INDEX.

PAGE

— in postcava of

. I85

Abando Range, Volcanoes of . 1 »

Actinaria, Synopsis o

ican m

Afri s and secret ‘societies a ;

Agriculture, Practic al. . 906

Aleurodidz . 825

Algae, Alternation of generations. 073

——— and fungus in lichen

Allen, de A. Mammals di New

Yor

XN rth A merican jumping mice : 199

Alternation of — - 16

in 678

Amblysto 552

Amia, fusti of oF

Amoeba, Reproduction of . . 441

Sporulati es a £1

Andrews, E. A. rogeny 982

Davenport’s Zoólogy . 981

Physics of cell life 54

Protoplasm of the salmon

Protoplasmic streamings . : fee :

——— Sporulation in Amce 332

a actum in the mammalian

—— The ; | 322

e-frog .

Animal adi plant : 780

oe Alternate _ generations in "

53s 145, 3,

4335 Asis

orga

A&ihropdié fica Notes

Ants of Texas

Anura, Breeding and development

Appointments

Aqu. Fresh-wate CT ae

Arac à (Kenenia) i in Texas . 837

Pers deep a fau 44

mari - 443

Arizona, Fanin zones. in 284

Arrowheads . 431

Ascidians of Bremer Expedition . 765

——— Nervous and glandular tissue

AMan

Attaphila .

83, 244, 536, 613, 6835,

823

iii

pitt Fauna 25

ishes 438

dict us, Life history of 165

Axolotl, Remarkable 551

BAKER, F. C. A new museum

» 27

nopsis. of scorpions,

«4

Be jafo, Marine biolo ogy a 339

Beecher, C. E. Zittell’s iade i

of paleontology . 680

Bees o 487

Bilon, R. T. Study of heredity

among the de 146

Biology, Advance of, in n 1897 489

Birds, Arctic . 417

—— of Californi 440

—— Dental Hawes of . 677

—— and Dinosaurs aayy

of tion . 602

Blattid, N . 856

Blind Védebrutón . 524

Bones, A gemen of collecti ctions 9s

Botanical Notes, 7 " 241, 449; 6c8, 680

767, 828, 907, 989

— Briefer courses in .

Experimental . . : B08

— Terkbook of . . S 828

CALIFORNIA, Birds 440

Ca ES Phenols ear: observations

- 445

Consi Intracellular, i in ganglion

cells . 762

Cancroid crabs of North America 1 31

piem Gall of the Mon-

: . 801

rey p

Capitietes p sinusoids .

Se rr

Caprifoliaceze and insects 3

baron W. E. Studies on Tira

, . 600

Cat, pea ‘glands ` 233

—— Postcaval abnormalities i in . 185

Catometopous cra : 583

Cell, Wilson's Work on n 761

—— Division. . . . .

Cell, T Pg in s nen Assets AIE ET

, Phys 54

Cephalopods, Foss in the Timan 830

arboniferous 831

haute Ed re 533

Ceylon, Flora 447

Chirostoma - 523

Dd in Anodon I54

Clem p p.15 Minheiot plant

life.

Cockerell, T. D. AS The aide

did . 82

—— The cactus bees 487

— — er Seem middle Sonorian

. 284

Collins, T. S. iren of gen-

erations 7

Colors of erf m and pla 759

H. A flagellate ita 255

Crawley,

Crayfish, phe er enirn of. . 82

Cretaceous p . 608

Cutting eR ond with . 851

Cycads, Fossil 609, 610

Cyclometopa of North America . 1 31

DAPHNIA, Variation in . 879

Davenport, C. B. PEOR of

biology i pu oa pa

—— Biology of crystals 97

— Vari: in Pecten 863

—— Variation of Statoblasts of

Pec m

Deaf, Marri

Deaths

arriages 146

84, ssh 532, 61 3, or 838

Didelphis Ei. (M8

Dinoce rata, Limbs ot. 8

Dinosaurs and bird | 3229

Distomum (n. eg in American

frogs . r1

Distribution of animals dn Aus-

BW oe ose oo: L

Dog, Deme of. 2... . . 598

Duncker, G. Variation in Palæ-

monetes. . . «. soya: Ut

Duodenal glands in cat . 233

EAR bone ; i od

Easter iad. ;

Eastman, C. R. Karpinsky’ s -—-.

Helicoprion . - 579

Eaton, E. si Zoölogy of the Horn

Expeditio 2i 35

Echinoderms, New text-book on . 675

Eci : - 563

Ede stida: : ie ere NNI

Editorial comment . km a co nia MR

Egg of mammals . 320

Eigenmann, ae and Shafer, 6.

H.,

D. Cones i = the retina of fishes 109

Elbe, Plankton of . . . = FEE

oed ology, | — - 913

M. Variations in

"Daphnia. inis. . 879

Enteropne ESSA E

Excretion in Mods See a a

re: vp petrography i v TOO

ite s of Cru RU LIA

of fis ^et (V GU O

—— of Polyphenidse Ms e

FERMENTAT 679

Fishes of pom - 438

Compensatory movements in 669

—— Deep-sea - 663, 910

— Sr 612, 876

—— of Hawaii x - 666

of Mexico PIE r,

of North America (er sa SaR

-—— Noteson. . 668, 897

——— Psychology of $5. 278

——— of Puerto Rico vU SO

tide-pool . 233

= Of Woods Hol . . . ... 523

lancer COMME =- oo 33I

rmaldehyde b xcd rw i TES

France, korg of. uu c D E PR

—— E. oe eee OUS

rogs, Tibe cu FPE

Pos and Wigs n yore : 245

ALLS on pin . Sot

Ganglion peg Intracellular canals

. 762

Gar rdening, Dictionary of - 905

oum , Ao. 2 perc s New World 231

nital organs of Zaitha . 1I9

Geological Phetoiens, Interpreta-

Graft ed Tissue, Regeneration in in . 155

Grafting Hydra A 239

eduse . 155

pupz of moths 230

Grapsoid crabs 83

Growth and food supply i in n starfish 17

Growth, Effects of hea - 94

HAesn. Caudal heart of | 666

0! 437

Hargitt, C. W. Natural history

of Pennaria i

Hawaiian fishes

Heart, Cundal of hagfish

Heat, Accelerating a of, on

growt wth

Helicoprio

Helotiopisia of Cypridopsis ^

Heliozoón, Flagellate . . WEN

Hemiptera, — organs of . . NE

Henshaw, S. recent book o

insects es : A

INDEX. y

PAGE

Henshaw, S. 2 Jersey insects . e:

eredity among dea: n 146

Heterocotylea, Synopsis of .

(o ocyst of j

well eR eg e of . 267

P n, W. Intestine of Amia

: 717

Hirudinca $ . 600

Hoffm R. n-Thompso on's

trail of the sandhill stag . - 319

Lanier's “ Bob” < MEO

—— Lang's our native birds E cr

Aclo oi ** Oisea . ^23 002

Hopi India a S

Horn pedian, Zoslogs eos

Horticulture, pe hovel core s 335 767

Hrdlicka, A. angement of c

lections of osten :

t Woodroffe’

agement and diseases of the dog 598

Hydra gr 237

Hydroid, New 9239

INDIAN knive ES KA

Infusoria, Breedin ng o ~ 328

—— Reaction of, to disk. . 259

of Switz erland x

Innate ideas, Probie of . . 822

Insects and Caprifoliaceze 37

- of New m . 673

Ages = 641

Instin 817

intestina, Histology of 527

Intestine of ey 717

n fruiting «3

Irish, H. e sy Pared practical ag-

cultur

—— Phenokorionl observations in

COA Lnu y us - 445

Isopoda, Synopsis of . i 207, 295

Jackson, R. z ENS later

extinct flor:

gi F. A. Jr. Experimental

Yos

—— Geology of Yellowstone Park 7

— Maryland Geological Survey 73

~— Maryland Weather Service

— eden volcanoes of the

roká Range |; — o. . 1$

Jar for borko :97

Jennings, HS. Reaction of tafa-

soria to chemicals

Johnston, J. B. A sealing. stone

jar for rope laboratories . 971

Jordan, D. S. Blatchley's ec

i Bena 149

f hagfish

AUTER "€ on the lateral line of

toadfish .

kani

» Jordan, D. d Eggs of hagfish . . 437

Garman's deep-sea fishes . . 663

—— Greeley’ s tide-pool a ae

—— Labroid fishes of Hawaii. . 666

—— Lungless Gannia. : 437

—— Notes on fishes, 68, 69, 70, 897

D Meg ic ét of the Philippines 436

s fis eqs of the Thet

e editi : 43

—— Whitefish of Lake Chapala 083

——- Woodward on Scapanorhyn-

s from Puerto

and Pes det

Rico . 150

Fishes

Kocuri, C. etm of middle ocellus

of insects

Eeunik . 837

Kofoid, C. DA, ` Abyssal Rhizo-

poda

— Effect of staleness of sex-cells

developm

—— rth in the Rhizopod s shell - -329

—— Plankisn of the Elbe 761

— ptio studies bs

— s Infusoria 329

LAKE 315

Lamprey, nésting habits of . 617

Lateral line of toadfish . 235

Leech, A n 524

Leeches, Studie 600

Lepidosiren, Development of 670

Leucosoid crabs 503

TEREN Fungus and al alga in 245

Lillie, F. = Regeneration and

regulati nin Planarians . . . 173

Linneus, Fishes of . 69

urg . 487

Lovell, J. H Insects and Capri

foliac E

api img "Double . à 200f

Lycodes jaa xw r

Marorp Crabs. . 503

Mammalian egg . 320

ammalian embryology 913

Mammalia, Origin of S. e

Mammals of New York . 316

Prince Edward Island . 483

Man, Antiquity o of ; 145

ma UMS 521

V Varlatiogs i in crania 737

Mark, E. L. Godelewski’s multi-

plication of nuclei VEM |

Maryland Mes nen Survey 773

—— Weather V. 978

Masks, African - 973

vi INDEX.

PAGE

quas Postcaval abnormalities

McNiel 5 a Variation ` in ‘venation

of eras. ropis

Mead, i Growth and food

supp in starfish .

Mee E. Jo rdan and Ever-

: . 76

A shes . A

Melophagus ovinus . «327

sch, P. C. Life ` his tory of

pte de and alternation of gen-

eration in annelids I

Willey o on Enter-

Me ishes of à : 66;

Mice, North American jumping - 199

Microbdella - $24

Micro-organisms and fermentation 679

Microthelyphonida . 837

Minnesota plant life . 238

Minot, C. S. Study of mammalian

mca ryology rcd as

Mollusca, Circulation in . . . . 154

—— Excretion in . -151

Mou of the Bremer Expe-

ditio T

Monterey pine, Gall of

Mont ntgomery, X Genital organs

I 119

Murbach, L. Fresh-water Aquaria 203

Muscle, Nuclei ò . 671

‘Musi W ae Ce CR uc |

Myrmicophaga . 575

Myrmicophile, New 851

Myxine, Eggs of . 437

NECTURUS, Position of sacrum in 635

Needham, J. G. Fruiting of

Iris . -

Nematode in panther . . i

Nephelinesyenites . . . . . .4 5 i

ereis, Sense organs of « dB

Neurone theory 64, 4 i

ew England, Local floras A à

New Jersey, Insects. | E Sia

New Mexico, Faunal zones in i

News 8$ 24 520 613, 683, s

New v uk. Mammals of . . 316

Niagara, Age of . - 145

Nickerson, W: S ‘Distomum in

ican frogs d s . 811

—— Double Loxosome . . .

Norman, W. W. n Marcos sal-

amander, Typhlomolge . poc

orth Dakota, Axolotl from - 551

Norton, J. B. S. Classification of

odor. . .

—— Nuclear phenomena in Ustila-

gum... 1

Nuclei, Multiplication of, in muscle 671

—— of Ustilaginee . . . . . 448

OCCIPITAL condyles 943

Ocelli of hexapods Row. T

Odors, Classification of SH nee GET

Oócapt («833

Opilionidæ, Distribution ob: 3 597

Ortm . E. c deepsea

fau :

c marine animals - 443

- see toe tion of Opilionidae 7

we of the P 594

Osborn, H.

limbs of quadrupeds in i adapta-

tion to weight

——— Evidence for a common dino-

saur-avian stem in the Per-

mian . 977

—— Glacial pot hole. near ` Cats-

kill, N. Y. E ea

—— Origin of the mammalia - 943

—— Vertebrz of reptile

Osborn, H. L. Rem arkable axolotl

from North Dak 51

Ossicula auditus. . . . $26

Otocyst of heteropods . 526

Ovogenesis in tunicates . 441

PACIFIC, Zoógeography of . 594

Paleontology, Text-book of . . 681

alpi b. . 837

Parker, G. \ mitotic followed

by mitotic division . . .

-— pull Tunicata 3

— A new hydroi vine ag

—-— Animal and plan t colors . . 789

pug oe Lecce of r rhyth-

cm contractions . 150

— Barker’ s nerv Sous system 61

—— Capillaries and sinusoids . . 527

——— Compensatory movements in

fishes

—— Development of Lepidosiren ipe

nas nes

—— Elementary physiology ^ i

—— Formaldehyde 763

Grafting and regeneration in

—

romedusz :

sis Beart of Abdo. (C M

— Lake . 31

—— Locomotion of Solenomya - 525

Mating instinct in moths . . 674

t - 526

tocyst of h .

—— Pupa grafting in moths 2

— na peel n grafted tissue 155

— eration in Reissner’s

|^. 328

INDEX.

PAGE

oye G. H. Sense orpine of

—— “Skalen of Vulpes macrotis . ae

——— ese of es black bass

— Syno rth American

Ac owt 747

—— The neurone the eory i the

recent aaiae. 457

light of

—— Vertebrate anatom

Villi of intestine . . . j dam

—— “ Wilson's Cell " 761

—— Woods Holl Lectures for 1898 56

—— Woods Holl Lectures for s 759

Peabody, C. n masks

secret societies 3

Pea rl, R. Recent work on 1 electra

taxis

: 97

Peckham, G. W. and E. G. " Instinct

. 81

Fitis , Variatio . 863

Pectinella, Visio of statoblasts

Pe cipok Synopsis of.

. 421

Peirce, G. J. Relations of f fungus

cars --— in lichens . 2

Pelomyxa Qo. Woe C. B38

Peneus . . : 387

Penhallow, D. P. Bel zung 's botan-

i atomy and physiolo, . 828

—— Co Loa "s 8o

Cretaceous plants 608

sil cycad: . 609

—— Fossil rod from Franz Jo-

se d

——— Matonia ; I

Medullosa xv ŝi

cim Natural history ol ue 387

trogra drip NOS . ... 401, 455

Petrography of Essex Co., Mass. . 453

ental .

Petromyzon, dM habits of . D 617

hili es of . . 436

ppines, Vertebra

Pig, Development deu eu |. 513

Pine, Galls o < . B0

Planarians, Regenbenibt d bic.

Plankton of the Elbe . . . . . 761

Porich Lateral line of 235

Pot hole near Cats ill, N. Y. 33

ratt, H. S. Synopsis of monoge-

netic trem atodes . 645

Prince Edward Island, Mammals

of. zu . 248

Proboscidia, limbe . 4... 89

Projapyx ; x . B0

Protoplasmic streamings . - 434

ta eames Structure of. . .. 32

Protéscan studi . 9. se

Psychology 2 ae... 27

o Rico, Fishes of . . . . 150

Dan Bod s : . 9435

| RABBIT, cage in .

