anatomy as it is at present, but a few words seem

necessary concerning the more observational side. The facts

or observations at the disposal of the anatomist of to-day are

enormously more numerous and detailed than those available

at, let us say, the beginning of the present century; and this

progress along the material side has been largely due to the

greater facilities for observation which we now possess. The

anatomists of the sixteenth and early part of the seventeenth

century possessed only such information as was afforded by the

use of the scalpel and their unaided vision. In the seventeenth

century a new tool was placed in their hands, the microscope,

without which the anatomist of to-day is well-nigh helpless.

At once new fields for observation were revealed and many

new facts were secured, though for many years the microscope

was rather a plaything than a tool. Indeed, it was not until

the present century was well advanced that the optical imper-

No. 387.] THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. 187

fections of the compound microscope were overcome and the

instrument we now so constantly employ was within reach.

But, after all, the microscope, per se, in anatomy has enormous

limitations. A fragment of tissue taken from the body and

placed at once beneath the strongest powers of the microscope

yields but few of its secrets. The great development in the

modern use of the microscope, if I may so express myself, has

been in the methods of preparation of the tissues to be exam-

ined, methods which have become so familiar to workers with

the microscope that they are apt to forget how very recent they

are. The hardening of tissues was not introduced until the

beginning of the present century (Reil), and then alcohol alone

was used; the processes of “fixation” previous to hardening

had their origin in the discovery of the value of osmic acid for

this purpose by Max Schultze in 1864; section cutting, even

free-hand, was not generally employed until after the middle

of the present century; staining was first employed by Ger-

lach in 1858; and mounting in refractive media was introduced

by Stilling about the same time as section cutting (1840).

How rapid, then, has been the development of our modern

methods! To-day instead of one “ fixative ” we have our choice

of many; instead of cutting our sections with the free-hand

and spoiling many, we have instruments of precision by which

we can cut an entire organism ora piece of tissue into sections

zggy of an inch in thickness without spoiling one, and, if

necessary, can obtain sections of suber OF even gzbov of an

inch, so perfect have our methods become. While Gerlach

knew only one medium for staining, namely, carmine, to-day

we have dozens, the discovery of the anilines placing in our

hands a marvelous aid to microscopical investigation. By

their use we can differentiate tissues. One dye will have an

affinity for nerve tissue, another for yellow elastic tissue,

another for mucin; others will affect most strongly the chrom-

atin of the cell nucleus, others the cell body or cytoplasm, and

so on; and thus, by choosing the proper method, it is possible

to differentiate structures in a most marvelous manner.

So then the anatomist of to-day, by the proper employment

of the methods at his disposal, has it in his power to make

188 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.- [VoL. XXXIII.

observations undreamt of, in their minuteness, by the masters

of fifty years ago, and wonderfully more perfect than those

possible even. fifteen years ago. How then, even from the

observational side, can anatomy be a completed science?

But now, leaving this side of the story, let us examine the

difference between the higher intellectual side of anatomy as

it is to-day and what it was in the past.

It is interesting to note the impartiality of the intellectual

stagnation of the Middle Ages. The neglect of Aristotle, so

marked in philosophy, is paralleled by a similar neglect in the

department of Natural History; Pliny, with his fabulous tales

and uncritical compilations, being the great authority. In

anatomy the condition was largely the same. Original obser-

vation was almost neglected, utmost reliance being placed upon

the dicta of Galen and any attempt to criticise his statements

regarded as a heresy. When, accordingly, Vesalius, in the

first half of the sixteenth century, disregarding the dictates of

antiquity and entering upon a course of investigation for him-

self, pointed out that the facts which Galen set forth as appli-

cable to the human body, and which were in reality founded

largely upon observations made chiefly in dogs and monkeys,

were in many particulars erroneous, he encountered a storm

of derision and obloquy. The correctness of his observations

had to be recognized however, though with great unwillingness ;

but even then his opponents, notably his former teacher, Syl-

vius, maintained the correctness of Galen’s descriptions and

endeavored to explain away discrepancies by asserting that

the structure of the human body must have changed since

Galen’s time. Vesalius had pointed out that the bones of the

leg are not curved, as Galen had asserted. ‘Granted,’ cried his

opponents, “but they were curved in Galen’s time, and their

straightness now is due to the substitution of close-fitting

garments for the flowing robes of earlier times.”

On the death of Vesalius in 1564, the influence of his

opponents produced a revival of Galenism, but the leaven had

begun to work and the zeal of Vesalius had marked an epoch

in anatomy. Careful observation and description became more

and more the order of the day, and led in 1619 to the dis-

No. 387.] THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. 189

covery by Harvey of the circulation of the blood, a discovery

which marked a second great epoch in the history of anatomy.

It laid the axe at the root of the spiritual theories prevalent

at the time, which recognized as the essence of life an unknown

something, the spzvztus or aura, which, being confected in the

liver, served to distend the heart, whence it was distributed as

a spiritus naturalis by the veins to certain organs of the body,

and as a spiritus vitalis to others by the arteries. Harvey’s

discovery necessarily proved a serious blow to such vague

ideas, though in one form or another they continued to exist

for nearly two centuries, the sfzritus being a ghost difficult to

lay. Harvey showed that the heart was not passive, but was

a muscular pump, that the heart and not the liver was the

starting point of the circulation, that the blood of the arteries

and of the veins was the same, and that the course of the

blood in both sets of vessels was in a definite direction. And

by so showing he laid the foundation stone of our modern

science of physiology.

But the seventeenth century is entitled to the credit of lay-

ing the foundation stone not only of physiology, but also of

microscopical anatomy and of comparative anatomy. Leeu-

wenhoek, polishing his own lenses and subjecting to their

action whatever came to his hand, made many important dis-

coveries, chief among which appear bacteria, the yeast plant,

and spermatozoa ; and Malpighi discovered the blood corpuscles

and completed the missing link in Harvey’s scheme of the cir-

culation by describing the capillaries by which the veins and

arteries are placed in communication.

The interest awakened in human anatomy in the sixteenth

century was not accompanied by an equal interest in the study

of the lower forms, but towards the close of the seventeenth

century comparative anatomy was again called to the aid of

human anatomy by Nehemiah Grew, by Tyson, who availed

himself of an opportunity for dissecting an ourang and care-

fully compared its structure with that of man, and by Collins,

who with Tyson’s aid illustrated the structure of the human

body by references to the peculiarities of structure found in

the lower animals.

190 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. =- (VOL; XXXIII. .

And, finally, as a crowning glory of the seventeenth century,

we must not forget the inauguration in it of the science of

embryology, with which the name of Harvey must also be

associated, his predecessor in the study being his teacher,

Fabricius ab Aquapendente. :

But it is merely the beginnings of these various adjuncts to

anatomy that we find at this period. At this time, and indeed

until much later, anatomy was regarded simply as a medical

study, and investigation in it was conducted for a distinctly

practical end. On account of its relations to medicine it came

under the influence of the medical theories which prevailed at

the time, and these theories, frequently changing, at one time

stimulated observation and at another retarded it. Anatomy,

instead of flourishing under a theory of its own, was over-

shadowed by, or received but reflected lustre from medical

theories, and it is of interest on this account to consider these

latter briefly.

If I were asked to characterize in a few words these theories,

I would say that they belong to two distinct classes, those of

the one class being based upon a dualistic conception of the

structure of the body, while those of the other might be termed

monistic. Those of the one class seem to have served as

stimuli to those of the other, and the history of the theory of

medicine from the sixteenth to the beginning of the nineteenth

century has been a history of an almost regular alternation of

dualistic and monistic hypotheses. As pertaining to the dual-

istic group, the sixteenth century doctrines of Paracelsus may

be mentioned, according to which the physiological and patho-

logical processes of the body were the result of a controlling

spirit, termed the Archeus, and this view was also maintained

with slight modifications by Van Helmont in the beginning of

the seventeenth century, he, too, recognizing a dominant

Archeus to whom were subordinate other Arche? insiti, disease

being due to “the passions and perturbations of the Archeus,”

and the treatment of the physician an attempt to modify the

ideas or emotions of this evs.

Naturally there was ere long a reaction from such a fantastic

hypothesis, and we find in the seventeenth century two monistic

No. 387.| THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. IQI

schools, the Iatro-chemical and the Iatro-physical, which, as

their names indicate, regarded the physiological processes of

the body as chemical or physical in their nature. These

theories were, however, too advanced for the times, and even

Sylvius, the chief exponent of the chemical school, while

regarding many diseases as the result of disturbances of

the chemical processes of the body, still held to the idea

of a spiritus when it was a question of nervous disturb-

ances.

Later, at the beginning of the eighteenth century, Boer-

haave emphasized the monistic views, and to a certain extent

combined the principles of the two schools just mentioned by

finding the causes of disease in the degree of cohesion of the

particles composing the elementary fibres of the body and de-

termining their strength or feebleness, their laxity or tense-

ness, and in the chemical and physical characters of the body

fluids, their acidity, alkalinity, or viscosity. And almost at the

same time we find a revival of the dualistic idea in the animism

of Stahl, who revived to a certain extent the Archeus of Para-

celsus under the name of the “anima” as the controlling ele-

ment of the physiological. processes of the body.

But it would take too long to even merely touch upon the

numerous theories which marked the eighteenth century as the

age of systems. The desire then prevalent of establishing a

general principle which would govern the practice of medicine

seems to stand in close relation to the tendency to establish

systems which became evident in the philosophy of the times,

and, if time permitted, it would be interesting to consider the

influence of such minds as Descartes and Leibnitz on the med-

ical theories of their day.

To a certain extent these various and vacillating theories

retarded the progress of anatomy and physiology, but not

entirely so. For a theory is merely a working hypothesis, an

index of the lines along which further observation should pro-

ceed, and so, even though it may be fundamentally erroneous,

it need not necessarily obscure for long the progress of thought,

the observation which it stimulates soon correcting it and sub-

stituting for it more accurate ideas. The search for the elixir

192 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

of life yielded many valuable results to chemistry; for, as

Cowley has expressed it:

So though the Chymist his great secret miss

(For neither it in art or nature is);

Yet things well worth his toil he gains,

And does his charge and labour pay

With good unsought experiments by the way.

And so, though under the influence of erroneous theories and

in an attempt to elucidate by commentaries the physiological

ideas of Boerhaave, Haller, between 1746 and 1765, added

greatly to the knowledge of anatomy and placed another stone

on the foundation of modern physiology by the discovery of

the contractility of muscle and the irritability of nerve.

The close of the century, or, rather, the beginning of the

nineteenth, was marked by the appearance of a work of far

different calibre than the majority. I mean the Anatomie

générale of Bichat, published in Paris in 1801. Bichat combines,

to a certain extent, the monistic tendencies of Boerhaave with

the animistic ideas of Stahl, but, making use of Haller’s dis-

covery and by adding much of his own, he evolves a much more

scientific and progressive system. He recognizes Stahl’s ani-

mism as a pure abstraction and supplants it with two physio-

logical processes, the irritability and contractility of Haller,

which, he claims, are properties of all organs of the body and

not of nerve and muscle alone. Digestion, circulation, secre-

tion, in fact all the functions, are performed by the interaction

of these two processes. So far this is an improvement in

Stahl’s ideas, but the great importance of Bichat’s theories rests

in that he makes these vital processes reside in the solids of

the body. They are not absolute entities controlling the func-

tions of the body, but in a sense they are these functions, and

since disease is a disturbance of the functions, a modification

of the vital processes, it is dependent upon a modification of

the solids or tissues of the body.

Such a theory necessarily led to a more minute and careful

study of the finer anatomy of the organs of the body, both in

health and disease, and indeed was the result of such studies

carried out largely by Bichat himself. That the body was com-

No. 387.] THE: PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. 193

posed of numerous organs was clearly understood, but Bichat

pointed out that the structure and function of an organ is

dependent upon components, the tissues, which enter into its

formation. To quote his own words: “Every animal is an

assemblage of different organs, which, each performing a single

function, subserve, each in its own way, the preservation of all.

They are so many special structures in the gtneral structure

which constitutes the individual. Now these special structures

are themselves formed of several tissues of very different na-

tures, and which, indeed, form the elements of these organs.

Chemistry has its simple bodies, which form, by the various

combinations of which they are capable, compound bodies; such

simple bodies are heat, light, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitro-

gen, phosphorus, etc. Similarly, anatomy has its simple tissues,

which, by their combinations in fours, sixes, eights, etc., form

the organs.” Elements of lower grade than the organs had

been postulated in earlier times; thus Boerhaave speaks of

elementary fibres which form certain structures and Ascle-

piades, still earlier, applied to anatomy the Epicurean doctrine

of atoms. But one of these was a philosophical abstraction and

not a scientific hypothesis, and the other a crude generalization

not applicable to all parts of the body. Bichat’s tissue element

is, however, accepted to-day as an individual of simpler grade

than the organ individual, and though we do not recognize as

perfect his definition of tissues or his enumeration of them, yet

the ground idea is the same, except in so far as it is influenced

by the cell theory of a later date.

If, now, the epoch-making discoveries in the history of

anatomy in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries

were to be summed up briefly, there would be placed first and

foremost the overthrow of the Galenian traditions, and the

revival of observation by Vesalius (1516-34); next the dis-

covery of the circulation of the blood by Harvey (1619); next

Haller’s discovery of the irritability and contractility of nerve

and muscle (1746), and, finally, the formulation by Bichat of his

tissue elements and the overthrow of both the ultra-physical

and the ultra-animistic theories of disease (1801).

During all the period hitherto considered anatomy remained

194 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. {Vo XXXIII.

very largely in the observational stage, and was ancillary to

medicine. In the mean time, however, investigations were pro-

ceeding in allied branches of biological science, which were

destined eventually to place anatomy in the category of the

sciences.

In Germany, Johannes Miiller and Meckel; in England,

Hunter, Home and, later, Owen; and in France, Vicq d’Azyr,

Etienne, and Isidore Geoffroi St. Hilaire, Lamarck and, espe-

cially, Cuvier, prosecuted with vigor and enthusiasm the study

of comparative anatomy, the results of their observations

calling into existence two diametrically opposed deductions,

on the one hand the doctrine of Types espoused by Cuvier,

and on the other that of Transformationism, upheld by Etienne

Geoffroi St. Hilaire and Lamarck. Cuvier’s theory, briefly

stated, was that in the animal world there was a definite

number of structural types or plans, to one or other of which

every animal could be referred. The theological bias of the

theory was strong; the plans or types, having existed in the

mind of the Creator from the beginning, were fixed and immu-

table; connecting links between them were impossible; they were

circles whose boundaries might touch but could never overlap.

And, furthermore, the theory involved the idea of a special

creation for each species, the species being consequently as

immutable as the types. Man, therefore, was structurally iso-

lated, and the similarities known to exist between him and lower

forms could have no significance.

To Lamarck and St. Hilaire the facts of comparative anatomy

pointed to entirely different conclusions. To them there was

a fundamental unity in the animal kingdom; as some one has

said, they took a synthetic, and Cuvier an analytic, view of

nature. This unity was possible only by an absence of a fixity

of type, by a mutability of species, and these were the ideas

they opposed to Cuvier’s scheme of creation, the ideas of trans-

formationism or evolution practically as we now understand it.

The controversy between the two schools was prolonged and

bitter, and culminated in the celebrated passage of arms before

the Academy of Sciences in Paris, which, to Goethe, seemed

more important than the victories of Napoleon. The enormous

No. 387.} THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. 195

authority of Cuvier and the theological bias of his theory gained

the day, however; the doctrine of transformationism retired

temporarily from the field, and anatomy retained its isolated

position.

Attention has already been called to the inauguration of .

the science of embryology by Fabricius and his pupil Harvey.

During succeeding years it languished somewhat, but was finally

established as an important branch of biology in the present

century by the publication of the Beobachtungen und Reflexio-

men of von Baer in 1829. A masterly study of the develop-

ment of a number of vertebrate organisms led von Baer to

formulate a principle of developmental unity by his doctrine of

the germ layers, and also to establish an idea of transforma-

tionism for the individual by demonstrating that in its develop-

ment the organism proceeds from a more generalized to a more

specialized condition ; that is to say, it presents first what for

convenience may be termed type characteristics, later the family,

then the generic, and then the specific peculiarities being added

or superimposed.

About the same time important ideas were working out in

another department — that established by Malpighi and Leeu-

wenhoek— microscopical anatomy. . Improvement of the micro-

scope made possible the discovery in 1838 by the botanist

Schleiden of cells as the ultimate structural units of plants —

a discovery completed in the following year by Schwann,

who extended the generalization to animals, and at the same

time materially modified the meaning attached to the word cel.

These discoveries were the following out of the idea of analysis

suggested by Bichat, and were indeed the analysis of his tissue

elements into individuals of a still lower grade. A further step

was, however, still necessary to convert the cell-theory of struc-

ture into its modern form, and that was the formulation of the

protoplasmic theory by Max Schulze in 1861. Just as cells had

been known long before the cell theory was postulated, so, too,

protoplasm had been known ever since the amceba was first

observed by Résel von Rosenhof in 1755. The attention to

the nature of the cell contents, awakened by the cell theory, led

the botanist von Mohl to recognize in vegetable cells a viscous

196 - THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vol. XXXIII.

material distinct from the cell sap, to which he gave the name

protoplasm. This was in 1846, but even before this Dujardin,

in 1835, had described what he termed the savcode in the Foram-

inifera. Schulze much later identified these two substances

and modified the original cell theory by making a mass of proto-

plasm, independent of any special bounding wall, such as the

word ce// implies, the unit of structure. He converted Bichat’s

tissue elements into aggregates of protoplasmic elements, and,

by extending his generalization to plants, made possible Hux-

‘ley’s characterization of protoplasm as the “physical basis of

life.’

All these discoveries and hypotheses were contributing to

prepare the mind of the scientific world for the reawakening

of the doctrine of evolution. The theological bias and the

influence of Cuvier were still powerful at the middle of the

century, but they could not withstand the march of observation

and deduction which was tending surely to the overthrow of the

Type theory, a result accomplished by the publication of Dar-

win’s Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin’s generalizations and

the resulting acceptance of the theory of evolution at once

placed anatomy in a new position. It could no longer be held

aloof from the other biological sciences. Man is not an organ-

ism entirely distinct from all others; he is merely the culmina-

tion of one line of evolution. His structural peculiarities are

not minute details of a primary immutable plan, but are to be

explained by reference to his past history. Departures from

the typical conditions, so frequent and in many cases so remark-

able, are not mere vagaries without significance, but are remin-

iscences of previous conditions or indications of developmental

possibilities frequently brought to completion in other forms.

The doctrine of evolution is the “one increasing purpose ”

whose influence is traceable throughout all science, and it has

consequently broadened all our views by bringing the various

departments of research into interdependence with one another.

This is the age of specialties, and necessarily so, since the

volume of knowledge has grown too great for one finite mind

to comprehend the whole; but now, more than ever before,

-there is necessity for correlation. Each department of science

No. 387.] THE PRESENT STATUS OF ANATOMY. 197

no longer stands isolated; no longer can a thorough and exten-

sive research in any specialty be conducted without reference

to other specialties and other departments. And it is this

which stands out so clearly in the science of anatomy as it is

to-day. It is no longer an isolated study, but merely a part of

a wider field of knowledge. In the past it was a land-locked

sea, but the erosion of the smaller streams of discovery and,

finally, the overwhelming flood of the evolution hypothesis

swept away the barrier which separated it, and it is nowa small

bay of the great ocean of morphology. In the past anatomy

was human anatomy ; to-day it is synonymous with morphology.

No longer do anatomists confine their attention to merely accu-

rate descriptions of the details of the structure of the body;

they seek to discover the significance of these details. Anatomy

has become “denkende Anatomie,” to use the expression of

Johannes Miiller; it is no longer tied to the apron-strings of

its mother, Medicine, but, having come of age, has taken its

place in the rank of the sciences, the Origin of Species and the

Descent of Man having been its Declaration of Independence.

How, then, can our knowledge of the structure of the human

body be complete? Modern anatomy is not yet fifty years of age,

and this is infancy compared with the sister sciences. All that

has been accomplished from the time of Aristotle to the middle

of the present century was largely merely a preparation, and the

time that has elapsed since then has been far too short for the

solution of all the problems which confront us. Goethe has said

of another department of study: “ History must from time to

time be rewritten, not because many new facts have been dis-

covered, but because new aspects come into view, because the

participant in the progress of an age is led to standpoints from

which the past can be regarded and judged in a novel manner.”

So it is with anatomy ; the new standpoint calls for a new inter-

pretation of anatomical facts and a restatement of our knowledge

of anatomy.

It seems unnecessary to run the risk of tediousness by

enumerating the problems of anatomy of to-day, their number

being endless. I trust I have made its present standpoint

clear, so clear that he who will may read between the lines and

198 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

see that an anatomist can do as much, indeed I would even say

he can do more for the advancement of his science by prose-

cuting investigations in comparative anatomy and embryology

than by confining his attention to man alone. Why should the

anatomist, endeavoring to unravel the mystery of the structure

of the most complicated organism known to him, waste his time

and energy in studying that organism alone, when he can trace

step by step the gradual increase of the complexity in the lower

forms of life, and, by learning to understand the simpler con-

ditions, place himself in a position to understand the final

complexity ?

More than one hundred years ago the Abbé Dicquemare

wrote: “Everything that relates to animals, their manner of

being, the growth and diminutions which they show, their gen-

eration, their strength, their actions, their diseases, their nour-

ishment, the duration of their lives, the phenomena which they

manifest even in death, all these are subjects which ought to

interest man. If his moral being does not offer any analogy to

theirs, his physical constitution permits comparisons.” The new

anatomy is interested in all these subjects; it is catholic in its

extent. From amoeba to man every organism falls within the

jurisdiction of the anatomist, and there is no problem of mor-

phology but is his for solution, no observation however insigni-

ficant but is his for application. “ Neque enim ad agendum et

potestatem sive operationem humanam amplificandam sufficit,

aut magnopere attinet, nosse ex quibus res constent, si modus

et vias mutationum et transformationum ignores.” These words

of Lord Bacon would well serve as a motto for the anatomy of

to-day.

lant Morphol

or F

wrt sabes, Sir Ce i oe Wigs

gela

THE SECOND ANNUAL MEETING OF THE

SOCIETY FOR PLANT MORPHOLOGY

AND PHYSIOLOGY.

ERWIN F. SMITH.

THE second annual meeting of this society was held in New

York, December 27-29, in affiliation with the American Soci-

ety of Naturalists. All of the meetings were held at Scher-

merhorn Hall, in the new and very commodious quarters of the

Department of Botany of Columbia University. The Torrey

Botanical Club gave a reception to the society and visiting bot-

anists on Tuesday evening, and throughout the meetings the

New York botanists did everything that was possible to make

the occasion pleasant and profitable. Five papers listed on the

programme were not read owing to the absence of the authors,

some of whom were detained by sickness. There were, how-

ever, more than enough papers to fill the allotted time, and the

second meeting of the society closed as successfully as the first

one. Professor Macfarlane was elected president for the ensu-

ing year. The following additions were made to the member-

ship of the society: Newcombe, Pollock, Underwood, Waite,

Stewart, Halsted, Johnson. In addition to the papers ab-

stracted below, Dr. W. G. Farlow, as retiring president, gave a

very interesting address on Peculiarities of the Distribution of

Marine Algz in North America, and the secretary of the soci-

ety, Dr. W., F. Ganong, gave a ten-minute address before the

whole body of naturalists on Advance in Methods of Teaching

Botany. Dr. Ganong’s address was printed in Science, Jan-

uary 20. It is to be hoped that the president's address may be

printed in full. Two of the statements in it which impressed

the writer most were: (1) the gaps which still exist in our

knowledge of the marine algæ, especially in Floridian and,

Pacific waters, and (2) the algal desert which extends along our

eastern coast from New Jersey to South Carolina. The state-

199

“

200 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

ments given in the abstracts were, for the most part, furnished

by the authors of the papers, the writer having simply put the

abstracts into a condensed and codrdinate form, with here and

there an addition from his own notes.

Pror. Joun W. HARSHBERGER: Some Morphological Structures in

Paulownia imperialis. — Paulownia imperialis is a Japanese tree of

umbrageous habit which thrives well and suckers freely in the neigh-

borhood of Philadelphia and farther south. Its method of branching

is sympodial. The main shoot, or leader, is terminated by an inflor-

escence. After the fruit is formed, and the seeds are discharged,

the axis of inflorescence dies back to the point where the lateral bud

is given off which develops into the leader of the next season. Be-

neath this shoot two other branches are also formed, which in suc-

ceeding years branch in the same way as the leading shoot.

This tree flourishes in Japan in-valleys and on the sides of hills

exposed to the powerful action of the sun. A study of the leaf struc-

ture shows that the plant has adapted itself to that kind of environ-

ment, branched, antler-like, interlocking, protective hairs occurring

on the lower foliar surface.

The flowers are arranged in clusters of cymes, which approach the

scorpioid type. The flower buds are protected by five thick sepals,

which are covered with ferruginous protective hairs. The flower

parts inside of the young buds are all well formed. The pollen is

fully formed, as likewise the pistil. In the mature pod, which splits

to discharge the seeds in December, there is found a fleshy placental

disk rich in tannin, which may be either a reserve product or a waste

substance.

In the petioles of the foliage and sprout leaves a number of differ-

ent shaped crystals are found. These are all calcium oxalate, the

difference in form being due to the different metabolic influences

existing at the time of their formation. Peculiar refractive granules,

the nature of which is not fully determined, are also found in the

mesophyll cells of the leaves.

Dr. W. F. Ganonc: On the Life History of Leuchtenbergia prin-

cipis. — This paper gave a synopsis of the author’s studies upon the

ontogeny of this rare and highly specialized species, the most note-

worthy of the Cactacez. The paper traces the history of knowledge

of the species, its systematic position, anatomy, morphology, etc. Its

geographical distribution, habits and ecology, morphological compo-

sition as determined by comparative anatomy and ontogeny, and the

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 201

internal anatomy and its development are treated in full. This is

intended by the author as the first of a series of life histories of

important species of this family which are expected to yield data for

a better understanding of principles of morphological modification

under the influence of changing ecological factors.

This plant, which lives under arid conditions, represents the extreme

of specialization along the Echinocactus line, as is clearly indicated

by its embryology. It has a highly differentiated anatomy, the tra-

cheid system being better developed than in any other plant known

to the author. The mamillz show three concentric rings of vascular

bundles, a cortical ring, a ring leading to the spine system, and a

central ring going to the flowers.

Pror. Byron D. HALSTED: Root Tubercules upon Spring and

Autumn Grown Legumes. — The ninth successive crop of wax beans

upon the same plot (one-twentieth acre) grown in the spring of 1898

consisted of plants, the roots of which bore numerous large, nearly

spherical tubercles. The plants of the succeeding crop grown in the

summer upon the same soil had very few of the root galls.

The cause of this remarkable difference in the behavior of the

same variety of leguminous plant in the same germ-laden soil must

be ascribed to changes in soil conditions. During the early growth

of the spring plants the soil was considerably cooler than in August,

when the second crop was passing through the initial stages of devel-

opment. There was, doubtless, aside from the different temperature

of the soil, a wide difference in the amount of available soil nitrogen,

it being much less in the comparatively cool earth of May than in the

warmer ground of August.

The nitrifying germs of the soil, being more active in midsummer,

provided a daily supply of combined nitrogen for the young growing

plants. On the other hand, the spring crop, not having this ample

supply was “nitrogen-hungry,” and this furnished the proper condi-

tion upon the part of the host plant for the abundant development

of the tubercles.

Successful inoculation of the plants with soil-extract or the pure

culture of the tubercle germ “ Nitragin ” is dependent largely upon

soil conditions, and many widely varying results may here find an

explanation.

Francis E. Lioyp: Further Notes on the Comparative Embryology

of the Rubiacee.—The genera studied include Houstonia, Rubia,

Sherardia, Vaillantia, Crucianella, Galium, and Asperula.

202 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

The Nucellus arises as a papilla, at the apex of which develop, in

the hypoderm, about eight or ten macrospores which elongate, and

many of which commonly germinate, reaching a quadri-nucleate con-

dition. One (sometimes two) becomes the perfected embryo-sac,

which in all forms studied has antipodals, a hitherto unrecognized

fact (excepting in Houstohia). One of the antipodals is very large,

comprising the whole lower half of the embryo-sac (Sherardia, Rubia,

Galium). The condition in Asperula is not completely cleared up,

but the material studied indicates that a larger number of antipodals

are present, approaching in this respect certain Composite.

The pro-embryo has a suspensor which is divided into two regions,

the micropylar and the embryonal. The latter is composed of disk-

shaped cells; the former of large cells which are swollen out later-

ally, forming absorbing organs which become applied to the endosperm.

A free preparation of these structures resembles a bunch of grapes,

a condition similar to that described for Sutherlandia by Hofmeister

and Guignard.

The integument becomes absorbed by the endosperm till only the

outer layer of cells is left. The seed covering then consists of the

pericarp and a single layer of cells derived from the integument.

CHARLES H. SHaw: Zhe Inflorescences and Flowers of Polygala

polygama. — In this plant the author has discovered a third set of

inflorescences, namely, green cleistogamic flowers, produced in late sum-

mer on geotropic aerial shoots.

In the conspicuous pink-purple blossoms the style terminates in a

dense hairy tuft, bearing the stigma as a lateral knob. The embryo

sac is generally imperfect and the seed abortive.

In the underground cleistogamic flowers the wing-like sepals are

reduced to the size of the other three, the two lateral petals are want-

ing, the stamens have decreased to six, five, four, three, or two, and

the style and hairy tuft are reduced to the vanishing point, leaving

the stigma closely sessile. On the other hand, they are more highly

developed in at least two points, namely, the walls of the microspores

are exceedingly thick, and the ovary is densely covered with glandular

hairs.

The newly discovered aerial cleistogamic flowers furnish transition

stages between these two sharply marked types. The style is better

developed, and there are rudiments of the lateral petals. In the

thickness of the microspore walls and in the structure of the pistil

especially interesting connecting stages are found.

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. ` 203

The cleistogamic flowers of both sorts produce more seeds than

the conspicuous ones.

R. E. B. McKenney: Observations on some Monocotyledonous

LEmbryo-sacs. — The development of two species of Scilla, S. Ayacin-

thoides and S. campanulata, was described and reference made to the

development of other Monocotyledonous Embryo-sacs. The arche-

sporial cell is formed from a sub-epidermal cell. This cell grows

rapidly and a small cell is cut off by a periclinal wall — the primary

tapetal cell. The primary tapetal cell divides later by a periclinal

wall, thus giving rise to an inner and an outer tapetal cell. The

archesporial cell continues to grow and divides twice, giving rise to

three cells. The upper one of these cells remains uni-nucleate, the

lower becomes tetra-nucleate, and the middle one develops into the

embryo-sac with its eight nuclei. It seems probable that each of

the eight nuclei of the embryo-sac, as well as the four in the cell

below, represents a macrospore. Hence, the embryo-sac may be

considered as two sporocytes which never develop the separating

wall. On this hypothesis, the cell above the embryo-sac and also the

one below, each represents a sporocyte. Two cases in which such a

partition in the embryo-sac has been observed were mentioned, one

by Mann in Myosurus, and one by the writer in Lilium candidum.

Especial attention was called to the extra-nuclear origin of the spindle

fibres and to the entire absence of centrosomes. The author has’

slides made from Lilium tigrinum and L. candidum, which exactly

confirm Mottier’s statements as to the origin of the spindle in

Lilium.

R. E. B. McKenney: The Structure and Function of Crystal Cells

in Sensitive Plants.—The crystal cells in sensitive plants form a

complete sheath around the bundle cylinder in stems and a half

sheath around the bast of the leaf bundles. Each cell contains a

single large crystal. These crystals usually have the shape of a

hexagonal prism. Each one is imbedded in apparently homogeneous

cytoplasm. The nucleus is very small and homogeneous, but a

nucleolus is wanting. Sap vacuoles and starch are also absent.

From tests made with hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, caustic potash,

fluoric acid, etc., it seems probable that these crystals are very insoluble

silicates. They are found in the ash after burning the plants. . These

silicate crystals are entirely wanting in the cotyledons and only make

their appearance in the first leaf after it has been expanded for a day

or two. ‘The crystals are first found in the cells of the sheath at the

204 ._ THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

distal ends of the main bundles of the leaf as small spicular bodies.

These gradually grow and assume the adult shape, but as they grow

the nucleus’ becomes gradually smaller until it reaches its minimum

size. Beginning with the cells at the distal end of the bundles, the

crystals are developed in basipital fashion along the entire course of

the bundle. The same course of development takes place in the bud

leaves of old plants, only the crystals are fully formed before the-leaf

expands. These crystals were observed in several species of Mimosa,

Acacia, and Oxalis. From the researches of Dutrochet and others it

seemed as though the phloem was the region for the transmission of

stimuli. However, since the crystal cells are closely applied against

the phloem, and since they are best developed in the most sensitive

plants and most poorly in least sensitive plants, it seems more proba-

ble that these cells constitute the maz lines of transmission of

stimuli. This tissue leads straight down to the pulvinus, but there

are no crystals in the latter.

AMELIA C. SMITH: Structure and Parasitism of Aphylion uni-

Jorum. — The most conspicuous features of this plant are its para-

sitism on Aster corymbosus and the degradation attendant upon its

parasitic habit as expressed by: (1) Absence of chlorophyll; degen-

eration of true leaves; loss of root hairs, and probably of root cap ;

reduction and degeneration of the bundle system, and relatively

greater development of the phloem than of the xylem ; small size of

seed, and primitive embryo developed within a mass of tissue which

is probably precocious endosperm. (2) Infrequence of stomata.

Where present they are on the more exposed places, z.e., outer sur-

face of upper bract-leaves, upper part of flower stalks, and outer

surface of calyx and corolla. (3) Abundance of starch. Starch is

present in great quantities in root, stems, leaves, and carpellary

tissue.

Sieve tubes seem to be entirely absent from the stem. The embryo

is simply a mass of undifferentiated cells, ż.e., it is not distinguish-

able into cotyledons, plumule, and radicle. The use of the starch is

problematic. The quantity stored in the endosperm is infinitesimal

compared with that stored in other parts of the plant.

Dr. M. A. Howe: On the Occurrence of Tubers in the Hepatice.

— The existence in this group of plants of tubers serving for vegeta-

tion propagation seems to have been, until very recently, almost

unknown to plant morphologists. There are, however, four or five

species, mostly of the genus Anthoceros, in which the occurrence of

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 205

tubers has long been known to systematists. This number has been

recently increased until, at the present time, at least eleven species

are known in which tuber-like growths occur. Of these, four belong

to the genus Anthoceros, three to Riccia, two to Petalophyllum, one

to Fossombronia, and one to Geothallus. It is to be expected that as

the hepatic flora of the drier regions of the earth comes under more

extended and accurate investigation, this evident adaptation for

carrying the plant over a season of drought will be found to be much

more common than has been generally supposed.

In the Californian Anthoceros phymatodes the tuber appears as a

swelling near the apparent apex of the more or less well-defined costa

of a Thallus-segment, becoming soon strictly ventral through the

continued onward growth of the segment, and coming at the same

time to be pendant from the ventral surface through the formation of

a fleshy or slender and elongated peduncle. Tubers are globose

or ellipsoidal in form, 0.25 to 1 mm. in diameter, at first smooth, but

becoming at length thickly covered with root hairs. A cross-section

of the body of the tuber shows it to consist of a cortex of 2 to 4

layers of nearly empty cells enclosing a central mass of smaller cells

so densely filled with oil drops or with merely colorless granules that

the cell boundaries in a section are rendered obscure. There is very

little if any starch. In two cases, old tubers of Anthoceros phymatodes

were found sending out new shoots, demonstrating that they play a

part in the vegetative propagation of the plant. What had simply

been inferred in regard to the function of these organs in the three

tuber-bearing species of Anthoceros previously known has now been

observed in this Californian species.

Dr. Henry KRAEMER: Morphology of the Genus Viola. — About

30 species of violets, chiefly from the United States, have been ex-

amined with special reference to style and stigma, stamen spur, size

and shape of the pollen grains, hairs upon the stamens and petals,

presence of bracts, mucilage cells, etc. The paper, which represents

a large amount of painstaking work, was illustrated by many drawings,

photographs, and photomicrographs.

Bracts with characteristic mucilage-secreting hairs occur in all of

the species, and sub-epidermal mucilage cells are present in the leaf,

stem, and all parts of the flower except the stamens.

A number of species agree in having a nearly globular stigma with

a more or less well developed lip-like appendage, a style with a genic-

ulate bend in the lower part, and corkscrew-shaped hairs on the

206 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

spurred petal. This group includes Viola heterophylla, V. lutea,

V. tricolor, and varieties. In the remaining species the stigma is

straight or somewhat globular and is destitute of any lip-like append-

age, the style is bent or straight, and if any hairs are present upon

the petals, they are straight. This group may be further subdivided

on the length of the nectar-secreting stamenspur as follows:

(1) Spur shorter than the anther cells.— V. blanda, V. primule-

folia, V. lanceolata, V. palustris, V. renifolia.

(2) Spur of the same length as the anther cells and extending

between them. — F. rotundifolia, V. canadensis, V. nuttallii, V. hastata,

V. pubescens, V. scabriuscula, V. tripartita.

(3) Spur extending 1.5 to 1.8 mm. below the anther cells. —

V. pedata, V. ovata.

(4) Spur extending 2.3 to 3.6 mm. below the anther.

(a) Spur 0.78 mm. wide. — V. arenaria, V. labradorica, V. striata,

V. selkirkit.

(6) Spur 1.5 to 1.8 mm. wide.— FV. delphinifolia, V. odorata,

V. obligua, V. palmata, V. sagittata, V. sororia.

(5) Spur extending 9 mm. below the anther. — V. rostrata.

Whether these 30 are all good species or partly varieties or hybrids

is not yet certain. Color in some species has been shown to depend

on climate, and the same is true of caulescence and acaulescence.

The pollen is much alike in all. In some cases systematists appear

to have mistaken germinating pollen grains for hairs in the bottom of

the flower. The shape of the mucilage cells may possibly turn out to

be of some help in classification. They are readily stained in a solu-

tion of methylene blue. The author would be glad to monograph

this genus, if material could be obtained. He desires fresh seeds of

Viola from all parts of the world. His address is Philadelphia College

of Pharmacy, Philadelphia, Penn.

Dr. G. E. STONE: The Influence of Electricity upon Plants. —- V ari-

ous kinds of currents were employed and data showing the relative

effect of each upon the growth of the plant were presented, also the

effect of single stimuli for a period of one minute, hourly intermittent

and constant stimuli were shown. A brief résumé of some of the

more important results obtained by subjecting about 20,000 plants

to electrical stimuli are as follows:

(1) The application of certain strengths of current for a short

period of time (one minute or less) is sufficient to act as a stimulus.

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND'PHYSIOLOGY. 207

(2) The process of germination is accelerated by electricity.

(3) Electrical stimuli give rise to an acceleration in the growth

of the plant.

(4) Electrically stimulated plants do not respond immediately to

the influence of the current. The latent period following stimulation

is equal to about 25 minutes, or, in other words, it is about the same

as that for heliotropic and geotropic stimuli.

(5) The reaction of the plant to electrical stimulation is confined

to a narrow range in the current intensity. The plant reaction is

manifested either in an acceleration or retardation of its metabolic

activities; the nature of the response depends entirely upon the

nature of the strength of the current employed.

(6) There is a minimum, optimum, cessation, and maximum stim-

ulus.

(7) The excitation produced by alternating currents is more marked

than that produced by direct currents.

(8) The increase of stimulus necessary to produce an equally

noticeable difference of perception bears a constant ratio to the total

stimulus intensity; the relationship existing between the perception

and stimulus is expressed by the ratio 1:3 (Weber’s law). i

Dr. C. O. TownsEND: Germination of Spores after Long Exposure

to Distilled Water. — Spores of Mucor, Penicillium, and other fungi

were placed in test-tubes which had been partly filled with distilled

water. Some of the test-tubes were placed in the open air so that

the spores were subjected to the changes in temperature incident to

the changes of weather from day to day as well as to the changes in

temperature between day and night. Other test-tubes were kept at a

nearly constant temperature of 18° in diffused light; others at the

same temperature were kept in the dark, and still others at 25° in

the light. The vitality of these spores was tested from time to time

by placing them upon a gelatine-sugar mixture in damp chambers.

So long as the spores, which were exposed to external conditions,

did not freeze, they retained their ability to germinate in the usual

time — from 12 to 16 hours. After they had been frozen, however,

they did not germinate under the conditions used. The other

spores under investigation retained their ability to germinate for

about six months. The time required for germination after the

spores were placed upon the gelatine-sugar mixture did not materially

change during this period. It should also be noted that the growth

of the mycelia, as well as the ability of the fungi to form new spores,

208 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

did not vary in any marked degree from the growth and spore devel-

opment of dry spores.

Dr. Erwin F. SMITH: Sensitiveness of Certain Parasites to the Acid

Juices of the Host Plants. — The author presented a tabular statement

of the results obtained by inoculating acid nutrient solutions with

bacteria parasitic to plants, e.g., Pseudomonas campestris, Ps. phaseoli,

Ps. hyacinthi, Ps. stewarti, Bacillus amylovorus, B. olee, etc. He was

led to these studies by observing that the three yellow plant parasites

first named spread very slowly through the parenchymatic tissues of

their host plants. This is true in the field and in the greenhouse,

and it also occurs when enormous numbers of the organism are in-

jected into the parenchyma by means of hypodermic syringes. To

fully realize the slow progress of these diseases they should be com-

pared with such rapid diseases as pear blight, the brown rot of the

potato, or the soft white rot of hyacinths, which often destroy

large portions of the host inafew days. ‘Two of these yellow organ-

isms are vessel parasites, their entrance into the plant being favored

by the alkaline juice of the ducts. In all three the restraining influ-

ence was believed to be, in great part, at least, the acid juice of the

parenchyma. The detailed experiments confirm this view and show

that there is a very wide difference in the susceptibility of bacteria

to plant acids. All of the solutions were titrated with > NaOH and

phenolphthalein, so that their exact acidity is known. Those who

wish details are referred to a forthcoming bulletin on the pathogenic

properties and life history of Ps. Ayacinthi, of which this paper will

form a part.

Dr. CARLETON C. Curtis: Further Observations on the Relations

of Turgor to Growth. — Experiments were undertaken to determine

(1) how soon growth would be renewed after a change in the concen-

tration of the nourishing solution, and (2) to measure the turgor force

at the moment of renewed growth. Three species of fungi were used

— a Penicillium, a Mucor, anda Botrytis. These plants were grown in

nourishing solutions and in the same with addition of 4, 9, 14, and

20 per cent nitrate of potash. Penicillium grown in the nourishing

solution had a turgor force of 7.5, nitrate of soda being used as a

plasmolyzer; when grown in 20 per cent nitrate of potash, it had a

turgor force of 42.5. When transferred from the nourishing solution

to the 20 per cent solution, growth was stopped from 8 to 12 hours.

_ At renewal of growth the turgor was found to be normal for the 20

No. 387.]. PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 209

per cent solution, z¢., 42.5. In changing from 20 per cent to o, solu-

tion growth ceased, to be renewed again in 30 to 45 minutes. On

this renewal of growth the turgor force was found to be normal for

the o solution, z¢., 7.5. Corresponding results were obtained with

the weaker solutions. Thus, in changing from o to 4 per cent, re-

covery was effected in about 1 hour, the turgor force being 12, że.,

normal for hyphe growing in such a solution. In changing from 4

to o, growth was renewed after about 15 minutes. Botrytis gave

practically the same results. Mucor was much more sensitive. It

has a lower turgor force and would not stand a change higher than a

4 per cent solution. In other respects it behaved like Penicillium and

Botrytis. When nitrate of potash is used, turgor would seem to be

a controlling force in growth. The checking of growth when the

turgor is increased, as by change from a strong to a weak solution,

corresponds to injury from cutting, że., is in the nature of a shock,

the length of time growth is inhibited depending on its severity.

Dr. W. F. Ganone: Some Appliances for the Elementary Study of

Plant Physiology. — The author pointed out that investigation is in-

directly aided by good elementary teaching, which diffuses its results

and enlists sympathy and support, and as well attracts more and

better students for the making of investigators. At the present time,

too, there is a rapidly increasing tendency to introduce more physio-

logical study into elementary courses in schools and colleges, which

is producing a demand for simpler and less expensive physiological

appliances. In elementary teaching it is qualitative results that are

mainly sought, and hence much simpler and less exact appliances

can be used than is possible in investigation where nothing less than

the very best can profitably be employed. The author then exhibited

and described some simple appliances developed in his physiological

practicum in Smith College. These included a simple temperature

stage, made of copper; an efficient clinostat ample for demonstrat-

ing the principles of geotropism, heliotropism, etc., constructed from

clockwork ; a simple and inexpensive self-recording Auxanometer ;

an Osmometer made from burettes and Schleicher and Schuell’s dif-

fusion shells ; a very simple apparatus for demonstrating the exchange

of gases in respiration; a special germination box; an advantageous

method of preparing a potted plant for the study of transpiration,

and a simple method of graduating roots, etc., with insoluble India

ink, which is applied on a stretched thread along which it runs by

capillarity.

210 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Pror. D. T. Mac DoucaL: Symbiosis and Saprophytism. — It is

customary to designate all chlorophylless, seed-forming plants, which

have no nutritive connection with other vascular species, as sapro-

phytes, or more exactly as holosaprophytes (allotropic or heterotropic

forms, according to Pfeffer’s classification), and others of similar physi-

ological tendencies as hemisaprophytes (mixotropic forms), without re-

gard to the nutritive unions formed by the roots or absorbing organs,

as in mycorhiza, tubercles, and other associations. It is obvious that

the terms saprophyte and holosaprophyte should be applied to those

species only which derive their food supply from organic products

directly without the activity of chlorophyll and unaided by other

organisms. In this sense, which appears to be the only meaning

admissible, the holosaprophytes include numerous bacteria and fungi,

but, so far as previous investigations show, only one seed-forming

genus, Wullschlegelia. As the result of some work now in press, the

waxy white orchid of the northwest, Cephalanthera oregana Reichenb.,

should be added to this category.

As a consequence of the acceptance of the limitation of the term

holosaprophyte, as given above, all those species furnished with

mycorhiza or tubercles, or which enter into direct mechanical or

nutritive associations, must be classed as symbionts.

It is a matter of common knowledge that séedlings are holosapro-

phytic in the stage in which they are wholly dependent upon the

reserve material in the endosperm, and, in general, during the period

previous to the formation of chlorophyll. This period is practically

obliterated in those species in which chlorophyll is formed in the

seed. The capacity for the absorption of humus products has played

an important part in the production of the minute seeds of the orchids

and other groups of similar physiological organization, and the exten-

sion or retention of this capacity throughout a greater or less portion

of the life of the sporophyte has resulted in varying stages of true

saprophytism. Although, so far as known, this period has been

extended to include the complete life history of this generation in

only two seed-forming genera, the results of recent investigations

show that practically all green plants are capable of taking up and

using a varying proportion of humus products. Only those which

show a marked extension of this capacity should be classed as hemi-

saprophytes. The hemisaprophytes among seed-forming plants would

therefore consist chiefly of carnivorous species, whereas nearly all of

those now included are, in fact, more or less symbiotic by means of

mycorhiza, tubercles, etc.

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 211

Pror. D. T. Mac DouGaL: Znfluence of Inversions of Temperature

and Vertical Air Currents upon the Distribution of Plants. — The soil

and the air resting upon it receive the same amount of heat during

the day, but at sunset the temperature of the earth is slightly higher

than that of the air. At this time both begin to lose heat, but the

soil cools much more rapidly than the air. The air is a poorer con-

ductor, than the soil, and hence the layers of air resting immediately

upon it are cooled by radiation and conduction to the cold surface

to a temperature far below that of the body of the air a few meters

above. The consequences of this inversion are to be seen in the

effects of late spring frosts, when the lower branches of a tree or

shrub may be injured while the upper ones will be unharmed.

This nocturnal inversion of temperature occurs over almost all

land areas, but is most marked in regions of low relative humidity.

In North America it is most pronounced on the elevated plains, where

it is a distinct but heretofore unrecognized factor in determining the

boundaries of life zones.

In broken countries the cooling of the surface layers of air results

in its contraction and increase in weight, and, as a consequence, the

cold air thus formed on elevated mesas, ridges, and hilltops flows

down the slopes into the depressions and valleys, filling the latter with

a deep layer of cooled air while a constant supply of warm air settles

down on the highlands. As a result of this action, the hills and

lower mountain ridges have a much more equable temperature than

the valleys and cafions. ‘Thermographic records obtained at Flag-

staff, Arizona (in a valley 6862 feet above sea level), and on Observ-

atory hill (on the west side of the valley at an elevation of 7162

feet), in June and July, 1898, show that the minimum temperature of

the valley was 15° to 27° F. lower than that of the hill at the same

time.

If the slopes of the hill or mountain are several thousand feet in

vertical extension, the descending current may sweep down so rapidly

as to actually increase in temperature and reach the valley below as

a warm wind. Regular currents of this sort are rare. The “ Chinook ”

or “ Foehn ” owes its warmth to this cause.

Again, the upward movement of the air, under the influence of the

sun’s rays during the day, results in an expansion and absorption of

some of the heat, so that these currents reach the highlands at a

lower temperature than the air resting on such areas, and tend to an

equalization of the temperature. At the stations mentioned, the

maximum temperature of the hill was always 4° to 6° F. below that

212 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL. XXXIII.

of the valley. Thus the total daily variation on the hill was 20° to

30° F. less than that of the valley.

Now, the northern advance of southern plants is governed by the

sum of the positive temperatures, or the sum of the temperatures,

above that at which plants and animals start into activity in the

spring, taken throughout the entire season of growth and reproduc-

tion; and the So0uthward distribution of northern plants is governed

by the mean temperature of a brief period of a few weeks during the

hottest part of the summer. It is obvious, therefore, that, as the

positive temperature of the hills and mesas is greater than that of

the valleys, the southern plants should find their way farthest north

along the minor ridges and hills. At the same time the average tem-

perature of the valleys is lower than that of the ridges, and hence

the northern flora should reach its southernmost limits down valleys

heading up in mountains and mesas favorable to the development of

the greatest effects of inversions of temperature.

The influence of inversions of temperature is, therefore, to make

extremely sharp deflections of the zonal boundaries, which may extend

only a short distance locally, or which may reach over a hundred kil-

ometers from the general limits of the zone. This conclusion is sup-

ported by my own observations in Arizona, and by facts concerning

the flora and fauna of New Mexico and Texas cited by Professor

Townsend.

Ascending currents of air also cause changes in humidity which

exercise an extremely local influence on the distribution of the mois-

ture-loving forms. As the diurnal warm current ascends the slope

` of a hill or the walls of a cañon, it expands and loses heat, and at the

same time the dew point is lowered or the relative humidity is in-

creased. When the current reaches the level of the highland it flows

over it as a moist and cool wind. It is gradually warmed again, how-

ever, and its dew point raised in a few kilometers, progress. As a

result of this action the area bordering upon a cañon, gulch, or val-

ley offers a much more humid atmosphere than regions more removed,

and hence these portions are most suitable for the ——

species.

' This soared is beautifully illustrated by the disteibvasion of Raz-

oumofskya vaginata (Willd.) Kuntze, which is parasitic on Pinus pon-

derosa var. scopulorum in this region. Although native of a semi-arid

region, the parasite is most successful in the germination of its seeds

and the attachment of the seedlings to the host plant in a humid

atmosphere. While it is found throughout the pine belt, it is most

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 213

abundant along the margin of mesas, and along hills bearing a certain

topographic relation to adjoining valleys. The most striking example

of this fact is to be seen along the mile-deep cañon of the Colorado

river. Here the heated air rising from the river bed, under the rays

of a sub-tropical sun, loses 20° F. of heat in its vertical ascent of

over a kilometer. As a consequence it pours over the rim of the

mesa heavily laden with moisture, and the Razoumofskya is quite

abundant in a belt a KONPE 3 in width running parallel to the rim,

while it is greater distances from the cañon.

Di Erre

ProF. Conway Mac MILLAN: Notes on the Reproduction and Devel-

opment of Nereocystis. — The author described the great bladder kelp,

N. Liitkeana, which is abundant in the swift tide-water channels of

Puget sound, and which frequently reaches the enormous length of

80 to 100 meters. He has studied several hundred specimens (col-

lected by Miss Josephine Tilden) with special reference to structure

and early stages of growth. He exhibited a plant less than 1 milli-

meter long, and also one about 10 meterslong. The latter consisted

of a hollow green stem several centimeters in diameter at the base

where it was anchored to the mud or rocks by a mat of large branched

thizoids, about 2 decimeters broad. This green stem gradually en-

larged, until, at a distance of about 3 meters from the rhizoids,

it very gradually expanded into a bulb 8 or 10 centimeters in diam-

eter. This was crowned by the broad, thin, and very long, floating

green laminæ. The figure given in Die Natirlichen Pfhlanzenfamilien

is nota very good one. At low tide the sea is dotted with these

floating bulbs, and the plants are so strong, in mass, that fishing

boats may be anchored to them, while smaller boats are sometimes

capsized by them. As is well known, the Aleuts formerly used the

flexible hollow stem to siphon water from their boats.

Spores in sporangia are the only known reproductive bodies.

~ Calosities occur on old plants. Sieve tubes are present. They are

pulled out by the elongation of the stem, and are undoubtedly con-

verted into gelatin. They are morphologically different from trumpet

hyphæ. No evidence of protoplasmic connections was obtained.

The cryptostomata disappear on old plants. The cleft in the lamina

arises not as a tear, but is started by the deliquescence of a single

row of cortex cells just below the epidermis. As the result of this

continued deliquescence an ever deepening fold arises which finally

cuts the lamina into two. Many slides, specimens, photographs,

and drawings were exhibited.

214 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. -[VoL: XXXIII.

Dr. E. A. Burt: Zhe Formation and Structure of the Dissepiment

of Porothelium. — The author traced the development of the fructifi-

cations of Porothelium fimbriatum Pers. from their origin as papille,

through the pore, to the tube stage, in the latter stage contrasting

the structure of the dissepiment where the tubes are closely crowded

together with its*structure where they are more scattered.

This fungus occurs as a thin, closely adhering layer on dead limbs,

etc. The papille are solid throughout their early history. Theydevelop

into pores by the more rapid growth of some parts than of others. In

some species, as P. friesii, the papillz are buried; in others, regarded

as higher in rank, the papillae are buried only in early stages of

growth.

Dr. Erwin F. SMITH : Gelatin Culture Media. — By means of a

chart, photographs, and paintings the author called attention to the

diverse and confusing results different individuals working with the

same organism might reach with gelatin culture media. Our knowl-

edge of this very useful medium has increased greatly in recent years.

The best paper in English is by Geo. S. Fuller, “ On the Proper Reac-

tion of Nutrient Media for Bacterial Cultivation,” Journal of the Am.

Public Health Association, October, 1895, Concord, N. H. The most

confusing things are: (1) the fact that gelatin which reacts neutral

or moderately alkaline to litmus is still acid to phenolphthalein and

often exerts a restraining influence on bacteria, especially certain

parasites ; and (2) the fact that grape sugar or cane sugar in gelatin,

while stimulating growth, often entirely prevents liquefaction, so that

one may be dealing with a liquefying organism without knowing it.

Some liquefiers are more sensitive than others, and it is not yet known

how small an amount of sugar will restrain the most sensitive forms.

All gelatin media should be rendered neutral to phenolphthalein,

and it would be well, for the present at least, to use beef broth free

from muscle sugar in making gelatin. Possibly the restraining influ-

ence of sugar may also be of some use in making gelatin plate cul-

tures of slow-growing forms which are mixed with rapid liquefiers,

and which under ordinary circumstances run over and spoil the plate

before the desired form has been able to grow.

All gelatin media should be titrated against », or 4; normal

caustic soda, and then the desired amount of acid or alkali added in

the form of double normal solutions so as not to much disturb the

proportion of fluids and solids. The melting point depends on the

amount of gelatin added, the length of the steamings, and the amount

No. 387.] PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 215

of acid or alkali added. All of these disturbing influences should be

taken into account. The per cent of gelatin used and the melting

point of the prepared media should always be stated.

Working with gelatin of varying grades of acidity and alkalinity, pre-

pared according to Fuller’s scale, e.g., with + 50 + 40 + 30 + 20+ 10.

o — 10 — 20 — 30 — 40 — 50, with interpolations and extension of

the scale, if necessary, it is possible to obtain curves of growth de-

cidedly different for different species, even those which are morpho-

logically much alike and which behave the same on nutrient agar.

On this scale the + signs indicate acidity and the — signs alkalinity,

and the figures denote, per liter of nutrient gelatin, the number of

cubic centimeters of the normal acid or alkali which would have to

be added to render the medium exactly neutral to phenolphthalein.

The litmus neutral point of gelatin is approximately + 25 of this

scale. The varying behavior of Pseudomonas campestris in the same

gelatin with different quantities of caustic soda is shown on the

accompanying plate.

Pror. CHARLES E. Bessey: Relative Infreguence of Fungi upon

the Trans-Missourt Plains and the Adjacent Foothills of the Rocky

Mountain Region. — A study of the fungus flora of the Trans-Mis-

souri Plains, extending over a period of fourteen years, has shown

that while the number of species is large the number of individuals

is relatively small. This is in marked contrast to the flowering

plants, where the number of individuals is relatively high as com-

pared with the number of species, especially in the herbaceous

groups.

Of the principal groups of fungi, the Phycomycetes are usually

quite infrequent, appearing in considerable numbers in wet years

only ; the Perisporiacez are, likewise, not usually abundant, although

occasionally becoming very abundant, as with the Phycomycetes :

the Pyrenomycetez are numerous as to species, but ordinarily in-

frequent as to individuals, with, however, some marked exceptions,

as the ergot of Agropyron and Elymus (C/aviceps spp.) ; the Disco-

mycetez are rare, excepting in the most favorable of seasons; the

Uredinez are usually abundant, although the number of species is

not exceptionally large; the Ustilagineze are not numerous in species

nor commonly abundant in individuals, excepting for three or four

which affect the cultivated cereals ; of the “ Fungi Imperfecti” the

number of species is relatively large, while again the individuals are

relatively infrequent.

216 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXII.

The higher fungi, including the Basidiomycetez, show this infre-

quence of individuals still more emphatically ; the Gasteromycetez

are ordinarily infrequent, with now and then an exception, in favor-

able periods, as when /thyphallus impudicus springs up in great

abundance; the Hymenomycetez are normally rare, although the

number of species is fairly large.

Apparently this relative infrequence of the fungi is due to the

greater aridity of soil and air, resulting in less favorable conditions

for the germination of the spores, as well as for the subsequent devel-

opment of the plants themselves.

B. M. Duccar anD F. C. Stewart: Different Types of Plant

Diseases due to a Common Rhizoctonia. — Rhizoctonia was established

by De Candolle, in 1815, as a generic name for certain sterile fungi.

Many species have since been described, all of which may be sub-

terranean parasites. There is no certain evidence connecting these

forms with fruiting stages. Studies in plant diseases during the past

few years have brought together some very different types of disease

due to Rhizoctonia, viz.: (1) damping off of seedlings of many

kinds ; (2) a rot of radishes ; (3) a root-rot of beets; and (4) a stem-

rot of carnations. Experiments have proved conclusively that the

root-rot of the beet and the stem-rot of the carnation are inter-

changeable, and indicate that the sterile damping off fungus is also

very probably the same species slightly modified physiologically.

Under certain conditions Rhizoctonia forms sclerotia on the host

(carnation) and also on culture media. On the beet brown mycelia

but no sclerotia develop. The mycelium is peculiar in its method of

branching, and in the formation of certain hyphal elements which

function as spores. The germ tubes of these nearly iso-diametric

elements often bore through the septa of empty cells to which the

germinative cells are still attached. The fungus grows well in acid

media, but is very sensitive to alkaline media, and this suggests

methods of treatment, że., by liming the soil. The similarity of all

of the forms studied suggests that some other so-called species may

likewise prove to be the same organism, and at present the plant

cannot be referred to a definite species.

F. C. Stewart: Zhe Stem-Rot Diseases of the Carnation. — Under

the name “ stem-rot” or “die back” at least two distinct diseases

have been confused. One is caused by Rhizoctonia ; the other is

due to a Fusarium and is, perhaps, identical with Sturgis’s carnation

No. 387.| PLANT MORPHOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 217

stem-rot. Both diseases are common in New York in the field and

in the greenhouse.

The Fusarium attacks chiefly the stem and larger branches, dis-

coloring the wood and killing the cortex. The stems rarely become

soft rotten. The plants die gradually, with yellowing and drying of

the foliage. The fungus fruits rarely on the outside of stems, but

more frequently in the cambium and medulla of stems long dead.

The Rhizoctonia causes plants to wilt suddenly by rotting the stem

at, or just below, the surface of the soil. The cortex readily separates

from the wood. The medulla is attacked quite early, becoming water-

soaked in appearance (or corky, when dry) and filled with hyphæ.

THE OSSICULA AUDITUS AND MAMMALIAN

ANCESTRY.

J. S. KINGSLEY AND W. H. RUDDICK.

THE various students who have investigated the mammalian

ear-bones have arrived at the most diverse views as to their

homologies, and it was with the idea of satisfying ourselves

which of the several accounts of these structures was correct

that we began our studies. As we progressed, however, it

became apparent that these ossicles threw no little light upon

the broader question of the origin of the mammalia. In our

final paper we will give full details of all of our observations, as

well as a discussion of the results of other students. The pres-

ent paper states our views of the homologies of these ossicles

in a brief manner and shows the bearings which these have

upon the problem of mammalian descent. The material which

we have studied has been embryos and larve of Amphiuma,

Pipa, Ichthyophis, Sceleporus, rat, and pig, and our methods

have been largely those of wax reconstruction from sections.

Distinct auditory ossicles occur in no fish-like form, but from

urodeles to man, in one shape or another, they are present in all

forms. In urodeles there is a large fenestra ovalis in the outer

wall of the otic capsule, and in this, connected to its margin

by membrane, is a cartilaginous plate which is usually called

the stapes. It is unnecessary for our present purpose to con-

sider whether this element is formed from the otic capsule, or

is the homologue of the hyomandibular of the fishes, or, again,

is an independent structure. In most urodeles this stapes is

attached to other structures by ligaments alone, but in Amphi-

uma as well as in Plethodon (¢este Winslow) and in all Czcil-

ians which have been studied, the stapes articulates directly

with a stapedial process which is given off from the posterior

side of the quadrate. At first this quadrate is free from the

cranium, and is connected only with the slender Meckelian car-

219

220 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

tilage of the lower jaw. A little later the quadrate extends to

and fuses with the otic capsule a little above and in front

of the fenestra ovalis. This we may term the urodele type of

auditory ossicles, although it is a question as to how far they

serve as a sound-transmitting apparatus, the tympanum being

entirely absent in the urodeles. These features, then, are the

possession of a quadrate which acts as a suspensor of Meckel’s

cartilage, and at the same time articulates with the stapes. It

may be noted, in passing, that in the Cæcilians the stapes is per-

forated, much as in mammals, for the passage of the stapedial

artery, a feature which adds to the probability that this ele-

ment is homologous throughout the pentadactyle vertebrates.!

Of the anura we have studied Pipa, and our results here are

much like those of Gaupp upon Rana. In both of these gen-

era the essential features from our present standpoint show no

affinities with the urodeles, but resemble rather those of the

sauropsida, and hence a description of the relations in a lizard

will answer present purposes.

In Sceleporus, which we take as the sauropsidan type, and

in which we have studied several stages of the conducting ap-

paratus, the auditory chain consists of a stapes lying in a fenes-

tra ovalis, and, connected with this, a columella consisting of

at first a cartilage rod extending horizontally outward into the

tympanic membrane. When first differentiated, the shaft of

this columella lies in the mesenchyma posterior to the entoder-

mal diverticulum, the distal end of which expands later to form

the tympanic cavity. In other words, tke columella is postspi-

vacular. Another point of considerable importance, and one

which has been neglected by most previous students of the audi-

tory ossicles, is the relation of the stapedo-columellar tract to

the adjacent nerves. The facial nerve, after leaving the cra-

nium, passes backward just outside the otic capsule, running

above the stapedo-columellar shaft. At the most posterior

point of its excursion the facialis gives off a nerve, the chorda

l In spite of this similarity between the auditory chains of Cæcilians and

Amphiuma, we do not agree with Cope that the Cecilians have descended from

Amphiuma, nor with the view of the Sarasins that Amphiuma is a neotenic gym-

nophione. The senior author hopes to present his views upon these points at an

early date. is

No. 387.] THE OSSICULA AUDITUS. 221

tympani, which runs forward adove the shaft of the columella

and on the medial side of the quadrate, to extend into the lower

jaw, together with the mandibular branch of the trigeminal

nerve. With further development the columella seemingly

invades the tympanic cavity. In reality the cavity in its ex-

pansion extends around the rod, which, however, remains con-

nected with the posterior tympanic wall by means of a fold of

the tympanic epithelium and the enclosed mesenchyma. The

quadrate, contrary to what obtains in the urodeles, does not

articulate with the stapes, nor is it connected, except by liga-

Fic. r.— Section through the tympanic region of an embryo of Scedeforus undulatus, showing

t i g the tympani ity from behind ; the arrow points towards the tip

of the snout, the cartilages are black. d, digastric muscle; c¢, chorda tympani; /, facial

nerve; mz, head of Meckel’: tilage; g, quadrate ; ¢, tympanic cavity.

he columella, c

ment, with the sound-conducting apparatus. Its sole function

is that of a suspensor of the lower jaw. The sauropsidan type,

then, may be characterized as consisting of a stapes and a colu-

mella which form the auditory chain, the columellar shaft being

post-trematic in origin, while the quadrate is outside of and apart

from the sound-conducting apparatus.

All other questions regarding this apparatus in the saurop-

sida must be ignored here — the question of the homologies of

the stapes, the relations of both stapes and columella to the

hyoid and hyomandibular, etc., as well as discussions of mus-

cles; we can only call attention to the fact that there is some

222 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vovu. XXXIII.

evidence to show that that portion of the columella which lies

within the tympanic membrane may possibly be homologous

with the manubrium of the mammalian malleus, to be described

below.

In speaking of the auditory ossicles of the mammals, it will

be necessary to go into more detail, since, while the different

features of development have been described several times,

there is great diversity of opinion as to the homologies of the

parts concerned.

In the pig the ossicula auditus and related parts can first be

made out in embryos measuring about eighteen millimeters in

Sass

Fic. 2. — Diagram of otic region in Sceleporus embryo: c, columella; cz, chorda t tympani;

J, facial ote. h, as y hm, a ee neye: m hime of Meckel’s cartilage ;

g, quadrate;

total length, and sagittal sections give the clearest pictures. In

embryos of this size the otic capsule has not begun to differ-

entiate, the utriculus, sacculus, and semicircular canals being

imbedded in a homogeneous matrix of mesenchyme, which

nowhere shows that concentration of nuclei so characteristic

of procartilage formation. The stapes, on the other hand, is

well outlined as a mass of procartilage formed around the stape-

dial artery, the mass having the form of a ring rather than

the stirrup shape of the adult. Ventral to the stapes is the

Eustachian cleft, which as yet shows no differentiation into

tympanic cavity and tube. This cleft extends outward for some

distance above, and parallel to the inner end of the external

No. 387.] THE OSSICULA AUDITUS. 223

meatus. The tissue between these two tubes is to form the

tympanic membrane, its plane being now nearly horizontal

instead of oblique, as in the adult. In this membrane is formed

a rod of procartilage entirely unconnected with any other skel-

etal structure, the Anlage of the manubrium mallei. In front

this procartilage gradually shades off into the looser mesen-

chyme between it and the mandibular arch, while behind it is

very sharply delimited from the undifferentiated tissue lying

between it and the hyoid.

In front of the Eustachian cleft and external meatus is

another mass of procartilage, the anlage of the mandibular arch.

At first it consists of a continuous stroma, which extends proxi-

mally and dorsally to a point just in front of the stapes, distally

into the lower jaw. This procartilage rod is not equally dense

throughout, but at the level of the future tympanic membrane

the nuclei are less crowded than they are above and below.

This indicates a division which later becomes more marked,

separating a proximal element, the incus, from a more distal

portion which will give rise later to a proximal body of the mal-

leus and its processus longus and a more distal rod of cartilage

which extends into the lower jaw. So far, with the exception

of the separate origin of the manubrium of the malleus, all who

have approached the problem of the mammalian ear-bones from

the developmental standpoint are in agreement. The differences

of opinion are regarding the nature of the incudal element.

In the pig embryo, twenty millimeters long, several changes

have been introduced. Chondrification of the otic capsule is well

advanced, the foramen ovalis being formed around the base of

the stapes in such a way that it lies within the opening. In

the stapes itself the process of chondrification has set in, while

outside the junction of its crura arises a short process which

articulates with a stapedial process of the incus. The body of

the incus is now an elongate plate with rounded extremities,

the whole occupying a vertical position. The dorsal end extends

up to, and may be said to articulate with a depression in the

outer wall of the otic capsule, just above and outside the fora-

men ovale. Below, the stapes also articulates with the body of

the malleus. The stapedial process of the incus is a slender

224 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII:

rod, smaller than the body, which extends backwards and slightly

downwards to the stapes. From the body of the malleus a

strand of cartilage has extended backwards and has fused with

the manubrial cartilage noticed above, the whole forming the

manubrium of the adult. Distally, the mallear cartilage is still

continuous with the rest of Meckel’s cartilage, extending into

the lower jaw.

At this stage we can recognize clearly the three! ossicles

and their processes of the adult ear. So far they all lie outside

of, and, so far as incus and body of the malleus are concerned,

in front of the tympanum; they are prespiracular. Hence it

follows, as certainly as any morphological conclusion can be

drawn, that they cannot be homologized with the columella and

its derivatives in the sauropsida, as has been attempted by

Albrecht, Dollo, and others. This lack of homology is still

further emphasized by the course of the chorda tympani, which

in its course passes de/ow the articulation of incus and stapes,

and then forward on the inner or medial side of the incus to

the fifth nerve. It may, however, be possible that the manu-

brial portion of the malleus is homologous with the distal portion

of the columella. eee

The question now comes up for decision, What are the hom-

ologues of incus and malleus in the lower vertebrates? All

recent students are in agreement that the body of the malleus

is derived from Meckel’s cartilage, for it retains its connection

with the cartilage of the lower jaw for some time; but whether

it is the articulare of non-mammalian groups can only be de-

cided later, after a discussion of the incus. Concerning this

latter bone two views are held at present, for no recent student

has attempted to recognize in it the hyomandibular. Accord-

ing to one view the incus is the quadrate, while according to

the other it arises from the proximal end of Meckel’s cartilage,

while the quadrate, according to this same view, has fused with

or has become lost in the squamosal region of the mammalian

skull.

The greatest objection which has been advanced to the first

1 The os-obiculare or lentiforme occurring between the incus and stapes is a

later structure without morphological significance.

No. 387.] THE OSSICULA AUDITUS. 225

of these homologies — the incus-quadrate homology — is that it

must necessarily follow that the articulation of the lower jaw

with the cranium in the mammals cannot be homologous with

the articulation in the lower vertebrates, and that it is difficult

to imagine this transfer of functions from one point to another.

The weight of this objection we admit, but we shall endeavor

to show a little later that no matter what view one takes of the

fate of the quadrate in the mammals,.there is this same problem

of the formation of a new articulation to be met, for it is

impossible, upon any basis, to homologize the articulation of

the lower jaw in the mammals and the non-mammalian groups.

Fic. 3. — Diagram of otic region in pig embryo: a, grey of external meatus; c, body of mal-

a nri ct, chorda tympani; /, facial nerve ; A, hyoid; #, Meckel’s cartilage (processus

gus); #2, manubrium mallei; g (č), nae aaa i * Pap sh, styloid process of

aa sm, stapedial muscle ; sf, stapedia

In all ichthyopsida and sauropsida the articulation of the

lower jaw with the cranium is in reality an articulation between

the quadrate and Meckel’s cartilage, and even when it becomes

an osseous articulation it is an ossification of the cartilages

which affords the articular surfaces. In the mammals, on the

other hand, Meckel’s cartilage does not approach in any way to

the glenoid fossa. The mandible forms around the distal portion

of Meckel’s cartilage as a membrane bone, and its ascending

ramus grows away from the cartilage towards the glenoid fossa.

So it is evident that the mandibular part of the articulation in

the mammals is not formed by the Meckel’s cartilage. How

about the fusion of the quadrate in the squamosal, as maintained

by Peters, Albrecht, and Cope? Development shows us not

the slightest trace of cartilage in the region of the squamosal ;

226 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

there is nothing but membrane bone. Besides, the proper posi-

tion for the quadrate is at the proximal end of Meckel’s carti-

lage. But Meckel’s cartilage extends far back of the glenoid

fossa, and one cannot readily imagine any reason for the trans-

fer of the quadrate from one position to another. In a word, it

is as incumbent upon those who claim that the quadrate has

been lost in the squamosal region as upon those who recognize

the quadrate in the incus, to explain the formation of a new

articulation in the mammals.

An easily accessible figure will illustrate these points: Fig.

254 on p. 467 of Bell’s translation of Gegenbaur’s Comparative

Anatomy. If the articulation of the lower jaw of mammals be

homologous with that of lower vertebrates, then Meckel’s carti-

lage (#) should run up into the glenoid fossa. If the incus (z)

be the proximal end of Meckel’s cartilage, then the quadrate

should be sought between it and the cranial wall immedi-

ately adjacent. It is difficult to imagine how the quadrate

could be translated from the point crossed by the “leader”

from z to a point in the glenoid fossa crossed by the “leader ”

from /.

If, on the other hand, we suppose that the proximal end of

Meckel’s cartilage be represented by the body of the malleus,

then the incus is in just the proper position for the quadrate ;

and the proportionally large size of this element in its earlier

stages shows that it must have been of large size in the ances-

tral form. Then, again, in the embryo this incus acts as a true

suspensorium of the lower jaw, while its connection with the

stapes is of secondary size. In short, it fulfills every condition

demanded of a quadrate in position and relation to other parts,

and we doubt if its nature would have been questioned were it

not for the hypothesis that the mammals had descended from

the theromorphs in which the squamosal as well as the quadrate

enters into the formation of the articular surface for the lower

jaw.

One objection to the view that the incus is the quadrate is

based upon the fact that it does not appear from the first as a

discrete element, but is differentiated from a continuous stroma.

This objection loses much of its force when we consider that

No. 387.] THE OSSICULA AUDITUS. 227

both Meckel’s cartilage and the palatoquadrate of the elasmo-

branchs arise from a continuous cord of cells, and only with the

process of chondrification does differentiation occur. In the

digits the separate phalanges are likewise developed from a

continuous mass of procartilage cells. In the light of all the

evidence we feel impelled to agree with the majority of the

embryological students who have studied the question and to

regard the incus as the quadrate.

It appears to us that the relations of these ear-bones throw

no little light upon the question of the origin of the mammals,

or at least of the so-called higher mammals, since it is not

beyond question that the mammals are a monophyletic group.

For many years it was the general supposition that the mam-

mals have descended from the Amphibia. Then came the

discovery of the meroblastic ova of the monotremes, and the

almost simultaneous announcement of the recognition of mam-

malian features in the theromorphous reptiles. Then for several

years the prevailing view was that the mammals must have had

a reptilian ancestry; but the pendulum began to swing back-

wards. The difficulty of the double occipital condyle remained.

Hubrecht has pointed out the difficulty of deriving the mam-

malian ovum, with its peculiarities of segmentation, gastrulation,

and especially its foetal envelopes, from the sauropsidan type,

while these can readily be evolved from the amphibian egg.

Maurer has shown that it is impossible to compare the hair, so

characteristic of mammals, with any known structure in reptiles;

while, on the other hand, he has pointed out the close resem-

blances even in structural details between hair and the epi-

dermal sense organs of the Amphibia.

Now, when we consider the ossicula auditus we see the

impossibility of deriving those of the mammals from those of

the reptiles. As we have shown, the shaft of the columella in

the reptiles is postspiracular and is below the chorda tympani,

while the incus and the body of the malleus are prespiracular

and are above and outside of the chorda tympani. On the other

hand, the mammalian ear-bones with all their peculiar features

(the manubrium of the malleus excepted) are derivable from

those of some urodele-like form. In the urodeles, as in mam-

228 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou XXXIII.

mals, we find an articulation of stapes with quadrate, while in

the reptiles no such articulation occurs.

Another fact which has a bearing upon the question of the

origin of the mammalia has not, so far as we are aware, been

referred to. In the urodeles! there develop a pair of thoracic

ducts, one duct emptying into the venous system on the right

side, the other into the left, near the heart. Of these ducts,

the left is from the first the larger, while a little later the right

completely disappears, leaving the left as the functional duct of

the adult. This disparity in size from the first would show that

this left-sided condition had persisted for a long time. In the

mammals, as is well known, the left thoracic duct alone is

functional, while in all sauropsida it is the right that persists.

It is, therefore, impossible to derive the mammalian conditions

from those found in any existing reptile, but of course one can-

not say but what the earlier reptiles had this part of the lym-

phatic system paired. However, the conditions in the urodeles

are suggestive.

We would not be understood to derive the mammals from

any true urodele stock, but from some ancestor not widely

removed from them. The urodeles, as we know them to-day,

are a degenerate group, possibly descendants from terrestrial

forms, and the lowest of the group, like Necturus, etc., have

departed most widely from the ancestral type. The urodeles

have lost many cranial bones; they have reduced the ribs, they

have lost entodermal gills and gained those of ectodermal origin ;

they have lost the Eustachian tube, but they have retained

many features which make them extremely interesting in con-

nection with all phylogenetic speculations.

If, now, we advocate the amphibian origin of the mammals,

we must consider the arguments of those who would derive

them from the theromorphous reptiles. The chief of these

are as follows:

In certain theromorphs, as in most mammals, there is a het-

erodont dentition ; incisors, canines, and molars being differen-

tiated. This, however, is not conclusive, since a heterodont

1 For our knowledge of the 1ent of thel tem of the urodeles

we are largely indebted to the sor inveitigntions of Dr. F. D. Lambert.

No. 387.] THE OSSICULA AUDITUS. 229

dentition is not extremely rare in the non-mammalian verte-

brates, which are certainly far removed from the mammalian

line. On the other hand, the theromorpha have single-rooted

teeth throughout, while certain of the dinosaurs have them with

two roots. Heterodont dentition may easily be explained by par-

allel development from similar conditions.

In the theromorphs, as in the higher mammals, the coracoid

is united to the scapula. This point is as favorable to the

amphibian as to the theromorphous ancestry,, since a similar

state of affairs occurs in certain existing urodeles.

In theromorphs, as in mammals, there are bicipital ribs, one

head articulating with the neural arch (diapophysis), the other

with centrum or intercentrum. Here again the urodeles will

fill the bill.

In the theromorphs, as in many mammals, there is an ento-

picondylar foramen in the humerus. This seems a feature of

minor importance, since it is lacking in many mammals, while

it is developed in some forms (e.g., Hatteria) which cannot have

had a theromorphous ancestry.

In the theromorpha, ischium and pubis fuse to form an in-

nominate bone. This feature also occurs in certain urodeles

as well as in some other reptiles.

In certain theromorphs (Clepsydrops) there is a differentia-

tion of calcaneum and astragalus, recalling the relations in the

mammals. Unfortunately, almost nothing is known of the foot

structure in other theromorphs, and the resemblances pointed

out in Clepsydrops are not conclusive. In all other sauropsids

there is a strong tendency towards the development of an in-

tratarsal ankle joint. Certainly the mammalian tarsus could

have been derived directly from that of the Amphibia instead of

indirectly through the theromorphs.

There is one serious objection to the theromorphous ancestry

of the mammals upon which sufficient weight has not been

placed. This view assumes that the suspension of the lower

jaw in the theromorphs is, at least in part, homologous with

that in the mammals. It assumes that the glenoid fossa of the

latter has arisen by the squamosal of the reptile usurping the

functions of the quadrate. But here lies a difficulty other than

230 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

that presented on a preceding page. If this assumption be

true, the articular head of the mammalian lower jaw should

represent the articulare, while between this and the tip of the

jaw, several bones — angulare, splenial, dentary — should occur.

In fact, the lower jaw in every mammal, so far as known, ossi-

fies as a single membrane bone, which we prefer to regard, until

better evidence is forthcoming, as the dentary of the lower ver-

tebrates. The articulare we recognize in the body of the mal-

leus, while since a new fulcrum of the lower jaw has been formed,

the other bones, angulare, supra-angulare, splenial, etc., having

no longer cause for existence, have disappeared without leaving

a trace behind. Their proper position would be around that por-

tion of Meckel’s cartilage which for a while persists between

the malleus and the osseous lower jaw.

In examining the shape, relations, etc., of the manubrium,

which, as was noticed above, arises separately from the rest of

the malleus, one can hardly fail to be struck with its resem-

blance to a somewhat reduced visceral arch. This resemblancé

is the more interesting since the cartilage appears in the very

place where, according to several students of the problem of the

segmentation of the vertebrate head (Dohrn, van‘ Wijhe, Beard,

Locy, Neal, etc.), a segment has apparently almost entirely dis-

appeared from the vertebrate head. Whether this and the distal

cartilage of the reptilian columella be the visceral arch of the

missing segment, and whether the Eustachian tube really rep-

resents two confluent gill slits, we do not at present care to

discuss.

DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA (RAFINESQUE) AND

SPELERPES BILINEATUS (GREEN).

HARRIS H. WILDER.

As the two species which form the subject of this paper are

widely distributed over the United States, it is probable that

the differences in environment in the different regions may

cause them to vary somewhat in their mode of life. The obser-

vations recorded here are confined to the Counties of Berk-

shire, Franklin, Hampshire, and Worcester, in the state of

Massachusetts, and the statements made concerning their fre-

quency, manner and times of occurrence, etc., are primarily ap-

plicable to this region. It will also be noticed that the authors

quoted, with the exceptions of BAIRD and Cops, have in mind

a restricted locality in each case (Massachusetts, Maine, New

York) not far from the region in which these observations were

made,

The object of this paper is to render available for laboratory `

purposes, and especially for the study of histology, two of our

abundant native salamanders, which have hitherto been too

much neglected, both because they are not easily found without

a little experience and because they are apt to be confused

with each other, especially during their larval life. The ease

with which European investigators may obtain and identify

their one classical species, Salamandra maculosa, without need-

ing to be experts in systematic literature, or running the risk

of erroneous conclusions by confusing externally similar species,

is often envied here in America, where our very wealth in

Urodelan material is a frequent source of vexation to the in-

vestigator, who realizes that even in histological research he

cannot afford to be mistaken in the species studied. The two

species considered here present many advantages which should

make them favorite animals for laboratory research, when the

231

232 LHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. > (VOL. XXXIII.

difficulties of finding them and distinguishing them from each

other are once removed.

Early Reports of their Occurrence.— The earlier writers on

the subject seem to have considered both species very rare, a

circumstance which must be attributed wholly to their habit of

concealment and the difficulty of finding them to one not familiar

with their ways. They are evidently indigenous species, and we

cannot here have to do with a recent increase in numbers, as in

the case of the English sparrow or the periwinkle (Littorina).

The first of these two salamanders to be discovered was Des-

mognathus fusca, first described by RAFINESQUE ('20) as Tritu-

rus fuscus, described later by HARLAN (22) under the name of

Salamandra picta, and cited as such by STORER ('37) in his

“Report.

STORER states that he has never met with this species him-

self, but includes it in the list of Massachusetts Amphibia on

the authority of Dr. PICKERING, who had seen one specimen

that was found in a well in Ipswich, Mass. `

DeEKay (43) includes this species among the fauna of the

state of New York, on the ground that it has been found both

in Massachusetts and in Pennsylvania. The other associated

species, Spelerpes bilineatus, does not appear to have been

reported by any of the above authors, and was first described

by GREEN (18), who found it in New Jersey and named it

Salamandra bilineata. It is thus clear that the two species

in question, in spite of their abundance, were considered rare

by the earlier authors.

Of especial interest to me has been a more recent report, by

J. A. ALLEN (68), on the Amphibia “found in the vicinity of

Springfield, Mass.,” in which he adds, after the name Spelerpes

bilineatus, “one specimen, rare.” j

The next name on the list is that of Desmognathus fusca,

which he has not found at all, but quotes it as having been

found in the state. He writes that this species is “ equally

rare with the preceding ” (że., S. bilineatus). This failure to

find these two commonest species is the more singular since

the author proves himself a careful collector by including in his

list such species as Pseudotriton salmoneus and Plethodon gluti-

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 233

nosus, which are rarely met with in this locality. It cannot be

said, however, that all authors are in accord concerning the

rarity of these two salamanders. It is noticeable that BAIRD

(50) and Cope ('89), both of whom had exceptional opportunity

to study specimens from an extensive area, do not consider it

rare. Cope (89) distinctly states, on the other hand, that

D. fusca is “perhaps the most abundant salamander in N.

America.”

Habitat. — Both of the salamanders in question are similar

in habit and are commonly found associated. Although both

are very common, they are so skilfully concealed, at least by

day, that special knowledge is necessary in order to collect

them in abundance. This is doubtless the reason why they

have been considered rare.

They are found in and about running brooks that are plenti-

fully supplied with small stones, and they seem to prefer spots

shaded by trees. Perhaps the best brooks of all are the little

mountain streams that run swiftly down quite steep inclines,

forming miniature cascades alternating with small shallow

basins. Mountainous regions abound in such brooks, which may

be usually located from a distance by noting the places where

the slopes of two hills converge, forming a ravine. When such

a brook is found, begin the search by turning over all the stones

and bits of fallen logs that lie in the immediate vicinity of the

edge of the brook. Stones, lying a foot or more above the water

and upon the dry bank, will yield nothing, and, on the other

hand, stones nearly or wholly submerged in the flowing water

will be profitless, since any animals contained beneath them

may easily escape by slipping along with the turbid current.

The best stones are rather irregular ones, lying on the edge of

the brook, and with the bottom surface just below the level of

the water. The right sort of a stone, when lifted, should

reveal a shallow cavity formed in the wet sand or mud, but

containing little or no water at the moment at which the stone

is removed.

A little experience will enable the seeker to determine just

which stones or other objects lie in the right position to serve

as protection for the salamanders, and thus the labor becomes

234 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

much lessened. Since the adult salamanders are extremely

slippery and often very rapid in their movements, it is advan-

tageous to keep in one hand a small net of cheese cloth, having

an aperture about six inches across, and with a very short

handle.

The larvæ of both species are to be sought for in the water,

and may be seen lying upon the bottom of the quiet pools,

especially those with a fine gravel bottom. Even at this stage

they are fond of concealment, and if there are small stones,

fallen leaves, or other objects in these miniature basins, they

should be removed and the water allowed to settle. The larvee

may be easily captured by means of the net. This should be

laid upon the bottom and the larva driven into it by approach-

ing it from behind with the hand or a small stick. The great

majority of the larvz collected in this way are those of Spe-

lerpes, as it remains much longer in the larval state, but the

very similar larve of Desmognathus occur in similar places

and are very difficult to distinguish from the others. (See

_ below.)

Adults. — As the two species belong to different subfami-

lies, it would seem an easy matter to distinguish the adults, but

unfortunately the most distinctive characters are skeletal, and

the external feature, such as color, number of costal folds, etc.,

although noticeably different in extreme or typical specimens,

show so many gradations and intermediate forms that the deter-

mination is in many cases extremely difficult. Both species

are dark above, marbled along the sides, and without pigment

ventrally. Both species possess a broad dorsal stripe with

crenulate edges. This stripe in typical specimen of D. fusca is

very dark brown, so that in living specimens it merges almost

indistinguishably into the dark slate color which limits it later-

ally. In the other species the dorsal stripe is usually light

brown or fawn color, lighter at its outer edges and bordered by

a very dark brown stripe, hence ‘‘dz/ineatus.” It is, however,

quite usual to find specimens of D. fusca with a light rufous

dorsal band, set off very conspicuously from the slate-color at

its outer edges ; while in many specimens of S. bilineatus the

dorsal band is quite dark, without lighter edges, thus blending

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 235

into the dark lateral line which in time becomes lost in the

dark color of the flanks, the result being similar to that seen in

the lighter specimens of D. fusca. The ventral side furnishes

a surer test, as it is usually of a light lemon yellow color in

S. bilineatus and white and semi-transparent in D. fusca.

This yellow color of the former species changes to a light

-salmon pink in specimens thrown alive into aqueous corrosive

sublimate. As for general shape and size, D. fusca attains a

greater size, and in these large specimens (10 cm. +) the. large

muscles of the jaw form definite protuberances upon the head.

S. bilineatus is not as robust a species as the other, and the

tail particularly seems more slender and longer in proportion.

The number of costal folds may often be useful as a diagnostic,

but this character seems liable to individual variation, and one

is always in doubt where to place the beginning and end of the

series counted. In D. fusca there are generally twelve folds

(i.e. the myotomes, not the myocommata) between the fore and

hind limb, while S. bilineatus shows usually fourteen or fifteen.

These numbers can, however, be used for comparison only in a

general way, for the relative position between these folds and

the place of origin for the limbs appears to be subject to varia-

tion. Perhaps the surest method of distinguishing is to collect

a few typical specimens of each, and use them as standards for

comparison, employing the other diagnostic points as they may

seem applicable in individual cases.

Eggs. —The eggs of S. bilineatus appear to be the more

common, or at least the more usually found, and may be ob-

tained during May and June. I have found them at the fol-

lowing dates: May 27, June 12. They are deposited in a

single layer upon the lower side of submerged stones, each

batch containing from 30-50 eggs. The stones which are

suitable for this purpose must be in the form of an arch allow-

ing the water to flow beneath, as in the diagram, Fig. 1. They

are generally in the more rapidly flowing portions of the brook,

but the depth of water must be such that the eggs are at all

times entirely submerged, as the dash of the surface ripples

striking against them would subject them to mechanical

injury.

236 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

The eggs appear attached to the surface of the stone by

gelatinous threads proceeding from the outer envelope, and

although they are generally contiguous, they are each attached

separately. Within the eggs the embryos lie free, the heavier

> Surface ripples

ra o

—- i Brook

Fic. 1. — Diagram showing hod of depositi f egg ployed by Selerpes bilineatus.

yolk being always beneath. When the normal position i

changed by the sudden overturning of the stone, the eggs roll

over simultaneously in order to resume their normal position.

The eggs and their manner of deposition have been well

described by VERRILL ('62, 63), although the author considers

"a si —

Fic. 2. — Desmognathus fusca © with egg-rosary, Natural size.

them as the eggs of Desmognathus fusca and describes the

under that name. ?

The eggs which really belong to this latter species, as de-

scribed by BAIRD ('50) and later by Cope ('89), are laid in a long

string and wrapped around the body of the female like a rosary.

Copr’s statement is as follows: “Professor Baird originally

noticed the curious disposition of the eggs in this species,

No. 387-] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 237

which I have verified on a few occasions. As in the Anurous

genus Alptes, the eggs, on emission, are connected by an albu-

minous thread, which soon contracts and hardens. One of the

sexes protects this rosary by wrapping it several times round

the body and remaining concealed in a comparatively dry spot.

How long this guard continues is not known.” (COPE, ’89,

pp. 196, 197.)

After searching for such eggs during several seasons in

vain, I was able finally to confirm these statements by means

of a batch of eggs which were laid in my laboratory ¢errarium.

When found (June 1, 1898), the position of the mother and

Outer envelope Outer envelope

. '

Stalk for attachment

Fic. 3. FIG. 4.

Fic. 3. — Egg of Desmognathus fusca. x5.

Fic. 4. — Egg of Spelerpes bilineatus. x 5.

eggs was as represented in Fig. 2, which is drawn as though

looked directly down upon from above.

The adult lay beneath a brick and in an irregularly oval hol-

low made in the mud, evidently by herself.

The eggs, which showed then no signs of development, and

which must have been just laid, were, indeed, wrapped about

the body of the parent, but not in a definite single string.

Each was surrounded by a loose outer membrane which ta-

pered a tone end to a strong cord, and several or all of these

cords seemed to focus at a single point, much like a bunch of

toy balloons held in the hand of a street vender. The attach-

ment to the body was loose, and was evidently effected by the

female by winding her body in among the strings. The eggs

changed their position somewhat from day to day, as though,

by the movement of the parent, new combinations had been

238 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL; XXXIII.

produced. It is even possible, in consideration of the marked

nocturnal habits of this species, that the female may leave the

egg-mass during the night, returning to it by day. 7

Comparison of the Eggs. —The comparative size of the eggs

of the two species is shown in Figs. 3 and 4, in which they are

drawn five times the natural size. Each appears protected by

three membranes, two that fit closely and an outer loose one.

It is by means of strings proceeding from this latter that the

one is attached to the parent and the other to the surface of

the stone, although in the latter case there appears to bea

. definite adhesion, in which not only the stringy processes but

also the surface of the membrane itself participates. As the

development shows, the egg of Spelerpes is holoblastic, like

the more usual amphibian egg, while that of Desmognathus is

meroblastic.

Development of Spelerpes. — Figs. 5-19 represent a series of

views illustrative of the external development of Spelerpes and

drawn to the same scale (x5). As the eggs used in these

observations were of several different ages, it was not easy for

me to fix definite time-limits to the several stages.

The oldest eggs collected were almost at Stage d when found.

Stages a-d rest upon observations made upon the youngest lot

collected ; e-# are consecutive stages of the oldest lot. As I

have the dates of the stages figured, the record is complete,

except for the time between d-e, which may be from 24-48

hours, The record, compiled from my notes, is as follows :—

Stages a and b. The youngest eggs collected May 27, at 10

A.M., showed no visible traces of external folds. Their appear-

ance 24 hours afterward (10 A.M., May 28) is represented in

Figs. 5-9. The development was somewhat uneven, and Stages

a and 4 were selected as the extremes.

Stage c. These were drawn from the same lot as a and b,

six hours afterward, May 28, 4.10 p.m. (Figs. 10, 1 I.)

Stage d. Killed May 29, 12.20 m. (Figs. 12, 13.)

Stage e. These are from another and more advanced batch

of eggs. All the other stages are taken from this lot.

The specimens of Stage e, as figured here (Figs. 14-16), were

killed May 28, 4 p.m. The time it takes Stage d to reach the

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 239

development shown by e, I cannot tell, but suppose it to be

24-48 hours.

Stage f, June 1. (Fig. 17.) Embryos move in eggs when

disturbed.

Stage g, June 6. (Fig. 18.) For this stage I have the follow-

ing memorandum: ‘“ When taken out of egg membranes, swim

about in watch crystal very vigorously for a few seconds and

Fic. 13. Fic. 17. Fic. 18.

Fics. 5-19. — Developmental Stages of Spelerpes bilineatus.

repeat this each time when touched. Dorsal surfaces show

pigment, light grayish appearance. Under lens, minutely

mottled with pale gray dots (pigment cells), 6-7 little squarish

areas left unpigmented in double row along back. These are

to be the characteristic light spots of the larvæ.” 5-7 days

after reaching this stage the larvæ hatched. In the first case

observed, June 11, the eggs broke when extracted from the

water and liberated the larve. A note as follows: “It had to

be caught with the little net; it swam about rapidly from one

240 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

side of the tank to the other and avoided the net. Could not

be caught with a watch crystal. Movement, avoiding the net,

etc., as in older larve.’’ On June 13 the rest hatched.

Stage h. (Fig. 19.) Killed June 16, three days after hatching,

12.5 mm. long.

Development of Desmognathus.— Although I have fewer

stages here to record, I can be more certain with the time-

ratios between the stages, since all the observations were made

upon a single batch of eggs, the ones described above, found

Fic. 21. Fic. 23. Fic. 24. Fic. 25.

Fics. "o — Developmental stages of Desmognathus fusca. In the above series the stages are

nyes sd rage small letters for Sfelerfes and capitals for Desmognathus. Thes

in hae tw ot correspond. Different views of the same — are designated by

numbers pinia to an letter. AZ the figures are magnified five tim

June 1, and probably laid the night or the day previous. My

observations cover but four stages, as figured here, and the

dates of the stages are as follows:

Stage A (Figs. 20-22), June 11.

Stage B (Fig. 23), June 14.

Stage C (Fig. 24), June 18.

Stage D (Fig. 25), June 21.

The pigmentation which was distinctly noticeable in Stage C

had by June 24 distributed itself in the characteristic pattern,

leaving little unpigmented squares in the manner described for

Spelerpes. I killed the last embryo June 30, at which date the

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 241

specimen, although still in the egg, and leaving a large yolk-

sac, was in other respects a fully developed larva. The pig-

mentation was complete, the external gills fully developed, and

the feet had the full number of distinct toes (4 anteriorly, 5

posteriorly). ,

Larve of Desmognathus fusca.— From the suggestions of

the previous paragraph, if becomes probable that the larva

of Desmognathus remains in the egg until very well developed.

My oldest embryo, taken from the egg June 30, is 13 mm. in

length, still possessing so large a yolk-mass that it was evidently

intended to remain in the egg for a much longer time.

I have taken Desmognathus larve only during the months of

August—October, and these vary from 20-30 mm. in length,

with external gills much reduced.

During fall and early winter the smallest adults are found

35-40 mm. in length, and differing from the largest larvæ

mainly in the absence of the external gills.

Summing up the evidence, it becomes probable that the

larvee of Desmognathus remain in the egg until nearly adult,

that they emerge from the egg in midsummer, that the gills,

smaller at the time of hatching than at an earlier embryonic

period, become gradually lost —a process which becomes com-

plete during the late fall of the same year in which the eggs

are laid. This history will readily explain the fact why the

larval Desmognathus, perhaps the commoner of the two species

considered, is so rarely met with. I have collected many hun-

dreds of the larvæ of S. bilineatus, and a very few, not more

than twenty in all, of the larve of D. fusca. In habits these

larvee resemble the adults. They avoid the deeper pools which

abound in the larve of the other species, and lie where it is

very shallow or in the wet sand, where they may find in places

just water enough to cover them. When alarmed they run

rather than swim, often abandoning the water, running with a

series of quick jumps over the wet sand. Copr’s only mention

of this larva is so short and couched in such general words as

to be applicable to either species. He says: “Its delicate larva

may be observed darting rapidly from place to place, seeking

concealment among mud and leaves.” The color and marking

242 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

of this larva, as before mentioned, are identical with those of the

larva of S. bilineatus, and are thus useless as a distinguishing

test.

Larve of Spelerpes bilineatus. — The larvæ of S. bilineatus

hatch early and continue for a long time in the larval state,

probably 2-3 years.