039

Races of m 521

Rathbun, M. Fi Cancroid crabs of

North Am 131

——— Synopsis of of catometopous or

grapsoid crabs - 583

—— Synopsis of oxystomatous

and oxyr vs supa crabs . 503

Reason or instinc . 817

Regeneration in grafted ti tissue . . 185

in use . » 166

in RM s (y

cn Linnean genera

Myrmicophaga and PE e

Reissner’s fibre . . 316

Re het Vaubheu. v t

ys i dogfish d xai. MES

Rev

pedem s Fauna de France

602, 902

pens s Darwin and Dar-

: 979

fees s, E. Á. Breeding Info-

t soria 28

Atherton’s sense organs of

Atkinson's lessons in botany

» 905

een s oe of horticul-

* i5

Balfour on the musical bow . 429

Ballowi ytomous nerve

fibres

Bancroft on tunicates . . . 7

Barker's nervous ^ stem,. . 61

Barnes, Outlines of plant life. 905

Bauer’s experimental ——

dens botanical peter eg i

and physiology. . . . . 828

on intestinal villi 527

Bethe’s intracellular of

n cells > + 962

Biologic

ulletin . 826

Bachiey qur from. na-

ture

Bütschli on inicrostructure of |

Carlgren on _electrotanis : : . 979

Clapp's lateral lines of m-

toadfi A

Clem ents aad Cutler's ae

ool botany . . 989

the Teca rwegian Polar Expe-

diti + 417

Cowribulicnk from th the U. S.

National He ox ia

Cooke on Easter Island | oj Rd

Vill

Reviews:

INDEX.

PAGE

Cossmann’s KEINE A tele-

olo 2

Coulter’s plant stu ; 905

Cox's elementary ir 763

Kien s our imd friends and

326

Crampton s pupa grafti ing . «236

not’s — in oo 151

Ciclope of America

A PRI E e :

Dana's wild pi dus E BO

Davenport’ s zodlogy . . 981

— s vibe physiology

of the crayfish . 821

Delage on merogeny. . . . 982

Deniker’s races of man. . . 521

Drew, Locomotion of Soleno-

Bm |. a4 so o nca E

Eigenmann on blind verte-

rates 24

Evermann and Marsh on | fishes

of Pu * I

Fay’s marriages of the deaf . 146

Fischer's tree toad s 320

Were on the mammalian

. 320

Fraser s life of Cop . 819

Frobenius on African masks

and secret ties

Fur-seal investigations . ike DE

Garman’s deep-se 663

Garrey's effects of ions on fla-

g e Infusoria 9

Geology of the Vellowatotie

National Park . : 270

Godelewski on multiplication

of nuclei in muscle UI

Gogorza's vertebrates of the

Philippine: 2x AJO

Graf's gaged studies . . 600

Greeley on tide-pool fishes . 233

Orens on caudal heart of me

fishes

—— Lateral line of toadfish . 235

seam s mitosis following

rends s qoibns volcanoes of

the Absaroka Range . 156

Hargitt's Specie studies

on Hydromedusæ . 155

Harper’s cell-division in | Hpo-

gia and Asci

artme’

the Bremer

Hedley's zoógeograph

scheme for the Mid- Pacific 594

Reviews :

PAGE

He saab MN protoplasmic

stream

Hill’s management ‘and dis-

eases e TT

His's protoplasm studies . . V

Hoche's neurone theo

ve |

: MÀ we of man in

Holzapfel’ s AT us of the

Tim 8

Ilyin on n ofocysts of heteropods 526

James's practical agriculture . 906

Jenkins' s labroid fishes of Ha-

waii.

jones E s eggs of ha fish

gus - 437

Jor vermann’s fishes 764

at re ‘Shyder on fishes

of ic

Jorgensen’s micro-organisms

and fermentation 9

procu e on Edestidz and

- 579

kde e Knive trees 123/988

Kennedy's beasts

314

pes Development of Lepido-

670

King's s irrigation and | drainage 446

rtebrate koaia e une BO

Kofoid on Platydorina . . . 331

Kólliker's reminiscences . . 232

Korschelt and Heider's Sum

ogy 324

Langdon’ s sense organs of

. 328

Lange s Jour native birds : ae

Lankester's treatise on zóol-

Lanier’ s“ : Bob,” ” our mocking-

L'Année Biologique for 1897 489

Loeb's artificial rhythmic

muscle contractions 150

Loman's distribution of Opili-

onidæ

ppi on Catifornia water-

bir

poate k on | solpugids . .67 3

— magen salaman-

der

ka on compensatory. move-

ents in

MacDougall’ s pati and work

of plants . 60

Mackay’ s phenological investi-

gations

— s "Minnesota plant

Maryland geological survey : n3

weather service 4209

Reviews:

INDEX.

PAGE

Mason on Indian kniv >. + 431

Mayer’s genis instinct in

moths .... .

McIntosh's resources of the sea

Meunier's hen eter geol-

Metcalf on nervous and gland-

ular tissue in ascidians . 7266

Miller's (W. S.) c contributions

from the anatomical labor

€ o e University of

Millers. (o S) mammals of

Miltz, "yeso "n Polyphem mida . :

Minot o — and sin

soids à

Moore on “Microbdella .

Morgan's ds acidi can in

ut ratted tissue 258

Morris’s man and his ancestor 593

Murbach’s Der from

Woods H

oll I

Nadiallac's unity of human

species 313

Nathorst's pud plants from

Franz Jos Land . 610

Neuville on "formaldehyde 763

Newbegin’s color in nature . 759

Newberry’ s pd extinct floras

of North Am 79

Nicholson’s dictionary ME

gardening . 905

Parker's practical zoólogy . 436

Payne's orld . 231

pena zede in rhizopod

e 29

Penard's Rhizopoda of Lake

(C. 001 8 s 20

Pittard on — crania from

the i 76

e Valley .

Prantl’s Fokk ;

Pratt's anatomy of sheep tick 327

Prow azek's protozoan studies 824

. dst.

yg e rt U. S. Natonal Museum

1597

crinis Physics of cell life e

Rotham experiments

Ro we rhea Infusori ind

Sargent on Reissner's fibre 316

Sauvageau on Cutleriacea and

alternation of generations . 678

CR on Arctic

fau

Review

Schove, Plankton of the

Scott’s PAUTAS anglica ire

Sewa Ada coal measure plants .

atonia

Shula skeleton of the black

bas

— osteology of. Vulpes

Smith's Siew pines insects

Smithsonian report for 1897 .

Smitt on Lycodes

— on measurements of

human ske

Stöhr o on n duodenal glands .

Thompson’s non trail of

the sandhill

Towle, "Heliotropiem of Cypri-

apsis

Trimen’s fora of Ceylon

ex cells on development

"pet problem of innate

Waite's fishes of “the Thetis

Expedition... i... « «

Ward’s cretaceous phus >

fossil Marine E

. Garman's ; deep-

Ward, H. B

sea fishes

Washington’ s rocks ‘of Essex

Co., Mass

Wieland’s f fossil c cyc cads. .

Wille - » circulation in Ano-

don

Willey’s s Enteropneusta. ,

Wilson on prehistoric arrow-

points, spear heads, and

eed »

s Cell

Woods Holl lectures for 1898

Woods Holl — and =

W rd on Scapanorhyn-

Mitsukurin

- 673

31I

- 439

. . 233

. 826

. 608

* 453

. 609

. 761

759

chus and 34

Zittel’s text-book a "paleon:

tology . . 681

Rhi lige, New

—— shell, pues ot.

Rhizopoda, A

— as ek fran us

p en H Synopsis of N. A.

207,

Iso

Ritter, wW. E. California water

birds . 440

295

Ritter, W. E. Monascidians of the

Bremer Expedition

pou dos us ae glandular tissue

-— Dvorem i in tunica

Roberts, H. Cell pran AA in

Sporangia and Asci

Robinson, B. L. Con ributions

of-Essex-C o., M

Russell,

man

a NE atural history of the easel

Report of the U. S. National

Mus

Report of ‘commissioner of

educ

; 4

—— ae ry E wes variation ;

SALAMANDER, San Marcos .

RCM Lungles . .

N U

Sampso nusual modes

of breeding, and ubica

among A . 68

Sandalodus

— F. fs ‘King’ s irrigation

d dra

ng m xn and Trembly's S €x-

botany

F. - Deniker’s races of

INDEX.

PAGE

imental . 605

Scorpions, Synopsis of . 421

Sea, a of . 601

Sella tu 434

Sense cells ‘of annelids 71

ense organs of Nereis £328

Sheep tick. . . 327

Shufeldt, R. W. On ithological

results of Nansen's — ear?

sup ae of fis 75

Simonds, ‘prs ‘ um nterpretaion of

unusu geological

records rianda [5 recent ex-

- 495

Tue ar and capillaries . 527

Si . - 552

Slonaker, J Ae Abnormality in

circulation of rabbi (b

Smith, vid Position of sacrum in

Nectu

Smith, T T Holzapfel fossil

cephalopo . 830

Tzwetaew "s fossil cephalopods 831

Solenomya, locomotio x ie

ido ee a iv of 673

—— Syn of d sca TT

Sonoran zones . 284

Species bspecies : 523

ec gravity of animals =» 9%

Sporo. : . 899

Feia R in Amæba 232

aue sex cells and development

Starfish, Growth and food d supply

Statoblasts, variation in

Syen - 453

Synopses of North American inver-

tebra

VIL Cancroid CTADS. s 131

VIII. Isopoda 2 o7, 295

IX. Scorpions,- solpugids, and

Pedipalpi «aoe

X. Oxyrhynchous and oxysto-

XI. Catometopous or grapsoid

XII. Monogenetie trematodes s. 645

XIII. Actinaria : 747

TABLET for museums . nars

Teleology, Empirical : . 822

P nitas ogical | eue ‘ £8

Tertiary volcanoes of the Absaroka

Range 56

Texan ants . 503

Tex as, Singular angi in. 837

Tide pool fishes 233

Tilefish, Reappearance of 68

To poe) Lateral line of . c 235

Tree « 322

Trelease, W. Büefer courses in

bot

- 9o

— Clements 'and Cut al 989

ia of Sana arg z 5 707

owers :

— — Keeler’s T": native trees

—— Nicholson’s dictionary of

garden - 905

—— Trimen’s ba of Ceylon : 447

Trematodes in frogs poH

——— Synopsis of vc iar MEE

Trimerotropis, Variatio

Tee = H. kinson's * a

any ” . 607

ae yak Lehrbuch . 606

'Tunicates, Ovogen . 441

Vascular ampll a 71

Typhlomolge ; 179

Unity of human species ; 473

Ustilaginez, Nuclear phenomenai in 448

VAMPYRELLA 256

Variation in Da hnia 879

in circulation of rabbit . 639

—— in human cra 737

—— in Necturus . 635

——— palaemonetes . 621

—— in Pecten . 863

—— in trimerotropis 471

— in pipe bets of Pectinella 959

INDEX. xi

PAGE

Venation in Her vii eee yh!

Vertebrze of reptiles cU T

T ey — aco. 58

ind . A 0 DIE

of P Phili ippines . 436

villi of intestine . 527

Volcanoes, Tertiary of the Absa-

roka Range 156

WALTON, L.B. Basal mem of

iR g 267

ah on B. Excretion in Mol-

» il

. 910

fo Garman’ s ; deep-sea fishes .

— ote on cestode nomen ncla-

|o 333

D—— jose tion of Am ceba . . 441

—— Theirreich Sporoz P o 899

MER Habits of ree te SIT

Whee ses A singular

arachnid is Tet $024. 1997

myrmicophile P. OU

E. Tera ecitons . - 563

Williams, S. R. Specific gravity

PAGE

of fresh-water animals in relation

to weird and Pags Foreiqur 95

Wilso species of Pelo-

myxa t : < 995

— Marine biology at Beaufort . 339

Wolcott, R. H. Sheep tick 327

YELLOWSTONE Park, Geology of . 116

— R Cossman’s tele-

log

Y. 22

— Dearborn’ s psychology of the

ayfish . 821

c Helent ropism of cypridopsis . 603

Wagner’s innate ideas . 822

Young, R.T. Mammals of Prince

Edward Island . . . . 483

Youn T. and Cole

g [Ly

Nesting habits of brook lamprey 617

ZAITHA, Genital organs of . . . IIQ

s Ue NUR ada Q0 6 MM

Zoólogical notes, 72, 156, 238, 322, 443,

527, 604, 676, 766, 827, 903, 986

Zoology of the Horn Expedition . 25

VOL. XXXIV, No. 397” JANUARY, 1900

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. EE Ii and Hypapophyses in the Cervical Region of Mosa-

, Lizards, and Sphenodon . HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN

a wae t and Preservation of tijo Collections of Human

Bones for Purposes of Investigation : ALES HRDLICKA

III. ‘On the Correlation between Growth and Food ftii in Starfish

D. MEAD

The Zoólogy of the Horn Expedition . : i 75. D. H EATON

A Glacial Pot-Hole in the Hudson River Shales near Catskill, N.Y. ——

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN

The Visitors of the abe cea : Lae ee eive H. uices

Bd 44

| idis g gs

ny: The Last C

Bailey’s dni A. Notes — Paleo ntology: Th us

Floras of North America, Coal Maa P Bret

Medullosa anglica | ;

BOSTON, U.S.A. Der ee EE

GINN & comraon PUBLISHERS — F

The American Naturalist

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CHARLES E. BEECHER, Pu.D., Yale University, New Hav

DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland e. Junior Cntr is, Cal.

J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, Ithac

WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard DIOS. Canbrdgr.

ALÉS HRDLICKA, M.D., New York C

D. S. JORDAN, LL.D., Leland Stanford und or University, California.

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXXIV. January, 1900. No. 397.

INTERCENTRA AND HYPAPOPHYSES IN THE

CERVICAL REGION OF MOSASAURS,

LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON.

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

In the course of a recent study of the skeleton of Mosasaurs!

I was much struck by the uncertainty which prevails in the

interpretation of the elements entering into the vertebrz of

the neck. The leading American authorities, Cope, Baur, and

Williston, differ widely in their descriptions of these parts in

different papers. The late Professor Baur himself had a per-

fectly correct notion of the components of the neck, as I learned

from him in conversation ; but a clear statement of his views is

not to be found in his published writings. Two of the leading

German comparative anatomists, Gegenbaur and Wiedersheim,

fail entirely to recognize clearly the very interesting structure

of the cervical vertebrae. I was thus led to the comparison of

the neck vertebra in different members of the Squamata and

Rhyncocephalia, with most interesting results.

It appears that zmfercemtra are present in the neck of all

1 A Complete Mosasaur Skeleton, Osseous and Cartilaginous, Mem. Amer.

Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. i, pt. iv. October, 1899.

2 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Mosasaurs, lizards, and Sphenodon, either in a primitive position

or secondarily modified to subserve a variety of functions.

The best known modification is in the atlas, where the inter-

centrum forms the base of the ring. The modifications which

have not been so generally recognized are in the axis and the

other cervicals, where the intercentra secondarily function as

hypapophyses, while still remaining more or less distinct from the

centra proper.

The primitive relations of the intercentra and pleurocentra

(or centra proper) in the axis and atlas are beautifully shown in

Fic. 1. — Platecarpus corypheus Cope, Coll. American Museum Natural History. Atlas, 1

axis, 2; third cervical, 3. ight neural arch, z.a., in place; left neural arch rémoved,

exposing odontoid aol A Sg of atlas), od. loosely articulated with axis.

Intercentrum of atlas, 7.7; intercentrum of axis, 7.2; intercentrum of third cervical, 2.3;

intercentrum of fourth peas 1.4. pet 3 and 4 are secondarily shifted forward

upon the hypapophyses of the centra in fro

the accompanying photograph (Fig. 1), taken from the neck of a

specimen of Platecarpus — one of the Kansas Mosasaurs. But

before describing this it will be well to recapitulate.

The prevailing interpretations of the neck components in

different types of reptiles are as follows:

1. Proatlas. The pair of small dorso-lateral elements in

Rhyncocephalia (see Fig. 4, D), certain Lacertilia, Crocodilia,

No. 397-] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 3

Dinosauria, Pterosauria, Chelonia, are regarded by some authors

as vestiges of a “proatlas’’ or degenerate vertebra between the

atlas and the skull. As remarked by Baur, these pieces correspond

in position with the * neurapophyses ” of a typical vertebra.