Core ('89) says: “It is one of those species whose metamor-

phoses are prolonged and which remains in the larval state

until nearly grown.” VERRILL ('62, 63) says of it, under the

name of D. fusca: “The young become quite large before

losing their gills.’ This description cannot apply to the

genuine D. fusca, as has just been shown, and as the author

has described in the same paper the eggs of S. bilineatus,

the larvæ he found undoubtedly belonged to this latter species,

concerning which the statement is an accurate one. The

growth must be exceedingly slow and dependent upon the for-

tune of the individual in securing prey. I have caught all

stages from 16-52 mm. at all seasons of the year, and see no

indication that those larve collected at any one time represent

one, two, or three years of definite growth.

For the purpose of studying this point I went to Williams-

town, Mass., in September, 1896, collected 90 larvæ, and meas-

ured and tabulated each! The result of this is shown graph-

ically in Fig. 26, in which the ordinates represent the total

lengths in millimeters, and the abscissas the number found.

The results seem to show, in general, merely a decrease in num-

bers as the animal gets larger, which was to be expected.

There are gaps in one or two places, indicating sizes that I

did not find, but these are by no means wide enough to repre-

sent a year’s growth. 52 mm. represents about the limit of size

reached by the larvae under the most favorable circumstances.

I have found adults a little smaller than this.

Differentiation of the Larve.—The fact that the larve of

S. bilineatus are exceedingly common, while those of D. fusca

are rare, renders it æ priori probable that a given larva belongs

1 I was materially assisted in the collection of these larve by my good friend,

the late Dr. James I. Peck, whose kindness I most pleasantly remember in this

connection.

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 243

to the former species. This may become a certainty if the larva

be above 35 mm. in total length. At about 20 mm. the larve

of D. fusca have very small external gills, and the tail fin is

obsolescent; while larvæ of S. bilineatus of the same size have

very apparent external gills and a very broad tail fin, ending

obtusely. In general, the larva of D. fusca is at all stages

suggestive of maturity, while that of S. bilineatus is larval

and piscine in its general appearance. The former resembles

Amblystoma in shape, the latter Necturus. The former has a

—_ a

n na aa

\ \

\ [A

AGW | ii A

z | ANNC NI \

Ji DUCH, ik

16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52

Fic. 26. — Curve showing frequency of the larva of S. d¢/ineatus at its different stages.

short head, rounded above, shows well-marked costal folds, has

robust limbs and a narrow tail fin. The latter has a long flat

head, obscure costal folds, and a very broad tail fin. A definite

distinguishing characteristic does not seem to exist, but there

are so many general distinctions that a person who has once

studied and compared the two will find no difficulty in identify-

ing each species at any stage.

Method of Rearing in Confinement.— The adults of both

species, because of their peculiarities in respiration and the

consequent necessity of keeping their skin moist, cannot be

kept either in water or in a dry atmosphere, but may easily

244 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

be kept for months or years in an ordinary fernery where the

atmosphere is constantly saturated with moisture. I have in

my laboratory a large fernery or zerrarium, about 2 x 3 feet

square and-2 feet high. The bottom consists of a zinc tray,

8 inches deep and water-tight. The top and sides are of

glass and the front side runs in a frame with weights, being

thus capable of being raised and lowered like an ordinary

window-sash. In the bottom of this there are about 6 inches

of good garden soil, in which are planted ferns and other wood

plants. The surface is partly covered with moss, and here and

there are placed several stones, the size of one’s fist, and a few

pieces of rotten stump, arranged so as to give shelter to the

adults. In one corner a crystallizing dish is sunk to the level

of the soil. This is filled with water and the bottom covered

with a little fine sand. Some duckweed, or Salvinia, may be

placed upon the surface, and a few small stones should be put

in a dish. At the beginning of the season, after arranging

everything as above, enough water is poured in to drench the

soil, and the sunken dish is filled. After this the terrarium is

self-regulating. The water that evaporates is re-precipitated as

moisture, and the total loss from the little pond in the corner

is so slight that it needs replenishing not oftener than once in

six months. If the ¢errarzum is to support many animals, it is

better to place a few earthworms, myriapods, etc., in it; and if

the pond is designed for the rearing of larvæ, supplies of Ento-

mostraca and a little Spirogyra to feed them with should be

occasionally introduced. I have tried placing tiny bits of meat

in prominent places, but they merely mould and have to be

removed. I have kept as many as 20-30 adults and a dozen

larvee in my ¢errarium during an entire college year, and several

times, on clearing it out in the fall after the summer vacation, I

have found alive and in good condition adults which I had been

unable to find in the spring, when I intend always to remove

the animals. It seems most probable that these salamanders

find enough to eat among the worms and insects introduced

with the earth and plants, as they always appear in perfectly

normal condition and contrast very forcibly with Diemyotylus,

which grows thin and often starves to death when placed under

No. 387.] DESMOGNATHUS FUSCA. 245

the same conditions. An examination of stomachs would, of

course, settle this point; but I do not happen to have on hand

at present any specimens which are known to have been kept

for a long time in this manner.

Advantages as Laboratory Animals. — The advantage sug-

gested in the previous paragraph is an important one, being

animals that may be easily kept in the laboratory during the

winter without feeding or other attention. To collect them

from the ¢errarium, lift up the stones exactly as when in

the field, or else wait until 9 or 10 P.M., and bring a light

suddenly upon them. They are nocturnal and at such times

forsake their concealment and crawl about over the glass sides

and roof.

A second great advantage is that they may be collected out of

doors all the year round, except during the time of deep snow, I

have collected them with ease here in December and in March,

thus leaving an interval of not more than 8-10 weeks during

which they cannot readily be obtained. The eggs are peculiarly

adapted to all sorts of experimentation ; they lack the black pig-

ment of the frog’s egg, and thus give better results in staining.

As their development is later in the year, they may be obtained

after the eggs of frogs and toads have disappeared. The eggs

of S. bilineatus develop readily when removed from the rock

on which they are laid, if they are placed upon sand in a dish

of water into which fresh water is constantly being introduced

through a small pipe or glass tube. Those of D. fusca develop

in the terrarium, and may be removed singly from the mass

without disturbing the parent. It is highly probable that a

mass of Desmognathus eggs would develop equally well when

removed from the parent, if kept in the zerrarium under the

usual conditions; but I have not yet had an opportunity to test

this, and it is at least possible that necessary moisture and

even warmth may be derived from the body of parent.

246 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ALLEN, J. A., 68. Catalog of the Reptiles and Batrachians found in the

Vicinity of Springfield, Mass., with Notices of all the Other Species

known to inhabit the State. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. XII.

pp. 171-204.

BAIRD, S. F.,’50. Revision of the North American tailed Batrachia, with

Descriptions of New Genera and Species. Journ. Acad. Phila.

Second series. I. p. 281.

Cope, E. D., ’89. The Batrachia of North America. Bull. U. S. National

Museum. No. 34. Washington.

De Kay, J. E., '43. Zoology of New York, or the New York Fauna.

GREEN, '18. Journ. Acad. Phila. I

HARLAN, '22. Journ. Acad. Phila. V.

RAFINESQUE, '20. Annals of Nature.

STORER, D. H.,’37. Report on the Reptiles of Massachusetts.

VERRILL, A. E., 62. Notice on the Eggs and Young of a Salamander

(D. fusca Baird) from Maine. Annals Nat. Hist. Boston. IX

P. 253.

THE POISONS GIVEN OFF BY PARASITIC WORMS

IN MAN AND ANIMALS.

G. H. F. NUTTALL.

Many of the symptoms affecting the human subject as well

as animals who harbor parasitic worms have been attributed by

certain authors to poisons which the latter develop within the

body of their host. Peiper, of Greifswald, recently published

_ an article in which he gathered together a good deal of evidence

from scattered sources, evidence which very clearly proves that

a number of worms do give off poisons.

In the case of the Ascari (familiarly called round or maw

worms), which are found in man, the pig, the cat, and horse, the

evidence is very striking. There are a number of cases re-

corded where children who suffered from convulsions, loss of

consciousness, great loss of flesh, anzemia, and other symptoms,

were promptly and permanently cured of all of these by the

use of medicines (‘anthelmintics,” vulgarly called “worm

medicines’’), which removed the parasites from the body.

A number of authors have claimed that these parasites.

were simply injurious through their presence as foreign bodies

within the intestine, as well as through their boring, their active

movements, and their robbing their host of his proper share of

the food he had eaten. That these worms contain some poi-

sonous substance was claimed by Miram, who whilst studying

the Ascaris megalocephala suffered twice from attacks of

sneezing, swelling of the eyelids, and excessive secretion of

tears, besides severe itching and swelling of the fingers which

had been in contact with the worms. Von Linstow noted that

when these worms were cut open they gave off a sharp, pep-

pery odor and caused tears to flow from his eyes. Inadver-

tently touching his eye with a finger which had been in contact

with these worms, a very severe inflammation of the conjunctiva,

with a condition known as chemosis, resulted. Raillet, Arthus,

247

248 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

and Chanson had similar experiences. The latter two observers,

working with an ascaris from the horse, suffered in addition

from pain in the throat and loss of voice. These experimenters

found that two cubic centimeters of the fluid taken from the

inside of these worms would kill a rabbit.

Kolbe, of Reinez, after having read Peiper’s publication,

above referred to, reported a remarkable case of a child he had

unsuccessfully treated with the regular worm medicines. The

boy had suffered for-over a year from severe abdominal pains,

frequent attacks of fainting, and convulsions. The doctor hav-

ing been unsuccessful, a friend of the boy’s mother — a baker

by trade — suggested that she should rub up a dried round-

worm with sugar, and make the boy take it. This “ homceo-

pathic ” remedy had an immediate effect ; two tangled masses

of worms the size of a fist being given off by the patient, who

made a prompt and complete recovery. Cobbold and Davaine

have reported cases where various nervous symptoms had sub-

sided on the removal of tapeworms. Marx saw an epilepsy of

three years’ standing cease on the removal of a Tenia solium.

It is curious that the eyes are so frequently affected in those

suffering from tapeworms. It is quite possible that this is due

to the effects of a poison circulating in the blood, the same

having been absorbed from the intestine where the parasite is

domiciled. In five out of fourteen cases of patients harboring

the tapeworm known as Tænia nana, Grassi observed serious

symptoms resembling those of epilepsy.

Another worm, the Bothriocephalus, may cause severe anz-

mia, which has variously been explained as due to a peculiar

poison, to effects resulting from the death of the worm, or to the

length of time that the individual has harbored the parasite.

A blood-sucking worm, the Anchylostoma, which may occur in

hundreds and even thousands in the intestine, was believed by

Lussana to contain a poison, and not to injure its host simply

through the loss of blood it entailed. Looss, of Cairo, also

states his belief, in a recent publication, that these parasites con-

tain a poison. Working with the larve of this worm last sum-

mer, he found that even after carefully washing them, they.

caused dogs which had swallowed them to vomit, whereas the

No. 387.] PARASITE WORMS IN MAN AND ANIMALS. 249

water in which the parasites had been washed had no effect on

the dogs. a

The Tenia ecchinococcus, a tapeworm which in one form of

its parasitic life gives rise to the condition called “Hydatid cyst,”

also gives off a poison, for the fluid taken from the cyst has

been shown to be toxic by Debove and Humphrey, who experi-

mented on men and animals. This explains the severe symp-

toms and even death which may follow the puncture of a cyst

by the surgeon, or its spontaneous rupture. There is also

reason to believe that the Trichina and other parasitic worms

give off poisons. At any rate, we have a fruitful field of inves-

tigation open to research along these lines, and there may be a

good deal in the home remedy of the baker worm-specialist !

HYGIENIC INSTITUTE UNIVERSITY OF BERLIN.

A CURIOUS MALFORMATION OF THE SHIELDS

ON. A SNAKE'S HEAD.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

Dr. Josua LINDAHL, director of the Museum of the Cincin-

nati Society of Natural History, recently sent me a snake for

examination which had defied all attempts at identification on

account of the extraordinary scutellation of the top of the head.

It was an old specimen found in the basement without label

and without indication of origin or locality. Its color is entirely

faded out, the snake is extremely emaciated, and the preserva-

tion of the body is bad. However, I think I make out 25

scale-rows, 229 ventrals, a double anal, and about 80 caudals ;

Lindahl’s measurements are: length, 53 inches; tail, 834 inches.

The principal feature of the top of the head is the total

absence of an unpaired frontal, the meeting of the supraoculars

in a broad suture on the median line, and the extraordinary size

and shape of the prefrontals. In the suture between the latter

there is a deep pit filled up with soft skin, and the rostral

shows some signs of damage by violence. These features and

the general extraordinary aspect of the top of the head are shown

in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 2). In all other respects the

snake appeared to be normal, and while the above-mentioned

features looked outlandish enough I was soon convinced that I

had only to do with a most abnormal specimen of the typical

colubrine snakes. An examination of the dentition and other

structural characters showed that the specimen belonged to the

genus commonly known as Co/uder, while the more minute de-

tails of the scale formula, vzz., one preocular, two postocular,

two large anterior temporals, in addition to those given above,

pointed directly to Coluber obsoletus, the common “mountain

black snake” of the eastern and Austroriparian faunas of North

America. A direct comparison with specimens of this species

confirmed the correctness of the identification. For the sake

251

252 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

of illustration Iadd a sketch of the upper surface of the head

of a normal specimen (Fig. 1). :

In considering the cause of this malformation I was attracted

by the pit in the inter-prefrontal suture, and it at once struck

me that it was located in the fontanelle, between the nasals and

the frontal bones. The meeting point of the inter-supraocular

suture with that of the inter-parietal suture also shows soft

skin. The median suture between this point and the pit cor-

responds to the suture between the frontal bones. A sketch of

the top of the skull of the species is added (Fig. 3) to make

Diagrams of top of head of Coluber obsoletus. Fig. 1. — Normal specimen. Fig. 2. — Malformed

specimen. Fig. 3.— Top of skull: /, frontal bone; a, maxillary; n,‘nasal; o, orbit;

P, parietal; fmx, premaxillary; 4x/, prefrontal.

these points clear. Knowing the regenerative power of the

reptilian tissues, I could not escape the impression that the

true explanation of the malformation is an injury to the skin

of the top of the head, by which the whole derm from the ros-

tral to beyond the posterior end of the frontal became removed.

In healing, the covering of the wound probably started from

the edges of the lacerated adjoining scutes, which continued to

grow until they met on the mesial line. In the sketch (Fig. 2)

I have indicated by a dotted line the probable extent of the

injury, but Iam bound to add that there is no indication in

the specimen. It must be remembered that the epidermal cov-

ering is regularly shed, and that the outline of the wound which

probably was visible in the first covering may have disappeared

in the succeeding molts.

EDITORIAL.

The Society of Morphologists, at its recent meeting in New York,

voted that the American Naturalist should be the official organ of

the society. The Society of Morphologists is one of the most ener-

getic of the societies affiliated with the Society of Naturalists, and

includes a large proportion of the active workers in zoology east of

the Rocky Mountains.

We are therefore very glad to accept the vote of the Society of

Morphologists, and to place our pages at the disposal of the officers

of the society for notices and of other members for communications

on matters relating to the society. We shall be glad especially to

receive papers read at the meeting of the morphologists, and so far

as they are suited to the aims of the WVa/ura/ist to publish them.

The American Journal of Physiology. — In the beginning it

was supposed that this new journal would occupy the field of general

physiology as well as that of the more special applications of this

science. As a matter of fact, the first volume is almost exclusively

physiology of the medical schools, and the second volume promises

much the same. Criticism is not directed toward the editorial board

of the new journal, but toward the younger physiologists, who are

working on general problems, but who have not supported the journal

by their contributions.

Laws of Priority. — One of the most notable works which has

appeared on our table for several years is the Fises of North and

Middle America, by D. S. Jordan and B. W. Evermann. These

3136 pages represent an immense amount of work, but, to our mind,

they are marred by too strict an adherence to the laws of priority.

In the interpretation of the statutes of our legislatures the judges of

our courts are allowed the exercise of common sense ; should not ‘the

same latitude be permitted in the applications of the laws of nomen-

clature? These laws are of human manufacture; they are framed,

not by the whole body of scientific workers, nor by their representa-

tives, but by the few; and their application without modification

leads to endless confusion. A case in point is illustrated by these

volumes. For years the pickerel, pike, etc., have been assigned to a

253

254 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

genus universally called Esox, but in these vélumes the name Esox is

transferred to the genus known since 1817 as Belone, while to the

genus containing the pikes the name Luccius is applied. These

changes are based upon the writings of Rafinesque, and if perse-

vered in will lead to endless confusion. A few such changes and the

scientific literature of America will be unintelligible to the students

of Europe.

That the scientific world is not a unit in regarding the law of

priority as inviolable is shown by their treatment of a somewhat

similar case, where the attempt was made to change the names of

many of the Lepidoptera upon the authority of Hubner’s Tentamen.

A strict adherence to the rule must result in the adoption of the Hub-

nerian names, but our entomologists will have none of them. If

our systematists must have immutable laws, would not a law of limi-

tation be a good one? Would it not be well to say that if a certain

name has been in common use for, say fifty years, it shall not be

replaced by some long-forgotten name, resurrected by some delver in

antiquarian lore. That our radicals will not be followed by the more

conservative Europeans is shown by numberless facts. No European

naturalist will discard Amphioxus ; Triton will hold its own in place

of Triturus or Molge; and Dr. Boulenger hopes that a similar con-

servative spirit will work in the interests of stability in the nomen-

clature of the tailless batrachians of Europe.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Origin of Culture.’ — Notwithstanding the classical works of

Bastian, Ratzel, and Tylor upon culture history, and the papers of

others scarcely less eminent, L. Frobenius, in his treatise upon

African Culture, deplores the fact that so little has been done to dis-

cover the origin of culture’ and that so little is known of the true

“ world-history.” He compares the present state of culture with the

joint or internode at the top of a bamboo stem. That which is

beneath our internode is unknown to us; in whatever direction we

may turn we are confronted by unsolved ethnological problems, so

that our examination of the records of the past speedily terminates

in the Aryan, Babylonian, and other questions. The author makes

the usual observation in regard to the need of haste in gathering

information and specimens from those inferior races who are being

civilized off the face of the earth. A noteworthy feature of this

memoir is the stress laid upon the “ natural history method ” of treat-

ment. Frobenius declares that much has been heard of this method

but little seen. Culture is continually compared to a living organism

that has its birth, development, and decay ; it is borne about by man,

but changes much more slowly than he; it is through its study that

we shall learn of the migrations of men and come to know something

of the greater world-history. About 200 pages are devoted to the

study of the “morphology” and the “comparative anatomy” of

African culture, in which the internal structure, outward form, and the

distribution of the huts, weapons, implements, and other artifacts are

described in detail. Perhaps the most originality appears in the

third part of the work, which is devoted to the “ culture-physiology ”

of Africa. By this is meant the status of each art in its own par-

ticular life cycle ; the declining and stationary arts include those of

Negritic and Malay-Negritic origin, now represented by artifacts in

wood and bamboo ; the developing technic arts are of Asiatic and

African origin, and are confined chiefly to articles of iron, hide,

1 Frobenius, L. Der Ursprung der afrikanischen Kulturen. Berlin, Gebrüder

Borntraeger, 1898.

255

256 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

and leather. Much that has been classed as “techno-geography ”

and “anthropo-geography”’ is included in this memoir under “ cul-

ture-physiology.” Frobenius has made a decided gain in lucidity

and directness of presentation of his subject by employing this

formal nomenclature ; in less skillful hands it might lead to the warp-

ing of facts to fit them to the plan of research.

A series of 26 charts accompanies the volume upon which the

various culture areas are indicated. There is a fascinating appear-

ance of finality about such diagrams, yet, owing to the many sources

of error in museum records, from which the charts were made out,

they must at best be regarded as provisional and incomplete. ‘The

value of the memoir is enhanced by numerous illustrations in the

text. FRANK RUSSELL.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Embryos without Maternal Nuclei.!— By separating by hand

under the microscope the unfertilized egg of the sea-urchin, Delage

has obtained one part containing a nucleus and ovicenter and a part

devoid of them. When these parts were placed in a drop of water

containing a normal egg and spermatozoa were added, spermatozoa

entered into all three pieces and all cleaved. The whole egg devel-

oped the most rapidly, the nucleated fragment came next, and the

enucleate fragment most slowly. All were carried to the gastrula

stage ; the embryo without maternal nuclei being of small size and

having the enteric and blastoccelic cavities nearly obliterated. Thus

there has been effected the fecundation and development of a frag-

ment of an egg without egg nucleus and without ovicenter. Delage

_ draws the following weighty conclusions :—

1. Itis necessary to reject as too strict the ordinary definition of

fecundation — the union of the male and female pronuclei. This

union occurs, but is not the essential phenomenon.

2. The definition of Fol—the union of two pronuclei and of two

demi-ovicenters with two demi-spermcenters — must also be rejected.

It must be rejected also on account of the often observed fact that

the absence of the ovicenter offers no obstacle to segmentation.

3. Any theory must be rejected which explains fecundation by the

saturation of a female nuclear polarity by a male nuclear polarity,

1 Delage, Yves. Embryons sans noyau maternel, Compt. Rend., 1898.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 257

and also the theory that accounts for maturation on the ground that

it is getting rid of the male element of an originally hermaphrodite

egg nucleus.

4. All theories must be rejected which consider fecundation as

the furnishing by the male of the number of chromosomes subtracted

by the polar globules. The loss of one-half of the chromatic matter

does not, of itself, prevent the egg from developing, for the half

number of paternal chromosomes can make the egg develop.

s. The sexual attraction is not located in the nucleus.

6. Two things must be distinguished in fecundation: (a) the com-

munication to the egg of a vital energy which permits it to segment

and to develop; (4) the communication to the product of the advan-

tages resulting from amphimixia and the possession of the paternal

hereditary characters. As for the second point, my experiment fur-

nishes no indication; as for the first, it shows that the theories of

fecundation reconcilable with it are those which present the phenom-

enon as the conveyance by the male of a special energetic plasm

(Kinoplasma) contained perhaps in the spermocenter.

7. There is in the ovular cytoplasm no fixed specific architecture

whose conservation is a condition of development; if a structure

exists, it is conditioned by the mutual reactions of parts and can

reéstablish itself as often as it is altered.

8. The celebrated experiment of Boveri, so strongly contested,

especially by Seeliger, is demonstrated, if not true, at least possible ;

the gravest objection that has been made to it (the impossibility of

the development of an ovular cytoplasm without nucleus) being

experimentally suppressed.

Temperature and Rate of Regeneration. — It has long been

known that in every organism there is an optimum temperature for

growth above and below which growth occurs more slowly. That

the same is true of regeneration has been shown by the recent work

of Lillie and Knowlton on Planaria torva. Miss Peebles has done

similar work on Hydra grisea and H. viridis. At 18-24° C., of H.

grisea there regenerated in 2 days 0% ; 3 days, 26% ; 4 days, 95%;

of H. viridis, 2 days, 38% ; 3 days, 100%. At 26-32° of H. grisea

there regenerated in 2 days, 75%; 3 ene 100% ; of H. viridis in 2

days, 98.5% ; 3 days, 100%. At 12° C. there regenerated of Hydra

viridis in 4 days, 13%; 5 days, 24%; 6 days, 71%; 7 days, 100%.

1 Peebles, Florence. The Effect of Temperature on the Regeneration of

Hydra, Zool. Buil., vol. ii, pp. 125-128.

258 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

At 38° C. polyps did not regenerate, but died. Hence the optimum

lies between 30° and 38° C. A. grisea, at the room temperature |

(18-24° C.), regenerates more slowly than Æ. viridis; but it is rela-

tively more accelerated by the increased temperature.

Experiments upon the relative effect of light of different wave-

lengths resulted negatively; but these experiments do not seem to

have been carried out very thoroughly.

Organisms and Oxygen.' — That oxygen is necessary to the life of

organisms is a dogma which seemed to have received a severe shock

when the facts of anzerobic bacteria (which are killed by the presence

of free oxygen) became known.

Errara points out that after all this necessity for oxygen is one of

degree. As there are certain species which need a large amount of

oxygen, so there are others which have a very low optimum of oxygen

supply; such are the anærobic forms. In the presence of a larger

amount of oxygen they thrive less well, and may even die.

The Phylogenetic Significance of Protozoan Nuclei.*— The

minute structure of the nuclei of Tetramitus, Microglena, Synura,

Chilomonas, Trachelomonas, Stylonychia, Amoeba, Euglena, Cera-

tium, Peridinium, and Noctiluca has been carefully investigated by

Mr. G. N. Calkins. A considerable variety of nuclear types is

recognized, the simplest of which is the distributed nucleus, which

consists of isolated chromatin granules scattered about in the cell.

Nuclear membrane and linin threads are absent; there is, however, a

cytoplasmic body near which the chromatin granules gather at the

time of division ; the activity of this body is analogous to that of the

centrosphere of more highly organized cells. Nuclear conditions of

this type are found in Tetramitus. A higher form of structure is

found in the “intermediate ” type of nucleus which occurs in Micro-

glena, Synura, Chilomonas, the euglenoids, in which the attraction-

sphere is intranuclear, definite in form, deeply staining and active,

and the chromatin granules are massed about it permanently, as in

the forms just mentioned, or only during division, as in Paramceba.

A nuclear membrane is found in the case of some nuclei of this

“intermediate type.” In higher types of nuclei the attraction-sphere

is no longer intranuclear, but this position of vantage is taken by

ara, L. Tous les ppi vivants ont-ils besoin d'oxygène libre? Rev.

n aaan (4) X, 688, 689, 26 Nov., 1898.

kins, Gary N. The S aedi Significance of Certain Protozoan Nuclei,

is N. Y. Acad. Sci., vol. xi (1898), pp. 379-400, Pl. XXXV.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 259

the central spindle during division as in Noctiluca and many Meta-

zoa. A distinct centrosome was found only in Noctiluca. The

nuclei of most Protozoa belong, however, to aberrant types, which

seem to have developed along divergent paths and only remotely

resemble the more primitive forms on the one hand and the higher

forms on the other. Examples of these aberrant types are found in

Ameba proteus, Ceratium, Noctiluca, and the Infusoria in general.

Chromosome formation is first seen in flagellates in the form of rods

which arise by the union of the scattered chromatin granules. They

form in the typical, though primitive, metazoan manner in Noctiluca

and Euglypha, and all metazoan cells pass through these stages in

preparing for mitosis. CAK.

The Plotting of Biological Data in which it is necessary to

exhibit an enormous range of numbers, as, for example, in certain

lines of plankton work, presents a practical difficulty which may be

obviated by a simple method suggested by Mr. D. J. Scourfield.'

This is the use of logarithmically ruled paper, or of ordinary cross-

section paper by the assignment of suitable values to the lines.

Thus millimeter paper may be used if the centimeter lines are held

to represent 1, 10, 100, 1000, etc., and the intermediate millimeter

lines are given the numerical values whose logarithms are o.1,

0.2, 0.3, 0.4, etc. For ordinary biological data, logarithmic ruling in

one direction only is required, though for certain problems, e.g.,

the plotting of variations of a rapidly increasing number of organ-

isms, paper ruled in this manner in both directions might be used.

This method of graphic presentation of biological statistics has the

additional advantage of exhibiting proportionate changes in numbers

by lines having the same angle of slope wherever situated in the chart.

CAK

ZOOLOGY.

Relationships of North American Grouse and Quail. — Dr. H.

L. Clark has just published one of his useful papers on the feather-

tracts of birds ; in this case on those of the North American grouse

and quail. The work of Nitzsch is thus carried on and * extended,

1 Scourfield, D. J. The Logarithmic Plotting of Certain Biological Data,

Journ. Quek. Micr. Club, Ser. II, vol. iv (1897), pp- 419-423, Pl. XX.

2 Clark, Hubert Lyman, Ph.D., Instructor in Zoology, Amherst College. The

260 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII:

Dr. Clark having the advantage of almost exclusively basing his

observations on fresh birds instead of dried skins, thereby escaping

many errors unavoidable to his predecessor and being enabled to go

into such details as are demanded by the more refined requirements

of modern science. Thus, while Nitzsch only examined the skihs

of 5 species within the frame of Dr. Clark’s article, the latter could

work with 65 specimens in the flesh, representing 18 species and all

the genera of the territory in question. His careful descriptions

and figures are, therefore, very valuable to the systematic ornitholo-

gist, and the conclusions he bases upon them entitled to great con-

sideration. But while thus restricted to fresh material, he is also

limited to a small number of forms of the groups he treats of, and

while this limitation in no way lessens the usefulness of the material,

which he thus places in the hand of the working systematist, it

naturally interferes with the trustworthiness of the generalizations.

In discussing his “ conclusions ” (pp. 651—653) it should be borne

in mind, however, that Dr. Clark has been very careful and guarded

in expressing his views, and that he has avoided to be dogmatic ;

nor does he claim that much light has been shed upon the origin or

relationships of the larger groups. ‘The relationships of the various

genera within these groups, however, he thinks “is at least suggested

by these investigations ” to the extent that he ventures to express

them in diagrams which look suspiciously like ‘“ stammbaums.”

But I am not certain that they mean more than a diagrammatic

representation of the pterylographic “relationships” without refer-

ence to the true phylogeny of the species, unless he really believes

that the pterylographic characters alone are sufficient to indicate the

various shades of interrelation or the course followed in the evolu-

tion of these genera. This uncertainty is indicated by his speaking

of the diagrams as “pointing out the relationship of the genera,”

though in the next moment he selects a type at the bottom of the

series simply for the practical convenience of having “a starting

point from which to develop the other genera.” Seeing, however,

that the diagrams have no real value unless meant for “ ephylogenetic

trees,” whether standing on their roots or their tops, I shall discuss

them from the latter point of view.

It is then plain that Dr. Clark, in spite of his guarded reservation,

really regards the trees as standing on their roots, for he is careful

to select the genera he starts from, on account of characters which

Feather-Tracts of North American Grouse and Quail, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

vol. xxi (1898), No. 1166, pp. 641-653, Pls. XLVII-XLIX.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 261

he claims to be more generalized than those of the other genera.

As one of these generalized characters he regards the small number

of rectrices, assuming that the forms with more numerous tail-feathers

have increased them in the course of development. Thus he remarks

that “ Dendragapus has developed from Canace by ... a marked

increase in the number of rectrices.”’ I think there can be no doubt

that this is a fundamental error. The whole development of the tail

of the birds shows that the generalized condition is that of numerous

rectrices, and that the specialization, so far as number goes, con-

sists in their reduction. I doubt very much that a pair of rectrices

once /os¢ can ever be redeveloped. If a reduction has already taken

place and for some cause or another the tail is to answer a purpose

temporarily suspended during the course of the evolution of a form,

other feathers which have not undergone the retrograde movement

are taken into employ and developed so as to serve the same pur-

pose. Thus in many cases the upper tail-coverts have had to func-

tion as rectrices, with the result that very often it is difficult to tell

them apart structurally from the true rectrices, while in one case, at

least, the under tail-coverts have so completely assumed the rôle of

the tail that they were generally regarded as true rectrices until it

was discovered that the so-called tail-feathers were turned completely

underside up!

I believe it is equally erroneous to assume that a structure so

highly specialized as the “top-knot” of the California Partridge

(Lophortyx) could be changed into the simple structure of the Moun-

tain Partridge (Oreortyx), and while admitting the possibility of its

disappearance and the development of the other feathers on the

crown into a loose crest like that of the Scaled Partridge (Callipepla),

I see no necessity for such an assumption, especially as the latter

seems to show'no apterium on the top of the head to account for

the lost special tract. The more natural explanation seems to be to

regard all these forms as having originated independently from more

generalized types.

But apart from this last objection, which is one of detail, it will

not do to turn Dr. Clark’s trees upside down ; they will not give us

the true ascent of the genera, for the reason that he has assumed

them to descend directly from the most generalized living form. He

has not taken into account the fact that the genus among the extant

‘forms, which in its totality shows the greatest amount of generalized

characters, may have acquired one or more highly specialized peculiar-

ities, thus showing that it is somewhat outside the direct line of ascent.

262 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

We shall now apply these principles in an attempt at reconstruct-

ing the genealogic tree of the North American partridges or quails,

chiefly from the pterylographic characters.

In viewing these forms it seems thus evident that we have two

groups, the members of which bear closer relationship to each other

than to those of the other group. On the one hand, we have Colinus

and Cyrtonyx; on the other, Callipepla, Oreortyx, and Lophortyx. The

relationship of the former is obvious. The speckled-backed Cyrtonyx

cannot well have developed through stages like those of the plain-

backed Zophortyx and Callipepla, as suggested by Dr. Clark; and this

character alone goes a long way to show the more generalized status

of Colinus and Cyrtonyx. Cyrtonyx, with its higher developed crest,

differentiated ventral feather-tract, reduced tail, and wanting claw to

the thumb, is manifestly the more highly specialized form, thus leav-

ing Colinus on the bottom round of the ladder. This is the same

position given it by Dr. Clark it will be observed. The only differ-

ence between us is that he places it there because, among other

generalized characters, it possesses 12 rectrices, while I give it a

similar place 77 site of this fact. By placing it lower than Callipepla,

with 14 rectrices, I suggest that while Co/inus has already lost a

pair, Callipepla is, on the whole, a more specialized form, in spite of

the fact that it has retained the greater number of rectrices. If,

therefore, the two groups of quail have a common origin, this ances-

tor is obviously below the line of the beginning of our tree, having

in all probability a speckled plumage like Colinus, 14 rectrices and

16 secondaries.

Of the 3 members of the second group it is only necessary to say

that Callipepla, with its 14 rectrices and loose crest, is the more

generalized form, probably descended from an ancestor with 16

secondaries, by reduction to 14. From this ancestor Oreortyx as-

cended, on the one hand, by further specializing the crest, though

retaining the 16 secondaries; while, on the other hand, Zophortyx

lost two of the latter, besides assuming a still more complicated

top-knot.

Assuming, then, the common origin of these genera, I substitute

the following diagram as probably representing more nearly the

true course of the development diagram of these forms.

The question of the genealogy of the North American Zetraonine

is one greatly more complicated, for the reason that two of the genera

apparently hold closer relationships to forms not occurring in this

hemisphere than to the genera which are restricted to our continent.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 263

Obviously Bonasa, with its partly naked tarsus, a very unusual thing

in this group, stands apart from all the other American genera, and

the fact that it has developed a special feather-tract on each side of

the neck does not necessarily indicate any close relationship with

Tympanuchus, much less that it has an origin in common with the

latter. The general characters of Zagopus do not seem to imply a

special relationship to Canace, and may only mean the greater lack of

specialization of both and their comparative nearness to the common

ancestor of all the grouse. Centrocercus, on the other hand, shows

a number of extremely specialized characters alongside of the reten-

tion of generalized ones, and while it may share origin with Pediocetes,

Oreortyx

Lophortyx

Callipepla

Cyrtonyx

Colinus

Ty 1) + Pt +h by h

North American quail as divulged

in their pterylographic characters.

there is no reason for believing that they have descended from Canace,

which seems more closely allied to Dendragapus and Tympanuchus in

spite of the specialization of the neck-tracts of the latter.

It is to be hoped that Dr. Clark may be able to carry his investi-

gations on fresh material in this field farther, and especially that he

may succeed in extending it to more forms of the so-called peris-

teropod Gallinz, the Curassons and Guans, in Central and South

America. He may then be able to point to more definite and trench-

ant characters between them and the alecteropods, in which connec-

tion I would call attention to the alleged presence of a “ bastard

secondary ” in the latter and its absence in the former. The peris-

teropods are, on the whole, considered to be more generalized,

but highly specialized pterylographic features are apparent in many

forms — a feature which should not obscure the general proposition.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

264 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

Gegenbaur’s Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates.'— For some

years past rumors of a revised edition of Gegenbaur’s Vergleichende

Anatomie have been circulated by the European book-dealers, and

even after the appearance of the masterly works of Lang, and of

Korschelt and Heider, of Wiedersheim and of Hertwig, it must be

confessed that the older text-book, if rewritten in the broad philo-

sophical spirit that Gegenbaur accords to all his work, would have been

no mean rival to the best that we have. Wisely or unwisely, Gegenbaur

has not chosen to undertake the whole of this task, but has limited

himself to a revision and expansion of only the vertebrate portion of

his former text-book. The volume now published is about one-half

of the new work, which even in its present state is more voluminous

than the whole of the last edition of the Comparative Anatomy. The

rest, we are told, is mostly written and may be expected within a year.

When it is remembered that since the time of Owen no one perhaps

has influenced the course of vertebrate comparative anatomy more

profoundly than Gegenbaur, and that in the full strength of his years

he now presents the results of a lifelong study, the monumental

character of his work must be apparent.

The present volume contains nearly a thousand pages. After an

introductory section the following systems of organs are treated: the

integument, the skeleton, the muscular system, the nervous system,

and the sense organs. The text is in two sizes of type, the smaller

being reserved for less important topics. As a rule, most topics are

followed by a brief list of the more important papers dealing with

them. There is no index, but an extremely methodical arrangement

and a detailed table of contents make this omission less noticeable.

The text is illustrated by 619 figures, some of which are colored.

The paper and presswork, while not the best, are uniformly good.

The new work is striking for the completeness with which the

comparative method is applied. Thus, in the former editions, the

integument of vertebrates was considered under three heads: the in-

tegument proper, epidermal structures, including glands, and the

dermal skeleton. In Wiedersheim’s Lehrbuch, which appeared some

five years after Gegenbaur’s last edition, a classification of the sub-

ject even to this slight extent was omitted, and the treatment of the

integument lapsed into the purely descriptive ‘form of a section on

the integument of each group of vertebrates. In the new volume

1 Gegenbaur, C. Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbelthiere mit Beriicksich-

tigung der Wirbellosen. Erster Band. Leipzig, W. Engelmann (1898), xiv + 978

pp-, 619 figs.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 265

Gegenbaur builds on his former arrangement: under the head of

integument we find chapters on the epidermis, the corium, and the

pigment; under organ-formation of the integument are placed in

sequence horny structures, skin glands, mammary organs, scales and

feathers, and hair; finally there is a chapter on the dermal skeleton.

While this classification may not be ideal, it has the great advantage

of bringing together those organs which are most likely to form nat-

ural series. It is obviously much more in accord with the traditions

of comparative anatomy to consider, for instance, integumentary

glands under one head than to scatter them through a descriptive

account of the integument of different groups of vertebrates. In this

respect Gegenbaur has made a positive advance, and the shortcom-

ings which his system may eventually show will doubtless be found

to have been the result of what is at present undiscovered rather than

of any lack of appreciation on the part of Gegenbaur as to what the

comparative method implies.

The volume is so replete with material which, if not exactly new,

is at least first brought together in compact form, that it is practi-

cally impossible to review it in detail. It is interesting, however, to

„Observe the position assumed by Gegenbaur on several important

questions with which he has been closely associated in the past.

Thus, on the relation of the marsupium to the mammary pockets

he maintains his original opinion that these organs are essentially

distinct, although Klaatsch has recently shown that it is quite

possible that the marsupium has arisen by a fusion of mammary

pockets. On the question of the origin of the lateral appendages

Gegenbaur stoutly defends his original contention that these parts

probably represent modified gill-arches, his general argument being

that it is safer to assume that the lateral appendages have come from

gill-arches about which we know something than it is to suppose them

derived from a continuous lateral fin about which we know little or

nothing. In matters of theory the volume is strikingly conservative,

and this conservatism is in some respects an advantage. ‘Thus, in

the treatment of the crdnial nerves the parts are fully and well de-

scribed, but the account is not concluded with a tabulation in which

some more or less imaginary segmental value is assigned to each

nerve. In this respect Gegenbaur’s treatment of the subject seems

to us wisely out of style.

It would deservedly be a thankless task to point out the small in-

accuracies which this, like all other books, contains. The omission

of a pisiform bone from the carpus of the snapping turtle (p. 529),

266 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

and the description of the membrana tectoria as a cuticular structure

(p. 890), may be contrary to fact, but they are blemishes which dis-

appear in the marvelous wealth of accurate information which fills

the whole work. i

The place that the new Anatomy will find is not difficult to predict.

Its size and fullness, together with the heaviness of Gegenbaur’s style,

will probably prevent it from being a popular text-book with most

beginners, but its masterly qualities will make it an absolute neces-

sity to every advanced student of vertebrate anatomy. In this

respect it will occupy the field formerly held by Wiedersheim’s

Lehrbuch, though it seems to us unlikely that it will replace in any

extensive way this author’s Grundriss, which from its elementary

character and simple language makes so satisfactory a book for

the beginner.

The heavy debt which vertebrate anatomists already owe to Gegen-

baur is materially increased by this accession to the list of best text-

books, and it must be the wish of every one that circumstances may

favor the early completion of a work destined to be so scholarly and

valuable a contribution to the comparative anatomy of the verte-

brates. GHP

The Natural History and Morphology of Dero vaga.'— This

interesting little aquatic worm was described twenty years ago by

Dr. Joseph Leidy? in this journal as Au/ophorus vagus. It is found

in shady places among vegetation in ponds and ditches, living by

preference among masses of floating Lemna or among alge on the

bottom, shifting its position gradually from surface to bottom or

vice versa, according to the location of food supply. Its food consists

of vegetable matter, principally desmids, alge, and even the fronds

of Lemna. The worms inhabit cases which they construct of stato-

blasts, Arcella shells, the leaves of Lemna, etc. The cases of indi-

viduals living at the surface float, and those of individuals living at

the bottom sink when the worms are removed. The period of

sexual reproduction occurs during the first two weeks of July, when

the body cavity posterior to the clitellum is crowded with eggs.

Asexual reproduction by fission takes place throughout the year, but

most rapidly during warm weather, when it may occur as often as

1 Brode, H. S. A Contribution to the agane of Dero vaga, Journ. of

Morph., vol. xiv (1898), pp. 141-180, Pls. XIII-XV

2 Leidy, J. Notice of Some Aquatic Worms " oe Family Naids, dm. Nat.,

vol. xiv (1880), pp. 421-425.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 267

three times a week. Three fission zones have been observed in one

individual at the same time. As the animal grows in length, the

case which it inhabits is extended, and after fission the two daughter-

worms divide it by placing their heads together at its middle and

forcibly breaking it; each worm then swims away with one-half of

the old case. The fission zone is formed near the middle of some

segment, usually back of XVII and in front of XXII. The new

head and tail are almost completely formed before separation takes

place. The number of somites in the new head is constant, being

five, while twelve to sixteen segments are visible in the tail before a

second fission begins. Worms divided by cutting regenerate the miss-

ing part, though only enough segments are regenerated at the ante-

rior end to complete the cephalized portion, z.e., the first five. Thus

if two are removed but two regenerate, while if seven are taken away

only five new segments are formed. At least three or four segments

in addition to the five in the cephalic region are necessary for the

regeneration of the tail. Dr. Brode gives a detailed account of the

structure of the body wall, of the nervous system, and of the sense

organs. Each segment is provided with four lateral nerves which

arise from the ventral ganglion and pass to the body wall and thence

dorsally. The epidermis is provided with a remarkable series of

sense organs, each segment bearing two series arranged in greater

and lesser circular bands of twelve and eight organs respectively.

These organs are so spaced as to form twenty longitudinal rows

extending the whole length of the body. Dr. Brode also confirms

Hesse’s view that the so-called lateral line of oligochetes is formed

by the accumulation of the nucleated plasma portions of the circular

muscle fibres and cannot, therefore, be interpreted as a nervous struc-

ture. The epidermal sense organs have no share in the formation of

this line. The marked serial symmetry of the epidermal sense organs

and lateral nerves is held by the author to support the colonial

theory of the origin of metamerism. CAK

Crustacea of Florida and the Bahamas. — Miss Mary J. Rath-

bun is an indefatigable student of Crustacea. In fact, the mantles

of Stimpson, Smith, Kingsley, Say, Gill, Gibbes, and all other past

students of the group appear to have fallen on her shoulders. In

the paper before us she describes the 127 species of brachyma, col-

lected by the Iowa University Expedition of 1893.1 Several new

1 Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural History of Towa University, June,

1898.

268 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXIII.

species are described, and there are notes on others not so well

known. As in all of Miss Rathbun’s work, the recognition of salient

characters is acute, and their expression is put in concise form.

One or two features which persistently reappear in her writings seem

to call for criticism. Apparently the attempt is made to arrange the

species on a descending scale, for the series begins with the

Maioids and ends with the Calappoids, but certainly the Ocypodoids

are the highest of the Decapods. The other feature of which we

would complain is the foundation of new genera (¢g., Eupanopens)

upon characters of far less than generic value. Certainly the char-

acters given in the following diagnosis are not of generic value.

Carapace of moderate width, anteriorly subquadrate, crossed by

broken transverse lines; frontal lobes sinuous ; five distinct lateral

teeth, the third, fourth, and fifth prominent, the second usually so.

One feature of the collection is interesting — the absence of any

specimens of Gelasimus.

Entomostraca of Karelia. — An extended faunistic study of the

Entomostraca of Karelia in the region tributary to the White Sea has

been made by Dr. K. E. Stenroos.! Especial attention was given to

the Cladocera, of which 64 forms — an exceptionally large number —

were found. Species are grouped as littoral or limnetic, though a

few are members of both faunas and exhibit marked differences

according to their environment. When found alongshore or in

weedy shallows of the lakes they are opaque and brownish, while in

open water they have the hyaline appearance characteristic of the

typical limnetic fauna. Great variation was observed within the

genus Bosmina, almost every body of water showing its own peculiar

type. Wherever adjacent lakes presented similar physical charac-

teristics the Bosminide found therein were much alike, but the more

diverse the environment, the greater the unlikeness of the Bosmina

fauna. Intermediate forms were found which seem to render neces-

sary a considerable reduction in the number of species hitherto recog-

nized in this genus. Chydorus rugulosus Forbes, originally described

from Lake Superior, is reported from Finnish waters. CAR

Notes. — The interesting amphibian, Amphiuma means, is reported

by H. M. Smith in the Prac. of the Nat. Museum, Vol. XXI, as occurring

in the vicinity of Hampton, Virginia, where it was found in some

1 Stenroos,K.E. Zur Kenntniss der Crustaceen-Fauna von Russisch-Karelien,

Acta Soc. pro Fauna et Flora Fenn., Bd. xv.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 269

numbers by workmen while excavating for an electric railroad. This

extends the distribution of the species by some 110 miles to the

northeast, the furthest station previously recorded in this direction

being, according to the National Museum collections, Tarboro, North

Carolina.

Number 4 of the eighth volume of the Journal of Comparative

Neurology contains, beside the usual literary notices, the conclusion

of Dr. Adolf Meyer’s Critical Review of the Data and General

Methods and Deductions of Modern Neurology, and Professor H.

H. Donaldson’s Observations on the Weight and Length of the

Central Nervous System and of the Legs in Bullfrogs of Different

Sizes.

Number 3 of the second volume of the Zod/ogical Bulletin, issued

in December of the past year, contains Notes on the Finer Structure

of the Nervous System of Cynthia partita, by G. W. Hunter, Jr.;

The Maxillary and Mandibular Breathing Valves of Teleost Fishes,

by U. Dahlgren ; The Effect of Temperature on the Regeneration of

Hydra, by F. Peebles; and Further Notes on the Egg of Allolo-

bophora foetida, by K. Foot and E. C. Strobell.

Dr. Arthur Willey describes a new Peripatus from New Britain,

but very distantly related to any of the previously known species,

which is placed in a new subgenus, Paraperipatus. Dr. W. M.

Wheeler describes P. eiseni (Journ. Morph., Vol. XV, p. 1), from

Mexico.

BOTANY.

Some Recent Elementary Text-Books. — No two teachers pre-

sent a subject in the same manner, and to attempt to compel them to

do so, as is done in some public school systems, usually makes au-

tomata of them and machines of their pupils, when nature work is

involved. But the yearning of every good teacher for some reference

book that he can put in the hands of his class, giving them what he

cares to have them know and freéing them from the expense of pay-

ing for other matter, seems scarcely capable of expression otherwise

than in the preparation of a text-book of his own. Four such books

have recently come to hand, one quite elementary, the others aiming

at the work done in the secondary schools or by the most general of

college classes.

270 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

Professor Bailey,’ with a horticulturist’s bias, most admirably

teaches both pupil and teachers how to study twigs and buds, leaves

and foliage, flowers, fructification, propagation, the behaviors and

habits of plants, and the kinds of plants — to which he adds sugges-

tive paragraphs on pedagogical methods, books, classification, evolu-

tion, and the interpretation of nature and the growing of plants.

Nothing could be better in its way — and it is a very good way —

than this addition to the products of the pen of a versatile and pro-

lific writer.

Professor Barnes,” from the point of view of the physiologist, at-

tempts to exhibit to pupils 13 to 18 years of age, who are engaged

in genuine laboratory study, the variety and progressive complexity

of the vegetative body, to explain the unity of plan in both the

structure and action of the reproductive organs, and to give an out-

line of the more striking ways in which plants adapt themselves to

the world about them. It is to be feared that he has aimed over

their heads.

Professor Atkinson,” perhaps with less leaning toward any one

side, gives fourteen chapters to physiology, twenty-one to morphol-

ogy, eight to lessons on plant families, and thirteen to ecolo

Each of these books is good. If one could have only one of

them, he would probably choose the first or the last noticed, which

happen to come from the same faculty —that of Cornell University.

But the point of view is so different that whichever he had, he would

wish to complement it with the other — or to write his own book. p,

Rhodora‘ is the euphonious title of a new journal, started with the

current year, by the New England Botanical Club. It is well gotten

up, and under the editorship of Dr. B. L. Robinson, of the Gray

Herbarium of Harvard University, it is sure to be well conducted.

The initial number contains the following articles: Fernald, Rattle-

1 Bailey, L. H. Lessons with Plants. New York, he Macmillan Company,

1898. Pp. xxxi + 491, 446 ff. — First Lessons with Plants, being an abridgment

of Lessons oii Plants. New York, The Macmillan Curia, 1898. Ph aF

117, 116 ff

2 Barnes, C. R. Plant Life Considered with Especial Reference to Form and

Function. New York, Henry Holt & Peeing 1898. Pp. x + 428, 415 ff.

8 Atkinson, G. F. Elementary Botany. New York, Henry Holt & Com-

pany, 1898. Pp. xxiii + 444, 509

Rhodora, Journal of the New Ragisnd Botanical Club. Price, $1.00 per year

($1.25 to all foreign countries, except Canada). Editorial communications to be

addressed to B. L. Robinson, 42 Shepard Street, Cambridge, Mass. Subscrip-

tions, etc., to W. P. Rich, 3 North Market St., Boston, Mass.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 271

snake-plantains of New England; Brainerd, Saniculas of western

Vermont; Collins, Notes on algæ, 1; Deane, A prolific gentian ;

Williams, Myosotis collina in New England; Robinson, A new wild

lettuce (Z. Morssii) from Massachusetts; Webster, Notes on some

fleshy fungi found near Boston; Manning, Matricaria discoidea in

eastern Massachusetts.

The Gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum.!— Until this pub-

lication of Mr. Jeffrey our knowledge of the development of the

embryo of Botrychium was practically none, and the previous accounts

of the prothallus have been very insufficient. The material used in

his investigation was gathered in its natural habitat — a sphagnum

bog in which he found an abundance of prothalli in all stages.

Owing to the extreme delicacy of the objects, great difficulty was

experienced in mining them into paraffin. An ingenious dialyzer

rotated by clock-work was employed to insure the more gradual yet

sufficiently rapid osmosis between the benzole and the alcohol.

The gametophyte of B. virginianum is subterranean and without

chlorophyll, and harbors a fungus of a phycomycetous type which

the author regards as possibly symbiotic with the prothallus. On

the gametophyte, which is oval in shape and beset with rhizoids, are

borne both the antheridia and archegonia. The former above the

latter on the sides. The antheridia, which develop from a single

superficial cell, possess.a double outer wall like those of other Ophio-

glossacez known, and the antherozoids are of the usual type of the

Filicineæ. The archegonium is somewhat less elaborate than that

of the typical fern, and it is to be noticed that the canal cell while

binucleate does not show any division of its protoplast. In the

development of the egg-cell the usual divisions forming the octants

are seen, but the walls of the latter soon lose their identity and the

embryo is relatively many-celled before the organs appear. The

root, shoot, and cotyledon originate from the upper part of the em-

bryo— z.e., probably the upper octants. The cotyledon is apparently

a secondary formation in the region of the shoot. The foot which is

large arises from the whole lower portion of the embryo. The grow-

ing region of the root, shoot, and cotyledon is in each case a single

apical cell. The root develops most rapidly at first, followed by the

cotyledon, a reversal of the condition found in Ophioglossum peduncu-

1 Jeffrey, E. C. The Gametophyte of Botrychium virginianum, 7yans. Canad.

Inst. oo Reprinted for University of Toronto Studies (1898), Biol.

Series, No. 1

272 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL:; XXXIIL.

Josum. But in other respects the gametophyte and embryo of B. vir-

- ginianum agrees with what is known of other Ophioglossacee. The

author points out a similarity in form between the prothalli of B. vir-

ginianum and Hycopodium annotinum, while a likeness is also found in

the same organs of Ophioglossum pedunculosum and L. cernuuem and

L. inundatum, showing two types of the eee in the Ophio-

glossacez as in the Lycopodinez. H. MR.

Proteolytic Enzyme of Nepenthes.1— This paper is in continuation

of one published by the same author in 1897. He concludes that

the enzyme from the pitchers of Nepenthes is comparatively a very

stable one. High temperatures and alkalis gradually lessen its

activity, but do not completely destroy its power of digestion unless

strong means are employed. The enzyme is of the nature of a tryptic

ferment closely resembling that found in germinating seeds, like which

it is active only in an acid medium. The author considers that he

has fairly demonstrated the enzyme to arise from a zymogen in the

gland cell of the pitcher. HMR

Nucleus of the Yeast Plant.? —According to this last account the

cells of yeast certainly possess what the author terms a nuclear appa-

ratus. This consists in the early stages of fermentation of what is

called a homogeneous nucleolus in close contact with a vacuole con-

taining a chromatin network. In later stages the “ chromatin-vacu-

ole ” may have disappeared, the chromatin material being found as

fine granules in the protoplasm. In the young stages there may be

more than one “ chromatin-vacuole,” which later appear to fuse. The -

division which accompanies budding is direct, and takes place in the

constriction between mother and daughter cell. If the author is

properly understood, in spore formation the chromatin is absorbed

by the nucleolus, to appear later in the form of fine grains (chromo-

somes ?). The nucleolus elongates into a dumb-bell shape in the

division preceding spore formation, and then constricts into two.

Subsequent divisions forming four or even more new nucleoli may

take place. A wall forms around these, and the spores are formed.

The author does not demonstrate very definitely the relation of the

nuclear apparatus of the spore to that of the vegetative cell. It

1 Vines, S. H. The Proteolytic Enzyme of Nepenthes (II), Ann. Bot., vol. xii

(Drami, 1898), Pp. 545-555-

Wager, Harold. The Nucleus of the Yeast Plant, Ann. Bot., vol. xii

(December, 1898), pp. 499-537, Pls. XXIX, XXX.

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 273

would be interesting to know the changes which take place in the

subsequent growth of the spore. A full historical account precedes

the paper. Corrosive sublimate and Gram’s iodine solution are recom-

mended for killing, while a variety of aniline dyes were chiefly used

for staining. Sections were also made. The species studied are

given as Saccharomyces cerevisia, S. ludwigii, S. pastorianus, S.

mycodenua, and a red yeast. £ H. M. R.

Botanical Notes. — Skeletonizing leaves, always an interesting

occupation, and one of some scientific utility, is described in the

number of Scéence for December 30 by A. F. Woods, who finds minute

crustacea belonging to the genus Cypridopsis to be the active agent.

So long as any parenchyma is present, they appear not to attack even

the finer vascular bundles.

Under the heading “ Foreign Weeds and their Extermination,”

Professor Pammel contributes an interesting little ‘article to Zhe

Gentleman Farmer Magazine for November.

The forage plants and forage resources of the Gulf States are

reported on by Professor Tracy in Bulletin No. 15 of the Division of

Agrostology of the United States Department of Agriculture.

Forestry in relation to physical geography and engineering is the

subject of an article by John Gifford in the Journal of the Franklin

Institute of July last.

“ Check-List of the Forest Trees of the United States, their Names

and Ranges,” is the title of Bulletin No. 17 of the Division of Forestry

of the United States Department of Agriculture, by George B.

Sudworth. It is stated to be in the main a condensed reproduction

of Bulletin No. rg of the same division, like which it exemplifies the

“ Neo-American ” views in nomenclature, and it is intended to be

helpful in bringing about a more uniform and stable use of names by

lumbermen, nurserymen, and others interested in forest trees.

The determination of woods by characters drawn from their struc-

ture, to which some attention has been given by engineers of late,

forms the subject of an article by Charles Bommer, illustrated by

twelve enlarged phototypes, showing the cross-section of as many

woods, in the Bulletin of the Société centrale Forestière of Belgium for

December.

Prof. T. H. McBride has published in separate form an instructive

address on public parks for Iowa towns, which may well be read by

the inhabitants of towns outside that state.

274 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST... (VoL. XXXIII.

A provisional enumeration of the species of Cerastium is pub-

lished by F. N. Williams in the Bulletin de 1’ Herbier Boissier of

November 15.

The early botanical views of Prunus domestica are discussed by

Prof. F. A. Waugh in the Botanical Gazette for December.

Whipplea Utahensis Watson is made the type of a new genus,

Fendlerella, by A. A. Heller in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical

Club for December, in which number he also makes of Actinella

Bigelovii Gray the type of a new genus, Macdougalia.

The cockle-bur, Xanthium strumarium, which has been introduced

into Queensland, is stated by F. M. Bailey, in the Queensland Agri-

cultural Journal for November, to be poisonous to cattle, the effect

being “ to paralyze the heart, induce torpor, and cause death without

pain or struggle.”

The Revue Horticole of December 1 contains good figures of

several of the forms into which Dodecatheon Meadia has passed in

cultivation.

Fritillaria pluriflora of California is well figured in the Botanical

Magazine for December.

Under the title Mycological Notes, Mr. C. G. Lloyd, of Cincinnati,

began in November the issue of occasional bulletins on the fungi in

his collection. |

Sydow’s Deutscher Botaniker-Kalender fiir 1899 (Berlin, Borntraeger),

is a handy little pocketbook which, among other things, tells under

each day of some botanist who was born or died on that day of

the month, gives a list of exsiccate of cryptogams, lists of botanic

gardens and natural history museums of the world and of their prin-

cipal plant collections, and the now familiar nomenclature rules of

the Botanic Garden of Berlin.

The Plant World for December maintains the happy character of

the journal for short botanical articles of general interest.

Vol. II of the Annuaire du Conservatoire & du Jardin Botaniques

de Genève, in addition to a report on the establishment and lists of

seeds collected, contains an important paper on the geographical

limitation of species by the late Alphonse de Candolle, and system-

atic papers by Briquet, Lindau, Hochreutiner, and Casimir de

Candolle.

The fourteenth volume of the Acta Societatis pro Fauna et Flora

Fennica is entirely botanical: Wainio, Monographia Cladoniarum Uni-

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 275

versalis, III; Elfving, Anteckningar om Kulturvaxterna i Finland;

Mela, Vymphea Fennica, eine neue europäische Seerose.

The Ottawa Naturalist for December contains No. 12 of the

“Contributions to Canadian Botany,” by James M. Macoun.

“Camping in Florida,” a little article by Professor Hitchcock from

The Industrialist (of the Kansas State Agricultural College) for No-

vember, tells how he contrived a wheelbarrow with pneumatic tire

and ball bearings, on which he trundled the necessary outfit of a

botanist 242 miles in 24 consecutive days, his expenses averaging

30 cents a day.

No. 15 of Dr. Small’s “ Studies in the Botany of the Southeastern

United States,” in the December number of the Bulletin of the Torrey

Botanical Club, contains a rich grist of new species, especially in the

genera Smilax, Oxalis, and Euphorbia.

The October number of Monatsschrift fiir Kakteenkunde contains a

short note by Purpus on his season’s botanizing in our western

district.

Under the title “ New Species of Plants from Mexico,” Mr. Bran-

degee publishes several new binomials in Z7ythea for January.

PALEONTOLOGY.

Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey.’ — American literature

is conspicuously deficient in works relating to the fossil Foraminifera,

although in Europe the class has received the attention of some of

the leading paleontologists, and their monographs and special reports

cover the investigations of many years.

The present memoir includes the cretaceous Foraminifera from the

marl beds of New Jersey, embracing the Monmouth, Rancocas, and

Manasquan formations. The greatest number of species (seventy-

nine) occurs in a limestone layer in the Rancocas formation. Four

species are common to all four marl beds. Altogether there are one

hundred and fifteen species now known from the New Jersey Creta-

ceans. The plates give unusually good representations of the form

and structure of about thirty species of special interest. CEB

1 Bragg, R. M., Jr. The Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey, Bull. U.S:

Geol. Surv., No. 88. 8vo. 6 plates, 89 pp. Washington, 1898.

276 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants.'— Botanists who are engaged

in studying the plants of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations

will fully appreciate the service rendered by Professor Knowlton’s

latest contribution in the form of a catalogue of these plants, which

have always had a special interest because of their often close con-

nection with the flora of our own time. The catalogue possesses

double value in that it not only records most of the species so far

discovered, but includes also a full and valuable bibliography of the

subject. It gives striking evidence of the very rapid growth of our

knowledge of this flora during the past twenty years, a fact which

becomes all the more apparent when we observe that a number of

new species have been recorded since its issue.

Miocene Flora.?— In recent studies of the Miocene plants as

found at Idaho City, Idaho (“ Payette formation ”), Professor Knowl-

ton enumerates twenty-nine species, of which 59 per cent are recog-

nized as new.

Permian Flora.*— One of the richest and most interesting de-

posits of Permian plants in France is to be found at Lodève, where

the slates have supplied material which has been studied by Bron-

gniart and others since 1830. Zeiller now reviews all the available

material, and is enabled to announce the addition of six new species,

of which five belong to the genus Callipteris.

Cretaceous Cycads.*— Within the last five years there has been

brought together a somewhat remarkable collection of Cycads from

the cretaceous formation of the Black Hills. They number 155

specimens of trunks in various states of completeness and preserva-

tion, and belong chiefly to Yale University. This material has been

studied by Prof. Lester F. Ward, who finds that among different

species the height varies from 12 cm. to 130 cm., the diameter from

4 cm. to 75 cm., and that in most cases they represent a type of

1 Knowlton, Frank Hall. A Catalogue of the Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants

of North America, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1898.

? Knowlton, Frank Hall. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Payette Forma-

tion, Eighteenth Annual Report U.S. Geol. Surv. (1896-97), Pt. iii, p. 721.

3 Zeiller, M. R. Contribution a l’étude de la flore ptéridologique des schistes

pone de Lodève, Bull. Mus. Marseilles (1898), Pt. i, vol. i, p. 9.

Ward, Lester F. Descriptions of the Species of Cycadoidea, or Fossil Cy¢a-

` dean Trunks thus far Determined from the Lower Cretaceous Rim of the Black

Hills, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxi (1898), pp. 195-229.

No. 387.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 277

comparatively low form, in which the stem is commonly as broad as

Of twenty-one species distinguished all but one are new.

De Pak:

GEOLOGY.

Maryland Geological Survey. — The two handsome volumes, of

which the second has quite recently been issued, representing the

first publications of the Maryland Geological Survey,’ under the

direction of Prof. William Bullock Clark of Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity, are a credit to the Maryland Commission, and show clearly the

advantage enjoyed by the Maryland geologists in their proximity to

the offices of the federal Survey at Washington, and in their imme-

diate association with the scholarship of Johns Hopkins University.

A cursory examination of these volumes shows that the functions of

a State Survey for the people of the state, in giving to them accurate

information concerning maps, economic products, and topographic

advantages, are distinct from those of the federal Survey, while at

the same time it is very evident that codperation with the United

States Geological Survey is essential to such work. In the establish-

ment of this Survey the legislature acted wisely in appointing the

presidents of the two leading colleges members of the Commission ;

and the eleventh Resolution of the Commission, asking official

cooperation from the head of the United States Geological Survey

and from the directors of the geological surveys in neighboring states,

has had much to do with the high grade of work shown by the Survey’s

first publication. For the execution of this work unstinted praise is

due to Professor Clark and his assistant, Dr. Mathews.

In the first volume, “issued to set forth the organization of the

Survey, and to show what has hitherto been done in the study of the

geology, natural history, and resources of Maryland,” the plan of

operation of the Survey is stated concisely; a very complete state-

ment of the physiography, geology, and mineral resources of Mary-

land has been compiled by Professor Clark, with a most scholarly

historical sketch of earlier investigations. Dr. Mathews contributes

a bibliography and cartography of Maryland, which is one of the

most complete of its kind that we have seen. It is arranged in

chronological order, and includes works from 1526 to 1896 inclusive,

1 Maryland Geological Survey, vol. i (1897), 539 pp-; vol. ii (1898), 509 pp.,

plates and maps. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins Press, 1897-98.

278 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

with a brief summary of each work. L. A. Bauer contributes a

chapter on magnetic work, with a preliminary isogonic map of the

state. In addition to the usual study of economic products, the plan

of the Survey embraces a special investigation of road materials, of

artesian well prospects, of water power, and of the physiographic

features of the state. A geological map of the state, published in

cooperation with the United States Survey, is incorporated in the

volume, with also many photographic illustrations, a view of the

topographic model of Maryland, index maps showing the progress

of work of the United States Survey, and a hypsometric map.

The second volume is even more attractive than the first, the half-

tone illustrations being supplemented by numerous photogravures on

heavy paper, and colored plates showing the intimate structure of

polished slabs of building stone which are, in the opinion of the

reviewer, the most perfect reproductions of natural rock surface that

have ever been made. Especially remarkable is Plate II, a granite

porphyry from Ellicott City, in which even the cleavage fractures on

the surface of the feldspar crystals and the semi-transparent appear-

ance of the fracture edges are portrayed with perfect accuracy both

as to color and form. After the administrative report of the super-

intendent, this volume contains a full account of Maryland building

stones, by Dr. Mathews, with an introductory chapter on the physi-

cal, chemical, and economic properties of building stones, including

methods of testing, by George P. Merrill. Dr. Mathews’s work

appears again in the third part of the report, in an exhaustive histori-

cal review of the maps and map-makers of Maryland. It is in these

historical chapters that the first volumes of the Maryland Survey

especially excel, and in them is shown the advantage of the extensive

library facilities of Baltimore and Washington. Henry Gannett, of

the United States Geological Survey, contributes a summary of the

aims and methods of modern cartography, giving from his wide

experience a systematic account of the object of the modern topo-

graphic map, the methods employed to-day in the government office,

and figures and formule illustrating the use of instruments: This

chapter by itself is of great value in giving to the public a statement -

of the latest methods of topographical surveying, with excellent pho-

tographic illustrations of the several instruments employed.

The second volume shows the success of the first efforts of the

State Survey in impressing on the people of the state the value of

its work, in that the General Assembly of 1898 passed special bills

appropriating money for the extension of the topographic survey

No. 387.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 279

and for the investigation of scientific methods of highway con-

struction, following the lead, in this last respect, of the State of

Massachusetts. T. A. Jacare JR.

PETROGRAPHY.

Granites and Diabases. — Milch’s’ article on the granitic rocks

of the Riesengebirge and Bodmer-Beder’s? paper on the olivin dia-

base from the Plessurgebirge in the Grisons are monographic presen-

tations of the subjects they discuss. In the first, the author describes

in great detail, and with a wealth of chemical analyses, the well-known

granitite of the Riesengebirge, together with its basic and acid phases

and the concretions they contain. Chemically, the rock is a mixture

of Rosenbusch’s granitic and dioritic magmas. The acid and basic

phases are regarded as differentiation products of the magma that

yielded the normal rock. Even the dike granites and the pegmatites

of the district are looked upon as ‘‘ Schlieren ” in the granitic magma,

formed by the solidification of the mother liquor left after the greater

portion of the magma had crystallized. The basic phases of the

rock often present the features of kersantites. They appear as con-

cretions in the granitite and as dark “ Schlieren” traversing it.

The diabases of the Plessurgebirge in the neighborhood of Chur

occur as stocks, as horizontal sheets, and as dikes in the predomi-

nant limestone. In the center of the stocks its structure is gran-

ular; nearer the peripheries of the masses it is ophitic, and on the

peripheries it is vitrophyric. Varioles and vacuoles are present as

contact phenomena. The former are spherulites of radial plagioclase,

and the latter amygdaloidal cavities that have been filled with albite,

quartz, and calcite. The rocks present no unusual features, but the

paper is worth examination because of its thoroughness in describing

and picturing each structural form of the rock investigated and of

its constituents.

Granitic Oceanic Islands and the Nature of Laterite.— The

small group of tropical oceanic islands, known as the Seychelles, are

noteworthy from the fact that they are neither of coral nor of vol-

canic origin, but are granitic in character. Bauer? reports that they

consist principally of granites, and syenites cut by dikes and covered

1 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., Bd. xii, p. 115. 2 Ibid., p. 238.

8 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. Bd. ii (1898), p. 163.

280 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIII.

in places by flows of felsite-porphyry, granite-porphyry, syenite-por-

phyry, hornblende-vogesite, diorites, diabase, and augite-porphyrite.

The greatest interest of the paper lies in the discussion of the nature

of the weathering product, laterite, which here, as in other tropical

lands, constitutes so large.a part of the rock covering. In the Sey-

chelles this material results from the decomposition of both acid and

basic rocks, but it is best developed in connection with the granite,

bowlders of which may consist of the fresh rock in the center and

laterite on the exterior, with a complete series of gradation forms

between. The typical laterite is a red, brown, or yellow mass that

may be dense and hard, clay-like, or sandy and friable under differ-

ent conditions. Often this substance may be mixed with quartz

grains or mica scales. In thin section it is sometimes nearly opaque,

sometimes completely transparent. Everything but the quartz of the

granites and the ilmenite of basic rocks has been changed to a light-

colored, scaly aggregate of doubly refracting plates colored in places

by iron oxides and other compounds. Analyses of this substance from

_ granite and diorite yield: 60.68% Al.O;, 9.56% Fe.O;, and 29.76%

H-0 for granite-laterite, and 51.98% Al.O;, 20.95 % Fe.0;,and 27.07%

H-0 for diorite-laterite.

Laterite is thus very different from clay ; in composition it is much

more like hydrargillite. The beauxite of the Vogelsberg and other

supposed beauxites derived from basalts are of the same nature. In

all cases the laterite is the residue left by leaching agents in a tropi-

cal climate. The occurrence of the beauxite at Vogelsberg indicates

to the author the existence of a warm climate over this place at the

time the beauxite was formed.

Isenite and Intermediate Types of Volcanic Rocks. —In the

Westerwald, in the province of Hesse-Nassau, basalts, trachytes,

andesites, and phonolites are well developed in many different

phases, especially in the transition forms that have recently attracted

so much attention among petrographers. The predominant andesite,

for instance, is a transition phase between andesite and trachyte;

some of the other andesites are basaltic in habit, and a few of the

trachytes are phonolitic. Dannenberg! describes all these types in

detail, and adds analyses of many of them. The “isenite” from

Sengelberg, Kramberg, and Himmrich consists of a groundmass

made up of lath-shaped plagioclases, and small grains of augite and

of olivine, magnetite, and some secondary substances, and pheno-

1 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., Bd. xvii, pp. 301, 421.

= No. 387] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 281

crysts of plagioclase, augite, and opacitic pseudomorphs of horn-

blende. The porphyritic plagioclase occupies about half the mass

-of the rock. Like the feldspar of the groundmass, it is a basic

labradorite. The rock is thus a hornblende-andesite.

Dike Rocks of Portland, Me. — Lord' maps and briefly describes

the basic and acid dikes that cut the schists in Casco Bay and on

Point Elizabeth, Portland, Me. The basic dikes are néarly all por-

phyritic. In composition they are olivinitic and enstatitic diabases,

and camptonites. The acid ones are pegmatites and aplites. The -

rock called camptonite is composed of porphyritic olivines and augites

in a groundmass consisting of idiomorphic brown hornblende, anortho-

clase, magnetite, and secondary products. The hornblende is in

small prisms, some of which contain remnants of augite, and there-

fore are believed to be paramorphic. The anorthoclase is in lath-

shaped crystals arranged radially. Analyses of the anorthoclase (I)

and the camptonite (IT) follow:

SiO, TiO, Al,O; FeO, FeO CaO MgO NaO K,O H,O Total

LPi 20.79 2.88 4.27 16 Bog {iy -21665= 100.36

Il. 45.20° .68 17.83 5.98 6.55 7.89. 5.29 Aas Sis — 5.53 == 1060.60

In the course of his work the author separated the hornblende

from the camptonite of Campton Falls, N. H., and subjected it to

analysis with this result:

Si0; TiO, AlO FeO; FeO CaO MgO Nao. KO Total

37:80 — 4.54 12.89 6.14 12.55 13.64 4.10 5.26 3.24 = 100,16

_ Notes. — A biotite-tinguaite dike cuts through the augite-syenite

of Gales rocks, Manchester, Essex County, Mass. According to

Eakle,? the structure of the rock differs from that of a typical tin-

guaite in that the feldspar and aegirine are in lath-shaped and pris-

matic crystals rather than in the acicular forms characteristic of this

rock. In this respect it resembles solvsbergite. The composition is:

SiO, TiO, Al,O; Fe,0; FeO MuO CaO MgO K,O Na,O H,Oat 110° H,O Cl Total

60.05 II 19,097 433 To 79- <9? .23 3.24 7-69 +15 1.26 .28= 100.04

Oetling® has made a number of experiments to determine the

effect of various conditions,on the manner of crystallization of rock

magmas, and has incorporated his results in an article full of inter-

esting comments on his experimental methods and suggestions for

future work on the subject.

1 Amer. Geol., vol. xxii,

2 Amer. Journ. Sci., a vi C89. p. 489.

8 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., Bd. xvii, p. 331.

NEWS.

From the January number of the Geographical Magazine we learn

that the Dutch government has placed at the disposal of the scientific

men of Holland the newly built warship Szdoga, of 820 tons, for the

. deep-sea exploration of the East India Archipelago. The vessel is

fitted out with the Le Blanc sounding apparatus, a Lucas sounding

machine, and an electric cable drum with a capacity of 10 kilometers

of steel cable, and a zoological equipment for plankton, littoral, and

deep-sea investigations, including deep-sea nets of the Chun, Tanner,

and Fowler types. The cost of the expedition is met partly by the

government and partly by learned societies and private individuals.

The scientific leader of the expedition is Professor Max Weber,

assisted by Dr. J. Versleys, Mr. H. Nierstrasz, and Dr. A. H. Schmidt.

The object of the expedition is the zoological, botanical, and physical

investigation of the marine area of the East Indian Archipelago,

particularly of the deep basins of its eastern portion. The work

of the expedition is expected to extend over two years.

The Macmillan Company has begun the publication of a new

bi-monthly magazine, Aird-Lore, for observers of birds, under the

above title. Mr. Frank M. Chapman is the editor of the paper, which

is the official organ of the Audubon societies. Almost all the prin-

cipal workers on birds out-of-doors will contribute during the year.

Photographic reproductions of wild birds in their haunts will form a

prominent feature.

The Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of

~ Science has been issued this year with a promptness which is as grati-

fying as it is novel.

The German Anatomische Gesellschaft meets this year in Tiibin-

gen, May 22 to 25.

The Liverpool Museum is to have an addition measuring 162 by

190 feet, five stories in height. The three lower floors are for the

technical schools, the two upper will afford galleries of horseshoe

shape, the lower for invertebrates, the upper for vertebrates.

One cannot repress the feeling, as he looks over the reports of the

various conferences on the bibliography of scientific literature, that

282

SCIENTIFIC NEWS. 283

the committees .are building an unwieldy machine with its central

and regional bureaux.

The Boston Society of Natural History is trying to increase its

membership. Reduction in the rate of interest of its invested funds

threatens seriously to impair its usefulness unless the loss be made

good in other ways.

Ever since his appointment as scientific director of the U. S. Fish

Commission, Dr. H. C. Bumpus has been publishing notes on the

breeding habits of animals at Woods Holl. It is to be hoped that

the author will collect these notes, arrange them in systematic order,

and reissue them as a whole, thus making them more useful to

students,

The City Library Association of Springfield, Mass., will hold this

month an exhibition of material relating to geography and geology,

to show chiefly the results of geographical and geological research

during the last few years. Methods of teaching geography and geol-

ogy will form one of the chief features of the exhibition, which will

also demonstrate, as far as possible, the progress of these sciences by

the display of published results.

Professor A. S. Packard, of Brown University, sailed the first of the

year for the Mediterranean. He will spend the winter in Egypt,

Palestine, and other countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and

later go to France to obtain materials for a proposed life of Lamarck.

The refusal of the leaders of the Geological Society of America to

affiliate in any way with the other scientific societies which meet dur-

ing the holidays may have some good reason behind it, but we have

never heard of it. During the meetings of 1898 this isolation caused

some complaint on the part of some of the geologists, for they were

unable to obtain the reduced rates on the railroads which were

enjoyed by the members of the other societies.

It seems probable that the Society of Naturalists, with its associated

organizations of morphologists, botanists, anatomists, psychologists,

etc., will meet in 1899 in New Haven.

The Paris Academy of Sciences has awarded half of the Lallemand

prize to Mr. E. P. Allis for his memoir upon the head of Amia.

We chronicled some time ago the appointment of Dr. Slingerland

as state entomologist of New York. It appears that there is a con-

flict in the laws as to the appointing power; this being given in one

place to the governor, in another to the regents of the university.

284 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

We learn that Mr. Slingerland has no desire to enter into any con-

test for the position, and the appointment of Mr. E. P. Felt will

probably hold. Cornell University is certainly to be congratulated in

retaining the services of Dr. Slingerland.

The following persons have been elected to honorary membership

in the Nebraska Academy of Sciences: Alexander Agassiz, LL.D. ;

John M. Coulter, LL.D.; Professor Samuel H. Scudder; Joseph Le

Conte, LL.D.; Simon Newcomb, LL.D.; Dr. Otto Kunze; Professor

Victor Hensen.

Professor O. C. Marsh, of Yale University, has recently been

elected correspondent of the Academy of Sciences of Paris.

Appointments: Dr. John M. Clarke, state paleontologist of New

York. — H. H. Dale, Coutts-Trotter student in zoology in Trinity

College, Cambridge. — Wallace Craig, assistant in the Illinois state

laboratory of natural history. — C. B. Crampton, of Edinburgh,

assistant keeper of the geological department of the Manchester

Museum. — Dr. Eugen Dubois, professor of geology in the University

of Amsterdam. — Dr. E. P. Felt, state entomologist of New York. —

Dr. Lepetet, professor of histology in the faculty of sciences at Cler-

mont, France. — Dr. F. J. H. Merrill, state geologist of New York. —

Dr. Heinrich Obersteiner, professor of physiology and pathology

of the central nervous system in the University of Vienna. — Dr.

Domenico Saccardo, assistant in the botanical gardens at Bologna. —

M. Camille Sauvageau, professor of botany in the University of

Dijon, France. — Mr. W. G. Savage, assistant in bacteriology in

University College, London. — Giulio Valentia, of Perugia, professor

of anatomy in the University of Bologna. — Dr. Weinschenk, privat

docent in mineralogy and geology in the Munich Polytechnicum. —

C. W. Young, assistant in botany in the University of Illinois. — Dr.

K. W. Zimmermann, professor extraordinarius of anatomy in the

University of Bern. — Dr. Oskar Zoth, professor of physiology in the

University of Graz.

Deaths: Joseph Gibelli, professor of botany in the University of

Turin. — M. Jacques Passé, assistant in the department of physio-

logical psychology in Paris. — James Spencer, geologist and paleo-

botanist, July 9, at Akroydon. — Dr. G. Venturi, Austrian bryologist,

June 5. :

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(The regular Exchanges of the American Naturalist are not included.)

BEAL, W. J. Seed HG Boston, Ginn & Company, 1898. vii, 57 pp.,

8vo, 65 figs. — DEUTSCHER BOTANIKER-KALENDAR FUR 1899. Herausgegeben

von P. Sydow. Berlin, Eminit 1898. 198 pp.

GoTo, S. Some Points in the Metamorphosis of Asterina gibbosa. ea Coll.

Sci. Imp. University, Tokio. Vol. xii, Pt. iii, pp. 227-242, Pl. xviii. 1898. —

IKENO, S. Untersuch. u. d. ‘Hortwicdibaane der Geschlechtsorgane_u. d. Voam í

Befruchtung bei Cycas revolta. Jour. Coll. Sci. Imp. University, Tokio. Vol.

xii, Pt. iii, pp. 151-214, Pl.x-xvii. 1898. — STEJNEGER, L. On a Collection of

Batrachians and Reptiles from Formosa and Adjacent Islands. Ji. Coll. Sci.

Imp. University, Tokio, pp. 215-225. 1898.

Commissao Aai e Geologica de São Paulo. Boletim No. 10o. Alberto

Löfgren: Ensaio para Uma Synonimia San Nomes ae das Planted Indi-

genas da Estado de S. Paulo. Sao Paulo, 1895.— Commissao Geographica e Geo-

logica de São Paulo. Seccoa Meteorologica. D ne S da Anno,

1893-96. — Commissão Geographica e Geologica de São Paulo. Boletim Nos. 12-14.

Alberto Löfgren: Flora Paulista, I-III. iri aie Scrophularia-

ceæ, Campanulaceæ, Curcubitaceæ, Calyceraceæ, Valerianaceæ. São Paulo, 1897.

— Denison University, Bulletin of the Seay Laboratories. Vol. x, Memorial

hieny Vol. xi, No. 1, Fowke, G. Preglacial Drainage in the Vicinity of Cin-

cinnati, etc. No. 2, Bowmocker, J. A. The Paleontology and Stratigraphy of the

sr aa Rocks of Ohio. No. 3, Cockerell, T. D. A. Tables for the Deter-

mination of New Mexican Bees, 1898.— Florida spiral Experiment Station.

Bulletins 46 and 48.. Quaintance, A. L. The Strawberry Thrips and the Onion

Thrips, 114 pp., 12 figs., July, 1898. Preliminary Report upon the Insect Enemies

of Tobacco in Florida, 33 pp- 16 figs., Oct., 1898. — Geological Survey of Canada,

Contributions to Canadian Paleontology. Vol.i, Pt. v, No. 7. Whiteaves, J. F.

On Some Additional or i, seis Understood Fossils from the Hamilton Forma-

tion of Ontario, with a Revised List of the Species Therefrom, 75 pp., 3 pls. 1898.

—Tltlinois State Lakier of Natural History. Biennial Report of the Director

for 1897-98. — Johns Hopkins Hospital Bulletin. Vol. ix, No.93. Dec., 1898. —

North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 152. Hege, F. ra

Poultry Notes, 22 pp. Sept., 1898.— North Carolina Agricultural Experim

Station. Bulletin 154. Withers, W. A. and Fraps, G. S. The Adulteration nae

Coffee and Tea offered for Sale in North Carolina. 13 pp. Dec., 1898.— Mary-

land Geological Survey. Vols. i-ii. 539 and 509 pp. Maps and plates. Balti-

more, Johns Hopkins Press, 1897 and 1898. — Open Court, The. Vol. xiii. Jan.

— Rhode Island Agricultural i pede Station. Bulletin 49. Wheeler, H. J.

and Adams, G. E. Isa Lack of Lime General in Rhode Island Soils? 16 pp,

Nov., 1898. — Staten Island p Science Association Proceedings. Vol. vii,

Nos. 1 and 2. Nov. and Dec., 1898. — Wyoming Experiment Station. Bulletin

37- Buffum, B. C. The Stooling of Grains. 35 pp., 2 figs. June, 1898.

(Wo. 386 was mailed February 4.)

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VoL. XXXIII, No. 388” APRIL, 1899

THE

AMERICAN

NA TURAL IS

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. Four Categories of Species . ga ee wet eos 0. F. COOK 287

II. Vacation Notes. I. Notes on the Califo

ree es DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL 299

III. The Senara of the PES as a Function of the Central

Nervous Syst Professor HEINRICH OBERSTEINER 313

IV. Editorial daai b: yee re Musée du Congo, A Botanical Calendar,

The Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen, “ Natural Science” 331

V. Reviews of Recent Literature: Anthropology, African Skulls, Ceremonial 333

Stones — Zod/ogy, Adriatic Sponges, Revised Classification of the 3384

Unionidz, Rotifera and Protozoa of the Illinois River, Diurnal Migration

of the Plankton, Plankton of the Oder, Nematode Parasites, Origin and

Development of Sense Organs, Eckstein’s Zoologie, Crustacea of Nor-

way, Japanese Pulmonates, Brooding in Frogs, Marine Mollusca in the

Suez Canal, Hertwig’s Summaries in Systematic Zodlogy, Fishes of

Ecuador, A New Type of Shark, American Gordiacea, Development

of the Eel — Botany, A New School Botany, REEN iamar 345

Schumann’s Monograph of the Cactacez, Sargent’s Silv ematic

Plant Anatomy, Botanical Notes — Geo/ogy, The hain of peda 50

Petrography, Experimental essay Ae The Basic Rocks of Ivrea, The 352

asalts of Steiermark, Petrographical Not

VI. News 355

VII. Correspondence: The True Function of the University of the United

States, SUSANNA PHELPS GAGE — GaAskell’s Theory of the Origin of 358

Vertebrates from Crustacean Ancestors, Professor WILLIAM .PATTEN 360

VIII. Publications Received 370

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CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D., Yale University, New pa ven.

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RMERICAN NATURALIST

Vou. XXXIII. April, 1899. No. 388.

FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES.

O. F. COOK.

THERE are at least four different sorts of species, so called,

involved in the study of as many theoretically related, but also

theoretically and practically distinct, taxonomic problems. The

result of indiscriminately confusing these problems and their

specific criteria has been the occasion of many destructive

criticisms of systematic biology. Such objections”are fre-

quently valid, but not as uniformly pertinent, since they rest,

in reality, on faulty analysis rather than upon any inextricable

difficulties or logical inconsistencies connected with the several

tasks of biological taxonomy.

To vary somewhat the familiar comparison of organic nature

to a tree and its branches, evolutionary theories permit us to

think of life rather as originating at a point which, by the accre-

tion of countless successive individuals, has become the center

of a sphere upon whose surface existing vitality appears as

islands in the sea of nonexistence. The section of such a

sphere would differ from that of the earth in that the oceans

would have enormous depth, for the solid core would separate

from near its center into numerous and repeated divisions.

It is perhaps conceivable that life might have reached variety

and complexity without accompanying segregation into limited

287

288 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. {[VoL. XXXIII.

groups of similar individuals, in which case all the circumfer-

ential possibilities of form and structure would have been real-

ized, with a result comparable to a uniformly solid sphere.

Arguments and phylogenies are often based on this assumption,

that all organic types have been connected by intermediate

forms; but there is no valid reason to suppose that more than

very few of such theoretical possibilities have been projected

into the actual; the oceans of our vital globe are not only deep,

but are in overwhelming proportion to the space otherwise

occupied. Segregation has everywhere accompanied differen-

tiation in structure, and the forms which might have main-

tained connection between the various branches of life are not

in most cases to be thought of as extinct; they have never

come to expression, never existed.

Having been accustomed to consider organic types as form-

ing connected series, those who have approached systematic

biology from the paleontologic standpoint have been especially

prone to overlook the distinctions which arise from the fact

that all such series are, in fact, lineal, and that their successive

members have always been separated by chasms of nonexist-

ence, so to speak, from all except phylogenetically related forms.

Moreover, the points of actual contact with these last are few

and momentary if the extent of biological history be taken into

account ; a grave fallacy is accordingly involved in the theory of

classification which attempts to render nature at large compre-

hensible through methods logically applicable only to phyloge-

netic series. From the practical standpoint it is as though

topographic expedients were limited to the numbering of houses.

As such designations are of no utility unless streets are also

known, so is the lineal method of classification of use only in

dealing with ascertained series. Notwithstanding the theories

of interlacing phylogeny which some authors have propounded,

it may be asserted with confidence that the analogy of streets

and numbers has but a limited application in nature. There

are no cross-thoroughfares ; all the lines radiate in general from

a center, and while they may sometimes become closely parallel,

we have as yet no adequate evidence that under natural condi-

tions they ever reunite after more than the briefest divergence.

No. 388.] FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES. 289

The species of the paleontologist is, then, with reference to

the other members of its line, an arbitrary division of a contin-

uous series of gradually changing forms. The fact of estab-

lished sequence will go far to prevent confusion, and the

purposes of classification are served by such a knowledge of —

forms and characters as will make possible the reference of a

given individual to its proper place inthe series. Illogical pro-

cedure may be charged against any attempt at applying these

concepts or methods outside of the lines of established, or at

least suspected, phylogeny.

The termini of such of the paleontological series as have not

become extinct are the subject-matter of the biology of to-day,

in contradistinction to that of the past or the future. Return-

ing to the former analogy, it may be insisted that as the accre-

tions of the life of previous ages have been built up on distinct

lines, so is existing life manifested in assemblages of simi-

lar individuals, which are obviously distinct collectively. The

forms which would be required to connect them do not exist,

and we shall make little true progress in the knowledge of

organic nature until we abandon the attempt at arranging living

organisms in continuous series. With rare exceptions their

relationship must be traced through the more or less remote

past. In one sense all life may be thus connected, and abso-

lute lines between groups of specific or higher rank are forever

impossible; but in another and equally important sense groups

of living organisms may be looked upon as separate and inde-

pendent, though collective, entities. The study of geography

has not been abandoned because of the discovery that all land

is connected by the ocean bottom, nor is the topography of a

series of islands neglected because soundings prove that they

are peaks of a submerged mountain range. No naturalist de-

nies the existence of clearly defined and easily recognizable

specific groups, but the difficulty experienced in attempting to

resolve the more nebulous parts of nature has sometimes blurred

the eyesight of the systematist. In some generic archipelagoes

the specific islands stand out prominent and distinct, like the

members of the Canary and Hawaiian groups; while in others

they are painfully similar and are separated only by narrow,

290 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIII,.

shallow, and tortuous channels, like the Florida Keys. These

last are, indeed, a cartographer’s nightmare comparable to the

species of Aster and Sphagnum. But whether the natural-

ist’s theories help or hinder, his descriptive task will not be

complete until the facts of nature have been recognized and

recorded, until all the islands have been located and mapped.

That this work is in a confused and backward state is partly

due to the conceptual fallacy of species and genera, which has

led us to attempt to map the islands without securely locating

them by the designation and preservation of types.

To divide a continuous series of forms into “genera” and

“species ” is a thoroughly artificial process analogous to the

marking of feet and inches on a measuring rod, and is one of

the instances where the naturalist may be said to “make” the

“ species.” The specific islands of living organisms are, how-

ever, not made, but discovered by the systematist, and located,

not primarily with regard to their disposition in an ancestral

series, but with reference to other separate groups. Whether

a specific island is large or small, circular or irregular in shape,

is not subject to our determination; and the naturalist who

expects to apply throughout nature a general concept of species

based on the “size” or “weight” of characters is about as

well equipped for his work as a map-maker who should under-

take to draw a chart of the Florida Keys without other tools

than a circular die. With such an implement he could in a

general way indicate the location of a few well- separated

islands like the Canaries, but the other task is Eoo

impossible.

Although chronologically the first, the problem of systematic

paleontology, on account of the fragmentary nature of its

material, must depend largely upon the results gained in the

study of existing forms. Isolated fossils may be classified,

for the sake of convenience, in so-called species and genera ina

manner analogous to that used with living types ; but when any

approximation to a complete phylogenetic series can be made

out, that method is no longer logically applicable. The chasms

which separate species in the present do not interrupt the un-

broken line of ancestry which stands below every existing type,

No. 388.] FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES. 291

and to locate a particular point in a continuous series of this

kind is manifestly a different problem from that of finding the

island which is its extremity. The necessities of the first case

are met by observing the appearance, development, and perhaps

the decline of some important structure, such as a tooth. The

line of natural succession is the important fact, and the classifi-

cation, as far as there is any, is here of necessity artificial,

touching at only one point, that of living forms, which lies in

a distinct plane. It is only when considered with reference to

their own horizons that fossil species are distinctly compa-

rable to the specific islands of to-day; and to fail to consider

the breaks in the horizontal series, because the vertical series is

theoretically continuous, is one of the more important instances

where a confusing element has been unnecessarily and illogi-

cally introduced. It is one task of taxonomy to recognize the

facts of the present; and this need not be complicated, but

should rather be assisted, by a knowledge of what has been or

a suspicion of what may yet be. Nor is it necessary to be

frightened by the captious warning that the species now exist-

ing will give place to something different to-morrow. The

“now ” is at least sufficiently extensive for our purposes. As

to the coming change, posterity will not know its rate nor

direction unless we certify the details of the present reality.

The careful description and preservation of types, instead of

works of supererogation, are of the utmost importance, not as

means of specific limitation, but as giving fixed points about

which accretions of knowledge may gather. The recognition

and adequate designation of natural species or higher groups

are frequently matters of extreme difficulty, requiring extended

and careful study which the agnostic naturalist jauntily avoids,

sometimes by professing interest in “ more important” prob-

lems. To tell from a few specimens whether a new form rep-

resents a distinct species or not is frequently impossible, and

opinion must be provisionally based on the analogy of better

known relatives ; but this initial difficulty in no way affects the

practicability of the subsequent settlement of the question by

more extended observation. ;

Whether the segregation of a new group has been accom-

292 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

plished seems to be a matter of indifference to some ultra-

progressive naturalists. It is as though a geographer, having

learned that a certain region is slowly subsiding, should proceed

to name the hills as islands, and publish his book revised for the

next geologic period. Such a procedure would be, to say the

least, misleading, both for the present and future generations.

This is the third type of “ species,” very much in evidence at

the present day. Although the designation by name of the

various prominences or arms of a diversified island is desira-

ble, even before the expected separation occurs, the prophetic

tendency should, in the interest of historical accuracy, be

curbed to the extent of distinguishing in category between

groups which are already segregated in nature and those

which are not. One naturalist refers to an entire island asa

species, while another divides it into numerous parts which he

still calls “species.” Now these parts may be as abundant

in individuals, and their extremes may show differences even

greater than those separating completely isolated species, but

by treating them as already distinct we ignore the existence of

intermediate forms and proceed as though degree of apparent

difference were an index of segregation or a taxonomic sub-

stitute for it. The theory that the formation of species

through differentiation and segregation is proceeding continu-

ously throughout nature has too often served as a warrant fora

complete confusion of issues, with the natural result that some

writers have shown more frankness than perspicacity in assum-

ing the position that species are among the things “past find-

ing out.”

As if to solidify the confusion and justify this attitude, the

naturalist is called to deal with a rapidly increasing number of

man-made perversions, or at least diversions of nature. We

assemble from different continents species of undoubted dis-

tinctness and absolute segregation in nature, and produce

hybrids which nature would never have formed and would not

now permit to exist except under human auspices. Some nat-

ural species, too, have shown themselves wonderfully susceptible

of change through the influence of selection, so that the honest

advocate of a general specific concept finds himself under the

No. 388.] FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES. 293

necessity of recognizing species and genera created by the

gardener and poultry fancier. Taking as a criterion of amount

the minute differences by which some distinctly segregated

species, such as those of Antennaria, are distinguished, the

impartial botanist of conceptual proclivities would find himself

more than occupied in providing for the scientific recognition of

horticultural novelties. With degree of difference as the cri-

terion of classification, the annual increase in the species of the

genus Rosa would be very considerable, for the divergences

resulting from crosses and selection are often as great as those

existing between wild species of undoubted validity.

The four types of species may then be enumerated as follows:

I. Lhe phylogenetic species, a division or section of a line of

biological succession.

2. The insular or segregated species, the living end of a line

of the preceding category.

3. The incipient species, preferably known as the subspecies,

which is a subdivision of the second category, being a group of

individuals showing distinctive characters and a tendency to

segregation, but still connected with other groups by normally

existing intermediate forms.

4. The artificial species, the result of man’s interference in

nature, by which the specific islands of the second category

have been, as it were, remodeled or connected by causeways

or bridges, the natural tendency to isolation and segregation

having been reversed through human agency.

In one case only does nature limit the species; in the other

three the species are arbitrary in the sense that their bounda-

ries are formal and to that extent conceptual. It were much

better if other terms could be made available, so that the desig-

nation “species” might be reserved for its original use with

the second category. For the third the appropriate term “ sub-

species ” is increasing in favor, while to the fourth there seems

to be no good reason why the popular designation “ variety ”

should not-be restricted. Even here it is not the absolute

degree or amount of difference which determines the desirability

of independent recognition for a new form, but the constancy

and utility of the differences. It is fortunately still true that

294 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII,

the second category stands forth as by far the most important

sense of the term “ species,’ and much confusion and difficulty

would have been avoided if it had been consistently restricted

to that purpose. But equally loose has been the application of

the subordinate designations “ subspecies,” “ variety,” “form,”

and “race.” With “amount of difference ” as the only crite-

rion, fossils, geographic races, and artificially produced varieties

are being catalogued miscellaneously and indiscriminately as

“species.”

After this failure to distinguish between the different tasks

of taxonomy, it is not surprising that the total difficulties have

been set forth with as complete an absence of discrimination.

It is true, for instance, that some so-called species are arbi-

trary and artificial concepts, though it is equally true that other

species are clearly defined assemblages of similar individuals,

the case depending on how we make our terms and how we

use them. But it is least certain that any method of pro-

cedure is faulty which tends to obscure the various issues and

make confusion where none need exist. The limitations of

our ignorance are already great enough without unnecessarily

increasing them. A student of geography might conclude,

after spending some time on the attempt, that it would not be

worth while for him to write a monograph of the Florida Keys,

but we would scarcely expect him to advertise his failure by

composing a treatise to show that geography is an impossibility,

since coast lines and landmarks are continually changing. The

facts of nature are what we are trying to learn, not systems

and concepts. These are, at best, but means, and we should

change or throw them aside if they fail of their purpose, instead

of allowing ourselves to become entangled in them. Let the

term “ species ” be abandoned altogether, if by so doing we can

better realize that the tasks of biological taxonomy are not one,

but several, and that each should be.approached to the great-

est possible advantage without being gratuitously complicated.

To trace lines of descent and be able to locate each individual

in its proper place is a work quite distinct in plan and execu-

tion from the mapping of the islands of life as they lie in the

sea of nonexistence. The topography of individual islands is

No. 388.] FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES. 295

a subject of extreme interest, and it is perhaps even more im-

portant to record and make accessible all knowledge gained

regarding the behavior of organized nature under the moulding

hand of men. Many facts will have places in the treatment of

all four problems, since these touch at many points; but from

the standpoint of the execution of the work there is no logical

necessity that any one task be rendered more difficult by the

existence of the others. In dealing with each of the categories

here enumerated, appropriate criteria of so-called species should

be sought and persistently followed. If we are to continue to

talk of geological or phylogenetic species, we must understand

that they can, even in theory, be little more than arbitrary

sections of the extinct lines of succession leading up to the

living islands of the present, of which the number, form, and

relative position can be satisfactorily determined only by direct-

ing attention to the question of segregation by space, time, or

mutual sterility. To certify on simple inspection whether an

individual specimen of a previously unknown plant represents

a new species, a subspecies, or a hybrid, is, and must remain,

impossible. Notwithstanding much eminent opinion to the

contrary, we may insist that the facts of nature and not the

concepts of the human mind are the primary objects of biologic

study. In this instance, at least, we may rest assured that no

refinement of concepts will enable us to know in advance facts

which must be ascertained by careful and often by extended

observation. The believers in the doctrine of “amount of

difference ” have, it is true, an apparent advantage in that by

the simple application of their individual measuring rods they

may be ready to assert, without the embarrassment of delay,

that a new individual represents a new species, since it appears

“sufficiently different ” from others to meet the demands of their

“ conception of species.” If these mental phenomena could be

communicated with uniformity to other naturalists, the method

would have a practical advantage which it does not now enjoy,

since the conception is merely individual, and uniformity of

opinion can never be expected. Segregation or its absence is,

however, a fact of nature which may be established by careful

observation, like other phenomena. If some systematists deny

296 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIII.

this, they are but confessing that species are for them descrip-

tions in books, not aggregates of similar individuals in nature.

From the biological standpoint there could scarcely be more

useless and unproductive labor than this of matching descrip-

tions. The merits of a proposed species, that is, its normal

segregation in nature, are not to be inferred from the formal

description of a few individuals, and all so-called “ species ”

established on such.a basis are merely tentative propositions —

suggestions for study. The question is not whether the de-

scription is different from all other descriptions, but whether

the type specimen is, in reality, a member of an independent

series of individuals, a distinct branch of life, a separate island

of existence. The systematist is in no way responsible for the

conditions; it is his business merely to recognize and record

them. The difficulties vary greatly in different parts of nature,

depending upon facts in the biology of the various groups.

Thus the well-nigh inextricable confusion of the genus Sphag-

num is undoubtedly connected with the fact that all the species

have almost exactly the same position in the economy of nature,

and affect the same habitat, while segregation has been further

hindered or at least obscured by the absence of any natural

period to the life of the individual plants. Remotely ancestral

and all succeeding forms may still exist simultaneously and

contiguously, affording a rare complication of difficulties. But

in this case, as in others, we can best gain knowledge of the

lines of divergence and learn something of the present tenden-

cies of evolution by locating the breaks in the series of forms.

The use of the term “species ” may bea matter of indifference,

but confusion in this formal regard should not be allowed to

obscure the interest which attaches to the history and status

of so isolated a group of plants.

Having once located and delimited our specific islands, the

work of studying their internal topography is comparatively

simple. The limitation of subspecific groups is necessarily

arbitrary, but it need not be on that account artificial, the object

of such subdivision being the recognition of tendencies toward

segregation, rather than the formation of groups of uniform

size. We are concerned, in other words, with the natural

No. 388.] FOUR CATEGORIES OF SPECIES. 297

features of our islands rather than with the number of farms

or building lots into which they may be subdivided.

The fourth type of species may not appear logically dis-

tinct from the second and third, since natural hybrids occur,

and have had, no doubt, their influence in evolution. From the

practical standpoint, however, it may be maintained that the

hybrid nature of a new form is not to be assumed without

reason; and it is plain, in addition, that where we know the

history and ancestry of a hybrid or selective variety, we should

draw every possible advantage from that knowledge instead of

undertaking the gratuitous labor of attempting a second and

entirely artificial diagnosis. With domestic animals classifica-

tion is carried to its ultimate extreme by means of carefully

recorded pedigrees, while in the cultivated plants a similar

refinement exists, particularly in the varieties of fruits which are

propagated by grafting, the so-called variety being, in a sense,

but a single individual, in spite of its extensive multiplication

and distribution. Such classifications are not less scientific

because they are also of practical utility, and the necessity

of uniformity in the nomenclature of artificial varieties and

hybrids is becoming a scientific as well as a popular necessity.

At the same time it is extremely doubtful whether the desul-

tory systematic methods of the past and present can supply

such adesideratum. Any attempt at instituting an authoritative

nomenclature of cultivated plants would need, in justice to the

practical interests concerned, to be so equipped as to furnish

prompt and accurate determinations, and to be able to incor-

porate into knowledge and provide names for all new varieties

without loss of time. Such a plan once carried into execution

would. be of the greatest importance to agriculture, since it

would render practicable the execution of laws which might be

enacted to prevent the present enormous losses from falsely

named and dishonestly advertised seeds and propagating

stock,

VACATION NOTES.

DOUGLAS HOUGHTON CAMPBELL.

I. NOTES ON THE CALIFORNIAN FLORA.

DurinG the past summer my vacation was spent in visiting

various parts of the Pacific Coast, my travels extending as far

north as Skagway. While it must be admitted that the various

trips made were intended primarily for recreation, rather than

for scientific purposes, still a botanist could not fail to be deeply

interested in the rich and striking flora of our western posses-

sions, and I have tried here to jot down some of the impressions

made upon me in my wanderings over this most picturesque

part of our country.

It is hardly necessary to remind the botanist how very marked

are the differences between the floras of the Atlantic and Pacific

regions of the United States, especially in the more southern

parts. The topography of the Pacific slope, with the lofty Sierra

extending practically without a break from Alaska to Mexico,

produces climatic conditions very different from those of the

Atlantic States. The differences in climate, together with

other factors affecting the origin and distribution of the west-

ern plants, have resulted in a flora which makes most of Cali-

fornia seem very unfamiliar to the eastern botanist.

The Santa Clara Valley, in which Stanford University is sit-

uated, is thoroughly representative of middle California. This

is the great fruit region of the state, and the level floor of the

valley and lower foothills are largely given up to orchards of

prunes, apricots, and peaches, while extensive vineyards are

also planted, and large quantities of wine are made in some

sections of the valley.

The valley opens at the north upon a long extension of San

Francisco Bay, and here the extreme width of the valley is

perhaps fifteen miles, narrowing rapidly as we go south. To

299

300 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VouL. XXXIII,

the east lies the Mt. Hamilton or inner coast range, with Mt.

Hamilton, some 4500 feet above sea level, as its highest point.

To the west rise the densely wooded Santa Cruz mountains,

somewhat lower than the eastern panee, and separating the

valley from the ocean.

The floor of the valley and the rolling foothills are covered

with spreading oaks, which in places form extensive groves,

which can hardly be dignified with the name of forests. The

scattered groups of oaks give a park-like aspect to the landscape

which is most attractive. The prevailing species are the live

oak (Quercus agrifolia) and the white oak (Q. lobata). Along

the water-courses and roadsides there is a dense growth of

shrubs, the remains of the “chaparral” or thickets which

originally covered much of the valley. The chaparral is com-

posed of a variety of shrubs and small trees, among which may

be mentioned the Californian buckeye (sculus californica),

Bigelovia, Rhamnus californicus, poison oak (Rhus diverstloba),

toyon (Heteromeles arbutifolia), and elder (Sambucus glauca),

the latter a- very characteristic species with glaucous berries,

and forming a small tree of 15 to 20 feet in height.

Along the water-courses and in the moist canyons leading

into the valley are various trees, but none of very large size.

Besides the species of willows and poplars, alders, becoming

trees 50 to 60 feet high, are common; and with these are a

number of trees less familiar to the eastern botanist. The beau-

tiful bay tree (Umbellularia californica) is abundant, and the

equally striking Madrono (Arbutus menziesii), with its smooth

cinnamon-red branches and magnolia-like evergreen leaves,

is decidedly novel in appearance. The Oregon maple (Acer

macrophyllum) is also a conspicuous tree of this region. An

occasional redwood (Seguota sempervirens) is sometimes found

along the banks of the streams several miles away from the

base of the mountains, but it is in the sheltered canyons higher

up that this monarch of the coast ranges reaches its full

development.

The common flowers of the valley are the characteristic ones

of the central Californian region, and are, for the most part,

of southern origin. Many leguminous plants, especially pecul-

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. 301

iar species of Trifolium, Lupinus, and Hosackia, abound; and

early in the spring the grassy meadows and hillsides are often

covered with masses of these flowers as well as many others.

Species of Nemophila and Phacelia represent the Hydrophyl-

laceze, while the Borraginacez include species of Amsinckia

and Erytrichium, which, although the flowers are small, occur in

immense quantities, and are thus very conspicuous. Unfamil-

iar Scrophulariacez, like Orthocarpus, Mimulus, and Collinsia,

and the showy poppies, Eschscholtzia, Mecanopsis, and Platyste-

mon, are all very different from their eastern relatives. Many

beautiful liliaceous plants also occur in great profusion. The

most striking of these belong to the western genera Calochor-

tus —the beautiful Mariposa lilies—and Brodizea; while higher

up among the redwoods are the more northern genera, Fritillaria,

Erythronium, and Trillium. In the open sunny valleys these

vividly colored flowers often occur in great masses, and form veri-

table carpets of bloom that it would be hard to equal anywhere.

Later in the season appear hosts of low-growing Composite,

and on the barren hillsides we may look for the showy Ona-

grace, so abundant in Pacific North America. Besides the

familiar Epilobium and CEnothera, there abound species of

Godetia and Clarkia, and late in the summer the scarlet fuchsia-

like Zauschneria.

With the cessation of the rains, which may occur any time

after the first of April, the flowers mostly disappear, and the

hillsides assume their summer dress of golden brown until the

autumn rains start the seeds into growth again.

Last year was an exceptionally dry one, and when I left San

Francisco, about the first of June, the surrounding country was

already dry and dusty, and scarcely a trace of the spring ver-

dure could be seen anywhere.

I had engaged passage for Sitka from Tacoma on June 19,

but decided to spend the interval at some point in Northern

California, which, except for such glimpses as one can get pass-

ing through on the railroad, was a new country to me. My

destination was Castle Crag, one of the many charming spots

in the beautiful mountain region of the north. It lies about

2000 feet above sea level within twenty miles of the base of

302 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

Shasta, the most beautiful, if not the highest, of the mountains

of California. The view of the glorious snow-covered peak,

over 14,000 feet high, is one never to be forgotten. The great

pyramid rises from a vast plain, with nothing to break the long,

smooth sweep of the slopes of its symmetrical cone. Seen

from Castle Crag, the mountain is peculiarly impressive, and

its snowy cone, framed by giant pines, is a sight, once seen, to

be remembered for a lifetime.

The general aspect of the country about Castle Crag is very

different from that of the more southern valley regions. Here

the railroad follows the narrow gorge of the upper Sacramento,

and on each side the steep, heavily forested mountains rise, the

only level ground being little meadows nestled between the

bases of the hills or forming a narrow margin to the streams.

The rains had not yet ceased, and the vegetation was in the

full luxuriance of early summer —a sharp contrast to the dusty

sunburned aspect of the lower valleys.

The magnificent forest here has been carefully protected,

and gives one a good idea of the character of the virgin forest

of the northern mountains. The prevailing trees are the sugar

pine (Pinus lambertiana), yellow pine (P. ponderosa), white

fir (Adies sp.?), and Douglas spruce (Pseudotsuga douglasii).

In the low ground near the streams the yew (Taxus brevifolia)

was not uncommon, but this does not, in this region at least,

form a tree of any size. Along the streams, and forming an

undergrowth in the lower forest region, are numerous deciduous

trees and shrubs, most of them northern types, and often nearly

related to eastern species.

None of the deciduous trees attain a large size, but further

north some of them, like the big-leaved maple (Acer macrophyl/-

lum) and ash (Fraxinus oregana), become valuable timber trees.

Alders and willows along the streams, and several oaks, the

pretty vine-leaved maple (Acer circinnatum), and flowering dog-

wood, are the commonest constituents of the arborescent under-

growth. With these are mingled many fine flowering shrubs

which add much to the beauty of the forest. The dogwood

(Cornus nuttallii), which is said to be even more beautiful than

the eastern species, was nearly past, but to judge from the

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. = 303

remains of the large inflorescences, which much exceed in size

those of C. florida, this may well be true. By far the most

beautiful of the flowering shrubs, at the time of my visit, was

the exquisite azalea (Rhododendron occidentale), which formed

extensive thickets covered with masses of the lovely pink and

white fragrant flowers. It is not unlike R. viscosum, but is

much finer than that species. Calycanthus and Philadelphus

were seen along the railroad, but were not noted in the immedi-

ate neighborhood. Wild roses were abundant, and the thimble-

berry (Rubus nutkanus), with its big maple leaves and showy

_ white flowers, was very common, as it is throughout the whole

of Pacific North America, from the mountains of middle Cali-

fornia to Alaska, and east to Lake Superior, where I remember

to have seen it for the first time many years ago.

The abundant moisture of the lower forests and the numer-

ous streams at their bases are favorable to the development of

a rich herbaceous flora, among which we find many beautiful

flowers. The spring flowers, like the Fritillarias and Erythro-

niums, and the early violets, were gone, but the early summer

flowers were abundant. Most of these belonged to familiar

genera, and the species were not infrequently allied to east-

ern ones. Dicentra formosa, much like the eastern D. eximia,

was very common, and Aguzlegia truncata, differing but little

from A. canadensis, was frequent. Carpeting the floor of the

forest were two or three species of Asarum, one with beautifully

reticulated leaves, and several species of Pyrola, among them the

curious P. aphylla, were common. Above the thickets of brakes

in the low ground, the gay flowers of Lilium pardalinum were

to be seen, recalling the brighter forms of Z. superbum.

Orchids, which are rare in California, were represented by

several striking “species. Two Cypripediums, C. montanum,

much like a white-lipped C. pubescens, and C. californicum,

with smaller flowers, were met with, but both are rare plants.

A Habenaria with inconspicuous flowers, and the very striking

and peculiar Cephalanthera oregana were the two commonest

orchids. The latter was frequent in the shady woods, where

its ivory-white stems and flowers, the latter with a touch of

yellow on the lip, were very conspicuous.

304 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

Everywhere along the streams were clumps of the giant pel-

tate leaves of Sarifraga peltata, one of the most striking plants

of the Californian mountains. -

The natural meadows are a marked feature of this region.

The absence of protracted drought permits the growth of

perennial grasses and other meadow plants. White and red

clover have become naturalized, and various Composite, like

Rudbeckia and Erigeron, mixed with these, gave the meadows

a very familiar aspect, although purple and white Brodizeas and

some other western plants were mingled with them.

Perhaps the most interesting plant met with near Castle

Crag was the curious Darlingtonia — the Californian pitcher

plant, which I saw growing for the first time. It occurs abun-

dantly at several points near Castle Crag, but we found it in

greatest perfection on a steep hillside sloping to the Sacra-

mento. There are no peat bogs in this region such as harbor

our eastern Sarracenias, but the plants were growing in the

boggy ground made by the damming of a little stream which

flowed down the hillside into the river. Here in the bed of the

brook were growing dense clumps of the tall light-green trump-

ets of the Darlingtonia. Some of these were quite two feet in

height, and their vivid apple-green hoods were extremely con-

spicuous. Here and there the greenish-yellow Sarracenia-like

flowers nodded on tall stalks above the leaves, or were replaced

by the oval green seed-vessels. Darlingtonia recalls the tall

southern species of Sarracenia like S. variolaris, with which it

agrees in the presence of the translucent spots in the hood, as

well as the form of the pitcher. It is much less like S. pur-

purea, which is its nearest neighbor among the Sarracenias. It

would be interesting to know how this curious plant has become

stranded high up in the Sierra Nevada, so far away from its

eastern relations.

While ferns were numerous in some localities, the number

of species was not great, nor were mosses as abundant as might

have been expected. Aside from the ubiquitous Pteris aguilina,

the most noticeable ferns were Adiantum pedatum and Wood-

wardia radicans, both of which attain great perfection on the

shady hillsides, although neither can be said to be very common.

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. 305

In the moist thickets and meadows, four species of Equise-

tum were noted —all, so far as I know, that have yet been

noted for the state, except Æ. Azema/le, whose occurrence here

is doubtful. The two large species of the region of San Fran-

cisco, Æ. robustum and E. maximum, were abundant, and Æ.

arvense and E. levigatum, which are apparently confined to the

mountain districts, were not uncommon.

Two points in the neighborhood, the granite crags, from

which it takes its name, and Cragview Summit, each about

6000 feet above sea level, are easily reached, and their upper

regions, which are much more arid than the lower forest, have a

very different flora. As we ascend, the dense undergrowth of

deciduous shrubs disappears, and the floor of the forest is but

scantily covered with vegetation. On the exposed summits the

trees either disappear or are much stunted, although the true

timber line is considerably higher in more sheltered situations.

On the dry hill slopes there is the usual growth of chaparral,

made up largely of species of Ceanothus, one of which (C. tyr-

siflorus), was covered with heavy-scented blue flowers, known

popularly as “ California lilac.” The densely matted thorny

stems of the Ceanothus make at times an almost impassable

thicket. In the higher regions several evergreen shrubs formed

part of the chaparral. Of these the most conspicuous were the

dwarf chestnut (Castanopsis) and manzanita (Arctostaphylos).

Many beautiful flowers grow in these dry regions. Chief of

these is the beautiful white lily (Lilium washingtonianum),

known locally as the Shasta lily. It is very common, and its

straight stem and regular whorls of undulate leaves were seen

on all sides rising above the low chaparral. Most of them were

in bud, but only a few were seen in flower, as they are not in

full bloom before the end of June. This beautiful lily is quite

different from any of our eastern species, and the form of the

flower, as well as the odor, recall the magnificent Japanese

L. auratum, although the flowers are very much smaller.

Other showy flowers noted were the scarlet De/phinium nudi-

caule, Iris macrosiphon, Calochortus maweanus, species of Castil-

leia, Godetia, Pentstemon, and the curious Spraguea umbellata,

a characteristic plant of the higher Sierra. Symphoricarpus sp. ?

306 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

and Smilacina amplexicaulis, much like S. racemosa, were also

noticed, and in places, Veratrum californicum, with its great

plaited leaves, was very conspicuous.

A second trip was made later in the summer to the higher

Sierra of central California. My destination was Lake Tahoe,

that beautiful mountain lake lying over 6000 feet above the sea,

on the boundary between California and Nevada. It lies on

the eastern slope of the mountains, and the surrounding coun-

try is much more arid than the western slope of the Sierra.

The lake is very deep— over 1600 feet in places —and the

waters are marvelously clear and of an intense sapphire blue,

such as I have never seen elsewhere except in tropical seas.

Very little vegetation exists in the lake itself, and only in a few

places are the shores at all marshy.

The past summer was an exceptionally dry one, and I must

confess to a feeling of disappointment in the flora of the sur-

rounding country, which was nearly everywhere dry and dusty.

Where the shores of the lake have been undisturbed there

is a good growth of trees, some of quite large size. Some of

the yellow pines were about 150 feet high and five feet in diam-

eter, but the trees do not attain the dimensions of those in the

great forest belt on the western slopes of the mountains. In

most places the timber has been cut, and the shores present a

miserable appearance. Besides the yellow pine, there is some

sugar pine and tamarack (Pinus contorta, var. murryana), and

the incense cedar (Libocedrus) and several firs are also not

uncommon.

The growing season is very short, and the trees must grow

very slowly, to judge from stumps which were examined. This

is especially true of the cedars. A stump, perhaps five feet in

diameter, showed over 700 growth rings, and doubtless some

of the largest trees were at least 1000 years old. The pines

grow much more rapidly, none of the yellow pines examined

being over 300 years old.

Among the trees there is little undergrowth, but the exposed

places and the hillsides are covered with an impenetrable

thicket of Ceanothus, manzanita, and dwarf chestnut, with a

sprinkling of other shrubs.

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. 307

The most beautiful part of the lake is the southern end, where

there are extensive meadows and apparently more moisture than

in the other parts of the shore. Here also are the highest moun-

tains, rising from 4000 to 5000 feet above the lake. Here were

found the only marshes seen about the lake. At one point

a small stream enters the lake, flowing through level meadows

and forming small marshes in which a number of interesting

aquatic plants were observed. These included a number of

interesting alge, as well as Utricularia, Potomogeton, Nuphar,

Sparganium, and others not noted elsewhere.

In ordinary years it is said that snow lies on several of the

peaks for most of the summer, but last year, in August, there

were merely a few small patches on Mt. Tallac, the most acces-

sible of the higher peaks.

My first stopping-place was at “ McKinney’s,” on the west

shore of the lake, and from here a number of excursions were

made in various directions. The shores of the lake at this

point are low, and the forest comes down to the water’s edge.

As we have already indicated, the forest is composed entirely

of Conifers, but along the streams, and in a few places on the

hillsides, are small groves of willows, alders, and poplars which,

however, are never of large size. The sandy soil between the

trees was covered in spots with low-spreading mats of Ceano-

thus and Arctostaphylos, but was often quite bare. Flowers

were scarce, but there were a few showy ones, the most strik-

ing being a brilliant blue Pentstemon, scarlet Castilleicas, two or

three Gilias with scarlet and flesh-colored flowers, and the big

sunflower-like Wyethias.

In the shelter of the denser woods, away from the lake, were

other plants which needed more shade. A dwarf form of Rudus

nutkanus was common, and species of Pyrola and Chimaphila,

as well as two orchids, Goodyera menziesii and Corallorhiza sp. ?

were found here. At a number of places the withered remains

of the curious snow-plant (Sarcodes sanguinea) were seen, but

its season was past.

At the extreme southern end and on the western shore, the

shores become more arid, and the growth of trees is scattering.

The open ground and the lower hills are covered with sage-

308 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

brush and other plants characteristic of the Nevada deserts,

and the vegetation is thus intermediate to some extent between

the desert flora of the Great Basin and the mountain flora of

the Sierra Nevada.

The higher altitudes show a more or less pronounced alpine

flora, which was seen to best advantage when making the ascent

of Mt. Tallac, whose summit is nearly 10,000 feet above sea

level. At the wind-swept summit the characteristic alpine

white pine (Pinus albicaults) at once attracted attention. The

gnarled trunk, with smooth light-gray bark, and the twisted

branches were beaten flat upon the ground in the more exposed

situations. This well-marked species is one of the most strik-

ing of the numerous Conifers of the Sierra. A little lower down

a juniper — probably /. occidentalis — was noticed, a tree of per-

haps 30 to 40 feet in height, with massive trunk and branches.

In sheltered hollows near the summit, beds of arnica were bloom-

ing, and among the flowers were swarms of bees and butterflies

which had been attracted to these high altitudes. Of the flow-

ers encountered on the way up, the most striking was a beauti-

ful blue gentian, probably G. ca/ycosa. Other plants noted were

Aconitum Fischeri, a tall blue larkspur (Delphinium scopulo-

rum ?), and the heath-like Bryanthus breweri, the latter unfor-

tunately past flower, but said to be one of the most beautiful

alpine plants of the Sierra.

The Washington lily is very abundant about Lake Tahoe,

where it reaches its finest development. Specimens four or

five feet high are common, and in favorable seasons it is said

that specimens seven feet high, with twenty or thirty flowers

on a stem, are sometimes found. The pretty little tiger lily

(L. parvum) is not at all rare in moist ground, where the stems

sometimes carry a dozen or more of their graceful bells.

No attempt has been made in this hasty sketch to give a full

list of the plants of the regions visited ; this is obviously im-

practicable. Such have been selected for illustration as seemed

to emphasize the peculiar characters of the districts, and such

as would naturally attract the attention of the casual visitor.

No region of equal area in our country offers such great

range of conditions as does California, and, as naturally might

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. 309

be expected, this is reflected in its remarkably rich and interest-

ing flora, which offers a most attractive field to the student of

geographical distribution of plants. The state extends over

ten degrees of latitude, with a coast line of over 1000 miles,

and its highest mountains rise 15,000 feet above sea level.

There are regions like the Mojave desert and Death valley

which are absolute deserts, while in the northern coast ranges

there are points where the annual rainfall probably exceeds 100

inches, and the forests of giant redwoods rival the jungles of

the tropics in the rank luxuriance of their vegetation.

The great barrier of the Sierra Nevada and the even tem-

perature of the ocean waters, due to the Japan current, combine

to give the whole state a far more equable climate than is found

elsewhere in the United States; and in the lowlands, winter,

as we know it in the eastern states, does not exist, but instead

the year is divided into two sharply marked seasons, the wet

and the dry, of approximately equal length in the central part

of the state.

Besides these great climatic differences, which have pro-

foundly influenced the native flora, the peculiar topography of

California has also been an important factor in determining the

origin of many of the plants. Direct communication with the

eastern half of the continent is prevented by the great moun-

tain barrier of the Sierra, and the mountains and deserts of the

Rocky mountain area. It is only on the north and south that

there is free communication with the neighboring regions, and

we find, in consequence, a curious mingling of northern and

southern plants, with an almost complete absence of peculiarly

eastern American types.

The continuous ranges of mountains extending into British

Columbia and Alaska offer an easy road for many northern

plants, which are equally at home in the coast ranges and Sierra

Nevada, and in Canada and Alaska. With the rapid diminution

in the rainfall south, most of these finally disappear, and are

quite absent from the southern part of the state. Most of

these northern genera, ¢.g., Trillium, Claytonia, Erythronium,

and others, are found both in Asia and northeastern America ;

but there are several Asiatic types which do not reach Atlantic

310 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIII.

North America, but are restricted to the Pacific side of the

continent. The genus Fritillaria is represented by a number

of showy species, one of which extends as far south as San

Diego ; another striking instance is the western skunk cabbage,

Lysichiton, a monotypic plant common to the north Pacific

coasts of Asia and America.

In the valleys of the central part of the state and throughout

the southern regions the plants are very different from those

of the north, and have very little in common with the flora of

the eastern states. Mexico and western South America are

the regions which are most nearly allied in their flora to this

southern district. Most of the characteristic genera of this

region are either entirely absent from the Atlantic states, or

else represented by very few species. Much of this area is

excessively dry, and such plants as the cacti, agaves, yuccas,

and other desert types give a very marked character to most

of this region.

The central part of the state, especially the region about the

bay of San Francisco, is a meeting-ground for the northern and

southern floras. In the valleys the flora is largely composed of

the southern elements. Such genera as Lupinus, Eschscholtzia,

Nemophila, Orthocarpus, Brodizea, Calochortus, Calandrinia,

and other common and showy flowers of the open valleys and

foothills, are represented by species either identical with the

southern ones or closely allied to them. The flowers of the

higher mountains, however, especially those of the moist for-

ests of the outer coast ranges, are largely of northern origin,

and these often follow the sheltered canyons down to the level

of the valleys, where they mingle with the valley flora.

Probably no feature of our Pacific flora strikes the eastern

botanist so forcibly as the preponderance of coniferous trees.

From Sitka to San Diego, it is Conifers which give the peculiar

stamp to the forests, whether at the timber line on the highest

peaks, or battling with the ocean winds along the coast. It is

true that in the valleys and on the lower hills groves of oaks,

without accompanying Conifers, are met with; these can hardly

be said to form forests, and wherever the moisture is sufficient

to support a true forest growth, it is the Conifers which are the

No. 388.] VACATION NOTES. : 311

prevailing trees. The deciduous trees which accompany them

are small in comparison with their gigantic companions, and

merely form an undergrowth for these.

Of the sixty or more species of Conifers found on the Pacific

Coast, the larger part occur in California, which possesses more

species than the whole United States east of the Rocky Moun-

tains. An unusually large number of these are peculiar to the

state and of very restricted range. Among the better known

of these peculiarly Californian Conifers may be mentioned the

two Sequoias, z.e., the redwood and giant Sequoia; Punis insig-

nis, and Cupressus macrocarpa. The number of endemic angio-

sperms is also very large.

It is doubtful whether anywhere there are more magnificent

forests than the great redwood forests of the coast range or the

forest belt of the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, where

grow the great Sequoias in company with noble sugar pines

and giant firs and cedars.

In this land of big things nothing has impressed me like

these giant trees, the true kings of our American forests.

THE MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM

AS A FUNCTION OF THE CENTRAL

NERVOUS SYSTEM.

PROFESSOR HEINRICH OBERSTEINER.

It is difficult for man to exist, more difficult than would be

supposed from a superficial consideration. In his earliest child-

hood man stands—or, better, lies—here in the world and finds

before him a series of tasks for which he is but partially fitted.

Fortunately, we bring with us into the world a most finely elab-

orated organism, by which from the beginning a great part of

this work is essentially lightened. For example, our hearts

beat regularly, we breathe rhythmically, and so forth. For

even at birth the mechanism of the circulation and of breathing

is so completely developed that these functions can proceed

quite independently and without our further assistance. Were

we obliged to give our constant attention to these two abso-

lutely necessary functions, where should we find the time for

any intellectual labor ?

In other fields, however, it is not so easy for us. The child

has to practice long before it can sit upright, and still longer

before it can stand and walk. But having once thoroughly

learned this feat, having made it completely our own, it is no

longer necessary —at least under normal conditions — to give

our supervision, our conscious assistance, to the equilibration

of the body. This is maintained quite unconsciously, while the

mind is engaged with other things. We can, for example,

follow a process with strict attention while sitting or standing,

without becoming upset or falling from the chair — unless per-

chance we fall asleep.

It is a most wonderful and advantageous physiological ar-

1 A lecture delivered before the Verein zur Verbreitung PoE

Kenntnisse in Wien. Translated from the Schriften des Vereins, Bd. xxx y

Guy M. Winslow, Ph.D.

313

314 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

rangement that just those vital processes which demand the

most time, continuing as they do throughout our whole life,

need no assistance from our consciousness, but are performed

automatically.

It will now be my purpose to show how the preservation of

the equilibrium may be accomplished, how we can stand and

move without being conscious of the complicated mechanism

brought into action, and yet without constantly falling. We

shall also take occasion to mention derangements of this mechan-

ism, for right here we shall find many indications which are

important for the comprehension of normal conditions.

We begin with the simplest process of standing erect:

Sehe jeder, wie er’s treibe,

Und wer steht, dass er nicht falle.

What, then, happens when we remain quietly standing erect?

In order to do this a great number of our muscles, indeed

nearly all the muscles of the trunk and lower extremities, must

coéperate. The impulse for this coöperation is transmitted to

the muscles from the brain; but in order to stimulate the

muscles properly, the brain needs a number of external im-

pressions, sensations, which incite the impulse, and regulate it.

We shall then have to inquire how the muscles must codper-

ate to produce the erect position. We shall endeavor to pene-

trate farther into the secret of the complicated apparatus of

the brain, which works so nicely, and, finally, we shall turn

our attention to those sensations which furnish the necessary

material for this part of the activity of the brain.

I have mentioned above how great a number of muscles is

required simply for standing. It is not necessary, however,

that all the muscles concerned should contract; if all our

muscles were in a state of strong contraction, making the body

stiff and motionless, we should be as unstable as a broomstick

which had been placed upright on the floor. It is, rather,

_ necessary that each of these muscles contract with a certain

strength, up to a definite point, so that each little inclination

of the body be counteracted by a stronger contraction of the

opposing muscles, while others are correspondingly relaxed.

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 315

There is needed for this a very finely calculated and graduated

intensity of action by each of the components of motion, a

process which is designated as coérdination of the muscles, in

this case as static codrdination.

Let us again take the stick of wood, which would not remain

standing before, and fasten a number of strings to its upper

end. Now let us set it up again and pull slightly in different

directions, laterally, and a little downwards. Probably it will

at first fall over to one side toward the strongest pull, but if we

modify the strength with which it is drawn in the different

directions, we shall finally cause it to remain quietly standing

in a vertical position. A condition of equilibrium has been

reached by the proper co6drdination of the forces acting, the

same as occurs with a standing man through the coérdination

of muscles.

Intentionally I lay- special stress upon this unusually impor-

tant factor of codrdination of the muscles, which takes a signi-

ficant part in each muscular act, even though the result be

unsuitable to the purpose which prompts it. Indeed, we may

go still farther and say that wherever several factors cooperate

for the attainment of a uniform: result, a proper determination

of the intensity with which each shall act is absolutely necessary.

Without going into complex social conditions I may give an

illustration from art.

If, in the well-known Seventh Symphony of Beethoven, the

bassoonists conceive a desire to play fortissimo in the wrong

place, the effect will be destroyed as much as if the contrabass

were to play a very light piano in a place written forte. Each

player finds certain signs with his notes, the dynamic signs of

expression, which show him not what, but how, he ought to

play.

The corresponding signs which make known to our brain

how each muscle must act for the attainment of static coördi-

nation are imparted to it by different sense organs. As the

first, though not the most important of these, I mention the

touch sensations of the sole of the foot. If we stand, and still

more if we walk, we feel the ground beneath our feet. It needs

no long reflection to perceive how difficult simply standing

316 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

would be for us if our feet were insensible. We can under-

stand this easily, because we are able at any time to bring the

sensations of touch and pressure in the sole of the foot before

our consciousness.

Far more important, however, are sensations of whose exist-

ence many men know absolutely nothing, namely, those from

the joints, tendons, and muscles. By the nerves from these

organs the brain receives information in regard to their condi-

tion, but this takes place in such a way that these sensations do

not generally overstep the threshold of consciousness. They

serve almost exclusively automatic purposes, and would there-

fore unduly and uselessly burden our attention. But it is an

established fact that we may be conscious of the muscular sense.

We are conscious, for example, of the strength, the exertion

which is required to lift a weight; indeed, we can estimate the

weight of the object lifted by the strength expended, and dis-

tinguish the heavier object from the lighter. For this reason

the muscular sense has also been called the strength sense.

The pains of fatigue, or the strong muscular pains caused by

cramps, are perceived by means of the same nerve tracts.

There are many who deny the existence of a muscular sense ;

for example, Wundt. He prefers to refer whatever is ascribed

to this sense to the sensations of the central nervous system.

But many facts, especially pathological conditions, incline us to

admit a muscular sense.

Having now become acquainted with the existence of the

muscular sense, we can comprehend that in this region we

must seek the most important sensations which render possible

the coérdination of the muscles and standing erect.

The great significance which the joints and joint nerves

attain in this process as a result of their position is self-evident.

But these stimuli, transmitted from the locomotor apparatus,

that is, the muscles, joints, tendons, etc., to the central nervous

system, may perhaps be utilized in another way for the coördi-

nation of the muscles. E. Hering proposes the following: At

each slightly energetic movement, for example the bending of

the arm, those muscles which produce the opposite movement—

the antagonistic muscles, in this case the extensor muscles of

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 457

the arm — are relaxed ; thus the nerves of these muscles are

stimulated, and there results a certain reflex contraction of these

opposing muscles. An excess of the intended movement is

thus prevented. If this opposition, this restraint, be for any

reason lacking, the movement becomes disordered and unsteady,

as we indeed see in certain diseases.

Less striking, but yet not to be overlooked, is the réle which

the so-called visceral sensations play in the process under con-

sideration. From all the viscera there are nerves which convey

sensations to the spinal cord and the brain ; of these sensations

also we are, as a rule, unconscious, except when the organ from

which they come is diseased. As soon as we become conscious

that we have a liver, then the

_ liver is usually diseased. The

viscera are suspended freely

within the body cavity; each

change in the position of the

body must then produce a

greater or less displacement of

the viscera. This displacement

is not generally a matter of con-

sciousness, yet an unconscious

sensation is transmitted to the

brain. It is evident, then, that

the visceral sensations are of

essential assistance in the pres-

ervation of the equilibrium. Fic. 1.— Transverse section of spinal cord. 4,

‘ ` + Burduch’s column; ca, anterior commissure;

It will be in order td introduce © <s, anterior hora of gray matter; cof, postè-

here a brief, anatomical note, Po rni g Comers iunda: gs, Coila co-

We have thus far spoken of the pyramid tract; va,anterior root; 7A, posterior

sense of touch, especially in aires ven

the soles of the feet, and of sensations from the joints, tendons,

muscles, and the viscera. These are all perceived by means of

nerves which enter the spinal cord through the posterior roots

(Fig. 1, 7%). If we examine a transverse section of the spinal

cord (Fig. 1), we find about its center a reddish-gray mass (cop

and coa), the gray matter, while the remainder of the section is

made up of the white matter. This white matter consists

318 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST,- [Vou. XXXII,

almost exclusively of nerve fibres, which for the most part run

longitudinally along the spinal cord. Thus, if we cut the spinal

cord transversely, we have a countless number of cross-sections

of nerve fibres. But, although even under the microscope the

whole field of white matter appears quite homogeneous, we

know that it is divided into a number of fibre bundles of vary-

ing significance and function. Thus we distinguish in each

half section of the spinal cord about sixteen different regions.

The nerves mentioned above, and which are of significance

to us, enter the spinal cord through the posterior roots, and take

their further course to the brain, perhaps exclusively by way of

the posterior bundles (gs) and (64), the lateral cerebellar tracts

(ks) and Gower’s bundle (g).

I would not have bothered you with these dry anatomical

data if we were not to need them later.

I turn now to another class of sensations, which likewise are

scarcely known to the non-scientific, since they, like the mus-

cular sense, perform their function outside the sphere of con-

sciousness, and become apparent only when they are irritated.

Under this head let us consider the inner ear, that part of

the auditory organ which lies deeply buried in the hardest bone

of the skull, the temporal bone. We find in this two principal

parts; one has the characteristic form of a snail shell, and is

hence called the cochlea; the other consists of three curved

tubes which are connected in such a way that the two ends

of each open into a small sac-like enlargement, the utriculus.

These tubes are called the semicircular canals; together with

the utriculus they form the labyrinth of the ear. If one im-

agines a plane passed through each of these three arches, it

will be found that the three planes are perpendicular to one

another. It is only when the cochlea itself becomes diseased

or destroyed that a defect of hearing occurs. This effect is

not produced by injuries to the labyrinth. In the latter case,

on the other hand, very peculiar disturbances of the equilib-

rium are experienced. These facts were first demonstrated by

Flourens. I cannot here go further into the very interesting

investigations which were carried out later, especially by Golz,

Breuer, and Ulach, among others, for the determination of the

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 319

function of this little organ. Even in the lower forms, for

example in the crabs, Kreidl was able to establish the same

fact.

The result of this discovery, as well as the observation of dis-

eases of the labyrinth in man, has taught us that this part of

the inner ear, that is, the labyrinth, represents a sense organ

which gives to the individual information in regard to the posi-

tion of the head in space. This organ produces the sensation

of turning, and thus controls the perception and maintenance

of equilibrium. We have, then, acquired a sense of equilibrium,

the peripheral sense organ of which is to be found in the laby-

rinth, and which transmits its sensations to the brain by means

of a part of the auditory nerve.

The method of action of this sense organ is as follows: both

in the utriculus and at places in the semicircular canals, the

ampullz nerves terminate in cells from which cilia project into

the inner lumen; there is also in the utriculus, at the end of

these nerves, a cluster of fine crystals — the otoliths. The utric-

ulus and semicircular canals are filled with a fluid, the endo-

lymph, which is agitated by each movement of the head, and

which thus bends the cilia. The otoliths contribute to the reén-

forcement of this stimulation. At the beginning of a turn of

the head in the plane of one of the canals, the fluid, as has been

shown by Breuer, lags behind, and so strikes in the opposite

direction against the cilia.

The task of maintaining the equilibrium is, again, essentially

lightened by the sense of sight. This point hardly needs a

detailed presentation. The impressions of vision give us infor-

mation as to any change in the position of our body, and every

one knows that we stand or move unsteadily in the dark or with

closed eyes. And here I will emphasize the fact that the sensa-

tions from the eye muscles are also essential components of the

mechanism of equilibration. ;

Recapitulating, then, we may say that the following sensa-

tions codperate for the equilibration of our bodies: touch sensa-

tions, which are perceived by means of nerves from the joints,

tendons, and muscles; sensations from the labyrinths; and,

finally, optic sensations. All of these sensations are collected

320 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIIL

and employed in the brain with such a resulting effect upon our

body musculature that the desired object, the preservation of

equilibrium, is attained.

We have now to investigate further what part of the brain is

intrusted with this important and complicated function.

First, I may again point out that we are, as a rule, entirely

unconscious of many of the sensations concerned in this process.

And since we are justified in concluding that, in order to be-

come conscious, sensations must pass to the cortex of the cere-

brum, we are from the first inclined to look for the organ of

equilibration which controls the codrdination of the muscles

elsewhere than in the cortex of the cerebrum. There is also

a series of facts which makes it highly probable that the part of

the central apparatus sought is to be found in the cerebellum.

The cerebellum is an organ which is clearly separated from

the rest of the central nervous system, and which in its finer

structure differs essentially from all other parts of the brain.

It has also a special and peculiar function. In comparison with

the other parts of the brain it is not proportionately well devel-

oped in all animals. In mammals and birds the cerebellum is

not only relatively large, but its surface is increased many times

by numerous delicate and usually deep parallel furrows. In the

Amphibia and many reptiles, on the contrary, it is reduced to

a simple small ridge. While the first-mentioned groups require

very sensitive and complicated muscular action for the mainte-

nance of the equilibrium while standing, running, and flying,

in the other groups a much simpler apparatus suffices for mere

crawling or jumping. In the fishes the cerebellum is larger

than in the Amphibia, yet with the exception of one of the

cartilaginous fishes it is still smooth. Frogs, it is true, swim,

but with far less rapidity and precision than fish. Thus we

actually find a certain parallelism between the size of the cere-

bellum and the delicacy of the muscular codrdination.

Another anatomical fact is now to be considered. We are

acquainted with certain tracts of the spinal cord which we know

convey to the brain a part of the sensations necessary for the

preservation of the equilibrium. We know that, directly or

indirectly, all of these tracts are intimately connected with the

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 321

cerebellum, and some of them pass entirely into it. No con-

nections between the nerve fibres arising’ from the labyrinth

and the cerebrum are known, but the labyrinth has many direct

and indirect nervous connections with the cerebellum.

It is found, therefore, that, with the exception of the optic

nerve, all those sensory tracts which are used in equilibration

collect in the cerebellum. And there certainly are connectives

between the optic nerve and the cerebellum, yet in regard to

this our knowledge is very incomplete. These are the purely

anatomical considerations which point to the cerebellum as the

center of codrdination or equilibration. But physiological experi-

ment also shows us facts which lead to the same conclusion.

Only a carefully performed and rightly interpreted experi-

ment can inform us as to the function of this part of the brain.

Erroneous observations and interpretations have ascribed to

the cerebellum all possible functions; for example, the seat of

the soul, the emotions, the memory, and so forth,

If one wound the cerebellum of an animal badly, or if he

extirpate a portion of it, there is no proper regulation of the

muscular contractions, and there is a decided disturbance of-

the equilibrium, resulting from the defective innervation of: the

muscles. An animal thus treated makes the most senseless

and inopportune motions without accomplishing its purpose ;

yet it hears and sees, and its intelligence appears not to be

interfered with.

Similar phenomena occur in men having diseases of the cere-

bellum. As we shall return to this point again, I will here only

briefly note that, in most cases of serious disease of the cere-

bellum, disturbances of the equilibrium and dizziness are present.

We have found, to summarize the above, not absolutely cer-

tain proof, but still a number of important reasons which fully

justify us in searching in the cerebellum for the central appa-

ratus for muscular coérdination, and the resulting preservation

of equilibrium.

Thus we have solved a part of the problem presented to us.

We can now represent diagrammatically (Fig. 2) the whole appa-

ratus which must take part in the process of equilibration. To

the cerebellum (4) there are transmitted various sensations

322 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

coming from the skin (/s), the muscles and joints (ms), the

viscera (vs), the labyrinth (/), and from the eyes (a). All

these sensations are combined in the cerebellum into a single

resultant nervous impulse which influences or modifies the move-

ments incited by the cerebrum in such a way that the codrdinated

effect desired is attained; so that the different muscles m

and mw contract in the proper

manner. This may be stated

somewhat as follows: The

cerebellum does not —on the

` basis of the sensations con-

veyed to it — apportion the

necessary stimuli to the mus-

cles concerned in an action

separately, but distributes it

as a whole to the muscles

concerned,

In the above diagram we

may consider the relations of

certain sensory nerves to the

cerebellum, as well as to the

brium. arrows indicate the directions o $ : yates

the nervous impulses. a, eye; g, cerebrum; tracts which receive their im-

k, cerebellum; Z, labyrinth; 4s, ms, vs, nerves

for impulses from skin, muscles, and viscera ; pulses from the cerebellum

m, muscles

and transfer them to the

muscles, to be definitely made out. But it is still a question

where the cerebellum exerts its regulatory influence upon our

movements; where we have to suppose the connection, here

represented by a dotted line, is really to be found. But there

are also many other gaps in our knowledge of our central nerv-

ous system; and for the object at present under consideration

this question seems not to be of essential significance.

It is now to be investigated how this coérdinating apparatus

may act under different circumstances. The simplest task is

that with which we have started out, namely, the maintenance

of static codrdination, that is, the preservation of equilibrium

while standing erect under perfectly normal conditions.

If any one attempts to stand erect and perfectly motionless,

he finds that he is unable to do so. A smoked plate has been

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 323

placed horizontally above a person trying this experiment in such

a way that a point projecting from the cap touched upon the

plate. Each movement of the head is then registered upon the

smoked plate, and an irregular zigzag line is obtained as the ex-

pression of the oscillations of the body. The sway from side to

side amounts to one and one-half centimeters; that from before

backwards, to two centimeters. The oscillations increase with

fatigue and become sensibly greater if the experimenter closes his

eyes, or if any other of the factors concerned in the process of equi-

libration is eliminated. And the oscillations become yet greater

in certain diseases, accompanied by the destruction of coördina-

tion. We learn from this experiment that it is not possible for

us to stand perfectly quiet, but that we are always balancing

ourselves within certain limits. By this process certain muscles

are brought much into use, and after a time they become greatly

fatigued. Then we change our position a little, so as to bring

other muscles into play, and at least in part to relieve those

exerted earlier. We also learn from these experiments that

it is more difficult to maintain our equilibrium while standing

if any of the sensations usually participating in the process are

inactive. Closing the eyes results in greater oscillations, and

anesthesia of the soles of the feet, as I have already remarked,

essentially increases the difficulty of standing. The result of a

loss of the muscular sensations, or of the sensations from the

labyrinth, would be still more serious, while the greatest dis-

turbance of all occurs when several of: the component sensations

are simultaneously wanting, especially if, as the result of disease,

they deceive us by false sensations.

A healthy man under normal conditions maintains his balance

while standing in spite of the above-mentioned oscillations, and

he is quite unconscious of this process and the attendant diffi-

culties. But if any essential factor of the apparatus for keep-

ing his balance be eliminated or altered in its action, he feels

the difficulty of performing the task properly, a feeling which

we designate as dizziness. Dizziness is the sensation of the

loss of equilibrium combined with the feeling of difficulty in

counteracting this loss. As will be easily understood, fear is

often associated with dizziness.

324 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vot. XXXIII.

We shall, then, find quite different causes for the occurrence

of dizziness, according to the part of the balancing mechanism

which has its functions destroyed. But first I must briefly men-

tion a peculiar kind of dizziness which is not preceded by any

injury to the nervous system, namely, physical dizziness.

We must constantly remember that the process of equilibra-

tion usually takes place unconsciously. But if we find ourselves

upon a narrow plank lying across a brook, or on the edge of a

precipice, we become conscious not only that we have a certain

difficulty to overcome in order not to fall, but also that such a

fall would be attended by very serious results to us. We at-

tempt, therefore, by voluntarily exerting all our muscles, by

extending the arms, and in other ways, to render the process of

keeping our balance easier. But in reality we aggravate the

difficulty and perhaps finally fall. Fear makes us especially

clumsy. It is as if one were riding a beast of burden along a

narrow mountain path. As is well known, in such a case one

should give himself over to the animal, which is accustomed

to travel safely ; but if the rider becomes afraid, and tries to

guide the animal with the reins, it may easily happen that both

perish together. In this figure the animal represents our un-

conscious coérdination, which we destroy when we try con-

sciously to assist it.

If we return now to our diagram, it will essentially aid us in

our study of the different kinds of dizziness.

We will begin with the different varieties of sensation which

participate in the maintenance of the equilibrium. In the

disease of the spinal cord known as tabes dorsalis the posterior

roots are first affected. The sensations from the muscles,

tendons, and joints then become reduced or arrested. I notice

that occasionally the tactile sensations of the skin do not suffer

until late, or perhaps not at all; while, on the other hand, the

destruction. of the visceral sensations is not rare.

As a consequence of the loss of the muscular sense, a man

afflicted with this disease shows peculiar symptoms. His

motions are not regular, not properly gauged: in walking his

feet go shuffling and bumping along, while if he sits they will

cross ; again, one foot is lifted much too high in the air, though

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 325

at the same time he may not be able to send sufficient stimulus

to his muscles to produce the contractions necessary for his

purpose. This defect in the control of the muscular innerva-

tion is called ataxia, and since it is dependent on a disease of

the spinal cord it is known as spinal ataxia.

This disease offers yet another phenomenon. During its

first stages the patient is generally able to stand quite firmly,

even though his feet be placed near together, thus reducing his

stability as much as possible. But no sooner does he close his

eyes than he begins to totter and become dizzy, finally falling,

unless he is supported. The explanation of this phenomenon,

known as Romberg’s symptom (static ataxia), is to be found in

the fact that in closing the eyes the control of the equilibrium

dependent on them, a very important factor, is lost.

There is a particular kind of dizziness, called optical dizziness,

which depends upon a derangement of the nerves of the eye

muscles. Let us imagine that our eyes move without our being

conscious of it. It will seem to us that the objects about us

have changed their positions in relation to our body ; and since

walls, trees, and pieces of furniture, which we know to be fixed,

appear in a different direction, we conclude that our body has

moved, This erroneous impression passes to the center of

coordination, and is answered by a compensating movement of

the body, which is naturally unsuitable; then we again feel a

loss of balance. Thus is explained the uncertainty in standing

and walking which is observed as resulting from many kinds of

disturbances in the movement of the eye.

That dizziness also arises from the digestive organs, by means

of the visceral sensations, is a fact well known to the laity.

But the process here taking place is in no way clear to us.

The phenomena of dizziness and loss of balance, which have

their origin in the ear labyrinth, the special organ of equilibra-

tion, are of particular interest. Here also we must distinguish

whether we have to do with false sensations which are trans-

mitted from this sense organ to the brain, or whether this kind

of sensations is entirely lacking.

It is plain to see that the latter condition might easily be

followed by less serious results than the former; for if the

326 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vou. XXXIII.

sensations from the labyrinth are lost, a more or less complete

compensation may be made by the other senses. But the cen-

tral nervous system will be led into error by false impressions

from this organ, and thus be perplexed, even though the control

of the other senses remains intact.

I will now call attention to the familiar phenomenon of

whirling dizziness, which is produced when we turn swiftly

about the long axis of our body. We have seen that the nerves

terminating in the labyrinth are stimulated by the flow of the

liquid contained in it—the endolymph. But after turning rap-

idly this fluid does not immediately come to rest, as we see

when a vessel containing water is rapidly rotated and then sud-

denly stopped. By this continued movement of the endolymph

the nerve ends are stimulated for a time after the body has

entirely ceased to move. False sensations are thus produced

which give us a wrong impression of the actual movement of

our body and cause dizziness — the whirling dizziness.

The same effect is obtained in whatever direction the turning

takes place. From quick movements upward or downward, also,

similar results occur. Im America, where very tall buildings

are now constructed, the use of elevators is frequently attended

with dizziness, by which elevator boys are particularly affected.

Seasickness can also be traced, at least in part, to similar

conditions. But I will here observe that the viscera also, though

in a much less degree, may participate in the production of

whirling dizziness and seasickness. If the head be held still,

and quick rotating motions be made with the trunk, by which

the freely suspended viscera are set in motion, a slight dizziness

is often felt.

A peculiar pathological phenomenon, known as Meniére’s

disease, or better as Meniére’s symptom complex, here deserves

special mention. This malady is characterized by dizziness

and a buzzing and snapping noise in the ears. One concludes,

with much reason, that in such a case the ear labyrinth is

directly or indirectly injured. In some cases of this kind,

bleedings have been found in the semicircular canals, and fis-

sures in the temporal and other bones.

A complete absence of the sense of equilibrium is found in a

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 327

number of deaf-mutes, in about fifty-six per cent of whom the ear

labyrinth is entirely degenerated. Such deaf-mutes go tottering

and stumbling along with their legs spread far apart ; if, while in

the water, they become submerged, they lose their orientation

in space. But, as can be easily understood, and as has been

demonstrated by Kreidl, they are free from whirling dizzi-

ness ; likewise (according to the investigations of Pollak) they

are immune from galvanic dizziness, which is produced in a

normal individual when a galvanic current is passed through

the head.

We have seen that through the abnormal or arrested activity

of a number of sensory nerves, disturbances of equilibrium and

dizziness are produced; we must now go farther and investi-

gate the action of the central nervous system in this relation.

We here pass to so wide a field of observation, however, that

I must limit myself to indicating only the rudest outlines.

The cerebellum has been recognized as the most important

central organ of equilibration. Severe diseases of the cerebel-

lum are therefore characterized by dizziness and loss of equilib-

rium. The gait of one thus diseased is peculiarly unsteady,

best compared to that of a drunken man. In this case also

irregular motions result, but still they are quite different from

those I have described for tabes. This kind of defective mo-

tion is called cerebellar ataxia.

But a glance at our diagram shows that another part of the

central nervous system plays a réle in keeping the balance. We

are next to consider that nerve tract by means of which the

cerebellum exerts its regulatory influence upon the tract control-

ling motion.

In the diagram (Fig. 2) I have indicated this tract by a

dotted line, in order thus to express the fact that its course is

not perfectly known to us. But notwithstanding this somewhat

unsatisfactory condition of our knowledge, we must expect that

similar phenomena can be produced from different places in the

brain. i

Dizziness with severe disturbances of the equilibrium may

occur, the brain parts concerned being severely diseased. It

is sufficient for them to experience a changed or imperfect

328 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIITI.

nutrition. This occurs, for example, with a general loss of

blood, anzemia, or when the loss of blood affects the brain alone ;

in cases of this kind the symptom increases when the body is

quickly raised to an upright position, and decreases when it is

placed horizontally.

In a similar manner the nourishment of the brain is inter-

fered with by certain poisonous substances, many of which,

such as tobacco and alcohol, especially affect the balancing

apparatus. Thedizziness and unsteady motions resulting from

nicotine poisoning are well known, and yet more familiar are

the staggering movements following too free indulgence in

alcoholic drinks. From the great similarity which exists be-

tween these symptoms and those of cerebellar ataxia, one may

perhaps reasonably conclude that the effects of alcohol are more

detrimental to the processes of nourishment in the cerebellum

than to those in other parts of the brain.

Finally, mention should be made of numerous other circum-

stances which may interfere with the circulation in the brain,

and by which, again, dizziness may be caused. Here belong,

for example, epileptic dizziness, the feelings of dizziness which

are often observed at the beginning of acute contagious diseases,

and many other cases.

According to the plan which we have thus far been following,

those derangements of equilibrium which originate in the loco-

motor apparatus should now be considered. Here the condi-

tions are essentially simpler. Ifa muscle which is of importance

in standing, or a whole group of such muscles, become par-

alyzed, the patient is no longer able to stand erect. Even a

partial paralysis of such muscles will be sufficient to render

standing, without external support, impossible. The result is

exactly the same in whatever part of the locomotor apparatus

the cause of this paralysis lies ; be it in the muscles, nerves, in

the spinal cord, or in the brain.

My purpose was to show you in the merest outlines how we

are enabled through our central nervous system to maintain

our equilibrium. But I have also had a subordinate aim; I

wished to illustrate to you by an example the method by which

No. 388.] MAINTENANCE OF THE EQUILIBRIUM. 329

we arrive at conclusions in regard to such questions. You

have seen how we have laboriously to collect the material from

different sources; not only anatomy and experimental physiol-

ogy are studied, but we must add to this a knowledge of patho-

logical conditions. And this latter furnishes us with particularly

important and instructive facts ; therefore I have allowed my-

self to devote considerable attention to the pathological disturb-

ances of equilibrium.

Finally, I wished to show you by this example how great a

part of the functions carried on by our organism is performed

entirely apart from consciousness. Our conscious activity is

thus released from what would otherwise be a very considerable

burden.

If, then, as I stated at the beginning of my analysis, it is

difficult for man to exist, yet we should be thankful to Nature

that a great part of the labor imposed upon us is made essen-

tially easier by the organization of our central nervous system,

and that time is thus given us to engage in higher intellectual

pursuits.

Let us thankfully recognize the value of this gift.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

Annales du Musée du Congo. — The Congo Free State, one of

the last born of the nations, is demonstrating its right to a place in

civilization by the publication of a series of monographs on its natural

history. These are issued by the order of the Secretary of State

as Annales du Musée du Congo. Four articles, or fascicles, have

appeared — two “ Illustrations de la Flore du Congo,” by Wildemann

and Durand, and two “ Matériaux pour la Faune du Congo,” by

G. A. Boulenger. These last, by the able ichthyologist of the British

Museum, treat of the fishes of the Congo, numerous new species

being described with excellent figures. The Free State is to be

congratulated on its early attention to its local natural history, as well

as on the wise choice of the hands in which its material is placed.

A Botanical Calendar. — Under the editorship of P. Sydow the

first number of the Deutscher Botaniker-Kalender has made its appear-

ance —a little book of 198 pages of text and many pages of adver-

tisements of botanical interest. The first 108 pages are devoted to

the calendar proper, there being one page for each week, with the

dates of the birth and death of distinguished botanists. It is note-

worthy that there are only twenty-two days in the year without such

data, and on some days there are as many as four entries. The

calendar is printed on one side of the page only, leaving the opposite

side for notes and memoranda, for which there is also room under each

day. The contents of the book includes the usual tables of coinage,

weights and measures, and postal regulations ; the rules of botani-

cal nomenclature of the Royal Botanical Garden at Berlin ; a list of

the cryptogamic exsiccata, systematically arranged ; a list of botanical

gardens, geographically arranged; a similar list of botanical and

natural history museums; and, finally, an alphabetical list of the

collections in botanical museums and herbaria. The omissions and

inaccuracies usual to the first edition of a book of this character are

painfully in evidence as regards American botanical matters. The

value of the work would be much enhanced if it included the person-

nel of the different botanical institutions given, and also a botanical

directory. We cannot, however, but praise this effort of Dr. Sydow,

331

342:5- THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

and are glad to know that there is so much room for improvement.

We wish the Kalender every success, and hope to see it a permanent

institution, and call upon American botanists to see that our botani-

cal institutions are fully and correctly represented in the edition for

1900. The book is published by the Borntraegers at Berlin for three

marks,

The Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen, published at irregular

intervals under the editorial care of the late Professor Cohn, of

Breslau, has been recommenced with Dr. Brefeld as editor. While

the retention of the original title is entirely commendable, it is to be

regretted that the new volume should be issued as “ Herausgegeben .

von Dr. Ferdinand Cohn.” A change in expression, similar to that

made on the title-page of the J/ahrbiicher fur wissenschafilichen Botanik

after Professor Pringsheim’s death, would better have expressed the

facts, while securing the desirable perpetuation of Professor Cohn’s

name in connection with the journal.

« Natural Science,” with the initial number of Vol. XIV, the

first under the new management, makes.its appearance in a new

dress. The greenish tint of the cover has given way to a grayer

tone, and the typography of the title-page is somewhat changed.

The journal is now printed on heavier calendered paper, and is,

on the whole, improved in appearance. The general makeup is

unchanged, except for the addition of the new column of “ Fresh

Facts,” which comprises brief references to facts of interest in

current literature. We wish our esteemed contemporary a most

prosperous and happy new year.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

African Skulls.'— F. Shrubsall has had exceptional opportunities

to study African crania, and has produced a model paper describing

the skulls of the Bantus of South Africa. The large number of

crania in the series, some two hundred, has enabled him to fairly

revel in seriations and averages. How great a satisfaction it is to

the craniologist to gain access to a large series is known only to

those who have dealt with small numbers of specimens, “too few

to furnish satisfactory conclusions,” or “ too fragmentary for definite

results.” On the other hand, the study of such a collection involves

an immense amount of labor, some idea of which may be gained from

the number of measurements recorded in the accompanying tables,

which, by the way, appear to better advantage in the enlarged

Journal of the Anthropological Institute than in the former demi-

octavo size. The metrical method is followed in the paper, and the

text suffices merely to interpret the figures. This we believe to be

the most satisfactory method, though it must be admitted that the

descriptions of the “impressionist school” of craniologists have a

certain value.

Mr. Shrubsall concludes that the most striking feature of the

A-bantu crania is that they are remarkably uniform from all parts of

the area under consideration. In the south the skulls show marks

of intermixture with the Bushman-Hottentot race., In the east the

cranium is also modified, and the question of mixture with Semito-

Hamitic peoples is raised. In the northwest the presence of negroid

characters indicates crossing with the negroes from the region north

of the Congo. Finally, “the obvious affinities” of the Bantus “are

with the Monbuttu of Niam-Niam, and the peoples of the Zeriba

country, and the Welle-Nile divide.” These conclusions are in

accordance with the teachings of history and philology. F, R.

Ceremonial Stones. — In the Proceedings of the Linnean Society

of New South Wales for December, 1898, Mr. Walter R. Harper

1 Shrubsall, F. A Study of A-bantu Skulls and Crania, Jour. Anthrop. Ins.

N. S., vol. i, Nos. 1, 2, pp. 55-103.

333

334 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII

gives “a description of certain objects of unknown significance,

formerly used by some New South Wales tribes.” ‘These objects

are cigar-shaped, of stone or clay, attaining a maximum length of

fifty-five ‘centimeters. A number of theories have been advanced

to account for their use, but they have not yet been satisfactorily

identified. They are decorated with a number of ‘broad-arrows ”

and parallel gashes. The seven plates which accompany the article

show that these markings are of a rude character, and that consider-

able variation exists in form and decoration. Mr. Harper brings

forward no decisive evidence to account for their use, but concludes

with the statement that they are either “ pounders”’ or ‘‘ ceremonial

stones.” The latter is a convenient scrap-basket in archeology, and

as Mr. Harper does not prove them to be pounders, it might be well

to classify them as ceremonial stones; at all events, they are well

described and figured in this paper, and others may be able to answer

the question raised. FR:

ZOOLOGY.

Adriatic Sponges.! — Dr. von Lendenfeld continues in this mono-

graph his exhaustive description of the Adriatic sponges begun in

1891.” Like the earlier works of the series, this is divided into three

parts. The first part contains a complete list of the literature on the

group; the second, a description of the Adriatic species; the third,

a comprehensive review of the structure and classification of the

Clavulina in general.

The classification adopted by von Lendenfeld in this series of

memoirs is as follows:

Porifera

Class Calcarea

Class Silicea

Subclass Triaxonia

Order Hexactinellida

Order Hexaceratina

1 Von Lendenfeld, R. Die Clavulina der Adria, Abhandl. Kais. Leopold. Carol.

Deut. Akad. Naturf., Bd. Ixix (1898), 12 Taf., p. 251, Halle.

2 Die Spongien der Adria, Die Kalkschwamme, Zeit. f. wiss. Zool., Bd. liii

(1891); Die Hexaceratina, /éid., Bd. liv (1894); Die Tetractinelliden der Adria,

Denkschr. Kats. Akad. Wiss. Wien (math.-naturw. Classe), Bd. lxi (1894).

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 335

Subclass Tetraxonia

Order Tetraxonida

Suborder Tetractinellida

Suborder Lithistida

Order Monaxonida

Suborder Clavulina

Suborder Cornacuspongiz.

Von Lendenfeld defines the Clavulina as marine Monaxonida, pos-

sessing as a rule a skeleton made up of rhabdus-like, mostly monac-

tinal, megascleres, arranged for the most part radially to the surface

in bundles, and not forming a network in the interior, Occasionally

without a supporting skeleton. Mostly without, or with very little

spongin. Occasionally with well-developed spongin skeleton, Micros-

cleres, when present, always asters or microrhabdi, never chelæ, sig-

mas, or toxas: If a well-developed spongin skeleton is present,

microscleres of aster or rhabdus type are always found.

This suborder is divided into three tribes: (1) Euastrosa, with

euasters, or, if none, then without skeleton. Other microscleres may

occur with euasters. Occasionally with spongin. (2) Spirastrosa,

without euasters, but with spirasters or other microscleres. Occa-

sionally with spongin. (3) Anastrosa, without microscleres.

In the suborder are included 26 genera, distributed in ro families.

Ridley and Dendy (Chal. Rep. on Monaxonida) divide the group into

2 families with 10 genera. Vosmaer (Bronn’s A7Zass. and Ord.) makes

2 families with ro genera, and an Anhang, consisting of 9 genera

(chiefly Gray’s) of boring sponges, which he provisionally accepts and

unites under the family name of Clionidw. Von Lendenfeld’s group

owes its size partly to its more comprehensive character, partly to

the separation of certain genera from the Clavuline families as recog-

nized by Vosmaer, Ridley and Dendy, aver genera being reincorpo-

rated as distinct families.

The following brief review at the ten families included in the

Clavulina will make plain the scope of the group as defined by von

Lendenfeld. In the Tethyade are included, along with the type

genus and Tethyorrhaphis Lend., a boring sponge (Xenospongia-

aspis), and Sollas’s two genera, Asteropus and Coppatias (united by

von Lendenfeld as Asteropus), reckoned by Sollas as among the

Tetractinellida. “he two genera, Chondrilla and Chondrosia, included

by Vosmaer al~ with Oscarella in his Oligosilicina, are here sepa-

rated from tt r genus and placed in distinct families, Chondril-

lide and dæ (Oscarella by von Lendenfeld is assigned to

the Tetractinellida,. The family Stelligeride is made to include two

336 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL: XXXIII.

genera withdrawn from the Axinellide, a family regarded (Ridley

and Dendy, Chal. Rep., p. lxii) as transitional between the Halichon-

drina and Clavulina. These two are Stelligera Gray (Raspailia

Vosmaer, 1887) and Hemiastrella Carter (Epallax Sollas, 1887).

The above four families constitute the Euastrosa.

The family Placospongide includes Placospongia Gray, a by

Sollas among the Tetractinellida. The family Dendropsidæ includes

Ridley and Dendy’s genus Dendropsis withdrawn from the Axinellidæ.

Instead of uniting them in a single family (Spirastrellidæ), after

the manner of Ridley and Dendy, von Lendenfeld separates the two

genera Spirastrella and Latrunculia, creating the family Latrunculida

for the latter. Under the family name of Spirastrellidze he groups

with Spirastrella two genera (Vioa Nardo and Thoasa Hancock) of

boring sponges; two genera, Ficulina Gray and Halicnemia Bwk.,

included by Vosmaer and by Ridley and Dendy, under generic

names Stylocordyla and Polymastia, in the Suberitide ; and Alectona

Carter, including forms widely separated by Sollas under generic

names Scolopes (fam. Scolopidz close to Suberitida, Sollas) and

Amphius (included by Sollas as a Tetractinellid in fam. Epipo-

lasidz). The above four families constitute the Spirastrosa.

Under the Suberitide von Lendenfeld groups five genera (Papil-

lella, Polymastia, Tentorium, Trichostemma, Suberites), included by

Vosmaer either in the Polymastidz or Suberitide, and by Ridley

and Dendy in the Suberitide ; and two others, Sollasella Lendf. and

Suberanthus n.g. The family Stylocordylide is erected by von Len-

denfeld for a new genus Astromimus, together with Stylocordyla

Thomson, which he withdraws from the Suberitide, where it is

placed by Vosmaer and by Ridley and Dendy. The Suberitidz and

Stylocordylida make up the Anastrosa.

Von Lendenfeld gives a statement of the phylogenetic views which

underlie the classification he proposes. Suberites, Spirastrella, Tethya

have been the productive genera. They with Asteropus have been

independently derived from Tethyorrhaphis. From Tethya have been

derived, directly or indirectly, Xenospongia, the Chondrillida, Chon-

drosidæ, and Stelligeride. From Spirastrella have been derived the

Placospongide, Latrunculide, Dendropsidz, also directly or indirectly

the other genera of the Spirastrellida, and the Anastrose genus Papil-

lella (Suberitidæ). From Suberites have been derived directly, or indi-

rectly, the other genera of Suberitidæ (except Papillella), and the

Stylocordylidz.

The Anastrosa (more particularly Suberitide) are thus conceived

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 337

of as having had a polyphyletic origin, in part (Papillella) from the

Spirastrosa, though chiefly from the Euastrosa (Suberites derived from

Tethyorrhaphis). Since von Lendenfeld regards (p. 210) Tethyor-

rhaphis as the “ Grundform aller Clavulina,” he evidently does not

take very seriously the idea (p. 206) that the Euastrosa and Spiras-

trosa have been independently evolved from different Tetractinellid

families — though in the paragraph referred to he apparently coun-

tenances this belief.

Of von Lendenfeld’s ten families, all but the Latrunculide and

Dendropside are represented in the Adriatic. Of his twenty-six

genera, fifteen, represented by thirty species, are here found. Seven

new species (Asteropus incrustans, Stelligera nux, Placospongia gracffei,

Vioa topsentit, Vioa ramosa, Suberites gracilis, Astromimus luteus) are

described, and of the twenty-three already described species, seven

for the first time have been found in the Adriatic.

In the descriptive part of the work-will be found details of interest

concerning the histology and skeleton, together with observations in

many cases on the appearance and behavior of the living sponge.

H. V. WILson.

Revised Classification of the Unionidæ. — Students of the Union-

idæ will welcome the revision in the arrangement of the species of

this group, which Mr. C. T. Simpson has introduced in Mr. C. F.

Baker’s report + on the Mollusca of the “ Chicago area.” Anatomical

features — other than those of the shell simply — are made the basis

for the revision, the structure of the marsupia, for example, being

employed as a diagnostic character. The genus Margaritana is

rejected, Unio and Anodonta are broken up, the old genera A/asmo-

donta, Strophitus, Quadrula, Obliquaria, Plagiola, and Lampsilis are

revived, and a new genus, Anodontoides, is erected, to provide for the

new and more natural grouping of the species. The shell of each of

the fifty forms is described at length, and in most instances the

external anatomy of the animal is also given. The local distribution

is tabulated, and the geographical and geological range of each spe-

cies is reported. Excavations about the city have revealed as fossils

many of the species now reported as living in this area. Measure-

ments are given, and data upon variation, habitat, and breeding are

quite extensive. It is to be regretted that the introductory discussion

of the group is not phrased in the terms of modern morphology, that

1 Baker, F.C. The Mollusca of the Chicago Area, Pt. I, The Pelecypoda, Budi.

No. Lil, Nat. Hist. Surv. Chicago Acad. Sci. (1898). 130 pp., 27 plates.

338 THE AMERICAN- NATURALIST.: (VoL. XXXIII.

the anatomical descriptions are in some cases omitted or incomplete,

that the keys were not in all cases revised to meet the new classifica-

tion, and that the limits of Mr. Simpson’s contributions were not

more definitely marked. We also note that A/ax, the common

Hydrachnid parasite of the clam, is incorrectly reported as Dip/o-

dontus. The plates —half-tones from photographs of the shells —

afford abundant illustrations, and are in some cases excellent, though

they at times fail to reveal important details of structure, such as the

beaks and the hinge teeth. The full descriptions, the abundant illus-

trations, and the keys make the work a valuable handbook for Amer-

ican collectors and students of fresh-water Pelecypoda. CG a x.

Rotifera and Protozoa of the Illinois River. — The local and

seasonal distribution of ninety-three Protozoa and one hundred and

eight Rotifera is given by Mr. Hempel ‘as a result of his examination

of towings made during 1894 and 1895 in the Illinois River and its

adjacent waters. The results reported afford further data indicative

of the cosmopolitan distribution of these groups, and the similarity

of the pelagic fauna of the fresh water of Europe and America. Some

species occur throughout the whole year, or a greater part of it, while

others recur only at stated seasons; some reach a maximum in the

spring, others in the summer, and still others in the fall, while some

reach this condition only in the winter, breeding abundantly under

the ice. The predominance of the Brachionidz among the Rotifera

is noticeable. One new species, Diffiugia fragosa, is described.

As tk.

Diurnal Migration of the Plankton.?— A single series of observa-

tions on the quantity of plankton at certain levels in Lake Leman, by

Dr. H. Blanc, suggests a considerable vertical movement, especially

of the Entomostraca, toward the surface during the night. Catches

were made at the surface, and at depths of 20, 40, and 60 meters in

water 100 meters deep. The volume of the catch from surface water

at 4 A.M. was 25 times as great as it was at 4 P.M. A large increase

also occurred in the catch at the 20-meter level, while at 40 and 60

meters there was no considerable change. The afternoon catch at

1 Hempel, A. A List of the Protozoa and Rotifera found in the Illinois River

and Adjacent Lakes at Havana, Ill., Bull. ZI. State Lab. Nat. Hist., vol. v (1898),

pp. 301-388.

2 Blanc, H. Le Plankton nocturne du lac Leman, Bull. Soc. Vand. Sci. Nat.

vol. xxxiv (1898), pp. 225-230, Pl. II.

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 339

the surface contained few Entomostraca, but these increased at this

level during the night, the Copepoda appearing before the Cladocera,

the maximum being attained at 4 a.m. The night catches at the

surface and at 20 meters contained great numbers of Ceratium in

division. Migration, reproduction, and growth are all factors in this

increase in the nocturnal plankton in the superficial layers. No

report is made upon the total vertical content of the water, and the

data do not afford any clue to the extent of the migration suggested.

The position of the thermocline is not indicated. aur Oe a

Plankton of the Oder.!— This potamoplankton is characterized

by Schroder as variable, being at a minimum during the winter when

the stream is frozen, and in March when it is at flood and full of silt.

It attains a maximum during a period of low water in the latter part

of the summer. The plankton of the main current is less abundant

than that of contiguous bays or of adjacent ponds supplied by the

river. It is suggested that the plankton content of flowing water is

inversely proportional to the fall of the stream. At all times the phy-

toplankton of the Oder is relatively small, and is largely composed

of diatoms. In the shallower and warmer water of the ponds the

Bacillariacee are replaced by the Chlorophycee and Phytomasti-

gophora. Thus, in general, the diatoms thrive best in cooler water, as

in mountain lakes and cold streams, while shade and access of run-

ning water favor their development in ponds. In the plankton of

_ the Atlantic Ocean, also, the diatoms predominate in the arctic waters,

and are replaced by the Peridinidz:and Schizophycee in warmer

regions. CAK

Notes on Nematode Parasites.— 1. It is not often that one is

called upon to record valuable contributions to zoological literature

from the pen of a botanist, but the recently published work of Stone

and Smith ? on nematodes is deserving of more than passing notice.

The root-galls produced by certain species of this group are the cause

of considerable damage among cultivated plants, and the authors,

‘who were drawn to investigate the subject by reason of its economic

importance and bearing on their own department, have given it

1 Schröder, B. Planktologische Mitteilungen, Biol. Centrald., Bd. xviii (1898),

pp. 525-535:

2 Stone, Geo. E.,and Smith, Ralph E. Nematode Worms, Division of Botany,

Bull. No. 55, Hatch Experiment Station Mass. Agr. College (November, 1898).

67 pp., 12 plates.

340 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

a very complete study. From the large amount of valuable matter

a few points of especial interest may be selected.

After discussing the economic importance of the question, the

structure of nematode worms and the symptoms of their attack, there

follows a careful description of the root-gall, in which it is shown that

the worms affect the plants, not directly by extracting nutriment, but

indirectly by modifying the structure of the root so that the flow of

sap is interfered with, and secondarily by weakening it so that it is

more susceptible to other diseases. The structure and development

of Heterodera, the gall nematode, are fully described; and in connec-

tion with a careful review of the literature the authors maintain the

identity of the German species with that found by Cobb in Australia,

that studied by Neal and Atkinson in the southern United States, and

that on which they worked themselves in Massachusetts. Although

carefully reached, the conclusion is still open to question. The

nematodes display great uniformity in general structure, and species

are at best often very difficult to distinguish. It is not clear that the

lips, together with the oral and caudal papillz, were examined in all

these forms; but these are the characters at present accepted as the

most reliable for specific determination. And while specimens of the

German form were compared with the Massachusetts variety, it was

only the female, while on the analogy of other species in this group the

male alone would suffice for specific determination. Furthermore, in

some points at least, the habits of the two forms are not in agreement,

so that the specific identity can hardly be regarded as established.

The authors have discussed very completely the various methods’

of treatment for nematode root-galls, and have experimented in detail

with most of them. They reach the conclusion that “the most effec-

tual, complete, and practical method of exterminating nematodes in

greenhouses is by heating the soil by means of steam,” which is

both comparatively inexpensive and noticeably beneficial to the soil.

While experimenting they noticed the comparative indifference of

ffeterodera to an atmosphere strong in CO. This is interesting as

confirming for one free living representative of the group what Bunge

long ago demonstrated for certain parasitic species. The paper is

well illustrated and of permanent value.

2. A good résumé of present knowledge on the nematodes has

recently appeared in the form of a somewhat popular article,’ which

1 Cobb, N. A. Extract from Manuscript Report on the Parasites of Stock,

Miscell. Publ. Dept. of Agr. Sidney, N.S.W., No. 215; also from Agr. Gazette

N. S. W. (March and April, 1898), 62 pp., 129 text-figures.

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. — 341

contains also noteworthy contributions from the work of the author.

The reader is struck at the outset by the breezy character of the

author’s style, especially noticeable in the first part of the paper on

the methods of manipulation, which contains an energetic appeal to

study of the group by a wider circle and full directions for carrying

on the work. In the second part the anatomy and physiology of these

worms are discussed topically under the various systems. Among

the more important points which are new may be mentioned a tabu-

lation of the various forms assumed by the pharynx and cesophagus,

together with a terminology for the same. Microchemical demonstra-

tion of different uric compounds in preparations of the lateral fields

strengthens the belief that the ducts in them are associated with the

excretory function.1 The author argues for a respiratory function of

the problematical “lateral organs ” present in varying form and devel-

opment in all (?) the free-living forms, but wanting in the parasitic

species, ‘and gives some personal observations on the structure of

these little known organs in new members of the group. Various

hints make it evident that the author has some radical improvements

to suggest on the classification of the nematodes. It is to be hoped

that they may be published soon, as the present confusion in the

group is exceedingly unfortunate for all students.

The article is illustrated by numerous exceedingly well made wood-

cuts which represent in many cases new species unaccompanied by

any further description than the formula after the fashion set by the

author for nematodes, yet the advantage of accurate figures is at once

evident. Though the cuts are small and somewhat difficult to deci-

pher, they are very exact, and it is agreeable to see illustrations which

are new and which represent the real conditions rather than the

author’s diagrammatic conception of structure; were these figures

only a little larger and more distinct they would be ideal.

H. B. wW..

Origin and Development of Sense Organs. — Three popular scien-

tific lectures on the origin and development of sense organs and sensory

activities in the animal kingdom have been given by Dr. P. Steffan

before the Senckenbergian Natural History Society.” In his intro-

1 The recent researches of Nassonow, ef alii, have appeared since the publica-

tion of the arti

2 Steffan, e P und Entwickelung der Sinnesorgane und Sinnesthä-

tigkeiten im Tierreiche, Ber. Senckenb. Naturf. Gesell, Frankfort a/M. (1898),

pp. 29-69.

342 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

duction the author points out the dependence of our higher mental

_ activities on the materials furnished by our sense organs. Light,

heat, sound, materials of taste and of smell, and direct external con-

tact are the stimuli for the eye, ear, tongue, nose, and outer skin.

These, the author declares, are all the forms of sensory stimuli and

sense organs known. How such a statement is consistent with the

author’s opinion as to the source of all our mental materials is diffi-

cult to understand, unless he be a man to whom pain, fatigue, hunger,

and thirst are unknown.

The relation of sense organs to the medium in which the animal

lives is next taken up. Organs of taste and touch are equally pos-

sible to water- and air-inhabiting animals, but organs of smell, hear-

ing, and sight are of necessity more restricted to the air-inhabiting

forms. Smell, the author believes, is absolutely impossible to water

animals, though he offers no explanation of the condition in fishes

-where the organs which become olfactory in the air-inhabiting verte-

brates are so well developed.

The remainder of the lectures is devoted to a condensed account

of the sense organs of the animal kingdoms. The so-called vegeta-

tive senses—touch, smell, and taste—are first considered, and then

what are dignified by the title of animal senses — hearing and sight

—are dealt with. Practically nothing novel is introduced in this

part of the work, the first portion reading like an abstract of

Jourdan’s Senses and Sense Organs of the Lower Animals, and the

second being in large part avowedly taken from Carriere’s little book

on the eye. The popular treatment of a scientific subject is one of

the most difficult tasks an author can set for himself, and to prescribe

rules for such forms of composition is well-nigh impossible. Super-

ficiality, however, is never to be tolerated, and superficiality is the

characteristic of Dr. Steffan’s contribution. CH Pp.

Eckstein’s Zoologie.!— The German medical student has to pass

examinations in zoology and comparative anatomy, and as a result a

number of these compendia exist, apparently intended to enable the

student to cram for examination. We are familiar with several of

these syllabi, and this of Eckstein seems, on the whole, the best. - It

contains a large amount of information, clearly arranged under the

heads of history, histology, comparative anatomy, physiology, embry-

ology, Lantsceainge.t A geographical distribution, phylogeny, taxonomy,

1 Eckstein, Professor Dr. Karl. Repetitorium der Zoologie, Ein Leitfaden fiir

Studierende. Zweite Auflage. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1898. 8vo, viii + 435 pp-

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 343

and the relations of animals to human interests. The book is well

illustrated with two hundred and eighty-one cuts, none of which indi-

cate the source from which they were copied.

We wish to call attention to the valuable

work by G. O. Sars? on the Crustacea of Norway, of which the second

volume, treating of Isopoda, is nowcurrent. Every species is figured,

often an entire plate being devoted to the figures of the entire ani-

mal and enlarged views of appendages. The text contains a brief

description of every species, with valuable remarks on occurrence

and distribution, and with synonymy. ‘The last parts have treated

of the Oniscidz (wood lice, etc.), which have a special interest as

being the sole large group of terrestrial Crustacea. From the fact

that North American Crustacea closely resemble the Norwegian ones

this work is of great value to American naturalists who are not

regardless of the need of carefully identifying the species they

study.

Japanese Pulmonates. — Dr. Jacobi? has made a thorough ana-

tomical research on twenty-eight species of Japanese shell-bearing

Pulmonata belonging to the genera Helecarion, Conulus, Ganesella,

Helix, Eulota, Acusta, Euhadra, Plectotropis, A°gesta, Eulotella, Tris-

tropeita, Slercophedusa, Bulimus, Succinea, and Limnza. This is

conscientious work of a much needed kind, unfortunately limited to

alcoholic material; a compact mass of information, free from general-

izations. The plates are excellent. ON Sack

Brooding in Frogs. — The singular brooding habits of a small frog,

Arthroleptis Seychellensis, from the Seychelle Islands, are described

by Professor August Brauer in the current number of Spengel’s

Zoologische Jahrbücher. The eggs are laid in damp places on, the

ground, and are kept covered and moist by the male until the larve

are hatched, which occurs at the stage when they are provided with

a long tail, and the first traces of the posterior appendage make

their appearance. After hatching, the tadpole-like larvae crawl upon

the back of the male and attach themselves by the abdomen by

means of secretions elaborated both by the larve and the adult.

1 Sars, G. O. An Account of the Crustacea ii o vol. ii, Isopoda.

Bergen, published by the Bergen Museum, 1897 a

2 Jacobi, A. Japanische beschalte PEE Ja Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ.

Tokio, XII, Pt. I. 102 pp., 6 plates.

344 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL; XXXIII.

Boulenger, in his account of the Venezuelan Phyllobates trinitatis,

believed that the larva attached themselves to back of the parent

with the object of being transported from one pool to another.

Brauer shows, however, that in Arthroleptis the attached condition

is not a temporary one, but that a large part of the development takes

place in the back of the male.

Marine Mollusca in the Suez Canal. — M. Bavay (Bull. Soc. Zool.,

France, XXIII, 9 and ro) gives a list of twenty-five species of marine

Mollusca that have been taken in the Suez Canal, six of which are

Mediterranean forms, and nineteen belong to the fauna of the Red

Sea; of the latter, Meleagrina radiata has also been taken on the

coast of Tunis. The disparity between the number of Mediterranean

and Red Sea forms is explained by the fact that from July to January |

the level of the Mediterranean is at an average of .4 of a meter higher

than the Red Sea, thus causing a current in the canal from north to

south, while from January to July the level of the Red Sea stands .3

of a meter higher than the Mediterranean, producing a current from

south to north. Now since it is in the earlier months of the year, or

during the time of the northward current, that most of the larve are

hatched, the Red Sea forms are most favored in their migrations.

Hertwig’s Summaries in Systematic Zoology. — Professor A. A.

Wright, of Oberlin College, has put into tabular form the classifica-

tion adopted by Richard Hertwig in his Lehrbuch der Zoologie, and

has printed with this a translation of the summaries of morphologi-

cal and physiological facts given at the end of each chapter. His

purpose is to make these summaries accessible to students as an

accompaniment to lectures on systematic zodlogy. Professor Wright’s

pamphlet of thirty-five pages thus forms a useful supplement to Field’s

translation of the introductory part of the Zehrduch, which covered

the subject of general zoology. The first edition of Professor Wright’s

work, published in February, 1897, having been exhausted, a second

edition without essential modification has recently been issued.

Fishes of Ecuador. — In the Aol/etino of the museum at Turin

Dr. E. A. Boulenger has a valuable paper on the fishes of Ecuador,

collected by Dr. Enrico Festa. Forty-three species are described,

many of them new. Among the latter are two marine catfishes,

Arius (Tachysurus) feste and A. (Galeichthys) labiatus.

A New Type of Shark. — Professor D. S. Jordan, in the Proc.

Cal. Acad. Sci., Ser. 3, Zodl., Vol. I, No. 6, describes the type of a

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 345

distinct family of Lamnoid sharks from Japan under the name of

Mitsukurina rustoni. The genus is apparently unique among living

forms, its nearest living relative being the genus Odontaspis of

Agassiz, a group which contains few recent sharks, but which is

rich in fossil forms.

American Gordiacea.— Dr. T. H. Montgomery concludes his

second paper on Gordiacea of certain American collections (Proc.

Cal. Acad. Sci., Ser. 3, Zoöl., Vol. I, No. 9) with a synoptical key for

determining the species of Gordiacea of the North American conti-

nent north of Mexico.

edge regarding the development of the eel is given by Dr. A. Konig

in Mittheil. d. Sect. f. Naturk. des Oesterreich. Touristen Club, X,

Nos. 8 and g.

BOTANY.

fashioned way of. making elementary botanical instruction consist

chiefly in “analyzing” flowers is well exemplified in the present

text-book.! With the recommendation that ‘‘ analysis ” be postponed,

“even though the pupil may pursue it independently at a later time,”

the author introduces the student at once to a physiological and

microscopical study of the protoplasm and vegetative organs of a

few Algal, Fungal, Bryophytic, Pteridophytic, and Spermatophytic

types. These same types, together with others, are then studied in

the second part as regards their morphology, reproductive processes,

and life history. This part ends with a cursory view of some of the

more important families of flowering plants. A final part devoted to

ecology calls attention to a few examples of interesting adaptations

of various organs to the work of nutrition, protection, pollination,

dissemination, and germination, and directs the student to profitable

lines of study in geographical distribution with special reference to

plant formations. In an appendix suggestions are given for the

collection and preservation of material, note taking, etc.

The illustrations are mostly good, some being of unusual excellence.

Certain of the photographic views, however, seem too hazy and con-

1 Atkinson, Ph.B., George Francis, Professor of Botany in Cornell University.

Elementary Botany. New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1898. xxiii + 444 Pp., 509

illustrations. Cloth 12mo. $1.25.

346 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

fused to be of much significance to a beginner. A few of the draw-

ings, as, for example, Figs. 44, 119, 189, 191, 192, 231, 232, 452, and

433, fall decidedly below the general standard of the book. Fig. 431

lacks the lettering necessary to make it significant.

Given a teacher well trained in physiological and EE

work and a good school laboratory well equipped with modern though

not expensive apparatus, this book will be found helpful and stimu-

lating to both teacher and pupil. The student, however, if a be-

ginner in botany, will frequently require the aid of such a teacher

to make clear the meaning of passages which assume a knowledge of

botanical matters dealt with only in a later chapter or not included in

the book at all. Moreover, technical terms are often used before

they have been explained, and sometimes different forms of the same

word are used without explanation in a confusing way, as, for example,

“chloroplast” and ‘“chloroplastid ” (p. 67), also “ pollination ? and

“pollenation.” It seems unfortunate and entirely unnecessary that

the phrase carbon conversion should be substituted for the well-estab-

lished term photosyntax.

It needs hardly to be said of a book from Professor Atkinson’s pen —

that it abounds in information which is at once accurate and up to

date. The only slips on matters of fact which the reviewer has noticed

are the references to Trillium as having compound leaves (p. 313), to

the “coral-root” orchid as having roots (p. 320), to the common

bed-straw as having several leaves in a whorl (thus ignoring the

stipular character of four of the leaf-like organs), and an incorrect

floral formula on p. 254.

There are many evidences of hasty preparation and careless proof-

reading. Slips in English are not infrequent. Thus “ shall” and

“will” are continually misused, and one meets with such loose

expressions as “alike in substance” for homogeneous (p. 5). One

is rather surprised, too, at finding the peristome of a moss described

as “frazzled.”

In spite of its defects, the book is one of unusual interest and will

doubtless hold an important place among advanced school books on

N: F. L. SARGENT.

Microscopic Technique.’ — As the author states, the writing of

“ Practica” is to be considered a somewhat thankless task, — it

might be well, indeed, were it more generally so considered, — and a

1 Meyer, A. Erstes mikroskopischer Practicum. Jena, Fischer, 1898. 100

Pp, 29 figs.

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 347

good excuse is assuredly necessary to justify the publication of one.

But this little volume, which, as is stated, is to be the first of a series,

is not a mere copy or abridgment of preéxisting works of this sort.

While from its extreme brevity of form it must, like many other

elementary laboratory guides, present only a few rather isolated

botanical facts, these facts are better correlated than in many similar

books. It is, indeed, somewhat of a relief to find that no attempt is

made to review the whole field of botany from A to Z. Possibly the

author reserves this task for the more advanced “ Practica,” which are

to follow. The table in which is set forth the most important char-

acters of the tissue elements of angiosperms must prove convenient,

at least in memorizing, if in nothing more. AMR

Schumann’s Monograph of the Cactacez.'—In 1897 Professor

Schumann, of the Botanical Museum at Berlin, issued the first

Lieferung of a work which was intended to be completed in ten

parts, and to contain descriptions, with synonymic references, for all

of the sufficiently known species of cacti, as well as a chapter on the

‘means of cultivating these interesting and sometimes beautiful plants.

On the fifteenth of December, 1898, the publication of this work was

completed by the printing of the thirteenth part, it having proved

impossible to condense the entire matter into the limits originally

proposed.

Probably there is no more complete nor representative collection

of living cacti than that which Professor Engler, the Director of the

Berlin Garden, has brought together within the last ten years, and

there certainly is no botanist who has of late given so much con-

tinuous and careful study to the cacti as has Dr. Schumann. The

work which he has just finished publishing is therefore one destined

to take foremost rank in the hands of all students of the group,

whether botanists or gardeners. The descriptions and keys are con-

cise and, in the main, good. The synonymy adopted, which, as

might be supposed, has been conformed to the Berlin rules, is con-

servative, and therefore reasonably satisfactory. The limitation of

species has been effected on very conservative grounds, and while

there is little doubt that some of them, as here accepted, will soon be

redivided by Dr. Schumann or others, it is far better to have erred in

this direction than by the multiplication of names for forms which

1 Schumann, K. Gesammtbeschreibung der Kakteen (Monographia Cacta-

cearum). Mit einer kurzen Anweisung zur Pflege der Kakteen, von Karl Hirscht.

Neudamm, 1899. 8vo, xi + 832 pp., 117 ff.

348 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

ordinary people cannot separate. The illustrations are well chosen

and, for the most part, excellent. Many of them are photo-engraved

from drawings copied from classical figures, the source of which,

unfortunately, is somewhat obscured by the statement that they are

original. See:

Sargent’s Silva.!— When it was begun, this superb work was

intended to be completed in twelve volumes. The twelfth volume,

however, recently issued, contains an announcement that a thirteenth

volume will be devoted to supplementary material and an index to

the entire work. Like its predecessors, the present volume is conserv-

atively prepared and exquisitely published. It deals with the genera

Larix, Picea, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, and Abies. 2

whose studies on

the anatomy of flowering plants as applied to their classification

are known to all botanists, has undertaken the preparation of a

synopsis of what is known in this respect of the Dicotyledons.* The

work is to be completed in four parts, and, though somewhat expen-

sive (36 marks), will be a necessary and welcome addition to every

working laboratory. sN

Botanical Notes. — The relation of plants to their surroundings is

discussed in an entertaining way by Costantin, in a recent volume of

the Bibliotheque Scientifique Internationale.

The anatomical means of distinguishing the commonly cultivated

barberries are given by Koehne in Gartenflora for January.

Systematic plant introduction, its purposes and methods, is dis-

cussed by D. G. Fairchild in Forestry Bulletin No. 2r of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture.

A series of illustrated articles on the morphology of Anemone, by

Janczewski, is brought to a conclusion in the Revue Générale de

Botanique for December 15.

Orchid hybridizing, now a matter of some commercial importance,

as well as of scientific interest, is described by C. C. Hurst in Mature

for December 22.

1 Sargent, Charles Sprague. The Silva of North America. Mlustrated with

figures and analyses drawn from nature by Charles Edward Faxon. Boston and

New York, Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Vol. xii. vii + 144 pp., 26 plates.

2 Solereder, H. Systematische Anatomie der Dicotyledonen. Ein Handbuch

fiir Laboratorien der wissenschaftlichen und angewandten Botanik. Stuttgart,

Enke. Lieferung 1, 2. 1898.

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 349

The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for January contains

No. 5 of Professor Nelson’s papers on New Plants from Wyoming,

and a description and figure of Lacinaria cymosa, by H. Ness.

Thirty poisonous plants of the United States are described and, in

large part, figured, by Chesnut in Farmers Bulletin No. 86 of the

Department of Agriculture.

Of interest to botanists is a portrait of Sir W. T. Thiselton Dyer,

K.C.M.G., the able director of the Royal Gardens, Kew, published

in the Gardeners Chronicle of January 7.

In the Berichte der deutschen botanischen Gesellschaft of December

28, Ule speaks of the adaptation of some Brazilian Utricularias to

their mode of life, which is peculiar, since they live in the leaf

rosettes of certain Bromeliacez.

Under the title Plantes Mattogrossenses, Dr. J. Barbosa Rodrigues,

director of the botanical garden of Rio de Janeiro, publishes descrip-

tions and figures of a considerable number of new or little known

species.

The Bermuda Juniper and its allies are disentangled by Dr.

Masters in the Journal of Botany for January. While the Jamaican

tree is referred to /. Virginiana, our common red cedar, the tree of

Bermuda, /. dermudiana, is held to be specifically distinct.

The Iowa Sedges are catalogued, with synonymic notes, by

Professor Cratty, in the December number of the Buletin of the

Laboratory of Natural History of the lowa University. The list

includes 114 species and varieties, pertaining to 10 genera. Ten

species are figured.

Cerastium arvense, var. oblongifolium, a form of a common enough

weed, is christened The Starry Grasswort and recommended for

decorative cultivation by Professor Arthur in Bulletin No. 74 of the

Purdue University Experiment Station.

The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society for January con-

tains the following articles of botanical interest: Economic uses of

bamboos, and list of bamboos in cultivation ; Water-lilies and hybrid

water-lilies, the latter by the well-known raiser of such hybrids,

M. Latour-Marliac.

The Botanical Gazette begins its twenty-seventh volume with an

interesting address on the vegetation of tropical America, by Pro-

fessor Warming, whose studies of Brazilian plants are well known.

350 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

The same number contains an elaborate paper on the life history of

Lemna minor, by Otis W. Caldwell.

Möllers Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung of January 14 contains an articl

on Mexican orchids in their native home, by Othon Krieger, which |

is illustrated by reproductions of two photographs presenting a very | l

vivid picture of the abundance of these epiphytes of our plant-houses

and of the difficulties attending their collection.

Botanists who may make the acquaintance of the white ash of

Australia will not find a species of Fraxinus, but a Eucalyptus, which

has been described and figured by Deane and Maiden in No. 91 of

the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales under the

name Æ. fraxinoides. The same number contains descriptions and

figures of two additional species of Eucalyptus, by R. T. Baker.

GEOLOGY.

The Isthmus of Panama, as has been shown by a geological recon-

noissance made by R. T. Hill,’ is an ancient mountain range much

reduced in height and deeply dissected by erosion. The drainage

system is well developed and consists of several principal streams,

which have many rapidly flowing branches near their sources, but

comparatively long, low-grade trunks into which the tides extend

many miles from the sea. The larger streams generally are charac-

terized by drowned mouths and actively corrading head waters.

There is an absence on each border of the isthmus of a coastal

plain, similar to that on the Gulf and Atlantic borders of the United

States. The uplands come boldly down to the sea in a series of

bluffs and headlands, separated by the partially drowned valleys.

On each shore, however, there is a submerged platform, which

extends out to about the 100-fathom line, where the bottom descends

rapidly into water of great depth. The topography of these sub-

merged shelves indicates that they were formerly coastal plains across

which the present streams were extended and excavated channels.

A downward movement of the land has submerged the former coastal

plain and given origin to coastal swamps, and permitted the encroach-

ment of the sea far up the ancient, low-grade valleys.

1 Hill, R. T. The Geological History of the Isthmus of Panama and Portions

of Costa Rica. Based on a reconnoissance made for Alexander Agassiz. Bulletin

of the Museum of Comparative Zoölogy at Harvard College, vol. xxviii (1898),

-= No. 5, pp. 151-285, with 19 plates.

No. 388.]. REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 351

The lowest pass across the isthmus, which is a drainage col between

the head waters of two opposite flowing streams, is but 287 to 295

feet above the ocean. If the isthmus should subside about 300 feet,

a connection would be made between the waters of the Atlantic and

the Pacific. None of the passes through the mountains, however,

give evidences of ever having been straits connecting the bordering

oceans. One of the most important conclusions reached by Hill

from several lines of investigation, is that there has been no oceanic

connection across the isthmus since Tertiary time. There is, indeed,

considerable evidence that this land barrier has existed since Jura-

Trias time, with perhaps a shallow passageway across at the close

of the Eocene; but even this ephemeral connection has not been

definitely proven. In a footnote the opinion is expressed that the

Tehuantepec isthmus, composed of cretaceous rocks, has “ remained

land since its earliest origin.”