2. Atlas. The lateral pieces of the atlas proper are by all

authors regarded as neural arches or ** neurapophyses ” (z.a. in

our figures).

3. Atlas. In his early papers Cope — in fact, when he first

defined the *intercentrum " — regarded the ventral pieces of

atlas and axis as “ intercentra " (7.7 and z.2 in our figures). The

Pi,

Fic. 2.— Chelydosaurus vranii Fritsch. A rachitomous amphibian vertebra from the Permian

of Bohemia, viewed from the righ? side, after Fritsch. Neurapophyses, neural arch

2 pieces; pleurocentra, on sides of notochord, 2 pieces; hypocentrum pleurale, below

notochord, 1 piece; intercentrum arcale, below notochord, 1 piece.

anterior ventral piece (7.7), or lower element of the atlas ring, is,

however, described as a “centrum” (z.¢., * pleurocentrum ") by

Baur in his latest paper; by Gegenbaur as possibly an “ hypa-

pophysis" (Vergleichende Anatomie, 1898, p. 249). In an

unpublished lecture chart Baur rightly interprets ventral pieces

of both atlas and axis as “intercentra.”’

4. Axis. The odontoid process is regarded as the pleuro-

centrum or centrum proper of the atlas, which has become

secondarily attached to the axis (oZ. in our figures).

5. Axis. The posterior ventral piece (7.2 in our figures) is.

described as an * intercentrum " by Baur, as the “atlantar hypa-

pophysis " by Williston, in the Mosasaurs.

4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

6. Cervicals 3-9. The ventral intermediate pieces (7.3 to 2. in

our figures) are spoken of as *intercentra," also as **hypapophyses."

I. RaAcHITOMOUS PROTOTYPES.

For the origin of these structures we must' naturally turn

back to extinct forms, and we find two rachitomous prototypes

— one composed of six pieces, one of five.

Among the primitive Amphibia (Stegocephalia) we find types

in which every vertebra is composed of six pieces, as figured by

—--ntercentrum.

Cond A it : DX. Ww t ç.

Fic. 3. — Discosaur Permian of S

ed from the Zz/? side, after Credner. Ne urap — xe arch, 2 pieces; site

centra, lateral, 2 pieces; intercentra, median ventral, 1 pie

Fritsch, Fig. 2 (Chelydosaurus vranit). It is possible, therefore,

that the “proatlas” may represent, not a separate vertebra, but part

of the atlas of a persistent rachitomous type.! This is improbable.

1 According to this hypothesis, for which at present little can be said, the

homologies would be as follows:

Atlas Components. Secondary.

Primitive neurapophysis = proatlas.

Primitive pleurocentrum = neural arch.

Primitive intercentrum = base of atlas ring.

Primitive hypocentrum pleurale = odontoid process.

The demonstration of a vestigial, anterior, cervical nerve belonging to the

— “ proatlas” vertebra would be fatal to the above hypothesis.

No. 397.] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 5

A likelier rachitomous prototype is that afforded by Disco-

saurus Credner, another Stegocephalian, in which it is seen

(Fig. 3) that the intercentrum is in front of its corresponding

pleurocentrum or centrum. Such a vertebra consists of five

pieces. If from such an atlas prototype the pleurocentrum (#/.)

were to be transformed into the odontoid process, the first result

Fic. 4. — Typical cervical vertebrz of Mosasaurs, lizards, and Sphenodon. A. Platecarpus, a

Mosasaur, with left neural arch of atlas removed. B. Varanus, a monitor lizard, with in-

—* Lagoa assed rein to P of ne: E _Cyclurus a lizard, with —

pting z

with 1 hypapophysis « ads axis. ^P. "Sphenodon, a Riyocoepain w with all intercentra in

axis, as in Cyclurus

would be to bring the atlas and axis intercentra together with-

out change of form. This is exactly what we find in Platecarpus,

one of the Kansas Mosasaurs (Fig. 1). The photograph repre-

sents a condition in which the intercentra 1 and 2 are alike in

their wedge-shaped form, and are still entirely free from the other

elements of the atlas and axis (see also Fig. 4).

6 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

2. CONDITIONS IN THE MosASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON.

The modifications of the primitive type, in which each centrum

has an intercentrum below and in front of it, are well illustrated

in the accompanying diagrams (Fig. 4).

The condition of the Platecarpus axis and atlas is even more

primitive than that of Sphenodon ; but Sphenodon is more primi-

tive than Platecarpus in the vertebrae behind the axis.

A. In Platecarpus both atlas and axis intercentra free and

wedge-shaped. Intercentra 3-7 shifted forward secondarily

upon the short hypapophyses of centra 2-6.

D. In Sphenodon a *proatlas" ; intercentrum I of atlas

loosely connected with neurapophysis of atlas ; intercentrum 2

of axis completely coalesced with axis ; intercentra 3—7 in their

- primitive position. ee

In Varanus intercentrum 1 broadly connected with atlas

neurapophysis ; intercentrum 2, forming an anterior hypapophysis

upon axis, loosely connected in young, suturally united in adults ;

intercentra 3+ forming tips of the long hypapophyses of centra

2+. (This hypapophysial connection of the intercentra is an

advance upon that initiated in Platecarpus.)

C. In Cyclurus intercentrum I broadly united with atlas ring ;

intercentrum 2 completely coalesced with axis ; intercentra 3 and 4

in primitive position, but expanding to function as hypapophyses ;

intercentra 5 and 6 small, in primitive position.

The secondary modifications have, therefore, been of four

kinds : :

1. Conversion of the atlas intercentrum 1 into the basal piece

of the atlas ring by loss of its wedge-shape and broadening of

its contact with the neurapophyses (e.g., Varanus, Cyclurus).

2. Lateral or complete union of the axis intercentrum 2

with the anterior portion of the axis centrum (e.g., Cyclurus,

Sphenodon).

3. Secondary conversion of the intercentra 2+ into hypa-

pophyses (e.g, axis of B, C, D; axis and third cervical of

Cyclurus). j

4. Shifting of the intercentra 3-7 forward upon the hypa-

pophyses of the preceding vertebree (e.g., Varanus, Platecarpus).

No. 397.] MOSASAURS, LIZARDS, AND SPHENODON. 7

This history of the atlas and axis complex in the Mosasaurs,

lizards, and Sphenodon may, in conclusion, briefly be summarized

as follows :

1. The intercentrum of the atlas fuses with the neural arches

of the atlas to form the basal portion of the ring.

2. The intercentrum of the axis fuses with the centrum of

the axis to form a kind of hypapophysis.

3. The intercentra of the remaining cervicals 3-7 either

remain primitive in position, or are shifted forward upon the

hypapophyses of the next vertebra in front.

AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY,

December 7, 1899.

ARRANGEMENT AND PRESERVATION OF LARGE

COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES FOR

PURPOSES OF INVESTIGATION.

ALES HRDLICKA.

SINCE my mention, nearly a year ago,! of a definite method

in the care of bones which are to be utilized for investigation,

I have received several inquiries as to the details of such a

method. As the subject is not without importance, I think it

will be useful to bring the particulars to the general attention

of the anatomists.

My practical experience with bones was gained principally

in the anatomical department of the College of Physicians and

Surgeons, New York, and in the American Museum of Naturak

History, the same city; besides this, I had a chance to make

observations on a number of large anatomical, anthropological,

and zoological bone collections both here and abroad.

The remarks which follow apply only to collections of human

bones, in fact, principally to large (established or prospective)

collections of the bones of whites. They apply further only

to a general method of the care of bones, which will easily

allow any especially desirable exceptions by individual inves-

tigators, such as the treatment of the whole spinal column

(Dwight), pelvis, etc.

For small collections, for anthropological and zoólogical col-

lections of bones, probably the best general rule is to keep,

in appropriate series, all the bones of each skeleton together,

minus the skull. Each bone should bear the number of the

Skeleton. The skulls of the same tribe of people or species

of animals are kept together, heading the series. Each dis-

tinct group of skulls and skeletons in a collection is divided

and arranged in at least three groups: the children or young,

! Before the Association of American Anatomists, New York, December, 1898,

Paper on Tibia. `

IO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

and grown individuals, separated into males and females. In

large series the embryos, adolescents, and very old may be

advantageously separated from the others. The best way to

preserve these collections is in tiers of sliding shelves or

drawers. The anthropological collection as a whole is arranged

on the basis of race and type, and further subdivided according

to the geographical distribution. A zoólogical collection is natu-

rally best arranged on the basis of the grade of evolution of

the animals. This rule may be followed from the most com-

prehensive zoólogical subdivision to individuals.

The method of arrangement in large collections of human

bones of a comparatively homogeneous character, such as the

bones of whites, when the object of these collections is to be

a possibility of a thorough investigation on the bones, must

differ from the above.

Anatomy is past the stage of study of single normal bones,

just as it is past the stage of study of any single normal organ

in the body. The present and future anatomical investigations

can only deal with large numbers of specimens. The points

which are to be settled by the investigations concern, in the

first place, the regular changes or life history of each indi-

vidual bone. We are further to learn the prevalent types of

each bone and their meaning; to complete our knowledge

of the more primitive, recurrent, and anomalous, and define

the prospective characters of each bone; and to establish the

influences on the various bones of recent as well as hereditary,

normal, and abnormal characters.

In order that such studies may be possible, all the bones in

our collections must, in the first place, be identified; in the

second place, they must be supplemented with certain data on

the subjects from which they proceed ; and in the third place, the

bones must be so stored as to present the utmost facility for any

study desired.

So far no osteological collection of hick I i any knowl-

edge comes fully up to the stated requirements ; the collection

that comes nearest to the desired standard is in all probability

that of Prof. Geo. S. Huntington, in the College of Physicians

and Surgeons, New York City. However, as the value and

No. 397] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. II

promises of advanced investigation on bones will receive, which

they cannot fail to do, a more thorough appreciation by the

teachers and students in anatomy, old bone collections will

increase and new collections will be established, and both these

effects should take place only on the basis of the most approved

principles.

Such were the considerations which led me in formulating,

during the last four years, the system of care of bones, which

follows. Every point advocated I had the occasion to test or

observe in practice, and only that is included which is simple,

practical, and essential for investigation. Some of the details

which at first may seem superfluous will be appreciated later by

the student of the collection. The method once tested under

different circumstances in practice will undoubtedly be found

capable of advantageous modifications, but I think it will, in

general, prove sufficient for the beginning of a collection. . . .

The care of bones, when their full scientific utilization is in

view, should begin at the reception of the body in the anatomi-

cal department.

It is very advisable, on receiving the body, to ascertain the

following points, namely: color, sex, age, nationality (if Ameri-

can, the nationality of parents in addition), and last disease;

also the principal (not necessarily the last) occupation of the

individual in his life.

In all accidental or sudden deaths the weight of the body,

with a note as to loss of blood, should be taken. -

A few selected, simple measures of the body! and neag are

very desirable.

All the data, if carefully obtained, will serve as valuable

bases for future studies and comparisons on the skeleton.

It is best that one of the permanent associates in the

anatomical department of a college should be given the care

of all these preli ies

(1 Length of the body: middle of the soles to vertex; maximum length and

width of the head, with its height from biauricular line; antero-posterior and

lateral diameters of the chest, at the level of the sternal articulation of the third

ribs and at that of ensiform cartilage. Vertex-coccyx length is also a desirable

measure.

12 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

All records should be preserved in a special book. Each

case receives its number; it is best to carry the numbers on

consecutively, for that will, among other advantages, facilitate

references.

The number a body has been given and the year when

received, are stamped indelibly on a card, and this is so attached

to the body as not to be lost. When the body comes on the

dissecting table, various means may be used to keep the sub-

ject identified. In all cases it is well to preserve the original

card secured in some way at the table.

While the body is being dissected, care must be exercised

that the different parts are not displaced. As soon as any

long bone, or the scapula, or innominatum, sacrum, lower jaw

or skull, is finished with, it should be the duty of some one in

the dissecting room to attach by wire a little metal tag to it,

with stamped-in number of the subject (zinc, or zinc-lead alloy

wire and metal are to be used; steel wire will not last, while

copper wire will color the bone).

All the short bones of each group (hand, foot, sternum and

ribs, vertebral column) are placed into a small-mesh zinc wire

cage, or into a small net (which latter, however, should be

strong enough to resist boiling or maceration), and to each

cage or net a similar metal tag is appended as to each larger

bone.!

The tags are to stay on all the bones to which they were

attached individually. On the short bones, when prepared and

dried (which latter should be done with the bones still in their

sacks or cages), the number of the subject is placed in indelible

ink.

Chemicals should be avoided in the preparation of bones for

study, as they affect the bone weight and specific gravity, both

valuable points for investigation. Too long boiling is also

injurious, particularly to the bones of the young or old.

The problem of storing prepared and marked bones is of

considerable importance. It presents several distinct points to

which attention must be directed, namely: (1) the bones should

be stored so as to be protected against dust, sunlight, and

1 Syst fully used at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York.

No. 397.] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. 13

great changes of temperature or moisture, and occasionally

also against insects or rodents ; and (2) the bones should be

stored in such a way as to be readily and easily accessible and

offer the utmost facilities for study or exhibition, as well as an

ease of proper replacement. These desiderata can be accom-

plished as follows:

1. A fairly well lighted, dry room is lined with shelve

frames, or drawer frames. Other similar frames can be placed

across parts of the room when necessary. The frames are so

arranged that the drawers or boxes which are to be placed in

them can slide in and out (this can be arranged quite simply

and inexpensively). The size of the frames is determined by

the size of the boxes or drawers, which must be of two or three

dimensions. A very good preventive against insects, or even

rodents, is a little of paris green mixed with some sugar and

flour.

2. For the small bones it is best to provide light boxes just

a little larger than necessary to contain their groups (speaking

of adults). Low partitions (potter’s clay) in these boxes would

enable us to subdivide each group of small bones and much

facilitate their study. A definite number of coverless boxes

fit into a drawer, on which are plainly and indelibly marked

the character and number (x—) of the contents. It is best to

have the drawers just large enough to accommodate the boxes

with all the small bones of each individual skeleton, and to keep

these bones permanently together.

The long bones may be stored in two ways, each of which

has certain advantages.

All the long and other bones of the skeleton, remaining

after the disposal of short bones as outlined above, minus the

skull and lower jaw, can be placed together in a special drawer,

which can then be placed, properly marked, next the drawer

with the short bones of the same skeleton. Thus, all the bones

of each skeleton, minus the skull, which can easily be found,

are kept close together.

When very large series of bones are to be studied, the fol-

lowing method of storage is preferable: More spacious drawers

are provided; or there may be simply shelves with closed

I4 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

compartments, each of which has a door that ought to open

downward. The bones are stored into these compartments

according. to the kind and side, and in series of consecutive

numbers. Each large bone in the body has its own section of

the shelves. The size of each section may be calculated on

the basis of the space necessary to accommodate five hundred,

one thousand, or a larger series of specimens. The kind and

numbers (x—x) of bones are marked in this case (because

changes will take place in the number or quality of the exact

contents, v. below) preferably on cards, which are nailed or

otherwise attached to the drawers.

The skulls, including lower jaws, it is best to store separately,

in drawers accommodating a certain number each, and carrying

in a prominent place a record of their contents.

So far for simple preliminary storing. The next step in

arranging a large bone collection is the separation of each

series of bones into three subseries, containing the normal,

pathological, and anomalous bones.

The normal bones should be further subdivided accord-

ing to sex (which is also applicable. to the other subseries, if

large). A still further advantageous subdivision of the series

of bones, but only in the largest collections, is that based on

racial (nationality) character of the bones.

The bones of children, and those of negroes (unless plentiful)

and rare subjects, are best kept separately, a large box being

provided for each skeleton.

When an anomalous or pathological bone or bones are re-

moved from a series, a card should be kept with the series of

the location of the specimens.