The conclusion in this connection seems to be that the Central

American and Mexican region has been above water at least since

the close of the Tertiary. This is of special importance to the

students of the Glacial epoch, inasmuch as a subsidence of a portion

at least of the Central American region, and'a consequent cessation

of the Gulf Stream, has been postulated, on purely hypothetical

grounds, to explain climatic changes in the northern portions of

America and Europe. The antiquity of Central America is also of

much interest to biologists, since it is in harmony with the well-known

differences in most of the marine species in the waters it separates.

Much information is recorded by Hill in reference to the rocks of

the isthmus, the geological structure, the decay of the surface mate-

rial under a warm climate with excessive rainfall, etc. The appen-

dices contain the following reports on the collections brought home:

invertebrate fossils, by W. H. Dall; foraminiferal deposits, by R.

M. Bagg ; and igneous rocks, by J. E. Wolff.

The report is illustrated by three instructive sketch-maps in con-

tours, which unfortunately are without titles or scales, four sheets of

profiles and sections, and twelve reproductions of photographs, several

of which illustrate scenes along the Panama Canal.

ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.

352 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL: XXXIII"

r PETROGRAPHY.

Experimental Petrography. — Morozewicz' has just published a

long paper on “ Experimental investigations upon the formation of

minerals in magmas” that will unquestionably take a place among

the most important contributions to experimental geology that have

been made within recent years. The author fused known mixtures

of the various rock-producing compounds in a glass-furnace and

thoroughly studied the resulting products. The conclusions reached

by him are full of suggestiveness. The way seems to have been

opened for a long line of important investigations to follow, some of

which have already been entered upon.

The details of the experiments cannot be entered upon here, but

some of the conclusions arrived at may be briefly indicated.

1. The structures of cooled magmas appear to depend upon

exterior conditions of crystallization and upon their chemical com-

position, quantitative as well as qualitative.

2. The order of crystallization is determined by no one condition,

such as fusibility, acidity, etc., but it depends upon a number of

variable conditions, one of the most important of which is the quan-

tity of the various constituents present as compared with their

solubility in the molten mass. The ability of a substance to

supersaturate the magma depends primarily upon its nature, the

nature of the other substances composing the magma, and its

temperature.

So far as the experiments touch upon the question of the

differentiation of magmas, they seem to indicate that a molten mass

may separate into layers or parts differing in density, and that this

difference may be due to the fact that the bases FeO, MgO, CaO,

separate as silicates by crystallization earlier than the remaining

constituents.

Two pounds of granite, with the composition given below (I), were

heated for five days. The mixture yielded a mass of glass which in

its upper portion contained unmelted quartz grains and a consider-

able quantity of tridymite. Though the glass between the quartz

grains in the upper portion of the crucible presented the same

appearance as that in the lower parts, the composition of pieces taken

from the two parts was found to be quite different. Under (II) we

1 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., vol. xviii, pp. 1 and 105.

No. 388.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 353

have the analysis of the glass from the upper part, and under (III)

that of the glass from the lower portion.

SiOz AlO Fe2O3 CaO MgO KeO NaO Total. Sp. Gr.

(I) 68.9 19.7 1.4 1,2 1.0 Se. se 2206 2.716

(il). 73.65." 14-08 233 1.04 OS eOr 356 = 909.12 234

(III) soro 92.90 GOF 371 L39 J20 "s40 = 9803 2484

The Basic Rocks of Ivrea. — The basis rocks in the neighbor-

hood of Ivrea, on the south side of the Alps, are shown by Schaefer '

to be the result of cooling of a single magma. ‘This yielded norites,

diorites, gabbros, peridotites and both basic and acid dyke-rocks.

The norites include hornblendic varieties, and the diorites, bronzitic,

hornblendic, and biotitic phases. All these rocks have been subjected -

to the action of mountain-making forces. The norites have be-

come schistose without suffering any essential mineralogical change.

Some of the diorites have simply been made schistose, others have

undergone a further change in that their dark, compact hornblende

has passed over into a light green amphibole, while a final stage of

alteration is represented by green schists, composed of zoisite,

plagioclase, actinolite, chlorite, and epidote.

The dyke rocks cut the large basic masses and are always closely

related to them chemically. The principal types are a labradorite

(Labradorfels) and a fine-grained black rock which the author calls

valbellite. This is made up of bronzite, olivine, and brown horn-

blende with pyrrhotite, spinel, and magnetite as accessories.

The Basalts of Steiermark. — Sigmund’s? studies on the basalts

of Steiermark are continued in an article in which are described the

magma-basalts and basalt-tuffs of Fiirstenfeld and the feldspar basalt

of Weitendorf. The composition of the magma-basalt is shown by

the figures below.

SiOz TiOg FegO3 FeO AlO CaO MgO NagO KeO CO H20 Total.

O70 teo $35 502 1703 Bag 73i 353. 220 133 133 = 10008

Petrographical Notes. — Reinisch è has found a specimen of tes-

chenite in the museum at Minussinsk. It is labeled as having come

from east of the salt lake Staniza on the river Bjelyi-Jjuss, Minussinsk

parish, Jenisseisk gouvernement, East Siberia. It resembles very

closely the West Carpathian rock. Among the other specimens from

1 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., vol. xvii, p. 495.

2 Ibid., p. 256.

8 Ibid., vol. xviii, p. 92.

354 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

the same region, melaphyres, melaphyre-tuffs, granites, amphibolites,

and contact metamorphosed limestones have also been identified.

Becke ' records an analysis of the leucite-basanite lava of 1891-93

from Vesuvius as follows:

SiOz Al203 FeO Fe0O0; CaO MgO Na2O KO P20; Total.

wey TUGI -GO AG GaS 202 e B17 Goe gg = Troy

The tonalite gneiss of Wistra, Carpathia, has the composition :

SiO, ALO Fe2O0 FeO -MgO CaO Na0 KO Loss. Total.

63.09 1889 3.48 2.02 17 AB 58‘: as 69s Se oe re

Coleman ° gives a few brief descriptions of some of the rocks met

with in the course of his studies of the gold regions of Western

Ontario. Among them are diorites, diorite gneisses, a porphyrite,

a pyroxenite, and a hornblende porphyrite from Grand Presque Isle,

Lake of the Woods. The hornblende porphyrite consists of pheno-

crysts of hornblende, containing in their interiors remnants of augite

and a ground mass composed of quartz, plagioclase, augite, and some

orthoclase. Near Peninsula and Port Caldwell, on the north shore

of Lake Superior, are coarse diabases, gabbros, augite-diorite, and

porphyrites, and associated with them are red rocks, called by the

author augite-syenites, diorites, and syenites. Some of the augite-

syenites are aggregates of orthoclase and augite, while others are

made up largely of pegmatite. Near Lake Wahnapital, in the Sud-

bury district, diabases, epee arkoses, graywackes, and dolomites

occur.

1 Min. u. . Petrog. Mitth., vol. xviii,

2 Rep. Bureau of Mines (Ontario), ‘ob p- 145.

NEWS.

In our January issue we announced the death of Dr. Vincenzo

Diamare of the Institute of Comparative Anatomy of the University

of Naples. We are unable now to trace the source of our informa-

tion, but Dr. Diamare writes us that he is alive and well, and desires

to live on. We wish Dr. Diamare a long and useful life and beg that

he will forget our unfortunate error.

A botanical club has been organized in Washington with Professor

Edward L. Greene as president and Charles L. Pollard as secretary.

The list of officers and councillors elected for the present year by

the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences is remarkable for the

few names known to science.

The borings in the coral reef at Funafuti have been discontinued

at a depth of 1114 feet. The drill was then in what is called “coral

reef ” rock, but as yet no studies have been made to ascertain whether

it be of recent or extinct forms.

A movement is being inaugurated to increase the endowment of

the University of Cambridge. $2,500,000 is desired, and two persons

have already pledged $100,000.

The British Association meets in Dover this year.

There was an earthquake in Mexico, January 24, lasting three

minutes. ‘Three hundred houses were damaged and ten were com-

pletely destroyed.

At the R. I. College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (Kingston),

the special course of instruction in poultry culture for 1899 began on

January 9, to continue four weeks. Nearly forty applications for

enrollment for the course were received, but owing to limited accom-

modations the class has been kept down to about twenty in number.

Several who could not take this course have enrolled their names for

the next in 1900.

Bulletin of the Cooper Ornithological Club is the title of a new

bi-monthly bird journal, published in Santa Clara, Cal., under the

editorship of Chester Barlow. The sphere of the journal will be

/ 355

356 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

limited to the ornithological interest of the extreme west, more

especially California, and will serve as the organ of the Cooper

Ornithological Club.

Many naturalists will probably be interested to learn that the

house of E. Merck, of Darmstadt, have begun the publication of a

. new magazine, Merck’s Digest, which will give accounts of the various

chemicals manufactured by the firm, with reports upon their physio-

logical action. As we understand, the magazine will be supplied

free to all chemists and physiologists applying for it.

A successor to E. Ray Lankester as Linacre professor of Com-

parative Anatomy in the University of Oxford will be elected this

spring.

The Royal Microscopical Society has elected Mr. E. M. Nelson to

the presidency.

The Russian Geographical Society has established a seismological

observatory in Irkutsk, Siberia.

A natural history museum was opened at King Williams Town,

Cape Colony, October 5.

Applications for the use of the American women’s table at the

Naples Zoological Station should be sent to Dr. Ida H. Hyde,

1 Berkeley Street, Cambridge, Mass. Dr. Hyde will give information

as to cost of living, etc., to any who may wish it. Two students can

occupy the table at the same time — a fact which in some cases

would make the study in Naples more agreeable.

The Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and

Sciences, located at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, will be open

for its tenth season during July and August, 1899. The regular class

work occupies six weeks from July 5. Courses are offered in High

School Zoology by Dr. C. B. Davenport, of Harvard University, who

is also the Director of the Laboratory. In Comparative Anatomy,

by Professor H. S. Pratt, of Haverford College; in Invertebrate

Embryology, by Professor C. P. Sigerfoos, of the University of Min-

nesota; in Botany, especially of Cryptogams, by Dr. D. S. Johnson,

of Johns Hopkins University, assisted by Professor F..O. Grover, of

Oberlin College ; in Bacteriology, by Mr. N. F. Davis, of Bucknell

University ; in Microscopic Methods, by Mrs. Gertrude Crotty Daven-

port, formerly instructor at Kansas University. Opportunities are

afforded for Original Investigations, especially in the Variation of

No. 388.] NEWS. g 357

Animals with reference to the Origin of Species, the latter work

being under the direction of Dr. Davenport. The laboratory offers

dormitory and boarding accommodations on the grounds and under

- the control of the director. The laboratory is equipped with a

naphtha launch, bacteriological apparatus, and a good working library.

The tuition fee is $20; board costs $4.50, and rooms $1.50 or $3.00

per week. Application for admission or for the announcements may

be made to Professor Franklin W. Hooper, 502 Fulton Street, Brook-

lyn, N. Y., or to Dr. Charles B. Davenport, Harvard University,

Cambridge, Mass.

Appointments: Mr. W. Anderson, of the Indian geological survey,

director of the newly instituted geological survey of Natal ; M. Giintz,

professor of mineralogical chemistry in the Faculty of Sciences at

Nancy; L. B. Wilson, demonstrator in pathology and bacteriology in

the University of Minnesota.

Deaths: Dr. Giuseppe Bosso, bacteriologist in the University of

Turin, January 17; Wilhelm Dames, professor of geology and paleon-

tology in the University of Berlin, December 22, aged 55 ; Fr. Gay, of

the University of Montpellier, France, a student of the alge, aged 40 ;

Major Jed. Hotchkiss, of Staunton, Va., a well-known writer on sub-

jects in the field of economic geology, January 18, aged 71; Pastor

Christian Kaurin, of Sand Jarlsberg, Norway, student of mosses, May

25, 1898, aged 66; Henry Alleyne Nicholson, professor of natural

history in the University of Aberdeen, and well known for his text-

books and his paleontological researches, January 19, aged 54; T.

Caruel, professor of botany in Florence, Italy.

CORRESPONDENCE.

THE TRUE FUNCTION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF THE UNITED STATES.

The following contribution to the discussion opened by Dr. Dall in the February

American Naturalist, on the subject of a university of the United States, has

been received from the recording secretary of the George Washington Memorial

Association. — Ep.

To the Editor of the American Naturalist :

Sir, — With the growth of the graduate departments of existing

universities of the United States, a growth which would astonish any

one who had not been in the closest relation with one or many of

these universities, the need which existed a few years ago for a

national graduate university, with instruction leading to the Doctorate,

is gradually diminishing. There is, however, left for the proposed

University of the United States a unique field, one which the uni-

versities of the states cannot hope to fill — that is, the encouragement

and support of research.

The fact may as well be faced that the general education of an

undergraduate college course, with at the best a thesis on some

special point, does not fit one to take up a subject for research and

treat it broadly. The rapid progress in all branches of science

makes it necessary that for a genuine advance into new fields of

knowledge long and careful training in methods is necessary. The

thesis for a Doctorate is in the majority of cases an expression of

this careful training under the eye of a master, the subject of the

thesis having been suggested by the master, and its progress watched

and directed week by week ; hence with the taking of the Doctor’s

degree, but not before, the student is well prepared to take up an

independent piece of work.

In the bill before the Senate Committee on the University of the

United States is a section which should not be lost sight of or slurred

over. It is: “The University shall have authority to establish with

other institutions of education and learning in the United States

such cooperative relations as shall be deemed advantageous to the

public interest.”

In a wide interpretation of this section is, it seems to me, the

solution of the vexed question of the University of the United States.

358

CORRESPONDENCE. 359

The Morrill Bill of 1862, which gave the foundation of many of

the state colleges — with its supplement of 1890 — and the Hatch Bill

of 1887, which founded the Agricultural Experiment Stations, together

form the basis for higher education and research in the states at the

expense of the national government. An extension of this kind of

support to the higher departments of learning in the states would

disseminate the interest and give opportunity for training in research.

By this means all of the degree-conferring machinery of a national

university could be relegated to the universities of the states.

The selection which Dr. Dall, in the American Naturalist for

February, mentions as necessary before students shall be admitted to

opportunity in the government departments at Washington would

thus be accomplished. A thesis for Doctorate would be the test for

ability to use the opportunity.

By generous cooperation certain resources of the departments

could be used by a special student without expecting instruction in

the ordinary sense from the chief of divisions, and thus not be a

burden.

The recent address of President Harper before the University Club

of New York outlines a plan for a federation of universities which

may make the basis for a national university. Some such plan as

this, modified by the combined wisdom of a committee of experts, can

surely solve the problem of the university side of the question, ż.e.,

what branches of learning can to best advantage be furthered in any

one university.

The unification of the Scientific Bureaus of Washington, the exact

degree in which they can give opportunity for research without

impairment of their usefulness, — these questions should be discussed

and carefully considered by experts also; but the serious difficulty

of opening these Bureaus to students comes from the possible great

number of applicants who would be attracted by a free opportunity.

There are 4000 graduate students in the universities of the United

States. The number is rapidly increasing, and there may before long

be 10,000 students who might apply for admission to opportunity in

Washington, thus embarrassing and clogging all work. Therefore a

larger outlook must be taken by those who advocate a national uni-

versity. A plan must be devised whereby the government may do its

share toward the support of graduate instruction in universities and

also more generously support the real research done under government

auspices.

The government lands are, perhaps, too nearly exhausted to make

360 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vou. XXXIII.

possible a repetition of the Morrill land grant to the states ; but it

would be possible to issue 5% bonds which benefactors of higher

education could buy for the support of graduate work in a special

institution. By making these bonds inalienable a permanent fund

would be established. The low ruling rate of interest would thus

make the matter a genuine piece of coöperation on the part of the

government, and in so far as the 5% exceeds that rate there would

be a government grant.

It is, then, to emphasize the fact that the most recent thought con-

cerning the formation of a national university does not contemplate

flooding the District of Columbia with a body of untrained or partly

trained students that this letter is written. It is desired that the

government foster research, establishing a national university with

branches, providing in the central establishment broader opportunity

for research, increasing in the state branches the facilities for train-

ing graduate students. SUSANNA Pusirs GAGE

IrHaca, N. Y., February 9.

GASKELL’S THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF VERTEBRATES FROM CRUS—

TACEAN ANCESTORS.

To the Editor of the American Naturalist:

Sir, — Since the Annelid theory of the origin of vertebrates, at

one time so generally and enthusiastically advocated, has failed to

realize the expectations of its adherents, interest in the subject has

steadily fallen off, and the various attempts to substitute something

in its place have gained only individual or, at most, a very small

number of followers.

The impression has steadily gained ground that in spite of its very

great importance the problem of the origin of vertebrates is no

longer a fruitful one for discussion, because the evidence accessible

is so general in character that one may make out a reasonable

theory based on almost any invertebrate that one may be pleased to

select. We believe, however, that there is no reasonable justification

for this state of mind, and that perhaps it may be in a measure over-

come by showing how any radical departure from certain lines of

procedure, even if the utmost liberty is exercised in the destroying

of old organs and the creation of new ones, fails to make the solu-

No. 388.] CORRESPONDENCE. 361

tion of this problem any easier, and in the end leads to hope-

less confusion. It will, therefore, be interesting and profitable to

consider some of the difficulties into which Mr. Gaskell is led in

his attempts to solve this problem by the novel method of com-

paring the dorsal surface of an arthropod with the dorsal surface

of a vertebrate.

It may be stated incidentally that Mr. Gaskell adopts, without

acknowledgment, the same lines of argument in reference to many

homologies between vertebrates and arthropods that were used in

my first paper on this subject in the Quarterly Journal. This is

notably the case in regard to the paleontological evidence, the

relation of the endosternite of arachnids to the cartilaginous

cranium of vertebrates, and to the causes for the disappearance

of the old mouth in the concentration of the thoracic neuromeres

around the arachnid cesophagus, although these facts are quite

inapplicable to his theory.

Briefly stated, Gaskell maintains (Journ. of Physiol., 1889, p. 191)

that the nervous system of vertebrates is composed of two essentially

different parts: first, a preéxisting, non-nervous tube, consisting of

the epithelium of the canalis centralis and cerebral vesicles, and the

various supporting elements derived from it; and, second, the true

nervous elements, consisting of a ‘bilateral chain of ganglia con-

nected together by means of longitudinal and transverse commis-

sures.” The infolding of the medullary plate of vertebrates shows

us, he maintains, the simultaneous development of two different

organs, the one the nervous system, and the other the tube of

supporting tissue, p. 193. This tube of supporting tissue, “ which

is not nervous and never was nervous,” and which is coextensive

with the canalis centralis and the cerebral ventricles, Gaskell regards

as the remnants of the alimentary canal of a crustacean-like ancestor.

The ventral cord and the supracesophageal ganglia of the crusta-

cean ancestor have in vertebrates fused with and grown around the

old alimentary canal to form the true nervous elements of the

spinal cord and brain. No reversal of surfaces is called for by this

transformation, for the ventral surface of an arthropod is regarded

as homologous with the ventral side of a vertebrate.... He

maintains that the one reason why they (the champions of the

origin of vertebrates from the appendiculata) have not been able

to make any real advance in their views, has been the difficulty of

accounting for the altered relations of alimentary canal and ner-

vous system in the two groups. His theory “ solves this difficulty,”

362 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII:

not by turning the animal over, but by transporting bodily the

crustacean nerve cords and alimentary canal from the ventral to

the dorsal side. By this simple process everything of importance

that happens to lie between the dorsal and ventral surfaces must

be either swept out of existence or forced into some corner where

it undergoes extensive and complete degeneration. The result is a

metamorphosis so profound that morphologists have completely failed

to recognize the organs of the crab in their new forms and places.

According to Gaskell, during the transition from crustacea to verte-

brates, the crab’s heart is nearly crowded out through the back by

Fic. x. Fic. 2.

Fic. 1.— Diagrammatic cross-section of an arachnid (Limulus) in the head region, showing the

relative position of heart, alimentary canal, endosternite, and principal peripheral nerves and

commissures.

Fic. 2. — Cross-section of a vertebrate illustrating Mr. Gaskell’s theory that the arthropod nerve

cords, alimentary canal, and endosternite have been transferred to the original dorsal surface

where the heart and alimentary canal undergo extensive deg tion.

the dorsal movement of the nerve cords, although it still lingers in

Ammocecetes, where he has detected it as “that peculiar elongated

organ, composed of fattily degenerated tissue, which lies between

the spinal cord and the dorsal median skin.” It is not clear whether

it was the peculiar elongation of the organ or the presence of fat in

it that enabled him to recognize the heart of Limulus in such an

unusual place. Gaskell also proves, in the same manner, that the

nephridia, or coxal glands of arthropods, have been disguised as the

pituitary body of vertebrates; the genital part of the opercular

appendages, as the thyroid glands and pseudo-branchial groove ;

and he shows how the gigantic liver of crustacea is reduced to a mass

No. 388. ] CORRESPONDENCE. 363

of “sub-arachnoidal glandular tissues,” that helps fill up the cranial

cavity, and thus keeps the brain in place. The straight intestine is

discovered under the guise of the central canal of the spinal cord

and the “ cephalic stomach”’ as the ventricular cavities of the brain.

These are only a few of the renovations to which the crabs must

submit in their efforts to become vertebrates. There is not much

left that can be used to advantage in the “ new crab,” except the

skin and bones, and Gaskell makes a good deal of them, although

he does not display as much ingenuity in doing so as in some of the

instances quoted above, because the essential points of resemblance

between the cartilages and the dermal structures of Limulus and those

of vertebrates have already been pointed out bythe author. Gaskell

hopes to explain some time how our eviscerated ancestors acquired

a new heart, kidneys, and productive organs, as well as a new

alimentary canal complete, from mouth to anus.

Gaskell argues that he is justified in “ violating the embryological

unities,” as he calls them, on the grounds that there is much scepticism

abroad concerning the validity of the germ layer theory. But this

weakness of the germ layer theory can hardly be construed as a

license to transfer a crab’s entire alimentary canal and nervous

system from the ventral to the dorsal surface without obtaining

some authority from established facts, yet the assumption that this

transfer has taken place forms the foundation of Gaskell’s theory.

‘The conception is untenable, not because the supposed transfer of

organs is a novel and surprising one, or because it is difficult to see

how the animal could survive the operation, but because it assumes

a condition of affairs that does not exist, because the peripheral

nerves and the cross commissures present impassable barriers to the

proposed changes, and because the suggestion is inconsistent with

the most obvious facts of embryology.

In 1896 (Nature), about eight years after the idea first occurred

to him, Professor Gaskell is led to suspect that there may be some

difficulties in homologizing the hzmal surface of a crab with the

neural surface of a vertebrate, and gives the following explanation :

The ontogenetic test appears to fail in two points:

(1) “That the nerve tube of vertebrates is an epiblastic tube,

whereas, if it represented the old invertebrate gut, it ought to be

largely hypoblastic.

(2) “The nerve tube of vertebrates is formed from the dorsal

surface of the embryo, while the central nervous system of arthro-

pods is formed from the ventral surface.

364 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

“With respect to the first objection, it might be argued, with a

good deal of plausibility, that the term ‘hypoblast’ is used to denote

that surface which is known by its later development to form the

alimentary canal, that in fact, as Heymons has pointed out, the

theory of the germinal layers is not sufficiently well established to

give it any phylogenetic value.” Are we to understand from this

that since the canalis centralis does not develop into an alimentary

canal, it is probably hypoblastic?

“ The second objection appears to me more apparent than real. The

nerve layer in the vertebrate, as soon as it can be distinguished, is

always found to lie ventrally to the layer of epiblast which forms the

FIG. 3. Fic. 4.

Fics. 3, 4. — Cross-sections of a vertebrate in the head r on, ill brate cond

tion may be attained by turning the arthropod over on to its dorsal icine: thus oi ds ae its

principal organs into the same relative position as in vertebrates. No pce of old

be or formation of new ones is snag septa 3 to this view. ane pithelium of the

centralis and a thus appear not as parts of an old ali canal, but as the

infolded ectoderm that from the first overlies pe brain caf spinal cord, oud from which they

are phylogenetically as well as ontogenetically derived.

central canal. ... The nerve layer in the arthropod lies between

the ventral epiblast and the gut; the nerve layer in the vertebrate

lies between the so-called hypoblast (ż.e., the ventral epiblast of the

arthropod) and the neural canal (ż.e., the old gut of the arthropod).

The new ventral surface of the vertebrate in the head region is not

formed until the head fold is completed. Before this time, when

we watch the vertebrate embryo lying on the yolk, with its nervous

system, central canal, and lateral plates of the mesoblast, we are

watching the embryonic representation of the original Limulus-like

animal; when the lateral plates of the mesoblast have grown round,

No. 388.] CORRESPONDENCE. 365

and met in the middle line to assist in forming the new ventral

surface, and the head fold is completed, we are watching the embry-

onic representation of the transformation of the Limulus-like animal

into the scorpion-like ancestor of the vertebrates.”

It is not quite clear what Mr. Gaskell means by the above state-

ment, but if I understand him correctly, it is clear that if the embry-

onic shield of a vertebrate embryo represents an arthropod embryo

on the old arthropod hzemal surface, then the growing margins of the

mesodermic area must lie defween the nerve cords, and they should

grow toward the mid-dorsal line and concresce there. But nothing

of the kind is to be seen in vertebrates, because the mesoderm lies

mainly /azera/ to the nerve cords, and grows in the opposite direction

to what it should according to Gaskell’s theory, namely, toward the

vertebrates’ true hamal surface. Moreover, the transformation of

the “ Limulus-like animal into the scorpion-like ancestor” should

show us not merely the growth of the mesodermic plates, but the

migration of the canalis centralis and the nerve cords from their first

position in the embryonic shield of a vertebrate (ż.e., the Limulus

condition) to the opposite side of the egg, z.2., the vertebrate position.

But the nerve cords and canalis centralis are already in their perma-

nent vertebrate position, and for that very reason, according to his own

supposition, they cannot also be in the Limulus position! The reader

may perhaps doubt whether Gaskell, in his earlier papers, thought

that the alimentary canal of arthropods arose from the dorsal or the

ventral surface of the egg. If he supposed it arose from the ventral

surface between the nerve cords, then how can it appear in verte-

brates at the very outset of development at the opposite side of the

egg? Consultation of the text leads one to suspect that the difficulty

is to be solved by taking the entire roof off the crab, leaving nothing

but.the ventral surface behind, for he also claims that in vertebrates

the infolding of the medullary plate represents the simultaneous

development of the nerve cords and alimentary canal of the ancestral

crab, hence they must appear on what was the ancestral ventral side,

so that we must suppose the medullary plate of vertebrates is seen

through an imaginary dorsal portion of the ancestral crab, like the

coat-tail buttons on the back of Marley’s ghost; or, if he wishes to

avoid this dilemma by an appeal to the tottering theory of concres-

cence, he will be forced to look on the vertebrate blastopore not as

the original mouth of a remote ancestor, but as the entire dorsal

surface and sides of a crab, into which are gradually swept all the

organs which, in a crustacean, lie dorsal to the nerve cords and

366 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXIII.

alimentary canal. If Mr. Gaskell accepts this alternative, he will

find it difficult to explain how the alimentary canal of the ancestral

crab was split into two surface cords of cells that sweep round to

the opposite side of the ovum to form the canalis centralis of verte-

brates.

Gaskell bases his comparison of the pineal eye of vertebrates

with the ocelli of arthropods mainly on their minute structure, neg-

lecting their mode of development and the fact that there are two

distinct types of arthropod ocelli, namely, the paired ocelli, with

upright retinas, as in Dytiscus and Hydrophilus, and the ocelli with

inverted retinas, formed by the fusion in the median line of two

or more ocelli (¢.g., median ocelli of scorpions, Limulus, and pos-

sibly some crustacea). As we have shown elsewhere, the latter are

the only ocelli that can be compared with the pineal eye of verte-

brates, both on account of their position and the fact that they are

` the only ocelli which lie at the end of tube-like outgrowths from the

roof of a cerebral vesicle. This condition is brought about in scor-

pions and in Limulus by the overgrowth of a lateral fold of ectoderm,

which in the scorpion completely encloses the cephalic lobes or fore-

brain, leaving the inverted ocelli at the end of a tubular outgrowth

of the roof of the vesicle. This is one of the most satisfactory indi-

cations we have of a relation between vertebrates and arthropods,

for it shows us in detail how the eyes of vertebrates have in all prob-

ability been inverted and transferred from the lateral edges of the

cephalic plate to the ends of tubular outgrowths of a cerebral vesicle.

In Gaskell’s earlier paper (Quart. Journ. p. 50, 1889) he compares the

pineal eye of vertebrates with the ocelli of Dytiscus and Hydrophilus.

He then constructs a diagram of the vertebrate pineal eye, which is

almost an exact copy of the ocelli of Dytiscus, and this diagram is

printed in three colors, to show that the pineal eye of vertebrates

“is clearly that of an arthropod, and indeed of an ancient form ”

(p. 53, 1889). As a matter of fact, however, the ocelli of Dytiscus

and the pineal eye of vertebrates are not in the least alike, and the

mode of development in the two cases is entirely different. On the

other hand, the median ocelli of scorpions and of Limulus do resemble

in a most striking way, in their position and development, the pineal

eye of vertebrates. These ocelli a/ready “ie at the end of a tubular out-

growth from the roof of a forebrain vesicle. These facts perhaps escaped

Gaskell’s attention, although they were described in the same number

of the Quarterly Journal as his earlier paper. They are fatal to his

view that the forebrain vesicle is a remnant of an arthropod alimen-

No. 388.] CORRESPONDENCE. 367

tary canal, because if the arthropod brain is already hollow, why

should any one introduce the alimentary canal into it in order to

explain why the brain is hollow in vertebrates ?

I have described in the same number of the Quarterly Journad in

which Gaskell’s earlier paper appeared how the cartilaginous endo-

sternite in scorpion and Limulus is comparable in shape and in its

relations to the brain and alimentary canal with the primordial cranium

of vertebrates, and how a complete ring is formed about the posterior

part of the brain, like the occipital ring seen in the early stages of

Fic. 5. — Gaskell’s diagrams of the aa ConA oy him to show how much the

cartilaginous skeleton of Limulus f Ammoceetes, B.

the cartilaginous cranium of vertebrates. Gaskell makes no refer-

ence to these facts, but nevertheless he lays great stress on the pres-

ence of the endosternite, although it lies on the opposite side of both

the nervous system and the alimentary canal from what his theory

demands. To meet the requirements of his theory, the endosternite

must first be split in halves lengthwise, and the two parts transferred

to the opposite side of the nervous system, and then, after their

reunion, a new occipital ring must be formed on the opposite side

of the sternite from the one where it actually is formed in the arach-

nids. (Compare Figs. 1 and 2.) And before all these changes could

take place, the long fragments of the sternite would have to plough

their way through the nervous system, beneath the epithelium of the

cerebral vesicles and the canalis centralis (Fig. 1). But even then,

368 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

to get entirely out of the trap, they would have to break through

either all the cranial nerves, if they passed out laterally to the

nerve cords, or else all the cranial cross commissures, if they passed

between them.

In order to make the similarity between the cartilages of Ammo-

ccetes and those of Limulus more apparent, Gaskell produces two

pass branches of the hemal nerves. This pei is represented in Gaskell’s diagram by the

two bow-shaped kean on either side of

diagrams side by side (Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, Vol.

XXXII, p. 556). One is a diagram of the cartilaginous skeleton of

Ammoceetes, the other-is labeled a “ diagram of the cartilaginous

No. 388.] CORRESPONDENCE. 369

skeleton of Limulus” (Fig. 5 A). The diagrams do resemble each

other very much no doubt, but the Limulus diagram can hardly be

regarded as an accurate representation of the cartilages of that

animal, as may be seen by comparing it with a drawing made directly

from the object itself (Fig. 6). This figure is copied from one in a

paper about to be published by Mr. Redenbaugh and myself, on the

cartilages of Limulus, Apus, and Mygale. It is not easy to account

for the construction of Mr. Gaskell’s extraordinary diagram, since

the endosternite of am adult Limulus is, roughly, two inches wide by

three inches long, and several millimeters in thickness, a single heavy

plate of tough cartilage, not readily broken or distorted. It has,

moreover, been repeatedly figured and described, and Gaskell has

himself dissected it and studied its histological characters.

Papers like the ones we have just reviewed are unfortunate. They

are not a credit to the science of comparative morphology, and the

interest in the whole subject of the origin of vertebrates suffers from

the reaction induced by such efforts.

WILLIAM PATTEN.

HANOVER, N. H.

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18 192 pp. 57 figs. — WILLEY, ARTHUR. Zodlogical Results Based on

Materials from New Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands, and elsewhere, col-

lected during the years 1895, 1896, and 1897 by Arthur Willey. Pt. ii. contains:

Hickson, S. J., Report on the Specimens of the Genus Millepora, 12 pp., 5 pls.;

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he R Press, 1899.

HIRAsÉ SAKUGORO. Etudes sur la fécondation et l’embryogenie du Ginkgo

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Sweet Potato Insects. Bull. Maryland Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 59, 17 pp. 16 figs.

Jan., 1899.

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MILLER, G. S n the Naked-tailed Armadillos; Description of a New

Vole. ho kieh: Sbi — Bancs, O. A New Pigmy Oryzomys from the Santa

Marta Region of Colombia ; The Florida Puma. — MERRIAM, C. H. . Descriptions

of Six New Rodents of the Genera Aplodontia and Thomomys. — PALMER, T

S. Notes on Three Genera of Dolphins. — Commissõão Geographica e Geologica de

S. Paulo. Seccão Meteorologica. Dados Climatologicos da Anno de 1897, S.

Paulo, 1898. — Florida Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 47. Sept.,

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Jan. — Zilinois State Lab. Nat. Hist. Bull. Vol. v, No.6. Hempel, A., A List of

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ondon Entomological and Natural History Society. 18098. Pt. ing

Experiment s Station. Bulletins ee and ta Sept. and Dec., 1898. Borio B

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VOL. XXXIII, No. 389" MAY, 1899

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NATURALIST

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CONTENTS

I. Studies on Reactions to Stimuli in Unicellular Sepan

Dr. H. S. JENNINGS

. Vacation Notes. II. The Northern Pacific Coast

Professor DOUGLAS H, CAMPBELL

III. Is the White River Tertiary an Æolian Formation? W. D. MATTHEW

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Professor T. D. A. COCKERELL

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXIII. May, 1899. No. 389.

STUDIES ON REACTIONS TO STIMULI IN UNI-

CELLULAR ORGANISMS.

H. S. JENNINGS.

III. Reactions TO LOCALIZED STIMULI IN SPIROSTOMUM

AND STENTOR.

In the second of these studies (American Journal of Physi-

ology, May, 1899) the writer has given an account of the

mechanism of the reactions of Paramecium that involves an

entirely different conception of the nature of these activities

from that which has been generally assumed. It was shown

that this protozoan has but one motor reaction in response to

the most varied stimuli, and that it reacts without any relation

whatever to the position of the stimulating agent, so that it

cannot be said to be attracted or repelled by any agency or

condition — its reaction being strictly comparable in all essen-

tials to that of an isolated muscle. The importance of this, in

case it should turn out to be the general method of reaction

for unicellular organisms, is obvious, involving, as it does, the

rejection of almost all hitherto received theories of the mechan-

ism of reactions; the question, therefore, immediately arose as

to whether this method of reaction was to be extended to other

Protozoa. The following study of the reactions of Spirosto-

373 :

374 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

mum and Stentor is presented as a contribution toward answer-

ing this question.

The minute size of Paramecium brought with it the great

disadvantage that it was not possible under experimental condi-

tions to apply localized stimuli to definite parts of the body, so

that recourse was necessary to observation of chance contacts

of sources of stimuli with one or another part of the body;

an unsatisfactory method, and one requiring much time and

patience. This difficulty is obviated in Spirostomum ambiguum

and Stentor polymorphus, which are both so large that there is

no difficulty in applying stimuli to any desired region on the

surface of the body. The simplest means of doing this is to

touch any point on the surface of the body with a proper instru-

ment, thus giving the animal a sharply localized mechanical

stimulus. Other methods are given in the following account

of observations.

Spirostomum ambiguum (Fig. 1).

Spirostomum ambiguum is one of the largest of unicellular

animals, reaching a length of two or three millimeters. The

average length of those on which the following observations

were made was about one and one-half millimeters. In form

Spirostomum is a long, slender cylinder of nearly equal diam-

eter throughout, but slightly smaller at the ends. The mouth

lies behind the middle of the body, and from this a band of

large cilia (the adoral zone) runs to the anterior end of the

body. The large contractile vacuole lies at the posterior end,

and from this a canal runs almost the entire length of the body

near its aboral side, or curving a little onto the right side. The

adoral zone and this canal form important landmarks for deter-

mining directive relations in studying the movements of the ani-

mals. The posterior end is truncate, while the anterior end is

rounded and shows a difference in its contour on the two sides

of the animal. The tip is curved slightly toward the side on '

which the mouth is situated (the oral side), so that on the oppo-

site or aboral side the contour is a long convex curve, while on

the oral side there is almost an angle. These facts are best

No. 389.) STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 375

appreciated in the figure; while not prominent, they are visible,

and are of the greatest importance for orientation while study-

ing the movements of the animal. The difference in the two

contours of the anterior end possibly does not correspond pre-

cisely to the distinction between the oral and aboral sides, as

determined by the position of the mouth; i.

the exact relation of parts is very difficult to É

determine on account of the continual twist-

ing movements of the animal. But the dif-

erence in contours in any case marks very

nearly the oral and aboral sides, so that

when the aboral side is spoken of in the

following account it signifies that side of

the anterior end in which the curve is long-

est, while the oral side is that which presents

the shortest curve (see Fig. 1). The entire

surface of the anima] is covered with cilia,

arranged in somewhat oblique longitudinal

rows.

The unstimulated Spirostomum swims for-

ward by means of the backward stroke of its

cilia; at the same time it may revolve on

its long axis. This revolution is usually from

right to left. The body (as shown in Fig. 1)

is not quite straight, but a little in front of

the middle is slightly bent, so that the ante-

rior part, as the body revolves, describes the

surface of a cone. Owing to the animal’s

continual movement and its power of twisting

into a spiral and of bending sharply, taken in

connection with the only slight differentiation on the surface of

the cylindrical body, the orientation of the body in relation to the

direction of movement is very difficult to determine. But by

keeping the attention fixed upon the form of the anterior end,

as described above, it is possible under favorable conditions to

observe that the aboral side of the anterior end is always on

the outside of the cone, the oral side looking within. As the

animal moves forward in connection with this revolving motion,

prr A eae

—

376 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XAXI

the path of course becomes a spiral; it agrees exactly with the

path of Paramecium, in that the aboral side always looks toward

the outer side of the spiral. At times the animal swims some

distance without revolving on its long axis; at such times the

path is not a spiral.

We will now proceed to a systematic examination of the

changes in motion due to stimuli of different sorts and applied

at different points on the animal’s body.

A. Me hanrsi Stimuli.

The method of study consisted in touching with a capillary

glass rod, of less diameter than the animal’s body, different

points on the surface of the animal, and noting the reactions

caused. This procedure presents no difficulties.

1. Stimulus at Anterior End. — If the animal is touched at

the anterior end with the tip of the glass rod, it immediately

contracts strongly, becoming short and thick, and the zones of

cilia forming spirals surrounding the body, in the manner well

known. (See the figure given by Bütschli in Tze Protozoa of

Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierretchs, Taf. LX VII,

Fig. 2 6.) At the moment of contraction it darts backward a

little. It then gradually extends, continuing to swim backward.

As it swims backward it revolves on its long axis, in all cases

observed, from right to left, in the same direction as when

swimming forward. Next it begins to turn its anterior half to

one side, usually at the same time beginning to swim forward.

Like Paramecium, it always turns toward the aboral side of the

anterior end. It usually revolves at the same time, so as to

describe a very wide spiral, with the aboral side on the outside

of the spiral, finally straightening out and swimming forward

in the direction indicated by the position of the aboral side at

the time it straightens. Briefly, the animal when stimulated

at the anterior end contracts, backs off, turns to the aboral

side, and swims forward on a path which lies at an angle

to the path on which it was previously swimming. In the

case of a very slight stimulus the contraction may be

omitted, the rest of the reaction being given as usual, ex-

No. 389] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 377

cept that the animal swims only a short distance backward

before turning.

2. Stimulus at Posterior End.— If now the animal is touched

at the posterior end, exactly the same reaction is produced.

It contracts, then swims backward, — therefore toward the point

of stimulus (whereas in the other case it swam away from the

point of stimulus). Then it curves toward the aboral side,

describing a wide spiral, and finally swims forward in the

direction of the aboral side, exactly as described above. It

makes no difference to the reaction which way the animal is

swimming when stimulated :. if swimming forward, the direction

is changed ; if swimming backward when touched at the pos-

terior end, it continues to swim backward after contracting.

The posterior end is slightly less sensitive than the anterior,

so that a very weak stimulus at the posterior end may cause no

reaction at all. No matter where stimulated there are rare

cases in which the animal when stimulated merely contracts

(always darting back a little at the moment of contraction), then

stops for a time, then resumes a forward motion. Out of one

hundred cases stimulated at the anterior end, ninety-six reacted

in the typical manner, while four gave the incomplete reaction

just mentioned. Out of one hundred cases stimulated at the

posterior end, ninety-two gave the typical reaction, while eight

reacted incompletely. This difference in the number giving

the typical reaction is probably a mere statistical variation,

which would disappear with larger numbers; if any significance

is to be attached to it, it is merely that already noted — that the

posterior end is slightly less sensitive than the anterior.

The reaction is thus exactly the same whether the stimulus

occurs at the anterior or the posterior end.

3. Stimulus at One Side. — When the animal is touched any-

where on the surface of the body between the two ends, the

same reaction is given as in the two foregoing cases; the ani-

mal contracts, swims backward, curves toward the aboral side,

and swims forward toward that side. The final direction in

which it swims bears no relation to the position of the side

on which the stimulus was given.

4. Stimulus Unlocalized. — An unlocalized mechanical stimu-

378 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

lus can be given by jarring the dish or slide containing the

animals. They contract, swim backward, turn toward the

aboral side, and swim forward, exactly as in the other cases.

Thus the reaction given by Spirostomum to a mechanical

stimulus is identically the same, whatever part of the body is

stimulated, or even if the stimulus is not localized at all. A

diagram of the reaction of Spirostomum to a stimulus is given

in Fig. 2.

5. Repeated Stimuli. — When the same animal is repeatedly

stimulated, certain features in the reaction are especially worthy

of notice. At the first stimulus the animal contracts, then

Fic. 2.— Reaction of Spirostomum toa stimulus. The numbers give the successive

positions of the animal, while the arrows show the direction of motion. The

position of the adoral is sh pt where it lies ab below. No.

shows the motion before stimulation occurs.

swims backward. Now if, after recovering from the contrac-

tion, but while still swimming backward, it is again stimulated,

it again contracts and continues to swim backward. On a third

stimulation, while still swimming backward, it usually reverses

its course and swims forward. A reversal of the direction of

motion now usually occurs at each new stimulus up to four or

five. This reversal at each new stimulus may easily give the

impression that the animal is swimming each time away from

the source of stimulation, and hence that it is reacting with

relation to the localization of the stimulus; but this appearance

is due merely to a psychological peculiarity of the experimenter.

It is natural for the experimenter to touch the animal at the

end toward which it is moving —to “head it off” as it were.

On the third trial he will, as above stated, usually succeed in

getting it to reverse its motion and swim in the opposite direc-

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 379

tion. He then “heads it off” again by touching the other

end toward which it is now swimming, with the result that it

reverses again, This alternation on the part of experimenter

and infusorian may continue for a number of times, giving the

impression that the animal is clearly reacting with reference to

the position of the source of stimulus, fleeing from it in each

case. But this alternation is really an independent phenome-

non in each of the two organisms concerned in the experiment,

as is proved by the following. If the experimenter continues

to stimulate the animal at the same end, regardless of the

direction in which it is moving, the animal’s direction of motion

will alternate as before. Thus, after the second stimulation,

while the Spirostomum is swimming backward, if stimulated

at the anterior end, it will now swim forward or toward the

source of stimulus ; if stimulated again at the anterior end, it will

reverse and swim backward; again, and it swims forward once

more. In these cases, as in the others, therefore, the direction

of motion has no relation to the localization of the stimulus.

If the stimulations are continued after five or six times, the

animal will continue to swim violently in one direction or the

other, without regard to the repetition of the stimulus or its

localization. It is thus possible to stimulate the animal repeat-

edly at its posterior end while it is swimming violently to the

rear, and thus toward the source of stimulus; in other cases it

swims as violently away from the stimulus. In no case does

the position of the stimulus have any effect on the direction of

motion.

B. Chemical Stimuli.

It is easy to localize the action of chemical stimuli in the

following manner. A capillary glass rod is coated with paraffin.

A crystal of NaCl or other salt is then attached to the rod by

means of the paraffin coating, and can then be held near to any

part of the animal’s body.

1. Stimulus at Anterior End.— The crystal of NaCl is held

close to the anterior end of the Spirostomum, but without

touching it, so that only the diffusing salt in solution comes in

contact with the animal. The Spirostomum contracts, swims

380 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

backward (away from the source of stimulus), turns toward the

aboral side, and swims forward, exactly as in the case of a

mechanical stimulus.

2. Stimulus at Posterior End. — The crystal of salt is held

close to the posterior end. The animal contracts and swims

backward — therefore toward the source of stimulus. It thus

either strikes the crystal of NaCl or passes through the

densest part of the solution; then continues backward some

distance, finally turning toward the aboral side and swimming

forward.

3. Stimulus at the Side. — The animal reacts as in the two

preceding cases, the direction of motion having no relation to

the position of the stimulus.

4. Stimulus Unlocalized.— The Spirostoma are dropped di-

rectly into 2 per cent NaCl. They contract, swim backward,

turn about irregularly, and soon die.

The following experiment, giving results in almost all the

above categories, is particularly striking. A number of Spi-

rostoma are placed on a slide in a considerable quantity of water.

Then a few crystals of NaCl are placed in the center, the

cover-glass quickly supplied, and the reactions of the animals

noted. All those in the immediate neighborhood of the NaCl

soon contract and swim backward, as the flood of salt solu-

tion diffusing from the crystals comes against them. The

- Spirostoma are scattered, with axes oriented in no special direc-

tion, therefore some lie with anterior ends directed toward the

mass of salt, so that this end first comes in contact with the

salt solution’; others with posterior end thus directed ; others

with long axis oblique to the direction of the mass of salt. All

contract and swim backward, whatever part of the body is first

met by the diffusing solution of NaCl. Those with anterior

ends directed toward the mass, swimming backward, of course

move directly away from the salt. Those with posterior end

toward the salt, likewise swimming backward, pass directly into

the densest part of the solution of NaCl, and are quickly plas-

molyzed and killed. Those with long axis oblique to the direc-

tion of the NaCl also swim backward, some thus approaching

more or less obliquely the solution of NaCl; these do not turn,

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 381

but swim straight on, crossing the area and coming out on the

other side, unless plasmolyzed and killed during the passage.

It is evident that the Spirostoma are neither attracted nor

repelled by the NaCl; it merely sets in operation their one

reaction, and this takes them into danger or safety as chance

may direct. Under normal conditions, of course, the anterior

end will usually be directed toward the stimulating agent, since

the animal generally swims forward, and masses of dangerous

chemicals are not often dropped suddenly into the midst of a

group of the Infusoria ; hence the device of swimming backward

usually saves the animal. The following curious experiment

shows how possibly a combination of circumstances might arise

even under normal conditions such that the reaction would

result in the destruction of the animal. A small mass of NaCl

was slowly dissolving in the center of the slide. A Spirostomum

was swimming forward directly away from the diffusing salt,

not being in the region of its influence at all. Its posterior end

was thus pointed toward the salt, but as it was swimming away

it was in no danger. Nowa slight jar was given to the prepa-

ration — such as might easily occur in nature. Thereupon the

Spirostomum reacted in the usual manner, by contracting and

swimming backward. It thus swam toward the NaCl, until

finally its posterior end came in contact with the advancing

flood of salt solution. Thereupon the customary reaction was

again induced still more powerfully ; the animal contracted and

swam still more swiftly backward; thus entering the salt solu-

tion, it was plasmolyzed and killed.

When a Spirostomum swimming forward comes in contact

with a diffusing chemical, it contracts, darts backward, then

swings its anterior end about, finally turning toward the aboral

side and swimming straight forward — so long as this does not

take it again into the region of the stimutating agent. If it

does, the reaction is repeated until by the laws of chance the

Spirostomum is directed into a region which does not cause

stimulation. If the stimulus with which the anterior end comes

in contact is very weak, the animal may omit the contraction

and move a little backward without contracting ; then the ante.

rior end is swung about in a circle (the aboral side, of course,

382 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

toward the outside of the circle), while the animal starts for-

ward. So long as the anterior end is thus carried into a medium

which causes the weak stimulus, the forward movement is at

-once checked and the animal jerks backward again; as soon,

however, as the anterior end in its circling comes into a direc-

tion such that swimming forward does not carry the animal

into a region causing the reaction, the animal continues to

swim straight forward. All these facts find a precise parallel

in the reactions of Paramecium.

When the Spirostomum is swimming backward, the course

is never changed by the circling about of the posterior end and

the turning in one way or another, as it is when the anterior

end is directed forward; the posterior end seems to have no

power of initiating a turning movement. In this connection

the reactions of the separate parts of a Spirostomum, cut into

two or more pieces, is of interest.

C. Reactions of Separated Parts.

There is no difficulty in cutting Spirostomum with scissors

or scalpel transversely into short pieces. Any piece with which

the anterior end remains in connection, though it be but one-

tenth of the entire animal, reacts in essentially the same way

as the entire organism — by contracting, swimming backward,

turning and swimming forward. Its motion, perhaps, differs a

little in degree from that of the entire animal in the fact that

turning is more frequent and pronounced, the piece at times

swimming in a small circle. The direction of turning is, as in

the uninjured specimen, toward the aboral side. Any piece

from which the anterior end is separated, while the posterior

end is uninjured, reacts as follows. When stimulated, it con-

tracts and swims backward, does not turn, but soon swims

forward. It swims but a short distance forward, then starts

backward again ; after going in this direction once or twice its

own length, it swims forward about the same distance; then

again backward. It continues thus to oscillate back and forth

indefinitely. When the anterior end is removed, therefore, the

motion takes the form of a rhythmical back and forth move-

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 383

ment. This is true when the posterior piece comprises as much

as nine-tenths of the entire animal.

It seems; therefore, that the power of initiating a turn, and

the power of continuing a course once begun, are localized in

some way in the anterior end.

` Stentor polymorphus (Fig. 3).

Stentor polymorphus is smaller than Spirostomum ambiguum,

but is still of sufficient size to make the application of localized

stimuli a matter of no difficulty. It is a trumpet-shaped animal,

exceedingly changeable in A

exact form and proportions. 5

Fig. 3 shows a usual form

of the animal when swim-

ming freely ; when anchored

by its base the form is more

extended and slender. The

surface of the animal is

covered with cilia in longi-

tudinal rows, whilethe broad R._....%

anterior end, known as the

peristome, is surrounded by

a circle of larger cilia form-

ing the adoral zone. At

one side of the disk is a

funnel-like depression which

leads into the mouth. That

surface of the body nearést

to which the mouth lies may

be called the oral surface;

the o ite one, the aboral one

Laie te ye . 5 Fic. 3. — Stentor polymorphus, partially contracted

surface. Considering the free-swimming individual, pict amend rT

° ior end; Z, posterior end; zi left side; 2, right

Oral as equivdlent: to vor 2a. muh; J prit

tral surface, we may define

right and left sides as follows: When the oral surface is below,

and the anterior end is away from the observer, the right and

left sides of the animal correspond to the observer's right and

VEI:

T 7

bla

384 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vol. XXXIII.

left. (In the figure the oral surface is above, so that right

and left sides are reversed.) The body of the animal is usually

curved, being bent from the direction of the anterior end

toward the left side; sometimes there is near the posterior

end a second short curve to the right.

Stentor polymorphus is often found attached by its posterior

end; at other times it swims freely in the water. The motion

in the free-swimming individuals is as follows: The animals

swim slowly forward; at the same time they may or may not

revolve on ‘the long axis. The revolution when it occurs is

usually, if not invariably, to the left. When the animal swims

forward without revolving on its long axis, the path is usually

a curved one, the animal continually swerving toward its right

side. In this way the Stentors usually describe circles of

greater or less radius. If they revolve as they swim forward,

they continually swerve to the right also; but owing to the

revolution, the right side continually changes its position, so

that the path becomes a spiral one, as in Paramecium and

Spirostomum. The motion of Stentor polymorphus is usually

very slow, so that all these relations are observable without the

slightest difficulty.

A. Reactions to Mechanical Stimuli.

The animals were stimulated in the same way as Spirosto-

mum, by touching them at any desired point with a capillary

glass rod.

1. Stimulus at Anterior End, on Peristome,— The animal con-

tracts and swims backward a short distance (its own length or

a little more). As it swims backward it revolves on its long

axis to the left— in the same direction as when swimming

forward. Then it turns on its short axis to its right and

swims forward.

2. Stimulus at Side.—Identically the same reaction is given

as when stimulated at the anterior end; the animal contracts,

swims backward, turns to right, and swims forward. The

turning is not with reference to the position of the source

of stimulus, but is always toward the right side. Therefore, if

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 385

stimulated on the right side, the animal turns toward the side

stimulated; if on -the left side, it turns away from the side

stimulated. Owing to the revolution on the long axis while

swimming backward, the position of the right side at the time

of turning on the short axis bears no definite relation to its

position at the time of stimulation ; so we find that the absolute

direction toward which the animal turns has no constant or

prevailing relation to the absolute direction from which the

stimulus came.

3. Stimulus at the Posterior End. — The posterior end of

Stentor, narrowing to a point of attachment, is very little

sensitive, so that touching it with the rod of glass usually

causes no reaction whatever. By giving it a smart blow,

however, a reaction can be induced, and this is then identical

with the reaction already described. The animal thus, of

course, swims at first toward the source of stimulus.

4. Stimulus not Localized. — If the vessel containing the

Stentors is jarred, they react in the same manner as to

localized stimuli.

B. Chemical Stimult.

Stentor gives the same reaction to chemical as to mechanical

stimuli. If when swimming forward through the water it comes

TAS

Eeg e AN

d hu seu Races

Fic. 4. — Diagram of the reaction of Stentor. The arrows show the direction of motion, while

the numbers indicate the successive positions of the animal; No. 1 showing t

before stimulation occurs.

~*~ .

in contact with a chemical substance sufficiently powerful to

act as a stimulus, it contracts, swims backward, turns to the

386 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vot. XXXIII.

right, and swims forward on a new path; if this path takes it

again into the stimulating region, the reaction is repeated ;

thus by the laws of chance the animal will in time probably

be brought into a region which does not act as a stimulus.

The reaction is the same whether the stimulus is localized or

is a general one. The reaction is in essentials like that of

Paramecium and Stentor.

The reaction of Stentor polymorphus is shown in Fig. 4.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.

The reactions of Spirostomum and Stentor are similar in all

essentials to those of Paramecium. To any stimulus all these

animals respond by swimming backward, turning to one side,

and then swimming forward. Paramecium and Spirostomum

always turn toward the aboral side; Stentor, toward the right

side. In Spirostomum and Stentor a contraction of the body

forms an additional feature of the reaction. The reaction is

not modified in any way by the position of the stimulus; the

direction of motion is the same whether the source of stimulus

is at the anterior end, the posterior end, the side, or if the

stimulus is not localized at all. If the stimulus is at the

anterior end, the animal necessarily swims away from it; if at

the posterior end, it swims toward it, even when this results

in the destruction of the animal. The discussion and conclu-

sions given in my previous paper (loc. cit.) in regard to Parame-

cium are, therefore, equally applicable to Spirostomum and

Stentor, and need not be repeated here.

The fact that three such dissimilar ciliates as Paramecium,

Spirostomum, and Stentor agree in their reaction in all essen-

tial particulars certainly raises a presumption that the mode of

reaction is of this general character throughout the ciliate Infu-

soria. This is especially probable in view of the fact that the

revolution on the long axis and progress in a spiral course,

which plays so essential a part in these reactions, and indeed

seems to have the special purpose of making such a method of

reaction possible, is already known to occur in the motions of

almost all ciliates. Moreover, the same is known, through the

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 387

researches of Nageli, to be true of the flagellate swarm spores

of plants. According to this investigator, such swarm spores

swim in a spiral course, with the same side always toward the

outside of the spiral— exactly as I have described for Para-

mecium, Spirostomum, and Stentor. Another observation of

Nageli renders it extremely probable that the mechanism of the

reactions of these organisms is essentially the same as in the

three ciliates named. When these flagellate swarm spores

strike in their forward course against an object, they cease

the forward motion for a time, but continue to turn on the

long axis; then “there ensues a backward motion, with poste-

rior end in advance, while at the same time they rotate in the

Opposite direction. This backward course usually lasts but a

short time and becomes gradually slower; it is soon exchanged

for the forward motion, which takes place, as a rule, in a some-

what different direction from the original one.” 1 This descrip-

tion would apply without the slightest change to the reactions

of Paramecium, Spirostomum, and Stentor under the same cir-

cumstances. It may be predicted with much confidence that

the reactions would be found to be similar under other circum-

stances; that the “somewhat different direction ” of the swarm

spores would be found to be always toward the side which faces

the outside of the spiral course, and that the same reaction

would be given whatever the nature and position of the stim-

ulus. If this is true, then the conclusions which I have drawn

for Paramecium in my previous paper would apply equally to

the Flagellata. Certainly until the mechanism of the reactions

of these. and other unicellular organisms is determined by

observation, it is hardly worth while to base any conclusions

on theoretical schemes of the character usually given for such

reactions. Theories of the reactions of unicellular organisms

may be placed in two general classes: on the one hand are

those theories which look upon the activities of unicellular

organisms as determined in a manner similar to those of

human beings, by a play of desires, motives, etc.; while at the

other extreme are theories in which the movements are looked

upon as of a character essentially similar to those taking place

1 The above quotation from Nägeli is translated from Hertwig, Die Zelle, p. 66.

388 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

in a chemical reaction—the protoplasmic mass reacting rather

as a substance than as an individual. Some such theory as

this latter seems to be latent in the minds of many biologists;

it finds typical expression in the scheme for the reactions of a

unicellular organism to chemical substances given by Le Dantec

(La Matière Vivante, pp. 50-54). In this scheme, which is

illustrated by geometrical constructions and almost takes the

form of a mathematical demonstration, Le Dantec assumes that

there is a tension between the chemical in’ solution and the

surface of the protoplasmic mass, and that this tension acts in

lines of force directed either away from the center of the proto-

plasmic mass, or toward that center. The movement of the

organism is then due to the difference in this tension on the

two sides of the protoplasmic mass —that directed toward the

center from which the chemical is diffusing, and that directed

away from it. As the chemical diffuses from a center, the

solution is less intense the farther one passes from the center;

hence the solution is less dense on that side of the protoplasmic

mass farthest away from that center. Assuming that the ten-

sion caused by the chemical acts on the protoplasmic mass in

lines of force directed away from the center of the mass, it is

mathematically demonstrable that this force will be stronger

on the side toward the center of diffusion of the chemical, and

that the resultant of all the lines of force will be a force directed

exactly toward this center of diffusion. Hence the protoplasmic

mass will move toward the center of diffusion of the chemical ;

in this way positive chemotaxis is explained. If, on the other

hand, the tension acts in lines of force directed toward the

center of the protoplasm, the same mathematical construction

Shows that the mass will move away from the center of diffu-

sion; thus is explained negative chemotaxis.

The impossibility of reconciling the movements of the three

Infusoria, whose reactions I have described, with any such theory

as this is manifest. The theory, though designed expressly to

explain the movements of the bacteria and flagellates used in

Pfeffer’s well-known experiments in chemotaxis, neglects en-

tirely the fact of the differentiation, in those organisms, of

axes along which movement takes place, as well as the fact that

No. 389.] STIMULI IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS. 389

they move by means of definite organs of locomotion, — flagella,

or cilia. To make this abstract scheme fit the concrete motions

of the organs of movement would be much more difficult than

to invent the scheme.

If chemotaxis acts in the direct manner supposed in such a

theory as the above, the organism will of course move directly

toward a source of attractive stimulus, directly away from a

source of repellent stimulus, and that moreover without regard

to the relation of the direction of its axes to the direction of

motion. As I have shown in detail for Paramecium (0c. cit.), and

briefly above for Spirostomum and Stentor, this is by no means

true for the organisms studied. On the contrary, the direction

of motion has no relation to the position of the source of stim-

ulus, so that we cannot correctly speak of attraction or repul-

sion at all. The organism reacts as an individual, not as a

substance, and the nature of the reaction is conditioned by the

internal mechanism and the structural differentiations of the

body of the organism. The essential distinction insisted upon

by Le Dantec (doc. cit.) between the reactions of a unicellular

organism and those of a metazoan must therefore, for these

organisms at least, fall to the ground. It will not do to think

of the reactions of these organisms as in any way akin to those

of chemical substances.

On the other hand, the reactions are equally distant from

the complexity assumed by those who attribute to unicellular

organisms most of the psychological powers of higher animals.

The reactions of these organisms may best be compared with

the working of a machine in which the wheels are geared to

turn in but one direction, whatever be the nature of the force

that sets them in motion.

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, HANOVER, N.H.,

February 28, 1899.

VACATION NOTES.

II. Tue Nortuern Paciric Coast.

DOUGLAS HOUGHTON CAMPBELL.

THE traveler journeying by rail from northern California

into Oregon soon finds himself in a very different country

from that which he has left to the south. On emerging from

the densely wooded canyon of the upper Sacraniento, the rail-

road climbs up to a nearly level plateau; from which rises the

great cone of Shasta. The plain is almost destitute of trees,

and presents much the appearance of the prairies east of the

Rockies. The slopes of the mountains are well wooded, and

the deep valleys between the ridges support a heavy growth

of timber. The railway skirts the base of Shasta for several

hours, and affords admirable views of the mountain from nearly

all sides. Finally the Siskiyou Mountains, the boundary be-

tween California and Oregon, are surmounted, and the train

descends rapidly into the fertile, well-watered valleys of Ore-

gon. Flourishing fields of grass and clover, and apple orchards

remind one of the eastern states, and replace the vineyards and

prune orchards, or the fields of alfalfa, of central California.

Following the great Willamette valley, we finally reach Port-

` land, and a few more hours bring us to Tacoma, whence our

steamer sails for Alaska. Before Portland is reached, the

great Douglas fir begins to predominate in the forest, and

about Puget Sound often almost entirely makes up large tracts

of forest. Here, too, it reaches its greatest dimensions, it being

claimed that about the base of Mt. Rainier there are trees over

400 feet in height. As this is the staple timber tree of the

northwest, most of the trees have been cut away from near

the settlements, and one must go some distance away to find

the virgin forest. This tree, fortunately, like many other west-

ern conifers, grows up quickly after the forest has been cut

i '39I

392 _ LHE AMERICAN NATURALIST.. [Vot XXXIII

over, and is rapidly taking possession of the cleared ground,

where this has been left for a short time, so that the renewal

of this most valuable timber ought not to be a difficult problem,

and with little care a supply of timber could be maintained.

The heavy rainfall and moderate climate of the coast region.

induces a very rapid reforesting of the cut-over tracts, which

‘very soon become dense thickets of vigorous young trees.

Two days were spent very pleasantly in Tacoma, which is

most attractively placed on the high shore of Puget Sound,

with a magnificent view of the Cascade Mountains, and

Mt. Rainier, the grandest of all the great snow peaks south of

Alaska — indeed, to me it is the finest mountain I have ever

seen. The rugged cone,recalling in form that of the Jungfrau,

is even more imposing than Shasta, and being seen from the

level of the sea, it loses nothing of its 14,000 feet of height.

The luxuriant growth of all kinds of vegetation about Tacoma

testifies to the heavy rainfall of this region, and during my stay,

both going to and returning from Alaska, rain fell much of the

time. In spite of the rain, however, several trips were made

in the neighborhood, which is very attractive.

The character of the country about Tacoma varies remark-

ably within a short distance. To the south are open regions,

recalling the oak openings of northern Illinois or southwest-

ern Michigan. The dry ground is covered with a thin growth

of grasses or low thickets of ferns, brambles, and other low

shrubs, with here and there clumps of scrub oaks — probably

Quercus lobata —and a few stunted firs. The showiest flower

of this region was a handsome small turk’s-cap lily, with orange-

red, spotted flowers. The common bearberry, Arctostaphylos

uva-ursi, was common, the spreading mats of glossy green foli-

age being extremely ornamental.

The site of the town itself was formerly covered by a dense

fir forest, remains of which may still be seen in the outskirts.

When I arrived, in mid-June, the gardens were beautiful with

the early summer flowers. Superb roses grew in the most

luxuriant profusion, and were in their prime. I was told that

a few weeks earlier the rhododendrons had been equally

fine.

No. 389.] VACATION NOTES. 393

The most attractive place in the neighborhood is Point

Defiance Park, a government reservation which is open as a

public park. It is a magnificent tract of forest, on the shore

of the Sound, which has been preserved, and is of course espe-

cially interesting to the botanist, as it gives an excellent idea

of the character of the forest which formerly covered the whole

of the surrounding country. The trees are for the most part

the prevailing Douglas fir, and while these do not grow so

thickly as in the best lumber regions, still the individual trees

are magnificent specimens. Some of them must be 250 feet

high, with immensely tall trunks eight feet or more in diameter

near the ground. These straight columns run up to a prodi-

gious height without branches, and one only realized the great

size of the trunks on coming close to them, as their enor-

mous height gives them a deceptively slender appearance. I

was told that these trees were not to be compared to some of

those further inland, but they were the finest specimens of the

species that I have ever seen.

A few cedars and hemlocks were mixed with the firs, but

neither were of remarkable size, although at Vancouver I

remember seeing cedars of gigantic size. The undergrowth of

the forest was much like that in northern California. The

commonest of the deciduous trees noted were Acer macrophyl-

lum, Cornus nuttallii, and Alnus oregana. The excessive

moisture causes an extraordinarily rank growth of ferns and

undershrubs, almost tropical in its luxuriance. Pteris aguilina

grew everywhere, some of the fronds being ten feet or more in

height, and Rubus nutkanus, growing with them, was almost as

high. In the low grounds Lgwisetum maximum, five or six

feet high, was conspicuous. A few specimens of Linnza were

seen, and another characteristic plant was Gaultheria shallon,

in full flower. It forms a prostrate bush a foot or two in

height, a veritable giant compared to the eastern wintergreen.

At Tacoma I had the good fortune to meet Mr. Walter

Evans, of the Department of Agriculture, who was also bound

for Alaska. I am much indebted to him for information con-

cerning the flora of the Northern Pacific Coast, with which his

former trips had made him familiar,

394 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

The voyage to Alaska from Puget Sound is a most attractive

one, and during the brief summer season is yearly drawing a

larger number of tourists. Last summer, however, the majority

of the north-bound passengers were drawn by other attractions

than the charms of the scenery, and our passenger list was

made up largely of persons bound for Skaguay and Dyea, ex

route for the Klondike.

The route follows the channels between the numberless

islands off the coast of British Columbia and Alaska, and at no

time do the steamers enter the open sea. Often the channel

is sO narrow that one could almost throw a stone ashore, and

it is hard to realize that one is not sailing through a lake, or

even a river, as there is no trace of the ocean swell nor heavy

waves, except at one or two points where, for a short distance,

there is a break in the barrier of islands protecting the inland

channel.

Everywhere the shores are heavily wooded to the water’s

edge — indeed, the whole coast from Puget Sound to Sitka is

covered with an almost unbroken forest, where the trees stand

so close together that the dead trees are held upright by their

living companions. These bleached skeletons, seen everywhere

in the forest, give to it a very peculiar aspect. ,

Above the timber line the rugged tops of the mountains

project, with here and there masses of snow, which become

larger and more numerous as we go northward, and come down

until they meet the forest. From the steep mountain sides

little streams rush down in a series of cascades, which finally

fall into the sea.

As we proceed northward the scenery grows more and more

striking. The mountains become higher and more rugged,

and the summits are completely covered with perpetual snow

and ice, and the snow-line descends farther and farther, until

finally we reach a land of glaciers, many of which come down

to the sea. The wonderful panorama of snow-clad, glacier-

sculptured mountains reaches its climax on the last day of the

voyage, passing through Lynn channel after leaving Skaguay,

the most northerly point visited. Here the mountains rise

abruptly from the water to a height of 8000 feet and more,

No. 389.] VACATION NOTES. 395

and from them the great glaciers flow down, sometimes reach-

ing the sea, where the great fragments broken off float off as

icebergs. None of the ice masses seen were of very large size,

but their fantastic shapes, and the exquisite hues of the pure

ice, presented a beautiful spectacle. At this high latitude, at

the end of June, the sun did not set until nearly ten o’clock,

and it did not become really dark at all, so that we had to go to

bed by daylight —a novel experience for most of us.

Stops were made at Wrangell, where there were standing a

number of the curious totem poles, which unfortunately have

since been burned. Stops were also made at Juneau and Ska-

guay, the latter a most unattractive collection of shabby huts,

raised on piles to keep them out of the water. Near by was

the rival town of Dyea, which we did not visit.

The vegetation is everywhere luxuriant, showing the heavy

rainfall and relatively mild climate of the coast. The variety

of plants, however, is not very great, and as our stops were not

of long duration, the opportunities for botanizing were some-

what limited, and no plants were seen which were not also

found later at Sitka.

Sitka offers many attractions to the tourist, being most beau-

tifully placed on Baranoff Island, one of the largest of the

innumerable islands making up the Alaskan archipelago, Evi-

dences of the Russian occupation are seen on all sides, nearly

all the buildings in the little town dating back to the period

when this was Russian territory. The massive buildings of

hewn logs, with steep moss-covered roofs, and the Greek church

lifting its turnip-shaped green cupolas above the other build-

ings at the head of the main street, give the town a very for-

eign air, which is not lessened when we find how many of the

Russians still remain. The bulk of the population is still made

up of the Russians and the native Indians, whose quarter, fac-

ing the harbor, presents a picturesque medley of big dug-out

canoes, and frames for drying fish, among which are snarling

and fighting a rabble of wolfish dogs, which seem to be a neces-

sary adjunct of every self-respecting family of Alaskan Indians.

The harbor is surrounded by mountains on which the snow

lies for most of the year, and there are numerous wooded islands

396 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXII.

scattered over it which add much to its beauty. The country

about Sitka shows a good deal of variety of surface and eleva-

tion, and the flora for so northerly a region is decidedly rich.

A good road following the harbor for some distance, and several

trails, make it easy to get about in the neighborhood of the town

itself. The favorite walk is along the beautiful Indian river,

which is crossed by a suspension bridge, and along which are

most attractive paths through the forest.

The predominant tree of the Alaska forest is the tide-land

spruce (Picea sitchensis), which forms extensive forests every-

where along the coast south of Sitka. About Sitka the tree

reaches a large size, some trunks measured being upwards of

twenty-five feet in circumference at about five feet above the

ground, and these trees were at least 150 feet high. Like the

California redwood, the tree is very tenacious of life and sprouts

freely from the stump, as well as springing up quickly from

seed, so that when this forest is cut over there soon grows up

a dense thicket of young trees. Many trees have the base of

the trunk much swollen, and sometimes with a space between

the roots, so that the tree is raised, as it were, on stilt-like

props. The origin of these peculiar structures is found in the

frequent sprouting of the seeds on old stumps or prostrate

trunks. These resist decay for many years, and trees of very

considerable size are often met with, perched astride of the

old fallen trunks, and sending down large roots which finally

reach the earth. When the old trunk at last decays, the young

tree is left supported by a hollow arch of roots, which often

never becomes entirely filled up by subsequent growth.

In the more remote regions two species of cedar (Thuja

plicata and Chamecyparis nutkensis) are found, but about

Sitka most of the cedar has been cut, as it is in great demand

for making the big dug-out canoes, as well as for other pur-

poses. The northern hemlock (Tsuga mertensiana) is common

about Sitka, and reaches a large size, although hardly equal ‘in

size to the spruce. It closely resembles the eastern hemlock,

especially when young.

Owing to the excessive moisture, the ground in the forest,

as well as every stump and fallen tree, is covered with a thick

No. 389.] VACATION NOTES. 397

carpet of beautiful mosses and liverworts, comprising numerous

species.” Various species of Hypnum are the commonest,- but

Polytrichum, Mnium, and others of the larger mosses were con-

spicuous. Of the Hepatics, the cosmopolitan Pelia epiphylla

and Conocephalus conicus were the most abundant, but there

were a number of others which were common. Lichens also.

were abundant and conspicuous.

The mossy carpet was brightened with many charming flowers,

mostly common northern genera. Linnza, Smilacina bifolia,

Cornus canadensis, Moneses, and various Saxifragaceze were

abundant, and in addition to these were beautiful ferns and

the glossy fern-like leaves of Coptis sp.? Most of these wood-

land flowers showed the white or pale pink color of so many

of our vernal flowers, but there were a few of more vivid col-

ors. The bright red and yellow columbine (Aquilegia formosa)

was common, and a very handsome violet-purple iris, probably

I. sibirica, was seen in some of the gardens, but was not met

with growing wild, although it is said to be common in some

parts of Alaska.

Along the edges of the forest and in the clearings were

thickets of the salmon-berry, Rubus speciosus, whose crimson

flowers and big showy orange and scarlet berries make it the

handsomest of its tribe. The fruit is not unpalatable, but is

far inferior in flavor to the ordinary red raspberry or the black-

berry. They are highly prized by the natives, who preserve

large quantities for winter use. Several other species of Rubus.

are common, as well as various Vacciniums and species of wild

currants, all of which are important articles of food among the

Indians.

Certain plants were noticed on some of the islands which were

not seen about the town. Of these the most noteworthy were

Campanula rotundifolia, which was very fine on one of the

islands, popularly called “blue bell island ” ; Rubus nutkanus

and Fritillaria kamtschatcense were also collected, the latter,

however, past flower.

The low ground in the neighborhood of Sitka is largely cov-

ered with a growth of Sphagnum, and, as usual with peat bogs,

harbors many interesting plants. Ina small lake back of the

398 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

town were a number of aquatics, the most conspicuous of

which was Nuphar polysepalum, with enormous yellow flowers

and big leaves. In the Sphagnum grew Linnza, cranberries,

Vaccinium vitis-idea, crowberry, Drosera rotundifolia, Men-

yanthes, and the closely related NMephrophyllidium crista-galli,

cotton grass, Kalmia glauca, and other characteristic bog

plants.

On the higher portions of the bie were small groves of

Pinus contorta, the only pine seen in Alaska, and some small

cedars (probably Chamzecyparis), which, not eee in fruit, could

not be positively identified.

The most conspicuous bog plant of this region is the west-

ern skunk-cabbage (Lysichiton kamtschatcense), which abounds

everywhere along the Northern Pacific Coast, and is the only

Aroid of this region. The enormous leaves, sometimes three

feet in length and a foot wide, resemble some tropical plant,

and recalled to me some of the great West Indian species of

Anthurium. Indeed, both the leaves and the inflorescence,

with its large, lemon-yellow spathe, recall Anthurium rather

than Symplocarpus, with which it is ordinarily associated. The

popular name is rather a libel on this very handsome Aroid,

as the odor is not at all noticeable.

There are certain drawbacks in exploring the forest, which

is so dense that it is not safe to leave the trails. A few feet

away from the trail there is an almost impenetrable jungle, the

ground covered with fallen logs and a tangle of dense under-

growth which makes one’s progress toilsome in the extreme, and

once out of sight of the trail the danger of losing one’s self

completely is very great. The appropriately named “devil's

club” (Echinopanax horridus), a comely enough plant to look

at, with its big, bright green maple-shaped leaves, but whose

stem is covered with bunches of needle-like spines, abounds

everywhere, and is the veritable terror of these northern

woods.

In the more open ground, grasses of various kinds flourish,

among them timothy, orchard grass, blue-grass, as well as red

and white clover, which are completely naturalized, and would

doubtless furnish good feed for horses and cattle, although the

No. 389] ` VACATION NOTES. 399

excèssive dampness of the climate must render the curing of

hay a serious problem.

As might be expected, the mild, moist climate is favorable to

the growth of most of the lower plants. Ferns are abundant

and in considerable variety, considering the high latitude. No

exact list was made, but there are probably a dozen species

about Sitka. Pteris aquilina is not so common as it is farther

south, but several species of Asplenium and Aspidium were

very abundant, and Asplenium filix fæmima was. especially

luxuriant, with fronds five or six feet high. On the rocks near

the shore a Polypodium (P. falcatum?) was common, and in

the woods, besides the ferns already mentioned, the common

beech fern (Phegopteris) and the striking Blechnum spicant

were abundant. Alaska is the only region in America, so far

as I know, where the latter common European fern is found.

The only other Pteridophytes noted were Egutsetium arvense

and Lycopodium annotinum, which was not, however, abundant.

Fungi abounded, but no special notes were made in regard

to them. The most conspicuous parasitic one was an Exoba-

sidium, probably Æ. vaccinii, which was very common on Men-

ziesia, where it formed remarkable distortions both of the twigs

and leaves, as well as the flowers. These gall-like growths,

whether of the leaves or flowers, are usually quite destitute of

chlorophyll, and of a pale pink color, with a delicate frosty

bloom, caused by the spores of the fungus. The whole region

promised a rich harvest to the mycologist.

Very little was done in the way of collecting fresh-water

algze, but material gathered in the bog pools showed many

beautiful desmids and other interesting forms. The marine

flora is exceptionally rich in the larger brown seaweeds, the

Laminariacez being specially conspicuous and represented by

many genera and species. The large kelps, like Nereocystis

and Macrocystis, grow much higher up than they do farther

south, and are correspondingly shorter. The tides are very

marked at Sitka, and it was striking to see how near the high-

tide mark many of the brown alge grew. Fucus, especially,

grew where it was covered by the tide for a very little while,

remaining exposed for much the greater part of the time. The

400 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

moderate temperature of the air and the prevalence of cloudy

skies no doubt favor this habit. These northern waters are

especially rich in the gigantic kelps, so characteristic of the

Pacific, and the masses of these big brown seaweeds attract

the attention of the most careless observer.

After two weeks spent most pleasantly at Sitka, the steamer

was taken for the return voyage. On the way back we put

into Glacier Bay, where a morning was spent scrambling over

the moraine of the great Muir glacier, which fills up the head

of the bay, and whose sheer cliffs of glittering ice extend for

more than a mile across it, and rise two or three hundred feet

above its waters, gray with the detritus of the glacier, from

which great blocks of ice are constantly falling to add to the

fleet of icebergs sailing out from the bay into the ocean. For

many miles back of the ice cliffs the rough surface of the gla-

cier extended to the bases of the snow-capped peaks, which

formed the impressive background of this magnificent picture.

The face of the glacier presented a marvelous variety of color.

In places the cliffs of ice were pure white, with faint blue veins

looking like marble, while at other points crags of crystalline

clearness glittered in the sunlight with all the tints of the

rainbow. The crevasses were of the purest blue, ranging from

faint turquoise tints to the deepest sapphire and indigo. Now

and again a fragment would break off and fall with a thunder-

ous crash into the bay, where its weight would carry it far

below the surface, whence it presently emerged with a great

splash like some huge monster, and presently started ocean-

ward to join the rest of the iceberg fleet. Most of these float-

ing ice masses were very free from dirty surface ice, and looked

like huge blocks of blue-veined marble, or sometimes were

solid masses of pure blue ice of the most exquisite shades.

The huge moraine flanking this glacier presented a most

forbidding appearance, and very little vegetation has succeeded

in gaining a foothold. Besides a dwarf prostrate willow, a few

inches high, which was seen in several places, the only other

plant noticed was an Epilobium, the finest of the genus that I

have seen. The deep crimson flowers, twice the size of those

of the common willow-herb, were magnificent: and especially

No. 389. VACATION NOTES.

401

striking, growing as they did by themselves in the stony wilder-

ness of the moraine.

The return voyage is rather an anti-climax, as the scenery

grows less impressive as we go southward. The last day of

the voyage, however, afforded us one more impression to carry

away. Going north, we had missed the fine view of Mt. Baker,

off Victoria. This is the most northerly of the group of snow

peaks to be seen from Puget Sound. As we approached Vic-

toria late in the afternoon, we saw far away to the southeast

the perfectly symmetrical cone, standing quite alone and re-

flecting the afternoon sunshine from its smooth slopes, and ris-

ing apparently directly from the sea. Two years before I had

seen this mountain under similar conditions as we sailed out of

Victoria, bound for Japan; and one who has seen the peak of

Fuji Yama, on. the other side of the Pacific, must be struck

with the resemblance between the two mountains. As the

light faded on the slopes of Baker we sailed into Victoria and

our voyage was over.

As might be expected from its position, the flora of mari-

time Alaska combines characters both American and Asiatic.

While many of the plants were the common sub-arctic types,

some like Pinus contorta and Tsuga mertensiana are distinctly

American; while, on the other hand, Picea litchensis is found

on the northern Pacific coasts of both Asia and America, and

a number of the herbaceous plants, ¢.g., Lysichiton, Fritillaria,

Trientalis europea, Blechnum spicant, are probably all immi-

grants from Asia. The continuous chain of the Aleutian

Islands connecting the two continents makes the presence of

these Oriental immigrants readily understood.

IS THE WHITE RIVER TERTIARY AN

ZEOLIAN FORMATION?

W. D. MATTHEW.

WHEN the Cenozoic of the Great Plains of western North

America was explored in the fifties and sixties, the theory was.

formulated that it was deposited as sediment in a succession

of vast fresh-water lakes. This view was generally held until

the recent explorations, especially under auspices of the United

States Geological Survey, which have caused it to be consider-

ably modified. The Loup Fork has been shown to be largely

a flood-plain deposit, the Pleistocene chiefly zolian; and Mr.

Darton has lately traced an extensive system of river deposits

overlying the White River clays. The main body of the White

River formation, consisting of fine-grained calcareous “ clay,”

or chalk, with intercalated beds and lenses of sandstone, usually

of limited extent and in subordinate amount, has, I believe,

been universally considered lacustrine.

There are some very serious difficulties, stratigraphic and

paleontologic, in the way of this theory, and observations in

Kansas, Nebraska, and Colorado, during the last two summers,

suggested to the writer another view, which appears to do

away with these difficulties.

OBJECTIONS TO THE LACUSTRINE HYPOTHESIS.

I. Stratigraphic.—(a) We must assume the former existence

of a vast lake covering a large part of Nebraska, Colorado,

Wyoming, South Dakota, and perhaps extending even farther

northward, with an area dwarfing into insignificance any exist-

ing lake. We must assume an eastern and southern barrier

high enough and extensive enough to hold in these waters

during the entire Oligocene period, which yet entirely escaped

403

404 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXII,

erosion, and subsequently disappeared, leaving no trace, direct

or indirect, of its former existence.

(4) So large a lake should surely have left strongly marked

wave-cut terraces on its shores and islands. I have never seen

or heard of any such (as distinguished from wind-cut terraces),

although the short-lived glacial lakes gave rise to abundant

evidence of this sort. P

clays. They contain heavy beds or layers of different color or

hardness, but no fine stratification or horizontal cleavage. The

Niobrara Cretaceous, composed of equally fine material, not

very different in composition, shows a marked contrast in this

respect, fine stratification being universal.

II. Faunal. — These difficulties are yet more serious.

(a) There are no plants — tree trunks, stems, or leaves — in

the clays, although these deposits are well fitted to preserve

them. The plant remains that I have seen are limited to the

coarser (fluviatile) beds above. Plant remains have been de-

scribed from the “ Bad Lands of Dakota,” 1 but I do not know

their exact occurrence.

(6) There are no aquatic invertebrates.

(d) There are no aquatic reptiles; but land tortoises? are the

most abundant fossils found, and lizards and snakes occur in

considerable variety. The only exceptions to this statement,

as far as I know, are a crocodile skull a

Trionyx, found in South Dakota ; but wh

not, I am uninformed? `

(e) Mammals occur in

nd two specimens of

ether in the clays or

great numbers and variety, scattered

all through the clays. Of over fifty genera only three are prob-

ably aquatic; most of them are land mammals, some are of

uncertain habitat. The three aquatic forms are a rhinoceros,

Metamynodon, confined to a single layer of sandstone in the

Oreodon beds, and an oreodont, Leptauchenia, and a beaver,

1 Lesquereux. Cretaceous and Tertiary Flora.

? Family Chersidz, genera Testudo, Stylemys (? = Testudo),

von Paläontologie.

One of the specimens of Trionyx is certainly

— Zittel, Handbuch

from the sandstones.

No. 389.] THE WHITE RIVER TERTIARY. 405

Steneofiber, confined to the probably fluviatile beds at the top

of the White River.

The fauna of the clays is, then, exclusively a land fauna. The

lacustrine theory requires us to suppose that the animals were

swept down by rivers into the lake. Modern rivers do some-

times bring down carcasses of land animals in their floods,

along with an overwhelmingly greater amount of tree trunks,

leaves, etc., and mingle these with their delta deposits, form-

ing estuarine or delta beds, a well-marked facies of sediments.

But the White River clays are not delta deposits; they must,

if lacustrine, ‘have been deposited far out in the open lake.

How did the land animals get out into this open lake? The

current could not take them out, for it was insufficient even to

arrange the fine particles of sediment. They might conceiv-

ably have floated out. But why in such numbers and so uni-

formly distributed? How did separate limbs, gnawed, bitten,

or weathered bones get there? How did the tortoises get out

into the lake? Why were no tree trunks or plant remains

floated out, if the animal carcasses could float out? Why are

there no fish or invertebrate remains? Contrast this fauna

with the Cretaceous, where marine reptiles, fish, and inverte-

brates are exceedingly numerous, amphibious and land animals

extremely rare, and plant remains by no means common. Con-

trast it with known lacustrine deposits, as some of the small

Pleistocene lakes of the east, where fresh-water invertebrates

are very abundant, fresh-water fish common, and land plants

or water plants, or both, often make up a large part of the

deposits, while land animals are rare, except in peat bogs.

. If, then, the White River clays are lacustrine, they must have

been deposited in an absolutely lifeless sea, surrounded by a

well-watered region devoid of vegetation, yet sustaining an

animal population of incredible density. And even this com-

bination of improbabilities cannot account for some facts, and

does not satisfactorily account for others.

406 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

MopERN DEPOSITS OF THE PLAINS.

There are two kinds of deposition now going on in this

region:

I. River and Flood Plain Sediments. — Sands and clays are

deposited in the valleys whenever continental deformation

causes a decrease in the fall of the river bed. Mr. Gilbert’s

clear exposition of this mode of sedimentation, as exemplified

in the Arkansas valley, makes further comment superfluous.!

II. Prairie Loess. —Wind erosion (deflation), very active in

this arid region, carries off from all exposed rock or soil a large

amount of material, most of which is deposited on the sodded,

or partially sodded, prairie surface. The deposit is heavier in

hollows, where temporary “lagoons” or denser grass occur, and

tends to produce an extremely level and uniform surface. This

deposition through the Pleistocene has produced a fine unstrat-

ified, extremely uniform covering of loam (loess or marl) over

the greater part of the plains; I have seen it in places two

hundred feet thick. It was formerly supposed to be a lacus-

trine sediment, and that the rivers subsequently cut their

channels in the floor of the dried-up lake. It is now, I believe,

generally considered zolian, and a significant corollary of the

mode of deposition, outlined above, is that it was built up at

the sides of the river valleys, deposition in the valleys being

checked by erosion; the valleys, therefore, are older than the

plains. :

Practically the only fossils found in the loess are the bones of

land animals. No plant remains occur; the prolonged exposure

to water and air permits the nearly complete oxidation of vege-

table matter. Near the surface are peaty layers and land shells,

but the conditions of burial do not favor their fossilization.

Dark lines mark the position of lagoons on the former prairie

surface, and slight changes in the quality or fineness of the

deposit produce a bedded appearance, uniform over large areas.

The extent and uniformity of this Prairie Loess are especially

notable. It is the prevalent surface deposit over half a dozen

western states in the greater part of the plains region.

1 U.S. Geol. Survey, XVIIth Ann. Rep., Pt. ii, P: 575:

No. 389. ] THE WHITE RIVER TERTIARY. 407

The occurrence of mammal bones on the surface may be

taken as indicating the way they occur within the loess. Skel-

etons are more or less complete according to the extent of

disturbance by carrion feeders. Skulls, limbs, or individual

bones are commonly found separated — carried off by other

animals. Limbs are very apt to be bitten off across the

upper limb bone, leaving the head of the humerus or femur

in its socket. Bones are often more or less gnawed or

bitten, sometimes weathered, but never water-worn. In and

around “salt licks,” or lagoons, a mingled heap of bones

of many animals is often found, individuals usually hopelessly

mixed.

The upper part of the Prairie Loess contains bones of Bison

and other modern prairie inhabitants in various early stages of

fossilization, The lower part contains Equus bones.

THE ASoLIAN HYPOTHESIS.

I believe that the White River clays, in Colorado at least,

are chiefly zolian deposits, similar in origin to the Prairie Loess.

Most of the sandstones are probably fluviatile, especially those

occurring in lenticular masses. The sandstones with the s¢razz-

fied clays parallel the modern fluviatile deposits of the valleys.

Some sandstones may be zolian.

1. The fauna is what we should expect to find in an open,

grassy region. The animals are all land forms, and the most

abundant genera, Oreodon, Mesohippus, and Hyracodon, have

distinctively cropping teeth. The abundant and varied fauna

has been supposed to indicate a warm, moist climate; it is paral-

leled, however, by that of the dry region of South Africa, and

the modern fauna of the plains is by no means small. The

occurrence of land tortoises cannot be explained by the lake

theory, and its explanation of the other land fauna appears an

exceedingly improbable one, involving several practical impos-

sibilities, as noted above.

2. The occurrence of specimens is precisely, in every detail,

the same as above stated in the modern prairie deposits, and

their abundance in Colorado is about the same. Gnawed bones,

408 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

bitten off limbs, mixed accumulations in fine uniform sediments,

are inexplicable on the lake hypothesis.

3. The character of the clays is exactly what the loess would

probably assume on consolidation, and does not agree with the

Niobrara chalk, a deposit similar in origin to that proposed by

the lacustrine theory for the White River clays, except that the

water was salt instead of fresh.

4. The great extent and uniformity of the White River and

the details of its distribution appear to the writer to agree with

that of the loess, but to be difficult to explain on the theory of

lake deposition.

This view of the origin of the White River beds involves a

great change in our notions of the climate and conditions of

the west in the later Tertiary. If it be correct, these must

have been much like those now prevailing in the same region ;

and our ideas as to the probable appearance and habits of these

extinct animals can be made much more definite and certain.

This theory has probably little or no application to the

Eocene beds west of the Rockies. These do not contain the

fine unstratified chalks ; they are in well-defined basins enclosed

by mountain ranges and drained by great canyons; land tortoises

are as rare in them as water tortoises in the White River; alli-

gators, etc., occur frequently, and the characteristic plains types

of mammals of the White River are small, scarce, or undevel-

oped. Furthermore, before the Sierras and Coast Range were

elevated, the rain now falling on the Pacific Coast must have

fallen where the Great Basin now is; while we have no known

adequate cause for so great a change in the climate of the

plains between the Oligocene: and the present time. The

Eocene deposits are probably a mixture of lake and fluviatile

sediment—what proportion of each would not be easy to

determine.

OVUM IN OVO.

FRANCIS H. HERRICK.

An interesting case of egg within egg recently came to hand,

which was unique in this respect : that the smaller enclosed egg

lay in the yolk and not in the albumen of the surrounding

egg, as in all similar instances hitherto recorded.! This hen’s

egg had unfortunately been cooked. When it was opened, and

the white broken into, a suspicious-looking fleck was seen on

the surface of the hardened yolk, the removal of which dis-

closed the imbedded egg. The parts of the containing egg

have not been preserved, so that I can record only the general

facts here given.

The included egg measures 17 X21 mm., is of symmetrical

ovoidal form, possesses a hard shell, shell membrane, and small

yolk. The shell has a coarse granular texture, and a coffee

Fic. 1. — Small egg removed from yolk of iarger egg. Natural size.

color, sprayed with brown pigment. Its form and appearance

are represented in Fig. 1, its relation to the containing egg in

FE 2

Since writing the foregoing and following parts of this paper,

1 I am indebted for this specimen to Mr. Herbert Tetlow and to Mr. E. B.

Duffy, by whom it was obtained.

409

410 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

I received a second example of ovum in ovo, which is rep-

resented in Fig. 3.1 The smaller enclosed egg lies in the

albumen of the larger, as in the cases hitherto described. It

measures about 18 X 22 mm., has a clear shell of even texture,

Fic. 2. Fic. 3.

Fic. 2.— Diagram to show the relations of ovum in ovo, in which the enclosed egg (Fig. 1) lay in

` yolk. ta represents the relative form and size of the included egg, and shows its iai

ral relation to the yolk of the enclosing egg. In other r respects the figure is conventional.

Shell, shell membrane, albumen, and Sol a are represented in each egg. About dec Hiba

natural size.

Fic. 3. -agamn bes isi the relations of ovum in ovo, cee i whet the included egg lay in the

ekna yolk shaded dark, and to the right

th losed egg, which i is white. About four-fifths natural size

shell membrane, and albumen. Apparently no yolk is present ;

at least none could be found in the specimen, which has been

somewhat mutilated. The parts of the surrounding egg appeared

normal in every respect.

These cases belong to that class of abnormalities in the eggs

of birds which originate before incubation, and to the variety

called ovum in ovo. In all recorded cases of this type the

contained bodies lie in the albumen, or at least not in the yolk

of the surrounding egg.

In 1878 Parona and Grassi? described and figured a good

1 I am enabled to examine this specimen through the kindness of Professor

T. H. Mor

2 Sovra ei repeat di uova di gallina, Atti della Soc. Ital. di Sci. Nat.,

Milano, vol. xx (1878), tav.

No. 389.] OVUM IN OVO. 4II

example of the more common condition in which the included

egg, an elongated ovoidal body, lay in the albumen. The yolk

of the larger egg possessed a normal blastoderm. These writers

gave a history of monstrosities of this class known up to that —

time, from which the following abstracts are drawn.

Davaine, in a work published in 1860, gave a résumé of cases

of ovum in ovo then known. He found that the enclosing egg

might be larger or smaller than normal, having shell, albumen,

and yolk, the latter liable to deformity from disturbance of the

foreign body. The included egg was very rarely of normal size ;

usually it was small and devoid of yolk. Clayer, in 1682,

described a case where the included egg was very small, but

possessed a yolk.

A similar example was also fe ici by Yung in1671. The

yolk of the inside egg was very small, and possessed two

chalaze. Rayer described, in 1849, a goose egg of colossal

size, which contained an egg of normal dimensions, having

yolk, albumen, and shell. The outer egg was also complete,

although its yolk was flattened by pressure. A few years

later three similar cases were reported by De Moroga, Aucapi-

taine, and Alessandrini. The latter reported the case of an

egg of normal size, which contained a small egg complete in

all but the shell.

In 1856 a case is cited, by Davaine, of three eggs enclosed

by a common shell, and still later a precisely similar phenom-

enon was described by Flourens.

Panum,! who studied for several years the abnormalities of

birds’ eggs and collected many examples, met with the ovum

in ovo only once. This resembled Rayer’s goose egg, and

came from the Indian jungle fowl. The inside body corre-

sponded to the normal egg in size, while the surrounding egg

was of relatively huge proportions. Panum adds that in 1858

a remarkable egg of a Cochin China hen was described. It

was very heavy and contained two yolks and one ordinary egg

with solid shell. Still another egg, analogous to that of Rayer’s

goose, was described by Bert in 1861. Patrona and Grassi

1 Untersuchungen u. d. Entstehung d. Missbildungen. Berlin, 1860 (cited by

Patrona and Grassi).

412 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

remark that the foregoing are the only cases recorded of this

singular abnormal production, but that it would be possible to

cite more than thirty instances in which small yolkless eggs

have been found enclosed in another egg apparently normal.

Later additions to this literature have been made by Landois in

1882,! and by Schumacher in 1896.”

Landois remarks that in most cases of ovum in ovo the

included egg is small and yolkless, and sometimes possesses a

very abnormal form. In one erratic individual it resembled

a tapeworm, consisting of a button the size of a pin head,

followed by a fibrous section, and ending in a broad flattened

string. He thinks that most so-called tapeworms in hens’ eggs

are nothing more than monstrosities of this kind.

In the case described by Schumacher the enclosing egg was

apparently normal, and, like that figured by Patrona and Grassi,

possessed an egg-like inclusion in the albumen. This was of

regular oval form, a little larger than that here described, and,

besides hard shell, possessed a stratified albumen, an irregular

spirally twisted yolk mass, measuring 8 x 4 mm., with small

chalazze at either end. There was no blastoderm.

III.

Reviewing the cases of ovum in ovo in zoölogical literature,

we may classify them in the following manner :

I. Enveloping egg usually normal, but occasionally of large size; blasto-

derm recorded in at least one instance.

Enveloped egg:

(a) In yolk; small; composed of shell, shell membrane, albumen,

and yolk; no blastoderm known to occur in this or in the

following variations ; single case recorded in this paper (Fig. 2).

(4) Inalbumen ; small; composed usually of shell, shell membrane,

albumen, and rarely with yolk; few cases reported

albumen, but no yolk; most cases of ovum in ovo reported are

of this kind (Fig. 3).

(d) In albumen; usually small and variously distorted, so as to

bear little resemblance to an egg at all.

1 Fremde Einschliisse in Hiihnereiern. Humboldt, Heft 1 (1882), pp. 22-24.

? Ein Ei im Ei, Zoologischer Anzeiger, Bd. xix (1896), pp. 366-368.

No. 389.] OVUM IN OVO. 413

II. Enveloping egg of colossal size; complete; blastoderm probably

present.

Enveloped egg:

(a) Without shell, but otherwise complete. In this case a common

shell may surround two or three eggs complete except for shells

and shell membranes ; forming “ double-yolk ” or “ triple-yolk ”

eggs.

(2) One of the enclosed eggs of normal appearance and size,

possessing shell, albumen, and yolk; the other eggs surrounded

by a common shell, but having no shells of their own.

According to the accepted accounts, the yolk of the fowl’s

ovum is of normal size when it leaves its vascular capsule in

the ovary, and is taken up by the infundibulum. Reaching the

oviduct it receives its first layer of albumen, and is carried

slowly down the tube by peristaltic muscular contraction of the

walls. Near the lower end of the oviduct the final layers of

albumen are added, and in the distal extremity of the duct,

called the uterus, the shell is formed.

In the opinion of several writers the small included egg

represents a fragment of a normal ovum which has been

' ruptured, and thus has parted with some of its substance

after leaving the ovary. This fragment is then treated in the

oviduct like a full-sized egg. The small egg-like body thus

produced is sometimes laid, but occasionally it is driven by anti-

peristaltic action up the tube until it collides and fuses with the

mother egg. This theory will suffice to explain the first class

of inclusions on the supposition that rupture takes place in the

upper part of the oviduct, or at least after the first layers of

albumen have been added to the normal egg. Since the small

included eggs are generally yolkless, we must infer that such

ruptures are, as a rule, confined to the albumen. It seems more

probable that the small egg becomes enclosed before the shell

membrane is formed over a normal egg, with little if any

retrogressive movement. Furthermore, it is possible that

any substance which serves as a local stimulus to the upper

part of the oviduct, whether coming from the ovary as abortive

egg or egg-fragment, or from the duct as secreted product, may

serve as a nucleus, about which an egg-like body may be formed.

Normally laid eggs, indeed, tend to sweep the oviducal canal

414 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

clear. of all obstructions, whether they be abortive eggs, blood

clots, feathers which rarely grow from its walls, or parasites

which find their way into it. These bodies are taken up by

the egg, and become imbedded in it. In one of the cases

recorded in this paper the obstruction or small “egg” (Fig. 2)

has been pressed through the albumen, through the vitelline

membrane, and thus into the yolk itself. It is evident that

inclusions of the first type are not true eggs in any strict sense,

since, so far as known, they contain no protoplasm.

The theory of yolk-hernia will not explain the second class

of abnormalities, such as double or triple yolk eggs. We have

here a case of fusion of the albumen in two or more ova, which

are treated in the uterus as one egg and surrounded by a single

shell. This process is sometimes complicated by the inclusion

of a third egg of normal size and already covered by a hard

shell. These conditions may be brought about by irregularities

in the mechanism of the oviduct, as when any given egg does

not receive its shell and is not laid before it encounters others

coming down the oviduct at the same time.

According to Duval, an egg usually spends thirty hours in

the oviduct, twenty-four of which are passed in the uterus, and

if the fowl lays once in forty-four hours a single egg will be

found in the oviduct at any given time. When the intervals of

laying become shorter, however, an egg may be found at either

end of the tube. In some of the cases described three ova must

have been in the tube and collided there, owing to disturbances

in the normal rhythms.

ON THE HABITS AND STRUCTURE OF THE

COCCID GENUS MARGARODES,

T. D. A. COCKERELL.

THERE has recently been made a new pathway across the

campus of the New Mexico Agricultural College at Mesilla Park,

and the earth on it is still soft andloose. Walking this morning

(January 16) up this path, I saw, just opposite the door of the

new Science Hall, a couple of small winged insects, hurrying |

to and fro as if they had lost something, almost beneath my

feet. Curious to know what was stirring at this time of year,

I knelt down, and was surprised to find that they were male

coccids. Presently, greatly to my astonishment, one of them

began to dig into the earth, and in a moment completely buried

itself, leaving only the tips of its long abdominal filaments

visible. I dug it out and discovered the object of its search,

which was a plump yellow female coccid.

These coccids, $ and 9, prove to belong to the singular

genus Margarodes, never before found in New Mexico. This

genus was established by the Rev. L. Guilding, in 18209, for a

species of the West Indies; others have lately been described

by Giard from Chili and the Cape of Good Hope. One form,

Margarodes formicarum Guilding, var. rileyi, Giard, has been

found on some of the Florida Keys. An allied genus, Porphy-

rophora, with several species, occurs in Europe; it was named

by Brandt in 1835.

These two genera (if they are to be separated) form the sub-

family Porphyrophorinz or Margarodine, closely allied to the

Monophlebinz, and especially to the Xylococcinz of Pergande.

Both Margarodine and Xylococcinz are very well separated

from Monophlebinz by the absence of legs and antennz in the

intermediate stages of the female, and the total absence of

mouth partsin the adult female. From one another they do

415

416 | THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

not differ so much, and I am inclined to treat them only as

tribes of one subfamily, thus:

Tribe, Margarodini. Subterranean; anterior legs of both

sexes (adults) adapted for digging. Tribe, Xylococcini. Arbo-

real; anterior legs normal.

The striking character of the adult Margarodes, especially

(because least expected) in the 3, is that of the anterior legs.

The ¢ of Porphyrophora has long been known to have short

anterior legs; that of Margarodes was quite unknown until

lately described by M. Lataste in the Actes Soc. Scien. Chili,

Vol. VII (1897), pp. 99-102. Lataste’s account, relating to

M. vitium Giard, is quite full, and he gives a figure of one of

the curious anterior legs with its thickened femur. Nobody,

however, seems to have seen the insects digging until now, nor

to have known the purpose of the peculiarity.

The following description will serve for the identification of

the New Mexico Margarodes:

Margarodes hiemalis, sp. nov.

Adult 9. Bright lemon yellow, very soft, oval; 5% mm. long, 4 broad,

2% high ; segmentation distinct, each segment with a whorl of mostly black-

ish but inconspicuous hairs; apex of abdomen with a small reddish hairy

prominence ; abdomen on ventral surface longitudinally sulcate on each

side, but the median area bulging, not depressed ; a deep median depression

between the levels of the first two pairs of legs ; thoracic spiracles present

as usual, but no abdominal spiracles noticed ; mouth parts entirely absent ;

antenne short, moniliform, light reddish brown, except segments 1 to 3,

which are pallid, 8-segmented ; segments 1 and 2 very short, ring-like, fully

three times as broad as long, 2 smaller and not so broad as 1; 3 trans.

versely oval, large; 4 very short and broad; the next 3 almost cordi-

form ; the last (8th) spherical; sutures between segments 3 to 8 very deep ;

8 with some long hairs at end ; skin minutely papillose ; a dull pinkish patch

between the antennz ; legs present; first pair adapted for digging; femur

excessively broad and short, forming a low rounded cone, on which is a

shining red-brown rounded structure, divided by a suture in the middle;

the basal part of this, which is the tibia, is broader than long; the apical

part (tarsus) is continued at its apex into a stout long piceous process,

which forms a digging claw. The other legs are similar in structure, but

considerably smaller; the claws are all incrusted by a black substance,

which on one of the middle legs forms quite a big lump.

Adult ¢. Length of body about 2 mm., of abdominal brush: about

No. 389.] THE COCCID GENUS MARGARODES. 417

5 mm., of wing about 314 mm. Body purplish brown, eyes and anterior

part of prothorax crimson ; mesothorax shining dark brown; abdomen

with a median longitudinal series of transversely lengthened dark brown or

blackish marks ; wings ample, clear, iridescent, with a large pinkish pseudo-

stigma. Eyes very strongly faceted. Abdominal brushes two, arising

from the 7th and 8th dorsal segments, each consisting of many white

threads, as in Orthezia. Antennz brown, 10-segmented, the segments

sausage-shaped, except the first two, which are short and broad ; each

segment with spreading hairs, which, however, are not as long as the seg-

ment. The wings have no veins except the costal, but there are three

folds ; two parallel and close together, obliquely crossing the middle of the

wing to the lower margin ; and one in the place of the anal vein. Anterior

legs fossorial, the femora greatly swollen, like the hind femora of Haltica ;

tibia and tarsus (the latter short) transformed into a digging claw; middle

and hind legs ordinary, except that the hind femora are rather swollen, and

the tarsi are all extremely short, hardly one-fourth the length of the long

tibia. Claws sharp and long; no digitules.

Hab. — Mesilla Park, New Mexico, Jan. 16,1899. The immature forms

remain to be discovered ; they will certainly be found on the roots of some

shrub ; most probably on those of Atriplex canescens, which abounds on

the college campus; possibly on those of Prosopis glandulosa.

MESILLA PARK, NEW MEXICO,

January, 1899.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

The Gypsy Moth and Economic Entomology.— In the presidential

address delivered before the Association of Economic Entomologists,

last August, the motives of those who oppose the large appropriations

made by the State of Massachusetts for the extermination of the

gypsy moth are attributed to “unfortunate jealousy or unreasonable

prejudice.” Inthe same address the expression of individual opinion

is deplored, and while diversity of view is recognized as an essential

of progress, the expression of such diversity before the public is

condemned.

The American Naturalist has more than once taken ground against

the annual appropriation for the extermination of the gypsy moth,

and with the keenest appreciation of the objects and aims of sound

economic work is prepared to maintain that, given all the money

and all the men asked for, the extermination of the insect in Mas-

sachusetts is doomed to failure. The public, always slow to accept

the results of science, will regard this failure to the detriment of

scientific work, and when popular support is needed the claims of

science will be discredited. As a recent writer says: “Is it not

sometimes the part of wisdom in a prudent business man to let a bad

investment go, rather than to lose more money by trying to save what

is already lost?”

The gypsy moth problem in Massachusetts may be briefly stated :

Introduced in the egg stage in 1868 or 1869, the insect at first escaped

general notice; in 1889, however, it caused so much destruction in

Malden and Medford that the state was asked, in 1890, to take

measures for its extermination. A commission was at first appointed,

and served for less than a year; since 1891 the work has been directed

by a committee of the State Board of Agriculture. Nearly one mil-

lion dollars has been expended in the work of extermination. This

work, prosecuted with more vigor than judgment, has greatly reduced

the damage done in badly infested districts, but has not succeeded in

keeping the insect within the original boundaries as defined in 1891.

The injury caused by the cutting down of trees and bushes, the

wanton destruction, by burning, of birds during the nesting season,

and the general tidying up of beautiful wild country roads and ways

420 THE AMERICAN NA TURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

are features of the work of extermination that cannot be too strongly

condemned. While the work for extermination is approved by the

official vote of the Association of Economic Entomologists, it is un-

favorably viewed by many eminent entomologists, by most scientific

men living in the infested district, and by a large and rapidly increas-

ing number of residents under the eyes of whom the work of exter-

mination is carried on. It is also opposed by one of the original

members of the committee appointed in 1891, a man deeply interested

in the agricultural welfare of the state and country.

The most effective testimony against extermination and in favor of

suppression is the practical experience of a resident of Medford, Mr.

Walter C. Wright. Mr. Wright lives in the heart of the infested

district, and has upon more than thirty acres of land, the larger part

woodland, brought about “a thorough suppression, and the time and

expense which have been devoted to the work are not worth naming.”

Mr. Wright adds: “ I should blush to ask state aid for it.”

In view of these facts, is it worth while to continue the present

extravagant policy? We answer emphatically, No!

The common-sense view—and it was Huxley who said that science

is but common sense applied to common things — was pointed out

several years ago, and has been frequently repeated. It may be

summed up as follows:

1. Abandon the policy of extermination, and turn all resources

towards the suppression of dangerous outbreaks.

2. Formulate a law for the suppression of all insect and fungus pests.

Employ a corps of men to point out to landowners and to town and

- city authorities the proper mode of ‘coping with dangerous pests.

If the landowners or the authorities fail to observe the law, after

proper notice, the work should be done by the state at the delinquent’s

charge. To enforce this law the employment of from ten to twelve

men, with an annual appropriation of $50,000, will suffice. The work

should be under the charge of the State Board of Agriculture.

The advocacy of one view for ourselves and one view for the

public requires no comment.

Zodlogical Instruction in German and American Universities. —

There is one very marked difference between the German and the

American universities in regard to what belongs to the field of

zodlogical instruction. In Germany a student would rarely think of

going to the professor of zodlogy for instruction in matters relating

to the vertebrates. He would nearly always turn to the professor of

No. 389.] EDITORIAL COMMENT. 421

anatomy in the medical faculty for direction in such studies, since

with few exceptions the professor of zoölogy is interested solely in

the non-vertebrate groups or in the problems of cytology. In America

the conditions are widely different. The professor of zoölogy here

has to cover both vertebrates and invertebrates, while the student

who should go to the anatomical departments of the medical schools

would get nothing but human anatomy, and absolutely no breadth of

view. So far as we are aware there are but two medical schools in

the whole United States where this is not true. With but very few

exceptions, the professors of anatomy know nothing of any vertebrate

except man, but are usually in the position of that professor who

said recently, while studying the lateralis branch of the vagus in the

shark, that he was all wrong in calling that nerve a branch of the

tenth, because the tenth nerve was distributed only to heart, lungs,

and stomach. Had our medical schools professors with broader

perspectives, the study of anatomy would have more attractions for

the students, and the examinations would no longer be puzzles, but

would be of value in testing the real knowledge of the student. In

many medical schools in this country the stock question asked in

examination in osteology demands a description of either the sphenoid

or the petrous portion of the temporal bone, regardless of the fact

that these bones are of very little practical importance to the future

practitioner. We would not urge our zoodlogists to narrow their field,

but we would recommend to our professors of anatomy that they

make their instruction and their studies comparative. Our medical

schools are absolutely unproductive in the field of anatomy; almost

all work done on the anatomy of vertebrates in Germany is done in

the medical departments of the universities.

Aberrant Birds’ Eggs.— Some time ago Professor Bumpus showed

us that the eggs of the English sparrow in America are variable as

well as the adults, and now Mr. J. W. Jacobs points out that the eggs

of many of our species vary greatly in coloration, size, and shape.

Aberrations of one sort or another are recorded in one hundred and

ten species, and several cases are represented by photographic repro-

ductions on two plates. Here is a better occupation than naming

new subspecies. We hope Mr. Jacobs’s pamphlet will be widely

read, and that .odlogists will be incited not to gather more birds’

eggs, but to s/udy the vast collections which have already been made.

Mr. Jacobs’s pamphlet is entitled ‘‘Odlogical Abnormalities,” and

is published by him at Waynesburg, Pa.

422 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Are Bird Migrations Affected by an Extreme Southern Winter ?

— The extraordinary cold, combined with snow, which affected the

Southern States February 8 to 14, undoubtedly had a very destruc-

tive effect on the birds of that region. A correspondent of the

Boston Transcript sends to that paper the following clipping from the

Charleston (S. C.) News and Courier :

“On Tuesday a gentleman flushed a woodcock in the neighbor-

hood of the City Hall, and a little later in the day a colored man

captured one on Broad Street. The poor bird was too cold to make

much use of its wings to effect its escape. At Mount Pleasant num-

bers of them, together with quail, were found near the habitations of

men, and caught. ‘They were evidently driven in from the fields and

woods by cold and hunger, and thus made themselves easy victims

to the pot hunter. More than half a dozen negroes were seen yester-

day with large bunches of birds, consisting of quail, woodcock, and

doves, which they had found, no doubt, in a partially frozen condi-

tion. This illustrates how even the wildest creatures aré sometimes

driven by extreme cold and hunger to take the most desperate chances

in searclr of food, and how for the time they become as tame as

domestic animals aand birds. No doubt there will be a great scarcity

of game another year, for large numbers of the smaller animals and

birds, especially birds, must have perished from the intense cold of

the last few days.” ;

Have any students of this spring’s migrations noticed any dimi-

nution in the number of birds?

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The Neolithic Period of Human Culture in Northern Africa.

The February number (Feb. 15, 1899) of the Revue de Z’ Ecole

d’ Anthropologie presents under this title an able article from the

pen of Professor Zaborowski, the Archivar of the Paris School of

Anthropology.

The author reviews numerous observations and arrives at the con-

clusion that, during the neolithic period, the peoples of the whole of

northern Africa, including Egypt and a large part of the desert, were

racially, as well as by their civilization, closely interrelated.

Who these ancient North-Africans were, ethnically, is not certain.

Among the most ancient Egyptian skulls there are none of negroes,

and hence the prehistoric Egyptians were not Asiatics who invaded

new regions, driving away the black indigenes. Later on, negro

skulls appear, indicating an early slave trade.

Not much is known yet of the neolithic period in Sahara and

Algiers ; nevertheless there were known, as early as 1883, seventeen

ancient stations in the Sahara, where stone implements were found.

The finds generally yielded numerous knives and saws, some arrow

points, scrapers, etc., some of the specimens showing considerable

art; there were also commonly found fragments of large ostrich eggs,

some of these pieces being in the form of ornaments. Also fragments

of black ornamented pottery were found. These articles were used

at a time when the Sahara was watered by rains and had an abun-

dant vegetation. Near the wells of El-Hassi the specimens lie in a

layer of mud, under a layer of sedimentary limestone 50 cm. in

thickness.

The stone implements are found principally between Laghouat and

El-Golea, at Ain-Taiba, and in the vicinity of Ouargla. Thé natives

of these places know nothing of the origin of these articles, and

declare that they are the weapons of the spirits of the air, the

“djinn.” Large shops where the implements were made have also

been discovered, and in these shops division of labor was noticeable.

Axes are extremely rare, and those that are found were probably

brought in by trade.

423

424 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

The population of Sahara never attained the density, or the height

of culture, of the Egyptians; nevertheless, no line of demarcation

between the two peoples is apparent during the neolithic period.

Discoveries similar to those in Sahara were made in Algiers and

in Tunis. Oran was particularly rich in specimens. In Tunis the

silex stations and shops are quite numerous. In the oasis Métouia,

north of Gabes, Mr. Belucci, in 1875, found over 1700 arms and

implements of stone. He also found nearly 3000 specimens at Gabes

itself. Since then a number of other important finds have been made

in these regions. The characters of the implements are very nearly

like those from the Sahara, and similar characters are observed on

stone implements from Egypt. Axes and polished articles are rare.

The modes of burial are much alike throughout northern Africa.

We meet with several distinct methods. The most ancient burials

were like those of many American peoples, the body being buried

with its head bent down and the lower limbs folded towards the body

— in the shape of the fcetus in utero, This mode of burial occurs

from Egypt to the extreme limit of western Africa (Cape Spartel);

it is still preserved by the Guanches.

Somewhat later, bodies were buried in cysts or ionses: made from

beaten clay or from sun-dried bricks. Still another form of burial

consisted in enclosing the body in one or two large earthen jars —

a method which was practiced in some parts of Central America.

These kinds of burial were also found to be common to various parts

of northern Africa. The jar burials are particularly prominent in

Tunis and Algiers, where they seem to have been practiced for a

longer period of time than in Egypt. At Carthage, jar sepulchres

date from as late as the early Punic epoch. This form of burial is

also found in parts of Spain, in Corsica, and Balearic Islands. The

period of such graves is throughout anterior to the use of iron,

though embracing in places the periods of copper and bronze.

Still another class of works which supports the theory of close

connection of the prehistoric populations of the whole of northern

Africa are the petroglyphs. These are found from Morocco to the

Libyan desert. The engravings in the rock are often of large size,

and represent the figures of plumed hunters or warriors, and of many

animals, some of which have been for a long time extinct in these

localities. There are no representations of horses, asses, camels, or

sheep, from which it may be concluded that the petroglyphs antedate

the introduction of these animals and are very ancient. They are

closely allied to the grafiti of the higher Egypt and of a part of

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 425

the desert (between Edfou and Silsilis). Zaborowski considers these

petroglyphs to be symbolical, and for the most part more ancient

than the Egyptian hieroglyphs, to the formation of which they

possibly led.

Thus the ancient populations of northern Africa present three very

important phases of culture in common, namely, similar implements,

the same burial costumes, and similar rock-engravings. This estab-

lishes the fact that the neolithic, populations of northern Africa were

closely interrelated, more so than the peoples living in the same

regions since the stone period.

It is to be hoped that this excellent dissertation by Professor

Zaborowski will soon be followed by a comprehensive study of the

osseous remains of the ancient inhabitants of northern Africa.

HRDLICKA.

Prehistoric Art."

gives an exhaustive account of our present knowledge concerning the

art of prehistoric peoples. ‘This paper is a contribution to the his-

tory of art rather than to the science of art, and is intended as a record

of the actual manifestations of art in the various epochs of human

culture in prehistoric times, showing the eathee specimens, and thus

presenting the idea indicated in the title.’

The author has confined his attention to known facts, and submits

these as a foundation upon which others may theorize if so inclined.

He has rendered a great service to archeology in thus gathering

together such a wealth of information, and his profound knowledge

and experience in this department of science would have warranted

him, if any one, in indulging in speculations regarding the cultural

stages indicated by the artifacts described. The work is divided

into three sections: I. Paleolithic Period; II. Neolithic Period; and

III. Prehistoric Musical Instruments; the last having been prepared

jointly with Mr, E. P. Upham. F. R.

The Lamp of the Eskimo.? — This paper is announced to be one

of a series upon “ heating and illumination from the standpoint of the

ethnologist.” The uses and importance of the lamp are described,

1 Wilson, Thomas. Prehistoric Art: or the Origin of Art as manifested in the

Works of Peblatorie Man, Report of the U. S. National Museum for 1896, pp. 349-

664. Government Printing Office, 1898.

2 Hough, Walter. The Lamp of the Eskimo, Report U. S. National Museum,

1896, pp. 1027-1057.

426 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

and the fact pointed out that it has probably been the cause of the

occupancy of the Arctic regions by the Eskimos — has determined the

distribution of the race. It is peculiarly the property of the women,

and “a woman without a lamp” is an expression which betokens, of

all beings, the most wretched among the Eskimo. Owing to the

soot thrown off, the lamp renders it impossible for the Eskimo to be

at all cleanly in the igloos. The lamp fulfills several functions, one

of the most important of which is to melt snow and ice for drinking-

water. There are three kinds of lamps: house lamp, traveler’s lamp, `

and mortuary lamp. About a dozen types are described, from the

East Greenland lamp to that from Siberia. In both the Labrador

and the Mackenzie River type it would seem to us that the author

has attempted to establish a “type” from too small a series. The

Peabody Museum of Harvard University contains several large

Labrador lamps from Hopedale, which have divided bridges, and

thus differ somewhat from the two types accredited to that region.

But the significance of the paper lies in its demonstration of the

effect of a technic art upon a hunting race; it is a contribution to

the final “ Weltgeschichte.” ER.

Chess and Playing Cards.'— Though it has developed from a

simple catalogue and purports to be but a preliminary work, this

memoir of 263 pages, by Stewart Culin, contains a valuable store

of information concerning games and divinatory processes. In the

words of the author, “ The object of this collection is to illustrate the

probable origin, paige and development of the games of chess

and playing cards.” ‘The basis of the divinatory systems from

which games sie arisen is assumed to be the classification of all

things according to the four directions. This method of classifica-

tion is practically universal among primitive people both in Asia and

America. ` In order to classify objects and events which did not in

themselves reveal their proper assignment, resort was had to magic.

Survivals of these magical processes constitute our present games.

The identity of the games of Asia and America may be explained

upon the ground of their common object, and the identity of the

mythical concepts which underlie them. These concepts, as illus-

trated in games, appear to be well-nigh universal. In the classifica-

tion of things according to the four quarters we find a numerical

ratio was assumed to exist between the several categories. The dis-

1 Culin, ‘Stewart. Chess and Playing Cards, Report of the U.S. National

Museum for 1896, pp. 665-942. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1898.

No. 389.]} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 427

covery of this ratio was regarded as an all-important clue. The

cubical dotted die represents one of the implements of magic

employed for this purpose. The cubical die belongs, however, to

a comparatively late period in the history of games and divination.

The almost universal object for determining number, and thence, by

counting, place or direction, is three or more wooden staves, usually

flat on one side and rounded upon the other.” The author offers no

comments upon the games of Patolli, of Mexico, and Pachesi, of

India, which are perhaps the best examples of resemblance in a some-

what complex game from widely’separated regions. It will be

remembered that Dr. E. B. Tylor, to whose paper he refers, con-

siders the game of Patolli to have been derived from Asiatic sources.

The work is illustrated with fifty plates and over two hundred figures

in the text. F. R.

The Huichol Indians of Mexico.’ — Carl Lumholtz has given a

preliminary sketch of the Huichol Indians of the state of Jalisco,

Mexico, whom he visited in 1894. But brief mention is made of

their physical characters. The average stature of 43 men measured

was 1.65 meters. They are thievish, emotional, imaginative, excit-

able, avaricious, and yet not inhospitable when their confidence has

been gained. They spend a great part of their time at feasts and

ceremonies. The houses are of stones and mud, covered with

thatched roofs. The drinks used and the manner of brewing and

distilling them are described in some detail. The author considers

the process of distillation to be the most sai in use upon the

continent. 4 w R.

Anthropological Notes. — In the Annual Report of the Director of

the Field Columbian Museum for the year ending Sept. 30, 1898, we

note that the Department of Anthropology was one of the most active

and successful in the museum during the year. The accession list

contains a rather undue proportion of osteological specimens —

rather a fortunate condition from our point of view.

In the January-February pumber of the American Antiquarian

H. I. Smith gives an interesting list of the “Animal Forms in

Peruvian Art.” The animals represented range from man to mol-

lusks, and are both painted and sculptured.

1 sage of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. x, article i,

pp. 1-14. New York, 1898.

428 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. — [VOL. XXXIII.

In an able review of “Notes of the Folk-Lore of the Fjort”

(R. E. Dennett), Mr. Newell, in the October-December number of

the American Folk-Lore Journal, calls attention to the fact that in the

publication of this work the Folk-Lore Society places itself on record

as accepting his definition of the scope and meaning of folk-lore. It

is not to be confined to survivals of custom and belief among enlight-

ened races, but is to include all oral tradition of all periods and all

cultures.

In the Ann. de la Soc. Esp. His. Nat., ser. 2, tome vi, is published

a bibliography of anthropological literature relating to the Spanish

peninsula for the years 1896 and 1897. Sr. Hoyos has given 113

titles for the former year and 127 for the latter. They are classified

under the following heads: general anthropology, ethnography, and

sociology, linguistics, and prehistoric and protohistoric archeology.

They are further classified according to the provinces to which they

refer.

Marquis de Nadaillac, in the November-December number of

L’ Anthropologie, gives an extended review of an “Introduction to

the Study of North American Archeology” by Cyrus Thomas. His

distinguished investigations in this field entitle him to speak with

authority concerning all that pertains to prehistoric America. He

justly observes that the subject is one of great interest because of

the obscurity enveloping it, and, in conclusion, “ the past of America

is still an unfathomable mystery.”

In the Smithsonian Report for 1896 will be found a description of

the “ Biblical Antiquities ” that were exhibited at the Atlanta Exposi-

tion in 1895. This illustrated paper is of special interest to students

of “ Ceremonialism.” F.R.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Professor Ewart’s Mares.'— Lord Morton’s mare has played its

part in the literature of speculative biology for nearly eighty years, and

deserves a rest. It is most likely to get it through the researches of

Professor Ewart, who is conducting telegony experiments on a large

scale at his farm at Penycuik [pronounced fennycook]. Since the

1 Ewart, J.C. The Penycuik Experiments. London, Adam and Charles Black,.

1899. xciii + 177 pp., 46 figs.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 429

quagga, which Lord Morton used in “infecting,” is now an extinct

species, Ewart uses zebras. He has bred, up to the time of writ-

ing, nine zebra ¢ horses, ? hybrids, and three reciprocal hybrids. In

two cases he has crossed a mare with a zebra, and then obtained

a second foal from the mare mated with a horse. In one case there

were quite marked stripes; in the second case there were faint

and few stripes. In two other cases a mare which had already

had foals by a horse and then by the zebra, had a third foal by a

horse, and this foal was unmarked. Ewart does not regard the

stripes seen in the first two cases good evidence for telegony, because

of the frequency with which such stripes occur on pure-bred foals.

He finds that foals are far more often marked with stripes — apparent

or real —than is generally supposed, and that stripes will be often

seen in horses if they are carefully looked for. Ewart is continuing

his experiments ; but it seems as though the fact that even marked

stripes may occur in normally bred foals will interfere with getting a

satisfactory conclusion concerning telegony in horses.

Common Salt a Plant Poison. — A solution may have either of

two injurious effects: it may act osmotically and withdraw from the

protoplasm the necessary water; it may act chemically. Sodium

chloride has usually been regarded as acting osmotically only. Now

True? shows that when a solution of sodium chloride or potassium

nitrate is made of the same osmotic value as a sugar solution, it is

far more injurious than the sugar solution, This can only be inter-

preted to mean that the salt has some additional effect above the

osmotic effect, and this can only be a chemical one.

Physics and General Biology.*2— The naturalist has frequent

need of a good physics. We therefore take pleasure in noticing a

new text-book on this subject by two professors at Yale University.

The treatment, while quantitative, does not involve the use of cal-

culus. Of most use to the naturalist will be the sections on instru-

ments for measuring time and length; tables of densities of gases at

various temperatures and pressures and of solids and liquids; surface

tension, to which an entire chapter is devoted ; solutions (including

a fairly full treatment of osmosis) ; electric cells and galvanometers ;

R. H. Physiological Action of Certain Plasmolyzing Agents, Zot.

Gaze, vol xxvi, pp. 407-416, December,

2 Hastings, Chas., and Beach, F. K. E. A TextBook of General Physics.

Boston, ces & Co., 1899. viii + 768 pp., 495 figs.

430 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

the electric theory; waves, especially sound waves; the physical

theory of hearing and musical instruments; and valuable chapters on

Elementary Theory of Optical Instruments, Spectroscopy, and Maxi-

mum Efficiency of Optical Instruments.

The Plankton of the Limfiord.! — This fiord is a tortuous channel,

92 miles in length, which traverses the peninsula of Jutland. In

1825 an irruption of the North Sea drove back the fresh and brackish

water fauna of the fiord and replaced it with that of the sea. A

slow current passes through it from the east or the west according to

the relative levels of the North and Baltic Seas, though in recent

years it has been predominantly from the North Sea eastward. The

stream is shallow — 2—13 fathoms — with a few expansions in shallow

lakes, and exhibits practically uniform conditions of temperature and

salinity at the top and the bottom. Owing to the slight depth the

temperature rises to 18.4° C. in the summer, and the salinity averages

about 3 percent. The plankton of this interesting region has been

investigated by Dr. Petersen of the Danish Biological Station. Three

traverses of the fiord were made in 1896 and 1897, and the collections

thus made were supplemented by a seasonal series and by others

from the Cattegat and the Baltic. The qualitative examination, made

-by Mr. H. Grau, was confined in the main to the diatoms and the

Peridiniex, which constitute the bulk of the plankton. The investiga-

tion determined that the amount of plankton per O meter in the

shallow fiord was ro—5o times as great as that of the adjacent and

deeper North Sea, and more than double that of the Cattegat. The

constitution of the plankton is peculiar in that the predominant spe-

cies are neritic rather than oceanic, and are not thus abundant in the

North Sea, whence the fiord receives its water, nor in the Cattegat,

into which it empties. Its diatom flora must therefore breed in the

water in transit in response to some change in the physical-chemical

environment, as, for example, contact with the bottom, rise in tempera-

ture, or the addition of nitrogen by the tributary rivulets. Another

instance of this unique phenomena — namely, the maintenance of a

peculiar plankton at a given point in’a body of water traversed by

a current — was discovered in the Cattegat, where an undercurrent

from the deeper Skager Rack enters this shallower area, and there

is developed within it, in passing, a local and peculiar diatom flora.

The results of this work lead the author to suggest that “guide

1 Petersen, C. G. J. Plankton Studies in the Limfjord, Rep. Danish Biol.

Station, vol. vii, 1897. 23 pp., with 1 map and 4 tables. 1898.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 431

organisms ” from the plankton for the detection of oceanic currents,

especially with changing shore conditions, should be chosen with care.

C A K.

PHYSIOLOGY.

Ocular Accommodation. — For several years past Dr. Theodor

Beer,’ of the University of Vienna, has been investigating ocular accom-

modation in those animals which possess well-developed camera eyes,

and has presented in a lecture before the Fourth International Con-

gress of Physiologists an admirable survey of this subject. According

to him such water animals as the dibranchiate cephalopods and the

bony fishes possess eyes which in the resting condition are accom-

modated for short distances, and which require active accommodation

for vision at long distances. This is brought about by shifting the

lens, without changing its curvature, from a distant position to one

nearer the retina. In the cephalopods this shifting is accomplished

by the contraction of a ring-shaped muscle which works against the

deeper contents of the eyeball. In the bony fishes a band-like

muscle, the retractor of the lens, draws that body inward toward the

retina.

In the air-inhabiting vertebrates the resting eye is accceniucdaakd for

distant vision. Near vision is possible only by active accommoda-

tion. This is accomplished in one of two ways: either the lens,

unchanged in form, is moved away from the retina, as in amphibians

-and most snakes, or the convexity of the outer surface of the lens is

increased, as in a few snakes, the turtles, crocodiles, lizards, birds,

and mammals. The outward movement of the lens is brought about

by an increase of pressure in the vitreous humor, produced by muscular

contraction; the change in the convexity of the lens is induced by the

well-known indirect action of the ciliary muscle.

In all the groups of animals examined, with the exception of the

cephalopods and the birds, some species were found in which accom-

modation was entirely or almost entirely absent; such, for instance,

was the case in the cartilaginous fishes, the sea eels, haddock, frogs,

toads, salamanders, alligators, some lizards, vipers, and many rodents.

Many of these are night animals, and possess in the daytime so small

1 Beer, T. Die Accommodation des pate in der Thierreihe, Wiener klini-

schen Wochenschrift, Nr. 42, Jahrgang 1

432 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST. {VoL. XXXIII:

a pupil that the images on their retinas are formed by this opening

rather than by the lens, which is thus in a measure functionless.

Most vertebrates are unable to accommodate their eyes so that

they can see equally well in water and in air. Water animals when

in the air are extremely shortsighted ; air-inhabiting forms when in

water are very farsighted. Only some few vertebrates, such as the

pond turtles which seek their prey both by land and water, seem to

see well on land and yet accommodate for near vision in water.

Those animals that accommodate by moving their lenses (cephalo-

pods, fish, amphibia, and some snakes) presumably suffer no special

loss of this power as age advances. Those whose accommodation

depends upon a change in the form of the lens, brought about through

its elasticity (most reptiles, birds, and mammals), probably suffer as

the human being does, and become permanently farsighted as age

advances. G A P

The Sense of Hearing is the subject of a popular discourse deliv-

ered by Dr. K. Vohsen! before the Senckenberg Natural History

Society and published in their proceedings. The speaker calls atten-

tion to the relation between speech and hearing, and shows in a table

the zoölogical distribution of sound-producing and sound-perceiving

organs. While almost all animals possess the latter, only arthro-

pods and vertebrates possess the former. The auditory vesicles of

the invertebrates, as well as the inner ears of the vertebrates, are

described. Only a hint is given that the so-called auditory organs of

_ the lower animals may also be concerned with the function of equili-

bration, and no mention is made of the fact that, in the cases most

carefully examined, equilibrations seem to be the exclusive function

of these parts. The lecture contains an excellent table showing the

range of hearing in the human ear, and the complex question of the

analysis of sound by the ear is considered. Gr ae

Physiology for Schools. — In a little book of Laboratory Exer-

cises” Mr. James Edward Peabody has done a good work, for which

many teachers will be grateful. By series of skillfully framed ques-

tions upon objects readily accessible, the pupil is led to exert his

1 Vohsen, K. Uber den Gehorsinn, Bericht d. Senckenberg. naturf. Gesell.,

1898, pp. 91-112.

2? Peabody, J. E., Instructor in Biology in the High School for Boys and Girls,

New York City. Ladoratory Exercises in Anatomy and Physiology. New York,

Henry Holt & Co., 1898. Cloth, x + 78 pp., interleaved.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE: 433

powers in making simple yet significant observations, experiments,

and inferences which cannot fail to awaken a lively interest.. Certain

of these exercises are intended to be performed by the pupil at home

and reported on in class. Others involve a demonstration by the

teacher before the class. Not the least valuable feature is a series

of questions to be used in making a “Comparative Study of the

Mammalian Skeleton,” as shown in such a collection as that of the

American Museum of Natural History. This points the way to a

wider educational use of museums in large cities. The book is full

of helpful suggestions.

The only passages noticed as oiii for amendment are the follow-

ing: On p. 62 the pupil is directed to “ prepare a strong solution of

quinine in water by dissolving sulphate of quinine in water by the aid

of sulphuric acid.” This is hardly explicit enough for home use.

Moreover, sulphuric acid in inexperienced hands seems unsafe. In

the directions for applying “the nitric acid and ammonia test”

(p. 22) the boiling necessary to secure the xantho-proteic reaction is

not mentioned. FREDERICK LEROY SARGENT.

Overton’s Physiology.’ — It is not often that we find so much

nonsense compressed into a small volume as a casual glance reveals

in this one. A few extracts will show the character of the whole

volume. * In moist earth there lives a little animal called the ameba.”

«All animals must have water to drink.” “ Ov/, or fat, is found in

little pockets between the cells.” ‘The fat around the cells is like a

cushion, which protects the cells and keeps them warm.” Starch

grains “dissolve in water and form a paste.” “When the plant

ripens, the starch changes to sugar.” ‘“ Most of the fat is oxidized in

the lungs.” The mind “tells the liver cells to change the digested

food to blood.” “The mind lives in a few cells and rules all the

rest.” “From the cells [of bone] there go out fine strings of con-

nective tissue. Lime is mixed among the strings like starch among

the fibers of a linen collar.” Between the vertebre “are thick,

strong -pads of tough flesh or gristle.” The scapula “is not joined

to any bone.” ‘A muscle is large at one end and is fast to a bone.”

“The power of a muscle comes from the heat of oxidized food.” —

“ Cell, the smallest part of the body which can live when separated

from the rest.” ‘The only cells of the body which can move about

are the white blood cells. The rest are held in place by strings of

1 Overton, Frank, A.M., M.D. Applied Physiology, including the Effects of

Alcohol and Narcotics. New York, American Book Company, 1898.

434 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

connective tissue.” ‘The liver cells also change sugar into a kind

of starch. This is soon oxidized in the liver, and heat is produced

for the use of the body.” And so on ad nauseam.

Animal Hypnotism.'— The first part of Professor Verworn’s Con-

_ tributions to the Physiology of the Central Nervous System is taken up

with an interesting account of the so-called hypnotism of animals.

As early as 1636 Schwenter described the well-known experiment in

which a hen is held on a horizontal surface, and a chalk-line drawn

from her head over the surface; on releasing her, instead of recover-

ing her normal position, she may remain motionless for some consid-

erable time. Ten years later Kircher described the same experiment,

except that he directed that the hen should be bound with a cord >

_and part of the cord stretched in place of the chalk-line. On drawing

the chalk-line the cord could be removed, leaving the hen motionless.

In 1872 Czermak showed that the cord and chalk-line were superflu-

ous, and that the experiment succeeded perfectly well without them.

He likewise called attention to similar phenomena in the crayfish.

The next year Preyer published experiments of a like nature on the

guinea pig and frog. These were followed by contributions from

Heubel and from Danilewsky, both of whom worked chiefly with the

frog. As a result of these studies it was found that many animals,

chiefly vertebrates, when placed in abnormal positions and held there

till their struggles to recover had ceased, would remain motionless in

some cases for an hour or more, especially when they were protected

against strong sensory stimuli.

Schwenter believed the animals remained still from fright, and this

idea was elaborated by Preyer. Kircher thought that the hen, know-

still. After the removal of the cord she mistook the chalk-line for

the cord, and, believing she was still bound, made no effort at

recovery. Czermak, and later Danilewsky, regarded the condition

as directly comparable with the hypnotic state of the human subject.

Heubel sought for an explanation of the phenomenon in conditions

parallel with sleep.

In dealing with this subject Verworn considers three questions:

first, what is the pose of the body and the condition of the muscula-

ture when the animal is “ hypnotized ”? secondly, to what extent is

1 Verworn, Max. Beiträge sur Physiologie des Centralnervensystems. Erster

Theil. Die a Hypnose der Thiere. Jena, G. Fischer, 1898. iv + 92 pp-

and 18 illustrations in the text.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 435

it open to sensory stimulation? and, thirdly, what part of the central

nervous system is essential to this state? Answers to these ques-

tions are obtained from observations on guinea pigs, hens, frogs, and

asps.

The postures which the “hypnotized’’ animals assume represent

usually some step in the process of recovering from their abnormal

positions, and they are held in these positions by a tonic contraction

of their muscles. They are, so to speak, like so many instantaneous

photographs of animals, in process of righting themselves. Verworn

believes that the reason they remain motionless in this condition is

not because their motor impulses have been inhibited, but simply

because there are no such impulses.

In the “hypnotic” condition the animals’ senses are normally

acute, but their reflex capabilities are probably actually reduced,

though the loss of this power may in part be due to exhaustion.

Heubel found that the experiments made on the frog could be

performed as well on an animal without its cerebral hemispheres as

on one in normal condition. This important observation has been

confirmed by Danilewsky and by Verworn, and the latter has demon-

strated the same to be true for the hen. In the hen, however, the

presence or absence of the cerebrum makes a difference. While in

both cases the animals may be brought into a motionless condition,

a hen without a cerebrum will remain motionless an hour or more,

instead of ten minutes, as in the normal animal. Moreover, her

recovery is always associated with some obvious sensory stimulation,

which is not necessarily so in the case of the normal hen. Guinea

pigs whose spinal cords have been cut respond to the assumed hyp-

notic influence only by the anterior portions of their bodies. From

these experiments Verworn concludes that the center for readjusting

the position of the body, as well as that for the tonic contraction of

the muscles, cannot lie in either cerebrum or cord, but must be some-

where between these parts. He assumes with reason that it is located

in the cerebellum. It is remarkable, however, that Verworn has not

attempted to test this assumption by trying experiments on animals

from which the cerebellum had been removed.

According to Verworn the motionless condition of the animals is

dependent upon two factors—a tonic stimulation of the cerebellar

reflex center, whereby the animal is held in an attitude of recovery,

and an inhibition of the motor areas of the cerebrum. As the cere-

brum acts only in this negative way, an animal without its cerebrum

may be made motionless by the positive action of its cerebellar cen-

436 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

ter. In recovery the animal without its cerebrum i is dependent upon

its sense organs to generate impulses which may eventually affect its

cerebellum, while the normal animal may have its cerebellum influ-

enced not only through its sense organs, but also from its centers

for spontaneous movements in the cerebrum. Thus animals with a

cerebrum usually recover sooner than those deprived of this organ.

The motionless condition in animals has then only a superficial

resemblance to certain phases of hypnotism as seen in the human

subject, and probably is an essentially different phenomenon. _

G H.F:

ZOOLOGY.

2 4

Generic Names P Dr. Carlos Berg has done a useful

work in a critical study of recently proposed generic names with a

view to the elimination of those preoccupied. In Communicaciones del

Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires, 1898, pp. 41, 43 (December 17), he

proposes to substitute the following names of animals for others pre-

occupied. Hoferellus for Hoferia; Iheringiana for Iheringiella ;

Halochnaura for Asterope ; Gestroana for Gestroa ; Corynophora

for Halterophora; Meyrickella for Prionophora ; Walsinghamiella

for Gilbertia (Lepidoptera); Watsoniella for Watsonia ; Schochidia

for Lophostoma ; Braunsianus for Anelpistus; Gilbertidia for Gil-

bertina; Matzocephalus for Ccelocephalus. The last two are genera

of American fishes. DSF

Deep-Sea Fishes of Iceland. — Dr. Christian Lütken has just

published, in English, a most valuable account of the fishes dredged

by the “Ingolf” in 1895 and 1896 off Iceland and the Faroë.

Forty-four species are recorded, three of them new, Raja ingolfiana,

Cyclothone megalops, and Macrurus ingolfi. Important notes are given

on the structure of different species. The lithographic plates of

Cordts (some of them colored) which illustrate this paper are most

excellent. S23:

Spolia Atlantica. — Dr. Christian Lütken, of the University of

Copenhagen, has continued his most valuable discussion of the early

stages of development of fishes, as shown by the rich “ spoils of the

Atlantic,” young fishes taken in the open sea. The third paper of

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 437

. this series, just published by Dr. Japetus Steenstrup and Dr. Lütken,

treats of the development and structure of the “ Molidæ, or Head-

fishes,” called by them “ Klumpfish,” or “ Moon-fish,” the family

constituting the two genera Mola and Ranzania.

The changes which take place in the growth of these fishes are

most remarkable, and have led to the establishment of very many

(thirteen) nominal genera, besides the two which have a real basis

in adult structure. The most persistent of these genera was the

diminutive Molacanthus, a stage of growth which was naturally and

apparently logically taken for an adult fish.

This paper, like all of Dr. Liitken’s, is very conscientiously written

and admirably illustrated.

We miss, however, the usual “ Résumé en français,” an important

help to those whose knowledge of Danish is casual and incomplete.

Ds S-J

Fishes of New South Wales. — The government of New South

Wales has lately published a review of trawling operations of H. M. S.

“ Thetis,” conducted along its coast by Frank Farnell.

The record, valuable for economic purposes, is supplemented by a

“ Scientific Report ” on the fishes by Edgar L. Waite. In this report

numerous species are enumerated, two of them new to science, with

fairly drawn figures by Mr. Waite.

The nomenclature is very antiquated, the author apparently de-

pending almost entirely on Giinther’s Catalogue of the Fishes of the

British Museum, the one published volume of Boulenger’s masterly

catalogue being ignored. There is reason to doubt the accuracy of

certain identifications. The new species are as follows: Histiopterus

farnelli, Chimera ogilbyi; but doubtless others will appear when the

material has been more critically studied. D. S. J.

Fresh-Water Ostracoda of South America. — The fresh-water

collections made at Montevideo, in the Straits region, and in Chili by

the Hamburg Expedition, have been examined for Ostracoda by Dr.

W. Vavra? of the Prag Museum. He finds but eight species, three

of them being well-known cosmopolites, while the remaining five are

described as new. The list of Ostracoda known from South America

is thereby increased to twenty-six. One species is added to the

subgenus Chlamydotheca, a group characteristic of the southern

1 Vavra, W. Siisswasser-Ostracoden, Hamburg. Magalhaensische Sammelreise.

26 pp.. 5 Abb. Hamburg, 1898.

438 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII.

hemisphere. Species of this genus have been reported from Ceylon

and South Australia, from Patagonia, the Falkland Islands, Argen-

tina, Brazil, Venezuela, and from Vera Cruz, Mexico. A single

species only has been found in the temperate regions of the northern

hemisphere, having been described by Turner in 1892 from Cin-

cinnati as Cypris herricki. Dr. Vavra now regards this as identical

with C. speciosa Dana, described in 1838 from Rio de Janeiro. ‘The

genus Notodromas also receives an addition from South America in

N. patagonica. Two of the three species of this genus previously

known belong to the South Australian region, and one is cosmopolitan

in its distribution. Dr. Vavra’s paper thus affords further data for

the oft-recurring discussion of the similarity of the southern fauna of

the eastern and western hemisphere. CARK

New Flagellata from the Rhine.’ — Eight new forms are de-

scribed by Dr. Lauterborn from the Rhine and its adjacent waters.

Of especial interest is his Bicosæca socialis, a free-swimming colony in

which each zooid exhibits a well-defined but rudimentary collar about

the single flagellum, a condition which suggests a possible origin for

the Choanoflagellata. A colonial Chrysomonad, Hyalobryon ramosum,

is sessile, differing in this respect from the closely allied Dinobryon,

which is pelagic in habit. Hyalobryon is also peculiar in the method

of attachment of the superposed loricæ, these being fastened by their

basal tips to the outside of the supporting lorica. Lauterborn sug-

gests the possibility that this form may be identical with Æpipyxis

socialis, described by Dr. A. C. Stokes? from New Jersey. The

absence in this latter description of any reference to the method of

attachment of the loricæ and to the characteristic growth rings on

their distal ends seemed to justify the establishment of a'new genus

for the species from the Rhine. A new pelagic colonial form, C%ry-

sospherella longispina, resembles Synura uvelia in the form of the

colony and in the structure of the individual zooids, but differs from

the latter in the fact that each zooid bears but a single flagellum,

and in addition a pair of long silicious tubes which project consid-

erably beyond the colony. They rise from pedestals shaped like

wine-glasses, and resemble somewhat the spines of the heliozoan

Acanthocystis. As floats they may assist in the pelagic habit.

Co As K

1 Lauterborn, R. Protozoén-Studien. IV. Theil. Flagellata aus dem Gebiete

des Oberrheins. Hadilitationsschrift Univ. Heidelberg. 37 pp. 2 Taf. Ludwigs-

hafen am Rhein. 1898.

2 Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., vol. xxvii (1890), p. 76.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

9 439

Pond Infusoria..— The activity of the Bohemian fresh-water

biological station is manifested by Svec’s paper on the Infusoria of the

Unterpoéernitzer pond. Workers in fresh-water fauna will welcome

the very full biological and systematic treatment of an hitherto much

neglected field of investigation. Pelagic Infusoria are represented

by but seven species, three of which are described as new. Codonella

lacustris alone occurs throughout the year, being found under the ice

in the winter and reaching a maximum in the spring. The lowering

of the temperature of the pond during the summer by an influx of

rain water is followed by a rapid increase in the number of ‘this spe-

cies. Littoral Infusoria abound, not only among the aquatic vegeta-

tion and the diatoms alongshore, but also in the surface scum which

gathers in such regions. The greater part of the sixty-nine species

recorded in the paper occur in this region. The bottom fauna con-

tains but few individuals belonging to but six species. In all, ten

new species are described. CAR

Variation in Veneride.’? — The result of work on 1000 specimens

of a Western representative of the large Veneridæ from many locali-

ties is another illustration of the extreme variation, not only in

color tint but in color scale and color pattern, which may exist in an

otherwise very well demarcated form, Sixteen varieties based on

color are described and arranged in six groups. These varieties are

not traced to their relations with environment, though all forms,

except those based on the number of rays, are said to be highly local.

The varieties would appear to be discontinuous; e.g., Mr. Stearns

appears to indicate that the number of rays is either just about the

typical twenty or “very many” more or “very many” less. It is

interesting to note that the two valves vary independently of each

other. In fact, it would seem from Mr. Stearns’s description that one

valve might be Cytherea crassatelloides var. pauciradiata, while the

other was C. crass. var. multiradiata, With this extreme variation

in color goes extreme stability of form and interior coloration. The

only variety of form noted is in degree of ventricosity and elongation,

clearly correlated with an exposed habitat calling for deeper burrow-

ing and consequent elongation of siphons.

1 Švec, F. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Infusorien Böhmens. I. Die ciliaten

Infusorien des Unterpocernitzer Teiches, Bul. nt. Acad. d. Sci. Bohême (1897),

2 Stearns, R. E. C. Notes on Cytherea (Tivela) crassatelloides Conrad, with

Descriptions of Many Varieties, Proc. U. s. Nat. Museum, vol. xxi (1898), pp

371-378, Pls. XXIII-XXV.

440 . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIIL.

We think the main value of the work is its illustration of the worth-

lessness of exterior coloration in shells to the systematist, and the

interest of this ornamentation problem as an independent question of

physiology, or possibly of morphology.

F. N; BALOH.

Distribution and Variation. — In the Procès Verbaux Soc. Roy.

Malacol. de Belgique meeting of February, 1898, is reported an inter-

esting discussion on “L’Emigration considérée comme facteur de

l’évolution et de filiation des espèces.” It was apropos of a paper

by M. Arnold Locard in the Compt. Rend. 1’ Acad. Sci., No. 5, 1898,

on the area of distribution of the molluscan fauna of the boreal Atlan-

tic in the deeper waters to the south. Locard pointed out that

recent explorations had shown that forms littoral or sublittoral in the

boreal regions have spread southward, into ever-deepening waters,

from an area approximately of common origin, down the European

and African shores to the latitude of Guinea, in about 2000 fathoms,

and down the American shores to the latitude of the Antilles, in about

800 fathoms. The area of distribution would thus have the form of a

vast triangle of which the apex would rest in about 50 fathoms, some-

where north of Iceland, while the base connected the north-tropical

shores of Africa and America, passing upward from east to west from

a depth of 2000 fathoms to bne of 800. M. Locard’s idea, M. Van

den Broek thought, was that migration occurs, speaking largely, in

opposition to variation. That is, a northern species under pressure

from a changing environment or from crowding might spread along

the coast where bathymetric and other conditions would be little

changed, but the temperature change would be great, or it might

spread downward where the changes would be just the opposite. In

either case it would follow the line of least resistance; z.e., that in

which the required variation would be least. Emigration would

replace adaptation and prove a factor of stability.

From this idea M. Van den Broek differs. He points out that

while deeper water was doubtless the line of least resistance in migra-

tion, and probably called for less variation than migration along the

coast would have done (as is indicated, moreover, by the archaic

facies of abyssal life), yet the cause of migration is uncertain. -It

may be to escape the competition of more competent rivals, or local

enemies, or parasites, or it may be in the wake of a migrating food

supply, and in such cases might not be along the line calling for

least variation. In the case of the deep-water and arctic Mollusca it.

No. 389.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 441

certainly appears that temperature was the main factor, and probably

it was true that changes in bathymetric conditions called for less

variation than changes of temperature conditions would have done;

but, even so, migration proves ultimately a great source of variation.

The gradual nature of changes on the sea-bottom leads to very

extended distribution, and consequently into areas which are chang-

ing in very opposite ways; eg., sinking and rising. With such wide

geographical distribution come extreme differences, eventually, in

food and other variation factors. Oscillation of the bottom, M. Van

den Broek thinks, would be particularly effective in breaking up the

widely dispersed species, and he points out that a species changed

by a shoaling of the water would not revert to its old form upon the

waters again deepening, but would undergo a second change, remov-

ing it yet a step from the ancestral form which lived under similar

conditions. M. Van den Broek believes widespread movements like

the one under discussion have taken place repeatedly, and that the

ancestors of a given fauna are to be looked for, not in the underlying

strata, but in distant formations representing the same essentials

of environment. Thus he finds the ancestral forms of the Belgian

Miocene sands, not in the underlying Oligocene clays, but in the

older Miocene of North Germany, while the descendants of the

Belgian Miocene sands he identifies, tracing a northeast to south-

west migration, accompanied by an increasing salinity and depth, but

constant temperature, in the fauna of the Coralline Crag of Suffolk ;

while above this point, in the Red Crag, he sees the extinction or

profound modification of the forms and an invasion of new boreal

forms, indicating a great increase of depth by sinking.

This discussion is suggestive, but it seems clear that M. Van den

Broek has not settled the question. If his species migrated into deep

water because it was the line of least resistance in the first place, why

did they not do so again when the bottom rose? Again, is it not

true that no matter what the cause of migration may be, that method

is chosen because it is the one calling for least modification? We

will suppose that a migration along the shore calls for greater modi-

fication than migration into deeper water, and that the original habitat

is unchanging, but that competition is too great or depredation too

fierce. It seems that the greatest amount of modification would be

needed before the competition would be successfully met or the

depredation resisted. If less were required for this than for the

change of habitat, the difficulty would be thus met.

The consideration of migration as a factor of stability is of some

442 `: . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

interest, and certainly the deep-sea fauna is an excellent subject for

such speculations, because, as Mr. Dall has so interestingly pointed

out, the struggle for life on the sea-bottom must in great depths be

reduced to a minimum, from the vast area at the disposal of any

species, the practically unlimited supply of food, such as it is, the

fewness of predatory forms, and the rarity of the sudden vicissitudes

of land and littoral life ; so that such modifications as do take place

must be comparatively direct results of the physical environment.

F. N. BALCH.

. Zoölogical Results of Dr. Willey’s Expedition. Part II.!— The

second part of the zoölogical results of Dr. Willey’s expedition to the

Western Pacific comprises reports on the genus Millepora by Dr.

Sydney J. Hickson, Echinoderms by F. Jeffrey Bell, Holothurians by

F. P. Bedford, Sipunculoidæ by A. E. Shipley, Solitary Corals and

Postembryonic Development of Cycloseris by J. Stanley Gardiner,

Earthworms by F. E. Beddard, and Gorgonacea by Isa L. Hiles.

Dr. Hickson ascribes all of the specimens of Millepora to M.

alicornis, which, he has before pointed out, is the only species- of

Millepora so far known. The parts of Dr. Hickson’s paper that are

particularly interesting are those that are devoted to the parasites of

this coral. In addition to worms and alge, he speaks of “ spots

scattered over the surface of the coral having the general appearance

of arash.” He concludes “ that these bodies are clusters or zoögloeæ

of parasitic bacteria.” Of the thirty-nine species of Echinoderms of

Professor Bell’s Report, two of which are possibly new, six belong to

the Crinoids, twelve to the Echinoids, fourteen to the Asteroids, and

seven to the Ophiurioids. Two new species of Holothurians are

described by Mr. Bedford among the twenty-four in the collection.

Mr. Bedford calls attention to some interesting variations in two

species, in the number of stone canals, polian vesicles, and cuverian

organs. Mr. Shipley’s account of the Sipunculoidea enumerates

twenty-three species, none of which are new. Probably the most

important contributions to systematic zodlogy in the series are the

papers of Mr, Gardiner and Miss Hiles, and Mr. Beddard’s: report

on the earthworms. Mr. Gardiner describes eleven new species of

solitary corals among fourteen, and Miss Hiles four new forms of

1 Willey, Arthur, D.Sc., etc. Zoological Results based on Material from New

Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands, and Elsewhere, collected during the years

1895, 1896, and Sea Part II. Cambridge, the University Press (1899), pp. 121-

206, Pls. XII-XXIII

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 443

Gorgonacea in ten. Three of the nine earthworms in “Mr. Beddard’s

-account are new. The photogravure illustrating Mr. Gardiner’s

paper is one of the best we have seen in the application of photog-

raphy to zodlogical illustration.

A striking feature in this second part of the results of Dr. Willey’s

expedition is, that of the 127 species embraced in the different

reports only eighteen are new, and about go per cent of these are

Anthozoa from comparatively deep water. This is explained by the

fact that Dr. Willey was the first to undertake systematic dredging in

the Western Pacific. For the high character of the typography and

mechanical execution of the book, it is only necessary to say that it

bears the imprint of the University Press.

The Distribution of the Perissodactyla, Lamnungia, and Artio-

dactyla. — Carl Grevé' has published a new number of his series of

zoogeographical monographs, treating of the distribution of the Peris-

sodactyla (horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs), Lamnungia (Hyrax), and Artio-

dactyla zon ruminantia (Hippopotamus, Sus, and their allies), In

its general plan this part follows closely the former publications of

the same author,” and gives a very elaborate report on the distribution

_of the groups named in the title.

The chief value of this memoir consists in the detailed account of

the single localities from which each species has been recorded, and

in the summing up of the results for the species, genera, and families

in tabular form, accompanied by colored distributional maps for the

genera and species. ‘Thus the author has fixed the actual distribu-

tion of each species, and his work will always be of much use to any

subsequent writer, for it gives the facts of geographical distribution

pure and simple.

Evidently the author did not intend to give anything else than

facts. However, zoégeography is not satisfied with the mere estab-

lishment of facts, but wants explanations; and these identical groups

have been the subject of discussion before. We know that in former

times, during the Tertiary period, the distribution of every single one

of the above groups of mammals was very different from the present,

and on the other hand we know that in many cases these old condi-

tions may explain the present ones. Mr. Carl Grevé does not try to

enter into any details in this:respect ; indeed, he gives on the head of

each group a general review of our knowledge of its paleontology,

1 Abhandl. Kais. Leop.Carol. Akad. Naturf., Bd. Ixx, Nr. 5, 1898.

2 Carnivora and Pinnipedia, idid., Bd. lxiii, p. 1, and Bd. lxvi, p. 4.

444 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXIII.

but it would have been much better to leave that aside entirely; for

the reader, noticing these discrepancies between recent and fossil

forms, is not satisfied with the simple fact that things have changed

since Tertiary times; and, farther, these paleontological introductions

to each chapter cannot claim at all to be reliable; indeed, they ap-

pear to have been written without the slightest knowledge of Tertiary

— especially American — Mammalian Paleontology. A EO.

from South Africa by Professor M. Weber, Sluiter’ finds four species

and one variety, all known forms of Sipunculids, and one species of

Thalassema, making a total of only twelve species and two varieties

of these groups reported from the east coast of Africa. He explains

the poverty of this fauna as due to the lack of extensive coral reefs,

which are its fittest habitat. An appendix to the report deals with

the form previously described by Sluiter as Szpunculus indicus Peters,

which Fischer surmised was not the true S. indicus. Sluiter now

proposes the name S. discrepans for the species, and gives an extended

description of the differences between the two. Of especial interest

is the dissimilarity in the structure of the skin, which appears to offer

one of the readiest means of specific determination in this genus.

In contrast with the poverty of the African coast, Shipley? reports

a collection made in Rotuma and Funafuti containing fourteen spe-

cies, of which two, Sipunculus rotumanus and S. funafuti, are new;

one, Physcosoma varians Kef., has not yet been reported outside of the

Atlantic, where it is common; and one, Thalassema vegrande Lamp.,

has been found but once before, in the Philippines. The other forms

noted are common to various localities in the Pacific and Indian

Oceans and Red Sea.

The description by the same author of the forms collected by Dr.

Willey? further shows the richness of this group among the Pacific

islands. All the twenty-three species obtained are known forms

belonging to Sipunculid genera, as follows: Sipunculus eight species,

Physcosoma seven, Aspidosiphon five, and Cloeosiphon, Phascolion,

and Phascolosoma one species each; of these, six are identical with

species reported in the preceding paper. The author emphasizes

1 Gephyreen von Siid-Afrika, nebst Bemerkungen über NAPR indicus

Tons Zool. Jahrbiicher, Abt. f. Syst., vol. xi, pp. 442-450, 2

eport on the Gephyrean Worms collected by Mr. J. sisi Gardiner at

Rotuma and Funafuti, Proc. Zoöl. Soc., London, 1898, pp. 468-473, Pl. XX XVII.

3 A Report on the Sipunculoidea collected by Dr. Willey at the Loyalty Islands

and in New Britain, Zool. Results, Pt. ii, pp. 151-160, PI. XVIII

No. 389.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 445

the extreme variability of the Sipunculids in external appearance, and

the difficulty of specific determination. In Sipunculus australis the

so-called hooks on the introvert were found to be actually only thick-

ened cuticular ridges, elevated like rolls above the surface; an

though characteristic, these structures do not warrant the statement

of various authors as to the occasional presence of hooks in this

genus. While the large collections of Sipunculids made by Semper,

Sluiter, and others, in the Philippine and Malay archipelagoes, have

yielded a knowledge of the group in these regions superior to that

from other tropical seas, still Shipley is inclined to look upon the

Malay archipelago as the center for this group, from which it has

spread east along southern Asia to the Red Sea, and outward over

the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The abundance, particularly of cer-

tain species, in this territory is to be associated with the prevalence ~

of coral reefs over the area. nn WwW.

The Palolo Worm. — The long-existing ignorance concerning this

interesting annelid that comes to the surface of the ocean during the

third quarter of the moon in October and November, in the Samoan

and Fiji islands, has recently been somewhat diminished by the inde-

pendent researches of Friedlander’ and of Kramer.’

We seem now pretty certain that the creature comes from shallow

water — not from mysterious depths; that it lives in dead coral

masses; that it casts off the main part of the body to swim free and

discharge eggs and sperm when ripe, while the head end probably

remains in the coral to regenerate. The suggestion that it is the

combined warmth of the sun with least tides that brings on this

maturity at a particular phase of the moon seems in the right direc-

tion ; still we remain ignorant of the real cause of this exact periodi-

city in reproduction. We are not absolutely sure of the genus to

which the creature belongs — despite the fact that so many Europeans

have noted its appearance, and that it occurs so abundantly that the

natives make its capture for food a set feast, and have incorporated

its habits in their folk-lore. EA A

Is Fertilization a Process of Feeding ? — N. Iwanzow® describes

remarkable pseudopodia and tufts of filous threads sent out by minia-

ture eggs of a helothurian to seize and engulf spermatozoa. In two

1 Biolog. Centralblatt., vol. xviii, May, 1898.

2 Ibid., vol. xix, January, 1899.

8 Bul. ie Imp. Nat. de Moscou, Nr. 3, 1897.

446 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL XXXIII.

hours a large number of sperms are thus slowly ingested, and the egg

will take no more till the following day, when a second feeding may

occur if sperm is offered; even a third was once accomplished when

the eggs were kept alive long enough.

From preserved eggs the author gathers that the ingested sperms

pass slowly through the egg into the nucleus, and are there resolved

into granules distributed along the nuclear network.

The inference is drawn that normal maturation, the formation of

polar bodies, by removing nuclear matter, lessens the digestive power

of the egg, so that it takes in but one sperm and does not digest it!

The chematropism of egg and sperm is but a form of that of animal

for food. We are even asked to follow the idea that all psychic

processes are but expressions and consequences of nutritional

processes. EAN

Zöological Notes. — R. Collett (Bergens Museums Aarborg for 1897)

gives an interesting account of the present and past distribution and

of the habits of the beaver in Norway. A summary in English and

numerous photographs of beaver lodges, nests, and young make the

results accessible to the general reader. Owing to the protection

furnished by the game laws, these animals increased in number from

60 in 1880 to 100 in 1883, and have since held their own, or perhaps

gained.

In the last number of the Archives de Parasitologie, Blanchard

presents a valuable and interesting summary of the cases of pseudo-

parasitism in man on the part of various Myriapods. All of the 35

authentic cases, among them 6 entirely new, are reported in full. In

27 cases the animal was located in the nasal fosse or their connect-

ing cavities, while in 8 cases it came from the alimentary canal. In

about half the instances the species was accurately determined.

G. Schwalbe (Morph. Arbeiten, Bd. VIII, Heft 2, p. 341, 1898) gives

an account of his studies on the supposed open rudimentary marsupial

pouches of certain ungulates. His attention was directed to the

embryos of the sheep and a species of antelope. He concludes that

these pockets, which are quite well developed in sheep embryos, are

in no sense homologous with the true marsupium, but that they have

a very different origin.

The Graeffe-Saemisch Handbook is announced in a revised edition

by Engelmann under the editorship of Professor Saemisch of Bonn.

The first part of the new work is to consist of three volumes on the

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 447

anatomy and physiology of the eye; the second part, of nine volumes

on the pathology and therapeutics of this organ. The large number

and high standing of the collaborators give promise of a speedy and

satisfactory performance of the work. Volumes, or parts of volumes,

will be sold separately.

The rich collection of cetacean embryos made some years ago by

Professor Kiikenthal is being put to good use, as shown by the last

number of /enazsche Zeitschrift (Bd. XXXII, Heft 1 and 2), which is

made up of the following articles based on a study of this material ;

F. Jungklaus, The Stomach of the Cetaceans‘; O. Müller, Researches

on the Alterations which the Mammalian Respiratory Organs have

undergone in Adaptation to Water Life; W. Daudt, Contributions to

our Knowledge of the Urogenital Apparatus of the Cetaceans.

In the Festschrift til Kong Oskar II, Dr. Guldberg publishes the

results of his investigation on the asymmetry of the higher vertebrates.

Osteometric statistics, as well as data from the weight of the muscu-

lature of opposite sides of the body, indicate the occurrence of a

morphological asymmetry in birds, in many mammals, and in man.

This asymmetry is least at birth and increases with age; it finds its

physiological expression in the tendency to move in a circle. Com-

pensated and crossed asymmetry are of frequent occurrence.

The Organs of Respiration of the Oniscidz are described by Pro-

fessor J. H. Stoller in Zoologica. He finds the gills to be homologous

with those of aquatic isopods, but adapted to breathing atmospheric

air. A respiratory tree, resembling the trachez of insects, is bathed

by the blood which is brought to the gills. Adaptations for the pre-

vention of the desiccation of the blood are found, and there is no

mechanism for forcible inspiration and expiration of the air.

The Parasites of the Flamingo have recently been studied in Tunis

by Dr. M. Lühe (Situngsb. Pr. Akad. Wiss., Vol. XL, pp. 619-628), who

has found Zenia lamelligera Owen, which Diamare made the type of

a new genus, Amabilia. Three species of Drepanodotznia were also

found: Tenia liguloides Gerv., and its immature form, which proved

to be identical with 7. Caroli Par., and 7: megalorchis and T. isch-

norhynchan. sp. In the same host Monostoma attenuatum Rud. was

present in the cecum, and the new species Distomum michropharyn-

- geum in the gall bladder, and Echinostomum thenicopteri in the small

intestine. From the civet-cat two new forms of Dipylidium, D. “7

seriale and D. monoophorum, were secured.

448 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

The specimens of Mermis in the Kgl. Museum fiir Naturkunde in

Berlin have recently been studied by von Linstow (Arch. mikr. Anat.,

Vol. LIII, pp. 149-168), who gives an extended taxonomic account of

the genus, followed by a discussion of anatomical and histological

features. In the last three lines of the paper and all too easily over-

looked comes the establishment of a new genus for those species,

M. crassa and M. aguatilis, which are characterized by the possession

of only a single spicule.

Dr. Saint-Remy has added a complement to his valuable synopsis

of the monogenetic Trematods (Arch. Parasitol., Vol. I, No. 4, pp.

521-571). The present paper is a revision of the synopsis, including

all new matter since 1891, and is a most welcome contribution to our

knowledge of this important group of parasitic worms. Forty-nine

species have been added and a new key prepared.

Indo-Malayan Landplanarians are brought together in a synoptical

table or key for easy determination by von Graff (Ann. Jardin Bot.

Buitenzorg, Supp. Il, pp. 113-127). About 35 per cent of all known

species are found in this region.

Dr. N. A. Cobb has added another to his series of studies on the

free-living Nematoda (Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., Vol. XXIII, No. 91,

pp. 383-407), adding seventeen new species to the worm fauna of

Australia. All of the forms are from Port Jackson.

The Leeches of the U. S. National Museum have been studied by

J. Percy Moore (Proc. U. S: Nat. Mus, Vol. XXI, pp. 545-563),

and of the small national collection, consisting of species from all

parts, six are described as new.

Hypodermic Impregnation has been observed by Dr. E. G. Gardiner

in the acoelous turbellarian Polycherus caudatus (Journ. Morph., Vol.

XV, No. 1), thus adding another to the list of forms in which im-

pregnation of this sort occurs.

The Earthworms of Japan are being studied by S. Goto and S.

Hatai, the first of a series of papers being devoted to seventeen spe-

cies of Perichæta (Annot. Zool. Japon., Vol. II, No. 3).

Dr. R. S. Bergh in Fauna Chilensis reports upon the opisthobran-

chiate mollusca collected by Dr. Plate on the western coast of South

America. A number of forms described fifty years ago by D’Orbigny

from this locality are again brought to light, together with twelve new

species.

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 449

Poisonous serpents are said not to exist in New Caledonia, contrary

to the statement of Hoffmann in Bronn’s Zhierreich. Dr. Troues-

sart (Bull. Soc. Zool. France, Vol. XXIII, No. 11) believes that

Neelaps caledonicus was derived by Hoffmann by misreading Giinther’s.

Neelaps calonatus from New Grenada.

The Zoantharia of the Magellanic Region have been reported on

by Dr. O. Carlgren, and published by Friederichsen & Co. of Ham-

burg under the general title of Hamburger Magelhaensische Sammel-

reise. Thirteen new species and three new genera are described.

A new enemy to the grasshoppers, which for several years have

been devasting Argentina, has developed in the shape of a scarabrid

beetle belonging to the genus Frox, which has taken to eating the

eggs.

Albinism in a squirrel is illustrated by photographs in Bull. Soc.

Zool. France, Vol. XXIII, No. 11, by L. Petit, in the case of a brown

squirrel which is about 50 per cent albino and nearly evenly marked.

Mr. W. S. Calman has published an exhaustive review of the litera-

ture on the reproduction of the Rotifera in Matural Science.

BOTANY.

Vines’s Text-Book.'— In scope and bulk intermediate between

Professor Vines’s Students’ Text-Book of Botany and the English

edition of Prantl’s Elementary Text-Book, this volume treats of the

morphology, anatomy, physiology, and classification of plants in a

clear and understandable way, and the illustrations, many of which

are familiar to users of text-books, are in the main well selected.

The Teacher’s Leaflets, chiefly on nature-study, issued by the

Agricultural Experiment Station of Cornell University, are admirably

plain and direct presentations of everyday phenomena, the under-

standing of which is obscured by many of the more learned treatises.

How a squash plant gets out of the seed, How a candle burns,

Four apple twigs, How the trees look in winter, A children’s garden,

Some tent-makers, What is nature-study? Hint on making collec-

1 Vines, S. H. An Elementary Text-Book of Botany. London, Swan Sonnen-

schein & Co. New York, The Macmillan Company. 611 pp., 397 ff. Price $2.25.

450 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vov. XXXIII.

tions of insects, The leaves and acorns of our common oaks, The

life history of the toad (with a unique tail-piece), and The birds and

I, are the titles of some of the leaflets. 7

Elementary Science Bulletins of the Michigan Experiment Sta-

tion, of which six have thus far been issued, dealing with Beans

and peas before and after sprouting, Wheat and buckwheat before

and after sprouting, Timothy and red clover before and after sprout-

. ing, Leaves of clovers at different times of day, Branches of sugar

maple and beech as seen in winter, and Potatoes, rutabagas, and

onions, are comparable with the Zzeacher’s Leaflets of the Cornell

_ Station. All of the series yet issued are by Professor Beal. e

Water-Lenticels. — In a recent number of the Forstlich Naturwis-

senschaftliche Zeitschrift, Tubeuf discusses the formation of water-

lenticels and their significance. After a brief statement of some

previous views as to the occurrence and function of ærenchyma

tissue, he puts the following questions :

1. Is the development of water-lenticels due to the irritant influ-

ence of the liquid water surrounding the stem, and is their develop-

ment above the water due to a transmitted stimulus?

2. Is their development due to lack of oxygen?

_ 3. Is their development an ecological adaptation of woody plants

living in moist localities, or is their occurrence a general one?

He concludes that their occurrence is not a peculiarity of plants

in moist soils, but is a general attribute of woody stems. Further-

more, the lenticels formed whenever there was moisture; in other

words, /iguid water was not necessary, hence there is no such thing

as transmitted stimulus.

He comes to no definite conclusion as to the relation between lack

of oxygen and profuse formation of water-lenticels, but is inclined to

regard the water as the potent factor. A number of figures accom-

pany the paper, showing water-lenticels of Sambucus, Ulmus, and

Caragana. It may be mentioned that water-lenticels and ærenchyma

on branches of Sambucus and other woody plants were described

and figured by von Schrenk in Zrans. Am. Micr. Soc., Vol. VII (1896),

p. 98, Pls, I-III. T.

Root-Tubercles of Alder. — The tubercles found on the roots of

the alder and genera of the Eleagnacez were attributed by their dis-

coverer, Woronin, to a fungus which he called Schinzia alni, and which

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 451

Brunchorst recently renamed Frankia subtilis. Frank regarded the

peculiar cells always found in these tubercles as bodies of fungus

origin, which had degenerated because of their mode of life within

the cells of another plant. Moeller, on the other hand, regarded

them as single-celled Hyphomycetes. From an extended series of

experiments Hiltner’ comes to the conclusion that Frankia subtilis

is not a single-celled Hyphomycete, but a bacterial organism which

possesses sporangia, and because of these and other peculiarities

forms a connecting link between the bacteria and the true fungi. He

succeeded in inoculating the organisms into roots of alder seedlings

grown in N.-free nutritive solutions. The organisms enter through

the root hairs in a manner similar to that of the organism causing

leguminous tubercles. Inside of each hair is a mucilaginous thread

in which the bacteria lie imbedded without any system or regularity.

Before reaching the root proper the mucilaginous mass becomes fila-

mentous and resembles mycelial threads. Within the root the muci-

lage masses resemble plasmodia, which extend from cell to cell, and

ultimately become of a spongy consistency because of the appear-

ance of numerous vacuoles, surrounded by thin walls of mucilage, in

which the bacteria, now more or less in thread form, lie. Very soon

after the formation of a tubercle the individual bacteria change into

spheres filled with albumen, which rapidly differentiates into spores ;

in other words, the spheres represent sporangia. ‘The spores germi-

nate rapidly, forming short rods which fill the cells of the tubercle

but develop no mucilage. Hiltner points out that, with the exception

of Bacillus erythrosporus, few bacteria form sporangia. According to

his view, the bacteroids of the leguminous tubercles must be regarded

as sporangia, and in that case the bacteria of the alder and Legumi-

nosæ, both forming plasmodia, constitute a new group of bacteria.

Numerous experiments have proven the fact that the organisms in

the alder tubercles are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen; and,

unlike those of the Leguminosz, they are able to function fully under

water. We are promised a full exposition of the subject in another

journal at no distant date. HERMANN VON SCHRENK.

The Red and Blue Coloring Matters of Flowers are discussed

in Natural Science for February, by P. Q. Keegan, in continuation of

a paper published in the same journal of December last. In view of

1 Hiltner, L. On the Origin and Physiological Significance of Root-Tubercles.

B. The Root-Tubercles of the Alders and Eleagnacex, Forstlich Naturwissensch.

Zeitschr., Bd. vii, p. 415, 1898.

452 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. - [VoL. XXXIII.

the recent report of a blue carnation and the long horticultural search

for a blue rose, it may be of interest to quote Dr. Keegan’s conclu-

sions: “1. A blue flower is unproducible in species which contain or

are capable of forming phlobaphenic tannin [7.e., chromogen, which

on advanced oxidation evolves brown-red or muddy anhydrides more

than sufficient to neutralize and overcome any tendency to blue color-

ation incident to the presence of gallic acid], no matter what the

development of the inflorescence may amount to. 2. A blue flower

is more likely to be produced in a species having a gamopetalous

corolla or perianth, and therefore liable to evolve by higher oxidation

a certain quantity of a high oxybenzoic acid. 3. In species wherein

the tannin natural to the organism is iron-greening and non-phloba-

phenic, a blue flower may possibly be producible in a polypetalous

corolla, provided always that the petals or perianth be large relatively

to the height of the plant and to the size and robustness of its stem

and leaves; in this case it is uncertain whether gallic acid is neces-

sary for the production of the effect, but any way an alkaline compound

of an oxybenzoic acid would seem to be indispensable.”

Botanical Notes.— Captain J. Donnell Smith, whose work on

Central American botany is well and favorably known, publishes an

enumeration of the plants collected in Central America by Dr. W. C.

Shannon, as an appendix to Vol. I, Part II, of the report of surveys

and explorations made from 1891 to 1893 by the Intercontinental

Railway Commission. The “separates” of the article bear the imprint

Washington, 1898.

Professor Peck’s report of the state botanist, reprinted from the

51st annual report of the New York state museum, as is usual with

his reports, contains descriptions and figures of a considerable num-

ber of fungi, several of which are believed to be new to science. It

is unfortunate that, while the text is in octavo, the plates are of

quarto size and separately bound.

At Bologna is preserved, in book form, the herbarium of Aldro-

vandi, dating from the middle of the sixteenth century. In Malpighia,

Vol. XII, Fasc. 7—10, Professor Mattirolo, now of Florence, but until

recently stationed at the University of Bologna, gives an annotated

catalogue of the plants represented in the first volume of this

herbarium, his list reaching 557 numbers.

Acalypha hispida, a New Guinea plant which, under the name of

A. sanderi, is attracting a good deal of attention in horticultural

No. 389.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 453

circles, is well figured in the Botanical Magazine for January. Sir

Joseph Hooker calls attention to the fact that it was figured by

Rumphius as early as 1690.

A portrait of George Bentham, accompanied by a biographical

memoir by Sir Joseph Hooker, his collaborator on the great “Genera

Plantarum,” appears in the concluding number of Vol. XII of the

Annals of Botany.

Professor Sargent contributes to the Botanical Gazette for February

an article on new or little-known North American trees, in which the

Thrinax-like palms of Florida are revised,—the new genus Cocco-

thrinax being proposed, — and a new elm related to Ulmus racemosa

is described under the name U. serotina.

Recent issues of the Deutsche Botanische Monatsschrift contain a

series of articles, by W. N. Suksdorf, entitled “Washingtonische

Pflanzen,” and descriptive of a considerable number of species and

varieties from our northwest coast, which are believed to be as yet

undescribed or unnamed.

A notion of the extent to which scientific as well as military and

commercial activity is penetrating Africa may be obtained from an

examination of the issue of the Botanische Jahrbiicher of January 31,

the greater part of which is devoted to a continuation of the “ Beiträge

zur Flora von Afrika,” by Dr. Engler and his associates.

Vanilla culture, as practiced in the Seychelles, is described by

S. J. Galbraith in Bulletin No. 2r of the United States Department

of Agriculture, Division of Botany.

The acaulescent blue violets of the vicinity of Ottawa are described

and figured by James M. Macoun in Zhe Ottawa Naturalist for

January.

Bulletin No. 48 of the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, which’

is devoted to grapes, contains a half-tone reproduction of a photo-

graph by Professor Munson, showing the seeds of North American

grapes.

Plants yielding Myrrh and Bdellium are monographically treated

in January numbers of the Pharmaceutical Journal by E. M. Holmes,

of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain.

Robert Smith contributes a short article “on the study of plant

associations” to Natural Science for February, illustrating his remarks

454 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

by an analysis of the flora of the Ayrshire coast between Prestwick

and Troon.

“Catalogue of herbarium specimens for exchange,” a rather

unusual title for a bulletin of an agricultural experiment station,

is the title of Bulletin No. 51 of the North Carolina station, issued

under date of December 16 last.

Silphium lanceolatum is the name proposed by Mr. Canby in the

February number of the Botanical Gazette for a new species of the

South Atlantic region.

The comparative morphology of cactus embryos and seedlings

is considered by Professor Ganong in the Annals of Botany for

December.

Professor Rowlee describes and figures two Mexican willows —

one new—in the Botanical Gazette for February.

Meconopsis heterophylla, of California, is figured in the January

number of the Botanical Magazine.

Stachys arvensis, in Australia, is said to cause fatal cases of

poisoning when eaten by bullocks and horses. — Queensland Agr.

ourn., January.

Lewisia tweedyi, of Washington, is figured in the Botanical Maga-

zine for January.

NEWS.

A RECENT fire in Geneva destroyed the herbarium of Professor

Chodat, of the university.

A French Association des Anatomistes has recently been formed,

holding its first meeting in Paris, January 5 and 6. The secretary is

Professor A. Nicholas, of Nancy.

The United States Fish Commission will have $19,200 for scien-

tific investigation during the present year.

The eighth session of the International Geological Congress will

be held in Paris, August 16-28, 1900, Circulars regarding the pro-

posed excursions will be issued this year.

The Gray herbarium, of Harvard University, has recently pur-

chased the collection of Composite of the late Dr. F. W. Klatt,

of Hamburg. It contains about 11,000 specimens, and will probably

add 60 genera and 1500 species to the Gray herbarium. The Gray

herbarium previously contained about 35,000 sheets of composites.

The following state legislation in 1898 is of interest to naturalists.

New Jersey provides for a state entomologist ; Louisiana has passed

a bill providing for the establishment of a biological station in the

Gulf of Mexico, to codperate with the United States Fish Commission

for the investigation of problems affecting the fisheries of the state ;

New York forbids the killing at any time of wild moose, elk, caribou,

and antelope; Ohio has repealed the law relative to the trapping or

killing of muskrats, mink, and otter.

The Saxon government is to erect a new museum building at

Dresden, and the director of the museum, Dr. A. B. Meyer, with the

architect, Professor Wallot, will visit the United States this autumn —

for the purpose of studying the museum buildings of this country.

For some years there has been a growing feeling in England that

the northern coal fields will give out, and that endeavors should be

made to find coal in other parts of the island. To ascertain whether |

other workable beds occurred in other regions, a boring has been

made at Brabourne, in Kent, which has now reached a depth of 2000

feet, and is now in lower carboniferous rocks.

455

456 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

An English committee has been formed to conduct the study of

the region around Lake Tanganyika, in Central Africa. It is hoped

that they will be able to study especially the aquatic fauna and flora

of the region, as well as its geology. An appeal is now made for

funds to carry out the plans, it being estimated that about $25,000

will be needed for the purpose.

The American Journal of Physiology has adopted a plan, advocated

for some years by Dr. Bowditch, of publishing with each number

titles of the various articles on thin paper, which can be cut out and

pasted on index cards. Each title is accompanied by a brief abstract

of the matter recorded in the article. |

At the annual election of the California Academy of Sciences, held

January 3, the following officers were elected: President, William E.

Ritter; rst Vice-President, Charles H. Gilbert; 2d Vice-President,

H. H. Behr; Corresponding Secretary, J. O’B. Gunn; Recording

Secretary, G. P. Rixford; Treasurer, L. H. Foote; Librarian, Louis

Falkenau; Director of the Museum, Charles A. Keeler; Trustees,

William M. Pierson, William H. Crocker, James F. Houghton, C. E.

Grunsky, George C. Perkins, George W. Dickie, E. J. Molera. The

yearly report of the president, William E. Ritter, shows the past year

to have been one of earnest activity in the various departments. The

necessity is urged of concentrating both the efforts and the funds of

the academy toward making complete the natural history collections

of the state. Especial stress is laid upon the desirability of exploring

the waters of the Pacific that wash the California coast. A gift of

$1000 from C. P. Huntington for the publication fund was announced.

The Academy of Sciences of Vienna has sent an expedition to

South Arabia under the leadership of Count Lundberg. Professor

Oskar Simony accompanies the expedition as botanist and physicist ;

Dr. Cossmat, geologist; and Dr. Gimley, as physician and botanist.

Trinity College, at Hartford, Conn., is to have a Natural History

Hall, erected at a cost of $40,000. The collections and laboratories

are at present in cramped quarters in the basement of the main

building of the college.

Dr. Ulric Dahlgren has been appointed as assistant director of the

Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl, as successor to the late

Professor Peck.

Mr. J. G. Baker has resigned his position as director of the Kew

Botanical Herbarium.

No. 389.] NEWS. 457

The British government has established a botanical garden and

experiment station at Uganda, Central Africa, under the directorship

of Alexander Whyte.

Dr. J. Gaule, professor of debe in the University of Ziirich,

has resigned his position.

At a recent meeting of the Board of P of the Marine

Biological Laboratory of Canada it was resolved to proceed at once

with the construction of a floating station, to be ready for occupa-

tion early in June, and for the coming summer it will be located at

St. Andrews. The Board was enlarged by the addition of Dr. A. B.

MacCallum, of Toronto University. The executive officers are Pro-

fessor E. E. Prince, Director, one Professor D. P. Penhallow, Secre-

tary-Treasurer.

The University of Cambridge has awarded the Walsingham medal

to J. Graham Kerr for his paper on the life history of Lepidosiren.

Dr. O. Seydel, for some years lektor in anatomy in the University

of Amsterdam, and well known for his researches on the organ of

Jacobson, has resigned and has returned to Germany.

The litigation over the Nobel bequest has come to an end, and

there is now about $7,000,000 available for prizes. There will be

five of these to be awarded annually, with a value of about $40,000

each.

The University of Aberdeen has under consideration the formation

of loan collections of natural history to be suitable for instruction in

schools. These are to be loaned to teachers, who will use them in

their classes and be responsible for their safe return. Similar collec-

tions would be of great value in certain regions of the United States,

and if we remember aright the University of Illinois at one time had

a similar plan under consideration, if not in actual operation.

Appointments: Dr. Angelo Andres, formerly professor of general

and agricultural zodlogy in the higher agricultural school at Milan,

has been called to the chair of zodlogy in the University of Parma.

—R. T. Baker, curator of the Technological Museum at Sydney,

New South Wales.— Elmer D. Ball, assistant entomologist in the

Colorado Experiment Station. — Dr. F. J. Becker, of Prag, professor

of mineralogy in the University of Vienna. — Dr. J. Behrens, bacteri-

ologist at Berlin. — Dr. P. Berggren, Siete of botany in the Uni-

458 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

versity of Lund, Sweden.— Dr. L. Bohmig, professor extraordinarius

of zoélogy in the University of Graz.— Karl Brischke, director of the

botanical garden at Thorn. — Dr. Capitan, professor of prehistoric

anthropology at Paris. — Dr. Friedrich Dahl, assistant in the zodlogi-

cal museum in Berlin. — Dr. Dannenberg, of Aachen, professor of

mineralogy and geology in the mining school at Clausthal, Germany.

— Dr. Rudolf Disselhorst, professor of animal physiology in the Uni-

versity of Halle. —Dr. Max von Frey, professor of physiology in the

University of Zürich. — Dr. Thaddeus von Garbowski, of Vienna,

privat docent for zodlogy in the University of Cracow.— M. Gravier,

` assistant in the Museum of Natural History at Paris. — Dr. E. Hallier,

- of Munich, assistant in the Botanical Museum at Hamburg. — Dr.

Hans Held, professor extraordinarius of anatomy in the University

of Leipzig. — Mr. W. B. Hemsley, curator of the Kew Herbarium. —

Dr. Hettner, of Tiibingen, professor of geography in the University

of Wiirzburg. — Dr. Casimir Kwietnewski, assistant in the museum

of zodlogy and comparative anatomy of the University of Messina.

— Alberto Lofgren, director of the botanical gardens at Sao Paulo,

Brazil. — Professor D. T. MacDougal, of the University of Minne-

sota, director of the laboratories in the New York Botanical Garden.

— Dr. A. Manrizio, assistant in botany in the Agricultural School in

Berlin.— Dr. Ernst Mehnert, of Strassburg, privat docent for anatomy

in the University of Halle. — A. S. Miller, geologist to the Idaho

Experiment Station. — Dr. Alois Mrazek, privat docent for zodlogy

_ in the Bohemian University at Prag.— Dr. Adolf Osterwalder, assist-

ant in the vegetable physiological laboratory of the Agricultural

Station at Wadensweil, Switzerland.— Dr. Pelikan, professor extraor-

dinarius of mineralogy in the German University at Prag. —Dr. Hans

Rebel, privat docent for zoology in the Vienna Agricultural School.

— Dr. Bernard Schmid, privat docent for botany in the University

of Tübingen. — Dr. L. S. Schultze, assistant in the zodlogical insti-

tute of the University of Jena.— Professor D’Arcy W. Thompson, of

Dundee, member of the Fishery Board for Scotland. — Alexandro

Trotter, assistant in the Padua Botanical Gardens. — Dr. Carl Freiherr

von Tubeuf, director of the botanical laboratory in the Berlin Experi-

ment Station. — Dr. Karl Wehmer, privat docent for mycology in the

Hannover Technical School, titular professor.— Dr. Franz Werner,

privat docent for zodlogy in the University of Vienna. — Dr. N. Wille,

curator of the museum and herbarium of the University of Christiania.

— Dr. A. Zalevski, privat docent for botany in the University of

Lemberg.

No. 389.] NEWS. 459

Deaths: W. G. Atherstone, student of South African geology. —

Charles E. Beddome, conchologist, at Hobartstown, Tasmania, Sep-

tember 1.— Dr. Sven Borgström, student of mosses, at Stockholm,

May 13, 1898, aged 72.— Karl Fried. Wilh. Claus, professor of

zodlogy at the University of Vienna, January 18, aged 63. — William

Colchester, a collector of fossils, at Cambridge, England, in Decem-

ber, at an advanced age. — Achille Costa, professor of zodlogy in the

University of Naples, in November. — Dr. Gottlieb Gluge, formerly

professor of anatomy and physiology in the University of Brussels,

aged 86.— Mr. Gilbert H. Hicks, first assistant botanist in the

Department of Agriculture, Dec. 7, 1898.— Rev. Thomas Hincks,

at Clifton, England, January 26. He was the author of valuable

manuals of the British Hydroids and Polyzoa. — Professor Paul

Kramer, the student of Acari, in Magdeburg, in November. — Dr.

Hans C. Müller, ornithologist, at Thorshavn, Faroe Island, Dec. 24,

1897, aged 70.—Dr. Hermann Müller, privat docent for bacteriology

in the University of Vienna, aged 32.— Dr. Karl Müller, the well-

known bryologist of Halle, and editor of Die Natur, February 9,

at the age of 80 years. — Paul Iéréméiew, professor at the Institute

of Mines, St. Petersburg, and member of the Imperial Academy. —

Wilbur Wilson Thoburn, professor of bio-mechanics in the Leland

Stanford University. — Emerich Vellay, the Hungarian entomolo-

gist, August 6. — Dr. Constantin Vousakis, professor of physiology

in the University of Athens. — Anton W. Wiebke, ornithologist, of

Hamburg. — Dr. G. Wolffhügel, professor of hygiene in the Univer-

sity of Göttingen.

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VOL. XXXIII, No. 390”

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. The Efficiency of Some derph Adaptations in goi a

from Birds e SYLVESTER D. JUDD 461

II. Note on the Vertical Distribution of Mallom

0. WHIPPLE "and HORATIO N, PARKER 485

III. The Colors of Northern onsectylodanons Flowers JOHN ona LOVELL 493

IV. Loss seden ena ow haga of ae —— in the oer of a Projecti

ee L. L. TOWER 505

Editorial Co mment : Keys for “the Determination o of American Inverte- 511

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Anthropologist ’

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North, West African Studies, Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians,

Anthropological Notes — General Biology, Effect hemical and Phys- 519

ical Agents upon Growth, Variation Statistics, Inheritance of Acquir

ualities — Zod/ogy, Evans’s Birds, Blind-Fishes of the Caves, Trout 523

of the Olympic Mountains, Fishes of the Revillagigedos, The Miller’s

Thumb of Europe, Fishes of Santa Catalina Island, H thological

Studies of Kowalewski, Blood Spots in Hens’ Eggs, Origin of the

Fauna of the Central African Lakes, Swiss Rotifers, Trematode Anatomy,

s Luteum in the Pig and Man, The A achyw

ical Notes — Botany, Campbell’s Evolution of ts, A Recent 587

Work on Bryophytes, Aldehyde in Leaves, Light and the Respiration

Fungi, Spore Development in the Hem “on ee ew Work on Lichens,

Agardh’s Alge crea d Algæ, Botani — Geo i of 548

North America — Pe WNP ee The Volcanics of E San Clemente, Contact 550

Phenomena in Mi Granitic Rocks of the Sierra The

Rocks of Mount Rainier, Luquer’s Minerals in Rock Sections, The Fuess

Catalogue, Petrographical N

VII. News 556

VIII. : On the Use = the Terms “ cece a “Variability,” ;

essor eraka A. WAU 559

IX. Publications Received 561

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The American Naturalist

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural sais New York.

E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D., Johns Hopkins University, B.

WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, PH.D., Colby University, Metre

CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D., Yale University, New Haven.

DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland eo pe University, Cal.

- H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, It

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VOL XXXIII. June, 1899. No. 390.

THE EFFICIENCY OF SOME PROTECTIVE

ADAPTATIONS IN SECURING INSECTS

FROM BIRDS.

SYLVESTER: D. (JUDD.

DurinG the past four years I have been studying the food

habits of birds in the Biological Survey of the U. S. Depart-

ment of Agriculture. Owing to the extreme kindness of my

chief, Dr. C. Hart Merriam, I have now at my disposal data

accumulated from the examination of the stomach contents of

fifteen thousand birds. My colleague, Professor F. E. L. Beal,

has given me invaluable assistance in the preparation of this

paper. I am also indebted for criticism to Drs. L. O. Howard

and Chas. Wardell Stiles. Messrs. Schwarz, Banks, Chitten-

den, and Pratt, of the Department of Agriculture, have been

most kind in identifying insects.

The bulk of the insect food of birds consists of grasshoppers

(Acrididze and Locustidz), noctuid larve, weevils, smaller cara-

bids, May beetles and their allies, smaller dung beetles (Ontho-

phagus, Hister, Atænius, and Aphodius), chrysomelids, true

bugs (Heteroptera), parasitic Hymenoptera (mostly Ichneu-

monidze), ants, and spiders.?

1 Included thus for convenience.

461

462 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Protective devices of insects do not always baffle birds, and

to illustrate this I have arranged my results in the following

manner :

A. Restricted Protective Coloration (Resemblance to Substratum).

I. ORTHOPTERA.

1. Grasshoppers (Locustide and Acridide), 300 species of birds.

2. Katydids (Locustidz), brown thrasher, chippy, screech owl, great

horned owl, Mississippi kite, red-shouldered haw

3. Walking Sticks (Diapheromera), crow blackbird, two species of

cuckoos.

II. LEPIDOPTERA.

1. Measuring Worms (Geometridz), catbird, house wren, two species

of cuckoos, scarlet tanager, red-winged blackbird, cowbird,

bobolink, Baltimore oriole, purple finch, indigo bird, Wilson’s

thrush, cedar bird, white-winged crossbill, chippy, kingbird,

and other flycatchers, vireos, Carolina titmouse, and many

war

2. Ground-colored Cutworms (Noctuide), practically all insec-

tivorous birds which feed upon the ground to any extent.

g: aip eet striped Caterpillars :

(a) Army worm, red-headed woodpecker, flicker, and other

woodpeckers, cowbird, most blackbirds, orioles, meadow

lark, bobolink, English sparrow, many native sparrows,

kingbird, phoebe, quail, robin, bluebird.

4. Green Caterpillars :

a) Sphinxes, catbird, blue jay, two cuckoos, white-eyed vireo,

red-shouldered hawk, broad-winged haw k.

(4) Ailanthus Worm, yellow-throated vireo.

(d) Telea polyphemus, broad-winged hawk.

5. Small protectively colored moths, several species of sparrows.

III. COLEOPTERA.

1. Protectively colored Longicorns (Cerambycide), many wood-

peckers.

(a) Monohammus, great-crested flycatcher.

2. Weevils, all insectivorous birds.

3. Chlamys (Chrysomelide), robin, bluebird, native sparrows.

IV. HEMIPTERA.

. Jasside, marsh wren, house wren, cowbird, blackbirds, great-

crested flycatcher, kingbird.

2. Membracide, great-crested flycatcher, Brewer’s blackbird.

No. 390.] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 463

3. Scale Insects (Coccidæ), cedar bird, woodpeckers, white-breasted

nuthatch, chickadee, California bush tit.

4. Nezara eet, or Brochymena, Podisus, or Euschistus, catbird,

r, house wren, cardinal, cuckoos, blackbirds, king-

bird, pheebe, geese cone flycatcher, vireos, hermit thrush,

blue jay, robin, Acadian flycatcher, least flycatcher, crow, cow-

bird, white-bellied swallow.

5. Flat Bugs (Aradidz), downy woodpecker

6. Piesma cinerea, chickadee, white braai nuthatch.

7. Thread-legged Bugs (Emeside), golden-cheeked warbler.

V. DIPTERA (Crane Flies [Tipulide] ), many insectivorous birds.

VI. TRICHOPTERA (Larval Caddice Flies), red-winged blackbird.

VII. ARACHNIDA.

1. Spiders (Araneida), general resemblance to substratum, prac-

tically all land birds.