To complete the value of a bone collection, a card catalogue

is a necessity. This may be conducted with various degrees

of thoroughness. The simplest catalogue is that where each

skeleton receives one card, on which are stated the history of

the body (copy of the record made before dissection) and the

main pathological or anomalous conditions observed on the

skeleton. The ideal and most complete catalogue would be

that where each bone would receive a card, which would bear

its special characters and its dimensions.

No. 397.] COLLECTIONS OF HUMAN BONES. I5

The arrangement of specimens for exhibition differs much

from that for storage. It should be based on at least two

principles, namely: The normal bones should be arranged in

series showing all their variations, the pathological and anoma-

lous bones in series showing as many grades or steps as pos-

sible in the evolution of their specific characters. The series

are arranged according to the order in which the bones of the

human body are generally treated in anatomical works or lec-

tures. . Wherever possible, the series should be supplemented

by casts or pictures and by specimens from lower mammals, fit

for comparison. Explanatory labels with references, and, if

possible, with a special card catalogue for the museum, com-

plete the value of the exhibitions.

NEW York, 1c6 East Seventy-first St.

ON THE CORRELATION BETWEEN GROWTH

AND FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH.

A. D. MEAD.

In the higher vertebrates there is a pretty constant relation

between the age of an individual and its size, at least up to

the time when the full stature is reached. This relation is

expressed in carefully constructed curves of growth, and it may

be inferred from common observation. The healthy individual

must be able, during its early life, not only to hold its own in

respect to size, but also to grow ; the time between meals must

be comparatively short, and the nourishment assimilated must

be more than sufficient merely to replenish waste tissue.

Minot has shown for guinea pigs that even “any irregularity

in the growth of an individual tends to be followed by an oppo-

site compensating irregularity.” “If an individual grows for

a period exceedingly fast, there immediately follows a period of

slower growth; and, vice versa, those that remain behind for a

time, if they remain in good health, make up the loss (at least

in great part if not always completely) soon after." ‘Each

individual appears to be striving to reach a particular size ” —

a particular size, we might add, not only for the adult age but

for any particular previous age.

The normal rate of growth of marine invertebrates seems

not to have received much attention, and were one to inquire

among longshoremen or seaside naturalists how old an eight-

inch lobster is, or how long it takes a starfish to grow to a cer-

tain size or to become sexually mature, he would meet with an

interesting variety of opinions and receive little satisfactory

‘ information.

Several years ago Alexander Agassiz made an estimate of the

rate of growth in starfishes, which was based upon the supposi-

tion that a close relation does obtain between size and age in

these animals as well as in vertebrates. The method which he

18 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

employed was previously used by the elder Agassiz for ascer-

taining the age of many marine animals (Proc. Essex Inst.,

1863), and is explained in the following quotation from the

monograph on North American starfishes :

“The young starfishes figured on this plate (Pl. VIII) were

all found attached to roots of Laminaria thrown up on the

beaches in the neighborhood after a storm; and from their

different stages of growth, as compared with the oldest starfish

raised from a brachiolarian (Pl. VI, Fig. 11), specimens of which

were also found upon these roots, it is probable that the sizes

here figured are one (Fig. 1), two (Fig. 8), and three (Fig. 10)

years old. A considerable number of specimens were picked

up in this way, and they could all be arranged into very dis-

tinct groups, representing the starfishes of the present and two

previous seasons. There seemed to be no gradation from one

group to another, such as we have among the young sea urchins,

which, in consequence of their manner of breeding during the

whole year, form series the relations of which it is impossible

to determine. In this connection I would say that, by arrang-

ing the starfishes found upon our rocks into series according

to their size, we are able to obtain a rough estimate of the

number of years required by them to attain their full develop-

ment ; this I presume to be somewhere about fourteen years.

They begin to spawn before that time, as specimens have been

successfully fecundated which evidently were not more than

six or seven years old."

During the summer of 1898 the writer had an excellent oppor-

tunity to study the rate of growth of the starfish (Asterias

forbesii) at a floating laboratory moored in one of the estuaries

of Narragansett Bay. The Dreeding season was short and

definite, and the larvae began to “set” the last of June.

On June 29, innumerable young starfish, about as large

as the head of a pin, were discovered clinging to the eel-

grass and to the rockweed and other alga, where a few days,

before none could be found. A handful of the fluffy seaweed,

Heteromorpha, bespangled with minute stars, was placed in a

floating car, whose sides were encrusted with a young growth

of barnacles, fresh fronds of green algz, and delicate branch-

No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. I9

ing stalks of hydroids. That the little starfish found here a

natural and congenial environment was evident from their

healthy appearance, their quick response, and their rapid growth.

we:

50 ]

449

40 ZV

E] FE ts

EJ rj / J

35 PELTI y 7

y; /

= E / (3

Jo IT] /

BUSES /

L———4 /

IURE vA Pd

25 E / P d

ELI 11 / /

EI / /

Lm rA

20 Z L ‘a

TRO PES SNO Fi Liat

p A TT- A-L. 2) & EX

u-X-77 7

"A rrr ; /

= A /

E. E ZlK /

IO TIL A

V A4 /

y y

BE 7

5 ——— T

EN = "d

E. 7

LH-E-Exr 2 zu

PES SER Ze CELL GRR TEE

Bee he ORR eee eee

. They were kept under observation until November and fed on

barnacles, small clams, and mussels. As they were examined

from time to time, two features of their growth were espe-

cially noteworthy, vzz., its rapidity and the difference in rate in

20 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

different individuals. On June 29 none of the stars meas-

ured more than 1 mm.;! on July 18 one of the larger speci-

mens measured 5 mm.; July 26, 9 mm.; August 18, 18 mm. ;

September 26, 35 mm. ; October 25, 54 mm. (over 2 inches).

Curve 1, Fig. 1, is a graphic representation of the growth of

these stars and is constructed from measurements of the

largest specimens which could be found in the car at each

observation. At any time after the first few weeks some of

the specimens were three times as large as others, and between

these all intermediate stages could be found. On August 18,

for instance, eight specimens, arranged according to their sizes,

measured 7%, 8%, 10%, 12, I3, 14%, 16, and 18 mm. A

similar series — or a more perfect one — might at any time

be arranged from specimens taken along the shores.

From the fact that in starfish of the same age such great

differences in size cxist, with all gradations between the ex-

tremes, it is evident that there is danger in applying to them

Agassiz's method of ascertaining age. Indeed, the specimens

which were calculated by him to be three years old were not

one-fifth as large — linear measurement — as those known by

actual observation to be only three months old.

Coming now to the consideration of the conditions which

determine the difference in the rate of growth in these animals,

we may exclude certain factors at once ; for example, the influ-

ence of light, temperature and density of the water, and size

of containing vessel, inasmuch as these conditions are practi-

cally the same for all the individuals under observation.

It appears from some other experiments, however, that dif-

ference in the amount of food is the principal, if not the only,

factor. The starfish differs from the higher animals in this

important respect; it can eat and assimilate many times as

much food as is necessary merely to maintain a healthy condi-

tion. When food is accessible, the starfish eats voraciously

and grows with great rapidity ; but, on the other hand, it will

live for months almost without food and apparently remain

healthy, though it does not grow. As one watches a large

1 All the measurements given below as “length” are from the mouth to tip of

arm.

No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. 21

number of stars of the same age and size, transferred to a new

car, he will not fail to notice that some of them happen upon a

favorable food supply before the others, and in consequence

grow at first much faster than the rest. Then, not only do

these larger specimens have the better chance of getting food,

but, if the animals usually preyed upon become scarce, the

larger starfish do not hesitate to devour the smaller ones. It

was noticed repeatedly that the variation in the rate of growth

was much greater among the starfish whose food supply was

limited than among those abundantly provided for. The

immediate effect upon the rate of growth of the supplying

and the withholding of food is demonstrated in the following

experiments.

One of the starfishes in the car which had grown most rap-

idly up to August 18, when it measured 18 mm. (see curve r),

was kept until September 26 with very little to eat. Dur-

ing these five weeks there was no growth in this specimen

(curve 2), but rather a slight decrease, although the largest

specimen left in the car had doubled its length.

Another small starfish (curve 3), which was caught in the

tow net as a brachiolarian and “set” in the aquarium on

June 28, was kept on a very small allowance of food until

July 23, when it measured 2 mm. It was then fed occasion-

ally on small barnacles, and on September 6 measured 5 mm.

After this it was given an abundance of food, with the fol-

lowing result: September 26, 12 mm. ; October 12, 21 mm.;

November 5, 30 mm.

Several other starfish which were caught in the tow and set

in an aquarium at the same time with the last were kept on a

small allowance until September 6, and were then apparently

in good health, although they had grown but little. Fig. 2 4

represents one of these at the age of about five weeks, and

Fig. 2 B represents a well-nourished specimen of the same

age, taken from the car.

Two specimens (curves 4, 5) of medium size, 7 mm. and

10% mm., respectively, were transferred, on August 3,

from the original car, where they had been reared on barnacles,

to an adjacent car. They were supplied with a bunch of

23 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

small mussels, which, however, the starfish could not or would

not open, and on August 16, after a period of thirteen days,

they had not grown at all. From this time they were pro-

vided with an abundance of their usual food — barnacles — and

grew with great rapidity, as is indicated in the curves. On

November 12 they measured, respectively, 36 and 41 mm.

Incidentally curve 4 shows another interesting point, namely,

that the loss of an arm does not cause a diminution in the rate

of growth. On September 5 an arm was accidentally torn off,

yet the rate of growth of the rest of the body was as rapid as

Fic. 2 A. Fie. 2 B.

These figures represent two starfishes of the same age (514 weeks).

before, and as rapid as that of the other starfish (curve 5).

The rate of growth in the regenerating member is indicated in

curve 4 a. |

The age at which the starfish becomes sexually mature also

depends upon the rate of growth; in other words, a starfish

must attain a certain size before it may become sexually mature.

During May, the month preceding the breeding season, nearly

all the starfishes measuring over 50 mm. (2 inches) are full of

ripe sex products, and occasionally ripe specimens are taken

which measure only 32 mm. Larva have been obtained by

artificial fertilization from parents measuring 38 mm. Now

many of the starfishes raised in the car were considerably more

than 38 mm. in length on October 25, three months after

No. 397.] FOOD SUPPLY IN STARFISH. 23

setting, and their sex glands were quite as well developed as

they were in the average stars of any size at that season of the

year. Allowing the very moderate estimate of 15 mm. for the

growth of such individuals during the next six months, in May

they would be more than 50 mm. in length, and such speci-

mens are, with rare exceptions, sexually mature. We are

warranted in inferring, therefore, that well-nourished star-

fishes arrive at sexual maturity and breed before they are a

year old.

On the other hand, it is evident that many starfishes do not

reach sexual maturity in one year, since small, immature speci-

mens, between 10 and 20 mm. in length, are not uncommon

just before the breeding season begins.

Desultory observations on other marine invertebrates, e.g.,

the clam, oyster, and lobster, indicate that the conditions of

their growth are essentially similar to those of the starfish, and

to this extent substantiate the conclusion that between the

higher and lower animals there are fundamental differences in

the phenomena of growth.

BROWN UNIVERSITY,

November 9, 1899.

THE ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION.

E. H. EATON.

A WORK of considerable importance, which has received too

little attention in this country, is Professor Baldwin Spencer's

Report of the Horn Expedition to Central Australia, published

in September, 1896. The author’s conclusions regarding the

affinities of the Australian fauna are of vital importance, espe-

cially concerning the Antarctica theory, and a brief reference

to the expedition, with a statement of its main results, may be of

interest to readers of the Naturalist.

The object of the expedition was to explore the country about

the McDonnell Ranges, which lie just south of the tropic between -

129° and 135° east longitude. Leaving Adelaide in the begin-

ning of May, 1894, the party proceeded by rail to Oodnatta,

where the journey of 2000 miles by caravan was begun.

There were five specialists in charge of the different departments,

besides two collectors, a cook, and men to care for the camels.

Mr. Horn, who equipped the expedition, accompanied it for a

part of the journey in a carriage drawn by a team of camels.

The course lay for the most part through the dry country

in the great Finke Basin, or Larapinta Land. Sandy deserts,

* gibber ” plains, dry river channels, with occasional water holes,

scanty brush, and dried porcupine grass offered a monotonous

scenery and poor prospects for collecting. By day the unclouded

sun drove all but the hardiest creatures from the blistering

sands; at night the temperature often fell many degrees below

the freezing point. A yard away from the water holes the earth

was parched and unfit for the habitation of animals or plants.

In this region, however, during the rainy season, there is a

wonderful change of scenery. "Vegetation grows with amazing

rapidity. Frogs, lizards, and mollusks creep from their hiding

places, and their swarming descendants soon cover the country.

Fishes and crustaceans are scattered by the swollen rivers from

25 :

26 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the water holes where they have survived the dry season.

Insects increase with the vegetation on which they feed, and the

region is invaded by numerous birds which find their favorite

food. Even rodents and marsupials immigrate sometimes in

vast numbers from the surrounding regions.

But soon this brief season is past, and only the hardiest and

those with special equipment to endure the ensuing drought and

extremes of temperature survive the long dry season.

There was little opportunity for collecting specimens, except

for an hour or two each day, when halting for food and water.

If a rare lizard were seen hurrying away as the march was pro-

ceeding, before the unwilling camel could be compelled to fall

back from its companion and kneel for dismounting, the agile

lizard had made good its escape. Thus, only the twenty days of

“spelling” in camp out of 125 days in the field were really

available for taking specimens.

Besides several orders of invertebrates which had not been

worked over when the report was published, there were 603

species of animals collected by the expedition, of which 171

species were new to science. The following is Professor Spencer's

table of species collected :

Mui No. oF O. OF No. oF NEW

GENERA. SPECIES, SPECIES.

CAFmUVOLIR eea S 7 SS I I [e]

Chopra a o re 2 2 o

ol. RAM aE aon RSEN 3 i II 3

Mamupaha 8) a . —- 16 24 6

Monotremata - . oo a I I o

C aa i 83 100 5

Reptilia 33 44 12

Amphibia 4 6 I

: 5 8 5

Mollusca . 20 38 2I

Arthropoda - 229 357 117

Vermes . . I I I

398 593 HE

Several interesting observations on the fauna and flora of the

center may be noted. The characteristic plants have their sur-

No. 397.] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 27

face adapted to prevent the evaporation of moisture, and their

seeds can survive a long exposure, but germinate very rapidly

as soon as the moist season arrives. The animals are such as

can travel long distances with ease, like the dingo and the

kangaroo, or can subsist on the dews of early morning. Some,

like the burrowing frogs and mollusks, hide away from the

withering sun, and others produce eggs which will not develop :

until after the mud in which they have been deposited dries up.

Professor Spencer thinks there is little attempt at protective

coloration, in the struggle for existence, except in a general way.

Nature seems to devote all her energies to the production of

eggs which will develop precociously. The young, especially of

insects, seem impelled to feed ravenously, and reach maturity

before the favorable season is past.

As a result of the variable seasons, many species show a con-

siderable discrepancy in size, individuals reared in successive

good seasons being unusually large, while those growing in a

succession of poor seasons are small. In one species, Phasco- .

logale cristicauda, the length of the head and body of the small-

est adult male was 136 mm.; of the largest, 220 mm. The

relationship of the fauna of the center to that of the surround-

ing regions is one of the strongest points in determining the

probable source of Australian marsupials. The author divides

the twenty-four species of the center into three main groups :

1. Those of continental distribution: Trichosurus vulpecula,

Sminthopsis murina, S. crassicaudata, Perameles obesula.

2. A larger number, characteristic of the inland portion of

eastern Australia, and of the south and west: Macropus robu-

stus, M. rufus, Petrogale lateralis, Onychogale lunata, Lagorche-

stes conspicilatus, var. leichardtit, Bettongia lesueuri, Cheropus

castanotis, Phascologale calura, P. cristicauda, Dasyurus geof-

froyii, Antechonomys laniger, Myrmecobius fasciatus.

3. Those which as far as now known are peculiar to the

central region : Peragale minor, P. leucura (probably), Perameles

eremiana, Sminthopsis psammophilus, S. larapinta, Phascologale

macdonnallensis; Dasyuroides byrnei, Notoryctes typhlops.

Professor Spencer calls attention to the fact that there is no

indication of primitive monotremes of marsupials characteristic

28 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of western Australia, and that the monotremes and polyproto-

donts diminish in importance as we pass northward and north-

westward from southeastern Australia.

The birds collected range over the southern portion of the

continent from east to west, with a slight preponderance of

western forms. The reptiles show a marked affinity with the

west and north. The Amphibia, with the exception of Hyla ru-

bella, are allied to those of the southeastern portion. The fishes

are related to those of the coastal districts, and not to those of

the Murray River system ; they probably were derived from

the north. The mollusks are related to the west, and, in a

slight degree, to the eastern interior. The other invertebrates

in the center are too imperfectly known to furnish reliable

generalizations.

As a result of his investigations, Professor Spencer draws

some highly interesting conclusions in respect to the faunal

affinities of the island continent and the geologic changes that

have combined to establish this remarkable life here. These

views, while they differ in some marked particulars from those

of Darwin, Wallace, and Lydekker, are, we believe, in line with

the very latest scientific developments. They may be stated

briefly as follows :

1. Probably a very ancient connection with southeastern

Asia, existing partly in the western and partly in the eastern

portions of the island, when these were separate land masses,

furnished the original inhabitants, which are represented to-day,

perhaps, by such forms as Xanthomelon, Peripatus, Ceratodus,

Amphibolurus, Moloch, and the families Pygopodide, Melipha-

gide, and Trichoglossida.

2. A great marine area, in which the Upper Cretaceous rocks

of the Rolling Downs were deposited, completely separated

the western and eastern portions and isolated the higher Steppes

from the ancient region further west.

3. Across the Torres Straits a connection in late Cretaceous

times with a Papuan area, and with Polynesia and the New

. Zealand region, accounts for the distribution of Microphyura,

Acanthodrilus, and the struthious birds of Australia and New

Zealand ; also for the introduction of the Paradiseide, Megapo-

No. 397-] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 29

dide, Rana, Heteronota, Physignathus, Pericheta, and from

the Austro-Malayan area, and later, for the passage northward

of monotremes and marsupials. The union with New Zealand

was severed, and only that with New Guinea probably remained

at the time when the Prototheria and Metatheria had become

established on the Australian continent.

4. Perhaps in later Cretaceous times, and certainly not later

than the Miocene, a union with South America by way of Tas-

mania and Antarctica resulted in the introduction of such forms

as Gundlachia, Geotria, Galaxias, Haplochiton, Aphritis, and the

Cystignathidee, Marsupialia, and possibly the Monotremata.

5. The union of eastern and western Australia, and the for-

mation during the Tertiary period of a great lacustrian area and

of pluvial conditions in the interior, favored the development of

the gigantic diprotodont and struthious forms of the Pliocene

period. ;

6. The elevation of the coastal range barrier, which was much

higher in Tertiary times than at present, prevented the free inter-

mingling of the coastal forms with those of the inland regions.

7. The isolation of the Australian continent, by the oblitera-

tion of the land connections referred to, has preserved to a great

extent its unique animal life. The union with Tasmania was

doubtless severed prior to the Pliocene times, when the dingo

and large diprotodonts existed in Australia.

8. The desiccation of the interior in Post-Pliocene times partly

replaced and partly intensified the mountainous barrier near the

coast, and combined with this to separate the desert fauna from

that of the well-watered districts.

After careful study of the animals collected.by the Horn

Expedition, and comparison with specimens from the remainder

of the continent, Professor Spencer concludes that western

Australia has no claim to the title ** Autochthonian," as far as the

higher forms at least are concerned. He discards this term,

which was introduced by Professor Tate with reference to the

flora. The Euronotian region of the same author he finds made

up of two well-defined areas, each of which is marked by charac-

teristic animal forms, and prefers to divide the Australian region

as follows :

30 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

1. The Torresian subregion. This is the Papuan subregion

of Professor Hedley, but Professor Spencer prefers the name

Torresian, as less liable to lead to confusion, and as indicating ©

the former land connection. It includes Papua and north and

northeastern Australia as far south as the Clarence River.

2. The Bassian subregion, which comprises the eastern and

southeastern coast region, and Tasmania. The name indicated .

the route by which “the South American contingent must have

passed."

3. The Eyrian urbcs including all the interior, south-

ern, and western part of the continent. It is separated by the

coastal ranges from the Torresian region on the northeast, and

from the Bassian region on the southeast.

The theory of a former connection between Australia and

South America by means of a great southern continental area

now seems thoroughly established. Mr. Wallace thought the

relationship between the marsupials of the two countries, and

between several families of birds and reptiles, too general to be

accepted as direct evidence. He admitted, however, that cystig-

nathous frogs, several genera of fresh-water fishes, and one

genus of snail were undoubtedly transported from one region to

the other, but thinks this transportation was by means of float-

ing ice. Mr. Lydekker, in his Geographical History of Mammals

(1896), still maintained that the evidence was too scanty to show

in what latitude the connection occurred. He admits that the

discovery of dasyuroid marsupials in the Tertiary of Patagonia

indicates a former communication, and he points out the impor-

tance of the determination of the rocks recently brought back

by the Axtarctic as indicating a continental area; but he thinks

the presence of Australian types of rats in the Philippines “is

of the utmost importance in respect to Australia receiving its

mammalian fauna from southeastern Asia"; and he believes

that this fauna entered the island by way of New Guinea.

Professor Spencer calls attention to the fact that polyproto-

dont forms decrease in importance toward the north and north-

east in Australia (which is the opposite of what should be the

case if Professor Lydekker's theory is the true one), and point-

edly remarks that Australian rats in the Philippines do not prove

No. 397-] ZOOLOGY OF THE HORN EXPEDITION. 31

that the marsupials came from the north, any more than it proves

that the fish Galaxias is an immigrant from Asia. At the same

time Mr. Lydekker admits that the rats are comparatively recent

immigrants, and that because of their small size they may have

been introduced without direct land connection.

After reading Professor Spencer's summary of evidence, and

examining an atlas of the southern circumpolar regions, one is

forced to admit the extreme probability of this ancient connec-

tion of southern lands, including South America, Australia, and

New Zealand. We may also add Africa, in the light of Mr.

Spencer Moore’s paper on the origin of the Australian flora,

published in Natural Science, September and October, 1899.

Mr. Moore speaks of this land connection practically as an

axiom of science. Dr. Moreno’s publication in Mature, Aug.

4, 1899, of the discovery of Miolania in the Tertiary of Pata-

gonia, also of diprotodon and other marsupials in the same

deposits, adds evidence on the subject which is well-nigh

conclusive.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

A GLACIAL POT-HOLE IN THE HUDSON RIVER

SHALES NEAR CAISKILL, N.: Y.

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

SOME years ago I was invited to examine a pot-hole of

unusual interest, which had recently been uncovered on the

east bank of the Hudson, directly opposite the town of Catskill,

upon the estate of Frederick E. Church, the well-known land-

scape artist. At the time a number of drawings and photo-

graphs were taken, together with a few notes which may be of

interest to the readers of the Naturalist.

This pot-hole lies at the base of a cliff of shale about seventy-

five feet high, and was discovered in course of excavation of

Fic. 1. — Side view of shale cliff and pot-hole.

the shale for purposes of road-building. It was first indicated

by a section of its diameter upon the side nearest to the base of

the sharp cliff. It was then excavated with great care to a depth

of twenty-five feet, when it suddenly narrowed from an average

diameter of eight feet to a diameter of five feet, and finally it

was found to terminate in a bowl about the size of a wash-basin.

34 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The whole section for a distance of twenty feet in the com-

paratively soft shale exhibits the sides worn very smooth, almost

to a polish. At the point of contraction the pot-hole dips into a

stratum of black slate which is quite highly polished. The shale

belongs to the Hudson River Series, and the slate to the Utica

Slate.

The upper portion of the pot-hole was filled with shale débris

which had evidently fallen from the cliff. This was followed by

.. +. Shale from Cliff

. Drift Gravel

Hudson River Shales ....

Slate Pebbles and Bowlders

vus Gravel

. Black Slaty Paste

Utica Slates . .

. Polished Slate Pebbles

a stratum of five feet of gravel, similar to ordinary drift gravel,

containing pebbles and well-rounded bowlders, varying from one

inch to two feet in diameter. This was followed by a thick

stratum of slate pebbles, while the lower portion of the bowl

was filled with the black paste left from the wearing of the slate

and containing a few perfectly rounded pebbles. There were no

crevices to account for the carrying off of the stream of water

which must have produced this pot-hole, and its depth indicates

that it was formed in the bed of a powerful stream.

At the top of the pot-hole the face of the cliff ascends sharply,

No. 397.] A GLACIAL POT-HOLE. 35

and the surrounding sides have been uncovered so recently

that we have every reason to believe the pot-hole was originally

of very much greater depth than at present; and this, together

with its peculiar position, renders it rather difficult to explain

its origin and history. Its location is about half a mile back

from the river, and the face of the cliff has a north and south

direction.

In the twenty-first annual report of the Regents of the Uni-

versity of the State of New York on the condition of the State

Cabinet of Natural History, published in Albany in 1871, is

Fic. 3. — Pot-hole viewed from above, showing top of Utica slate layer

where the erosion began to diminish,

found an account of the discovery of the Cohoes Mastodon by

Professor James Hall. He here gives an interesting description

of the glacial pot-holes in the vicinity of the present gorge of

the Mohawk near Cohoes. These holes are now mostly covered

by swamps and were evidently bored out from thé general level.

They reached a depth of from seventy to eighty feet, and their

cross-sections varied from eight to thirty-five feet.

From these facts it appears probable that the Catskill pot-hole

here described originally extended to the level of the top of

the cliff,

Its formation was in this case similar to that which has been

observed as now in process beneath some of the glaciers of

Switzerland, Norway, and Sweden. In Norway they exist in

36 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

great numbers and are popularly known as “ Giants’ Kettles.”

In Oswald Heer's Urwelt der Schweiz we find a full description

of some of the Swiss pot-holes. On the mode of formation of

these holes Geikie speaks as follows: ** Among the Alps, during

the day in summer, much ice is melted and the water courses

from the glaciers accumulate in brooks which, as they reach the

crevasses, tumble down in rushing waterfalls, and are lost in the

depths of the ice. Directed, however, by the form of the ice

passage against the rocky floor of the valley, the water descends

at a particular spot, carrying with it the sand, mud, and stones

which it may have swept away from the surface of the glacier.

By means of these materials it erodes deep pot-holes in the solid

rock, in which the rounded detritus is left as the crevasse closes

up or moves down the valley."

THE VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE&.,

JOHN H. LOVELL.

Tue Caprifoliacez, or honeysuckle family, are remarkable for

the variation in length of the corolla tube and the consequent

adaptation of the flowers to a great variety of visitors. The

wheel-shaped flowers of Sambucus contain no honey and are

sparingly visited by flies and pollen-collecting bees; Viburnum,

which has also a rotate corolla but secretes nectar, attracts a

wide circle of bees, flies, beetles, and Lepidoptera; the corolla

of Symphoricarpos is bell-shaped and visited chiefly by wasps ;

the funnel-formed flower of Linnzea is adapted to slender flies ;

Lonicera alpigena is a wasp flower ; a part of the species of

Lonicera are visited by bees in general, while others are polli-

nated only by bumblebees; L. caprifolium and L. periclymenum

are nocturnal flowers fertilized by hawk moths; and L. semper-

virens is pollinated by humming birds.

There are about 260 species widely distributed throughout

the northern hemisphere and blooming in spring and midsum-

mer. A few occur in South America and Australia. Their

northern distribution, as well as the occurrence of fossil forms,

indicates their origin in the north temperate zone. Viburnum

is found in the Dakota group, which, according to Saporta and

Marion, belonged to a woody and mountainous region, popu-

lated by such genera as Salix, Fagus, Populus, and Platanus, and

from which southern types, especially the palms, are absent.

Sambucus L.

The flowers attract very few visitors, as they contain no nectar.

Sambucus pubens Michx. Red-berried Elder.

The flower buds are at first green, changing to purplish, and

finally, on expanding, to white. Cymes thyrsoid, longer than

road.

38 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

Visitors : Hymenoptera — Apidæ : (1) idt mellifica L., 9;

Andrenidæ: (2) Andrena vicina Sm., 9.

Diptera — Syrphidæ : (3) Syrphus ribesii L.

Coleoptera — Cerambycide: (4) Pachyta monticola Rand;

Mordellidæ : (5) Anaspis rufa Say. Waldoboro, May 19 to June.

Sambucus canadensis L. American Elder.

The broad, flat cymes are very numerous and conspicuous.

The flowers attract very few visitors, as they contain no honey

and bloom at midsummer, when they come in competition with

many nectariferous blossoms. Only four species of flies have

been collected, and repeatedly the blossoms were examined

without observing a single visitor, and yet upon the jewel-weed

(Impatiens) and the red-osier cornel, a few yards away, scores

were at work. The perfume is agreeable and increases in the

evening, but fails to attract crepuscular insects. The stamens

are slender, surpassing the nearly sessile stigmas.

Visitors: Diptera — Syrphidæ: (1) Mesogramma marginata

Say; Sarcophagide: (2) Helocobia helicis Town.; Muscide:

(3) Lucilia cornicina Fab. ; Anthomyide : (4) Phorbia fusciceps

Zett. Waldoboro, July.

Sambucus nigra L. Black Elder.

A variety of this species, S. zzgra laciniata (Mill.) DC., has

escaped from cultivation at Cape May, N. J. According to

Knuth, the flowers of S. zzgra are yellowish-white, honeyless,

and conspicuousness is gained by their aggregation in a dense

corymb. There are few visitors, partly because the strong

scent is probably repellent to bees, and partly because of the

absence of nectar. In the Island of Föhr, Knuth collected two

flies feeding upon the pollen, and in Helgoland a single fly,

Lucilia cesar. In middle and southern Germany, Müller

observed six flies, two beetles, and one sawfly.

VIBURNUM L.

There are fourteen species in the Northern States. The

flowers are in compound cymes, which bloom in early spring

or midsummer, and are white, fragrant, and nectariferous.

No. 397.) VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE.E. 39

Viburnum alnifolium Marsh. Hobble Bush.

The inflorescence is in broad, flat corymbs of flowers of two

different sizes. The center florets are small, 5 mm. broad,

white tinged with red, and in autumn produce bright-red ber-

ries; while the marginal ones, a single row of which surrounds

the corymb, are large, 20 mm. broad, white, and sterile. Their

size has been increased at the expense of their fruitfulness, and

as their use is to attract the attention of insects, they open a

day or two in advance of the inner and smaller florets. “The

older flowers are actually occupied," Kerner remarks, “in the

allurement of insects for the advantage of the younger ones."

Since their conspicuousness is useless to themselves but of

benefit to the community, they may be said unconsciously to

play the part of benefactors. The stamens stand nearly erect,

and spontaneous self-fertilization can easily occur by the pollen

falling upon the sessile stigmas.

Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apidz : (1) Apis mellifica L., 3 ;

(2) Bombus bifarius Cr, 9; (3) Nomada maculata Cr., 9 ;

Andrenide : (4) Andrena sp.; (5) A. sp.

Diptera — Syrphide : (6) Syrphus ribesit L.; (7) Brachy-

palpus marginatus Hunter; Muscide: (8) Myiospila medita-

bunda F.; Cordyluride : (9) Scatophaga stercoraria L.