2. Harvest Spiders Rite many birds, especially catbird,

wrens, and cuckoos

B. Special Devices — Hairs.

I. LEPIDOPTERA (LARVÆ).

1. Arctiids, robin, bluebird, catbird, sparrow hawk, cuckoos, and

shrikes.

2. Gypsy Moth, blue jay, robin, chickadee, chippy, vireos, cuckoos,

Baltimore oriole.

3. Vanessa antiopa, Baltimore oriole, cuckoos.

C. Special Devices — Stings or Poisonous Bites.

—

HYMENOPTERA.

1. Bombus, or Xylocopa, bluebird, blue jay, olive-sided flycatcher,

great-crested flycatcher.

2. Honey-bee (Apis mellifica), wood pewee, pheebe, olive-sided

flycatcher, kingbird.

3. Andrena, or Halictus, red-eyed vireo, least flycatcher, great-

crested flycatcher, wood pewee, olive-sided flycatcher, king-

bird, blue jay, swift, cliff swallow, white-bellied swallow, hum-

ming bird, chestnut-sided warbler, Maryland yellowthroat,

ue jay.

4. Scoliids (especially Tiphia, Myzine, and Elis), English sparrow,

least flycatcher, kingbird, ce pewee, cliff swallow, rough-

winged swallow, barn swa

5. Vespa, or Polistes, ved-bellied ‘eocdeecion: kingbird, yellow-

bellied flycatcher.

6. Mutillidæ, Says’s phoebe, western wood pewee.

464

—

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou XXXIII.

ARACHNIDA.

1. Large Biting Spiders, many birds.

2. Scorpion, screech owl, great-horned owl, burrowing owl.

. Myriopopa. .

1. Lithobius and others, many birds. `

Special Devices — IIl-Flavored, or Scented, or with Irritating Qualities.

HYMENOPTERA.

1. Ants, most land birds.

. HEMIPTERA.

1. Heteroptera, all insectivorous birds.

(a) Anasa, broad-winged hawk, red-shouldered hawk.

(4) Prionidus cristatus, crow.

(d) Hygrotrechus, song sparrow.

COLEOPTERA.

1. Carabide :

(a) Smaller Carabidae, such as Amara, Anisodactylus, Ago-

noderus, Pterostichus, Cratacanthus, Bembidium, and

smaller Harpalus, all insectivorous birds.

(4) Harpalus caliginosus, or pennsylvanicus, crow, black-

birds, meadow lark, catbird, brown thrasher, robin,

kingbird, Cassin’s kingbird, dickcissel.

(¢) Carabus, bluebird and crow, crow blackbird.

(d) Cychrus, crow blackbird.

(e) Galerita janus, bluebird, blue jay, young crow black-

birds.

) Chleenius, crow, crow blackbird, catbird, bluebird.

(g) Calosoma scrutator, or calidum, crow, crow blackbird,

red-headed woodpecker, blue jay, cuckoo.

Histeride and Scarabeide Laparosticti (Aphodius, Atænius

Onthophagus, Canthon) (foul from food), most insectivorous

Silphidæ (Silpha or Necrophorus), crow, loggerhead shrike,

kingbird.

Some Tenebrionide :

(a) Nyctobates, catbird.

Coccinellide, flycatcher, red-eyed vireo, song sparrow, marsh

wren, Lewis’s woodpecker.

Chrysomelide :

(a) Potato Beetle (Doryphora 10-lineata), wood thrush,

rose-breasted grosbeak, quail, crow, cuckoo, catbird.

No. 390.] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 465

(6) Diabrotica 12-punctata, Attwater’s grouse, blue jay, cat-

ird, red-eyed vireo, cliff swallow, brown thrasher,

purple martin, phoebe, yellow-bellied flycatcher.

c) Galerucella luteola, phoebe, cedar bird.

7. Lampyride (Chauliognathus), see warning coloration.

IV. NEUROPTERA.

1. Chrysopa, great-crested flycatcher, song sparrow.

V. ARACHNIDA.

1. Harvest Spiders (Phalangidæ), many birds.

VI.

MYRIOPODA.

1. Millipedes, many birds.

E. Warning Coloration.

—

LEPIDOPTERA.

1. Orgyia, larval, two species of cuckoos.

2. Datana ministra larval, two species of cuckoos.

3. Anisota senatoria larval, two species of cuckoos and robin.

4. Isabella caterpillar, loggerhead shrike, robin, sparrow hawk.

5. Showy butterflies, catbird, kingbird, wood pewee, purple martin,

scarlet tanager, crow blackbird, cuckoo, English sparrow,

song sparrow.

II. HYMENOPTERA.

1. Agapostemon and other metallic green small bees, flycatchers,

humming bird, and a dozen other species.

2. Chrysis, many birds.

3. Vespa maculata, yellow-bellied flycatcher.

4. Vespa germanica, kingbird.

5. Elis and Myzine, see under stinging insects.

6. Tremex columba, blue jay, olive-sided flycatcher, loggerhead

shrike, red-eyed vireo, night awk

III. COLEOPTERA.

. Carabidz

(a) Con Chlznius, Pterostichus, see under irritating

fluids.

(6) Lebia skeen kingbird.

2. Lampyride

(a) aia kingbird, wood pewee, phcebe, cliff

swallow, catbird.

3 Scuba:

1 Allorhina nitida, blackbirds, crow, catbird, blue jay, red-

headed woodpecker.

= <i

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXII].

(2) Medios fulgida, blackbirds, crow, blue jay, king-

billed cuckoo, purple martin.

(d) Pelidnota punctata, blue jay.

(e) Phaneus carnifex, blackbirds, crow, catbird, brown

thrasher, great-crested flycatcher.

(f) Bolbocerus farctus, kingbird, catbird.

4. Chrysomelidæ :

ge aed,

10.

Il.

$2.

. Tiger Beetles (Cicindelidaw), metallic colored, quite a number

birds.

(a) Systena teniata, song sparrow, chippy, yellow-winged

sparrow, field sparrow, Maryland yellowthroat.

(6) Odontota dorsalis, catbird, great-crested flycatcher, robin,

orchard oriole, Baltimore oriole, Carolina wren, song

sparrow, chippy, chewink, cardinal, cedar bird, yellow

warbler, wood pewee

Crepidodera, Dibolia, Donacia, Graphops), a great

many birds.

(d) Doryphora, Diabrotica, see ill-flavored insects.

(e) Chrysomela pulchra, kingbird.

(f) Lema trilineata, phoebe, least flycatcher, Acadian fiy-

catcher.

(g) Lina scripta, cuckoo

(A) Crioceris asparagi, jingird.

(7) Gastroidea polygoni, crow blackbird, catbird.

(j) Coptocycla signifera, crow blackbird.

Cerambycidae :

(a) Anthophylax, kingbird.

(6) Neoclytus caprea, catbird.

Malachiide (Collops quadrimaculatus), phoebe.

Nitidulide (Zs fasciatus), white-bellied swallow.

Buprestide (metallic colored), red-bellied woodpecker, great-

crested fly-catcher, black-billed cuckoo, cardinal.

Cucujide (Cucujus cavipes), great-crested flycatcher.

Coccinelidz, see under ill-flavored insects.

Silphide (Necrophorus), see under ill-flavored insects.

Byrrhidz, robin, bluebird, native sparrows.

DIPTERA (METALLIC COLORED), catbird, swallows, flycatchers, etc.

ODONATA (BLUE AGRION), green heron.

ARANEIDA (ARGIOPE), dickcissel.

No. 390.] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 467

F. Protective Mimicry.

(asa.

HYMENOPTERA (RESEMBLANCE AT LEAST).

I. ICHNEUMONID&, most birds

2. Siricidæ, see under warning coloration.

3- Chrysidæ, mimic Stinging Bees, many birds.

—

(amal

DIPTERA.

I. Syrphus Fly, mimics a Yellow Jacket, most flycatchers.

2. Drone Fly, mimics a sion -bee, kingbird, phoebe.

—

TRICHOPTERA.

1. Caddice Flies, said to mimic Millers, many birds.

IV. COLEOPTERA.

1. Casnonia (Carabid), mimics an Ant, house wren, song sparrow.

2. Some Cerambycide, mimic Wasps:

(a) Typocerus, blue jay, wood pewee

(4) Leptura zebra, red-eyed vireo, kingbird.

c) Cyllene, wood pewee.

(d) Neoclytus erythrocephalus, song sparrow.

(e) Strangalia luteicornis, kingbird.

3. Staphylinidæ, mimic Wasps, many birds.

The above tabulated matter is merely a collection of records,

fragmentary and incomplete. It does not show the frequency

with which any species of insect is selected for food by any

particular bird, and consequently is liable to erroneous inter-

pretation.

Insects which resemble the Substratum upon which they rest.

We will first proceed to ascertain whether those insects

which exhibit protective coloration in its restrictive sense, that

is, those that resemble what they rest upon, always baffle birds.

We wish to determine how efficient this protective adaptation

is; in a word, we desire to measure its working force.

In Natural Selection, p. 63, Wallace says: “The whole

order of Orthoptera, z.¢., grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, etc.,

are protected by their colors, harmonizing with that of the

vegetation or the soil on which they live.” ... On the next

page he goes on to state: “We do not adduce any more

examples to show how important are the details of form and

468 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

of coloring in animals, and that their very existence may often

depend upon their being by these means concealed from their

enemies.” I am surprised to find that grasshoppers (Acrididze

and Locustidz) in spite of their protective coloration are eaten

by over three hundred species of birds in the United States.

Grasshoppers are eaten in large quantities by birds. They

amount during the year, exclusive of the winter months, to

19 per cent of the volume of the insect food in the catbird,

25 per cent in the house wren, and 40 per cent in the meadow

lark. In August 67 per cent of the red-winged blackbird’s

food consists of grasshoppers, and for the same month this

staple amounts to 70 per cent in the meadow lark. For the

two months of May and June grasshoppers amount to 80 per

cent of the insect food of the loggerhead shrike. Of course,

in the tropics, where we have such marvelous special adapta-

tions as are found in the Mantidz and leaf insects, there must

be the most wonderful efficiency.

It may be argued that many of the grasshoppers eaten belong

to the less protected forms, but we know that Dissosteira caro-

lina, which is practically invisible on the ground, is selected,

and that it is no uncommon thing to find the remains of several

Locustidz in stomachs. Whether these insects were taken

when they were at rest, that is, when protective coloration

is effective, is the great point and, so far as I have experi-

mented with several birds, there seems every reason to believe

that Acrididz at least do not, when at rest, successfully baffle

birds. I put several admirably protected grasshoppers (Acri-

didz) among the fallen brown oak leaves, where I found them

with the greatest difficulty, in a cage with a song sparrow, a

junco, and white-throated sparrows. The legs of the insects

had been pulled off, so they kept perfectly still, but the birds

instantly saw and seized the grasshoppers. I tried the same

experiment in a large cage with mocking birds and got the

same results.

The great bulk of grasshoppers eaten by birds are Acridide,

but stomachs containing a dozen Locustide are not at all

uncommon. The Locustidz most commonly selected belong

to the genera Scudderia, Orchelimum, and Xiphidium. Of

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 469

the more especially protected Locustide we have the leaf-

resembling katydids eaten by a number of birds of prey, and

there are three cases on record of crow blackbirds eating full-

grown walking-sticks (Diapheromera).

If we consider the number of grasshoppers (Melanopus)

eaten by individual birds, it is interesting to note that the

jaws and other remains of 48 grasshoppers were found in the

digestive organs of one wood duck, 59 in a robin, and in a

Swainson’s hawk 133. These figures come from Professor

Aughey, who made a study of the effect of birds upon an

invasion of Melanopus spretus. Of course these insects were

at the time so much in excess of all other species that it is only

natural that they should have been taken for food. The same

line of argument is applicable in the eastern United States

during August and September, when many birds are subsisting

to a large extent upon the abundant supply of orthopterous

food. However this may be, it is a fact that in June and July,

when there is no such superabundance of Orthoptera, birds

nevertheless select principally from this order of insects to

secure food to rear their young upon. I have no data to offer

which will show how often any given grasshopper is passed

over by a bird, and thus protected by its coloration being in

conformity with its surroundings. I know full well that if

these insects were colored a flaming red they would be much

more conspicuous to us, and probably to the birds. From the

little field work that I have been able to do, it seems to. me

probable that most grasshoppers are captured by birds not on

the wing, but at rest or when moving very sluggishly. This

summer, while collecting in a hayfield, I found it difficult to

secure specimens of Melanopus femur-rubrum, which was very

abundant. The insects arose at every step or so, but the

instant they settled they became almost invisible. Protective

coloration commenced to act as soon as they alighted. I

watched an orchard oriole hunting in this field, but I failed to

see any insects fly before her, though she at the time was

feeding three young almost exclusively upon grasshoppers.

From the little that I could see of a yellow-winged sparrow

which was also feeding young, I was unable to see her flush

470 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIIL

grasshoppers. This negative evidence is of little use. I had

hoped to be able to make extended observations and perform

a large series of experiments with caged birds, but have been

unable to do so, and now can only offer a fragmentary contri-

bution to this most interesting subject. Orthoptera along the

Atlantic seaboard, in spite of their protective coloration, are

fed upon extensively by practically all of our birds, and the de-

gree of efficiency of their protective adaptation is probably low

as compared with that enjoyed by many other insects.

The stomachs sent in to the Department of Agriculture are

not accompanied with data as to the available supply of insect

food. This material shows a much greater consumption of

grasshoppers than I was able to find in stomachs which I

collected in fields where grasshoppers were not up to their

usual abundance. Although nestling birds were being reared

largely upon grasshoppers, the parent birds were feeding upon.

insects which were less common than the grasshoppers.

Of the larvae of Lepidoptera, the twig-resembling Geomet-

ridz, which show a marvelous degree of special protective

resemblance, are eaten by more than a score of birds of the

eastern United States. The ground-colored cutworms, that

so closely simulate the earth in which they live, are eaten by

practically all the land birds which feed to any extent upon the

ground. In the middle of May, 1898, I found that birds were

feeding extensively upon Agrotis. The larve were abundant

in the earth or under stones, but I saw none crawling about.

Because of their nocturnal habits and protective coloration it is

difficult to understand how the birds secured so many of them.

During June and July, 1898, on a certain farm, I was unable to

collect many specimens of noctuids and other protectively

colored smooth caterpillars, but the birds seemed to have no

trouble in finding them. Later in the season, however, during

an infestation of Protoparce carolina in a tobacco field, no birds

were found to select these protectively colored larve. Adult

Lepidoptera as compared with the larve can hardly be con-

sidered as forming any significant part of. bird food. The

smaller inconspicuous moths seem to be relished by caged

birds. These insects are occasionally preyed upon by the

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 47I

majority of land birds. I have collected scores of birds in

places where noctuid, crambid, pyralid, and geometrid moths

were abundant, and not found a trace of a moth in any of the

birds’ stomachs. These insects, whether protected by their

harmonizing coloration or by some other adaptation, are more

immune from the attacks of birds than grasshoppers.

Weevils have a combination of protective devices ; they are

very hard-shelled, and they resemble either little stones or clods

of earth. Moreover, they drop to the ground and feign death.

Authors have dilated at length upon these admirable protective

devices of weevils. But it seems to me that here we find the

working force of protective adaptations at about as low an ebb

as anywhere, for not only are these insects not immune, but they

are eaten in great numbers by all insectivorous birds whose

food we know anything about. It is not uncommon to find in

the stomachs of such granivorous birds as sparrows as many

as a dozen weevils.

32 Balaninus from downy woodpecker.

40 Sitones from crow blackbird.

109 Dorytomus mucidus from a hairy woodpecker.

The question with these weevils, as with grasshoppers, is

whether they are caught while they are still and protective

coloration is acting. I think that any one who has observed

English sparrows and blackbirds hunting weevils on lawns can

certify that many weevils are picked up from the vegetation or

ground. Of course with flycatchers the case is often different,

and the insects are taken on the wing. Experiments with

caged birds should be carried on on a large scale. I confess

that I have only experimented with one kind of bird and one

kind of weevil. I sunk Sztones hispidulus in sand of its own

color, so that only the back of the insect was uncovered. I

could not see it, but the insect was seen as readily by my song

sparrow as if it had been flaming red, white, and blue. In

the dozen times this experiment was repeated the bird flew

instantly and seized and swallowed the weevil.

I shot 45 birds on May 13 and 18, 1898, on a farm where I

was only able to collect a single weevil. One-third of these

_ birds had fed upon Sitones, Phytonomus, and Tanymecus.

472 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

One can hardly say in the face of these facts that the pro-

tective adaptations of these weevils is highly efficient in secur-

ing them from the attacks of birds. It seems as though birds

became accustomed to discriminating between weevils and

gravel stones, and, knowing how palatable weevils are, in spite

of their hard covering, the birds seek them out, and even pass

over apparently less protected insects.

In passing to the Hemiptera one finds that the homopterous

division affords very little food supply to birds. The Jassids,:

as far as my experiments go, seem to be relished, but neverthe-

less they are not in large quantities habitually eaten by birds,

in spite of the fact that they are very abundant. Whether it is

their protective resemblance or some other device which secures

them this degree of immunity from attack, I cannot say. The

Aphididz are still more protected. They are distasteful to cat-

birds, and, I imagine, to many other species.

Scale insects have been found only in the stomachs of

several birds collected in winter, and in Baltimore orioles taken

in summer. The true bugs (Heteroptera), which are protect-

ively colored, are eaten by a great many birds.

Ground-colored spiders, whether taken while at rest or when

running, are fed to the young of practically all the land birds

of the eastern United States.

Hairs.

I next come to the consideration of special devices, such as,

for instance, a hairy covering of the integument as we have

in many caterpillars. With the exception of our two species

of cuckoos no species of bird in the eastern United States, so

far as I am aware, makes a business of feeding upon hairy

caterpillars. The loggerhead shrike occasionally preys upon

these insects, but with practically all other birds it is only in

exceptional cases that a hairy caterpillar is eaten. I remember

seeing an old pear tree which was infested with Hyphantria

cunea. These insects were not at all molested, in spite of the

fact that the old tree was tenanted by three broods of birds at

the time— kingbirds, orchard orioles, and English sparrows.

No. 390.] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 473

An orchard oriole’s nest with three young in another tree had

a nest of hairy caterpillars within four inches of it. The hairi-

ness of caterpillars seems to secure them from the attacks of

birds more effectually than do any of the particular protective

coloration devices thus far considered.

Stings.

The stings of Hymenoptera also serve as an effective pro-

tective device. A young sparrow, in whose mouth I inserted

a small bee (Andrena), was stung in the throat, soon became

very much affected, and finally I killed it to relieve its suffer-

ings. A caged chewink seized a honey-bee, pecked it well and

then swallowed it, but died within fifteen minutes. Mr. Benton,

of the Agricultural Department, tells me that he had to give up

raising ducks, because those just hatched ate honey-bees about

the apiaries and were fatally stung. Nevertheless, I had a

caged blue jay that would eat such large bees as Bombus and

Xylocopa virginica. Flycatchers habitually feed upon stinging

Hymenoptera, particularly upon Scoliids. The same is true of

swallows, and the English sparrow is very fond of Tiphia and

Myzine. Other birds occasionally take stinging Hymenoptera,

less often large Apine. On May 18, 1898, I shot a catbird

near a willow tree in which many bees were humming about

the flowers, and the bird contained three small bees. The bird

had a large supply of food, cutworms, beetles, etc., to choose

from, but, nevertheless, took bees. It has been pointed out by

Beddard that stinging Hymenoptera, in addition to being warn-

ingly colored, have disagreeable odors and tastes; it is also to

be noted that many stinging Hymenoptera are not warningly

colored, as the theory of protective coloration would, of neces-

sity, demand them to be.

Among the ants there is a large division, the Myrmicide

(the stinging ants). The smaller species of this division are

eaten by a great many birds. Some of these ants have thorns

on their abdomens which are said by Wallace to protect them

from birds. More than any other protection perhaps is the

formic acid which ants contain, but the efficiency of this device

474 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII

seems low in cases where, as in the flicker, we find stomachs

containing 3000 ants. The stingless ants pretend to sting,

but there are many birds that they do not deceive.

There are two records of the caterpillar of the Io moth having

been eaten by the yellow-billed cuckoo. In one instance no

less than seven of these large stinging larve were taken from

a single stomach.

It is plain that from my facts I interpret, not cases of pro-

tection and non-protection, but cases of greater and lesser

efficiency of protective devices.

Ill-Flavored or with Irritating Qualities.

In the Heteroptera, particularly in the Pentatomidz, we have

insects emitting vile stenches. In speaking of the Pentato-

midz Comstock says: “ It should not be concluded, however,

that only members of this family possess this disagreeable

odor; for most of the Heteroptera protect themselves by ren-

dering their bodies unpalatable in this way. Doubtless birds

soon learn this fact and leave such bugs alone.” An English

sparrow raised from the nest refused a Brochymena, and a song

sparrow did not eat one of these insects, but ate with relish

Lygus and small stinking Reduviids. In the examination of

song-sparrows’ stomachs I often find remains of Pentatomids,

and I know of no insectivorous bird that does not eat Hete-

roptera. Catbirds and thrashers (caged) relish Brochymena.

Blackbirds and crows frequently contain from four to ten

Euschistus. The stench may protect bugs from some birds,

but it certainly does not secure complete immunity from but

very few birds of eastern United States. The lace-wing fly is

about as nauseating an insect as I know of; yet it was greedily

devoured by a caged song sparrow, and has been taken from

the stomach of a great-crested flycatcher. Phalangidz have

a sickening stench, but they are eaten by many birds, particu-

larly by house wrens and cuckoos. Millipedes come in the

same category and are relished by birds.

In coming to the protective adaptations of Coleoptera we find

a greater efficiency of the actual working of protective devices,

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 475

especially in the families Coccinellidze and Chrysomelidæ. In

the Coccinellidze we have showy insects, ill-scented or flavored,

that are eaten by but very few birds —the flycatchers and

swallows ; and hence here is a whole family which conforms

well with the theory of warning coloration. Blue jays, song

sparrows, thrashers, and other birds, when caged, refuse even

when hungry these little beetles.

Turning to the family Chrysomelidz, we have the potato

beetle, that is refused by the catbird, blue jay, and song sparrow,

and disgorged after being eaten by the thrasher. Several

other examples might be mentioned, but when we come to the

green Chrysomelids, especially the smaller ones, the efficiency

is greatly reduced; the metallic tints that were supposed to

always warn off birds are constantly disregarded, and we have

many birds eating green Chrysomelids. Diabroticas are not

often eaten and have been refused by song sparrows, but were

greedily devoured by catbirds and thrashers. The elm leaf-

beetle is almost protectively colored, but relies upon something

else, perhaps its secretions, for protection. This insect is re-

fused by many birds, but is occasionally eaten by the cedar

bird. Galerucella sagittaria is also avoided.

The smaller Carabid beetles, whether stinking or not, seem

to be eaten by practically all land birds. A song sparrow

which was fed with a Chlznius was ill for twenty minutes, and

then next day picked at but refused another. This same bird

relished the stinking Nebria and Agonoderus. Crows, black-

birds, and jays relish Calosoma scrutator.

Crows and blackbirds have been known to feed Galerita, a

very strong-smelling beetle, to their young. It seems in-

credible that birds should be able to eat Galerita, Calosoma,

Carabus, and the larger Cychrus. Many birds eat species of

Harpalus; the crow and the blackbirds are especially fond

of Harpalus caliginosus and pennsylvanicus.

There are a score of smaller Carabidae and Chrysomelidz

(metallicly and conspicuously colored) which are habitually

eaten by birds that have an abundance of other insect food to

pick from. On one farm I found fourteen species of birds prey-

ing upon Odontata dorsalis, and seven upon Systena tentata.

476 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

With the Lampyrid beetles the stenches, whether or not

coupled with conspicuous coloration, are more effective. Tele-

phorus is occasionally eaten, but Photinus, if eaten at all, is.

taken only very rarely. Chauliognathus, though often so very

abundant, is not eaten by many birds, but several species of

flycatchers and swallows select this insect. Experiments with

caged birds, catbirds, and blue jays showed that this insect was

regarded unfavorably.

Warning Coloration and Mimicry.

The writers on protective coloration, especially Wallace,

have stated that birds avoid insects that have metallic colors.

Thus metallic coloration becomes synonymous with warning

coloration. Although this is doubtless true in some cases,

there are others in which it seems otherwise. The metallic

beetles (Buprestidze), certain Cicindelide, A//orhina nitida,

Euphoria fulgida, Cotalpa lanigera, and Phanzeus are relished

by many of our common birds. And, further, it may be added

that the metallic-colored flies, Lucilia cæsar and others, are

found in large quantities in the stomachs of flycatchers and

swallows; that is, in the stomachs of all birds that are swift

enough to capture them. Large showy bugs colored like Mur-

gantia histrionica are usually avoided by birds. A captive song

sparrow refused a Murgantia, but a white-throated sparrow

devoured it greedily. It is very seldom that I run across the

remains of orange and black or red and black bugs during

stomach examinations.

So much has been written on the subject of protective

coloration of adult Lepidoptera that I cannot, even in this pre-

liminary paper, pass over such an important chapter without

stating some of the problems that here concern the student

of protective coloration. I realize that in this order we have,

especially in the tropics, very efficient methods of protection

from birds, as has been shown by the investigations of Bates,

Belt, Wallace, Triman, Poulton, and Beddard ; but in the eastern

United States the cases of efficient mimicry do not show up

quite so well, for the reason that there are not yet any records

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 477

of birds habitually preying upon butterflies. In fact the same

question has been agitated in the discussion following the read-

ing of Mr. Dixey’s most interesting paper at the London Ento-

mological Society; and it was found that comparatively few

members had ever seen birds take butterflies. In the eastern

United States there have been hardly more than a dozen

published records of birds seen in the act of taking butter-

flies. In fact birds, so far as I have observed, seem to

make no practice of giving chase to the butterflies that float

about them as they busily catch other insects. In fact butter-

flies seem to be avoided, whether they are indifferently colored,

protectively colored or mimetic, or warningly colored. It is

said by Wallace that our milkweed butterfly is imitated by

Limenitis, which thus escapes capture; but, as none of our

butterflies are persecuted, it seems strange if mimicry has

actually been aimed at. Beddard has shown that there are

difficulties in the theory of protective mimicry, from the fact

that mimicking and mimicked forms are eaten, and that, in

certain cases, instances of apparently useless mimicry occur.

Beddard also shows some inconsistencies in the current inter-

pretation of the theory of warning coloration. He shows that

certain warningly colored papilio larvae have a habit of not

relying on their warning coloration, but conceal themselves.

He further concludes, in speaking of warning coloration:

“There are so many other easier ways of defense, and one

would imagine that the action of natural selection would pro-

ceed along the line of least resistance.” Some criticism in

a measure adverse to protective mimicry is brought out in a

paper entitled “ Mimetisme,” by M. C. Piepers, in the Proceed-

ings of the International Zodlogical Congress, 1895, pp. 460-

476. The greatest piece of work in actually putting the pro-

tective coloration theory to test has been accomplished by

Frank Finn. The results of this investigation are published

in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. LXVI,

Part II, No. 4, 1897. The author performed hundreds of ex-

periments in feeding birds with butterflies. Mimetic, warn-

ingly colored, and non-protected butterflies were used. The

birds employed included Liothrix luteus, Otocompsa emerisa,

478 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

Molpastes leucotis, M. bengalensis, Pycnontus sinensis, Cratcero-

pus canorus, Acridotheres tristis, Anthracoceros, Mesia argen-

tauris, Dissemurus paradiseus, Dicrurus ater, Sturna menzbtert,

Kittacincla macrura, Chloropsis aurifrons, Malactas captstrata,

Turnix taigoor. The experiments were made in cages and in

an aviary. Mr. Finn’s conclusions are:

“1, That there is a general appetite for butterflies among

insectivorous birds, even though they are rarely seen, when

wild, to attack them. í

“2, That many, probably most species, dislike, if not in-

tensely, at any rate in comparison with other butterflies, the

warningly colored Danainæ, Acrea viole, Delias eucharis, and

Papilio aristolochia, of these the last being the most distaste-

ful and the Danianæ the least so.

“3. That the mimics of these are at any rate relatively

palatable, and that the mimicry is commonly effectual under

natural conditions.

“4. That each bird has to separately acquire its experience,

and well remembers what it has learned.”

That, therefore, on the whole, the theory of Wallace and

Bates is supported in this and my former papers, so far as they

deal with birds (and with the one mammal used). Professor

Poulton’s suggestion that animals may be forced by hunger to

eat unpalatable forms is also more than confirmed, as the

unpalatable forms were commonly eaten without the stimulus

of actual hunger — generally also, I may add, without signs of

dislike.”

Mr. Finn’s elaborate series of experiments have proved that

non-protectively colored butterflies are preferred to warningly

colored ones. He notes the avoidance of the protected forms,

but, in cases where they are eaten, fails to detect any signs of

actual distaste. In fact there is, it seems to me, no hard and

fast line between distaste and lack of preference. There is,

however, in the mind of every one a distinct difference. For

instance, I prefer beef to mutton, but this does not signify

that mutton is distasteful to me. On the other hand, quinine

and kerosene are actually distasteful. In applying the same

standard to the case of the warningly colored butterflies I

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 479

should not, in spite of their not being preferred by birds, have

called them distasteful. In my own experiments I have found

that certain beetles are avoided to such an extent that birds

will not touch them even when they are very hungry. Laying

aside this quibble of the degree of distastefulness, it is clear

that the lack of preference, however slight, is all that is re-

quired by the theory of protective coloration.

It would be exceedingly interesting to know to what extent

the species of birds which Mr. Finn experimented with, feed

upon butterflies when at liberty. I know of no native species

of birds in the United States which habitually prey upon but-

terflies.

In the Linnean Society’s journal, Zodlogy, Vol. XX VI, there

is an article entitled “ Natural Selection the Cause of Mimetic

Resemblance and Common Warning Colours,’ by Professor

Edward B. Poulton. The scope and aims of this masterly

paper are so entirely different from those of my little contribu-

tion that I will not discuss it here. I have experimented in

feeding butterflies to birds just enough to become confused.

My song sparrow ate a Papilio turnus; a blue jay found a Coltas

philodice distasteful ; while catbirds relished Vanessa antiopa.

In spite of these experiments I must conclude, from the exam-

ination of stomach contents and field work, that butterflies are

comparatively immune from the attacks of birds of the eastern

United States.

Caddice flies are supposed to mimic small moths for protec-

tion, but they, nevertheless, are eaten by many birds, even

when plenty of other insects are obtainable.

In the Diptera and Hymenoptera we have such swift-flying

insects that birds have great difficulty in catching them. The

Muscide are relished by most birds, but only the flycatchers

and swallows are swift enough to catch them. The kingbird

eats the Eristalis fly that mimics the honey-bee and also other

mimicking Syrphus flies.

The parasitic Hymenoptera (Ichneumonids) are said to mimic

the stinging ones, but they are eaten by many birds. It has

also been supposed that many of our flower-infesting Ceram-

bycid beetles mimic. Scoliid wasps. However this may be, the

480 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vol. XXXIII.

beetles are seldom eaten. A wasp-like Cerambycid Neoclytus

erythrocephalus, however, was relished by a song sparrow. It

is maintained also that Staphylinid beetles mimic stinging

Hymenoptera; nevertheless, they are relished by a good many

birds.

One of the most salient difficulties in the actual working of

the theory of protective mimicry is met with when the insects

eaten by the kingbird are examined. Here one finds that the

yellow and black Hymenoptera, imitating Syrphidz, are eaten

by the kingbird. Further, that Avistalis tenax, which mimics

the honey-bee so perfectly, is also taken. These facts, though

bad enough for the effectiveness of the mimicry, are not to be

mentioned in the same category with still another. The king-

bird is well known to feed upon honey-bees, but, strangest of

all, the bird seeks only the drones. This would lead one to

infer that if a bird was keen enough to tell the different castes

of bees apart on the wing, it would not be likely, to any con-

siderable extent, to be humbugged by mimetic resemblance.

Mr. Benton, of the Department of Agriculture, tells me that

domesticated fowls can tell the difference between drones and

working honey-bees. Hens will stand by a hive and seize the

drones as they come out, but do not touch the workers. In

fact hens make a certain alarm cluck when they suddenly run

across a worker.

Miscellaneous Matter.

Size often determines whether a given insect shall be eaten

by a particular bird. The Papzlo turnus which my caged song

sparrow killed after several minutes of hard work would un-

doubtedly have escaped had it been outside, and a sphinx moth

which my catbirds killed after a quarter of an hour’s struggle

would certainly have gotten away. So with many beetles.

Small species can be easily managed; but a catbird, for in-

stance, with a Passalus cornutus is helpless, while a blue jay

has the strength to break the insect to pieces and then eat it.

I gave a Hydrophilus triangularis to my blue jay. His beak

glanced off the insect’s back again and again, but finally he

No. 390.] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 481

struck it on the ventral side so as to disable the beetle, and

then he hammered it to pieces and ate the soft parts.

The quick flight of Odonata and many Diptera prevent them

from being captured in any quantities. I can offer no reason

why the rose chafer is not a favorite article of bird food. I

have often found this insect abundant where I have collected

birds, but, with the exception of the kingbird, no bird seems

fond of it. Catbirds captive and at liberty avoid the Colorado

potato beetle. One adult catbird, however, shot where there

was an abundance of food, had eaten a potato beetle. On the

other hand, catbirds in captivity relish Déabroctica 12-punctata

but avoid it when at liberty. I could give a number of other

examples equally perplexing.

Conclusions.

It appears to me that certain writers upon protective adapta-

tions have identified their specific cases as coming under the

ban of the theory of protective adaptations in so far as they

coincide with or do not run counter to a statement of Darwin's,

in which he says that a necessary deduction from the theory of

the definite facts of organic nature is that no special organ, no

characteristic form or marking, no peculiarities of instinct or

of habit, no relations between species or between groups of

species can exist, but which must now be or once have been

useful to the individuals which possess them. This statement

of Darwin’s has comparatively so little intention and is capable

of such great extension that it forms a secure bulwark over

which no armies opposed in the least degree to the theory of

protective adaptations can ever hope to pass. It is as good as

saying that every conceivable phase of animal life is a protect-

ive adaptation (a statement which I cannot deny). But it

seems to me that there are different degrees of protective

adaptations — that some are much more effective than others.

There is need of some standard of the efficiency of protective

adaptations, 7.e., a measure of their working forces. Some of

the writers on the subject have led one to suppose that a good

many protective devices secure almost complete immunity

482 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

from the attacks of birds; while other investigators have been

tempted, when they found in particular instances that facts,

apparently, did not coincide with current views, to abandon

the theory entirely. Butler fully realizes the fact that very

broad generalizations are almost impossible, since, as he states,

there is no insect that will not be refused at some time by

some birds, and there are no insects that one can be sure will

not be eaten by some birds under certain conditions. Beddard,

after reviewing his own experiments and those of Wallace,

Butler, Weir, Morgan, Weisemann, and Poulton, states that

there is the greatest difficulty in drawing broad conclusions ;

and he, moreover, points out the fact that, in the case of the

insects that are refused, it is not usually on account of color

alone, but more often for the reason of a collection of disa-

greeable attributes, such as spininess, conspicuous coloration,

and bad flavor.

It seems to me that many caterpillars that have warning

coloration are refused in part because they are hairy, because

birds refuse inconspicuous hairy caterpillars as well as showy

ones; and, moreover, cuckoos which feed upon hairy cater-

pillars do not avoid those of conspicuous pattern. Neverthe-

less, the hairiness of caterpillars must be ranked as highly

efficient in protecting them from birds. The showy, ill-

flavored Coccinellidaz may be awarded almost as high a place,

and the elm-leaf beetle, not showily colored, should be rated

even higher. The Diabroticas, Doryphoras, and several other

similar beetles should be also reckoned as possessing compara-

tive immunity from many birds.

Wherein lies the reason for the comparatively high scale of

immunity of plant lice and rose chafers (Macrodactylus) I know

not. It is a fact that the smaller Carabidz, such as Anisodac-

tylus, Amara, Nebria, Agonoderus, and Harpalus, are eaten

much more frequently than Galerita, Carabus, and Calosoma.

And from birds the size of sparrows and smaller it is doubtless

true that large Carabids are well protected. Nevertheless, we

know that the large insectivorous birds are not baffled by the

irritating fluids these insects emit.

Among the Lampyridz, Chauliognathus appears to have

No. 390. ] SECURING INSECTS FROM BIRDS. 483

almost as high a degree of immunity as Coccinellide. The

quick-flying Diptera seem to be not far behind in the scale of

immunity from the attacks of birds, but with aculeate Hyme-

noptera there is somewhat of a drop, and when we get to the

‘parasitic Hymenoptera we find that they are eaten by many

birds and apparently relished.

Among the Coleoptera, Cyllene and other conspicuous flower-

loving Cerambycids are seldom found by the examiner of birds’

stomachs. Meloids of the type Epicauta have, in their secre-

tions, an efficient protection against birds, but they are excep-

tions. Thus, in each of five kingbirds’ stomachs, taken in one

locality, there were thirteen of these beetles. Butterflies, in

the scale of efficiency of their protection, will rank a good deal

higher than even Coccinellidaz. Homoptera, with the excep-

tion of Cicadas and Jassids, are seldom eaten. Dragon-flies

are not often caught when they have once been safely launched

on the wing, but May flies and Caddice flies are terribly perse-

cuted.

Apparently irrespective of coloration, the smaller Carabide,

and particularly all abundant Scarabæidæ, except the rose

chafer, are eagerly sought after for food by most insectivorous

birds.

From the study of the insectivorous food of birds, it seems

to me that biologists have not yet entirely elucidated all the

details of the nature of the adaptations of insects which are

most potently protective. Some investigators seem to reason

from the standpoint of man: that since an insect tastes bad

in our mouth, therefore it must be distasteful to a bird. What

is one man’s meat may be another man’s poison. Consequently

it seems to me that the human criteria are not necessarily

adapted to suit the avian case. It does not follow that, since

a stink bug nauseates our stomach and irritates our tongue, it

will produce a like effect on a crow. Hence there appears to

be need of a little more avian psychology before it is possible

to entirely coincide with certain current views upon protective

adaptations.

Numerous species of bugs and beetles which, in addition to

being protectively colored, possess ill-smelling, bad-tasting, and

484 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

irritating secretions, would naturally be supposed by some

writers to be avoided generally by nearly all birds, but tey

are habitually eaten by many birds of the eastern United States.

This would lead one to infer that protective adaptations in our

country are not always so efficient in securing insects from birds

as has been commonly held.

The fact that beetles and other insects which are gaudily

colored — and consequently are supposed to be protected from

birds — are greedily devoured by many birds, appears to show

that warning coloration is not always as efficient as alleged,

and one is almost led to believe that, because of this ineffi-

ciency of warning coloration in many cases, protective mimicry

has heen in some instances overestimated. Even the theory

of protective coloration in its restrictive sense, when pitted

against some facts, apparently loses a little of its luster in

certain cases; and we are forced to admit. that factors may

exist which sometimes nullify its action, so that the alleged

protective coloration is not the all-important factor in securing

an insect from extermination, as some earlier naturalists have

supposed, but that there are other equally important factors

that demand consideration. That is to say, coloration is not

all, but only one of the determining elements.

NOTE ON THE VERTICAL DISTRIBUTION OF

MALLOMONAS.

G. C. WHIPPLE AND HORATIO N. PARKER.

MALLomonas is a microscopic organism that is often found

in the water of ponds and lakes. It usually occurs in greatest

abundance in the spring and autumn, but occasionally it appears

at other seasons. It is an odor-producing organism, and as

such is liable to give trouble in water supplies. Its odor is

similar to that of Cryptomonas, which has been described as

resembling “candied violets.” As the odor increases in inten-

sity it loses its aromatic qualities and becomes “fishy.” In

addition to its odor it has a slight sweetish taste. Mallomonas

is not known to have ever given serious trouble in a water sup-

ply, because it is seldom found in large numbers for any con-

siderable length of time, but several cases are on record where

it has been present in water supplies, and where it has undoubt-

edly caused a noticeable odor. Observations seem to indicate

that whenever it is present in the water to the extent of about

500 per cc. its odor may be recognized. However, this paper

is not concerned with the odor-producing properties of Mallo-

monas, nor its effect on water supplies, so much as with the

organism itself, its structure, its development, and especially its

peculiar, characteristic, vertical distribution in ponds and lakes.

The earliest description of Mallomonas was that of Perty in

1852. To him we owe its generic and specific names. Some

writers have questioned the claim of Mallomonas to rank as an

independent genus. Stein held that it was but a monad of

Synura, freed from its colony. Recent observations have es-

tablished the position advanced by Perty and adopted by Kent.

Kent’s description of Mallomonas is as follows:

GENUS MALLOMONAS PERTY.

Animalcules free-swimming, oval or elliptic, persistent in shape ; cuticular

surface indurated, clothed with long, non-vibratile, hair-like seta; a single,

485

486 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

long, vibratile flagellum produced from the anterior extremity; contractile

vesicle indistinctly developed. Inhabiting fresh water.

M. PLOSSLII PERTY.

Body ovate or elliptical, slightly narrower anteriorly, cuticular surface

finely shagreened or crenulate, thickly clothed with fine hair-like setæ, whose

length is less than that of the body ; flagellum long and slender, retractile ;

endoplasm vacuolar, amber color or greenish-yellow ; contractile vesicle

indistinct, EE located. Length of body, 1-1000” to 1-900”. Habitat

marsh water

This description is somewhat incomplete and does not take

into account certain common variations from the type form.

Examination of a large number of specimens found in the

waters of Massachusetts and New York has revend the fol-

lowing facts :

The length of Mallomonas varies at different times and in

different localities from 20 to 6op. The ratio of length to

width varies from 4 to 1. Sometimes the bodies are long and

narrow, and sometimes they are almost spherical, resembling

the Rhizopod, Actinophrys. The older forms are somewhat

more spherical than the younger ones. All forms of Mallomo-

nas are more or less spherical in end view.

The setz or spines vary in length from 15m to 30m; the

average length is about 25m. They have a diameter of 0.3 at

the base and taper to a point at the fore end. They are gener-

ally straight, but, being flexible, they sometimes appear to be

curved. At the base they bend sharply like a polo stick and

are attached to basal plates which have a rectangular shape.

It is the irregular lapping of these basal plates that produces

the corrugated appearance of the cuticular surface mentioned in

Kent’s description. The setæ are easily broken off, and it is

not uncommon to see specimens with only two or three setæ

present. When the organism moves forward the setæ are

directed backwards.

The color of the organism is usually green when the specimen

is young and fresh, but sometimes it changes to greenish-yel-

low or brown. Besides the two chromatophores, a contractile

vacuole and numerous oil globules may be discerned. The

No. 390.] THE DISTRIBUTION OF MALLOMONAS. 487

nucleus, if present, is indistinct. At times a globular, balloon-

like body is attached to the posterior extremity. It is appar-

ently a development of the contractile vacuole. It is usually

small and colorless, with a granular structure, but sometimes

it is large, green, and spore-like. This body may be connected

with some process of reproduction. Reproduction of Mallomo-

nas takes place by sporular encystment. The protoplasm con-

tracts, assumes a spherical shape, shrinks, and becomes invested

with a thin integument. A single spore is formed by each

individual. The liberated spores have a brown color and are

occasionally surrounded by a gelatinous tegument.

All the forms of Mallomonas observed by the writers, not-

withstanding their variations in size and shape, may be properly

included under the single species M. ploss/iz Perty.

Fresenius (/nfustonsthiere, Abth. III, 1878) described a

minute form, to which the name M. freseniz has been given.

Zacharias (Forschungsberichte, Theil I, s. 16) has described a

species which he calls M. acarotdes Zach. It differs from the

type form only in having the setae thicker and more curved than

those of M. plosslii (Vergl. sur Kenntniss kleinsten Lebensformen,

1852, s. 83). He has also described (Forschungsberichte, Theil

I, s. 73) a new variety which he has called M. acaroides Zach.

var. producta (Seligo). It differs from the previous form by its

larger size and by its longer spines. Seligo (Ueber einige Flagel-

laten des Stisswasserplankton, Jan. 3, 1893), under the name

Lepidoton, has described the same form.

Mallomonas is of interest to students of aquatic life because

of its peculiar vertical distribution during the summer. Three

instances of this are on record; namely, in Lake Cochituate and

Whitehall Pond, of the Boston supply, and in Ridgewood Reser-

voir, of Brooklyn, N. Y.

Lake Cochituate is a lake of almost colorless water, with a

maximum depth of sixty feet and with well-marked stagnation

periods. Mallomonas is often found there in numbers varying

from 50 to 100 per cc. On June 24, 1896, it suddenly ap-

peared in the lower strata of water near the gate house. There

were 116 per cc. at the mid-depth -thirty feet, 42 per cc. at the

bottom sixty feet, but none at all at the surface. The follow-

488 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

ing week the same peculiar distribution was observed, the sur-

face water being free from them, while the number at the mid-

depth was 336 percc. This arrangement continued until the

first of September. During all this time not a single individual

was observed at the surface, and the numbers at the mid-depth

fluctuated between wide limits, on one day being as high as

3640 per cc. At the bottom they were invariably present, but

always in much smaller numbers than at the mid-depth. The

following table gives the number of Mallomonas at the surface,

mid-depth, and bottom for the entire period of growth.

NuMBER PER CC. .NUMBER PER CC.

Date. Sur. Mid. Bot. Date. Sur. Mid. Bot.

June 18, o o o July 28, o 264 162

24, o 116 42 Aug. 4, o ©3640 6

July 1, o 336 2 Fiy 0 1200 I0

5 o 4 18, O- 1380 4

15, o 724 276 25; o 298 8

22, o I102 158 Sept. L, o O o

On July 17 a series of samples was taken at intervals of ten

feet through the vertical, and the following results were

obtained.

DEPTH. MALLOMONAS PER CC.

Surface. (0)

10 ft. o

15 ft. 2

20 ft 1454

25 ft. 794

30 ft. 548

40 ft. 112

50 ft. 88

60 ft. 64

These figures, together with the temperature of the water at

various depths, are shown by the diagram. It will be observed

that the greatest numbers were found just below what may be

called the thermocline. From the surface down to a depth of

ten feet the temperature of the water was uniform. Between

ten and twenty feet the temperature fell rapidly. The water in

this stratum was not stagnant, however, as other observations —

not given here — indicated. But below a depth of twenty feet

No. 390.] THE DISTRIBUTION OF MALLOMONAS. 489

the temperature was practically constant from week to week,

indicating a condition of stagnation. It was at the boundary

line between the stagnant water and the slowly circulating

TEMPERATURE

a "O so’ 60° 70° 80°

S 30

X DIAGRAM SHOWING THE

N VERTICAL OISTAIBUTION OF

ij MMALLONIONAS IN LAKE COCCHI TUATE

a. £0 ON JULY 17,1896, ANO THE

TEMPERATURE OF THE WATER

AT VARIOUS DEPTHS ON THE

SAME DATE.

° 500 /000 1500 2000

NUMEER OF MALLOMONAS PEA C.C.

water above it that the Mallomonas reached their greatest

growths. Below this depth the numbers decreased rapidly.

A similar case of vertical distribution occurred in Whitehall

Pond during the summer of 1897. This is a pond of dark

490 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

brown water, with a depth of about twenty-five feet. From

May 7 to June 7 the surface samples contained a few Mallo-

monas. On June 14 there were 110 per cc., after which there

were less than 11 per cc., until August 23 they suddenly rose

to 2186 per cc. This suggested that there had been a growth

at the top of the stagnation layer as in Lake Cochituate, and

that a high wind had stirred the water and brought the organ-

isms to the surface. This seemed the more probable, because

the color of the surface water, which had been 0.57, rose to

0.66. On August 27, four days later, samples were taken every

five feet from surface to bottom. The following results were

obtained.

NuMBER OF

DEPTH. MALLOMONAS PER CC. CoLor.

1 ft. 20 0.54

$ tt. 880 0.54

10 ft.” 1936 0.57

15 ft. 84 0.64

20 ft. 40 1.06

These observations seemed to show that there had been a

large growth below the thermocline, that the organisms had

been scattered through the water, and that they were now sink-

ing back toward their original position. The color readings

showed that the pond had been stirred to a depth of only about

fifteen feet.

On September 14 the vertical distribution was as follows.

DEPTH. NUMBER OF MALLOMONAS PER CC.

1 ft. o

5 ft. °

15 ft. 10

20 ft. 432

25 ft. 472

In November, during the period of autumnal circulation,

Mallomonas again appeared at the surface, the number per cc.

reaching forty.

This tendency of Mallomonas to concentrate just below the

thermocline was observed in Ridgewood Reservoir, Brooklyn,

N. Y. In July, 1898, on the 6th inst., the water at the surface

contained 60 per cc., while at the bottom (twenty feet) there

No. 390.) THE DISTRIBUTION OF MALLOMONAS. — 491°

were 156 percc. At a depth of fifteen feet they were more

numerous, but the actual number per cc. was not determined.

On July 14, after a high wind, the surface water contained

420 per cc.

The reasons for the peculiar vertical distribution of Mallomo-

nas are not wholly apparent, but the reactions of the organism

to light and temperature offer some suggestions.

Mallomonas possesses a strong heliotropism. This has been

shown by laboratory experiment. A brass tube having glass

ends was filled with water containing 3360 Mallomonas per cc.,

and so placed that one end was exposed to the light, while the

other was covered bya black cap. After standing for forty-eight

hours in a horizontal position, portions of the water were care-

fully withdrawn simultaneously from each end of the tube and

examined. At the dark end of the tube only 810 Mallomonas

per cc. were found, but at the light end there were 9480

per cc.

From this tendency to move towards the light, it would

appear that the Mallomonas had tried to get as near as possible

to the surface where the light was strongest, but that the warm,

agitated water above the thermocline did not offer favorable

conditions for growth. During the winter Mallomonas does

rise to the surface, and is usually more abundant there than

elsewhere in the vertical.

Apparently Mallomonas prefers to live where the light is

strong, where the temperature is low, and where the water is

quiet. No doubt the long setæ (and possibly the balloon-like

bodies referred to above) help to keep the organisms from sink-

ing in quiet water. These become broken off when the water

is violently agitated, and after that the organisms sink more

readily. This may partially explain why Mallomonas does not

develop near the surface during the summer.

THE COLORS OF NORTHERN MONOCOTY-—

LEDONOUS FLOWERS.

JOHN H. LOVELL.

In the accompanying table the 1058 species of northern

monocotyledonous flowers recognized in the ///ustrated Flora

of Britton and Brown have been arranged according to their

predominant colors. The territory covered extends from the

Atlantic Ocean westward to the 102d meridian, and from the

parallel of the southern boundary of Virginia and Kentucky

northward, to include Labrador and Manitoba. The green or

dull-colored flowers number 857, and the non-green 201, of

which 41 are yellow, 82 white, 22 red, 22 purple, and 34 blue.

Of the 28 families, 12 contain yellow flowers, 11 white, 5 red

and purple, 5 blue, and 15 green. Six families are represented

by only a single species. Yellow and white flowers usually

occur in the same families, except in the AJismacez with 19

white, and the Xyrjdaceze with 6 yellow species. There are

described in the sixth edition of Gray s Manual 785 monocoty-

ledons, which, for the purpose of comparison, I have also tabu-

lated according to their colors; 621 have green or dull-colored

flowers, and 164 non-green, divided into 38 yellow, 67 white,

19 red, 19 purple, and 21 blue. The yellow, red, and purple

are less than those of the ///ustrated Flora by 3 each, the white

by 15, the blue by 13, and the green by 236. This difference

is due partly to the more restricted area of the Manual, and

partly to a different conception of varieties and species.

The flowers of the four families, Typhaceze to Scheuchzeri-

acez, are either anemophilous as in Typha and Potamogeton,

or hydrophilous as in Ruppia and Zostera, or self-fertilized as

is probably the case in Triglochin and Scheuchzeria. The

perianth segments are very small or wanting, and the numer-

ous flowers are usually crowded in a greenish inconspicuous

inflorescence which is often spathaceous. The spikes of Typha

493

494 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

are, however, brown or black, and those of Potamogeton are

frequently reddish. The 19 species of the Alismacez all

have white petals and are attractive to Syrphide. On the

small flowers of Alisma Plantago-aquatica, Miiller collected 5

flies of this genus, and on Sagittaria latifolia I have taken 11

Syrphidze, 6 other Diptera, 2 Coleoptera, and 4 bees. In the

latter. species the globular mass of yellow stamens, about 40 in

number, are brought into strong relief by the white petals.

The primitive color of the Alismaceze was doubtless green, the

transition of which to white may be illustrated by many exam-

ples. The involucre of Cornus changes from green to white

during growth; the floral leaves of Monarda clinopodia are

white ; the calyx of Polygonum in different species is green,

greenish-white, and white; the upper sepal of Habenaria obtu-

sata is green with whitish margins; the perianth of Ornithoga-

lum umbellatum is white above and green beneath ; Chrosperma

(Amianthium) is white, but turns greenish with age; I have

observed the marginal neutral flowers of a culture variety of

Hydrangea to remain upon the plant for many months and

change from white to pale green, and many small flowers vary

from green to white. Of the Vallisneriacez Philotria and

Vallisneria have white hydrophilous flowers, and Hydrocharis

is entomophilous. Müller regards Vallisneria as an intermedi-

ate stage between a water-fertilized and an insect-fertilized

plant.

The Graminez with 371, and the Cyperacee with 334 spe-

cies include nearly two-thirds of northern monocotyledons.

The same external conditions appear to have been favorable to

the development and continuance of a great number of forms

in both families. The flowers are wind fertilized, though they

are visited occasionally by flies, bees, and beetles for pollen.

The perianth is nearly suppressed and is represented only by

scales or bristles. Both the glumes of the Gramineae and the

bracts of the Cyperacez are often reddish or purplish. This

coloration is of physiological importance, according to Pick and

Stahl, and by converting light-rays into heat promotes both in

young leaves and the organs of flowers transpiration, metabo-

lism, and growth. Darwin states in “ Variation in Animals and

No. 390. ] MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS. 495

Plants under Domestication ” that red wheats and red sugar

canes are more hardy than white, and I have also noticed that

the most vigorous variety of maize or Indian corn in my garden

had purplish-red culms, glumes, and silk. The red coloring of

the styles is believed to favor the growth of the pollen tubes

and occurs in many flowers. Leaf variegation is found in some

grasses, as in Eulalia, one beautiful variety of which has the

— leaves striped longitudinally with white, and in another marked

transversely with yellow.

Many Aracez are cultivated for their handsome foliage,

which is marbled or striped with yellow, white, purple, and red.

The capability of the leaf to produce bright coloration has

determined the adaptation of the spathe for attractive purposes,

and its development has been attended by the reduction or sup-

pression of the perianth. The spathe of Avzsema triphyllum,

Indian turnip, is variegated with purplish and white stripes,

and C. M. Weed found the flowers visited by small diptera of

the genus Mycetophila, or family of fungus gnats. Symplocar-

pus fetidus, the skunk cabbage, has the spathe spotted and

striped with purple and yellowish-green ; the odor is repulsive,

and the visitors are small active flies of the genus Phora.

Calla palustris has a conspicuous white spathe and, according

to Eu. Warming, pond snails aid in the fertilization; Delpino

mentions more than 4 European species of Aracez, which,

in his opinion, are fertilized by snails. In Orontium the per-

fect bright yellow flowers are densely crowded over the narrow

spadix, and the green spathe is distant, investing only the

lower part of the scape. The investigation of the numerous

tropical species of this family promises to reveal many remark-

able adaptations. The Lemnacez are regarded as simplified

Aracez, and the minute green flowers, in the opinion of Ludwig

and Miiller, are adapted to insects which live upon the surface

of the water.

The small yellow flowers of the Xyridacez, which are regu-

lar, trimerous, and solitary in the axils of scale-like bracts, are

evidently primitive in type, and are probably derived directly

from ancestral green forms. This transition is illustrated in

Hypoxis, which has the perianth segments yellow above, but

496 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

the three outer green on the lower side; in Nymphea advena

the lower. half of the outer sepals is green, and the upper half

yellow; Trollius laxus, which grows in dense swamps, has

greenish-yellow sepals, but the culture varieties are bright yel-

low, while the perianth of Veratrum viride is yellowish-green.

Henslow thinks it probable that the yellow coloration of the

petaloid structures is correlated with the yellow coloring of the

anthers and pollens, universal among gymnosperms and very

prevalent among angiosperms, and also extending to the anther

scale of Pinus and the sporophylls of Lycopodium. Certainly

yellow is the first color to be developed in many dicotyledonous

families.

The 12 species of the Commelinaceæ all have blue flowers,

except Tradescantia rosea, which is rose-colored, and the small-

est northern species with narrow grass-like leaves and few flow-

ers. Blue in this family appears to have been preceded by a

reddish stage, and this view is strengthened when we remem-

ber that many blue Boraginaceæ have passed through a red

stage, as Myosotis, Pulmonaria, and Echium, several species

changing from red to blue during the course of individual

development. The filaments of Tradescantia are bearded as

in Verbascum, which is visited by pollen-collecting bees.

The original color of the Pontederiaceæ was almost certainly

yellow, as it still is of the smallest species, Heteranthera dubia,

water star grass, which has a slender stem and linear, sessile

leaves. Every stage of the transition from yellow to blue is

shown by_ Viola tricolor, and in Gentiana the simplest species,

G. lutea, is yellow, but the more highly specialized species are

purple-blue. The middle lobe of the upper lip of Pontederia

cordata is marked by two yellow spots, which serve as honey

guides. This is one of the handsomest as well as commonest

of river plants, producing thousands of spikes of purple-blue

flowers with blue anthers. The most important visitors are

Bombus vagans and B. borealis, though I have also collected

upon the flowers two other k four Lepidoptera, and four’.

Diptera.

The Juncaceæ have a small, oul six-parted perianth which

is often reddish or purplish brown. The flowers are anemo-

No. 390.] MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS. 497

philous and proterogynous, though self-fertilization of open

flowers and cleistogamy occur. Several European species have

rather conspicuous flowers and attract insect visits.

The Melanthacez have regular, perfect, and, for the most

part, small flowers in panicles and racemes. Many of the

species grow in woodlands and swamps, secrete nectar in

readily accessible positions, and are visited by Diptera, as in

Tofieldia and Veratrum. The flowers exhibit but little bright

coloring and are chiefly greenish-white or greenish-yellow; in

Zygadenus and Melanthium there are green, greenish-yellow,

and greenish-white species; in Veratrum yellowish-green and

purplish. Yellow, white, and purple appear to have been

developed directly from the primitive green without passing

through any intermediate stage. There is a complete absence

of red and blue and of variegation. The primitive color of this

family and the two succeeding was undoubtedly green, resem-

bling the wind-fertilized Juncaceze, with which they are closely

allied in structure.

The Liliaceze have attained a much higher stage of colora-

tion than the Melanthacez, and the inflorescence exhibits the

most brilliant and variegated hues. The flowers are solitary

or clustered, very large and conspicuous, and, in some instances,

adapted to the visits of a single species of insect. They are

very remarkable for their range of color and, long since, com-

pelled botanists to lay aside the cyanic and xanthic speculations

of de Candolle. The hyacinth displays every shade of yellow,

white, red, and blue, and Darwin gives several instances of red

and blue flowers produced on the same truss ; the tulip exhibits

yellow, white, red, and purple-violet; and many other genera

are almost equally polychromatic. The 9 species of Allium

are green, white, and rose, the development of coloring having

proceeded in this order. The honey is abundant and is more

accessible in the green and white species than in the rose; the

inflorescence is umbelloid, and the guests are bees, Lepidoptera,

and flies. Florists also offer bright yellow and blue forms.

About 45 species of the genus Lilium are known, many of

which are adapted to diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera. The

entire genus is justly admired for the beauty of its flowers.

498 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.: (VoL. XXXIII.

It has long been a favorite in floriculture and many varieties

have been produced by hybridization. Seven species with

yellow, orange-red, and scarlet flowers are indigenous to the

northern states, and ZL. tigrinus is adventitious from Asia.

Red flowers are peculiarly attractive to butterflies, and they

are the chief agents in pollenizing many pinks and species of

phlox, and, according to Miiller, of Tritoma and the fiery red

L. bulbiferum. I have repeatedly seen Z. Philadelphicum,

which is orange-red spotted with purple inside, visited by

Argynnis aphrodite, the silver-winged butterfly, which is itself

yellowish-red spotted with silver, but never by any other insect.

The yellow nodding flowers of Z. Canadense are visited only

by bees, and I have seen Bombus vagans rest first upon the

stigma and then climb the stamens to the base of the corolla.

The white exotic species, such as L. martagon and L. harrisi,

are sought by Sphingidz or hawk moths. The genera Lilium

and Tulipa excellently illustrate the transition from yellow to

red, presenting every intermediate step, as yellow, orange,

orange-red with a broad yellow band, orange-red, dark scarlet

with yellow stripes, and fiery red. Tyitoma abraria is coral

red and, according to Gray, changes to orange and then to

greenish-yellow.

Erythronium, Calorchortus, and Muscari are visited by bees,

and display the most brilliant colors. The 4 native species of

Erythronium are respectively yellow, white, rose, and lavender ;

and those of Muscari are blue and white, but under cultivation

there are also yellow and red forms.

The genus Yucca is chiefly confined to Mexico and the

southern states, but 3 species occur north of Tennessee.

The flowers are large, white above and greenish beneath, and

are pollinated at night by a white Teneid moth, Pronuda yuc-

casella A plant in bloom is a magnificent sight, the flower `

stalk sometimes, as in Y. filifera of Mexico, rising to the height

of 50 feet and supporting a panicle 5 or 6 feet long. The

~ manner of pollination is phenomenal in the extreme and has

been thoroughly investigated by Riley and Trelease. The

structure of the moth Pronuba is very abnormal among lepi-

dopterous insects, as it is provided with tentacles for collecting

No. 390] | MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS. 499

pollen and an ovipositor for puncturing the yucca pods. In

the evening this small moth climbs in succession half a dozen

stamens, and collects the pollinia in a compact ball beneath its

head; it then punctures the pod and deposits its eggs among

the ovules, after which, in order that the growing’seed pods

may afford food for the young larvee, it deliberately climbs the

short style, and intentionally rubs the pollen with its tentacles

upon the viscid stigma. As the stamens are shorter than the

pistil the plant would not produce seed unless fertilized by

Pronuba.

The Convallariaceze commonly grow in moist woods and

thickets, and have dull-colored, rather inconspicuous flowers.

Of the 23 species 2: are greenish-yellow, 11 white, I rose-

purple, 4 purple, and 5 green; there are no bright red or blue

flowers, and none adapted to Lepidoptera. The most frequent

visitors are bees and flies. The greenish flowers of Asparagus

are mellifluous, pleasantly scented, and mellitophilous. The

male flowers are twice the length of the female, and in conse-

quence of their increased conspicuousness are visited first by

bees. On the greenish-yellow flowers of C/lintonia borealis I

have collected the honey-bee, Bombus consimilis, and small

beetles, Anthobium pothos, feeding on the pollen. The short,

white, bell-shaped flowers of Convallaria are open to all bees,

but the longer tubular blossoms of Polygonatum only to bum-

blebees. The largest genus is Trillium with 8 species; 3

white, 4 purple, and 1 greenish. The purple-flowered species

have been derived, apparently, directly from the primitive green,

for 7. viride is light green or purplish-green, T. erectum is

purple, sometimes greenish, and T. sessile is purple or green.

A white variety of T. erectum is common, especially in New

York, the specimens of which in my herbarium are smaller

` than the purple form. C. M. Weed saw the flesh fly, Lucilia.

cornicina, on the flowers of this species, which has a disagree-

able odor, and I have also seen minute Diptera. Several spe-

cies are pleasantly odorous and are probably visited by small

bees. The Smilaceæ have small, regular, diœcious, greenish

flowers attractive to Diptera.

The Amaryllidaceæ are principally a tropical family, only

500 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXII.

1 species, Hypoxis hirsuta, star grass, being found in New

England. The flowers are often white, sweet-scented, and

attractive to night-flying Lepidoptera. Of the 6 northern

species, 3 are yellow and 3 white. The coloration of the ex-

otic species is unsurpassed in beauty and magnificence, orange,

white, red, and crimson predominating.

In the Iridacez, on the contrary, blue, violet, purple, and

yellow are the more common colors, often variegated and gaud-

ily spotted. The flowers of Iris are adapted to the largey bees,

though the bright yellow Z. pseudacorus, naturalized from

Europe, has been seen both there and in New England to be

frequently visited by a syrphid fly of the genus Rhingia. On

I. versicolor I have taken four different bees ; the. honey-bee

‘often passes in and out sideways between the perianth segment

and the petaloid style without effecting fertilization, and Matic-

tus similis, also common, I have observed breaking open imma-

ture anthers for the pollen. Yellow markings, yellow flowers,

and reversion to yellow are of frequent occurrence, especially

in Iris and the familiar Gladiolus and Crocus, and point to this

color as belonging to an earlier stage of this family.

At the head of the monocotyledons stand the magnificent

and extensive family of the Orchidacez, which, according to

Engler, has no possible connecting link with the liliaceous fami-

lies. The flowers are zygomorphous in a very high degree and

possess marvelous adaptations for fertilization by insects, which

have been very fully described, but can only be properly under-

stood by the examination of living specimens. .Of the 61

northern species, 10 are yellow, 18 white, 8 red, 14 purple, and

11 green. The number of white and green flowers appear sur-

prisingly large until it is observed how sparingly our indigenous

species are visited by insects. There are no blue flowers, and

this is an unusual color among orchids, though found in the

pale blue Vgnda cerule of India. There is much variegation,

and reversion to white of the pink-purple forms is common as

in Habenaria grandiflora and Pogonia ophioglossoides. Many

of the large pink-purple or rose-colored flowers are attractive

to bumblebees. Orchis spectabilis blooms in early springtime

and is visited only by female forms of Bombus, which are then

No. 390. ] MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS. 501

alone on the wing ; during two years I have repeatedly exam-

ined many blossoms of the handsome Pogonia ophioglossoides,

but have collected only a single specimen of Bombus consimilis.

The white flowers of Gyrostachys (Spiranthes) and Peramium

(Goodyera) are also occasionally visited by bumblebees.. The

genus Habenaria is adapted to Lepidoptera, the white and yel-

' lowish species, which are often sweet-scented, being pollinated

by crepuscular or nocturnal moths. In some instances I have

found the grayish hairs of these insects adhering to glutinous

surfaces. The fertilization of some 10 species has been

described by Asa Gray. Small purplish or green flowers are

visited by small Hymenoptera and Diptera or are self-fertilized.

On the purplish and greenish inflorescence of Listera, tway-

blade, Darwin collected in England small Hymenoptera and Dip-

tera, and on the extremely small and inconspicuous but odorous

flowers of Herminium mornorchis George Darwin collected 27

specimens of minute Hymenoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera, the

largest being less than +; of an inch in length. The small green

flowers of Habenaria hyperborea and Epipactis viridiflora are

self-fertilized. Scentless plain green flowers of a species of

Epidendrum in South Brazil, according to Fritz Müller, freely

secrete honey and attract insects.

A simpler and earlier stage of the Orchidacez has been

partly preserved in Cypripedium, the floral organs of which are

less modified than those of other genera. An enormous amount

of extinction, Darwin believes, has swept away the intermediate

forms. The flowers are visited with extreme rarity by Andreni-

dæ, while species of Bombus are liable to be held captive and

perish miserably of starvation. Of the 6 species in the north-

ern states, 2 are yellow, marked with purple, 2 white striped

with purple, and 2 red and white. As the lip is evidently the

chief object of attraction the other perianth®segments are dull

colored, green, brown, white, or purple.

The Orchidacez are remarkable for the variety of colors,

often three or four, presented by individual flowers; in a spe-

cies of Dendrobium from India the sepals and petals are white,

tipped with purple, and the lip is bright orange with two crim-

son spots. This is probably due to the marked tendency of

502 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIIL

the species to variation, as described by Miiller and others, and

to which they attribute the multiplicity of forms of flowers.

The high degree of zygomorphy and bright coloration have

evidently been produced by the agency of insects, since the lip,

the petal most modified in form and color, is the segment most

visited, while the other segments of the perianth often retain

their primitive form and plain green coloring. Insects have

not, however, been able to induce particular colors, but their

work has been the fixation by selection of those naturally pro-

duced by the flowers. This is well shown by the rarity of blue

among the Orchidaceze. This color is very attractive to bees, yet

its development has not necessarily followed the high specializa-

tion of the flowers in response to their visits. Its presence

or absence is rather dependent upon the chemical constitution

of the nutritive fluids or other internal conditions. There may

even be no bright coloring, as in the mellifluous plain green

species of Epidendrum mentioned above.

The monocotyledonous families were probably very early dif-

ferentiated, and their subsequent development has proceeded

along parallel lines, but without any connection with each

other. With few exceptions, the families possess a perianth,

though it is frequently rudimentary, and in the majority of

species non-petaloid. In the opinion of Engler the floral

envelopes have not been induced by insect pollination. Their

very general occurrence points to their early development, and

their first office was undoubtedly protective in its nature, simi-

lar to that performed by the scales of the gymnosperms. In

anemophilous families the perianth has remained unmodified

or, where the protective office has been assumed by glumes or

bracts, as in the Graminez, has nearly disappeared ; while in

the entomophilous families insect pollination has caused it to .

be enlarged and s@ecialized. When the expenditure of produ-

cing petals, nectar, and color is considered, as well as the vast

number of individuals blooming at a time when they would be

brought into competition with many entomophilous flowers, it

cannot be doubted that the Graminez and Cyperacez are more

efficiently pollinated by the “wind than could possibly be the

case by the existing number of insects.

No. 390.] MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS. 503

SUMMARY.

1. The primitive color of the perianth of the monocotyledo-

nous families was green, as it still is in the greater part of the

species which are anemophilous or self-fertilized. A few of

the oldest families, with an indefinite number of stamens and

carpels spirally arranged, have probably never possessed floral

envelopes.

2. Yellow, white, and lurid, or greenish-purple flowers have

in numerous instances been derived directly from the primitive

green ; red flowers have passed through a yellow or white stage ;

and blue and purple-blue have been derived from yellow, white,

or red forms. Reversion to white is most common, but rever-

sion to red or yellow also occurs.

3. Physiological conditions appear to have often played an

important part in determining the coloration of the petals,

while “insects have contributed to the fixation of such charac-

ters when once acquired.”

4. In general, among monocotyledons yellow flowers are

visited by bees and flies; white flowers, by bees, nocturnal

Lepidoptera, flies, and beetles ; lurid-purple, by flesh flies; red,

by bees and butterflies; and blue, chiefly by bees. Red and

blue flowers usually have the honey concealed, which is a far

more effective cause of the limitation of insect visits than

color.

When the honey is abundant and exposed, and the flower

pleasantly odorous, it may prove attractive to any anthophilous

insect. In proof of this it may be stated that insects fre-

quently attempt to visit flowers from which they are excluded.

I have seen butterflies standing beneath the perianth of /ris

versicolor and stealing the honey, without rendering any ser-

vice in return; an hymenopter, probably an ichneumon fly, was

observed, but not caught, examining the center of the flower

for nectar, and of course, unsuccessfully ; flies are attracted by

the bright colors of /mpatiens biflora to the outside of the

calycine sac, and I have often seen Philanthus solivagus flying

from flower to flower of Chelone glabra and examining the lips

for nectar, but never entering the corolla.

504

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

THE COLORS OF NORTHERN MONOCOTYLEDONOUS FLOWERS.

ETE g x i |Z iar

ORDERS. FAMILIES. s | = | g 8 eee FOOR

Pandanales. . f| Typhaces i x | 5

1 Sparganiaceze | 4 4

‘Naiadacee . . | 42 | 42

Naiadales | “Scheuchzeriacee I | 3 | 4

Alismaceze . 19 | 19

|| z H i | |

\| Vallisneriacez 3 3

Graminales. . f Gramineæ | 37t | 37!

| Cyperaceze 334 | 334

pe _ {| Arace I 2 5 8

{ Lemnaceæ j II II

Mayacaceæ I I

x idac 6 6

Xyridales _ | | Eriocaulacez 5 5

Bromeliacee . . I I

| Cc melinacee . I II 12

Pontederiaceee I I 2 4

Juncaceæ . . 47 47

“Melanthaceæ. 2) eo 2 5 24

_Liliaceee Para 655 ee I 6 I 38

Convallariacez . ie P| 1 4 5 23

Liliales . | Smilaceæ . II II

Hemodoracex I I

Amaryllidaceæ eps 6

“Dioscore I I

Ç _Irid e 2 | I 17

Scitaminales . || Marantacee . ETI i

Orchidales . . {| Burmanniaceæ I I

{ Orchidacez | 10 | 18 8 | 14 1I 61

Total | 41 82 | 22 | 22 | 34 | 857 | 1058

LOSS OF THE ECTODERM.OF AYDRA VIRIDIS

IN THE LIGHT OF A PROJECTION

MICROSCOPE.

WILLIAM L. TOWER.

WHILE working with a projection microscope in December,

1897, I placed a living Hydra viridis in a small stage aquarium

and projected its image upon a screen. The response of the

hydra to this stimulus was startling.

My apparatus consisted of an alternating current arc-lamp of

fifty-two volt, twelve ampere capacity. The light was taken by

a pair of four-and-one-half-inch condensers, and was passed by

them through an alum cell to remove the heat rays, then through

a bi-convex condensing lens, an Abbé condenser, and finally

through the object into the objective.

Projected in this manner, an unexpected sight was visible on

the screen. The ectodermal cells, either singly or in groups,

were seen to leave the animal, float free in the liquid, and grad-

ually sink out of sight, leaving the hydra composed solely of

endoderm, and the thin layer of mesodermal tissue. The cells

were not distorted in any way, but retained their normal shape,

acting as if they had been separated by some delicate and effect-

ive disassociation method. This result, and the fact that it

could not be due to heat, as will appear later, led to the further

investigation of the phenomenon.

The material had been collected in October, and kept in the

laboratory, where it had multiplied to a considerable extent. The

hydra were removed one at a time with a pipette, and placed in

the stage aquarium ordinarily used for such purposes, where

they were left from twelve to eighteen hours, during which time

they fully recovered from being handled. They were then care-

fully placed upon the stage of the projection microscope. By

using sufficient care it was possible to bring the animal at once

into the field in an unstimulated condition and fully expanded.

5°5

506 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

In each of the one hundred and twenty-four times a hydra

was placed in the field of the microscope it immediately under-

went violent contraction, followed by speedy recovery of the

elongated form. In four cases a response of this kind was

noted in five seconds from the time the hydra was placed in the

light. In two cases a period of forty seconds elapsed before

any response was noted.

This response was accompanied by the discharge of a number

of the nettle cells on the tentacles. In the great majority of

cases the loss of the ectodermal cells began about the time when

the animal regained its elongated form. Usually all of the

ectoderm was lost, but in a few individuals a small number of

cells would adhere to the upper part of the animal. In one

case the ectoderm was completely lost in one minute, while

another required eleven minutes for its removal (see table, also

Fig. 1).

TABLE OF RESPONSES OBTAINED.

Total number of individuals, 124.

First response :

Time in seconds, 5 ro 15 20 25 370 35 go

No. of individ, 4 71 2 110 a8 2

Lost ectoderm :

Time in minutes,7 27 4¢ 567891041

No. of individ, 106 10 80712313 1

Ectoderm regenerated :

Time in days, 9 fo I7 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 £9 20 21 22

No. of individ, © 4 7 7 10 20 go 20:12 3° 1° ù o

23 24 25 20 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

t S EO Oe Oe Poe O f f

Time lived after second trial :

Time m days, F4 5 6 7 8 g

No. of individ., 2 2 10 42 44 14 10

The first response is evidently due to the concentration of

light upon theanimal. An interesting point about the response

to the light stimulus is the grouping of the individuals about

two modes (Fig. 2). One set responds quickly, and tends to

gather about a mode of ten (seconds). The other set requires

No. 390.] THE ECTODERM OF HYDRA VIRIDIS. 507

a continued application of the stimulus for a longer time before

the response takes place. These latter tend to group themselves

about a mode of thirty-five (seconds). Between these two almost

no cases were found.

I cannot explain the loss of the ectoderm. It could not be

due to heat, for the alum cell effectually cut out that element,

as was shown by placing the bulb of a delicate thermometer in

80-44

754 75-4

70-7 704

65- 65-

60- 60-

eT 55-

50-4 504

45- 45

40- 40

a4 35-

30- 30-

254 25-

20-

15 15-4

i k

5 5

I 234 s 6 7 8 QI01I 5 1015 20 25 30 35 40

Fic. 1. Fic.

Fic. 1. — Curve of the first response. The ordinates represent time (in sarong and abscissas

represent individuals. It is to be noted that the individuals fall in two classes with one

mode at ten ree the other at thirty-five se

Fic. 2.— Loss of ectoderm. scsi wile, _~ ea of the individuals about two

modes; one at five, th Ordinates = time in minutes, Abscissas =

number of individuals.

the aquarium containing the hydra. There was no change what-

ever, and the water remained constantly at the temperature of

the room, which ranged from 15° to 18° C. It could not have

been due to escaped currents of electricity, for insulation was

perfect. Neither could it have been the effect of the Roentgen

rays, although such are found in the arc-light. The distance of

the object from the arc was forty-two inches, and the small

amount of those rays generated by the arc-lamp could not have

had, it seems, any effect at so great a distance, inasmuch as

they were not focused or controlled by optical appliances. This

dropping off of the hypodermis, however, resembles in many ways

the blistering effects produced upon the skin by Roentgen rays.

508 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. {VoL XXXIII.

No experiments were made to determine what light rays were

responsible for this, excepting that it was noted in making a

photo-micrograph, using light of long wave-length, that the

phenomenon did not occur; but if rays of short wave-length

were used, it was impossible to obtain a sharp photograph,

owing to the sloughing of the hypodermis. Microscopical

examination showed that the sloughing had occurred, and it

was also seen on the focusing screen of the camera. Beyond

this I did not determine the action of the rays of different wave-

lengths, although I believe this phenomenon is in some way

related to rays of short wave-length.

After the removal of the ectoderm by this means, the hydra

was very unresponsive to stimuli. It remained in an elongated

condition even when handled violently. Before twenty-four

hours had elapsed it had contracted into an oval mass, with the

tentacles almost entirely retracted; but it recovered its normal

expanded condition in three or four days.

It is interesting in connection with this to note the regener-

ation of the ectoderm. Each hydra, after having been subjected

to this treatment, was placed in a small bottle and given plenty

of fresh water until it recovered. The most rapid recovery took

place in nine days, while the slowest required thirty-three. The

great majority recovered in from fifteen to seventeen days (see

table). I have made no histological study of the regeneration

of the ectoderm, but observed it with considerable constancy in

the living animals, and found that it gee first about the

oral end.

If a hydra after complete recovery, that is, after complete

regeneration of the ectoderm, was again subjected to the same

treatment, the second response to light would occur in about

the same time as before, and usually fall in the same modal

class. This was true also for the loss of the ectoderm. It was

noted, however, that some of the individuals that responded

quickly to light and to the stimulus that removed the ectoderm

in the first trial showed a near approach, or completely con-

formed to the second modal class in the second trial.

I was not able to obtain a second regeneration. The hydra

did not recover at all, but remained as if stupefied, moving only

No.390.] THE ECTODERM OF HYDRA VIRIDIS. 509

when chemically stimulated. In three or four days it would be

found contracted, and in six or seven days would macerate and

entirely disappear.

The case is interesting, and, as far as I know, no similar one

has ever been recorded. It is manifestly a case of response to

some form of radiant energy, either of light or short wave-

length, or of some other form beyond the visible end of the

spectrum. It would have been desirable to have carried out

histological studies upon this material, but I was unable to do

so at the time.

CAMBRIDGE, Mass., Feb. 10, 1899.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

Keys for the Determination of American Invertebrates. —

Beginning with the next issue the American Naturalist will publish a

series of synoptical tables or keys for the determination of American

invertebrates, each key covering one group. Each article will be

prefaced by a brief account of the habits and occurrence of the

forms under consideration, with hints for collecting, and will be

accompanied by simple illustrations where such are necessary to

emphasize points of systematic importance. An American bibli-

ography and the best general references will form a part of each

contribution. We have long had the valuable Manual of Vertebrates

of our distinguished co-editor, Professor Jordan, and the Naturalist

now strives to supplement in a measure this useful work by publish-

ing synopses or keys for the invertebrates, hoping thus gradually to

give to Americans an equivalent of the German ‘ Leunis,’ correspond-

ing to which there is nothing in the English language. The task we

have set for ourselves is not an easy one. We cannot hope to cover

all the invertebrates of North America, as many groups have been

but partially studied, which is true particularly of western and Pacific

forms. It will be our effort, however, to present to our readers brief

synopses of the present state of our knowledge.. We invite correc-

tion and criticism, and beg our readers to test our keys to their full

capacity ; and if they will send to us specimens that they cannot place

in the keys, we will undertake to determine and return them. Such

cooperation will aid us in enlarging and revising the keys for future

issue, and help in perfecting the work we have undertaken —a

Manual of Invertebrates. Uniformity of treatment can at first

hardly be realized, owing to the many sources from which the

contributions must come, but we look forward to the accumulation

of material sufficient for the publication of at least one homogeneous

volume. Eminent specialists have pledged their coöperation ; the

first of the series, to appear in the July issue, will deal with the

fresh-water Bryozoa.

Outdoor Nature Study.— Any one who has witnessed the strug-

gles of the average unprepared school-teacher with “ nature study”

knows how much in need she is of a friendly guide to take her out of

Sir

512 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoOL. XXXII

doors and teach her what nature really is. An attempt to meet this

need is to be made during the summer by the Rhode Island College

of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, at Kingston, R. I., where a summer

school of nature study will be held from July 5-19, provided forty

applicants are enrolled before June 1. The program is rather ambi-

tious for the short time allowed, as it includes physiography, botany,

zoology, and horticulture. But as the work is to be chiefly in the

field, if it is skillfully conducted, no doubt most teachers will be able

to get from it considerable instruction and a great deal of inspiration

for future work.

October, 1898) to seek the ancestry of the vertebrates in Actino-

trocha, it seems to us, is the most ingenious and the most improbable

of any view yet advanced. It demands that the mouth of Actinotrocha

becomes the vertebrate neurenteric canal, while the vent forms the

vertebrate mouth. .

New ‘*American Anthropologist.’? — It is with genuine pleasure

that students of anthropology greet the new American Anthropologist,

the first number of which appeared in March. ‘The new journal re-

places the periodical that appeared under the same name for the last

ten years. The change is most welcome and promising. The old

American Anthropologist served a good purpose. It was the off-

cial journal of the Washington Anthropological Society; it became

the forum of smaller contributions to anthropology, and it stimulated

and preserved many efforts of value, but its scope was too restricted.

It was not a fair representative of the science of anthropology in

this country, and could not keep up with its advancement. Thus

it became evident that either the American Anthropologist had to

undergo a radical change, or that a new, larger, more representative

journal had to be established.

The first practical efforts for the establishing of a new journal of

anthropology were due to Dr. Franz Boas, of New York, and Pro-

fessor Wm. J. McGee, of Washington, who were soon seconded by

other anthropologists of prominence. Dr. Boas formulated a definite

proposition and brought it before Section H of the American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement of Science, at its winter meeting in

Ithaca, in December, 1897. The proposition aimed rather at a met-

amorphosis of the established journal than at beginning a new peri-

odical, the change taking place with the consent and coöperation of

the Washington Anthropological Society. Section H of the Ameri-

No. 390. } EDITORIAL COMMENT. à 513

can Association supported the proposition, and, following the report

of its committee, at the annual meeting of the Association in Boston,

in 1898, voted its approval of establishing the new journal. The

coöperation of the Washington Anthropological Society was secured,

and it was decided to discontinue the old journal and allow the new,

more efficient periodical to take its place. By almost common con-

sent of the subscribers, the new journal was to retain the name of

the old one.

As to the aims of the new American Anthropologist, we cannot do

better than quote its editors: “ The editors aim to make the journal

a medium of communication between students of all branches of an-

thropology. The contents will embrace (1) high grade papers per-

taining to all parts of the domain of anthropology, the technical

papers to be limited in number and length; (2) briefer contributions

on anthropologic subjects, including discussion and correspondence ;

(3) reviews of anthropologic literature ; (4) a current bibliography

of anthropology; and (5) minor notes and news.” The purpose of

the American Anthropologist will be “to disseminate as widely as

practicable, for the use of scholars and of students, the results of

` anthropologic investigations.”

The Editorial Board of the new journal is composed of Messrs.

Frank Baker, W. H. Holmes, and J. W. Powell, Washington; Franz

Boas, New York ; Daniel G. Brinton, Philadelphia; F. W. Putnam

and Miss Alice C. Fletcher, Cambridge; Geo. A. Dorsey, Chicago ;

and Geo. M. Dawson, Ottawa, with F. W. Hodge, of Washington, as

the managing editor and secretary.

It is evident that the establishing of this new, more efficient journal

marks a real progress in American anthropology.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

is a report,

by Dr. Russell,’ of an expedition, under the auspices of the Univer-

sity of Iowa, during the years 1892-94, to the region of the great

Canadian lakes. The principal aim of the expedition was to obtain

specimens of the larger northern mammals; the author supplemented

this with additional investigations in natural history and ethnology of

the regions visited.

The work was apparently intended not to be too technical. It is

written in a popular vein and contains many interesting incidents of

hunt and travel. At the same time the report is interspersed with

valuable ethnological and zodlogical data. The ethnological mate-

rial comprises numerous notes on the natives of Saskatchewan, on

the Athabascans, Crees, and Eskimos. The text is accompanied by

a map and numerous illustrations.

The book is printed on good paper and makes throughout inter-

esting and instructive reading. HRDLICKA.

West African Studies. — Miss Kingsley’s Studies* includes the

narrative of her journey to the west coast, the climate of that region

and its effect upon foreigners, the religion of the natives, commerce,

and the crown colony system. The-book is written in a vivacious and

entertaining style, though at times affected and verbose. Its great-

est value to the ethnologist lies in its account of the character of

the natives, and especially of their religious beliefs. It is to be

regretted that Miss Kingsley did not follow the wholesome advice

given by Tylor and call religion by its right name. The opinion is

advanced that neither Christianity nor Mohammedanism in their

pure forms will become the prevailing religion of the West Africans,

though they now believe in a Supreme God, and the idea of a man-

God, or mediator, appeals to them. Miss Kingsley divides West

1 Russell, Frank. Zxflorations in the Far North. Davenport. Published by

the peene of Iowa, 1898. 290 pp., plates and ma

2 Kingsley, Mary H. West Tiaa Studies. Macmillan, 1899. xxiv + 639 pp.

Illustrations and maps.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 515

African religion into four “ schools,” vzz., the Tshi and Ewe, Calabar,

Mpongwe, and the Nkissim or Fjort. The first of these is mainly

concerned with the preservation of life, the Mpongwe with the

attainment of material prosperity, and the Nkissi with the worship of

the mystery of the power of earth — Nkissi-nsi. The geographical

distribution of these leading forms is not known. “Sierra Leone

and its adjacent districts have not been studied by an ethnologist.

We have only scattered information regarding the religion there.”

The dominant idea in the “ Calabar School” is reincarnation, with

attendant human sacrifice at the time of burial. The Mpongwe are

a negro race with a Bantu language, and the religion “they have

elaborated and coordinated is Bantu in thought form.” “It has no

gods with proper priests. Human beings are here just doing their

best to hold their own with the spirit world, getting spirits under

their control as far as possible, and dealing with the rest of them

diplomatically.” Fetishes are everywhere common; in addition to

the fetish of the town preserved in a fetish house, ‘‘ every fetish man

or priest has his private fetishes in his own house, one of a bird,

stones encased by string, large lumps of cinder from an iron furnace,

calabashes, and bundles of sticks tied together with a string. All

these are stained with red ochre and rubbed over with eggs.” The

material objects are not worshiped in themselves but as the things

in which the spiritual agencies take up their residence. While this

account of the religion of the West Africans is suggestive and enter-

taining it is by no means monographic.

The interesting chapter upon the “ Witch Doctor” is addressed

rather to the general reader than to the ethnologist ; the conclusion

is that the witch doctors who succeed in having people killed for

bewitching do more good than harm. “As to their using hypno-

tism, I suppose they do use something of the sort at times.”

Miss Kingsley ascribes the failure of the English in the more

unhealthy portions of the tropics to the crown colony system. In

West Africa this has resulted in the disorganization of the native

society with no compensatory building up. Wars are no longer

carried on by the English for the purpose of stamping out slavery,

human sacrifice, and the like, but for the sake of conquest. In the

dark race have been implanted the strongest feelings of fear and dis-

trust, while the whites in arrogance and ignorance strive to impose

their culture upon the subject race without regard for native customs

or native needs. Property is of three classes: ancestral, connected

with the office of headmanship; family, in which every member has

516 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

a certain share; and private, that which is gained by private exertion

in addition to that which properly belongs to the first two classes.

The general tendency, however, is for all property to become family

property. Mother-right prevails, and all forms of property are sub-

ject to the same law. “ In West Africa there is not one acre of land

that does not belong to some one.”

In an appendix of 123 pages M. le Compte C. N. de Cardi de-

scribes the customs, religion, etc., of the Niger Coast Protectorate.

The custom of sacrificing human beings, we are told, has been stead-

ily increasing of late years at Benin City, which has become more

and more a holy city among the pagan tribes. He repeats Miss

Kingsley’s statement that the natives believe in a Supreme Being,

but as he is always doing good, the sacrifices are not intended for

him, but for a malignant spirit whose thirst for blood is thus appeased.

Among the “ Brassmen ” the feather ordeal is employed for the detec-

tion of criminals. The Ju-Ju man thrusts a feather from the under

part of a fowl’s wing through the tongue of the accused, forcing the

quill down from above; if the feather breaks as he draws it out below,

the person is guilty. In New Calabar the Ju-Ju priest can “so dis-

guise a person that his own mother would not recognize him,” as one

of the natives declared, and “that they could cause a tree on the

banks of a river to bend its stem and imbibe water through its top-

most branches; that they could change themselves into birds and

fly away; and, lastly, that they could make themselves invisible

before your eyes, and so suddenly that you could not tell when they

had done so.” Throughout this book we are impressed with the fact

that human life is very cheap in West Africa; witchcraft, human sac-

rifice, cannibalism, murder, and slavery, which alone have taken

4,480,000 souls from this coast during the last two centuries, all con-

tribute toward making West Africa an unpleasant place to live in,

even if the climate itself were not a murderous one for both whites

and blacks. In the Niger Delta infanticide is quite common ; twins

and children born with teeth are destroyed, as well as women who

become the mothers of more than four children. The work contains

many illustrations of interest to the ethnologist. FRANk RUSSELL.

Mythology of the Bella Coola Indians.!— The Bella Coola

tribe has diminished in numbers, owing to the ravages of disease,

until it now contains but a few hundred souls. They speak a dia-

lect of the Salishan language, but are isolated from the main body of

1 Boas, Franz. Mem. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. ii, Pt. ii. New York.

No. 390.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 517

the Salish. Their habitat is restricted to two narrow fiords on the

central portion of the coast of British Columbia. Through long-con-

tinued contact with tribes of other stocks around them they differ

from the Southern Salish in both physical appearance and in cus-

toms and beliefs.

Dr. Boas refers briefly to the papers hitherto published relating to

the Bella Coola, and then presents a general description of the mythol-

ogy of the tribe. “All the collections which have been made here-

tofore do not bring out clearly the principal characteristic of the

mythology of the Bella Coola. The tribes of the North Pacific coast

consider the sun as the most important deity, but at the same time

they believe in a great many beings of supernatural power. For this

reason their mythology is very unsystematic. The Bella Coola, on

the other hand, have developed a peculiar mythology, in which a

number of supernatural beings have been coordinated.” They be-

lieve that there are five worlds, of which this earth is the middle one;

above are two heavens, and beneath are two underworlds. The

supreme deity is a woman, who lives in the upper heaven and inter-

feres but little with the affairs of men. In the center of the lower

heaven stands a house, in which reside the Sun and all the other

deities. Our earth is an island floating in the ocean.

“ The underworld is inhabited by the ghosts, who are at liberty to

return to heaven, whence they may be sent down again to our earth.

The ghosts who die a second death sink to the lowest world, from

which there is no return.” Following the description of the deities

and their abodes is an account of the village communities and their

traditions ; miscellaneous traditions; and, in conclusion, a sketch is

offered of the probable lines of development of the mythology of the

Bella Coola. The tribe is endogamous and divided into village com-

munities. Six plates accompany the text, depicting the masks used

to represent the mythical personages. This memoir must prove

to be of value to the general student of ethnology as well as to the

specialist. FRANK RUSSELL.

Anthropological Notes. — Edouard de Sainville has published a

brief account of his journey to the mouth of the Mackenzie River,

and of his explorations about the Delta, in the Buletin of the Société

de Géographie de Paris, T. xix, pp. 290-307. The article is accom-

panied by a map which locates the harbor discovered by the Count,

and which corrects errors in the coast line as now represented on our

charts. As de Sainville became intimately acquainted with the natives

518 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. — [Vou. XXXIII.

during his four years’ residence among them, it is to be hoped that

he will furnish a more complete account of them than appears in the

few pages of this paper. Reports from the missionaries stationed

at the trading posts maintained near the head of the Mackenzie

Delta, show that the germs of disease are frequently brought into the

region in the bales of merchandise, particularly in those of second-

hand clothing intended for the Indians. Count de Sainville observed

that an epidemic influenza prevailed for two or three weeks after the

annual arrival of the steamer with the “outfit” for the post. In

order to be certain that this epidemic was due to imported germs

and not to sudden changes of temperature that prevail during the

month of July when the steamer arrives, he took a sealed zinc case

in the month of September, 1891, to a camp about fifteen miles south

of the post. A father, mother, and four children were in the camp

in perfect health; to these the clothing contained in the case was

given. The next morning the mother and two of the children were

sneezing, and that evening the symptoms of the mother were more

serious. The prompt use of camphor restored them to health within

a couple of days.

In the American Anthropologist for January, 1899, Miss Alice C.

Fletcher gives an account of the ritual used when changing a man’s

name among the Pawnees. ‘ Why an Indian changes his name after

any important achievement, and why he never uses the personal name

when addressing another, has not yet been fully explained ; therefore,

any first-hand information relating to this subject will undoubtedly

be welcome to students of anthropology.” The ritual was obtained

from an aged Pawnee priest whose confidence had been gained by

Miss Fletcher and her assistants. ‘Three facts were learned: 77st,

a man was permitted to take a name only after the performance of

an act indicative of great ability or strength of character, such as

prowess, generosity, prudence, courage, or the like; second, the

name had to be assumed openly, before the people to whom the

act it commemorated was known; ¢Aird, it was necessary that it

should be announced by a priest in connection with such a ritual as

that described. The ritual is given in sixteen lines of the original

Pawnee, followed by a literal translation and a free rendering in

rhythmic form. F. R.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 519

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Effect of Chemical and Physical Agents upon Growth. — The

second part of Dr. Davenport’s useful Experimental Morphology * will

be welcomed by all students of the theoretical aspects of biology.

This volume deals with the effects of external conditions upon

growth. The first chapter is devoted to the consideration of the

phenomena of normal growth, which is defined as increase in vol-

ume. Three factors are recognized — increase of formed substance,

of plasma (protoplasm), and of enchylemma. Special emphasis is

laid on the importance of the imbibition of water at the period of

most rapid growth. Characteristic curves are given showing at first

a rapid increase in the rate of growth, which soon reaches a maxi-

mum, and then more gradually declines to zero. The final cessation

of growth is to be explained by special reasons for each species, and

is not due to any general law.

The following chapters treat of the effects upon growth of chemi-

cal agents, water, density of the medium, molar agents, gravity, elec-

tricity, light, and heat. In each of these the effect of the agent

considered is treated first in regard to its effect upon the rate of

growth, and then as to its effect upon the direction of growth. The

molar agents affecting growth include contact, rough movements,

deformation, wounding, and the flow of water. A final chapter is

devoted to the effects of certain complex agents upon growth and to

general conclusions.

The book has comparatively little to do with theory. It is essen-

tially a very careful and complete résumé of the records of laboratory

experiments in the field which it covers. The only experiments that

have not been published before are those described on page 365.

They were made by Messrs. Frazeur and Sargent in the zodlogical

laboratory at Harvard, and their object was to determine the effect

of concentration of medium upon the rate of regeneration and fission

in certain annelids — a species of Nais and Dero vaga. This lack of

newness does not lessen the value of the work, however. A glance

at the extensive bibliography at the close of each chapter is enough

to convince one of the service that the author has performed for

biology by bringing together this immense amount of material in so

compact and accessible a form.

1 Davenport, C. B. Experimental Morphology, Pt. ii. Effect of Chemical and

Physical Agents upon Growth. New York, Macmillan, 1899. pp. 281-509. Illus-

trated, 8vo.

520 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. ` [VOL. XXXIII.

Persons unfamiliar with the present trend of biological research

will be surprised at the large amount of quantitative work exhibited

in this record of experiments. Wherever possible, the author has

pointed out the adaptive character of the reactions observed in the

laboratory. Some readers may be disappointed to find that he has

not gone farther than this, and discussed the effects of chemical and

physical agents upon the forms of animals and plants in the state of

nature. The reason that he has not done this is, doubtless, in the

first place, the fact that in nature the effects of these agents upon

growth is complicated with their effects upon differentiation, which

will be treated of in a later volume; and, in the second place, the lack

of material. When the effects of agents under control in the simpli-

fied conditions of the laboratory are understood, we may hope to

solve the problem of form as presented under the complex conditions

of the natural habitat. The work under review is an important step

in that direction.

In most cases where the direction of growth is changed in response

to stimulation, true tropism, the result is to place the organ in a more

favorable position. It is clearly adaptive. The reactions classed

under the head of electrotropism, on the other hand, cannot be shown

to be adaptive, because organisms never meet with the stimulus

employed in the state of nature. Yet the reaction takes place with

as much precision as the response to light or heat.

The most interesting of the general conclusions is in regard to the

phenomena of “attunement.” In several kinds of tropism, as the

strength of stimulation is increased, a critical point is reached where

the effect changes from positive to negative. This critical point

differs in different species, and may be regarded as indicating an

optimum intensity to which the organism is attuned. How is this

attunement established? Natural selection is rejected and “a cause

more consistent with sound physiology ” is sought.

It has been shown that the effects of various agents persist after

the stimulus has been removed. This “ after-effect ” seems to show

that the agent causes a change in the protoplasm which is more or

less permanent. This permits the accumulation of extremely slight

effects. When, however, the repeated stimuli are each great, it is

not an accumulation, but a diminution of response that is noticed.