Coleoptera — Elateride: (10) Flater rubricus Say; (11)

Megapenthes rogersii Hornt; Cerambycidae: (12) Cyrtophorus

verrucosus Oliv.; (13) Microclytus gazellula Hald.; CEderme-

ride: (14) Asclera ruficollis Say; Mordellide : (15) Anaspis

rufa Say ; also Pachyta monticola Rand.

Hemiptera — two species. Waldoboro, May 9-19.

Viburnum lentago L. Sweet Viburnum.

The flowers are homogamous. The stamens are much longer

than the stigmas and divergent; self-fertilization is not, how-

!In his list of Coleoptera from the southern shore of Lake Superior, 1896,

Prof. H. F. Wickham remarks: “ Of the Elateride it is a pleasure to record the

capture of a fine specimen of Megapenthes rogersii, a rare insect recorded hitherto

only from Canada.” The specimen taken by the writer was determined by Pro-

fessor Wickham.

40 THE AMERICAN NA TURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ever, impossible, as the inflorescence often stands in such a

position that the stigma is directly in line with the falling

pollen. The large size of the cymes and their great abundance

render the bush very conspicuous. The odor is faint but agree-

able. Honey is secreted in a thin adherent layer by the ovary,

but may be observed more readily in the angle formed with

the corolla, where it is sought by insects.

Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apidæ : (1) Apis mellifica L., 9,

common; Andrenidæ: (2) Halictus disparalis Cr., 9; (3)

Andrena vicina Sm., 9, common; (4) A. rugosa Rob., 9 ; (5)

A. designata Ashm., 9 ; (6) A. viole Rob., 9; (7) A. clay-

tonig Rob., 9.

Diptera — Syrphidze: (8) Eristalis transversus Wied.; (9)

E. saxorum Wied. ; (10) Syrphus ribesii L.; (11) Spherophoria

cylindrica Say; (12) Mellota postica Fab.; (13) Helophilus

latifrons Loew; (14) Syritta pipiens L.; Empidida: (15)

Rhamphomyia luteiventris Loew; Muscidae: (16) Morellia

micans Macq.; also minute Diptera.

Coleoptera—Nitidulide: (17) Carpophilus brachypterus Say ;

(18) Colastus truncatus Rand; Cerambycide: (19) Leptura

lineola Say; Scarabæidæ : (20) Hoplia trifasciata Say ; Mor-

dellidae: (21) Anaspis rufa Say. Waldoboro, June 16, 17, 18,

and 21.

Viburnum dentatum L. Arrowwood.

Honey is secreted by the lower part of the ovary, and there

is a faint, rather peculiar fragrance. The stamens are 5 mm.

in length and much surpass the stigmas. The flowers are not

so frequently visited by insects as V. /entago. In addition

to the list given below, two butterflies were seen at a distance

upon the inflorescence.

Visitors: Hymenoptera — Andrenidz: (1) Halictus sp.; (2)

Andrena rugosa Rob., 9.

Diptera — Syrphidze : (3) Syrphus ribesii L.; (4) Chilosia sp.

Coleoptera — Elateridz: (5) Elater rubricus Say; (6) Seri-

cosomus incongruus Lec.; Cerambycida: (7) Leptura chryso-

coma Kirby; (8) L. vittata Germ.; (9) L. lineola Say; Scara-

No. 397.1 VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACE. 41

bæidæ : (10) Hoplia trifasciata Say; (11) Macrodactylus sub-

spinosus Fab.

Hemiptera — one species. Waldoboro, July 6-10.

Viburnum cassinoides L. Withe Rod.

The structure of the flowers is very similar to that of the

preceding species. The perfume is distinct, and the flowers

contain honey.

Visitors: Hymenoptera — Andrenide: (1) Andrena vicina

Sm., 9; (2) Halictus palustris Rob., 9.

Lepidoptera — Rhopalocera : (3) Lycena pseudargiolus Boisd.

& Lec,

Diptera — Syrphide: (4) Spherophoria cylindrica Say; (5)

Syrphus ribesii L.; Empidide: (6) Empis pubescens Loew;

(7) Rhamphomyia luteiventris Loew ; Sapromyzidz : (8) Sapro-

myza longipennis Fab.

Coleoptera — Elateride: (9) Agriotes stabilis Lec.; (10) A.

fucosus Lec.; Lampyridze : (11) Telephorus fraxini Say ; Ceram-

bycide: (12) Leptura mutabilis Newm. ; (13) Pachyta monti-

cola Rand; (14) Molorchus bimaculatus Say ; Cistellidae : (15)

lsomira quadristriata Coup. Waldoboro, June 26-28.

In V. pubescens Pursh and V. prunifolium L. the flowers are

homogamous, and spontaneous self-fertilization and geitonog-

amy may occur. (Robertson, Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXV, No. 4.)

| < *

clo als

3 ei) J B/E

€] Glee) 218 lee/3)8)2| ai

EIRIER SIE IES) 21815

<| On AlE joalolal]e

V. prunifolium, Illinois, Rob. . | 9 | 26; 2 |17 13 7 |76| April 24-29

V. pubescens, Illinois, Rob. ...| 6 | 21 7113| 7/18] 2 |73, May 4-9

F. opulus, Germany, Müller. . . I 6l t] Ll-7 6

V. ainifolium, Maine... ..... 3| 2 2| 6 15 | May 9-19

F. lentago, Maine .......... r6 7| 1| 1| 5| 1 |22| June 16-21

V. cassinoides, Maine ....... 2 2| 2| 1| 7| 1 |15| June 26-28

V. dentatum, Maine ....... | 2 2 7 | 11 | July 6-10

d f

An examination of the table shows that the most important

visitors are Andrenidæ, flies, and beetles, to which the inflo-

42 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

rescence, with its freely exposed honey, is well adapted. The

long-tongued bees are comparatively rare. The smaller bees

are very efficient pollinators, and the species are both numer-

ous and common. The absence, as a rule, of other Hymenop-

tera is noteworthy. Of Diptera the Syrphide and Empididz

are the most important. The latter are most abundant in May,

the time of blooming of several species of Viburnum. Many

minute flies also seek the flowers. Beetles are very frequent

visitors to all the species except V. prunifolium, to which none

are recorded. This is certainly remarkable, and further obser-.

vations are desirable. Delpino included V. opulus among the

flowers adapted to beetles, but Müller regarded flies as the

most efficient pollinators. The variety of Coleoptera is interest-

ing, as the twenty-six visits I have enumerated were made by

twenty-one species. Lepidoptera are rare, as the long proboscis

of these insects is not adapted to suck the honey in rotate

flowers.

SYMPHORICARPOS JUSS.

There are a few flowers which are adapted to wasps, and to

which these insects are very frequent visitors. The most im-

portant wasp flowers are Epipactis latifolia Swartz, Cotoneaster

vulgaris Lindl., Scrophularia nodosa L., Symphoricarpos race-

asus Michx., and Lonicera alpigena L., the last two belonging

to the Caprifoliacez. The flowers agree in having abundant

honey secreted in a short corolla, or pouch-like receptacle,

about the size of a wasp’s head, and usually lurid colors. In

England Epipactis latifolia is visited by swarms of wasps,

which effectually fertilize the plants, and although Darwin saw

hive bees and bumblebees of many kinds constantly flying over

the plants, he never saw a bee or any dipterous insect visit the

flowers. He expresses astonishment that the sweet nectar

should not be attractive to any kind of bee. Miiller’s state-

ment is very clear. He says: “This plant in the Alps often

grows on the same rocks to which a wasp (Polistes gallica)

has attached its stalked, open nests. I have found the flowers

visited solely by the above-mentioned wasp, whose head just

1 Darwin, On the Fertilization of Orchids by Insects, p. 102.

No. 397-]. VISITORS OF THE CA PRIFOLIACEZ. 43

fits into the flower." ! The same observer found in Westphalia

five species of wasps very common visitors to Scrophularia

nodosa. This flower exhibits retrogressive modification in

that the upper fifth stamen, which is useless, is reduced to a

sterile black scale.

Symphoricarpos racemosus Michx. Snow Berry.

The small reddish flowers are campanulate and pendulous.

The ample supply of honey, secreted by the base of the corolla,

is prevented from escaping by numerous slender hairs which

line its anterior portion. The short pistil is only about half

the length of the corolla, to the sides of which are attached the

stamens, with the anthers converging toward the center. The

flowers are homogamous. “As the wasp thrusts its head

wholly into the flower, it comes at once in contact with all

five anthers and then touches with one side the stigma; but on

its way to the stigma little or no pollen remains attached to it,

partly because the pollen is very slightly adhesive, and partly

because any grains that do attach themselves are brushed =

before they reach the stigma by the hairs lining the corolla.”

But after the insect’s head has been moistened with honey it

acquires a plentiful coating of pollen, which is carried to the

next flower.

In Thuringia, according to Miiller, nine-tenths of all the

visitors belong to five species of wasps; while at Lippstadt,

where wasps are much less abundant, the honey bee prepon-

derates. At Rendsburg, Schróder observed that the flowers

were visited by numerous Noctuidaz between the hours of 9

and 10 in the evening; in Belgium, Macleod collected nine

species of night-flying moths belonging to this family. The

more important observations are given in the table? on the

following page.

! Müller, A/pendlumen, p. 214.

2 Müller, Fertilization n of Flower.

? Knuth, Handbuch der Fibbudidan Pd. ii, Nr. 1, p. 527.

44 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ANDREN-| OTHER

IDA. I

HvMENop.| DIPTERA.| TOTAL

Wasps. | Aripa.

2 I I

Ons WU N

Southern Germany, Müller

Heringsdorf, Knuth.....

Brandenburg, Loew .....

BOO

Ww (9 4A C N

hoe ty

—

Symphoricarpos symphoricarpos (L.) MacM.; S. vulgaris Michx.

. Coral Berry.

The greenish-white flowers tinged with rose have essentially

the same structure as those of the preceding species. The

stigma and anthers also mature together. In Illinois, Robertson

collected, between July 8 and August 30, the following visitors :

Wasps, 5; Andrenidze, 5; Sphecidæ, 1; Pompilidae, 1.1

LiwNzEA L.

A monotypic genus.

Linnea borealis L. Twin Flower.

One of the most attractive of June flowers is the twin flower,

Linnea borealis L., named after Linnzeus, with whom it was a

special favorite. It extends throughout the eastern Northern

States, from Newfoundland and through British America,

Alaska, Siberia, and northern Europe to England. It is a

trailing evergreen vine densely carpeting the ground in cold,

open woodlands. The nodding pinkish blossoms are borne in

pairs at the summit of elongated peduncles, and exhale a sweet,

vanilla-like fragrance. The funnel-formed corolla is five-lobed,

nearly regular, though the two superior lobes are slightly

larger. The tube is 8 mm. in length, and for 3 mm. is very

small. The inverted position of the flower excludes rain. The

lobes are whitish, the tube wine-colored, with a yellow marking

on the lower side which serves as a honey guide. The honey

is secreted on the same side, at the base of the corolla, between

1 Trans. Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, vol. vii, No. 6, April, 1896.

No. 397] VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACEZ. 45

the two shorter stamens. The stamens are four, included,

didynamous, and the anthers dehisce introrsely. The total

length of the flower is about 10 mm., of the pistil 11 mm., so

that the green capitate stigma is exserted, an arrangement

favoring cross-fertilization. A legitimate visitor, in creeping

over the edge of the bell, comes in contact first with the stigma

and deposits upon it pollen brought from another flower; sub-

sequently, while sucking honey, the underside of its body

brushes the anthers of the two longer stamens, and the head

touches the anthers of the two shorter. Within the corolla

are many inter-crossing hairs, which exclude small, useless

flies, which I have seen vainly seeking an entrance. They

also afford a foothold to the proper guests.

During a part of an afternoon a large bed of Linnza in full

bloom was carefully observed, and eight visitors were collected.

On examination they all were found to belong to a single

species of fly, Empis rufescens Loew, of the Empidide. Other

observations showed that in this locality this fly is the most

frequent and perhaps the only pollenizer. In the Alps, Müller

observed three Diptera and one butterfly. The butterfly was

probably an accidental visitor, as these insects are unusually

abundant in the Alps. Loew saw in Brandenburg a long-

legged fly, Neurigona quadrifasciata F., of the family Dolicho-

podida. This family is closely allied to the Empidide. The

flowers of Z. borealis L. are, then, in both continents, adapted

to slender flies which live in woodlands, I saw a female bumble-

bee fly over a bed of the flowers without paying any attention

to them. Self-fertilization may occur by the pollen falling in

some instances upon the stigma. ;

Visitors: Diptera; Empididæ; Empis rufescens Loew, suck-

ing, common. Waldoboro, June to July 6.

LONICERA.

Lonicera ciliata Muhl. American Fly Honeysuckle.

This is the only species of Lonicera native in this locality.

The pendulous, funnel-formed flowers are sheltered beneath the

young leaves. The tube is ro mm. to 11 mm. long and con-

46 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

tains nectar in a spur near the base. Female species of Bom-

bus, in their haste to obtain the nectar, frequently puncture the

tube a short distance above the spur. The flowers are slightly

proterogynous. The stigma usually stands a few millimeters

in advance of the anthers, but in several instances I have seen

it resting directly against them, so that self-fertilization may

occur. The color is greenish-yellow. The flowers are visited

by Bombus vagans Sm., 9, and several small bees. The bloom-

ing season is from May 7 to I5.

The genus Lonicera includes about 100 species, chiefly

natives of the north temperate zone. According to the visi-

tors which pollenize the flowers, they may be divided into wasp

flowers, bee flowers, bumblebee flowers, hawk-moth flowers, and

bird flowers.

1. Wasp Flowers. — In the Alps, L. alpigena L. is adapted

to wasps. The tube is short, with a prominent pouch-like

receptacle which contains abundant honey; the entrance is

protected by stiff hairs. The lower lip affords a convenient

landing place. An insect comes in contact first with the

stigma and subsequently with the anthers. Müller states that

the flowers are homogamous, but according to Kerner they are

proterogynous. The color is reddish-brown. Müller observed

in the Alps 2 species of wasps in great numbers ; Bombus, 3;

other bees, 4; Syrphidz, 2; Lepidoptera, 2; Coleoptera, 2.

2. Melittophilous, or Bee Flowers. — L. tartarica L. and L.

nigra L. are visited by both the larger and smaller bees. The

stigma and anthers in both species ripen simultaneously and

are in close proximity; bees push their way into the flower

between them and come in contact with both. Self-fertiliza-

tion may occur by the insect thrusting the anthers against the

stigma. JL. ¢artarica is pink or white, with a tube 6 mm. long,

and in Germany is visited by: Apida, 2; Andrenidz, 1; Syr-

phidz, 1 (Müller). Upon Z. zzgra, Apis, Bombus, and numer-

ous smaller bees and flies have been observed.

3. Bombus Flowers. — The length of the tube in the bumble-

bee flowers varies from 3 to 15 mm., while the proboscis of the

largest bees is 21 mm. long. The stamens diverge so widely

that the smaller bees and flies may never touch the stigma.

No. 397.] VISITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIACEAE. 47

Self-fertilization may occur. The color is pale yellow, or

yellow.

LENGTH OF OTHER aes

Tuse In | Bom- |Hymen- Fes T

DOP- TOTAL.

MILLI- BUS. OP- TERA.

TERA.

METERS. TERA.

L. xylosteum, Westphalia, Müller 3- 4 2 I 2 5

L. caerulea, Alps, Müller . . 6- 7 6 II 3 2 22

L. pimp Illinois, Reberisón 14-18 2 I I 4

4. Sphingophilous, or Hawk-moth Flowers. — L. caprifolium

L. and Z. periclymenum L. are adapted to crepuscular and noc-

turnal Lepidoptera, especially to the hawk moths; while bees

are only accidental visitors. The flowers are two-lipped and,

when in bloom, stand nearly horizontal. The anthers turn

their pollen-covered sides upward, and the whole underside of

the moth is covered with pollen. The stigma protrudes so far

in advance of the anthers that self-fertilization is not likely to

occur. The honey is abundant and is secreted in the lowest

part of the corolla tube, while in the non-twining honeysuckles

the corolla possesses a honey-forming expansion above the base.!