The organism becomes gradually accustomed to the stimulus and

ceases to respond. It is acclimated. The author’s hypothesis to

explain this is that the chemical change which leads to the response

becomes a permanent characteristic of the protoplasm so that no

No. 390.]} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 521

further response to that particular strength of stimulus is possible

This individual attunement may persist, and may be inherited and

thus initiate a racial attunement.

The author does not claim that this is a complete explanation of

the facts. It is merely a tentative hypothesis. But it is almost too

soon to attempt even an hypothesis, for if we try to compare the

critical points of the various kinds of stimuli in their effects upon

the rate and the direction of growth, in order to see what rela-

tion exists between them and how they are related to adaptive

responses of the organism, we find the data often contradictory and

always inadequate. For example, if we compare the tables given on

page 439, we find that of the seven species mentioned in Table 45,

only four are to be found in Table 46. Moreover, the first mentions

the organs affected, while the second leaves us in doubt as to whether

we are dealing with root or stem. Similar difficulties arise in an

attempt to compare the table on page 454 with those on pages 464

and 465. All this goes to show that, in spite of all that has been

done, more work is needed, and the author’s hypothesis will be of

value if it serves no other purpose than to stimulate research from a

broad point of view.

We notice few errors and omissions. On page 411, line 4, for

plant read cylinder. The important work of Martin and Frieden-

wald' on the effect of light upon metabolism in animals has been

overlooked. On page 440 a diagram of the spectrum is given,

showing an interesting coincidence between the point of maximum

retardation of growth and that of no phototropic effect. But this

coincidence is not mentioned in the text. R. P. B.

Variation Statistics. — In this work Duncker provides natural-

ists with the new tool which the English anthropologists, zoölogists,

and mathematicians have developed. Many of the works of the

mathematicians, especially the invaluable treatises of Pearson, have

been beyond the mathematical training of most biologists. In this

paper the results of these treatises are given in a comparatively sim-

ple fashion. Great stress — relatively too much in the reviewer’s

opinion — is laid on the methods of constructing the various types of

1 Martin, H. N., and Friedenwald, J. Some Observations on the Effect of

Light on the Production of Carbondioxide Gas by Frogs, /. Æ. U. Studies, iv, 5,

p- 221, 1889

2 Duncker, G. Die Methode der Variations- TAN A : hud Entwickelungs-

mechanik der Organismen, Bd. viii, pp. 112-183. Feb. 2

522 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

curves agreeing with any observed distribution of varying individuals.

To solve some of the equations, logarithms, trigonometric functions

and gamma functions have to be employed, and it is too much to

hope that a large proportion of naturalists can use even these simple

methods. Yet naturalists who desire to reach best results from their

data must get out their algebras, trigonometries, and logarithmic

tables, and brush up on these subjects. Formulas are used very

freely, which is no doubt an offense to some. It should be remem-

bered, however, that a formula is only an abbreviated statement of

operations, and very useful to any one who knows how the operations

indicated are performed. The author gives the various indices of

variability. He objects to the use of the coefficient of variability

(obtained by dividing the index of variability by the mean) and

maintains that the view that we expect high indices of variability

where the mean is high is untenable. As evidence for this con-

clusion he points to the fact that in the four numerical examples

given in his paper the index of variability is inversely propor-

tional to the mean. This is, however, absolutely no evidence

against the value of the coefficient of variation, since, doubtless,

the large characteristic which has a small index of variability is,

in comparison with the small character having a large index,

relatively even less variable than a comparison of the mere indices

would indicate.

Correlation is treated of briefly, and an excellent short method of

calculating the coefficient of correlation is given. The calculation of

spurious correlation of indices is not given — an important omission ;

and little is said about multimodal curves, which are si tat in

biological statistics.

A bibliography of 111 titles is given (from which Fechner’s 1897

work is omitted), and tables of formulas add greatly to the useful-

ness of the paper.

Altogether the paper is one which every student of statistical biol-

ogy —and this ought to include every systematic worker in zodlogy and

botany — should have.

Inheritance of Acquired Qualities.'\—Conidia of Aspergillus

niger of common origin are reared (4) in Raulin solution; (4)

in Raulin solution + 6 per cent NaCl for ove generation ; and (C) in

Raulin solution + 6 per cent NaCl for zwo generations. Then:

1 Errera, L. Heérédité d’un caractère acquis chez un champignon pluricellulaire,

Bull. Acad. Roy. de Belg., 1899, pp. 81-102.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 523

I. In a Raulin solution + 18.4 per cent NaCl:

A, shows no germination ;

B, slight germination ;

C, general germination.

II. In a Raulin solution + 6 per cent NaCl:

A, produces spores in 5 days;

B, produces spores in 4 days;

C, produces spores in 33% days.

III. In a Raulin solution, without additional salts :

A, sporification in 4 ae :

B, sporification in 5 da

C, sporification in 5 fed iut slight.

Spores from cultures III, 4, B, and C, are sowed in Raulin solution

+ 18.4 per cent NaCl:

IV. A’, after 5 days, no germination ;

B’, after 5 days, just visible germination ;

C’, after 5 days, clearly visible germination.

Hence (I and II) the Conidia of Aspergillus become adapted to

the medium in which their parent is growing, and more adapted after —

the second generation than after the first.

The adaptation is such that a normal solution is disadvantageous

to Conidia adapted to a dense solution.

The adaptation to concentrated medium is not wholly lost after

rearing in a normal medium. (IV.) There is a persistence of the

adaptation, there is an inheritance of n acquired quality of resist-

ance to concentration.

ZOÖLOGY.

Evans’s Birds. — The ninth volume of Zhe Cambridge Natural

History, comprising the Birds, by A. H. Evans,! has just come to

hand.

Ornithologists have of late years been favored with several general

works on the natural history of birds, by competent authors, the main

object of which has been to present the results of recent studies of

the structure of the various groups composing this class. On the

other hand, the usual number of “ popular,” often inaccurate and

1 Evans, A. H. Birds. The Cambridge Natural History, vol. ix. London,

New York, Macmillan, 1899. xvi + 635 pp., 8vo, 144 figs. + 2 polar charts.

524 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

gossipy, accounts of the habits of the feathered tribes, without regard

to the present status of the science of ornithology, appear regularly

and find a ready sale. Realizing this, Mr. Evans has set himself a

different task in the book before us. In the recent literature he has

found no concise general account of the secies of the birds presented

in a popular form, and he consequently planned to give one in the

587 pages of this work. This plan precludes of course any original

work, but it is in itself original enough, and daring to a degree.

Manifestly a mere enumeration of the species would not do, while

even the briefest description of each would more than fill the book.

He has consequently been obliged to limit himself “ to a short descrip-

tion of the majority of the forms in many of the families, and of the

most typical and important of the innumerable species in the large

Passerine order.” But even with this limitation the task would

appear well-nigh impossible. Yet, in going over the book carefully,

we have to admit that he has succeeded, and succeeded admirably ;

for not only has he accomplished the above, but he has given in

addition a compressed introduction to avian structure, external and

internal; the various groups and divisions are characterized; the

habits of the birds are briefly sketched in general terms, mostly under

the heads of the families ; and the geographical distribution of the

species mentioned is often given in considerable detail. Moreover,

the fossil birds are treated similarly with the recent forms, and

finally 144 woodcuts in the text illustrate the principal types.

Fortunately for Mr. Evans he has been able to accept a thoroughly

modern and scientific classification proposed by competent authority.

It is but natural that he, as a Cambridge man, should adopt in the

main Dr. Gadow’s system, and we may add that he might have

gone farther and not fared as well. On the other hand, so far as the

species and to a great extent also the genera are concerned, he has

had the benefit of the now completed series of magnificent volumes

constituting the catalogue of birds in the British Museum. Finally

he appears to fall back upon the “ Strickland Code of Ornithological

Nomenclature,” the elasticity of which enables those who profess to

adhere to it to follow their own ideas, or “common sense,” as they

are invariably styled. It is thus impossible to quarrel with Mr.

Evans where one does not agree with his authorities. He has quoted

them, and we have to settle our disputes directly with them.

In judging the size of Mr. Evans’s task it must not be forgotten,

however, that it is now twenty-five years since the first volume of the

bird catalogues of the British Museum was issued, and that he has had

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 525

to bring the subject down to date, as exemplified by the “ addendum ”

(p. viii), containing references to forms described during the printing

of the Birds.

It will be understood that not the least difficult part of the problem

has been to introduce the enormous number of species and to present

the “dry matter” of their structure, color, and distribution in such a

way as not to become monotonous, and to condense the account of

the habits sufficiently while yet retaining a readable form. In both

respects Mr. Evans has proved himself a master. Where one hardly

expects to find room for the mere mention of the names, one is sur-

prised and delighted to find pages brimful of boiled down facts, yet

holding one’s attention and reading as smoothly as a novel. Mr.

Evans has selected for his motto Virgil’s Zn sicco ludunt fulice, with the

equivalent rendition: “ Loons disport themselves on dry matters ”

but he certainly does not need this humorous apology.

It is plain, however, from what has been said of the plan, that the

main value of the book depends on the accuracy of the statements it

contains. To verify them all is not the reviewer’s task, but in the

short time he has had the use of the book he has tested it in many

places and many ways, and in every case found it essentially correct.

Of course nothing else was expected of Mr. Evans, with his intimate

knowledge of the literature and his careful and painstaking method ;

yet it is pleasing to find that these qualities are paired with a critical

skill of no mean order. Moreover, in cases of unusual or uncor-

roborated statement, Mr. Evans has mostly given his authorities in

footnotes. As a matter of fact most of the matter is necessarily

second-hand, the responsibility of the author being chiefly confined

to the selection, and of course he does not guarantee the accuracy of his

informants except in a general way. Thus, on page 313, in speaking

of Sterna longipennis having “ blackish feet,” he adds in a footnote

that “ Mr. Barrett-Hamilton, however, tells the author that the feet

are red in life,” while as a matter of fact the feet of this species are

neither black nor red, but “ blackish red ” or “ dark reddish brown ”

(Stejn., Orn. Expl. Kamtsch., p. 85).

Most of the illustrations are by Mr. G. C. Lodge, apparently made

specially for this book. The majority must be pronounced both

accurate and characteristic, while some are admirable in every respect.

The sober attitudes of the bird and the total absence of “ scenery ”

are highly commendable. The much admired woodcuts from the

Natural History of Selborne may be more artistic, but a com-

parison with those which have been borrowed from the latter work,

526 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou XXXIII.

for instance, the wryneck and the nuthatch, shows how vastly superior

the modern figures are as zoological illustrations. In the limited

space of this volume much room could not be spared for pictures, but

figures are given of representatives of most of the important groups.

It may be disputed, however, whether the selection of species illus-

trated is the best one which could have been made for a book of this

scope. Over one-third of the species figured are English, some of

them the most common and best known birds with which every

reader of the book is thoroughly familiar. It can hardly be doubted

that a figure of Podoces would have been more valuable than that of

the raven, or that Pyrrhuloxia would have been preferable to the

house sparrow. However, the author is probably not to blame in

the matter. Editors and publishers usually have a way of interfering

with his best intentions — concerning the illustrations.

The author expresses the hope that the work may be of real use,

not only to the tyro in ornithology, but also to the traveler or resident

in foreign parts interested in the subject, who, without time or oppor-

tunity for referring to the works of specialists, may yet need the aid

-of a concise account of the species likely to cross his path. There

certainly was a need of such a book, and the present one meets it as

well as it can be done in the limited space. From the treatment of

the various groups I may add that the class of people most likely to

derive the greatest benefit from the book is the traveling sportsman

with an eye open for other birds and game in the strictest sense. But

even the working naturalist, let alone the tyro, will find it an inex-

haustible mine of solid ornithological facts.

. LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

Blind-Fishes of the Caves. — In Science for February 24, Dr.

Carl H. Eigenmann describes a new genus of blind-fishes, which he

finds a remarkable case of the convergence of characters. The spe-

cies, first obtained by Mr. Garman from the caves of Missouri, was

identified by him with Zyphlichthys subterraneus; a blind species in-

habiting the caves of the Ohio Valley. The two forms are almost

identical superficially, but Dr. Eigenmann finds in fresh material

abundant evidence that they are descended from distinct forms.

The genus Chologaster, of the swamps of the South, is regarded as

evidently the’ ancestor of Typhlichthys, but the new form from Mis-

souri, called by Eigenmann 7rogdichthys rose, must have had a differ-

ent ancestry in the same family. ‘Judging from the degree of

degeneration of the eye, Troglichthys has lived in caves and done

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 527

without the use of its eyes longer than any other known vertebrate.”

« More than this, 7: rose is probably the oldest resident in the region

it inhabits.”

The remaining genus of blind-fish, Amblyopsis, has ventral fins, and

must therefore have had a distinct ancestry, as in the three other

genera ventral fins are absent. All this points to an earlier time

when the Amblyopsidz were represented in the lowlands of the South

by at least three distinct-eyed genera, but one of which, Chologaster,

is now extant. Eigenmann regards Troglichthys as “in many ways

the most interesting member of the North American fauna.”

iat

Trout of the Olympic Mountains. — Some three years ago Rear-

Admiral L. A. Beardslee brought from Crescent Lake, in the Olympic

Mountains, two new forms or species, or subspecies, of trout, called

by Dr. Jordan Salmo crescentis and Salmo beardsleet.

These forms are products of isolation and land-locking, the prob-

able ancestor of both being the Steelhead trout, Sa/mo gairdneri.

Lately Dr. Daniel G. Elliot, of the Field Columbian Museum, has

made an extensive survey of these and other lakes in the same moun-

tains. Other land-locked forms, also differentiated by isolation, are

found, and these have been described in detail by Dr. Seth E. Meek

in the publications of the Field Columbian Museum.

Dr. Meek recognizes Sa/mo bathoiceter, the long-headed trout from

Lake Crescent; Salmo clarki jordani, the spotted trout of Lake

Southerland ; and Salmo clarki declivifrons, the salmon trout of Lake

Southerland.

The question of the ultimate rank as species, subspecies, etc., of

our western trout is one of the most difficult in taxonomy. For-

tunately, the question is one of nomenclature only, for the real

origin and relation of the various forms admit in no case of

serious question.

In the same paper Dr. Meek describes new garter snakes from the

same region as Thamnophis leptocephalus olympia and Thamnophis

rubrostriatus. DS

Fishes of the Revillagigedos. —In the Report of the U. S. Fish

Commission for 1898, Dr. Jordan and Mr. R. C. McGregor give a

list of the fishes taken by Mr. McGregor on the cruise of the

Wahlberg about the Revillagigedos, off the west coast of Mexico.

The interesting feature of the collection is the large number of

528 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou XXXIII.

typically East Indian forms obtained. The list contains sixteen spe-

cies not found along the mainland of Mexico, but which are nearly

or quite identical with East Indian forms. This shows the compara-

tive continuity of the Polynesian fish fauna. Six new species are

obtained, Myrichthys pantostigmuis, Zalocys stilbe, Apogon atricandus,

Forcipiger flavissimus, Cantherines carole, and Azurina hirando. All

except the Apogon are figured; Zalocys, Forcipiger, and Azurina are

new genera. Most of the species recorded were obtained by the use

of dynamite among the rocks.

We regret to learn from the daily press that, in a second expedition

in the same region, Mr. McGregor, in his schooner, the „Stela

Erland, has been wrecked on the coast of Lower California, all his

valuable material being lost. DSI

The Miller’s Thumb of Europe. — In the Proceedings of the

Swedish Academy, Mr. Lars Gabriel Andersson takes up the vexed

question of the relation of species in the genus Cottus, or Miller’s

Thumb, as shown in the waters of Europe.

This genus, in common with most others of relatively recent origin,

exhibits surprising variations as represented in different waters;

while, on the other hand, the characters which separate species are

slight and sometimes unstable.

After a very detailed comparison Mr. Andersson concludes that

Cottus pæcilopus, of the Carpathian Mountains, is a species distinct

from the common Co/tus gobio. Our own experience with the Ameri-

can species of the same genus tends to confirm his conclusions.

Fishes of Santa Catalina Island. — Dr. Charles H. Gilbert

reports, in the Report of the U. S. Fish Commission for 1898, on the

Fishes obtained by the steamer 4/batross in the vicinity of Santa

Catalina Island and Monterey Bay. A large number of deep-sea

forms were taken, two of them, Radulinus boleoides and Averruncus

sterletus, being new to science. Thesé species are figured in the

report. Dy 3. ):

Helminthological Studies of Kowalewski.

of the helminthological studies of M. Kowalewski! presents some

1 Etudes helminthologiques. V. Contribution à l'étude de quelques Tréma-

todes, Bull. Acad. Sci. Cracovie, Fév. 1898. French résumé accompanying the

Czeckish original, with 2 plates.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 529

important observations. LZchinostoma spathulatum, discovered in the

intestine of Botaurus minutus by Bremser, and never reported since

the original description of Rudolphi, was found in the same host. Its

peculiar features as described by the author render it worthy of

generic rank. The most striking point is the pair of retractile

papilla, armed with spines, which are found on the mid-ventral line

in the posterior third of the body and serve as organs of fixation.

A branch from each lateral excretory canal penetrates into each

papilla and terminates there in a sac, producing a mechanism which

recalls the Echinoderm ambulacrum. Cutaneous glands give rise to

appearances like the tactile papilla of Blochmann and Bettendorf ;

these are elevations with apparent openings in the apex and a minute

duct, the connection of which with the glands was not demonstrated.

Noteworthy is further the occurrence of cilia on the epithelium of

the intestine.

The author then discusses three new forms of the genus Opis-

thorchis, in one of which the excretory pore has an unusual location,

on the mid-ventral line just behind the ovary. The tendency in this

genus to dextrosinistral inversion of organs, or, as Kowalewski calls

it, to sexual amphitypy, which makes some individuals the mirror

image of the usual type in the species, is treated at length and from

evidence submitted shown to be present in half of the known species.

The diagnosis of the genus is amended and its subdivisions outlined.

For the interesting Az/harzia polonica, discovered by Kowalewski in

1895, a large number of hosts is now reported, species of Anas and

related genera. Usually the parasite is found in the blood, but

occasionally in the gall bladder; its nourishment, as the author

maintains, consists primarily of blood plasma and less frequently of

erythrocytes. In addition to structural details previously reported,

mention is here made of special dermal organs of the male, which in

appearance are not unlike tactile papilla or the cutaneous glands

referred to above. These exist separately or in groups on the ventral

surface, including the suckers, on the dorsum of the neck, and on the

posterior margins of the body. Strings of granules from the apex

connect with granular masses in the gynecophoric canal, suggesting

the discharged secretion of glands; yet these masses may be of

external origin. The Czeckish original is illustrated by two fine

plates. However much one may admire the loyalty of the author, it

is yet a matter of regret that one’s knowledge of the work must be

gained from a brief French résumé, because the riches of the original

article are buried in such an inaccessible language. H. B. W.

530 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST: (VoL: XXXIII.

Blood Spots in Hens’ Eggs. — Every one is familiar with the fact

that flecks of blood are occasionally seen on the surface of the yellow

of a perfectly fresh hen’s egg. It is evident that these flecks are

derived from some maternal structure and are not a product of the

development of the egg, as they are present before incubation begins

and are outside the embryonic area. Professor Mitrophanow,’ upon

investigating the nature of these flecks, has arrived at some interest-

ing conclusions regarding the origin of the egg-membranes of birds.

According to the classical description of Foster and Balfour, the

yellow of the egg is enclosed by a single “ vitelline ” membrane, the

exact source of which, however, whether from the egg itself or from

follicular cells surrounding it in the ovary, is unknown.

Most recent investigators assign to it a follicular origin. Mitro-

phanow finds that it is really a double membrane whose parts are of

different origin. Its double nature is demonstrated by the occur-

rence of the blood clots previously referred to not, as one might

expect, on the outside of the vitelline membrane, or on its inner sur-

face, but between the two laminz of which it is composed.

Mitrophanow states reasons for believing that the blood clot can

only have been deposited on the egg after it had left the follicle. If

so, the outer lamina must have been formed in the upper part of the

oviduct and accordingly must represent, not an ovarian product, but

an accessory envelope. The delicate inner lamina Mitrophanow

regards as a true vitelline membrane formed by the egg-cell itself.

Origin of the Fauna of the Central African Lakes. —J. E. S.

Moore has published ° very interesting researches on the fresh-water

fauna of the African lakes, chiefly Lake Tanganyika. He divides

the fauna into two constituents: (1) types which are represented

generally in the African fresh-water bodies; (2) types which are

found nowhere else in fresh water, but have relations in the ocean

(halolimnic organisms).

To the latter class belong the Medusz, discovered by Boehm in

1883, numerous mollusks, both of the shore and of deeper water, and

further two species of shrimps and a deep-water crab.’

The mollusks are allied, in many cases, not to a single marine form,

1 Bibliographie Anatomique, Tome vi, Fasc. 2, pp. 69-84.

2 Nature, vol. 58, 1898, p. 404

3 These Crustaceans may prove to cited to the first class (generally distrib-

uted fresh-water animals), since such forms, belonging to the shrimp genus

Caridina and the crab family thssniaeiee are found all over the African con-

tinent. — Rev.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 531

but to several; and it seems as if they represent connecting links

between these forms like ancestral types. There seem to exist, in

the Tanganyika, numerous unknown species, chiefly in greater depths,

but the author had no facilities to make a collection of the fauna of

these depths.

The halolimnic fauna of the Tanganyika, as a whole, has a striking

Jurassic character. This fauna is positively wanting in the Lakes

Nyassa, Meru, and Bangweolo, and — according to Gregory’s collec-

tions — in the Lakes Naiwasha, Elineteita, Baringo, and — according

to Donaldson Smith’s and Cavendish’s collections — in Lake Rudolf.

Moore is of the opinion that the former connection of the Tangan-

yika with the sea was in a northerly direction, through the Central

African depression that is marked by the Lakes Albert and Albert-

Edward to the Red Sea. Accordingly, we are to look for the same

ancient fauna in these latter lakes, although their fauna is at present

unknown.

It may be that this body of sea water in Central Africa con-

tinued to exist into Tertiary times, since we have some evidence —

as the author points out — of the presence of marine Tertiary depos-

its west of the Victoria lake, which seem to extend southward to the

neighborhood of the Lake Nyassa. A.E. O.

Swiss Rotifers.'— The appearance of the second part completes

Dr. Weber’s superbly illustrated monograph of the Rotifera of the

Léman. This paper is by far the most complete account of this

group’ which has appeared since the publication of Hudson and

Gosse’s Manual. In all, 127 species are described and figured with

care. With commendable moderation Dr. Weber has refrained from

describing any new species, but has devoted his attention to elaborate

descriptions of the forms he has found and to an elucidation of their

synonymy. ‘The result is a courageous reduction in the number of

species, as is attested by the fact that no less than 292 names appear

as synonyms in the index which concludes the final paper. The

genus Brachionus has been a fruitful field for the species maker,

and it is here that our author has done most execution. This

genus includes many extremely variable forms, and the question of

specific limits here is a most difficult one to solve. It may be that

the statistical study of the group will throw some light upon the prob-

lem.. The desirability of some designation for the many variants is

1 Weber, E. F. Faune rotatorienne du bassin du Léman, 2me partie. Ploima

et Scirtopoda. Rev. Suisse de Zool, T. v, pp. 355-785, Pls. 16-25, 1898.

532 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VouL. XXXIII.

evident. Abundant biological data are included in the paper. Dr.

Weber proposes a new solution for the Plœæsoma enigma, restoring

Ehrenberg’s P. Zynceum and recognizing Herrick’s P. denticulare.

A. K.

Trematode Anatomy.’ i has given an extended ac-

count of the anatomy of certain avian trematodes. He describes

a number of papillae upon the ventral surface of chinostomum spa-

thulatum Rud., each traversed by a canal with granular contents.

These structures are interpreted as the outlets of glands found in

the adjacent parenchyma, though a direct connection of the two was

not established. Similar organs were also observed on the ventral

surface, on the suckers, on the dorsal side of the neck, and along the

posterior margins of Ai/harzia polonica M. Kow. These “openings of

the cutaneous glands” resemble very much the structures found by

Nickerson upon corresponding regions of Stichocotyle nephropis, and

interpreted -by him as cutaneous sense organs on account of their

connection with ganglion cells in the parenchyma. The occurrence

of sexual amphitypes in a number of species of the trematode genus

Opisthorchis is also noted by the author. In parasites from the same

host individual the two types of sexual asymmetry occur in about

equal numbers. CAE

The Corpus Luteum in the Pig and Man?’ has been the sub-

ject of careful study by J. G. Clark. The origin of this structure

has been a matter of long-standing dispute, some investigators main-

taining that it arose from the connective tissue investment of the egg-

follicle, and others that it came from the follicular epithelium. Clark’s

observations are strongly in favor of its connective tissue ọrigin.

Cessation of ovulation is shown to be not due to the disappearance

of egg-follicles, but to a densification of the ovarian stroma, whereby

the peripheral circulation of the ovary is so interfered with that the

complete formation of the follicles is hindered.

The Albatross Brachyura. — Miss Mary J. Rathbun describes

(Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XXI, 1898) the brachyurous Crustacea col-

lected by the fish commission steamer A/batross during a voyage

1 Kowalewski, M. Studya Helmintologiczne, V, Rozprawy ot Aust mat, proyres

T. xxxv, 61 pp., Tab. I, II, 1898.

2 Clark, J. G. The Origin, Growth, and Fate of the Corpus Luteum as

observed in the Ovary of the Pig and Man, The Johns Hopkins Hospital Reports,

vol. vii (1898), No. 4, pp. 181-202, 2 pls.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 533

from Norfolk, Va., to San Francisco. In all there are 151 species,

of which 31 are regarded as new. LEctesthesius, allied to Qua-

drella, Lipaesthesius, Ovalipes, a new name for Platyonichus, and

Tetrias, allied to Pinnixa, are the only new genera proposed. We

notice the substitution of Uca for Gelasimus.

Zoological Notes. — The life history, habits, etc., of the tree toad,

Hyla arborea, are exhaustively treated by H. Fischer Sigwart in

Vierteljahrschr. Naturf. Gesell. Zürich, XXXIV, 4, 1898. The observa-

tions cover a period of about fifteen years, and he gives the dates of

earliest appearance in spring, order of appearance and different

organs during development and metamorphosis, color adaptation,

variations, etc. One table shows by curves the relation of the loud-

ness or quantity of the frog’s song to the condition of the weather —

the better the weather the louder the song.

Acalephs of the Fiji Islands are shown by Alexander Agassiz and

A. G. Mayer (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXXII, 9, 1899) to have a

remarkable affinity to the forms from the West Indies. Thirty-eight

species were taken, representing thirty-six genera, and with the excep-

tion of two rhizostomes all the genera are represented by Atlantic

species, and in six cases specific differences could not be established

between Atlantic and Pacific forms.

Ten new species of deep-sea Madreporaria are described by Major

Alcock in his report on the collections of the Indian Survey steamer

Investigator. The author points out many intimate affinities with the

forms from medium depths of the North Atlantic, suggesting a sea

connection in the past between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans,

probably by way of the Mediterranean.

The classification of the different methods of monogenesis studied

by Torrey (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Series 3, I, 345, 1898) in Metridium

jimbriatum, occurring in San Francisco Bay, is as follows :

I. Longitudinal fission.

oral — aboral.

aboral — oral.

—

II. Basal fragmentation.

III. Budding.

a, pedal.

6, cesophageal.

534 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

The paper also contains numerical data as to the relative frequency

of each of these methods, and the author promises more in the future.

The circulatory system of lungless salamanders is compared with

that of salamanders having lungs by Bethge (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool.,

LXIII, 680, 1898), who discusses the question of the seat of respira-

tion in the lungless forms. He reaches the conclusion that the

mouth, pharyngeal cavity, and integument participate in respiration

to an essential extent. He thus is at variance with Marcacci and

Camerano, who believe that cutaneous respiration is of little con-

sequence.

The “cellules musculo-glandulaires ” of the body wall of Owenia

are reéxamined by Ogneff (Biol. Centralb., XIX, February, 1899),

who concludes that the structures described by Gilson do not exist.

The peritoneal lining of the body cavity is closely adherent to the

muscles of the body wall, but the elements do not differ from those

in allied forms.

The endothelium of the heart in bony fishes, according to the recent

studies of B. Noldeki (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool, LXV, 1889), is, at least in

part, of entodermal origin, but it is impossible to decide whether it all

has that origin.

The eyes of annelids form the subject of the fifth part of R.

Hesse’s paper upon the organs for the recognition of light in the

lower vertebrates (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool, LXV, 1899). Structural

details of a large number of forms, as well as of physiological obser-

vations, are given.

New cestodes are described by F. Zschokke (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool.,

LXV, 1899) from various marsupials. The paper contains a revi-

sion of the species of Beortia and Linstowia 7. g.

An interesting report on the “ Extent and Condition of the Alewife

Fisheries of the United States in 1896” has been prepared by H. M.

Smith, and published in the Report of the United States Fish Commis-

sion for 1898. Notwithstanding the increase of catch from about

45,000,000 pounds in 1880 to about 62,000,000 pounds in 1896, the

values of the catches have decreased; that of 1880 was placed at

$526,000, while the catch of 1896, though one-third as large again,

was worth only a little over $459,000.

Number 1 of Volume IX of the Journal of Comparative Neurology

contains, besides the usual literary notices, the following articles:

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 535

“ Observations on the Innervation of the Intracranial Vessels,” by

G. C. Huber; “Observations on the Blood Capillaries in the Cere-

bellar Cortex of Normal, Young, Adult, Domestic Cats,” by F. S.

Aby; “An Anomaly in the Internal Course of the Trochlear Nerve,”

by R. Weil ; “Critical Review of Recent Publications of Bethe and

Nissl,” by A. Meyer; and “ Report of the Association of American

Anatomists,” by D. S. Lamb.

We learn from Natural Science that Dr. Gregg Wilson points out

that the lung of Ceratodus arises in the two-months-old larva as a

mid-ventral diverticulum, and that the development of the pronephros

is strikingly like that of urodeles.

The classification of the Coccidiide is treated by Louis Leger

(Am. Mus. d Hist. Nat. Marseille, Série 2, Bull. I, 71, 1898), who

divides this unity of the Sporozoa into three tribes, — Disporocysts,

Tetrasporocysts, and Polysporocysts,— according to the number of

spores in a cyst. Analyses of all known species are given, and also a

synoptical table of genera. A number of new or little known species

are minutely described and figured ; all of them from arthropods, and

most of them from myriapods.

The life and work of Fr. Redi, famed equally as a student of let-

ters and of science, are the subject of a recent sketch (Arch. Par.,

I, 3, 420, 1898). A facsimile of a handsome copperplate portrait

and of a medallion, both from the collection of Professor Blanchard,

accompany the article. It is rather startling to read in the bibliog-

raphy of observations on parasites, and in the next sentence to see

listed sonnets and dithyrambics !

Dr. H. Wallengren has published in the Siologisches Centralbiatt

an account of the conjugation of Æpistylis simulans. He finds that

the microgonidium is not wholly absorbed by the macrogonidium,

the entoplasm and the nuclei alone being retained, while the shrunken

ectoplasm is rejected.

The Palolo worm has been carefully studied from the taxonomic

standpoint by E. Ehlers (Gottingen Nachrichten, math.-phys. K1., IV,

1898). He identifies it as Hunice viridis Gr., and finds the formation

of the palolo to be an instance of epitoke, the first observed in this

family. The epitokous portions are pelagic and constitute the major

part of the worm, only 250 somites out of 544, e.g., being atokous.

The paper includes a full discussion of the structure of both parts.

536 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VouL. XXXIII.

A new Bothriocephalid genus, Scyphocephalus, parasitic in Vara-

nus, has been described by E. Riggenbach (Zool. Jahrb., Syst., XII,

145, 1899). It is characterized by a deep, cup-shaped rostellum,

which, however, is not primary, as in Cyathocephalus, but secondary,

as shown by the long narrow grooves on the external surface, which

are the reduced lateral bothria characteristic of the family. Other-

wise the new genus is a true Bothriocephalid.

Tetracotyle perca fluviatilis is found by Piana (Atti. Soc. Ital. Sci.

Nat., XXXVII, 1898) to be present in 90-95 per cent of the fish in

Varese and other Italian lakes, while in some adjacent bodies of

water it was lacking. The author looks upon the species as the

cause of fish epidemics there.

In Ligula, M. Lühe calls attention (Centralb. Bakt., Abt. I, XXII,

7, 280, 1898) to the existence of marked external segmentation at

the anterior end, very similar to that of other cestodes, though the

posterior two-thirds is entirely smooth. Strangely, however, the

internal structure does not correspond to the segmentation. As

the larva is uniformly smooth, the segmentation of the adult must

be developed in the intestine of the definite host. It may be

interpreted as rudimentary, and points to the degeneration of Ligula

from jointed Dibothrian ancestors that have secondarily lost their

segmentation.

A statistical report on the “Nematodes Parasitic in Birds,” by

W. Volz (Rev. Suisse Zool, VI, 1, 189, 1899), shows that hawks,

fowls, and crows are most infected both in number of species and of

individual parasites. Among the parasites, Heterakis vesicularis was

the most common, occurring in nine out of twenty-three hosts exam-

ined, and Z7ichosoma resectum was found in six hosts. Only two

hosts harbored as many as five species each, while the majority of

both hosts and parasites manifest individual association.

Two new tapeworms of the domestic fowl from Brazil are described

by Magalhâes (Arch. Par., I, 3, 442, 1898), Davainea oligophora, a

minute form only 3 mm. long, and D. carioca.

An intermediate host of Gigantorhynchus moniliformis has been

found by Magalhées: (Arch. Par., I, 3, 361, 1898) in Periplaneta

americana. Some interesting observations on the larva of the para-

site are recorded in the same article.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 537

BOTANY.

Campbell’s Evolution of Plants.‘— In publishing his lectures

on the evolution of plants, delivered at Stanford University, Dr.

Campbell has done a good service not only to students of botany

but also to a wide circle of readers interested in general biological

problems. The book will prove enjoyable reading to persons with

no more knowledge of the technicalities of botany than many high

schools now afford. Teachers have long desired such a book for use

with advanced pupils. At the same time it will be welcome to

botanists as a broad, clear statement of the main facts of plant

development and their interpretation from the most modern point

of view.

After an introductory chapter, followed by one on “The Condi-

tions of Plant Life,” the author discusses in nine chapters the

morphology, ontogeny, and phylogeny of the principal types of the

vegetable kingdom, and finally, in three chapters, gives a rapid

survey of “Geological and Geographical Distribution,” the interrela-

tions of ‘“ Animals and Plants,” and the “ Influence of Environment.”

Each chapter and the book as a whole concludes with a helpful

“ Summary.”

The truly scientific spirit of these lectures cannot fail to exert a

wholesome influence upon the students who read them. We find

throughout the clearest distinction made between what is actually

known and what may be more or less probable, and in weighing

probabilities rival views are treated with perfect fairness. Due cau-

tion and entire frankness are most happily combined with ample

freedom of the “scientific imagination.”

One always feels entire confidence that Dr. Campbell’s statements

are not only trustworthy but up to date. In this case the impression

is of a wide range of facts and ideas presented as nearly as possible

in their true perspective. FREDERICK LERoy SARGENT.

A Recent Work on Bryophytes.” — The first part of the second

volume of Goebel’s important work on the organography of plants is

now before us and well maintains the high standard set by the first

volume, which has already been reviewed in the Naturalist. The

1 Campbell, D. H. Lectures on the Evolution of Plants. 12mo0, viii + 319 pp.,

6o figs. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1899.

2 Goebel, K. Organographie der Pflanzen, Zweiter Theil, Heft 1. Jena, 1898.

538 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

second part is concerned with special organography, and the part just

published deals exclusively with the Musciniz. Goebel’s extensive

studies on these plants make this a most important contribution to

our knowledge of the bryophytes.

The structure and development of the different organs are fully

treated, but especial attention is devoted to the many adaptations

to their environment exhibited by the mosses and liverworts. No

botanist has done more to increase our knowledge in this direction,

and the present work includes much extremely valuable and interest-

ing matter, a good deal of which is now published for the first time.

The development of the archegonium and antheridium is first

discussed, and the various devices for protecting these and the sig-

nificance of their peculiar position in certain forms are treated at

length. The dehiscence of the antheridium is fully described — more

so than we can recall elsewhere. The most notable point in con-

nection with the archegonium is the confirmation of the views of

Janazewski and Kiihn in regard to the apical growth in the arche-

gonium of the Musci, which had been disputed by Gayet.

The various modifications of the Gametophyte in the lower Hepat-

ice are described at length, and some very interesting figures are

shown, especially those relating to certain tropical types like Symphy-

ogyna and some of its allies.

The different types of gemmz and tubers found among the liver-

worts are fully treated. Genuine tubers, which formerly were sup-

posed to be absent from the Hepatic, are now known in several

genera, including species of Anthoceros, Geothallus, and Fossom-

bronia. The recent discovery of these in a number of liverworts

from California and South America indicates that these structures

probably occur in a good many species of dry regions. Descriptions

and numerous figures of the contrivances for storing water, such as

the sac-like organs in the leaves of many tropical Jungermanniacee,

are given. As might be expected from the careful study of these.

which the author has made before, the subject is given very thorough

treatment.

The various types of sporophyte found among the Hepatice are

described and figured, but this section of the work does not include

much that is new.

As might be expected, the Musci are given less space than the

much more generalized and varied Hepatice. The more aberrant

types, like Schistostega, Sphagnum, and Buxbaumia, are considered

somewhat at length. The latter Goebel is still inclined to consider

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 539

as a primitive type, although many botanists will be inclined to

consider it as a degenerate rather than as a primitive form.

Of the different types of sporogonium among the Musci the pecu-

liar genus Nanomitrium is interesting as showing very marked simi-

larity in the arrangement of its parts to that of the typical liverworts.

In this moss most of the endothecium appears to be composed of

sporogenous tissue. Whether this genus, and the similar Archidium,

are really primitive types, as Leitget supposed, or are related to the

typical Bryinez, remains to be seen.

The book is fully illustrated and includes many new figures. It

is certainly a most important contribution to the literature of the

archegoniate plants. DHC

Aldehyde in Leaves.!— The formation of an insoluble “ hydra-

zone” on the addition of metanitrobenzohydrazide to a solution of an

aldehyde was taken as a means of the quantitative estimation of the

latter substance in green leaves. Previously it has been shown by

qualitative tests that a “leaf aldehyde” (Blätteraldehyd) is found in

many plants. The quantity present seems to vary within wide limits ;

the conditions influencing its formation are not understood. From

the experiments it appears that leaves kept in continued darkness

show a decrease in the amount of aldehyde present, but by no means

all of it disappears under such conditions. The bearing of this fact

on the suggestions that some form of aldehyde is the first product of

photosynthesis are, however, not distinct at present. But while

nothing has been shown which proves that such a substance may be

the initial carbohydrate formed, it is a matter of interest that the

aldehyde can be utilized by the plant as a food substance, and such

certainly seems to be the case. It would be of especial value, how-

ever, to know something of the relation which exists between the dis-

appearance of starch in the absence of light and the partial use of

the aldehyde under similar conditions. One might then be able to

conclude whether it is due to the exhaustion of other reserve mate-

rial that the plant is perforce necessitated to utilize the aldehyde,

or whether it exercises any selective power in this regard. The

writers do not maintain that the aldehyde is to be regarded as the

first assimilation product, — in fact they directly state that it is to be

regarded as a by-product; but it is hard to agree with them that had

1 Reinke, J., and Braunmüller, E. Untersuchungen über den Einfluss des

Lichtes auf den Gehalt der griinen Blatter an Aldehyd, Rev. d. deut. Bot. Gesel.,

Bd. xvii, Heft 1, p. 7.

540 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIII

a complete disappearance of this substance been shown by the ex-

periments, conclusive proof would then have been afforded of the

primary nature of the aldehyde. HM R

Light and the Respiration of Fungi.'— By a series of carefully

arranged experiments, chiefly with Aspergillus glaucus and Penicillium,

it is shown that the action of light increases (circa 10 per cent) the

respiration of these fungi, and that this increase is independent of

the food supply and of the morphological condition of the culture.

As the author says, this increase, though not great, is quite contrary

to what our knowledge of these forms would lead us to expect. He

refrains from drawing any conclusions from the present data, evid ently

purposing to pursue the matter further. The results recorded are

noteworthy and, if supported by further ones, are of considerable

importance. HMR

Spore Development in the Hemiasceæ.? — Two forms of this

heterogeneous group are considered in detail as to their spore

development. These are Ascoidea and Protomyces. In the former

it appears that the spores when ripe lie in a mass of protoplasm

analogous to the condition generally found among the Ascomycetes,

but the multinucleate condition of the ascus and the behavior of these

contained nuclei do not seem to correspond to the observations

recorded in the late researches on this last-named group. In Proto-

myces, on the other hand, the spores do not lie imbedded in a mass of

unused protoplasm, but are free within the remnant of the protoplas-

mic sac which still adheres to the wall of the sporangium. This

condition the author regards as more nearly akin to that found in

the Phycomycetes. The result of the observations seems to show

that these two members of the Hemiasci, aside from their radical dis-

similarity in other ways, are not closely related in the matter of spore

formation. This it will be noticed does not agree with the arrange-

ment of these forms adopted by Brefeld, but to the average observer

who has seen Protomyces, points of similarity of that form with the

phycomycetous fungi are not surprising. H. M. R.

A New Work on Lichens. — Lieferung 180 of Die natürlichen

Lflanzenfamilien forms the first portion of Fiinfstiick’s account of the

1 Kolbswitz, R. Ueber den Einfluss des Lichtes auf die Athmung der niederen

Pilze, Prings. Jahrb., Bd. xxxiii, Heft 1, p. 123, 1898.

* Canna, M. L. Popta. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Hemiasci, Flora, Bd.

Ixxxvi, Heft 1, p. 1, 1899. :

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 541

Lichenes. From this a few general statements are culled which may

be of interest to non-lichenologists. The literature of lichens is very

extensive, that here cited covering three closely printed pages.

With very few exceptions lichens are of slow growth and long life,

several decades being required by some alpine sorts to reach maturity

and fructification. The greater number occur on rocks, but many

are found on tree trunks, dead wood, or on the earth. Only a few

sorts grow under water (Verrucaria sp.). It may be assumed that

nearly every one knows that lichens are symbiotic growths. It is

now just thirty years since the publication of Schwendener’s mem-

orable paper, and the matter was fought over and settled in the

seventies. In different lichens the relation between the fungus and

the alga is very different. In Physma, Arnoldia, and many other

genera the algal cells are destroyed by the fungus, haustoria being

sent through the algal membrane into the plasma. In other lichens,

such as Micarea, Synalissa, the haustoria bore through the algal

membrane but do not penetrate into the plasma. As a rule the algal

cell is entered by only one haustorium. Finally, in many lichens,

e.g., those with Protococcus gonidia, the relation of the two com-

ponents is only one of intimate contact, the fungus causing no vis-

ible change either in the membrane or in the contents of the algal

cells. The manner of union of fungus and alga is very constant in

any given species of lichen, and it is usually the fungus which deter-

mines the form of the lichen. According to external form, lichens

may be classified as bushy, leafy, or crustaceous. Formerly much

use was made of these distinctions for purposes of classification, but

this system has now been abandoned, as separating closely related

forms. Classification is now based largely on the ascospores. For

anchorage and food absorption lichens are united to the substratum

to very different degrees. The most intimate union is that of crusta-

ceous, calcivorous species — Verrucaria, Staurothele, Thelidium, etc.

The hyphz of some of these species penetrate into the stony sub-

stratum in all directions, to a depth of ten to twenty millimeters or

more. On the other hand, the Collemas, etc., only rest their gelat-

inous masses on the substratum without producing any visible

change in it. Between these extremes are various intermediates.

Even the hardest rocks are eroded by lichens. Lecanora polytropa

offers a striking example of this, the hard gneiss rock to which it

adheres being eroded into cavities exactly the size and shape of the

lichen crusts which occupy them. In most lichens the algal elements

are confined to a particular zone, but in some sorts the alge are

542 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

‘uniformly distributed through the body of the thallus. This differ-

ence has little systematic value. With few exceptions, some of

which are still disputed, the lichen fungi all belong to the Ascomy-

cetes. The lichen alge belong to the Schizophyceze and Chloro-

phyceze. Rarely filamentous forms occur. The various lichen fungi

have not been found growing free except in case of a few Basidio-

lichenes, and some saprophyte Ascomycetes which occasionally form

so-called “ Half-lichens’’; but in a number of cases they have been

cultivated free. Many, if not all of the lichen alge, are also believed

to occur free in damp places, but owing to changes in shape and

size, brought about by the presence of the fungus, there is still much

uncertainty respecting the identity of the algal element in the thallus

of many lichens. Quite a number of these alga have been cultivated

independently of the fungus, and ten species found in lichen thalli

have been definitely identified as well-known species occurring in-

dependently of fungi. These belong to as many different genera.

Almost always each species of lichen is adapted to one species of

alga, but sometimes accessory species of algæ are present in the

thallus, forming in connection with the lichen-fungus growths called

cephalodia. The fungus provides the imprisoned alga with water

and inorganic foods. It loses nothing itself by this symbiosis and

gains the ability to live on bare rocks and other most resistant sur-

faces. What benefit the algæ derive from such unions is problematic.

In the lichen thallus they are said to reach a larger size and to

divide more rapidly than outside; they are also able to live and

work in places otherwise unsuitable. On the other hand, they have

very generally lost the ability to produce swarm spores, a function

soon regained on cultivating them free from the fungus. The lichen

attacks the rocks by means of acid excretions which the fungus alone

appears to be unable to produce. More than sixty acids have been

isolated and described, and the chemistry of the group is complex.

The reproduction of the group, aside from mere vegetative propaga- `

tion by soredia, which is very common, is that of the fungus. Oidial,

or chlamydospore, fructification has been found only in Caliceæ.

Free conidial fructification, so common in the Ascomycetes, has been

found only in two lichens, Pycnidia, on the other hand, are common.

The highest form of fructification is by means of ascospores. In

some lichens this form is wanting, or at least has never been found.

Basidiospores are said to occur in the tropical genera Cora and

Corella. According to the author it is exceedingly probable that

even in Collema there is no sexual reproduction. Lichens are often

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 543

brilliantly colored, browns, grays, and yellows preponderating. They

are very rich in variety of forms, but these seldom resemble the

separate growths of either component. Nearly 20,000 species, varie-

ties or forms of lichens, have been described, but only about 4000

are well known. Lichenes are distributed over the whole earth.

They occur farthest north and farthest south, and highest up on

mountains of any plants. They are resistant to heat and to cold.

Hot countries are relatively poor in species. In the Torrid zone

they are found mostly on trees. The outer fungus rind is thin in the

shade and thick in the sun. In hot, dry countries all the lichens

have a common habit (Australia, Cape of Good Hope, Chili). Cold

countries, especially in the northern hemisphere, are richest in spe-

cies. Many species are widely distributed. Very few are edible.

Among the latter, perhaps the most interesting is the rapidly growing

manna lichen, known to the Tartars as earth bread, and a variety of

which (Lecanora esculenta var. jussufit), easily blown about by the

wind, and then known as “rain manna,” is perhaps the manna of

the Israelites. Erwin F. SMITH.

Agardh’s Algæ.'— It is not often that an author, fifty years after

the issue of the first part of a work, is, like Professor Agardh, still

continuing its publication. Nor does this fifty years by any means

cover the time during which the name of Agardh has been among

the foremost in algological science. The elder Agardh, father of the

present author, was already publishing his observations quite early

in the present century, and in 1823 he issued the first volume of his

Species Algarum, intending to include in the work all the species

known at the time. It remained unfinished, but it marks a distinct

advance in systematic algology.

Its author had the valuable faculty, in arranging a genus or group

of higher rank, of seeing clearly the really distinctive characters and

using them as a basis of classification. This faculty appears in even

a higher degree in his son, J. G. Agardh, and for many years his

Species Algarum, of which the first volume was published in 1848,

has been the standard, especially as to the red alge. It is only

within the last three or four years that an arrangement of the red

alge, differing seriously from Agardh’s, has been presented and has

met with any general acceptance. The arrangement of Schmitz, as

given by Engler and Prantl, is based on the details of the fertilization

1 Agardh, J. G. Species, Genera, et Ordines Algarum, voluminis tertii, pars

tertia. De dispositione Delesseriearum curae posteriores. Lund, 1898.

544 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

and its results, instead of on the structure of the mature cystocarp, as

was Agardh’s scheme. Schmitz’s plan has the disadvantage that the

data for its application are known in only a small proportion of the

algæ; the great majority have to be assigned their place by analogy

with the few of which it has been possible to study the development

thoroughly; and already new observations threaten to reopen what

Schmitz considered settled questions.

Agardh’s system was more convenient, in that we knew the cysto-

carps of much the greater part of the red alge, and might reasonably

hope to find cystocarps in the few species where they were still

unknown. But the chance is small of an opportunity to follow the

stages from trichogyne to cystocarp in an alga from some remote part

of the world, of which only a few sae are known, and those

washed up from deep water.

The present section of the work is devoted to a review of the

Delesseriaceze, of which the known species have much increased

since the publication of part one of the volume in 1876. The limita-

tions of the family are the same as before, but the subdivisions are

changed, and several new genera are founded at the expense of the

old genera Nitophyllum and Delesseria. The cystocarpic fruit is

practically the same in all, and the characters of the tetrasporic fruit

are used only for specific distinctions ; all the species have the form

of a flat membrane, and the distinctions are made by the greater or

less number of layers of cells, the difference in size or shape of the

cells of the different layers, and the presence or absence of raised

mid and lateral ribs, or of veins, not elevated but formed by cells of

distinctive form. Several new American species are described from

Florida and from the Pacific coast,

We are sure all algologists will join in the hope that this, the latest

in the author’s long series of contributions, will not be the last.

F. S. COLLINS.

Greenland Algæ.'— It is a rather curious fact that there is hardly

any part of the American coast with whose alge we are as well

acquainted as we are with those of Greenland. A number of investi-

gators have contributed to our knowledge of this region, but much

the largest share is due to the author of this work. In a former

work on the same subject ° he gave what seemed a very full account

1 Rosenvinge, L. Kolderup. Deuxième Mémoire sur les Algues Marines de

Groenland, Meddelelser om Groenland,.XX. Copenhagen, 1898.

2 Groenlands Havalger, Meddelelser om Groenland, III, 1893.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 545

of the marine flora of the region; but the present paper, besides

contributing much to our knowledge of species already found there,

adds twenty-four, of which seven are new to science. This brings

the total of species to 167 ; and if we compare this number with the

corresponding figures for other regions, it must be borne in mind that

the author, perhaps more than any other algologist, defines species in

a very broad way, often including under one specific name several

forms that are elsewhere considered distinct.

Even without this allowance, however, the number must be con-

sidered very high for an arctic flora. Two causes have contributed

to increase the number — the careful study of minute epiphytic and

parasitic forms, and knowledge of deep-water forms obtained by

extensive dredging.

Like its predecessor, the paper is illustrated by figures in the text ;

the latter is in French, however, instead of Danish ; a change that

will be regarded as an advantage by its readers, unless they are

ultra-patriotic Danes. F. S. COLLINS.

Botanical Notes. — The localization of the alkaloid in Cinchona

as been investigated by Dr. Lotsy, whose studies of Taxodium

are familiar to American botanists, and who is now connected with

the laboratories which the Dutch government has established in its

Indian colonies, for the investigation of the quinine-producing trees.

His conclusions form No. 1 of the laboratory contributions of the

Gouvernements Kinaonderneming, printed at Batavia, a quarto of 128

pages, containing two folding plates and accompanied by an atlas of

twenty colored plates of larger size.

Professor W. W. Bailey, of Brown University, communicates the

following observations upon a South African species, in which pro-

terandry was previously recorded by the same author in 1886.

“I have had a plant of Veltheimia viridifolia for some twenty years,

and this year, after a long interval, it is blooming. The flowers, each

of which has a long period of anthesis, are proterandrous, the stamens

preceding the pistils several days in their development. They are

slightly exserted, and the style, when finally it appears, is long

exserted. The perianth is withering-persistent, and the raceme of

some twenty or thirty flowers is over a month in blooming — perhaps

two months in the development of its foot-long scape.”

Boerlage’s Fora van Nederlendsch Indié, with Part II of the second

volume, recently issued, completes the Gamopetala, including the

families Oleaceze to Plantaginacez.

546 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for March contains a

revision of the United States species of Dolicholus (Rhynchosia), by

Miss Vail; notes on some new and little known plants of the Ala-

bama flora, by Dr. Mohr; new plants from Wyoming, by Professor

Nelson ; some new species from Washington, by K. M. Wiegand ; and

Part XXVI of the enumeration of the plants collected by Dr. H. H.

Rusby in South America, 1885-86.

Part II of the current volume of Minnesota Botanical Studies con-

tains articles on a considerable range of botanical subjects, among

which are one or two of morphological and physiological value.

Professor Nelson tells in Buletin No. go of the Wyoming Experi-

ment Station about the trees of that state. Characters of easy appli-

cation are employed for their ready determination.

The newly begun Comunicaciones of the Museo Nacional of Buenos

Aires contain articles by Spegazzini descriptive of South American

phanerogams.

To students of the ecological phases of plant distribution an article

by Jaccard on “La Flore du Haut Bassin de la Sallanche et du

Trient,” in the Revue Générale de Botanigue for March 15, will prove

of interest.

Anemone, the “ wind-flower” of most persons, is said, by C. H.

Toy, in Rhodora for March, to be really the flower of Na‘man — an-

other name for Adonis, from whose blood the red anemone is sup-

posed to have sprung.

Anemone riparia, a large-flowered, slender-fruited form of the north-

ern Atlantic region, is separated from 4. virginiana and A. cylindrica

by M. L. Fernald in Rhodora for March.

Epilobium obcordatum and Ceanothus integerrimus, of California,

are figured in the Botanical Magazine for February.

Viburnum lantanoides, which is commonly described as of irregular

or straggling habit of growth, is shown by Dr. Ida Keller to have

a decided tendency to the sympodial method of branching. — Prac.

Phila. Acad., 1898.

Cirrhopetalum robustum, a new Guinea orchid, is said, by MacMahon,

in the Queensland Agricultural Journal for January, to be a good

example of a carrion plant. Its flowers are pollinated by blue-bottle

flies by aid of a very ingenious mechanism,

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 547

To the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society for 1898

Mr. W. W. Ashe contributes a paper on the dichotomous group of

Panicum in the eastern United States. Seventy-four species — a

considerable number of them new in the belief of the author —are

described.

Biological notes on Indian bamboos are contributed to the January

number of Zhe Indian Forester by Sir Dietrich Brandis.

The toxic effects of sleepy grass, Stipa robusta, are being discussed

by the medical and pharmaceutical press. The Buletin of Pharmacy

for March contains an interesting résumé of some of the recent obser-

vations.

In Nos. 8 and g of his “Studies in the Cyperacez,” reprinted

from recent numbers of the American Journal of Science, Mr. Holm

treats of the genera Scleria and Lipocarpha.

Evergreens, and how they shed their leaves, is the title of Zzacher’s

Leaflet No. 13, of the College of Agriculture of Cornell University.

The histological generic characters of the North American Taxa-

cez and Conifer are well presented by Professor Penhallow in

a paper reprinted from the Zransactions of the Royal Society of

Canada.

Even greenhouses, when at all extensive, have their own sponta-

neous flora. Inthe Verhandlungen des Botanischen Vereins der Provinz

Brandenburg for 1898 P. Hennings enumerates a considerable num-

ber of fungi observed in the plant houses of the Berlin botanic

garden, and finds not a few of them new to science. In Rhodora

for May, M. Hollis Webster also publishes a similar article, dealing

with fungi observed in the United States.

Collecting and preserving marine alge, a subject of interest to

every visitor to the seashore, is treated at considerable length by

Professor Setchell in Ærythea for March.

Berg und Schmidts Atlas der Officiellen Pflanzen, of which a second

edition is being issued under the care of Drs. Meyer and Schumann,

has completed the third volume, which contains Pls. XCV-CXXXII.

In the Pharmaceutical Journal, beginning with the issue for February

25, Mr. F. Ransom is publishing a series of articles on the origin and

meaning of the names of medicinal plants — these being arranged

in the familiar sequence of Durand’s Index.

548 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

GEOLOGY.

Rivers of North America.!— A book with the comprehensive

title Rivers of North America cannot fail to arouse interest among

students of nature, especially when followed by the name of the

, author, Professor Israel C. Russell. Curiosity is felt as to how a

subject so vast as this can be concisely treated by any writer, par-

ticularly by one who has obtained many of his conceptions at first

hand through observation and study in the field. Of the many ways

in which the rivers of North America might be discussed there occur

to the mind two as especially distinct and important. The first is a

geographic description of the position, length, volume, character of

water, and other existing conditions; and the second might be an

analysis from the geologic standpoint of the causes of these features

or of the phenomena as noted along the course of each river. This

latter form of treatment is that toward which Professor Russell has

directed most of his investigations, and the book reflects largely the

results of his field work. In fact his book might be classed as a

primer of hydro-geology or hydrology, using this latter term as dis-

tinct from hydro-geography (hydrography), or the description of

bodies of water. The hydrographic or descriptive part of the sub-

ject is not neglected, being included under the head of “ Charac-

teristics of American Rivers,” but is subordinate to the thorough

discussion of the why and wherefore of present conditions.

Professor Russell begins by showing that the surface of the earth

is a scene of continuous change, the higher portions being gradually

worn away and modified by the running waters, which, gathering into

streams, make for themselves valleys proportioned to the various

forces at work. Beginning with rock decay and removal of the sur-

face débris, he passes on to discuss the laws governing streams, the

limitation of downward cutting to base level, the influence of the

hardness of the rock in producing rapids and waterfalls, and makes

note of the material carried by the streams in visible particles or in

solution. Passing from the destructive or eroding action of the

rivers, he takes up their constructive features and shows how the

alluvial cones and deltas grade from one into the other, and brings

out the origin of the stream terraces, developing the fact that these,

from the industrial standpoint, are among the most important result-

ants in the development of the country, since they furnish some of

1 Russell, Israel C. Zhe Rivers of North America. xix + 327 pp. 17 pls»

18 figs. New York, Putnams, 1808.

No. 390.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 549

our best farm lands. Following this description of down-cutting and

up-building, he brings out the effect of changes in the earth’s crust

by elevation and subsidence and by variations in climate, particularly

through glacial action, and then having touched upon the principal

points of hydrology he gives, as above noted, some of the character-

istics of important streams, and, in conclusion, takes up the life his-

tory of a river, showing the principal events from youth to old age.

The conception is constantly kept before the reader that a river

is a living thing working out its own life history, and that the appar-

ently permanent features which we see are the temporary products

of arestless and moving organism. ‘The converse is also enforced

that for every delta, terrace, curve, rapid, or fall of the river there is

a definite cause, which may be sought and explained according to

general law, and that the apparent anomalies may be reconciled if

the student will patiently look into the subject.

The discussion of these natural laws, while necessarily somewhat

abstruse, is rendered as interesting as possible by copious illustra-

tions taken from well-known phenomena in the geography of North

America. For example, as showing the importance of the glacial

epoch upon the industrial development of New England, it is stated

that manufactures were established there soon after the coming of

Europeans, owing to the facilities offered by the numerous small

water powers. These resulted from the disturbance produced in

stream development by the débris left by the retreating ice sheet of

the past geologic age. South of the glacial boundary, that is, south

of Pennsylvania, water power is far less abundant and mostly within

the inaccessible portions of the mountains. The development of

manufacturing industries hence has been delayed and attention given

more largely to agriculture, for which climatic and other conditions

are more favorable. Thus a decided trend was early given to the

New England character and manufacturing was so firmly established

that although the water powers have relatively declined in importance,

and steam has usurped their place, yet the glaciated regions of the

United States still continue to lead in manufacturing. Here we

have a direct relation between the effects of ancient changes in geog-

raphy and modern growth of civilization.

Another striking illustration of the effect of geologic changes upon

industrial development is given in the case of the drowned river —

the Hudson — whose valley submerged by subsidence of the earth’s

crust has become a long narrow arm of the sea, where the tides rise

and fall. During its early history the river cut its deep channel

550 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

across a mountain range as it was slowly being elevated, and contin-

ued its course far out into what is now the present ocean, to a point

at least eighty miles eastward of Long Island. In late geologic

time a downward movement of the earth’s crust, too insignificant to

be noticed in comparison with the whole diameter of the earth, has

brought the former mouth of the river below sea level, and the salt

water gradually encroaching has filled the broad valley where now is

the important harbor of New York, and has made possible ocean

navigation far inland. The influence of this easy route of communi-

cation up to the site of the present city of Albany, and from that

point by easy paths up the broad Mohawk to the Great Lakes,

determined the history, not only of New York State, but of the

people of the continent, and has resulted in making this state the

richest of the American Union. dae Bo ee re

PETROGRAPHY.

The Volcanics of San Clemente. — San Clemente Island, off the

coast of Southern California, is built up* almost exclusively of lava

flows, volcanic breccias, and ash deposits. The principal eruptive

is a pyroxene-andesite. In addition to this, there are smaller areas of

rhyolite and dacite. The andesite consists of a mediumly basic

plagioclase, augite, often hypersthene and magnetite as phenocrysts

in a ground mass composed of the same minerals, with a larger or

smaller proportion of glass. The dacite lies above the andesite, and

the rhyolite above the dacite. The former rock contains the same

phenocrysts as the andesite, but in the ground mass there is consid-

erable quartz intergrown with oligoclase in micropoicilitic patches,

and a large quantity of orthoclase, likewise in micropoicilitic inter-

growths with the same plagioclase. The quartz and orthoclase

appear to form the matrices in which laths of the plagioclase are

imbedded.

The rhyolite is of an unusual type. It comprises phenocrysts of

andesine, a few of hypersthene and magnetite, and an occasional one

of augite in a microgranular and glassy matrix. The crystalline portion

of the matrix is composed of quartz, orthoclase, and andesine, form-

ing bands and lenses separated from one another by bands of glass.

1 Smith, W. S. T. Eighteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey, 1898, Pt. ii,

P. 459-

No. 390.]} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 551

The approximate composition of the rhyolite (I) and of the ande-

site (II) is as follows:

SiO2 AlO Fe0O0% FeO CaO MgO NaO K0 fen. -Tot

E- 70.20 14090 53 sia 308.” 562 370 33I 2.50 = 100.54

II. 66.85 14.08 3.06 409 of 380° 237 G07 = 98103

Contact Phenomena in Michigan. — Between the graywackes,

slates, etc., of the Mansfield formation, in the Crystal Falls district

of Upper Michigan, and a mass of diabases on their flank, is a con-

tact zone of dense hornstone-like rocks: that have been studied by

Clements.’ As the intrusives are approached the graywackes and

slates are changed into spilosites, desmosites, and finally adinoles.

The unchanged clay-slates are banded rocks composed of quartz,

muscovite, rutile, hematite, and an occasional needle of actinolite in

a mass of feldspathic dust. With these are phyllites, which differ

from the slates in being richer in muscovite, and in containing no

feldspathic interstitial substance. The contact rocks consist of

quartz, albite, biotite, chlorite, muscovite, actinolite, rutile, epidote,

and iron oxides. The spilosites are mottled, the spots usually being

- richer in chlorite than the surrounding matrix. In the few instances

in which the spots are lighter colored, they are composed predomi-

nantly of feldspar. The desmosites are like the spilosites, except

that the spots are united into bands. In the adinoles actinolite is

the chief colored constituent, while in the spilosites and desmosites

chlorite plays this rôle. The chemical relationships existing between

the unchanged and the altered rocks are shown by the following

analyses (in addition to the constituents indicated below there are

also indicated in the original small quantities of others) :

SiOz TiO, Al0O3 FegO03; FeO CaO MgO KO NazO H:0 P2035 C

Gone O9 2201 3:69 45 13 135 593 -S4 422 03 W

M: ssr 1.90 3000 33i 9:19: 1.55 3290 70 672 350 f5

III. 5777 .92 19.35 1.29 337 1-71 4.35 22 822 2.52 .04

IV. 7416 37 1185 Ba TOG 310 %10 15 657. 57 -09

I = slate, II = spilosite, III = spilosite, IV = adinole.

Silica increases as the igneous rock is approached, and alumina

and the iron oxides decrease. Moreover, the potassa, which is the

predominant alkali in the unaltered slate, is replaced almost com-

pletely by soda in the altered forms. The clay-slate is clearly

clastic; the altered rocks are entirely crystallized. The former con-

tains no albite, while the latter are rich in it. It appears that, in

1 Amer. Journ. Sci., 1899, p. 81.

552 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VOL; XXXIII.

the change from the slate to the adinole, an actual addition of mate-

rial from the igneous rock has taken place.

The Granitic Rocks of the Sierra Nevadas.—Turner * describes

the granular complex of the central and. ‘southern Sierra Nevadas

as comprising nearly the entire range of ‘plutonic rocks. They are

associated more or less closely with gneisses, some of which may be

sedimentary while others are igneous. Among the rocks belonging

in the granite family the author distinguishes seven types, a biotite

granite, a granodiorite, a quartz monzonite, both in porphyritic and

in non-porphyritic phases, soda-granite, aplite, potash-aplite, pegma-

tite, and a type designated as the bridal veil granite.

The granodiorites constitute a portion of a huge batholite, the

parts of which have been differentiated into quartz-diorites, quartz-

mica-diorites, quartz-hornblende-diorites, and quartz-pyroxene-dio-

rites, gabbros, and olivine-gabbros. Typical granodiorite is an

aggregate of plagioclase (usually andesine), quartz, orthoclase, and

either biotite or amphibole, or both. The quartz-monzonites con-

tain oligoclase instead of andesine. They are more acid than the

granodiorites, as shown by the analysis below. The bridal veil gran-

ite is a fine-grained white rock that often possesses an orbicular

structure — the nodules consisting of a white nucleus of quartz and

feldspar surrounded by a zone rich in biotite.

The aplites and soda-granites are also white rocks in which albite

is the principal feldspathic component. Quartz-diorite aplites occur

in dykes cutting quartz-diorite. These are regarded as genetically

connected with the more basic diorite with which they are associ-

ated, just as the potash aplites are related to the granodiorites and

quartz-monzonites in which these rocks occur. The feldspar of the

quartz-diorite aplite is chiefly andesine.

Analyses of the most important types of rocks discussed are shown

in the following figures :

I. 70.75 29 15.51 5 1.34 2.82 55 4.28 3.11 46 10 = 100.34

I. 654 p 16.05 1.47 3:06 4.88 2.13 2.43 349 1.27 pores.

III. 66.83 54 «15.24 2.73 1.66 359 163 4.463.106 = 100.82

IV. 74.21 30 14.47 35 50 1.71 28 io J6ł 38 o7 = 99.99

21 17.57 2I 1.04 4.54 58 7% 4.91 55 03 = 100.09

Ve oe 54 35 a 09 a h, 43 02 $2100.37

I = average of three biotite-granites, II = average of five granodio-

rites, III = quartz-monzonite, IV =soda-aplite, V = quartz-diorite

aplite, VI = average of two potash-aplites.

1 Journ. of Geology, vol. vii, p. 141.

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 553

The totals include small amounts of MnO, SrO, BaO, and other

oxides.

The Rocks of Mount Rainier. — The volcanics of Mount Rainier?

are basaltic and andesitic lavas and tuffs, passing into one another

by almost imperceptible gradations. The predominant andesite is

hypersthenic, but other pyroxenes often occur with the hypersthene

and sometimes replace it entirely in the rock mass. The platform

upon which the volcanics were extruded consists of a granite either

hornblendic or biotitic.

Luquer’s Minerals in Rock Sections’ is an attempt to furnish to

students in as few words as possible an account of the practical

methods of identifying the minerals occurring in rocks by means of

their optical and other physical properties as they may be observed

in thin sections under the microscope.

The general principles of optics are discussed in the first thirty-

four pages of the book as an introduction to the description of the

characteristics of the individual minerals. Unfortunately, this dis-

cussion is so condensed that it can afford no help to the student

unless it is accompanied by explanatory lectures. As a summary of

a course of lectures in optics it might possibly be of value. The

discussion explains nothing; it is merely a dogmatic statement of

facts, sometimes so bare of explanatory or illustrative phrases as to

leave only a confused impression in the mind of the reader. This is

particularly noticeable in the case of the definitions. For instance,

the first time the term “ extinction angle ” is used, it is described as

the angle between the axis of elasticity and the crystallographic axis,

without reference in any way to the fact of extinction. There is much

loose expression in this part of the book, which, of course, might

easily be corrected in a new edition.

The chapter on the microscopic features of the individual minerals

covers forty-five pages. Here we find a very concise description of

the principal diagnostic characters of the minerals most frequently

found in rocks, with brief remarks on their occurrence.

A noteworthy feature of the volume is the clear manner in which

directions are given for the manipulation of the apparatus employed

1 Smith, G. O. Eighteenth Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, Pt. ii, p. 416.

2 Minerals in Rock Sections. The practical methods of identifying minerals in

rock sections with the microscope. By L. McI. Luquer, C.E., Ph.D. vii + 117

pp-, 48 figs. Price $1.40. New York, D. Van Nostrand Co., 1898

554 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII,

in the investigation of the optical constants. The methods described,

while simple, are those in most use among practical petrographers.

Some of them are here given for the first time in English text.

Though the book has some faults, some of them serious ones in a

student’s text-book, it will unquestionably be of service as affording

a convenient summary of lecture courses. It is also a good note-

book on the microscopical characters of minerals.

The Fuess Catalogue.!— The author, who for several years has

directed the optical section of the Fuess establishment, has here

given a complete description of all the Fuess instruments made for

optical or allied purposes, including, therefore, spectro- and refracto-

meters and spectro-photographic apparatus, goniometers, polaniscopes

and microscopes, section-cutting machinery, heliostats, and projec-

tion and micro-photographic apparatus. ‘The work is really a text-

book for the principles of construction, use, and adjustment of these

instruments, and contains numerous additional references to the

literature of the subject. The abundant illustrations elucidate the

- text.

Petrographical Notes. — Patton’ notes that mica-schists in contact

with pegmatite veins on the Belcher Hill road between Golden and

Central City, Colorado, are impregnated with tourmaline to a very

great extent. Sometimes the tourmaline is noticed in the cleavages

of the schist, when the resulting rock is a banded or laminated one.

Where the contact action was more severe the tourmaline is in streaks,

which, however, bear no definite relation to the original cleavage

direction of the schist, which in many cases has been obliterated.

The tourmalinized schists are composed of quartz and muscovite, in

addition to the tourmaline, while the schists that have not been

impregnated with tourmaline contain an abundance of biotite. The

tourmaline, as seen in thin section, is discovered to: be full of quartz

inclusions, and to enclose here and there small grains of rutile or

zircon. The pegmatite veins that are supposed to have caused the

alteration in the schists are thought by the author to be segregation

veins.

Kemp’ is continuing his studies on the geology of Essex County,

N. Y. Ina recent report he describes briefly the rocks of the town-

1 Leiss, C. Die optischen Instrumente der Firma R. Fuess, deren Beschreibung,

ape ed und Anwendung. rigs 3 plates. Leipzig, W. Engelmann, 1899.

2 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., vol. x, p. 2

8 Fifteenth Ann. Rep. State tales (New York), P- 575-

No. 390.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 555

ships of Chesterfield, Jay, Wilmington, St. Armand, North Hudson,

Schroon, Ticonderoga, Minerva, and Newcomb. Gneisses, gabbros,

and anorthosites are the most interesting of the rocks mentioned.

The latter exhibit beautifully the effects of dynamo-metamorphism.

In the Lake Placid district in Essex County, in addition to the

rocks above mentioned, Kemp’ finds limestones, quartzites, and gran-

ites. The geology of the district is described popularly in a small

pamphlet, which is accompanied by an excellent map.

1 Bull. New York State Museum, vol. v, No. 20, p. 52.

NEWS.

Tue New England Botanical Club has just issued its neatly printed

club-book for 1899, containing the constitution of the club, list of the

officers, members, and personnel of its various committees. There

are now forty-four resident members (those living within twenty-five

miles of Boston), and forty-two non-resident. It is evident from the

list that the club already includes nearly all the publishing botanists

who are engaged in the investigation of the New England flora.

After the close of Vol. II the Zodlogical Bulletin will be con-

tinued under the name of Zhe Biological Bulletin, and will be published

under the auspices of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods

Holl, Mass. The journal will be enlarged to include general biology,

physiology, and botany ; and it will contain occasional reviews and

reports of work and lectures at the Marine Biological Laboratory.

Brighton, England, is to have a new zoological garden.

Mr. Georges Clautrian, of Brussels, receives a prize of 600 francs

from the Belgian Academy, for his researches in the chemistry of

digestion in carnivorous plants.

We note the statement in a recent number of Natural Science that

the gypsy moth is rapidly disappearing from England, and in certain

localities it is no longer to be found. Possibly they have emigrated,

attracted by the generosity of the Massachusetts Legislature.

The Egyptian government is to begin a scientific study of the

fishes of the Nile, the work being done by English naturalists.

Falcon Island, near the Tonga group, has disappeared after an

existence of thirteen years. It was found as a volcanic upheaval.

In this connection we note a submarine eruption in March, causing

a “tidal wave” which did great damage in the Solomon Islands.

A sketch of the life of the late James Hall, with a presumably com-

plete bibliography of his scientific writings, appears in the March

number of the American Geologist.

556

Mr. J. Stanley Gardiner has been appointed Balfour student of the

University of Cambridge. The studentship is for three years and

has an annual value of £200. It is designed for research in the line.

of animal morphology.

Mr. W. W. Skeat, accompanied by Messrs. Evans and Aumandale

as zodlogists, and Mr. Gwynne-Vaughan as botanist, goes to the

Malay peninsula to make investigations upon its natural history.

The expedition is aided by the University of Cambridge.

The Belgian Royal Academy has awarded a prize of 600 francs to

Professor L. Cuénot, of Nancy, France, for his studies of the nephridial

system of the molluscs.

The Concilium Bibliographicum announces their new address to be

38 Eidmattstrasse, Ziirich-Neumunster. The new house contains a

press room in the basement, offices, storerooms, and composing

rooms in two upper stories. Dr. J. Dewitz has been appointed resident

assistant and Dr. L. Lalry correspondent.

The board of estimate and apportionment for the City of New

York has set aside $63,000 for the zodlogical garden in Bronx Park.

It is also proposed to raise the appropriation for the American

Museum of Natural History from $90,000 to $130,000 a year.

Dr. Adolph Fick, professor of physiology in the University of

Wiirzburg, has resigned at the age of seventy years.

Several graduate fellowships and scholarships in scientific depart-

ments are vacant this spring at the University of Nebraska. Holders

of these positions are expected to give a certain portion of their time

to assistance in the department in which they are working.

Appointments : Vidal de la Blache, professor of geography in the

University of Paris. — Mr. Joseph Barrell, instructor in geology and

lithology in Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Penn. — G. Gilbert

Cullis, assistant professor of geology in the Royal College of Science,

South Kensington, London.— Ulric Dahlgren, assistant professor

of histology in Princeton University. — Dr. William Morris Davis,

Sturgis-Hooper professor of geology in Harvard University. — A. W.

Hill, demonstrator in botany in the University of Cambridge. — Dr.

Moritz Hoernes, professor extraordinarius of prehistoric archxology

in the University of Vienna. — Dr. Robert Tracy Jackson, assistant

professor of paleontology in Harvard University. — Dr. Bengst Johns-

558 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

son, professor of botany at the Akademie at Lund, Sweden. — Dr.

Adalar Richter, professor extraordinarius of botany in the University

of Klausenburg. — Mr. W. E. D. Scott, curator of the ornithological

collections of the Green School of Science in Princeton University.

—Dr. Streckeison, privat docent for geography in the University

of Basel.—Dr. Tobler, privat docent for mineralogy in the Uni-

versity of Basel. — Dr. W. F. R. Weldon, of London, Lenacre pro-

fessor of comparative anatomy in the University of Oxford, as successor

to Professor E. Ray Lankester. — Dr. R. von Wettstein, professor of

botany and director of the botanical gardens of the University of

Vienna. — Jay Backus Woodworth, instructor in geology in Harvard

University.

Deaths: Dr. Dareste de la Chavanne, the French anthropologist

and teratologist.— Rev. William Colenso, a collector and student of

New Zealand anthropology, February 10, aged 88. — John Collett, for

several years state geologist of Indiana, at Indianapolis, March 15,

aged 71.—-Mr. Thomas Cook, teacher of anatomy, in London, Feb-

ruary 8.— Alexandre Laboulbene, entomologist and pathologist, author

of a Faune Entomologique de France,aged 73.— Dr. Franz Lang, teacher

of natural history in the cantonal school of Solothurn, Switzerland,

aged 78.— Dr. William Rutherford, professor of physiology in the

University-of Edinburgh, February 21, aged 60. — Dr. Carl Schonlein,

assistant in the Zodlogical Station at Naples, aged 40.— Sir John

Struthers, emeritus professor of anatomy in the University of Aber-

deen, February 24, aged 75.—Gianpaolo Vlacovich, professor of

anatomy at Padua, Italy.

Othniel Charles Marsh, professor of paleontology in Yale Uni-

versity, died March 18, 1898. He was born at Lockport, N. Y.,

Oct. 29, 1831, and was graduated from Yale College in the class

of 1860. For two years after graduation he pursued studies in

mineralogy in Yale, and then went abroad for three years of study

in German universities. In 1866 he returned to Yale as professor

of paleontology, a position he held until his death. Professor Marsh

was never married and was without near relatives. His entire fortune

was left by will to Yale University, aside from a bequest to the

National Academy of Science of $10,000.

CORRESPONDENCE.

On THE USE OF THE ‘TERMS “ HEREDITY” AND “ VARIABILITY.”

To the Editor of the American Naturalist :

Str, — The necessity of an accurate terminology in the discussion

of such an abstruse and complicated subject as the evolution phi-

losophy has always been recognized. Every one is satisfied to have

each writer coin as many new words, or to re-define as many old ones,

as the discussion of his subject demands. And so we have numerous

technical terms, as “ germ- -plasm, ” “idioplasm,” “ gemmule,” “ stirp,”

“id,” “biophore,” “diplogenesis,” etc. It is, therefore, the more

surprising to find so many really serious fallacies and disagreements

creeping into evolutionary discussion through the equivocal use of

such common terms as “ heredity ” and “ variability.’

These two words have been often, perhaps usually, regarded as

antonyms. Heredity and variability have been treated as two dia-

metrically opposing laws. Even when the opposition was not so

much emphasized, they have been treated as two separate and

sharply distinguished principles. Darwin treats them so. Weismann

follows a similar usage, and, in general, the uncritical custom follows

the same line. But this investment of the terms “heredity” and

“variability ” with two sharply contrasted meanings is essentially

illogical. This is not a new discovery by any means, for it will be

found on examination, I think, that the leading writers on evolu-

tion topics have shrunk, consciously or Bacon es from bringing

these terms into conflict at any critical point.

The beginning of the difficulty has been in the assumption that

organic life began under the absolute dominion of the law of heredity.

Later, according to this assumption, variability crept in, and the

course of organic reproduction departed farther and farther from the

rigid line of heredity. Bailey has controverted this assumption in his

Survival of the Unlike by another equally gratuitous assumption. The

law of heredity is said to be that like begets like ; but Bailey asserts

that, in the original and normal course of organic reproduction, “unlike

begets unlike.” Of course neither statement is absolutely true; but

if both are properly qualified they acquire practically identical mean-

559

560 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

ings. What we actually know without contradiction is that like

never begets absolute likeness, nor yet absolute unlikeness. It is,

then, doing a violence to all our observation of nature to make the

law “like begets like” mean absolute duplication of parent in off-

spring. It is not good English to make likeness mean identity, unless

it be by special definition. Things are like which are similar. And

if the old statement that “like begets like ” is read to mean “similar

begets similar,” we have a statement of the obvious truth. And,

moreover, there is no reason to suppose that the course of reproduc-

tion was ever different.

In this view of the case heredity and variability belong in the same

scale. I have been in the habit of illustrating this relation by refer-

ence to heat and cold in the thermal scale. More cold means simply

less heat. More variability means simply less rigid heredity. As

the power of heredity wanes, variability waxes. And so, just as the

physicist, for the sake. of an accurate terminology, speaks only of

heat, the biologist ought to have one general name for the one great

law of reproduction. The term “ heredity ” would answer all purposes,

had its proper meaning not already been clouded by the attachment

of unwarranted definitions to it, and were its etymology not also a

trifle awkward for the uses required. In fact we all speak of varia-

bility hundreds. of times when we would speak of heredity, were it

not for the convenient adjective “ variable ” with its easy compari-

sons. Partly to get away from false ideas of heredity, and partly

to keep clear the unity of the reproductive law, I have adopted an-

other word for use in my classes, and now speak of “ the allophysical

law.” If the allophysical law were to be stated, it would be in the

words “ similar begets similar ” (‘ like begets similar ” would be more

logical, no doubt ; but it is easier to stick to the old order), or in the

words “ like begets like,” properly explained.

If some one will give us a simple word to take the place of heredity

and variability in their combined meaning, and one which shall be

accompanied by some manageable and easily compared ses spurt it

will be a great conyenience to future discussion.

FRANK A. WAUGH.

UNIVERSITY OF VERMONT.

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New York, Macmillan, 1899. 407 pp. $1.00.— KINGSLEY, Mary H. West

African Studies. ndon, AU ROT 1899. xxiv, 639 pp. Illustrations and

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Beschreibung, Tia und pean Leipzig, Engelmann, 1899... xiv,

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Rafinesque, by RICHARD ELLSworTH CALL. Cleveland, The Burrows Brothers

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SELL, FRANK: Explorations in the Far North. Being the Report of an Expedi-

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Davenport, published ia the University, 1898. 290 pp. Plates and map. —

EIR, JAMES n of Reason, or Mental Traits in the Lower Animals.

New York, Macmillan, ne xiii, 234 pp. $1.25.

Cook, O. F. African gee y the Genus Pachybolus. Proc. U.S. Nat.

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iE an by the United aise hak Commission in Mississippi, Louisiana,

and T U.S. Fish Com. Rept. for 1898. pp. 285-310. Pls. VIII- ae

— Hac UE, A akorD Presidential Address before an seer of V

R, J. J.

ington. Washington, 1898. 25 pp., 3 plates. — HUNTE falfa, th

hoppers, Bees, and their Relation. Univ. Kansas Contrib: — a Lab.

No. 65. 152 pp. Plates and figures. January, 1899.— TURNER, C. H. Notes

on the Mushroom Bodies of the Invertebrates. A beditiahiesy, Paper on the

Comparative Study of the Arthropod and Annelid Brain. Zodl. Bull. Vol ii,

No. 4. pp. 155-160.

Catalogue of 6 S. Public Documents. . 50. February.— Forester, The.

Vol. v, No. 3. March. Johns Hopkins pie Bulletin. Vol. x, Nos. 94

January—March. — toate ts aga be gongs and Veterinary dickin,

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No. 2. February. T Cee pP Station. Bulletins Nos, 160 and

561

562 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

161. Emery, F. E., Digestion Experiments. Blair, A. W., Drinking Water;

City, Town, and Rural Supp lies. — Ope n Court, The. Vol. xiii, No. 515. April.

— Popular Science. Vol. xxxiii, No. 2. a bruary. — Royal are Tanpa

Yearbook and Record. 1899. — Science Gossip. New Series s. 58

and 59. March and April. — Washington Academy of Sciences, Poutia Vor i,

— 5 Y

Station. Bulletin No. 40. Nelson, A., The Trees a Wyoming and How to

Know Them. 51 pp., 27 plates. January, 1899.

(No. 389 was mailed May 9.)

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VoL. XXXIII, No. 391 JULY, 1899

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. Observations on Owls, with Particular Regard to A capes niger) Habits i

Dr. T. H. MONTGOMERY 563

II. The Wings of Insects, T oy ded

essors J, H. COMSTOCK and J. G. NEEDHAM 573

III. On New Facts Lately Preset in poise to the Hypothesis

of ity of Marine Faun Dr, A.E.ORTMANN 583

IV. eo of North-American SES ee L Fresh-Water

Bryoz Dr. C. B. DAVENPORT 593

V. Notes on a Habits of Bisola oaii - . . W. E. PRAEGER 597

VI. A New Name for the Great Crested Anolis of Jamaica

Dr, LEONHARD STEJNEGER 601

VII. Editorial Comment: “Scientia,” Western Morphologists 603

VIII. Reviews of Recent Literature: General Biology: The Specialized Nature 604

of Cells, Sex, The Removal from Water of Nitrogenous Matter Excreted

by Marine Animals — Anthropology: Physical Qualities of the Children 605

of Prague; Anthropological Notes — Psychology: The Dawn of Reason, 611

The Methods of Comparative Psychology — Zoölogy : Some Japanese 615

Oligochæta, Strange Protoplasmic sagem de in Epithelial Cells, Catalogue

of the British Columbia Provincial Museum, The Systematic Position of

Peripatus, New York sateen i Adaptive I Modifcatcas i in Respiratory

Organs, Reptiles of North Am Zoölogical Notes

X. Publications Received , 628

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ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York.

E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, Pu.D., Colby University, Waterville.

CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D., Yale University, New Haven

DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland Stanford Junior Piver iip, Cal.

J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, Jthac

WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard on ean T

ALES HRDLICKA, M.D., Mew York C:

D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Zeland PESE S University, California.

CHARLES A. KOFOID, PH.D., University of ilinois, Urbana, Lil.

J. G. NEEDHAM, PH.D., Lake Forest University.

ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, Pu.D., Princeton University.

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S. WATASE, PH.D. ee of Chicago.

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXIII. July, 1899. No. 391.

OBSERVATIONS ON OWLS, WITH PARTICULAR

REGARD TO. THEIR FEEDING HABITS.

THOMAS H. MONTGOMERY, Jr.

Tue following notes, from observations on the short-eared

owl, Asto acciptrinus Pall., and the long-eared owl, A. wilsoni-

anus Less., present some results from the examination of a

considerable number of food pellets of these birds. These data

may prove of interest from three points of view: (1) the kind

of food eaten by these owls; (2) the relation of the amount of

food found in the pellets beneath a roosting place to the total

amount of food consumed ; and (3) the comparative numerical

abundance of small mammals in the vicinity, as deduced from

their remains in the pellets.

At Christmas, 1898, four long-eared owls were found roost-

ing in an arbor vitæ tree on my father’s place, “ Ardrossan,”

near West Chester, Penn. Before coming to this tree they had

roosted in a small outleaved beech, until driven away by gun-

ners. These owls were under my daily observation from Dec.

25, 1898, to Feb. 22, 1899. The tree on which they roosted is

a large one, nearly forty feet in height, without especially dense

foliage, situated between a house and a stable, about a dozen

feet from either. Close to it passed many times a day people

563

564 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIIL

and carriages, without having the effect of frightening the

birds; and they showed no concern when I collected the food

pellets from the ground beneath them. In the coldest part of

the winter the owls regularly faced the east, and at one time,

when four roosted together, three of them roosted near the

center of the tree, one near the top, and each occupied

regularly a particular branch.

About thirty feet to the southeast of the house is a magnifi-

cent Norway spruce, the roosting place of a short-eared owl. I

first observed this bird on February 2, and kept it under regular

observation from February 26 to March 26, except for a lapse

of a few days between March 8 and 14. For a part of this

time ong of the long-eared owls, after leaving the arbor vitæ

tree, roosted in this Norway spruce also.

These two trees were the only regular roosting places of owls

in the neighborhood at this time, though there were a number

of evergreen trees in the vicinity which were casual feeding

perches, under which I found pellets.

My observations were of the following nature: Each day the

number of owls were counted on the two roosts, and at regular

intervals (usually each Sunday) all pellets were collected from

the ground beneath each roost. These pellets were carefully

examined, the number and kind of animal remains in them

noted, and so the daily food average per owl computed. Here

I wish to thank my friend Mr. Witmer Stone, curator at the

Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, for his assistance

in determining the species of mammals.

First, a few notes as to the construction of the food pellets.

It is well known that owls, as a rule, swallow their prey whole,

that the food remains in the stomach until all digestible sub-

stances are extracted and passed into the small intestine, and

that finally the remaining mass of undigested substances (bones

with hair or feathers, hard parts of insects, etc.) is disgorged

as a pellet (bolus). The pellets are more or less ovoid in form,

and when freshly disgorged covered with a slimy mucus.

Each pellet, of the two species of owls studied, usually contains

the remains of only one food individual (ż.e., one mouse or one

bird); about one in twenty contains two individuals; rarely

No. 391.] OBSERVATIONS ON OWLS. 565

are more than two present in the same pellet, and pellets of

this nature are considerably longer than usual, though of the

ordinary diameter. The pellet, when the object eaten is a mam-

mal or bird, is composed of a tightly welded mass of bones and

hairs, or feathers. In the stomach of the owl the food mass

must be subjected to a vigorous churning process, for onl

such a process could serve to explain the close welding of the

materials in the ejected pellet. In a pellet there are no empty

spaces, but the hairs or feathers fill tightly all the spaces

between the bones, and are jammed into all grooves and foram-

ina of the latter, the pellet, when fresh, being so compact

that it cannot be roughly torn apart without breaking the bones

contained in it. The skulls of mice are usually found crushed

in the occipital region (the weakest portion), usually more or

less intact anterior to the frontal; out of 570 skulls of the

meadow mouse taken by me from pellets, only some fifty had the

occipital region uninjured and attached to the rest of the skull;

when several mice are contained in the same pellet, the state

of preservation of the skulls is better than usual. It is truly

remarkable how the hair is worked, by the churning process of

the owl’s stomach, into all cavities of the skull. There is

always a tight wedge of hair in the preorbital foramen, in the

foramen lacerum, in the ear and nasal cavities, as well as in

smaller apertures. When the occipital region of the skull is

crushed, the cranial cavity contains a tight wad of hair; and

in a few skulls which remained intact the whole cranial cavity

was densely packed with hair which had been forced through

the foramen magnum! The lower jaws are usually well pre-

served (though their angular and coronary processes are fre-

quently broken), and teeth are well preserved. Of the other

bones of the mouse’s skeleton contained in a pellet, it is strange

that the slender and delicate ulnz and radii are usually intact ;

the proximal end of the humerus is usually dislocated; the

femora, tibiz, ilia, vertebræ, and small bones of the hand and

foot are usually uninjured, while the ribs, scapulæ, and fibulz

are usually broken. The less strongly built skulls of shrews

and birds are considerably more crushed. As MacGillivray

noted in 1836, the linings of birds’ gizzards are disgorged intact

566 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

in the pellets. As far as I can determine, the gastric juices

of the owls have no noticeable action upon bones.

The following tables represent the food eaten by the owls

under my observation. Table I is for the long-eared owls on

the arbor vitz tree; Table II for the long-eared and the short-

eared owl on the Norway spruce. For each table the first

TABLE I. ARBOR ViIT& TREE.

, DaILy

Chi aiik NUMBER OF OWLS ON THE TREE CONTENTS OF PELLETS Foop

AVERAGE

Dec. 25, 4

wr y0, 4

“ age 4

“ 28, 4

4 29, 4

tee. 4 1 Finch

we gi 4 1 Blarina

Jan. 8 Jane f; 4 1 Micr. pinet.

vi 2; 4 139 Micr. penn.

n 2, 4 14 Micr. undet.

“ 4 4

7 4

“ 6, 4

é Y; 4

es 8, 4

Jan. 9, 4

“ 10, 4

Ti n, 4 1 Peromyscus

Jan. 15 "cS 4 1 Micr. pinet. 1.6

vena: © 4 43 Micr. penn.

To ee 4

“ I 5, 4

1 The pellets of hawks (I am familiar with those only of Falco sparverius) are

very different from those of owls. The pellets of the sparrow hawk are smaller,

elongate, usually pointed at the ends, and more or less spirally twisted. In them

there is frequently no trace of bones, and when the latter are present they are

usually in a fragmentary condition. A hawk tears its prey to pieces in the process

of eating, which would account for the breaking of the bones.

No. 391.]

OBSERVATIONS ON OWLS.

TABLE I. — Continued.

567

DATE OF

COLLECTION

NuMBER OF OWLS ON THE TREE

CONTENTS OF PELLETS

DALY

Foop

AVERAGE

Jan. 22

Auh AAA

2 Micr. pinet.

41 Micr. penn.

4 Micr. undet.

Jan. 29

fo ee O

1 Mus.

47 Micr. penn.

Feb. 5

N NwW OF O

1 Passer domesticus

1 Micr. pinet.

25 Micr. penn.

Feb. 26

“oOo oO 0 00 00" BW NYHNNKN RK WN

1 Peromyscus

1 Micr. pinet.

24 Micr. penn.

568 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

TABLE II. Norway SPRUCE TREE.

DAILy

Epiat NUMBER OF OWLS ON THE TREE CONTENTS OF PELLETS Foop

AVERAGE

Fob: 2 15 a1 ace.

"m $ Lay

Feb. 26 wto ¥ Meals. 50 Micr. penn.

acai? Ra Ae A

Lecter» nee Ge, 42

Feb. 27, 1 wis.

= 6 OB I wils. 1 Blar. parva

Mar. 1, 1 wils. 1 Zapus

Mar. 5 6 2, 1 wads. 1 Cambarus 2427

ae a Gs 1 Finch (?)

ogee “UT 27 Micr. penn.

a ee fe eth T O.,

Mar. 6, I act. 1 wils. 1 Passer domesticus

Mar. 14 oo ee ore 1 Melospiza fasciata

eS Re OP 1 Blar. parva

cdg TC 18 Micr. penn.

Mar. 15, I ace.

Mar. 19 ‘ . i ae : se Br SER 1.2

6 Micr. penn.

ohare ene IY er

gig i I ace.

Mar. 20; ?

anor 3 I ace

Oo ey vi ae, i

Mar. 26 “ 23 Tae 1 Bird 57

“oa tae 4 Micr. penn.

ee o ra

u s0, et ae

vertical column gives the date of collection of pellets; the

second, the number of owls on the tree each day; the third,

the contents of the pellets; the fourth, the number of small

mammals (mice and shrews) eaten by each owl daily. This

number was ascertained at each period of collection of pellets,

by dividing the total number of mammals by the number of

days when owls were present on the tree, and dividing the

No. 391.] OBSERVATIONS ON OWLS. 569

resultant number by the total number of owls divided by the

number of days. The second vertical column of Table II shows

which of the two species of owls were present each day, by the

abbreviations “acc.” and “ wils.” for Asto acciptrinus and A.

wilsonianus respectively. In the third vertical column of both

tables ‘Micr. penn.” stands for Microtus pennsylvanicus

(meadow mouse); “ Micr. pinet., for M. pinetorum (pine

mouse); ‘‘ Micr. undet.,’’ for species of Microtus which could

not be determined owing to the poor state of preserva-

tion of the remains; “Mus,” for Mus musculus (house

mouse) ; ‘‘ Peromyscus,” for P. leucopus (white-footed mouse) ;

“« Zapus,” for Z. hudsonius (jumping mouse); “ Blar. brev.,”

for Blarina brevicauda ; and “ Blar. parva,” for B. parva.

For each owl on the arbor vitæ tree the daily average of

small mammals, in the different weeks, varied from 1.57 to

2.16. The collection of pellets made on January 8 had been

accumulating for an undetermined period antecedent to that

date. It is interesting to note that in the especially cold and

stormy month of February the amount of food obtained by the

owls was up to the average. The contents of these pellets

may be summarized: 2 birds, 1 Blarina, 2 Peromyscus leucopus,

1 Mus musculus, 6 Microtus pinetorum, 319 M. pennsylvanicus,

and 18 undetermined individuals of Microtus.

For the owls on the Norway spruce the daily average of

small mammals per owl was 1.2 one week, and only .57 another;

for the week given in the second transverse column of this

table it would be 2.42, provided two owls were present each

day, which I have good reasons to suppose to be the case,

though I did not see the two each day. I could not determine

how long the pellets had been accumulating which are given in

the first transverse column. To summarize the pellets of this

table: 1 Cambarus, 5 birds, 2 Blarina parva, | Zapus hud-

sonius, and 105 Microtus pennsylvanicus. On the Norway

spruce the short-eared owl was the regular resident, the long-

eared owl more irregular in occurrence; and it is probably due

to the differences in the feeding habits of the former that the

bones in the pellets were more badly broken than is the case

with long-eared owls, and that the daily food average was smaller.

570 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Within a radius of an eighth of a mile of these two trees

there are a number of evergreen trees, under which I found

at various times considerable numbers of pellets ; since these

proved to be not roosting but merely casual feeding perches,

and since I found no other owls roosting in the vicinity, it

would seem very probable that these pellets, or most of them,

were produced by the owls observed by me. These pellets

contained the remains of 5 small birds (including Regulus,

Junco, Certhia), 3 Blarina brevicauda, 3 B. parva, 1 Blarina,

undetermined, 2 Zapus hudsonius, 3 Peromyscus leucopus, I

Microtus pinetorum, 139 Microtus pennsylvanicus, and 4 unde-

termined individuals of Microtus. Pellets found under trees

which are not day roosts would necessarily contain the remains

of animals eaten by the owls in the early evening, before

they returned to their roost.

II.

The very fact that pellets are found beneath trees which

are merely feeding perches, as they have been termed by me,

proves that the pellets beneath a roost do not represent all

produced by owls. How great a proportion of all the food

consumed is contained in the roost pellets cannot be deter-

mined by field observation alone, since it is impracticable to

follow and observe owls during their nocturnal wanderings.

To determine how much food is eaten by owls, and how many

pellets are disgorged away from their roosting places, I have

compared my data with those given by Dr. A. K. Fisher in

his very able and thorough work, “ The Hawks and Owls of

the United States in their Relation to Agriculture” (U. S.

Dept. Agric. Bulletin, No. 3, 1893). Dr. Fisher tabulates the

results of the examination of several thousand stomachs of our

rapacious birds. To-be sure, the number of objects found in

an owl’s stomach do not necessarily represent all eaten by that

owl in the course of a day. But since Fisher’s tables show per

bird a somewhat higher average of food contents than do mine

on pellets, his figures would approximate closer to the total

food consumption per owl, and on this account the comparison

of the two sets of data may be of interest.

No. 391.] OBSERVATIONS ON OWLS. S74

Fisher gives the results of examination of the contents of

92 stomachs of Aszo wilsontanus, and of 87 stomachs of A.

acciptrinus (when we eliminate those stomachs which were

found empty, and which probably were of birds shot in the day-

time). I have carefully computed from Fisher’s tables for these

two species of owls the exact number of food objects in detail

per stomach, and the results may thus be compared with my

data, counting in only mice, shrews, and small birds.

A. wilsonianus “ 1.57, 2.16; birds, .o8.

(Fisher) mice, shrews, 1.52; birds, .26.

(mihi) í

(Fisher) “ “ 1.78; birds, .22.

ied aaien (mihi) t s $9; 3.25 UR, IA, i2,

This comparison of the two sets of data would show that

the long-eared owl probably does the greater part of its diges-

tion, and disgorges most of its pellets on its roost. But the

short-eared owl, since here there is a marked discrepancy

between the figures of Fisher and myself, would appear to dis-

gorge a smaller proportion of its pellets at its roost, and a con-

siderable number at casual feeding perches; this is probably

referable to the more crepuscular mode of life of the short-eared

owl, which leaves its roost earlier in the evening, and returns

to its roost later in the morning. The food of the short-eared

owl is more diversified than that of the other species, probably

due to its covering more varied feeding grounds in its hunts.

HI.

Finally, as to the numerical abundance of our mice and

shrews, as deduced from the relative abundance of their re-

mains in owl pellets. It must be kept in mind that owls hunt

for their food mainly on open meadow and marsh land, less in

thick woodland. Their hunting is also mainly done by night.

Accordingly, woodland and diurnal mammals would be less fre-

quently destroyed by them than would nocturnal mammals of

the more open districts. But the following figures would give

a fair comparison of the numerical abundance of such small

nocturnal mammals as are found at night in the hunting areas

572 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

of the long-eared and short-eared owls. To the data of con-

tents of pellets from the Norway spruce, and arbor vitæ trees,

and of feeding perches within a radius of an eighth of a mile

of them, I will add the contents of pellets found at other local-

ities in the course of this season of observation, and we find

the following numbers of individuals of different species of mice

and shrews: Microtus pennsylvanicus, 570; M. pinetorum, 7 ;

Microtus (undetermined, but probably pennsylvanicus), 26;

Zapus hudsonius, 3; Peromyscus leucopus, 5; Mus musculus,

1; Blarina parva, 10; B. brevicauda, 6, and Scalops (?), 1.

Thus Microtus pennsylvanicus would appear to be the most

abundant mouse, and Blarina parva the commonest shrew.

In conclusion, it may be noted that these data add further

support to the well-proven results of ornithologists, that our

local owls (with the possible exception of the great-horned owl)

are of the greatest benefit to the agriculturist. Our three

commonest local owls, the screech, long-eared, and short-eared

(as well as the rarer acadian and barn owl), are indefatigable

destroyers of mice and insects. But since this is the case, and

since the group of the owls is one of great interest to the natu-

ralist, it is to be hoped that future students of their dietary

habits will avoid studying their stomachs for this purpose, and

in order not to destroy them examine their food pellets instead.

THE WINGS OF INSECTS.

J. N. COMSTOCK anp J. G. NEEDHAM.

CHAPTER IV (Concluded).

The Specialization of Wings by Addition.

V. THE TRACHEATION OF THE WINGS OF ORTHOPTERA.

Tue study of the tracheation of wings of orthopterous

nymphs was undertaken merely for the purpose of determining

the homologies of the wing-veins in this order ; but some of the

results attained have a much wider bearing, giving a hint as to

the position of this order in the class Insecta. For this reason,

after setting forth the conclusions regarding the homologies of

the trachez of the wings, a brief discussion of the taxonomic

bearing of some of these conclusions will be given.

The Homologies of the Principal Trachee of the Wings of Or-

thoptera. — In this investigation representatives of the Blattide,

Acrididz, Locustidz, and Gryllide have been examined; no

living nymphs of members of the Mantidz nor of winged Phas-

midz were studied. It is not probable, however, that these will

present serious difficulties.

The most uniform characteristic of the wings of the four-

families studied is the structure of the anal area of the hind

wings. For this reason we will begin our description of the

tracheation of the wings with this area and proceed cephalad.

In the Orthoptera the anal area of the hind wings is broadly

expanded and fanlike in form. The first anal trachea is simple

(Figs. 74-78 A); the second and third anal trachez coalesce fora

distance and then separate into several trachez, each of which

traverses a convex vein of the fanlike portion of the wing. Some-

times, as in the wing of an Acridid, represented by Fig. 75, the

common trunk of these two trachez divides into two large

trunks, which probably correspond to the second and third

573

574 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIIL

anal trachez respectively; but in most cases this division is

not clearly indicated.

In many of the saltatorial Orthoptera the anal area of the

hind wings bears a striking resemblance to the wings of Ephem-

erids, there being a regular alternation of convex and concave

veins. In these cases the concave veins are evidently a later

development than the convex veins. The increase in the num-

ber of the branches of the anal trachez takes place at the cau-

Fic. 74. Wi g r4 y h af Len h

dal end of the series, and about each added trachea a convex

vein is developed. It is only after the space between two of

these convex veins becomes wide enough to admit of a fold in

the wing that a concave vein is developed, and this development

takes place in the same manner as in the Ephemerida. In some

cases, as in the hind wings of Scudderia (Fig. 77), a tertiary set

of anal veins is developed ; these extend only a short distance

from the margin of the wing, and increase the resemblance of

this area to an Ephemerid wing.

No. 391. THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 5

575

The cubital trachea of the hind wings varies greatly in form,

even within the limits of a single family. In the Acrididz it

is sometimes reduced to an unbranched condition (Fig. 75 Cu);

in all of the Locustidze known to us it retains the primitive two-

branched condition (Fig. 76); in Œcanthus (Fig. 78) there is

a single accessory cubital trachea ; while in certain cockroaches,

not figured here, vein Cz: is pectinately branched.

Similar variations in the number of branches of each of the

other principal tracheæ of the hind wings occur. It is not

P Fic. 75.— Wings of an Acridid nymph.

necessary to point them out in detail, as they are sufficiently

indicated by the lettering of the figures. The most striking

features are the reduction of the radius, the radial sector being

at most unimportant, and in some cases entirely wanting, and

the loss of the costal trachea.

In the fore wings the anal area is variously modified in the

different members of the order. In the female Œcanthus

(Fig. 78) it nearly retains its primitive form; in the Acridid,

576 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

represented by Fig. 75, a reduction of this area has taken place ;

while in the Blattide (Fig. 74) the three anal trachez are pre-

Fic. 76. — Wings of a nymph of Conocephalus.

served and the second and third have been specialized by addi-

tion, these trachez consisting of several parallel branches.

The cubital trachea is reduced to a nearly simple condition

Fic. 77. — Hind wing of a nymph of Scudderia. Dotted lines indicate adult venation in part.

in the Acridid (Fig. 75); but in the other forms examined acces-

sory tracheze are developed on the caudal side of trachea Cu.

In the males of the Locustide (Fig. 76) and of the Gryllidz

(Fig. 79) the formation of a musical organ has been attained

No. 391.] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. coy

by a modification of the cubital and anal areas. An extreme

case of this is furnished by the male CEcanthus (Fig. 79). The

principal vibrating area of the wing lies between the branches

of the cubitus, which diverge widely in this sex.

A study of the musical organs of adult Orthoptera throws

light on the nature of the anal furrow. In the female this fur-

row lies between the cubitus and the first anal vein; but in the

males of the Locustide and Gryllide the anal furrow crosses

Fic. 78. — Wings of a female nymph of (Ecanthus.

vein Cuz. It is evident, therefore, that this furrow is merely

a fold in the adult wing, and that its position is variable. It

has already been shown 1 that in the Heteroptera, when an anal

furrow is developed, it is in front of the cubitus, instead of in

the more usual position between the cubitus and the first anal

vein.

Although the wings of the two sexes of CEcanthus present

a very different appearance, there is really a very close corre-

spondence in the tracheation (and consequently in the vena-

1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, p. 252.

578 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

tion) of the two, as can be seen by comparing the lettering of

Figs. 78, 79; the same number of anal veins and of accessory

cubital veins exist in the two sexes.

The lettering of the figures will serve to show the striking

differences in the development of the remaining veins in differ-

ent members of the order. Thus, for example, while the radius

is the most prominent vein in the fore wing of the cockroach

(Fig. 74), in Œcanthus (Figs. 78, 79) it is the least developed

Fic. 79. — Fore wing of a male nymph of €Ecanthus.

of the principal veins; or, to take another example, the sub-

costa is greatly reduced in the cockroach (Fig. 74), while in

the Acridid (Fig. 75) and in the Locustid (Fig. 76) it is as well

developed as any other vein.

In none of the Orthoptera that we have examined is the cos-

tal trachea distinctly preserved. Frequently, as in the Acridid

(Fig. 75) and in the Locustid (Fig. 76), there is a prominent

branch of the subcostal trachea which simulates a costal

trachea; but that this is merely an overgrown branch of the

subcostal trachea is evident when a series of forms are studied ;

in the hind wing of Conocephalus (Fig. 76) there are two such

branches.

It will be remembered that in our hypothetical type the sub-

costa is two-branched, and that the branches are designated

as Scr and Scz respectively. A good example of this typical

branching of the subcosta is afforded by Nemoura.! But there

1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, p. 238, Fig. 8.

No. 391.] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 579

are no indications that the primitive branching has been retained

in the Orthoptera; here, when the two-branched condition ex-

ists, it is a secondary development; it would be misleading,

therefore, to designate these branches as Scı and Sc2, for they

do not correspond to the branches so designated in other orders.

In this case the branch, or branches, of the subcostal trachea

are merely accessory branches, like the accessory branches

developed on other principal trachez.

Although the costal trachea has been lost, the thickening of

the costal margin of the wing should be called the costal vein ;

for it is still the vein that was formed about the costal trachea

in the beginning.

The few illustrations given here will show how easily the

homologies of the trachez of the wings of orthopterous nymphs,

and consequently of the veins that are formed about them,

can be determined. But if one studies only the wings of adults,

where many cross-veins have been developed, and where the

basal connections of the principal veins are obscured, it is ex-

tremely difficult to determine these homologies. It is also evi-

dent that the wings of these insects present many characters

which are easily available for taxonomic purposes.

The Position of the Orthoptera in the Class Insecta as indicated

by the Tracheation of the Wings. — The making of genealogical

trees does not fall within the scope of the present series of

_ papers. Our object has been to learn in what ways wings have

been modified in order to determine the homologies of the wing-

veins. It is obvious that this had to be done before the char-

acters presented by the wings could be used intelligently in

working out the phylogeny of the orders. Now that this has

been accomplished, it would be possible to propose a provi-

sional classification of insects based on the characters of the

wings ; but we feel that it is much better to wait till the results

we have attained can be correlated with similar studies of other

organs. There is, however, one character in the tracheation

of the wings to which it seems worth while to call attention

now.

In most insects the principal tracheze of the wings form two

quite distinct groups. These we have already designated as the

580 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

costo-radial and the cubito-anal groups respectively.! To the

former belong the costa, the subcosta, and the radius; to

the latter, the cubitus and the anal veins. These groups find

their attachment to the main tracheal system of the body at

points wide apart ; in the Perlid genus, Capnia, the former group

springs from the dorsal lateral trunk, the latter from ventral lat-

eral trunk of the thorax.? Even in such groups as Trichoptera,

Hymenoptera, and Diptera, where great reduction has taken

place, the persisting tracheæ clearly represent these two groups.

The media is sometimes a member of the costo-radial group

(Fig. 80) and sometimes of the cubito-anal group (Fig. 76). In

Fic. 80. — Fore wing of a nymph of a cockroach.

certain forms, however, the media arises midway between these

two groups from a transverse basal trachea which joins them,

suggesting at once the possibility of its migration from one

group to the other. Since there is no evidence of its having

entered the wing independently, to which of the two groups did

it belong in the primitive winged insect? The answer lies (1)

in the rank of the insects showing the different conditions, and

(2) in the ontogeny of the media itself.

(1) Only in the Plecoptera and in some of the Blattidæ does

the media clearly belong to the costo-radial group, and in these

there is no basal transverse trachea connecting the two groups ;

1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, p. 88.

2 A fact of no little interest in its relation to the question of a former respira-

tory function in these or closely related parts; since tracheal gills are commonly

joined to both longitudinal lateral trunks, securing, doubtless, better distribution

of the air.

No. 391.] THE WINGS OF INSECTS. 581

in all other insects we have studied, the two groups are con-

nected and the media is either joined to the cubito-anal group

or arises from the transverse basal trachea. No one will hesitate

to believe that the Plecoptera and the Blattidze are the ones

more likely to have retained the more primitive structure.

(2) We have previously shown?! that in a Cicada nymph one-

third grown the medial trachea springs from the transverse basal

trachea midway between the radial and the cubital trachez, while

in the grown nymph it has reached the cubital trachea. In most

insects of which we have had nymphs of various ages we have

observed the same direction of migration; never any migration

in the opposite direction.

From this it follows that, in arranging the orders of winged

insects in an ascending series, if we take into account only the

structure of the wings, the Plecoptera should be placed first ; for

this order, as a whole, retains the primitive condition of the

basal connections of the wing trachez. Next to this in degree

of divergence from the primitive wing type stand the Orthop-

tera, with the Blattidz the lowest of the series of orthopterous

families ; for in this family alone is the primitive condition of

the basal connections of the wing trachez retained.

In this connection attention should be called to the striking

similarity of the anal area of the hind wings in the Orthoptera

and in the Plecoptera ; in both cases the fanlike portion is sup-

ported by the second and third anal veins, while the first anal

vein remains simple.

An understanding of the nature of the changes that are tak-

ing place in the basal connections of the wing trachez renders

this region of the wing a very instructive one. Let us examine

again the figures herewith given: In the wing of a cockroach,

represented by Fig. 80, the primitive type is retained, the medial

trachea is a member of the costo-radial group, and there is no

transverse basal trachea; while in the wings represented by

Fig. 74 the basal trachea is well developed, and the medial

trachea has begun its migration toward the cubito-anal group,

but it still arises from the basal trachea. In all other forms

here figured the base of the medial trachea has nearly or quite

1 American Naturalist, vol. xxxii, p. 249.

582 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

reached the cubital trachea and usually coalesces to a greater

or less extent with it. An extreme case of this migration is

illustrated by Xiphidium (Fig. 81). And here there appears

to be a reduction of the transverse basal trachea. It has served

its purpose, and, like an abandoned road, is disappearing from

view. It will not be surprising if Locustid nymphs are found

Fic, 81.— Hind wing of a nymph of Xiphidium.

in which this connection between the two groups is lost, but

the presence of the medial trachea in the cubito-anal group will

show it to have existed.

In the Acridid, represented by Fig. 75, the radial trachea is

following the medial in its migration; this is indicated well by

the curve near the base of the radial trachea in the hind wing.

VI. CONCLUSION OF CHAPTER IV.

In this and the preceding chapter we have furnished data

for determining the homologies of the veins in each of the

orders of winged insects except the Euplexoptera, Mecaptera,

Isoptera, and the Physopoda. Of the first two we have been

unable to procure immature stages ; it is not probable, however,

that they will present serious difficulties when they are studied.

Of the Isoptera we have examined nymphs of two genera, Termes

and Termopsis, but we wish to examine other forms before pub-

lishing conclusions. In all of the Physopoda that we have seen,

the tracheation of the wings is so reduced that we have been unable

to determine definitely the homologies of the few remaining tra-

chez. We therefore close at this pointour discussion of this phase

of the subject and pass to a study of the beginning of wings.

ON NEW FACTS LATELY PRESENTED IN OPPO-

SITION TO THE HYPOTHESIS OF BIPOLARITY

OF MARINE FAUNAS.

ARNOLD E. ORTMANN.

BIPOLARITY in the distribution of marine animals, indicated

by Théel as early as 1886, has been proposed as a theory by

G. Pfeffer.1_ Later, J. Murray? accepted the theory and tried to

support it by a careful collection of facts. From the beginning

the present writer, chiefly relying on the investigation of the

distribution of decapod crustaceans, vigorously objected to the

theory, and expressed his views as early as 1894 and 1895,

contending that the cases introduced by Pfeffer were not cor-

rect. In 1896, after the publication of Murray’s paper, the

writer published an article* dealing with the subject more

closely, and arrived at the conclusion that bipolarity does not

exist as a general law of distribution among the decapod

crustaceans, and that it seems very improbable that such a

law may prevail among other groups of animals.

J. Murray disregarded these objections, and on different

occasions ® continued advancing bipolarity as a distributional

fact, which called forth repeated objections on the part of the

writer. Since then (1897) other zodlogists have taken part in

ersuch iber die erdgeschichtliche Entwicklung der jetzigen Verbreitungs-

verhdaltnisse unserer Thierwelt, p. 38. Hamburg, 1891.

2 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, vol. xxxviii (1896), No. 2, p. 494-

3 Jenaische Denkschr., Bd. viii (1894), p. 76, and Grundsziige der marinen Thier

geographie, p. 52. (This latter book was issued in December, 1895, but bears the

date 1896 on the title-page.)

4 Zool. Jahrb., api Bd. ix (1896), pp. 571 #7

5 Nature, vol. lv (1897), No. 1430, p. so and in 7he Geograph. Journ., vol. xii

(1898), N

8 Zool. A Syst., Bd. x (1897), p- 217, and Science, vol. viii (1898), p. 516.

Pfeffer (Zool. Anzeig., Bd. xx, September, 1897) has referred to the first of these

objections; but since he does not discuss the matter at all, and only doubts the

ability of the writer to investigate this topic, it is better not to consider this note.

583

584 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

the discussion, and at present we possess the results of a num-

ber of investigations in special groups of animals, dealing with

the relations of the Arctic and Antarctic faunas. All the

results obtained tend to show that the original contention of

the writer, derived from a study of the decapods, is fully sup-

ported by the facts found among other groups, so that the

theory held by Pfeffer and Murray, that both polar faunas are

more closely related to each other than to any of the inter-

mediate ones, is without support. In fact, there have been

added very few cases of bipolarity of genera to the single case

established by the writer in 1895,! and one case of a bipolar

species, discovered by Chun, is to be looked upon with some

suspicion, for he himself suggests an explanation. All this

points to the confirmation of the opinion of the writer, that,

although some cases of bipolarity may exist, such cases are

extremely rare, and may be explained in one of the ways indi-

cated in his paper of 1896, while the greater part of each polar

fauna consists of peculiar forms, which show no closer connec-

tion with each other than with forms found in tropical latitudes.

We will now review the chief results of the papers recently

published, and then draw conclusions as to the theory of bipo-

larity. However, it is well to observe that some of the authors

referred to did not give all the necessary data. Especially is

there a lack of information as to the distribution of genera

found in both polar seas, outside of their polar range. The

writer has tried to supply this deficiency by consulting other

papers, but as he cannot claim to be a specialist in the respec-

tive groups, he has in some cases failed. Further, a misunder-

standing seems to exist on the part of some authors as regards

the term “‘bipolarity’’; they sometimes call a species or genus

that is found in both polar areas bipolar, although it is also

present in intermediate localities. But “ bipolarity,” as under-

stood by Pfeffer and Murray and the present writer, implies

that a bipolar form is wanting in the intermediate tropical parts

of the seas, and the chief difficulty in the discussion is the

explanation of such cases of discontinuity in distribution.

The first paper to be discussed is an investigation of the

1 Proc. Acad. Philad. (1895), pp. 189-197.

No. 391.] BIPOLARITY OF MARINE FAUNAS. 585

pelagic faunas of the Arctic and Antarctic, by C. Chun.! He

collects the records of the occurrence of the animals constituting

the plankton of the polar regions (Protozoa, Medusze, worms,

crustaceans, mollusks, Tunicata, and fishes), and although he

complains in many cases of a general lack of information,

especially as to the Antarctic pelagic life, he reaches some

very important conclusions. He recognizes a general simi-

larity of both faunas, which finds its chief expression in the

prevalence of certain groups in both areas and the absence of

others ; and, further, he mentions the presence in both polar

seas of two identical species, one a worm (Sagitta hamata), the

other a Tunicata (Fritillaria borealis). The first case, that of

Sagitta hamata, is treated more in detail, and Chun shows (after

Steinhaus and Lohmann) that this species, which has been found

near the surface in both polar seas, crosses the Atlantic Ocean.

It is not, however, found there near the surface, but at consid-

erable depths (300-1500 m.). Thus, for this pelagic species, a

connection of the Arctic and Antarctic range through the trop-

ics, but in deeper water, is established (analogous to the con-

nection of littoral polar forms along the bottom of the deep sea),

and Chun concludes that this connection, once having been

proved, is sufficient to explain other cases, and that there is

no need to have recourse to theories which, like Pfeffer’s and

Murray’s, go back to former climatic conditions of the earth.

Yet in the writer’s opinion this conclusion is not satisfactory.

We do not want to know how an individual case may be

explained, but we want to know how it can be explained cor-

rectly. Although we must appreciate the value of the case

represented by Sagitta hamata, still there remains the question

to be settled, whether other cases of bipolarity, which may

be discovered, are really cases of bipolarity, where there is

no connection of both ranges, and whether such cases are to be

explained by the Pfeffer-Murray theory, or by other means, as

indicated by the present writer. But at any rate Chun’s paper

shows plainly that cases of bipolarity among pelagic organisms

seem to be very rare.

1 Die Beziehungen zwischen dem arktischen und antarktischen Plankton. Stutt-

gart, 1897.

586 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

All the other papers under consideration discuss littoral and

abyssal animals. In an article on the history of the marine

fauna of Patagonia, H. von Ihering! compares the Antarctic

mollusks with those of the Arctic. He mentions 9 species that

are found in both polar seas, but at the same time he says

that this list comprises almost exclusively such species as are

of a very large or universal distribution. The connection of

the polar localities of these forms is chiefly through the deep

sea. There are no true bipolar species, and if we regard the

genera present or wanting in the Arctic and Antarctic molluscan

faunas, both differ considerably.

Breitfuss* has published a study of the distribution of the

calcareous sponges of the Arctic seas, and incidentally compares

them with those of the Antarctic. Of 42 Arctic species only

a few (6) cross the equator, and a single one extends its range

into the southern polar regions (Grantia capillosa). The rich

Calcispongize fauna of the Australian and New Zealand coasts

is very distinct from that of the Arctic, and from the Magellan,

South Georgian, and Kerguelen regions only 6 species (belong-

ing to 4 genera) are known, which, with the exception of

Grantia capillosa, are different from the northern species; and

of these genera one (Leucetta) is missing in the Arctic Ocean,

while, on the other hand, numerous Arctic genera (6 out of 11)

are not known from the Antarctic. No case of bipolarity,

either of a species or genus, is mentioned, and the author says

nothing about a resemblance of faunas of both seas.

Herdman? refers to the extra-tropical southern tunicate

fauna of Australia, and, without going into further detail,

states that there is no special relationship between it and

the tunicate fauna of the northern hemisphere. As to Mur-

ray’s extracts, from his report on the distribution of the Chal-

lenger-Tunicata, he says that the distributional data given in

this report are not complete, and, he says, “have to be added

1 Zur Geschichte der marinen Fauna von Patagonien, Zool. Anzeig., Bd. xxvii,

December, 1897. e

? Die arctische Kalkschwammfauna, Arch. f. Naturg., Bd. i (1898), Heft 4:

3 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 7, vol. i (1898), and Trans. Liverpool Biol. Soc.,

vol. xii (1898), p. 251.

No. 391.] BIPOLARITY OF MARINE FAUNAS. 587

to or modified in such a way as to entirely change the nature

of their evidence, and show that there is no such close resem-

blance between the northern and southern polar faunas as

Dr. Murray ,and others have supposed.” In fact, he states

plainly that among the simple ascidians no cases of bipolarity

are known.

D'Arcy W. Thompson! has reéxamined the list of bipolar

animals given by J. Murray. This list contains nearly 100

species, but d’Arcy W. Thompson shows (p. 347) that there

are among them “more than one-third in which grave doubt as

to their identification was expressed by the original describers,

or in which the identification has been doubted or denied by

later writers. In somewhat more than another third the evi-

dence of identity is inconclusive or even inadmissible by reason

of the nature of the examination to which the specimens were

subjected, or by reason of the small size of the objects and lack

of adequate marks of characterization. Of the remaining forms,

about a dozen find their northern representatives in the Japanese

seas, where they form part of a fauna predominantly southern

in its relations, and where at least the occurrence of any par-

ticular form cannot be taken, zpso facto, as evidence of a boreal

center of distribution.”

After deducting these forms the list shrinks into very little.

There remains, aside from 12 deep-sea species, only a single

littoral annelid species (Zerrebellides stremit), and 2 pelagic

species, a mollusk, Janthina rotundata, and a copepod, Calanus

finmarchicus; but even these last two hardly seem to be bipolar,

since neither of them is recorded from further south than 35°

S. L., and the latter seems to be rather a cosmopolitan form

(see note on p. 340, oc. cit.).

Further, d’Arcy W. Thompson gives an examination of the

Antarctic fishes, isopods, and amphipods, with special reference

to bipolarity. He finds no species in any of these groups to

inhabit both the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans, and he sees no

signs of a likeness of both faunas.

A valuable series of monographs has been published by

1 On a Supposed Resemblance between the Marine Faunas of the Arctic and

Antarctic Regions, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh (1898), pp. 311-349.

588 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXII.

H. Ludwig,! treating of the distribution of the holothurioids,

crinoids, and ophiuroids, with special reference to their polar

ranges. The part on the holothurians is especially interesting,

since it was this group that first suggested to Théel the idea of

bipolarity. According to Ludwig there are no bipolar species,

and, in respect to the genera, there is not a single instance that

shows the slightest indications of bipolarity. Out of 10 genera

found in both polar regions, 5 (Stichopus, Cucumaria, Thyone,

Phyllophorus, Chirodota) have been found abundantly in the

littoral parts of the tropics, and 4 (Bathyplotes, Mesothuria,

Trochostoma, Ankyroderma) are connected in the deep sea;

and the same seems to be true of Psolus, which has been

reported from tropical latitudes, although it seems to be rarer

there. Aside from these 10 genera mentioned, there are 9

genera peculiar to the Antarctic, and 6 peculiar to the Arctic

(but some of them extend into the tropics), thus giving a

different character to the two faunas. The general result in

the other two groups studied by Ludwig is practically the same;

there are no bipolar species, and the number of genera peculiar

to each fauna is larger than the number of genera common to

both. Among the crinoids there is only 1 genus (Antedon)

found in both areas, while 3 are peculiar to the Antarctic (2 of

them abyssal) and 1 peculiar to the Arctic, and among the

ophiuroids 6 genera are common to both areas, while 9 are

peculiar to the Antarctic and 8 to the Arctic.

The genus Antedon found in both polar seas is very interest-

ing. Both the Antarctic and Arctic species belong exclusively

to two sections of the genus, A. eschrichti and A. tenella. The

Tenella group is found in all parts of the world, so that there is

nothing remarkable about its distribution. The Eschrichti group,

however, contains 4 littoral Antarctic species and 3 littoral Arctic

species (2 of them also abyssal), the latter all from the North

Atlantic. Now it is very significant that some kind of a con-

nection is afforded by one of the Antarctic species, namely,

A. rhomboidea. This species has been found in the littoral of

the southern end of America, and its range extends northward

1 Hamburger Magathaensische Sammelreise. WHolothurien, 1898; Crinoideen,

1899; Ophiuroideen, 1899

No. 391.] B/POLARITY OF MARINE FAUNAS. 589

along the western coast of America to 22° N. L., but there it

has been dredged at greater depths (1200-1400 m.). Although

no species of this group has yet been found in the northern

Pacific, it is very probable, nevertheless, that such species do

exist. In that case we would here have again an instance of a

connection, along the western coast of America, of an apparently

bipolar group of marine animals. Examples of this kind have

been pointed out, by the present writer, among the decapods.

Of the 6 ophiuroid genera common to both the polar seas, 4

(Ophioglypha, Ophiactis, Amphiura, Ophiacantha)are also repre-

sented in the littoral of the tropics. The 2 remaining genera

(Ophiocten, Gorgonocephalus) are chiefly abyssal genera, and,

as far as the writer could determine, Ludwig does not give any

information — at least, Ophiocten is also found in tropical

latitudes.

Thus in these three groups we have again the same result :

that bipolarity, if present at all, is extremely rare, and that the

most prominent feature of the respective faunas of the polar

seas consists in their dissimilarity.

Yet Ludwig calls attention to a certain general likeness of

both faunas, expressed by the mutual prevalence of certain

genera and the mutual lack of others as compared with the

tropic faunas. This is not to be regarded at all as a remark-

able fact, and has no connection with the question under dis-

cussion ; indeed, it would be very strange if other conditions

prevailed. When, out of a number of genera present in the

tropics, a certain number disappears as we approach either

pole, while a certain number does not, this shows only that

the latter are not affected by the change of conditions, —chiefly

climatic, —while the former are, and of course by the disappear-

ance of a number of types the percentage of the remaining must

increase, if the deficiency is not made up by other genera

making their appearance in the colder regions. This is again

an instance where statistics give a wrong idea of the true con-

ditions; the increase of the percentage of certain genera in the

polar seas is not due to an actual increase of species and a more

vigorous development, but only to the lack of species of other

genera.

590 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIII.

Lastly, we have a paper, by O. Buerger,! treating of a group

of worms, the nemertines. Buerger does not go much into

detail, but we must attribute this chiefly to our scant knowl-

edge of this group. Again, there are no bipolar species; the

only two species which have been found in corresponding lati-

tudes on both hemispheres are circum-tropical, and enter extra-

tropical parts only on the northern and southern limits of their

range. As regards the genera, all Antarctic genera (9) are

also found in the Arctic. Buerger says that a general simi-

larity of both polar faunas is thus indicated, but the lack of 12

Arctic genera in the Antarctic does not support this view; and

since he says, further, that neither of the faunas seems to possess

very characteristic types, as do the tropics, it is evident that

these g genera common to both polar faunas are also repre-

sented in the tropics. There is, however, one genus that seems

to be bipolar; Carinoma, which has been found on the coast

of England (C. armandi) and in the Straits of Magellan

(C. patagonica).

There is no doubt that the facts presented here do not at all

support the theory of bipolarity. The contention of Pfeffer

and Murray is that bipolarity forms a very striking feature of

the polar faunas. This has been denied by the present writer

with regard to the decapod crustaceans, and now von Ihering

has confirmed this latter opinion for the mollusks, Breitfuss

for the Calcispongiæ, Herdman for the tunicates, d’Arcy W.

Thompson for the fishes, isopods, and amphipods, Ludwig for

the holothurians, crinoids, and ophiuroids, Buerger for the nemer-

tines, and Chun for the entire bulk of the pelagic fauna.

Two cases of bipolarity of species and one of genera have

been discovered, and when we add these to the single case

previously established (Crangon), we have altogether four cases

of true bipolarity which are to be explained by a theory. In

all other cases the supposed bipolar range of a species or group

has been connected by intermediate localities, and these con-

nections are of two kinds: (1) connection along the bottom of

the deep sea or in deeper strata of the tropical parts of the open

1 Hamburger Magalhaensische Sammelreise. Nemertinen, 1899.

No. 391.] BIPOLARITY OF MARINE FAUNAS. 591

sea (Ortmann, von Ihering, Thompson, Chun, Ludwig); (2) con-

nection along the western shores of the continents, mostly con-

nected with a descending of the respective forms into deeper

water (Ortmann, Bouvier, Thompson, Ludwig).

It is possible that by these ways cases of true bipolarity may

develop, provided these connections become discontinued. The

writer has explained a true case of bipolarity (Crangon) by one

of these ways. But, on the other hand, it is also possible that

bipolarity is to be explained by the Pfeffer-Murray theory in

some cases by former conditions of the earth’s history, espe-

cially those existing at the beginning of the Tertiary period.

Yet we do not know any concrete case of this kind, and we

must wait for further investigation to show whether bipolarity

as a relic of older times is realized in the geographical distribu-

tion of any marine animals.

aes

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Saha

RORI

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES.

I. FRESH-WATER BRYOZOA.

C. B. DAVENPORT.

THESE minute animals are found very abundantly in ponds

and streams. Upon the underside of floating boards or of

fallen tree trunks, in quiet pools or ponds, one may find the

branching Plumatellas and Fredericella; upon rocks one often

finds the P/umatella punctata in crowded masses. In pond-

bottoms or in slow-moving streams Cristatella may be found on

leaves of aquatic plants or bottom débris. More rapid streams

afford Paludicella and Pottsiella. Below milldams, where the

waters are turbulent, Urnatella and Pottsiella have been found

together on stones. In reservoirs near where the waters are

being pumped in, or on the gates of milldams, one may look for

Pectinatella. _ Since all species form colonies by budding, com-

pounds of Bryozoa may be formed of great size. Some of the

Plumatella colonies stretch over a plain surface six inches in

diameter, and a Pectinatella colony may become by the end of

summer a sphere two feet or more in diameter. Bryozoa prefer

the shade, and hence are more apt to occur in places not directly

illumined by the sun’s rays.

Fresh-water Bryozoa pass the winter in an inactive stage.

The Phylactolemata produce little seed-like bodies called stato-

blasts. These may be found as minute brown bodies floating

on the surface of ponds in the winter and spring. If some of

these are brought indoors in the early spring, they will hatch

out after a few days, revealing a double embryo, which is one

of the most beautiful objects for microscopic observation. The

food of fresh-water Bryozoa consists of minute plants suspended

in the water, such as diatoms.

593

594 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIIL.

Tii gi Wy

ij AN

Fic. 1. cole Plumatella at var. e ;

small part of mass, natural s B, Plumatella

olyn hae ha, Var. repens, on d of water lily,

natural size. From Cambridge Natural History.

Fic. 2. — Plumatella polymorpha, var.

Fic. 3. — Statoblasts of Phylactolæmata.

nd; g,

A, Fred- ganglion; 7x, retractor muscle; /,

icella sultana x 38; B, Pl — feiere parieto-vaginal muscles; øk, phar-

x38; C. r cristallinus ; D, Crista- ynx

tella mucedo Fro

; s, statoblasts developing on

m Ca chet Natural funiculus. From Cambridge Natural

History. i

No. 391.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 595

KEY FOR THE DETERMINATION OF AMERICAN FRESH-WATER

Bryozoa.!

a, Anus opening inside the tentacular corona [Endoprocta]. Urnatella

gracilis.

a2. Anus opening outside the tentacular corona, which is capable of being

retracted [Ectoprocta].

b;. Zocecia sharply separated from each other; no epistome [Gymno-

lemata].

; Zoæœcia cylindrical, arising from stolons; aperture terminal.

Pottsiella erecta.

€. Zocecia club-shaped, no stolons ; aperture lateral. Pa/udicella

ehrenbergii.

4,. Zocecia confluent, epistome present [Phylactolæmata].

cĉ Statoblasts without thorns, rounded at ends

d, 20-22 tentacles arranged nearly in a circle; statoblasts

without peripheral float. /7edericella sultana.

də. 38-60 tentacles arranged in form of horseshoe.

elliptical statoblasts with a peripheral float oe

é; Free statoblasts elongated ; proportions, 1: 1.53 t

a Plumatella princeps.

ez. Fras statoblasts nearly circular, 1: 1 to 1:1

J Free ends of zocecia fairly distinct from basal

tubes, cylindrical or irregularly constricted. P/u-

matella polymorpha.

J» Free ends of zocecia mere conical elevations of

basal tubes, covered with white spots. P/umatella

punctata.

ĉa» Statoblasts acutely pointed at both ends, without thorns.

Lophopus cristallinus.

c} Statoblasts with anchor-shaped thorns.

d, Zoéids form rosettes on a gelatinous base, often attaining

great size. Pectinatella magnifica.

da Stock caterpillar-like, with broad sole. Cristatella mag-

nifica.

Literature on Fresh-Water Bryozoa.— Allman, G. J., A Monograph of

the Fresh-Water Bryozoa, London (Roy. Soc.), 1856. — Hyatt, A., Observa-

tions on Polyzoa, Suborder Phylactolemata, Proc. Essex Institute, IV and

V, 1866-1868. — Leidy, J., Urnatella Gracilis, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,

1883. — Potts, E., On Paludicella Erecta, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.,

1 The American Naturalist will undertake to determine and return any s

mens that cannot be placed in the keys, and solicits correction and criticism for

future revision.

596 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

1884.— Kraepelin, K., Die Deutschen Siisswasserbryozoen, Teil I, Adz.

Naturw. Verein, Hamburg, X, 1887; Teil II, ġid., XII, 1893. — Braem, F.,

Untersuchungen ueber die Bryozoen des siissen Wassers, B76/. Zool., II,

1890.— Davenport, C. B., Cristatella: the Origin and Development of the

Individual in the Colony, Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, XX, 1890, and

on Urnatella Gracilis, Bul/. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard, XXIV, 1893.

NOTES ON THE HABITS OF BASCANION

CONSTRICTOR.

W. E. PRAEGER.

EARLY in August, 1898, when staying on a farm in Hancock

County, Ill., I captured a fine black snake (Bascanion constric-

tor), a typical specimen about five feet long. One hot after-

noon we were disturbed by the alarming report that a snake

was in the henhouse. I investigated and found the snake

among the boxes and straw, but for a moment the species

puzzled me. Only its head and a small part of its body could

be seen lying on the eggs of a hen’s nest. Immediately be-

hind the head the neck was greatly distended, colored pink and

yellow, with fine longitudinal lines of black spots. Cioser

inspection showed that the black lines were rows of scales on

the greatly stretched skin of the neck, and its guilt as a nest

robber was manifest. The snake lay perfectly quiet, and as

seizing it by the neck in the orthodox manner was impossible

without breaking the egg it had swallowed, I took hold of it

by the body. As though in preparation for fight or flight the

egg was at once broken, apparently by some muscular contrac-

tion, the contents running out of the mouth, and the neck

quickly assuming its normal proportions. During the five

weeks that it was in captivity I frequently offered eggs to it,

but no other food, for I was interested to see how such a

small pair of jaws could encompass an entire hen’s egg; but

it refused to gratify my curiosity, and ate nothing while I

had it.

The snake was kept in a small box, but was frequently

released on the porch or lawn, and allowed its freedom for

awhile. Its one idea seemed to be to escape, though it went

about it deliberately, and did not show any signs of fright.

When touched, it struck quickly with open mouth at the object,

but the wounds inflicted in this way on my hand were very

597

598 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vot. XXXIII.

trifling. Black snakes have been described as expert climbers,

which my captive soon showed me to be true. On the lawn

stood a fine black oak (Quercus tinctoria), the trunk eight feet

in circumference, perfectly straight, and for fifteen feet with-

out a branch. Up this trunk our snake would go, apparently

preferring it to the smooth lawn as a way of escape. The

course pursued was always right up one side of the tree, and

no attempt was made to encircle it. The general direction was

perpendicular to the ground, the irregular curves of the body

being comparatively slight. Once clear of the ground, progress

was very slow; the head and neck were sometimes moved

deliberately from side to side, presumably in search of a good

hold. It never moved hurriedly, and there was probably always

some part of its body not in motion, though this was not always

apparent. It took close inspection to see that, here and there,

the edge of a ventral plate was caught on some slight projec-

tion of the bark, and even then the appearance of the snake

against the perpendicular trunk of the tree seemed like a

defiance of the law of gravity. . The muscles were thrown into

unusual prominence, and constantly changed in appearance

throughout its length, their contractions showing the effort

needed to make the ascent.

Once while I was absent the snake escaped from its box and

climbed up the smooth stone wall of the house, to a height of

about thirteen feet, aided only by a few small nails and a

wooden moulding above the arch of a door.

In more favorable situations our captive showed that climb-

ing by black snakes was not necessarily slow and laborious.

The ease and silence with which it could glide through the

loose tangle of the vines (Ampelopsis quinquefolia) that cov-

ered the porch railing was remarkable; and to disentangle it

from this, or from among the branches of some bushes that

grew near, was not easy. A single crook of its muscular body

across a branch made a firm hold, but it never twisted itself

entirely around a branch. It would make for any hole that

offered ; the hollow stump of a small tree was a favorite retreat,

and when even but a short way into this hole it was no easy

matter to get it out. The body was bent so that it was pressed

No. 391.] HABITS OF BASCANION CONSTRICTOR. 599

against the rough sides of the cavity, and it was only by main

strength on my part, and always with injury to its scales and

plates, that it could be pulled out.

Placed on a porch floor, the body and tail were lashed in

strong curves from side to side, but forward progress was very

slow. On the tennis lawn the curves of the body were less

pronounced, and the forward movement more rapid. However,

it was only when it reached long grass or rough ground that

the snake straightened out and went forward with that myste-

rious gliding motion peculiar to its kind. As an onlooker

once described it, “when he strikes rough ground he quits

wiggling and just scoots.”

A NEW NAME FOR THE GREAT CRESTED

ANOLIS OF JAMAICA.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER.

HERPETOLOGICAL writers have shown a curious unanimity in

misnaming the large crested Anolis of Jamaica Anolis edwardsit,

Merrem.

Merrem, in 1820 (Syst. Amph., p. 45), gave the name Anolis

edwardsii to a lizard figured by Edwards as “the Blew Lizard

from the Island of Nevis,” and never mentioned Jamaica as

its habitat. Merrem knew nothing of the species beyond

Edwards’s description and figure, upon which, consequently,

the specific name rests.

Edwards, in his Gleanings of Natural History, Vol. 1, p. 74,

describes, and on Pl. 245 figures “immediately from nature,

and of the size of life,” an Anolis which “ was brought from the

island of Nevis, in the West Indies, by a young gentleman

who came to London for education,” and who presented it to

him “preserved in spirits.” After alluding to the digital expan-

sion of this lizard as its most particular feature,. he says: “It

hath a small ridge down its back, which extends to the tail,

where it becomes jagged or toothed.” We do not expect to

find in a drawing of 1753 all the minute details which would

enable us to identify with certainty a lizard of this extremely

difficult genus, but Edwards’s figure shows very well the above-

described features, namely, a nearly smooth dorsal fold con-

tinued as a toothed crest on the tail. This alone is sufficient

to show that he did not have before him the Jamaican large

crested Anolis, the very character of which is the ‘ dorso-

1 This volume, in the edition of 1805 at least, is erroneously indicated on the

title-page as “ Volume V.”

2 « I] ya une petite élévation sur le dos, en forme de sillon, qui régne tout du

long jusqu’à la queue, où elle devient dentelée ” (French rendition in the parallel

column).

601

602 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

nuchal crest of triangular scales,’’ or, in other words, a crest

on the back precisely like that of the tail, and not at all like

the dermal fold so characteristic of another group of Anoles.

Add to this that Edwards’s figure is life size, and yet only about

one-half that of the Jamaican species, and that the latter, or

any species of the same group, does not occur on Nevis, nor in

fact on any of the Caribbean Islands, while another species

of the group with the dorsal fold is known to live on Nevis, and

the conclusion is inevitable that the great crested Anolis of

Jamaica has been wrongly named A. edwardsii.

As it has received no other name, a new one has to be pro-

vided, and I propose to call it Anolis garmani, in recognition

of Mr. S. Garman’s important studies of West Indian Anoles.

I may add that the species is briefly mentioned by Sloane (Wat.

Hist. Jamaica, Part II, 1725, p. 333) as Lacertus major e viridi

cinereus, dorso crista breviori donato, and figured on Pl. 273,

Fig. 2. This has usually been referred to Anolis equestris,

from Cuba, but is plainly the Jamaican species. It is certain

that true A. equestris does not occur in Jamaica.

EDITORIAL COMMENT.

‘¢Scientia.’’ — Weare glad to note the establishment of a new French

scientific series — “ Scientia, exposé et développement des questions

scientifiques à l’ordre du jour.” This is to appear in two parts: one,

a physico-mathematical one; the other, biological, which chiefly con-

cerns us. The aim of the series is to exhibit in a clear and philo-

sophical way the results of recent discoveries and the general directing

ideas. It is proposed to treat the subjects in a living way, giving

reasons for conclusions and the conflict of views. The cost of each

volume, neatly bound in cardboard, is two francs, or six for ten francs.

There is room for such a series, and the first two volumes which

we have received, one by Bard on Cell Specialization, and one by

le Dantec on Sexuality, lead us to expect good things from the

undertaking.

Western Morphologists.— We have recently received a letter

from Professor Henry B. Ward, of Nebraska University, suggesting

the formation of a western section of the American Morphological

Society. This is a matter which the /Vaturadist would like to see

fully discussed. We have already referred to the fact that the very

extent of our country works against a proper unity of American

scientific men, and that a society which meets in successive years at

places five or seven hundred miles from one another loses that con-

tinuity of endeavor essential to the most effective work. We are

consequently at present inclined to regard the suggestion of Pro-

fessor Ward as good, and to believe that the formation of a section

of the “ Morphologists ” in the Mississippi Valley, which might meet

once in three or five years with the Society of Naturalists and the

eastern section of the “ Morphologists’’ at some border-line city,

would serve to develop the science in America.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

The Specialized Nature of Cells..— The author brings facts,

largely from the medical literature, to support his modification of

Virchow’s famous dictum, so that it reads: Omnis cellula e cellula

cjusdem nature. In the first chapter he discusses the relative claims

of the theories of the indifferent nature and the specialized nature

of cells in the body. Next he considers the hereditary fixity of cell-

types in adult organisms, and attempts to show that all conclusions

that in pathology or regeneration the organs of new growths arise

from other than like cells in the body, rest upon erroneous interpre-

tation. Unfortunately many of the best cases supporting the view

he combats (such as Wolff’s case of the regeneration of the Amphib-

ian lens) are not considered bythe author. The third chapter deals

with the origin of specialization of cells during development, which

he believes comes in with the germ-layers. Finally cell specialization

is considered from the standpoint of life and heredity.

Although one-sided and speculative, the book has a value as giv-

ing the point of view of a medical man.

Sex.? — This small book, by the well-known French writer on top-

ics of a general biological nature, gives a résumé of the general facts

of sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis, the dependence of the sec-

ondary sexual characters on the primary, the epoch and conditions

of sex-determination, and the theory of sex. In the chapter dealing

with secondary sexual characters the author considers sexual selec-

tion, the results of castration, and the phenomena of hermaphroditism.

Other chapters are treated with equal fullness.

The author proposes a hypothesis of sex which he admits is very

uncertain. It is that all the elementary living substances have two

inverse and complementary types; just as many inorganic molecules

appear in two forms. One of these types is the male; the other the

female type.

1 Bard, L. La Spécificité Cellulaire, ses consequences en biologie générale,

Scientia, Sér. Biologie, No. r. Paris, Carré & Naud, 1 98 pp.

2 Le Dantec, F. La Sexualité, Scientia, Sér. Sistapiaed No.2. Paris, Carré &

Naud. 99 pp. a

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 605

The work is clearly written, and the author frequently reduces his

statements to a mathematical form. The book will be useful to

teachers.

The Removal from the Water of Nitrogenous Matter Excreted

by Marine Animals has been investigated by Mr. H. M. Vermon, at

the Naples Station, by chemical, physiological, and bacteriological

methods. Green seaweeds in aquaria remove the free, but increase

the albuminoid, ammonia, and favorably affect the growth of sea-

urchin larvae. Neither form of ammonia is decreased by the red

seaweeds, and larve do not thrive in the water except in direct con-

tact with a small quantity of the weed. Sand with no vegetable

matter had no purifying power, but when clogged with diatoms and

algae, it removed as high as 96 per cent of the free, and 51 per cent

of the albuminoid, ammonia. Bacteria are important agents in the

purifying process, especially in the removal of the free ammonia.

The bacterial slime lining the aquarium pipes materially purifies the

water. Purification is greatest at the maximum rate of filtration,

though the number of bacteria is increased considerably by the use

of the clogged sand-filter. The removal of the ammonia favors the

development of the larve. CAK

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Physical Qualities of the Children of Prague.'— Dr. Matiegka,

one of the foremost Czechish anthropologists, has contributed largely

to the knowledge of Bohemian craniology and other subjects. The

present work is a contribution to the study of school children of

the capital of Bohemia. It has been preceded by studies “On the

Influences which Act on the Weight and Length of the New-Born

Children in Bohemia,” ? “ On the Period of Puberty among Bohemian

Girls,” * etc., by the same author. The work at hand is full of inter-

esting details and comparisons, and well deserves a translation into

the English language.

The children included in the examinations range from 51⁄4 to 14

1 Matiegka, Jindrich. The Growth, Evolution, Physical Qualities, and the

Hygienic Conditions of the Children of Prague, 7yans. Bohem. Acad. of Sci. and

Art, Ann. vi, Cl. ii, No. 17, pp. 1-78, with RS Prague, 1898.

2 Journ. of the Bohem. Phys. (1894), P. 24

8 Bull. of the Bohem. Assoc. of Sct. Hey Xv.

606 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vol. XXXIII.

years of age. There were ascertained with each child the date of

birth, state of nutrition and of musculature, height, weight, circum-

ference of the head, circumference of the thorax at inspiration and

at expiration, color of eyes and hair, condition of teeth, principal

qualities of sight and hearing, morals, abilities, and existence of dis-

eases past and present. The actual examinations were conducted

principally by the teachers of the children, the whole work being

authorized and supported by the municipality.

Among the main results of the investigations the following are

important :

Births. —The maximum rate of conceptions occurs in May and a

part of June.! In the months in which the greatest numbers of chil-

dren are born there is also observed the greatest average weight of

children. The vitality of the children born in these months does not

suffer.

State of Nutrition. — Only about one-half (49.8 per cent) of all the

children examined were found to be “ well nourished,” which shows

us best what conditions exist in the large European cities, Prague

in no way being an exception. Seven and six-tenths per cent of the

children examined were nourished “badly.” After the 11th year

the percentage of well-nourished children increases noticeably. The

districts in which the poor classes of people live show a great predomi-

nance of only medium or badly nourished individuals,

The condition of the musculature corresponds closely to the

general state of nutrition of the children.

fleight.— The difference between the maximum and minimum

height of children of the same age was found to be very consid-

erable. The difference reached the maximum of 45.75 cm. Under

these circumstances a boy of 10 years of age was found to reach only

the average height of boys of 6 years of age, while another boy of 10

years attained the average height of a boy of 14. The average height

of the boys compares thus with the height of Boston boys?:

Years 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14

Prague boys 109.9 cm. 115.5 120.5 125.3 129.4 133-5 138-9 144.3 150.9

Boston boys 111.1 “ 116.2 121.3 126.2 131.3 1354 140.0 145.3 152.1

1In New York the greatest number of births occur, awe eves regu-

larity, in August, which places the maximum number of conceptions in November.

See my Rep. g Anthropol. Work in the rer yA Sor Fabie Minded, Syra-

cuse (1898), p.

2 Bowditch, = P. Ann. Rep. of the State Board of Health of Massachusetts

(1877), P- 275-

No. 391.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 607

The rate of growth of American and Bohemian boys does not

differ materially, but the Bohemian boys remain throughout life

between 1 and 2 cm. shorter. It is difficult to say how much of

this smaller height is due to racial characters and how much to

inferior nutrition. The Bohemian boy is also smaller than the

English and Swedish boy, but surpasses in height the Belgian,

Polish, Italian, and most German male children. The children of

poor classes show much smaller average height than the children

of well-to-do people. This has been equally observed on American

children (Bowditch, Boas).

Weight. — The average increase in weight was not found to corre-

spond exactly, or at all ages of the children, with the height. The

weight of the boys was as follows:

Years 6 7 8 9 10°; Jil R 13 I4

Prague 18.6 kg.. 21.2. 23.4, 25-1. 27.2 - 308. 33-4 .368 40.7

Boston (Bowditch) 20.5 “* 22.5 24.5: 26.9 29.6 31-8 34.9 385 -42.9

The American boys are at all ages, but especially at ro and from

12 years upward, the heavier. Up to the 7th year the weight of the

Bohemian girls and boys was found almost alike; from 7 to 12 years

the girls remain behind the boys in weight; from the r2th year, how-

ever, they begin to surpass the boys. This fact has been observed

by other investigators. It signifies the approach of puberty, which

in girls begins by augmented deposition of fat.

The Circumference of the Head measures show the following

averages :

Years 5% 6 7 8 9 ae 12 13 14

cm. 50.72; 50.92 51.18. 51-43 51-75 519 52-12 52-34 52.8 53.05

-` The average annual increase = 0.28 cm, The measures are slightly

(0.5 to 1.0) smaller than those which I obtain in American-born chil-

dren of same ages, which is in relation with the somewhat greater

height and weight of these children.

Circumference of the Thorax. — This is a very uncertain measure.

The average circumference of the thorax of the 6-year-old Prague

male children was 58.7 cm.; the annual increase amounted, on the

average, to 1.6 cm. The increase was least between 6 and 7, and

again between rx and 12 years; but, as it was the greatest between

the years 7 and 8 and 12 and 13, the probability is that the average

differences in age between the two series were greater than 12 months.

The thoracic circumference of the 14-year-old boys reached 72.0 cm.

608 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

Color of Hair and Eyes.— These characters allow us to distinguish

two types in Bohemia ; namely, the blonde, which prevails in the north

and in the more mixed districts, and the dark, which prevails in the

south and throughout the more purely Bohemian districts. In Prague

and other large cities considerable mixture of these two types occurs.

According to all indications, the dark type is gradually gaining on

the blonde. Among children the hair, which is often light in early

age, as years advance, in many cases rapidly becomes darker. The

color of the eyes is more stable.’ Red hair is exceptional (1.9 per cent).

The dark type of children shows certain physical advantages over the

light type, but the medium or mixed type surpasses both and has

apparently the best chances of existence.

Influence of the Occupation or Social Position of Parents on the

Physical Condition of the Children. — This subject is naturally very

complex. The results of the investigation show that the physical

development of the children corresponds (æ) to that of the parents,

and (ġ) to the kind and abundance of food and the degree of other

hygienic conditions. The children of butchers and dealers in smoked

meat are among the best developed ; on the other hand, the children

of shoemakers and those of railroad employees are among those that

show most defects of development. The results indicate that the

physical state of a child is partly due to heredity, partly to acquisi-

tion. Children of immigrants (from the country) are in a somewhat

better physical condition than city-born children.

Morals and Abilities. —The best-developed children show the largest

percentage of able children, and vice versa. This is in accord with

the results obtained by Gracianov (Russia), Sack (Russia), Porter

(St. Louis). The extremes of the blonde and the dark type show

smaller proportions of able children than the middle type. The more

able children show larger average circumferences of the skull than

the less able. The most prevalent form of the head among the able

Bohemian children is a moderate brachycephaly.

As to the relation of the morals and physical condition of the chil-

dren, nothing definite can be said. The size of the head of moral

children seems to be, on the average, slightly greater than that of

immoral individuals.

Diseases of Childhood, — The author finds that children with light

hair and light eyes, hence the blonde type, are more frequently

attacked by various infectious diseases of childhood. Boys with dark

eyes are attacked by measles and variola with a little more fre-

quency than boys with blue eyes. The most favorable conditions are

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 609

again noticed among children of the mixed type. The city-born chil-

dren show a slightly greater tendency to infectious diseases, except

to scarlatina, than those born in the country.

The city-born children examined show-8.2 per cent of short-sighted

individuals, those born in the country only 7.6 per cent. Defects

of hearing were noticed in 5.4 per cent of the 7607 boys examined.

These data cannot be considered in any way as very exceptional.

Myopia is more frequent among the dark, defects of hearing among

blonde, children.

Such are, briefly, the results of the study of Dr. Matiegka. The

creditable work arouses the reflection, Why do not all our large Amer-

ican cities follow the example of Boston, Worcester, Toronto, St. Louis,

where highly successful work of similar nature has been done? Our

cities are certainly more able financially to support work of this

nature than is Prague, or, in fact, any European city; and the inves-

tigations are at least more desirable and promising than in any Euro-

pean capital. The most interesting and instructive conditions of

choice, mixture, survival, and, possibly, evolution, are passing under

our eyes unrecorded. is is a country which presents almost all

the climates, an infinity of social conditions, and a large number of

racial relations, which all more or less affect the development of the

American of the future. Yet most of these opportunities are neglected.

This is only partly, if at all, due to a lack of the proper men to do

the work. The main obstructions which the American anthropologist

has to contend with in this particular line are-a disinterested, or even

unfavorable public sentiment and, what will no doubt appear incom-

prehensible to our European colleagues, a lack of funds.

| ALES HRDLICKA.

Anthropological Notes.

Journal it is stated that letters from Mr. Low, dated December 30,

have been received, telling of his arrival at Great Whale River, on the

east coast of Hudson Bay. He had surveyed about five hundred

miles of coast, half of which was entirely new. Mr. Low carried a

pair of skis with him, and states that the Eskimos of Great Whale

River are devoting themselves to making and learning to use skis.

In the same journal Mr. Edward Heawood gives a summary of the

contents of a dozen recent books on Africa.

Dr. William Sorenson, of Copenhagen, we are told in a paragraph

in Natural Science for April, has shown that Worsaae was the first to

610 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

discover the true character of kitchen-middens. ‘Fifty years ago it

was an audacity to believe in men so very ancient as these oyster-

eaters. Now we only think of their audacity in eating so many

oysters.”

The Smithsonian Report for 1897 contains an account of the archæ-

ological field work of Dr. Fewkes for that year. The primary aim of

his explorations was to trace the migrations of the Hopi from the

South, and to determine the limits of the Hopi and Zuni zones of

ruins in Arizona and New Mexico, respectively. The greater part

of the summer was spent in the Pueblo Viejo region; from the iden-

tity in color, texture, and decoration of the pottery in upper and lower

Gila ruins, and the fact that in both regions the people cremated their

dead, Dr. Fewkes concludes that the former inhabitants were of a

similar state of culture, if not of the same stock. The distribution of

the varieties of pottery is shown by maps, and its form and decoration

by numerous plates.

During the excavations made at Brassempouy in 1897, by MM. E.

Piette and J. de La Porterie, a number of interesting examples of

prehistoric art were discovered. Especially noteworthy among these

were the engravings representing the horse and other animals. To

the reprint from the original-paper in Z Anthropologie, Vol. IX, pp.

531-555, is appended a list of the numerous scientific papers by

M. Piette, which extend over a period of nearly half a century.

In an entertaining paper upon the Indian Congress at Omaha, pub-

lished in the American Anthropologist for January, 1899, Mr. James

Mooney has condensed much valuable information regarding the

present status of the Indians. About twenty tribes were represented

at the Congress, mostly of the plains type; these are briefly described,

and a table containing a few words from their languages is added.

A number of articles of anthropological interest are to be found

in Vol. XII, Part III, of the Proceedings of the American Antiquarian

Society. Edward E. Hale describes the manuscript dictionaries of

the Massachusetts Indians which were bequeathed to the society by

Dr. J. Hammond Trumbull. These have been placed in the hands

of Albert S. Gatschet for publication by the Bureau of Ethnology.

G. Stanley Hall gives an account of “ Initiations into Adolescence,”

particularly church initiations.

_ G. Papillault has published a valuable paper upon the “ Ontogeny

and Phylogeny of the Human Cranium” in Vol. IX, No. 4, of the

Revue del’ Ecole d’ Anthropologie de Paris.

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 611

The results of an extended and valuable anthropometrical investi-

gation have been recently published by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, who meas-

ured and examined the thousand white and colored children in the

New York Juvenile Asylum and the hundred colored children of the

New York Colored Orphan Asylum. The object of the investigation

was “to learn as much as possible about the physical state of the

children who are being admitted and kept in juvenile asylums. In

the second place, this study is a part of the general anthropometrical

work of the author, and thus expected to result in an addition to our

knowledge of the normal child and of several classes of children who

are, morally or otherwise, abnormal.” The plan of arrangement of

the records obtained will show the scope of the work. 1. General

data on the total of subjects. 2. Detailed study; children in this

group are separated according to their color, sexes, and ages.

3. Physical differences between white and colored children of both

sexes and different ages. 4. Children of different nationalities.

5. Children without any physical defects, with their family and

individual histories. 6. Children with five or more physical abnor-

malities. 7. Vicious and criminal children. 8. Children whose par-

ents were intemperate, prostitute, or criminal. 9. Children both of

whose parents are dead. 10. Children one or both of whose parents

died of consumption. FR.

PSYCHOLOGY.

‘‘ The Dawn of Reason.” — Dr. Weir has written an exceedingly

readable book in his Dawn of Reason, and one important for the

large results it presents of personal study of the simpler forms of

life, and of original research upon the nature of their sensory

processes. As its chief title indicates, the aim of the work is to

trace back mental traits to their origins, and to point out their

earliest manifestations in the scale of animal life.

In ten chapters the author treats the Senses in the Lower Animals,

to which he adds two auxiliaries, Color-change and the Homing

Sense; Teleological Reactions, including Simulation of Death;

Memory, Emotion, Æstheticism, and Parental Affection.

It is difficult to estimate the value of the author’s results, since

1 Weir, James Jr, M.D. The Dawn of Reason; or, Mental Traits in the

Lower Animals. New York, Macmillan. 8vo, pp. 234.

612 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII.

the conditions under which they were obtained are so meagerly

given. For the appraisal of such work it is of the first importance

that the reader should know that the conditions of experimentation

were beyond cavil, for in any scientific investigation the whole sig-

nificance of the evidence may turn upon the observance of appar-

ently slight precautions, and scarcely a hint is here given of the

methods and control of conditions by the investigator. The book is

throughout — if we except the detailed and patient analysis of nerv-

ous structure and sensory processes in the lower orders of life —

rather observational than experimental, and the author is inclined to

rely upon an interpretation of significant incidents instead of extended

and systematic tests.

In regard to several of the author’s conclusions criticism may be

entered. Dr. Weir has made many interesting observations concern-

ing the location and acuteness of the sensory organs in the lower

animals, but when among these senses he proposes to include

tinctumutation and letisimulation, I must demur. Color-change

is a reaction upon a particular environment, not a perception of the

nature of that environment, and is no more a sensory process than

is the flight of an insect to escape the sudden leap of a toad. Sen-

sory is contrasted with motor as perception with reaction. The

color-change may depend upon a sensory stimulus as does the action

of the insect escaping the toad, and the function may cease upon the

extirpation of certain nerve centers, — either sensory, by which it

becomes insensible to the change in the environment, or motor, by

which it becomes unable to adapt itself to that change, — but it is

not, therefore, more of a sensory process than is the reactive adjust-

ment of the insect. The writer must go much farther than this to

prove his point, for the establishment of a connection between motor

function and nerve-center activity does not evince even the existence

of an accompanying sensory process. The whole function might be

a reflex form of activity without accompanying consciousness.

Dr. Weir objects to calling this function an instinctive one, but

unless he should maintain that it is an adjustment empirically

acquired by the individual, in thus establishing its dependence upon

a sensory process he has but proved its analogy to all instincts,

which are essentially perception-reactions, and differ from acquired

habits only in the nature of their origin. The impulse may or may

not be accompanied by awareness of its significance, but this com-

ment in no way affects its character as an instinctive impulse.

In his treatment of letisimulation the author reduces it to the

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 613

type of the color-changing function, a perception-reaction of teleo-

logical fitness under the given environmental conditions. He con-

ceives it throughout as a true simulation, a “ device,” “ pretense,” or

feigning; but this is by no means an indisputable conclusion. It

overlooks the theory that the simulation of death is a true syncope,

the temporary paralysis of the nervous system being induced by

sudden shock —a theory which views the process as an advanta-

geous adaptation to the environment, but not a designed adjustment

to it. This conception is apparently overlooked in the book, yet in

view of the conflict of evidence, no investigator is justified in putting

it aside unconsidered. Preyer regards the whole phenomenon of

letisimulation in insects as due to cataplexy, and Romanes, while

commenting favorably upon this opinion, cites other authorities who

interpret after the same fashion the feigning of death in the higher

vertebrates as well. Borik Machovo

The Methods of Comparative Psychology.'— In his Dawn of

Reason, Dr. Weirs sympathetic interpretation carries him, I am

inclined to think, too far in his'ascription to lower orders of life of

processes and methods analogous to those of human mental activity.

It is possible to read too little of psychical accompaniment into the

animal’s actions, as in the extreme type of Cartesian automatism,

and it is possible also to read too much. To illustrate with an inci-

dent at hand: A Boston lady had a pet house-dog whose favorite

snoozing-place was a certain cushioned chair. If his mistress needed

the chair and found him occupying it, instead of roughly ejecting

him, her method was to adopt the ruse of calling him to the window

by pointing to something in the street and telling him to watch,

whereupon she would take possession of the coveted seat. One

day, while seated in the chair herself, the dog came into the room,

and after nosing about for a moment, ran to the window, gazed up

and down the street and began barking excitedly. His mistress

soon arose and came over to seek the cause of the dog’s alarm.

Unable to discover anything, she turned away toward her easy-chair

again, but only to behold the little animal snugly curled upon it in

oblivion and content. Reasoning from analogy between the actions

of the dog and those of his mistress, one would say that he had delib-

erately made use of artifice to obtain possession of the seat. The

only facts contributed by the incident itself, however, are the barking

1 Mills, Wesley. The Nature of Animal Intelligence and the Methods of

Investigating It, Psychological Review, vol. vi, No. 3, May, 1899.

614 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIII.

at the window and the jumping upon the chair; all the rest is a com-

ment by the observer, and the hypothesis of artifice must maintain

itself by further proofs than the incident in question affords, against

the supposition that the acts were independent and both of them

naive. The parsimonious view is adopted by Dr. Edward Thorndike

in a monograph,’ which Professor Mills discusses in the present arti-

cle. Aside from the more special problems of Memory and Imitation

in the lower animals, concerning which he is at issue with the writer

of that monograph, Professor Mills takes up two questions of the first

importance in comparative psychology. The first is that of the meth-

ods and conditions of experimenting; the second that of the interpre-

tation of data.

In systematic investigations of the life of the lower animals it is

often unavoidable that the subject of experimentation should be

surrounded by artificial conditions,— range must be limited, dietary

changed, and daily routine of acts readjusted, but every such

innovation is a fresh obstacle in the way of the sincere observer,

and to introduce them wholesale, or to overlook their disturbing

influence is simply to destroy the whole value of one’s results. In

many cases the familiarity or strangeness of the environment is the

controlling element of the experience, and to fail of taking it into

account is to miss the whole significance of the action. Dr. Thorn-

dike’s results come very near to being valueless if, as Professor Mills

says, “ This investigator has practically ignored this in his tests, for

he placed cats in boxes only 20x15 x 12 inches, and then expected

them to act naturally. As well enclose a living man in a coffin,

lower him against his will into the earth, and attempt to deduce

normal psychology from his conduct.”

The value of Dr. Weir’s observations lies very greatly in just this

fact, that his book is the result of a score of years afield, where he

studied the animals as he found them, living the free life of their

natural habitat, and not under the inhibitions and disturbances of

an artificial laboratory environment.

The second point of Professor Mills’s discussion is of scarcely less

importance, namely, the interpretation of the data afforded by the

actions of the animals under observation. Comparative psychology

labors inescapably under the disadvantage of an indirect method of

observation. Here, unlike all human psychology, no experience can

be reported upon by its subject. The investigator must depend

1 Animal Intelligence. Monograph Supplement to the Psychological Review,

vol. ii, No. 4, whole number 8.

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 615

wholly upon those secondary results of mental activity which are

expressed in the form of physical changes. From these he must

analogically reconstruct the set of psychical changes which it is the

intention of his psychology to describe. His way is thus beset with

peculiar difficulties, and every precaution must be taken to guard

against false interpretation of the data. Reaction from the flagrant

error of freely reading human motives and play of ideas into the

actions of the lower animals must not lead us into the equally false

position of assuming that the simplest explanation of such conduct

must necessarily be the true one. When my dog follows me to the

corner of the street and, on seeing me turn in the direction of the

market square where he has been roughly used, instead of toward

the college yard whither he has always followed me with delight,

drops suddenly upon his haunches, watches my steps a moment, and

then turns homeward, his action is to be explained in accordance

with the more complex hypothesis, not with the simpler. His inter-

est has not died out, nor has a new object attracted him. The desire

to accompany me is still a living motive, but its effect is transformed

into an act of the opposite nature through the more powerful motive

of fear. This is but an illustration of a condition of affairs which is

constantly met with, in which the advocates of the simplest explana-

tion are wholly out of court. Inhibition plays a tremendous part asa

determinant of action in the lower animals, and the deficiency of our

accounts of their mental life is doubtless in part due, as Professor

Mills says, to the fact that “insufficient attention has been given to

distinguishing between normal, sub-normal, and super-normal com-

parative psychology,” and especially, I may add, to the lack of an

intimate study of the relation of the animal to its environment with

regard to the facts of inhibition and disturbance of normal motivation.

ROBERT MacDouGaLt.

ZOOLOGY.

Some Japanese Oligochata.— In the course of the year 1898,

three papers on “ Japanese Oligocheta ” appeared in the Annotationes

Zoblogice Japonenses, which materially extend our knowledge of this

division of Japanese fauna. In the first of these— “On a New

Species of Littoral Oligocheta” (Pontodrilus matsushimensis )' —

Akira Iizuka describes a new species of Pontodrilus

1 Annotationes Zoölogice Japonenses, vol. ii, Pt. i, pp. 21-26.

616 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

This species lives in sand along the shore of Matsushima Bay,

‘and so has the same sort of habitat as have several other species

of the same genus, which are found along the seashores of other

countries.

P. matsushimensis agrees with the other Pontodrilus species known

to lizuka in most characters of generic value, as the genus is defined

by Beddard in his monograph; the chief difference being in the

position at which the sperm duct actually opens into the spermiducal

gland. According to Beddard, the position of this opening is at the

“junction of glandular and muscular parts ” of the spermiducal gland,

while in the Japanese species the sperm duct enters the wall of the

glandular part near its junction with the muscular portion, and then

traverses the wall to the other end of the glandular portion before

actually communicating with its lumen. As this relation of the

sperm duct to the spermiducal gland is apparent only from a study

of serial sections, and as lizuka assumed that no other species of

Pontodrilus had been studied in this way, he concluded it probable

that similar relations would be found to exist in the other species.

The writer seems not to have been aware of the extended and care-

ful work of Eisen’ on /ontodrilus michelseni, published in 1895.

Eisen’s account of this species is accompanied by numerous figures

made from cross-sections, and shows that the superficial entrance of

the sperm duct into the spermiducal gland ‘has nearly the same posi-

tion as in the case of P. matsushimensis, but furnishes no evidence

that the internal communication is the same. On the contrary, it

would indicate that the communication of the lumen of the sperm

duct with that of the gland is near the point of the superficial

entrance of the duct into the gland. This condition of things in

P. michelseni, while it may render doubtful the correctness of Tizuka’s

assumption that other species of Pontodrilus will be found to have

the same relation of sperm duct and spermiducal gland as exists in

P. matsushimensis, helps to bridge over the differences between that

species and the others, and so lessens the necessity for establishing

a new genus to receive it.

“New or Imperfectly Known Species of Earthworms ” is the title

of a paper in which the authors give us the first of a series of articles

which they propose to contribute on the Oligochzta of Japan.’

In a third paper are described sixteen new species of Perichæta, and

1 Pacific Coast Oligocheta, I, Mem. Cal. Acad. Sci., vol. ii

i, No

2 Goto, S., and Hatai, S. New or Imperfectly Known Spacie of ‘Earthworms,

No. 1, Annotationes Zool. Japonenses, vol. ii, Pt. iii, pp. 65-78.

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 617

mention is made of one other species which they doubtfully identify

with P. sieboldi Horst, the first Perichazta species described from

Japan, and one well known in European museums. Of over two

hundred specimens belonging to this species, all without exception

differed from the descriptions of P. sieboldi by European writers in

one important character, vzz., the position of the spermathecz. Since

many of their specimens were collected from the same region from

which the European specimens were known, or supposed to have

been collected, it seems to be the inference of the authors that their

species is identical with P, sieboldi, and that the European writers

erred in their description of that species. Unfortunately their own

description is so extremely meager that it is of little use to any one

else who might attempt to determine the relations of their species to

others already described.

Horst,! who first described Z. sieboldi, has reéxamined the type of

that species and confirmed the correctness of the earlier descriptions,

and concludes that the two species are not identical.

The genus Perichzta already includes a hundred or more species,

and the need is great for more detailed descriptions than those which

our authors have seen fit to give us.

Horst calls attention to the peculiar fact that of the nine species

of Perichzeta previously described from Japan, none have come under

the observation of Goto and Hatai.

In a third paper? is described a species living in the gutters and

ditches of Tokyo, and belonging to the family Tubificida. These

worms seemed to the author to be more nearly allied to Vermiculus

pilosus, described from the southern coasts of England by Goodrich

in 1892, than to any other form, and so are included in the same

genus under the name V. /émosus.

The description is reasonably complete and includes eight pages

of text, accompanied by five diagrammatic figures.

Among the more noticeable peculiarities of the new species are the

short, nearly straight sperm ducts which open into a common ventral

spermiducal chamber on the eleventh somite, and the unpaired open-

ing of the spermathece on the ventral side of somite X, both of

which characters it has in common with the other member of the

genus. Some peculiarities in which it differs from V. pilosus are the

1 BE On Pericheta sieboldi, Notes from the Leyden Museum, vol. xx,

Pp- Sg

2 Hatai, ei On Vermiculus limosus,a New Species of Aquatic Oligochzta,

Annotationes Zoöl. Japonenses, vol. ii, Pt. iv, pp. 103-111.

618 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOu. XXXIII.

single sperm sac, which is evaginated from the anterior septum of

somite X into the ninth somite, from which it extends backward to

the twelfth or thirteenth somite ; and the ovisac, which extends back-

ward from the twelfth somite instead of from the eleventh, as is more

usually the case.

Hatai has experienced the difficulties so common in the prepara-

tion of purely technical papers of eliminating errors from the text,

and we find the ovaries described as being located in somite X, while

they are figured in somite XI. The latter position is undoubtedly

the correct one; again, the sperm ducts are described as having the

funnels in the ninth somite, while the main parts of the ducts are in

the tenth somite, on the ventral side of which they open to the

exterior. In the figure, which is more probably correct, they are

represented as being situated one somite farther back. It is stated

that there is a pair of ovisacs in the thirteenth somite, “formed

by the backward bulging out, on the left dorsal side, of the anterior

septum.” As elsewhere in the text, reference is made in each case

to “the ovisac,” and as it seems improbable that both members of

the pair should arise on the same side of the worm, it seems more

reasonable to suppose that there is but one ovisac. F. SMITH.

Strange Protoplasmic Budding in Epithelial Cells. — Every spe-

cialist is familiar with the occurrence of various vesicles and drop-

like extrusions that may be found upon preserved epithelium, as if

excreted. The formation of such “artefacts’”’ has not been studied.

Recently Martin Heidenhain, in the Archiv. f. Mik. Anatomie, Vol.

LIV, pp. 59-67, has, however, described and figured peculiar finger-

like protrusions from the cells of the epithelium of the uterus of a

pregnant rabbit, and interpreted them as the first stages in the

making of such “artefacts.”

The material was hardened in corrosive sublimate, and the author

conceives that this penetrating in molecular dilution acted as a stim-

ulus to call forth a physiological, though pathological, response in

the form of those protoplasmic protrusions, or pseudopodia.

How these protuberances later form the real artefacts, the vesicles,

etc., that lie free from the cells, is not considered, since the chief

thesis is that peculiar dark-staining bodies in each protuberance are

centrosomes. The author advances much in favor of this view, and

we seem to have here another case where motion of the protoplasm,

in rising up to make protrusions of the surface matter, is localized

about staining centers, or “ centrosomes.” cA A.

No. 391.} REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 619

Catalogue of the British Columbia Provincial Museum.' — It

includes mammals, birds, fishes, insects, trees, plants, fossils, ethno-

logical specimens, etc. The distribution of the species of mammals,

as well as the source of the museum specimen, is given. A full check

list of the birds of the province bears a special check mark oppo-

site those lacking in the collection, in order that the friends of the

museum may know what is most acceptable. Very little is yet known

of the birds of the northern and eastern parts of British Columbia.

The eggs are listed, but the study-series of bird-skins, which are

available to all students, is not published in the catalogue.

The ethnological collection is classified under several heads, as

houses, dress, ceremony, craniology, etc. The introduction to this

list differentiates the Indians of British Columbia from those of

the Plains, and cautions one against drawing hasty conclusions of

Japanese affinities or origin. Hirik 1. Suen

The Systematic Position of Peripatus. — Since the discovery by

Moseley of trachez in Peripatus, over twenty years ago, scarcely a

doubt has been thrown upon the arthropod nature of this interesting

animal. Recently” Boas, one of the most accurate students of the

arthropods, has taken up the question of the affinities of the form in

question, and after a careful consideration of its structure decides

that it has nothing decidedly arthropodan in its make-up, but that in

all deciding points it is clearly an annelid modified for a terrestrial life.

It lacks the thick jointed cuticle characteristic of the arthropod, and

its appendages are not arthropodan. It possesses the external cir-

cular layer of muscles which is not found in any true arthropod, and

all of its muscles are of the smooth variety. The eyes are upon the

annelidan type; the nephridia are numerous ; the characteristic

arthropodan hairs are lacking, while the claws, upon which so much

weight has been placed, are built upon a different plan, being solid

rather than hollow outgrowths.

A few points need more space. The jaws of Peripatus are modi-

fied appendages, according to both von Kennel and Sedgwick. Boas,

however, points out that this jaw is but the terminal claw of Peri-

patus and is not the whole limb. He also calls attention to the rela-

tions of the parapodia to the mouth in the polynoid worms. The

heart, like that of arthropods and unlike that of the annelid, is pro-

1 A Preliminary Catalogue of the Collections of Natural History and Ethnology

in the Provincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia, 1898, p. 196, is being issued.

2 Kgl. danske Vidensh, Selsk. Forhandlingar, 1898, No. 6 (1899).

620 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

vided with ostia and is placed in a pericardial sinus, but the ostia in

Peripatus can be explained by the disappearance of the transverse

vessels, while the pericardium is merely a blood sinus, the result of

the atrophy of true circulatory tubes, these having degenerated as a

consequence of the development of tracheæ. In regard to trachea,

Boas points out that trachez of different kinds can exist, and that

it has yet to be proved that those of Peripatus and those of the

“ Tracheata”’ are homologous; with the bulk of the evidence against

the view. It is further emphasized that if Peripatus be a stem form

for the “ Tracheates,” then, of necessity, the Arthropoda must form

‘a polyphyletic group — in other words, the Arthropoda must go,

for we cannot conceive how the Crustacea could have descended

from insectan or myriapod ancestors. In this connection, see this

journal, Vol. XXVIII, p. 230, 1894, and Natural Science, Vol. X,

pp. 97 ff., 1897.

New York Amphibia.'— The Linnzan Society of New York has

been issuing a series of bulletins on the local fauna of the surround-

ings of New York City. This work is one strongly to be commended.

The Naturalist believes thoroughly in the importance of the study of

local faunas. The present list describes 11 species: 1 Bufo, 1 Scaphi-

opus, 4 Hyladæ, and 5 Rana. Statements are also made concerning

distribution, habitat, note, and egg-laying habits. The pamphlet

will be valuable to teachers of zodlogy, as well as to investigators.

Adaptive Modifications in Respiratory Organs of the water-inhab-

iting mammals, especially the cetaceans, in response to their changed

environment, have been investigated by O. Müller.” In most pro-

nounced cases the trunk of the animal assumes the form of a spindle

to accelerate movement through the water. The thorax is somewhat

flattened dorso-ventrally, and the lungs, in which the lobes have been

lost by fusion, are more extensively developed dorsally than ventrally.

This is especially well seen in the bronchial branches, which, instead

of being exclusively ventral, are often dorsal. The thoracic muscles

are strong. The trachea is provided with complete cartilage rings

instead of incomplete ones, as in most mammals, and the shortening

1 Sherwood, W. L. The. Frogs and Toads Found in the Vicinity of New York

City, Proc. Linn. Soc., New York, No. 10, 27 pp., 18

2 Miiller, O. Untersuchungen iiber die dain ee cin welche die Respira-

tionsorgane der Säugetiere durch die Anpassung an das Leben im Wasser erlitten

haben, Jena. Zeitschr., Bd. xxxii, pp. 95-230, Taf. iii-vi, 1898.

No. 391.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 621

of the neck often induces a fusion of ring with ring. The cartilage

support for the bronchial tubes may be in the form of a spiral band,

traceable well into the substance of the lung. Most of these adapta-

tions are obviously means for resisting the enormous pressure of the

water on the gas-filled cavities of the lungs, etc. aap

Reptiles of North America. — Under the title of Contributions to

North American Heérpetology, Mr. Robert Baird McLain, of Wheeling,

W. Va., has published privately three memoirs on the collections of

reptiles in the Museum of Stanford University. They are entitled

«Contributions to Neo-tropical Herpetology,” “ Notes on a Colléc-

tion of Reptiles made by C. J. Pierson at Fort Smith, Kansas,”

and “Critical Notes on a Collection of Reptiles from the Western

Coast of the United States.” All bear the date of February,

1899.

These papers are full of misprints; the form of statement is

often crude, and the references to other authors, as Professor Cope

and Dr. Van Denburgh, are characterized by the sweeping severity

which extreme youth frequently displays towards the masters.

It might fairly be inferred from the nature of their contents that

these papers had received the criticism and approval of the instruct-

ors of Stanford University. It is well to state, therefore, that they

represent merely the laboratory notes of an undergraduate student

who had free access to the museum shelves. That publication

of these notes was contemplated was not learned until after Mr.

McLain had left the institution, and their appearance in print is con-

trary to the advice of the officers of the museum, and despite their

protest. One new species Zhamnophis steinegeri (misprinted rfeine-

geri) is described and well figured. As the material has not yet been

critically studied, the value of the species is yet to be determined.

DSJ

Zoölogical Notes. — Dr. Oscar Loew, who has recently been called

to the Department of Agriculture at Washington, has just published

at Munich a timely and valuable book of some 175 pages, entitled

Die chemische Energie der lebenden Zellen.

« Movement of the Nervous Elements” (Act. Soc. Scient. Chili,

Tome VIII, pp. 71-76) is the title of a critical review by Daniel

Monfallet, of the more recently discovered facts and their bearings

on the theories of Rabl-Ruckhard, Tanzi, and Ramon y Cajal, as to

622 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIII.

the interaction of the nervous elements. The author concludes that

our present knowledge on this subject is too scanty to afford any

sound basis for generalizations.

The fourth number of Volume II of the American Journal of Physi-

ology contains the following papers: “The Mechanism of the Motor

Reactions of Paramecium,” by H. S. Jennings; ‘“* On Absorption

from the Peritoneal Cavity,” by L. B. Mendel; “The Origin of the

‘Traube’ Waves,” by H. C. Wood, Jr.; “ Laws of Chemotaxis in

Paramecium,” by H. S. Jennings; and “The Chemistry of the

Melanins,” by W. Jones.

The hearts of several species of lungless salamanders were studied

several years ago by Hopkins, who reported the absence of pulmo-

nary veins, but the presence of an auricular septum. H. L. Bruner

(Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. XV, No 22) has reinvestigated the subject, and

finds no auricular septum present, but that the sinu-atrial valve is

so placed as to be easily mistaken for such a septum, an error which

he believes Hopkins to have fallen into.

Dr. Carlgren thinks (Zool. Anz., Vol. XXII, p. 102) that the

Branchiocerianthus urceolus, recently described by Mark, is a hydroid

near Corymorpha.

Walter May contributes an excellent review of the classification

and distribution of the Alcyonoid polyps to the /enazsche Zeitschrift,

Bd. XXXIII. Many new species are described. :

In his “ Revision of the Squirrels of Mexico and Central America ”

(Proc. Wash. Acad, Sci., Vol. I, pp. 15-106), Nelson recognizes forty-

three species and subspecies.

“North American Fauna No. 14,” issued by the Biological Survey

of the United States Department of Agriculture, contains an account

of the Natural History of the Tres Marias Islands, situated in the

Pacific Ocean, not far from the Mexican coast. The mammals,

birds, reptiles, crustaceans, and plants are dealt with, and the report

concludes with a bibliography of these islands.

Cyathocephalus truncatus is the only known cestode characterized

by the transformation of the entire scolex into a single bothrium.

To this genus Riggenbach has just added a second species, C. cati-

natus, from Solea vulgaris.

Scolex abnormalities are very common in Cænurus serialis, accord-

ing to Railliet, C. Æ. Soc. de Biol, Jan. 21, 1899, who found in a

No. 391.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 623

single bladder, containing 246 scolices, only 217 normal. The abnor-

malities are grouped as follows: (1) simple diminution in the number

of suckers, two heads having three each; (2) simple augmentation

in the number, two heads having five suckers each, six, six each, one

eight and one nine suckers; (3) double rostellum, two heads with

two rostella each; (4) double rostellum with extra suckers also, two

scolices with double rostella and six suckers each, one such with

nine and one with ten suckers. If it be true that the heads with six

suckers produce the triangular chains in the adult, as has been gen-

erally maintained, the author justly inquires what heads with three,

five, eight, nine, and ten suckers will produce ?

In a seal shot during the Swedish Arctic Expedition of 1898 were

found abundant remains of a cephalopod, identified by Lonnberg

(Ofversigt, Kgl. Vet. Akad. Forh., 1898, No. 10, p. 791) as Gonatus

fabricii. This demonstration of the use of cephalopods as food by

the seal in its pelagic wanderings shows “that the cephalopods

form an important link in the chain of marine organisms from the

microscopic plankton to the mammals.”

NEWS.

Sır WILLIAM TURNER, of Edinburgh, has been elected president of

the British Association for the Advancement of Science for the meet-

ing of 1900.

Dr. E. V. Wilcox has resigned the chair of zodlogy in the Univer-

sity of Montana and will accept a place in the Agricultural Department

at Washington, where he will have charge of the zoological items in

the Experiment Station Record, a position left vacant by the resigna-

tion of Dr. F. C. Kenyon.

The Scientific Alliance of New York now includes eight societies,

with a total of over rroo members. It has a research fund of $1200

and $10,000 towards the erection of a building for the accommodation

of the constituent societies.

Dr. John W. Harshberger, instructor in botany in the University

of Pennsylvania, invites subscriptions to his work, Zhe Botanists of

Philadelphia and their Work. The manuscript is complete and awaits

subscriptions sufficient to make its publication possible.

The State University of Ohio maintains a lakeside laboratory this

summer at Sandusky, Ohio. The laboratory is intended exclusively

for investigation and no instruction is given. The station is under

direction of Professor Herbert Osborn of the university.

A bronze bust of the late Increase A. Lapham was unveiled in the

Public Museum of Milwaukee, March 7.

Dr. L. L. Hubbard has resigned his position as state geologist of

Michigan.

The University of Nebraska receives $496,000 for the next two

years, $93,000 of this being for buildings and improvements.

The University of Chicago has made the following appointments

to fellowships for the ensuing year: Botany, A. C. Moore, B. E.

Livingstone, S. M. Coulter, F. M. Lyon; Zodlogy, H. E. Davies,

R. S. Lillie, F. M. Guyer, H. H. Newman ; Neurology, D. M. Shoe-

maker; Physiology, R. R. Rogers, W. E. Garvey; R. W. Webster;

Anthropology, A. W. Dunn ; Geology, W. W. Atwood, W. N. Logan,

R. George, W. T. Lee, W. G. Tight.

624

NEWS. 625

An index to the first thirty volumes of the Jenaische Zeitschrift fiir

Naturwissenschaft has just been issued. A few months ago a similar

index to Vols. XLI-LX of the Zeitschrift fur wissenschaftliche Zoologie

was published. Both indices are very complete and detailed.

Dr. F. W. C. Areschoug, for many years professor of botany in the

University of Lund, Sweden, has resigned.

Professor Douglas Houghton Campbell, of Leland Stanford Uni-

versity, will spend the coming year in Europe, on leave of absence.

The next meeting of the American Society of Naturalists will be

held at New Haven, Conn. Most of the affiliated societies have

signified their intention of meeting at the same place.

Appointments: Marshall A. Barber, assistant professor of bacteri-

ology in the University of Kansas. — Mr. Joseph Bancroft, a physi-

ologist, fellow of King’s College, Cambridge. — Dr. Bergen, professor

of geology and mineralogy in the Mining School at Klausthal. —

W. J. Blankinship, professor of botany in the Agricultural College of

Montana. — Dr. W. von Branco, of Hohenheim, professor of geology

and paleontology in the University of Berlin. — I. H. Burkill, assist-

ant to the director of the Kew Gardens. — Dr. Calmette, professor

of bacteriology in the medical faculty at Lille, France. — Dr. Otto

Cohnheim, privat-docent for physiology in the University of Heidel-

berg. — Dr. Dove, professor of botany in the University of Jena. —

Dr. Erich von Drygalski, professor of geography in the University of

Berlin. — J. Dybowski, of Paris, director of the newly established

Colonial Gardens at Vincennes, France. — Dr. Eggeling, privat-docent

for comparative anatomy and embryology in the University of Strass-

burg. — Dr. Ferdinand Filarsky, custodian of the botanical section of

the Hungarian National Museum at Budapest. — Dr. Hugo Fischer,

privat-docent for botany in the University of Bonn. — Dr. Jakob Friih,

professor of geography in the Ziirich Polytechnicum. — Mr. E. E.

Green, entomologist of the agricultural department of Ceylon, with

headquarters at Peradeniya. — Dr. A. Y. Grevillius, assistant in

botany in the Kempen (Germany) Agricultural Experiment Station.

— Dr. David Frazer Harris, tutor in physiology in the University of

St. Andrews, Scotland. — A. L. van Hasselt, professor of ethnology

in the Indian Institute at Delft, Holland. — Dr. Curt Hassert, pro-

fessor of geography in the University of Tübingen. — W. Botting

Hemsley, director of the Kew Herbarium. — Dr. Anton Herrmann,

privat-docent for anthropology in the University of Klausenberg,

626 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vou. XXXIII

Austria. — Dr. Moritz Hoemes, professor extraordinarius of prehis-

toric archeology in the University of Vienna. — Samuel J. Hunter,

associate professor of entomology in the University of Kansas. —

Dr. Georg Karsten, professor extraordinarius of botany in the Uni-

versity of Bonn. — Dr. Gustaf Adolf Koch, professor of geology in

the Vienna Agricultural School. — Dr. Albert Krafft von Dellmen-

singen, of Vienna, assistant on the Geological Survey of India. —

Dr. Maria, Countess von Linden, assistant in zodlogy in the Univer-

sity of Bonn. — Edward Alfred Minchin, of Oxford, tutor of biology

in Guy’s Hospital Medical School, London, — Dr. F. S. Monticelli,

of Cagliari, professor of zoology in the University of Modena. — W.

A. Murrill, assistant in cryptogamic botany in the Cornell Experiment

Station. — Dr. W. Petterson, lector for mineralogy and geology in the

Stockholm Technical School. — Dr. Frederico Raffaele, professor

extraordinarius of zoology and comparative anatomy in the Univer-

sity of Palermo.— Dr. Fritz Regel, of Jena, professor extraordinarius

of geography in the University of Würzburg. — Daniel E. Rosa, of

Turin, associate professor of comparative anatomy in the University

of Sassari. — Dr. Achille Russo, of Benevento, professor of zodlogy

and comparative anatomy in the University of Cagliari. — Frederico

Sacco, professor extraordinarius of paleontology in the engineering

school at Turin. — Dr. Solomon, professor extraordinarius of miner-

alogy in the University of Heidelberg.— W. C. Stevens, professor of

botany in the University of Kansas. — Professor J. Arthur Thompson,

regius professor of natural history in the University of Aberdeen. —

Professor A. E. Tornebohm, chief of the Swedish Geological Survey.

— Swale Vincent, first assistant in the physiological laboratory of

the University of Cambridge. — Professor F. L. Washburn, state

biologist of Washington. — Dr. Engen Ph. Wotczall, professor of

botany in the newly established technical school at Kieff, Russia. —

Dr. Wilhelm Zopf, professor of sie in the academy at Miinster,

Germany.

Deaths: J. Hermann Albarda, ornithologist, in Leenwarden, Holland.

— Theodor Beling, student of Diptera, in Seesen Brunswick, Germany,

December 17. — Konstantin Busiakis, professor of physiology in the

University of Athens. — Wilhelm Dames, professor of geology and

paleontology in the University of Berlin, December 22, aged 55. —

P. Alfred Feuilleaubois, fungologist, at Fontainebleau, France. —

Charles Fortunn, mineralogist, in London. — Dr. Leopold Tausch

von Glockelsthurn, of the Austrian Geological Survey, January 2,

No. 391.] NEWS. 627

aged 40.— Dr. Gruby, a student of poisonous fungi, in Paris. —

K. G. Henke, conservator of the zodlogical and ethnographical

museum at Dresden, February 18, aged 68. — Friedrich Jeppe, geol-

ogist, in the Transvaal, August, 1898. — Dr. Heinrich Kiepert, pro-

fessor of geography in the University of Berlin, April’21, aged 79. —

Major Kriiger-Velthusen, ornithologist, in Berlin, November 26. —

Dr. Oliver Marcy, professor of natural history in Northwestern Uni-

versity, at Evanston, Ill., March 19, aged 79.— Alfred Paul Maupin,

student of Coleoptera, in Paris, January 22. — M. Naudin, French

botanist, aged 83. — William Burges Preyer, the well-known student

of Lepidoptera, for twenty years settled in Borneo, at Port Said, Jan. 7,

1899, aged 55.— Joseph Stevens, geologist, April 7, aged 81.— Dr.

Philipp J. J. Valente, a student of Central American archeology, in

New York, March 16, aged 71.— Adolf Walter, ornithologist, at

Kassel, Germany, February 5.— Aulis Westerlund, student of Hyme-

noptera, in Finland, December 7.—Paul Wladimirowitsch Jeremejew,

formerly professor of mineralogy in the mining school at St. Peters-

burg, January 18, aged 68.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(The regular Exchanges of the American Naturalist are not included.)

BARD, L. La spécificité cellulaire, ses consequences en biol Ser générale.

Paris, Geria Carré & C. Naud, 1899. 100 pp. Formin g No. 1 of Biological

Series of Scientia. — LE Daxrzc, F. La sexualité. Paris, Costat Carré &

C. Naud, 1899. pp: rming No. 2 of Biological Series of Scientia. —

DRIESCH, Hans. Die Gane iene ra Vorgange: Ein Beweis

vitalistischen Geschehens. Leipzig, Engelmann, 1899. 82 pp., 8vo, 3 figs.

an KE A. Die Varietäten und Formen der Gerste. Jour. f. Landwirt-

schaft. 1899. — CHITTENDEN, F. H. Some Insects Injurious to Garden

and Or aby icine U. S. Dept. Agricult., Bulletin No. 19, New Series. 99 pp.,

20 n 1899. — COOK, O. F. African Diplopoda of the Family pacan

c. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxi, pp. na 39, Pls. lv-lxi. 1899. — KO TF:

O Diplopod Family Striariidæ. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxi, pp. pe

Pls. liii-liv. 1899. — HUNTER, S. J. The Coccidz of Kansas, II. Kan. Univ.

rt. Vol. viii, No. 2, pp. 67-77, Pls. xiii-xvii.— KELLICOTT, D. S. The Odo-

nata of Ohio. Contributions from the ets of Zoöl. and Entomol. Ohio State

Univ. No. I. 11 ; arch.— LAMBE, LAWRENCE M. On Some Species of

Canadian Soona KES Ottawa Danii Pp. 217-258. February-March,

1899. — Some Observations on the Development of the Karyo-

kinetic jaag in ae pp see ages Shs of Cobzea scandens Cav. Proc. Cal.

Acad. Sci., Ser. 3, Bot. Vol. i, No. 5, pp. 169-188, Pls. apenas 1898. —

Mason, Otis T. Aboriginal American Zoétechny. Amer. Anthropol. Vol. i,

pp- 45-81, Pls. i-iv. 1899. — NEWCOMBE, FK. C. Cellulose Enzymes. Amer. ve

Bot. Vol. xiii, No. 49, pp. 49-81.— Nutrine, C. C. Hydroida from Alaska 2

and Puget Sound. Proc. U..S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxi, pp. 741-753, Pls. ly

lxiv.— RAMALEY, FRANCIS. Contributions to the Knowledge of Seedlings.

PU of Certain Woody Plants. II. Comparative Anatomy of Hypcotyi.

picotyl. Minnesota Botanical Studies. Vol. ii, Pt. ii, pp. 69-136, Pls. i-v.

as 1899.

Bulletin Michigan Ornithological Club. Vol.iii, No.1. January. — Ekonomisk

rue. rift. Utgifven af David Davidson. Arg. v, Haft.1-4. Stockholm, 1899. —

owa Agricultural College Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 40. ECKLEs, C. H.

on eaten of Acid Fermentation to Butter Flavor and Aroma. 10 pp. — Mis-

son City, tio. arai Natural Science Association of Si taten Pilani. Vo

vii, Nos. 5 and 6. March and April. — Proceedings Nineteenth Annual Diiue

Society for Promotion Agricultural Science. 218 pp., 2 Pls. 1898. — Rhode Island

Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin No. 52. TILLINGHAST, J. A. and

_ G. E. Suggestions as to Spraying. 48 pp. February, 1899. — Univer-

ty of Tennessee Record. Announcements for 1899-1900. — West Virginia Geo-

ete Survey. Vol. i, 392 pp. Morgantown, 1899.

(No. 390 was mailed June 19.)

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VOL. XXXIII, No. 392” AUGUST, 1899

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALISI

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

PAGE

I. The Hopkins Seaside Laboratory . Professor VERNON L. KELLOGG 629

II. The North-American Arboreal Squirrels. . . Dr.J. A. ALLEN 635

III. Alvin Wentworth Chapman © Professor WILLIAM TRELEASE 643

IV. Synopses of North-American Tariciobriiek II. Gordiaces (Hair — o

Worms) Dr. THOMAS E. MONTGOMERY 647

V. An Abnestand Wave in ‘Lake Erie : . HOWARD 8S. REED 653

VI. Editorial Comment: Card Catalogue E The Introduction oo

Exotic Animals, Colors of Deep-Sea Animals 66l-

VII. Reviews of Recent Literature: General Biology, Fertility Inherited, inan 663

of Living Protoplasm, Green Amæœbæ — Zoőlogy, The Fossil Bisons of 665 —

` North America, Wild Animals I Have Known, Ichthyologia Ohiensis, =

Recent Contributions of Dr. Boulenger to Ichthyology, Teeth of Lizards | a eas

and Snakes, The Digestive Tract of the Cat, Regeneration of Arthropod-

Appendages, Morphology of the Protobranchia, Innervation of the

Pharynx, Holland’s Butterfly Book, Embryos of Bdellos stoma, The Primi- —

tive Saar 2 Life History of the Dicyemids, Ongin of the —

C e Head, Zoölogical Notes — Botany, The New York 677 —

Botanical Cardi, The Chelsea Botanical Garden, Com Plants, Botan- = =

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Route s E

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