The flowers expand in the evening, when they exhale their fra-

grance most strongly.

L. caprifolium has a tube 30 mm. long and 1 or 2 mm. wide.

The color is purplish without and white within. Müller collected

upon the flowers in Westphalia: Sphingide, 6; other Lepi-

doptera, 4. The proboscis of the large hawk moth, Sphinx

convolvuli, is 65 to 80 mm. in length. The fragrance of the

honeysuckle is perceived by this moth at a long distance.

Kerner removed one of these moths to a part of the garden

300 yards away from the honeysuckle and marked it with

cinnabar. “When twilight fell, the hawk moth began to wave

the feelers which serve it as olfactory organs hither and thither

a few times, then stretched its wings and flew like an arrow

through the garden to the honeysuckle.” The same observer

States that butterflies pass over the flowers without pausing,

! Kerner, The Natural History of Plants, vol. ii, pp. 177, 178.

48 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

and that the fragrance is either unperceived or is unpleasant

to them.

The tube of L. periclymenum is 22 to 25 mm. long, so that

the honey, which may fill the tube for half its length, is also

accessible to bumblebees. During the first evening the inte-

rior of the flowers is white, and the matured anthers stand

directly in front of the entrance, while the stigma is bent

abruptly downward. On the second evening the color within

has changed to yellow, the stigma has moved upward and

stands in front of the flower, while the anthers are in turn

bent downward. It is doubtless designed that moths should

visit the flowers in the first stage before those in the second.

Knuth was, however, unable to determine in the evening which

kind of flowers was sought first, as the moths move with great

rapidity. In this connection the color change is probably of

not much significance. The hawk-moth flowers were once

bumblebee flowers, with yellowish coloration. After the hawk

moths had dispossessed the bees, the production of yellow pig-

ment was no longer beneficial, and consequently tended to dis-

appear. Its reappearance in the older flowers is due partly to

reversion and partly to oxidation, for the flowers in wilting

continue to darken and turn a dingy orange-brown. More-

over, yellow is probably as conspicuous as white in the even-

ing, and nocturnal flowers, as the evening primrose, CEzotLera

biennis, may be yellow-colored.

On the Island of Fóhr, Knuth collected: Sphingida, 5;

Noctuidz, 1; Diptera, 4; Bombus, 1. The same observer

saw in Helgoland: Sphingide, 2; Noctuidae, 2. Heinsius

saw in Holland: Bombus, 1, as well as many pollen-eating flies.

Macleod observed in Belgium: Bombus, 2; Sphingide, 1.

5. Ornithophilous or Bird Flowers. — L. sempervirens L. is

fertilized by the ruby-throated humming bird. The narrow tube

is 25 to 35 mm. long, with a regularlimb. The color is scarlet

outside, yellow within, or rarely throughout. The flower is

scentless. Crimson or scarlet is the characteristic color of

bird flowers, as Lobelia canadensis and Tecoma radicans. Red

appears to be the favorite color in bird zsthetics, and a larger

number of edible fruits display this hue than any other. Of

No.397.] VZSITORS OF THE CAPRIFOL/ACE XA. 49

the fourteen species of Lonicera in the Northern States, ten

have red berries, one yellow, and three black, or bluish-black.

The original color of Z. sempervirens was undoubtedly yellow,

to which it occasionally reverts. This color change is very

common and may occur in the course of the development of

the individual flower. In certain South American species of

Lantana the flowers are at first yellow, when they are visited

by bees, and later change to red, and are then attractive to

butterflies. Z. sullivantii is also visited by the humming

bird.

DIERVILLA MÆŒNCH.

This genus is confined to North America and consists of

two species; one is distributed throughout the north temperate

zone, the other is found in the mountains of the Southern

States,

Diervilla diervilla (L.) MacM.; D. trifida Mench.

Bush Honeysuckle.

The northern species, D. diervilla, is a low shrub growing

in rocky woodlands and thickets. The flowers are solitary or

in few-flowered cymes. The corolla is funnel-formed, more or

less two-lipped, with a tube 7 mm. long, light yellow, the upper

lobe marked with an orange honey guide. The honey, which

is abundant and may fill the tube for 3 mm. of its length, is

secreted by a thick quadrangular gland at the base of the tube

on the upper side. The lower portion of the filaments, style,

and middle lower petal are bearded, the hairs serving to exclude

small insects and the wet. The odor is very faint or absent.

The older flowers turn reddish, a color change which also

occurs in Rides aureum and in the genera Weigelia, Fuchsia,

and Lantana. In Rides aureum, Müller states that the more

intelligent insects immediately recognize those flowers which

no longer contain nectar, and consequently visit more blos-

soms in the same time.! Repeated observations failed to show

that the color change in D. diervilla was of the same signifi-

1 Fertilization of Flowers, p. 251.

50 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

cance. The honey bee was observed to visit the red flowers

both when solitary and when associated with yellow flowers.

Neither was there any preference manifested for yellow

flowers when flowers of both colors occurred in the same

cyme. Examination showed that the reddish flowers con-

tinued to secrete honey abundantly. This is an instance, not

uncommon, of a flower secreting nectar longer than is neces-

sary. The stems and leaves are frequently reddish, due probably

to oxidation, and the reddish color of the older flowers appears

to be due to a similar change in the nutritive fluids.

The flowers are proterogynous. Immediately after the

apices of the corolla separate, the stigma protrudes in a recep-

tive condition. At this stage the anthers, which are 4 mm.

long, rest directly against the style, the length of which is

then 13 mm. and of the stamens 12 mm.; in the older flowers

the style lengthens to 19 mm., the stamens to 15 mm. The

anthers dehisce introrsely shortly after the expansion of the

flower, but as they are shorter than the style, self-fertilization

is not likely to occur. As the style lengthens it is bent aside,

and the honey bee was observed to visit flower after flower

without coming in contact with the stigma.

The length of the corolla tube (7 mm.) and the fact that the

anthers are divergent and not in close proximity to the stigma

indicate that the flower is adapted to bumblebees. The smaller

bee, Halictus disparalis Cr., 9, was seen to try vainly to reach

the honey. The most frequent visitor, however, is the honey

bee. The larva of the hawk moth, Hemaris difinis, feeds upon

the leaves, and the moth sucks the flowers. Minute flies and

a beetle were observed feeding upon the pollen.

Visitors: Hymenoptera — Apida : (1) Apis mellifica L., 9,

sucking, frequent; (2) Bombus bimaculatus Cr., 9, s.; (3)

Psithyrus (Apathus) laboriosus Fab., 9, s.; Andrenida: (4)

Halictus sp.; (8) H. disparalis Cr., 9, collecting pollen; (6)

Halictulus americanus Ash., 9; (7) Augochlora aurata, Sm.,

9,c.p. None common except the first.

Lepidoptera — Rhopalocera: (8) Pamphila peckius Kirby,

s.; Heterocera: (9) Hemaris diffinis, s., standing on a leaf or

poising on the wing. June 29 to July 6. Waldoboro.

No. 397-] VZSITORS OF THE CAPRIFOLIJACEX. 5I

WEIGELIA THUN.

The eastern Asiatic species of Weigelia are often referred

to Diervilla, but are regarded as distinct by Britton! An

immense number of varieties have been produced in cultivation

by selection and hybridization, which are remarkable for their

wide range of coloration. There are white and deep-red forms

with every intermediate shade; white when opening but chan-

ging to rose ; deep red in bud but rose-colored in bloom ; flower

pale rose at first, changing to deep red; yellow; light yellow,

changing to white; pale yellow, changing to pale rose; and

reddish-purple. The leaves are also frequently.highly varie-

gated with yellow and white.

Weigelia rosea Lindley.

The trumpet-shaped flowers were observed by Müller in

Germany to be visited by Osmia rufa L., 9, and also by

Halictus leucopus K., 9, and H. sexnotatus K., 9. These

small bees creep into the corolla tube, the mouth of which is

8 to IO mm. in diameter, to obtain the nectar. They come in

contact first with the stigma, which surpasses the anthers, and

then with the pollen-covered anthers. The flowers are stated

to be proterogynous, but not to the exclusion of self-fertiliza-

tion. Knuth saw Bombus agrorum F., 9, frequently visit the

flowers in his garden. There is not, however, sufficient room

for the larger bees to enter the flower conveniently.?

! Britton and Brown, ///ustrated Flora, vol. iii, p. 242.

? Knuth, Handbuch der Blütenbiologie, Bd. ii, Nr. 1, p. 525.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Anthropological Notes. — In the American Anthropologist for July,

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes describes the Alósaka cult of the Hopi Indians.

His conclusions are, in part, as follows: * There survives in the

Hopi Ritual a worship of horned beings, called Alósakas, which once

existed at the now ruined pueblo of Awatobi.” “The purpose of

the rites performed in this cult is to cause seeds, especially corn, to

germinate and grow, and to bring rain to water the farms." “The

Alósaka cult is a highly modified form of animal totemism, and the

Alósaka represents the mountain sheep."

Professor A. C. Haddon publishes an account of the Cambridge

Anthropological Expedition to Torres Strait and Sarawak in Nature

of August 31. It is stated that the scientific results obtained by

the seven members of the party will be published in a series of

memoirs which will be obtainable separately. Dr. Rivers and

Messrs. Myers, McDougall, and Seligmann will write the volume on

experimental psychology; Mr. Ray is said to have ample matter for

a volume on linguistics. Professor Haddon will deal with the phys-

ical anthropology of the natives of Torres Strait and New Guinea.

Music, religion, medicine, statistics, architecture, etc., will be treated

by the several members of the party. A large number of excellent

photographs were taken. :

An illustrated article appeared in the July number of Monumental

Records, in which Mr. Geo. H. Pepper described the ceremonial

deposits found in an ancient pueblo estufa at the Pueblo Bonito in

the Chaco Cafion. The Hyde Expedition, of which Mr. Pepper is the

director, has worked several seasons at that extensive group of ruins,

and the explorations are to be continued. The discovery of ceremo-

nial objects is said to be the first reported from any pueblo ruin.

In the September-October number of the American Antiquarian,

William P. Blake publishes a brief account of the aboriginal turquoise

mines of Arizona and New Mexico. He mentions a few of the local-

ities from which turquoise has been obtained, but refers the reader

54 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

to the treatise, by Geo. F. Kunz, on * Gems and Precious Stones

of North America," for further information. The author maintains

that the Nahuatl term * chalchuitl” referred to turquoise and not to

jade and emerald, as stated by E. G. Squier. We note that Brinton,

in his “ Prehistoric Archaology," applies the term “ chalchuitl”’ to

jade alone.

In the same journal A. F. Berlin describes a valuable collection of

terra-cotta antiquities from the land of the Incas, and incidentally

mentions the fact that these rare specimens had been safely trans-

ported long distances by the careful and friendly natives, but were

broken and otherwise injured by the New York custom inspectors.

The first number of Vol. I of the Memoirs of the Bernice Pauahi

Bishop Museum of Polynesian Ethnology and Natural History is

devoted to Hawaiian Feather Work. The director of the museum,

W. T. Brigham, refers to the early voyagers who found the art of

feather working in a flourishing state in Hawaii during the latter

part of the last century; he then describes and furnishes illustra-

tions of the birds from which the feathers are obtained; the hel-

mets, cloaks, and other articles of feathers are described in more or

less detail, and lists are given of the specimens now known to exist

in the various museums of the world. The monograph is very fully

illustrated, two of the plates being in colors.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Physics of Cell Life. — Realizing the prematureness of any pres-

ent attempt at a chemical understanding of cell phenomena, and

believing that there is a large field for interpretation upon a purely

physical basis, Dr. L. Rhumbler has devoted himself to a most prom-

ising line of investigation — the study of the physics of the cell as

explanation of its phenomena; an attempt to analyze cell life, as far as

may be, into physical components, leaving the ultimate chemical prob-

lems for the future. His previous papers deal with the shell-making

of the rhizopods and with cell division; the present,’ with some of

the phenomena of distribution of pigment in eggs and early larve.

Assuming that protoplasm is a foam, much as claimed by Bütschli,

and that the nucleus and the centrosomes at certain times absorb

1 Physikalische Analyse von Lebenserscheinungen der Zellen II, III, Archiv

J- Entwick. d. Organismen, Bd. ix, Sept. 5, 1899, pp. 32-100, Pl. IV.

No. 397-| REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 55

liquids from the foam, he has argued the necessary occurrence of

many of the phenomena of cell division. On the same basis he now

attempts to account for the distribution of pigment in many cases.

With the aid of pressure experiments upon the yolk of the hen’s

egg, the use of his system of elastic bands, and of the interesting

gelatine models devised by Biitschli, the author endeavors to support

an application of his views to the phenomena described by Fischel

in 1899. Fischel placed live eggs of echinoderms in very weak

solutions of neutral red, and found that minute granules became

stained all through the egg. When the egg divided, these granules

were concentrated about the nucleus and in the spindle stage formed

a dumbbell-shaped mass; later they were again more uniformly dis-

tributed. Rhumbler endeavors to show that this apparent motion of

the granules was not due to actual migration, and then explains it as

a result of the drying effect postulated in his theory. If the nucleus

absorbs water from the neighboring foam, the lamellz of that foam

will become denser and the contents of the alveoli smaller, and large

bodies, such as yolk spherules, be squeezed away from such a region

of increased pressure. Small bodies may, however, remain, provided

they have sufficient adhesion to the alveolar lamellae. This he assumes

to be the case with the minute stained granules. In the region

about the nucleus, where water is absorbed and from which large

granules are forced away, there will be a condensation that must

bring the granules nearer together if they stick to the shrinking

lamella. The crowding of granules about the nucleus is thus due

to a diminution in mass of material and not to a migration of gran-

ules from afar.

The author next takes up the arrangement of normal pigment in

the eggs of Amphibia. The well-known dark streak that marks the

path passed over by the sperm moving within the frog’s egg is due,

he maintains, not to any attraction on the part of the sperm, nor to

any manufacture of new pigment, nor to any other chemical process,

but simply to the physical stress produced by the passage of a body

through a foam. The sperm adheres to the foam framework and

tends to pull it along; the resulting tension behind the sperm leads

to outflow of the more liquid contents of the alveoli, and a shrinkage

of the framework that draws the adherent pigment granules nearer

together.

The pigment is thus concentrated behind the sperm much as the

colored granules were concentrated about the nucleus in Fischel’s

experiments. The granules remain in the region of tension and

56 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

diminished volume and so are nearer together; they do not travel

to such regions.

Though the reader may not be convinced of the necessity of this

explanation, it is certainly most interesting to learn that bubbles of

air squeezed through mashed egg masses, and even through artificial

mixtures of soot and emulsions, do leave pigmented tracks behind,

similar to the sperm track. Some physical explanation of the pig-

mented sperm track seems forced upon us.

The author then takes up the concentration of pigment upon part

of the surface of the frog’s egg; the aggregation of pigment about

the nucleus in cleavage stages of the frog’s egg; the remarkable

rearrangements of pigment in isolated cells of frog’s eggs when

“cytotropic’? movements bring them together again; the arrange-

ments of pigment in blastulz of triton after injury by pressure; and

the normal arrangement of pigment in certain cells of the triton in

the stages of gastrulation and of formation of neural ridges.

In all cases he applies the same formula: pigment collects in

areas of increased pressure and of condensation.

When cells are in active chemical interchange there will be greater

adhesion of their applied surfaces and less cohesion of the part of

each turned towards its neighbor. The parts of the cells most

removed from such interchange will be those of relatively high ten-

sion, and in these the pigment, if present at all, may be concentrated

by adhering to the shrinking lamella. Pigment will be on the

denser and chemically inactive sides of cells.

In early stages of development pigment does not indicate active

chemical changes where it is found, nor is it of any direct use; it

remains inert and is concentrated in areas of condensation or may

even be expelled from active areas.

Secondarily, natural selection may have emphasized its occurrence

in some places where it happened to be of use.

Aside from the main issue, the author's evidence that invagination

and evagination are due to actions of individual cells seems specially

interesting. E A A.

Biological Lectures. — The substantial character of the work done

at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl is evinced by

the recently published volume of Biological Lectures for 1898.' The

sixteen lectures thus brought together are by well-known authorities,

and touch on one side or another almost all the important biological

1 Biological Lectures, from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl,

Mass., 1898. 343 pp. Ginn & Company, Boston, 1899.

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 57

problems of the day. The opening lecture is on the structure of

protoplasm, by E. B. Wilson, whose study of the living echinoderm

egg has led him to revise his former opinion and declare himself now

in favor of the alveolar structure of protoplasm. Too much stress

cannot be laid upon the importance which the author ascribes to the

study of living protoplasm as a check upon what we assume to be

a satisfactory preservation of it by histological means. Five lectures

deal with problems of celllineage: the homologies of cells and cell

groups are discussed by E. B. Wilson; the interpretation of the vari-_

ous kinds of egg cleavage as adaptations of the egg is taken up by

F. R. Lillie; the importance of protoplasmic movement in the distri-

bution of materials from the nucleus is emphasized by E. G. Conklin;

equal and unequal cleavage in annelids is treated by A. L. Treadwell,

who points out that those organs which appear early in ontogeny are

usually represented by large-bodied cells, irrespective of the distribu-

tion of yolk; the origin of the prototroch is considered by A. D. Mead.

Closely related to these subjects are C. M. Clapp's lecture on the rela-

tion of the axis of the embryo to the first cleavage plane, which is

dealt with from the modern experimental standpoint, and T. H. Mont-

gomery's account of the nucleolus. The possible relations of con-

tractility and phosphorescence are pointed out by S. Watasé, who

argues for the view that phosphorescence may be a general property

of living protoplasm. T. H. Morgan, in considering some of the

problems of regeneration, points out the apparent inefficiency of

purely mechanical explanations, and suggests to students the impor-

tance of keeping the vitalistic standpoint in view. Problems in evo-

lution are represented by H. C. Bumpus's interesting examination of

a large number of English sparrows killed in a severe winter storm ;

the birds eliminated were in one respect or another far removed from

the typical form. The question of heredity is dealt with by J. Loeb,

as illustrated in the markings of fish embryos, and the present neces-

sity of an analytic treatment is enforced. Paleontology is represented

by W. B. Scott’s account of North American ruminant-like mammals.

An appreciative historical review of Wolff's Zheoria generationis is

given by W. M. Wheeler. Animal psycho-physiology is represented

by W. W. Norman's very interesting paper on the question whether

the reactions of lower animals due to injury indicate sensations of

pain, and C. O. Whitman’s elaborate account of the habits oí

leeches, salamanders, and pigeons. The volume is concluded with

brief memorial notices of J. I. Peck, J. E. Humphrey, and W. W.

Tom. G. H. P.

59 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

ZOOLOGY.

Kingsley’s Vertebrate Zoölogy. — That the study of vertebrate

anatomy in America has passed the period of pure comparison and

entered that of a more scientific morphology has become evident by

the appearance of a recent work by Dr. John Sterling Kingsley,* who

thus gains the honor of producing the first American text-book on

the subject.

By this we do not mean that there has been any lack of special

investigation in the field of vertebrate anatomy, but, as stated in the

preface of the work under consideration, “observation and uncor-

related facts do not make a science," and a comprehensive text-book

which collects in a system the results of this series of investigations

has hitherto been lacking in our literature. The place of such a

work has been supplied up to the present time by European text-

books, among which may be first mentioned the Grundriss of Wie-

dersheim (latest edition 1898) and the new edition of Gegenbaur, of

which the first part has just appeared; but in these the disadvantage

of a foreign language, the lapse of time which must necessarily

ensue before they can appear in translation, and the exotic character

given by the frequent references to animals exclusively European

emphasize the need of an American manual illustrated by American

material. In this respect it becomes a matter of satisfaction to

glance through the pages of Kingsley’s work and find Acanthias,

Necturus, Amblystoma, and Sceloporus in place of Scyllium, Proteus,

Salamandra, and Lacerta.

The object of the book, as stated by the author, is “to supple-

ment both lectures and laboratory work and to place in concise form

the more important facts and generalizations concerning the verte-

brates,” and its employment as collateral reading for the student will

emancipate the lecturer from the necessity of continually reiterating

the elementary principles of the subject. Its use in the laboratory,

also, where it will assist the student in finding out what he wishes to

know, will be a pleasing change from the usual laboratory manual,

with its too carefully tabulated series of observations, a style of liter-

ature which it is as easy for an author to write as it is difficult for

another to follow.

In arrangement Dr. Kingsley’s text-book is divided into two parts,

1 Kingsley, J. S. Zext-Boo£ of Vertebrate Zoology. New York, Henry Holt &

Co., 1899. E

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 59

the first being morphological, and the second systematic. In the first

part the work is based entirely on embryology, and an introduction

which sketches the main features of development is succeeded by

the morphology of the organs arrayed in accordance with the germ

layers. Although logically there is much to be said in favor of

such an arrangement, it would seem hardly an improvement on the

usual method, which begins with the skeleton and muscles, and thus

presents a framework that may serve as a series of relations by

‘means of which the other systems may be more easily described.

Although permissible for an elementary text-book of general mor-

phology where there is little or no descriptive anatomy, it would not

seem possible to employ such an arrangement in a work upon the

anatomy of a single animal, for historically the nomenclature of the

bones was the first established, and organs and parts of organs have

been named with reference to these, or to other parts which, in the

usual order, precede them. <A second difficulty is that it is impossi-

ble to remain consistent to such a plan, or if strict consistency be

carried out, it is then necessary to separate most widely organs

which should be treated together. . Thus, in the treatment of gills

(p. 22), it becomes logically advisable to speak of the external

“ gills " of amphibians which are strictly ectodermic and which, with

due regard to the arrangement of the book, should come in with the

integument (about p. 9o). Again, scales are treated under the divi-

sion “ectodermal structures," but these include the scales of tele-

osts which, in their completed state, are entirely mesenchymatous,

and also the scales of Selachians which possess a double origin.

The subject of teeth, though strictly homologous with the latter

organs, appears with the “endodermal organs,” although their origin

is made clear in the text, while dermal or membrane bones are

treated under * skeleton." It is of course impossible by any arrange-

ment always to bring correlated parts into close juxtaposition, but an

arrangement which separates so widely three such closely related

Structures as placoid scales, teeth, and dermal bones is certainly

unfortunate.

In the arrangement and nomenclature of the embryonic layers, the

author has employed the very convenient terms * mesothelium " and

" mesenchyme " for the two structures which arise between ectoderm

and endoderm, and thus leaves the word “ mesoderm" to be em-

ployed as a comprehensive term for both structures. It remains to

be seen, however, whether the replacement of the terms “ invagina-

tion" and « evagination " by the Saxon “ inpushing " and “ outpush-

60 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

ing" will be more favorably received than have been the many

attempts to find a substitute for the German “ Anlage."

The verbal nouns referred to must imply such verbs as “to

inpush " and “to outpush," and these forms are, as a matter of fact,

employed, as, for instance (p. 19), *becomes inpushed into the

deeper layers," but upon the same page the expression ‘ pushed

inside " and also the noun “ingrowth” appear, thus causing some

confusion.

A characteristic which impresses one especially favorably is the

extreme conciseness and concentration shown in the entire work,

which, at the same time, does not prevent the description from being

more than usually clear and comprehensive. An especially good

illustration of this is seen in the morphological description of the

skull, in which the entire subject is covered within the limits of sev-

enteen pages, and yet every essential point is fully treated (pp. 150-

167).

The second part of the work is called the ** Classification of Ver-

tebrates," but in reality it gives not only the enumeration of the

groups, but also presents so many anatomical details that it may be

used as a special comparative anatomy filled with the details which

were not possible in the first part. Thus, if a student is in search

of a special point in the anatomy of any animal, he should first read

the morphological description of the organ as given in the first part,

and then turn successively to the descriptions of the class, order,

and the smaller subdivisions within which the animal in question is

found. This seems an excellent arrangement and may be the cause

of the extreme conciseness of the first part, as it avoids clogging the

exposition, of the theories with concrete examples, as in the majority

of the text-books on the subject. Especially noticeable in the second

part is the treatment of the reptiles, which are completed by the

addition of the fossil orders ; and that of birds, which gives the new

classification founded upon anatomical characters.

The work is illustrated by 378 text-figures, of which about 150

are original and new.

Recent monographs have contributed several which thus appear

for the first time in a text-book (Ex. Figs. 120, 139, 160, 161).

Among the new figures there are some exceptionally clear diagrams,

such as Figs. 35, 61, 62, 110, and a series illustrating the relation-

ship of the various cavities of the body (Figs. 111, 127, etc.).

At places where we are accustomed to meet certain time-worn fig-

ures there is some relief in finding either a new object employed or,

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 61

at least, new figures representing the old object (Ex. Figs. 4, 6, 116,

118, 140)

There is a small number of the inevitable verbal errors, of which

may be noted : foramen lacerus anterior (p. 164), Fascia used as a

plural (p. 112), and Malapterus (p. 115).

A New Text-Book on the Nervous System. — No field of zoólo-

gical research has been more assiduously cultivated or has yielded

more important results in the last decade than the nervous system.

While the cell theory and the interpretation of most tissues in con-

formity with it are matters of history, the conception of the nervous

system as an association of cells dates really from 1891. With the

enunciation of the neurone theory by Waldeyer in that year, a new

era in the study of the nervous system began; and though this

theory may require modification even in some fundamental respects,

it has been undoubtedly a most important factor in bringing order

into what was neurological chaos. The result of this clarifying

influence has been, not only an enormous productivity in effective

research, but the appearance of several high-grade text-books deal-

ing with the nervous system from the new standpoint. Ramon y

Cajal's well-known brochure heads the list as the first consistent

attempt to describe the nervous system of the higher animals as an

aggregate of neurones. The same principle was adopted in van

Gehuchten's text-book, and to a less extent in the more conservative

treatises by Edinger and by von Lenhossék, and is accepted by the

well-known American neurologist, L. F. Barker, in his new text-book

entitled Zhe Nervous System and its Constituent Neurones."

The book, though divided into six sections, which are further sub-

divided into chapters, falls naturally into two parts: the first, com-

prising the first five sections of a little over 300 pages, contains a

general account of the structure and physiology of the nervous unit

or neurone ; and the second, including only the sixth section of some

650 pages, presents a descriptive account of the groups of neurones

constituting the nervous system of man and other higher mammals.

o the general reader the first five sections are naturally the more

interesting. The first section is given to an historical account of the

development of the neurone concept. This opens with a description

1 Barker, L. F. Zhe Nervous System and its Constituent Neurones, designed

for the Use of Practitioners of Medicine and of Students of Medicine and Psy-

chology. New York, Appleton & Co. xxxii + 1122 pp. 676 Uia Hon, and

2 colored plates

62 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of the diffuse nervous network, supposed by Gerlach to be the means

of communication between the nervous elements, and is followed by

an account of the discoveries made chiefly by the Golgi and the

Ehrlich methods, whereby investigators were’ led to abandon Ger-

lach’s views. By this course the reader is led up to the full state-

ment of the neurone theory by Waldeyer in 1891. The concluding

chapter of this section deals with the objections which have been

raised to the theory since its promulgation. The foundations of the

theory are fourfold: first, it is a priort probable that the nervous

system, like other parts of the body, is a cellular system; secondly,

it is well established that the embryonic nerve cells are as distinct

from one another in the beginning as any other cells; thirdly, the

nutrition of the nervous elements, as shown in their degeneration,

etc., is most readily understood on the grounds of this theory ; and,

fourthly, the selective staining of elements as seen in Golgi and in

Ehrlich preparations accords well with this view. The objections

raised against the theory are regarded by the author as relatively

slight. The union of nerve cells through their. processes, as seen

occasionally by observers such as Dogiel, is regarded as no more

objection to the general theory than Siamese twins are to the idea

that the human species is made up of separate individuals. The

results of Apáthy's studies, according to which a network much as

Gerlach believed in is claimed to exist, are stamped with ‘ Not

proved"; and the author states that even should they prove true they

afford no grounds for a serious criticism of the theory.

The second section deals with the external morphology of the

neurone. ‘The classification of cell processes into axones and den-

drites is generally accepted, and only a hint is now and then given

that the conditions in the lower animals show that this distinction

is one of a very questionable nature and certainly not fundamental.

The interrelation of neurones through contact only and the so-called

* retraction theory," so much in vogue with certain classes of psychol-

ogists, are put in their true light as a matter of great uncertainty.

The third section, on the internal morphology of the neurone, is a

masterful presentation of one of the most confused and intricate

problems of neurology. The interpretation of conflicting results on

the basis of differences in methods and the sweeping away of diffi-

culties arising from a confusion in terminology are admirable features

of this part of the work. In one respect only is the author less happy

in his treatment of the subject. He expresses the belief that many

of the problems of the finer anatomy of nerve cells must wait for

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 63

solution till more definite knowledge can be gained of the structure

of cells in general. To us it seems that the nerve cell is one of the

best cells in which these problems can be attacked.

The section on the histogenesis of nerve tissue is less satisfactory

than any of the preceding, because too little is given on histogenesis

and too much on the topographical development of the vertebrate

nervous system. The subject of the development of nerve fibres is

only touched, and the differentiation of the various forms of nerve

cells receives little attention. A very full account of the segmental

arrangement of the spinal nerves and their relation to the muscula-

ture is given.

The physiological and pathological aspect of the neurone is treated

in the fifth section. The metabolism of the nerve cell, as illustrated

by the degeneration of its fibres when cut from it, is well described,

and emphasis is justly laid on the lately discovered changes shown in

cells from which fibres have been separated. The equally important

subject of the regeneration of nerves is passed over with very few

words. Reasons are brought forward to show that neurones in life

are under slight but continuous stimulation, and that all parts of the

neurone, including the dendrites, are more or less concerned with true

nervous functions. The nature of nervous impulses is not discussed,

but their directions so far as the cell body is concerned are shown to

be not subject to such simple laws as have been formulated. This

section concludes with an excellent résumé of the visible effects of

fatigue and poisons on nerve cells, and a brief consideration of the

means by which the cell body influences the nutrition of the distant

parts of its fibres.

The sixth section includes an exhaustive account of the groups of

neurones making up the human nervous system. Its five subsections

deal with the following groüps: sensory neurones of the first order ;

sensory neurones of the second order; lower motor neurones; upper

motor neurones ; and projector, commissural, and association neu-

rones.

While every student of neurology will be thankful to the author for

the thoroughgoing way in which he has carried out his undertaking,

and for the admirable clearness with which he has set down his

results, the work is not without its faults. Chief among these is the

very general absence of reference in the more introductory sections

to the results of neurological study in the lower animals. While the

comparative novelty of this field may be some excuse for its neglect,

the part it has played in setting in a right light many of the general

64 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL XXXIV.

problems which have arisen in the neurology of higher forms shows

that one cannot afford to neglect it.

A second and perhaps less pardonable fault is the absolutely

unqualified way in which the neurone theory is accepted and the

light manner in which really serious objections to it are passed over.

To read the author’s presentation of Apathy’s work one would think

that this investigator’s results were almost in line with the neurone

doctrine ; but an unbiased comparison shows this not-to be true.

Surely the statements of Apathy, if correct, are more serious obstacles

to the acceptance of the neurone theory than Barker is willing to

admit ; and what is perhaps less consoling to an advocate of the

theory is that these statements have received no small amount of

confirmation at the hands of Bethe.

The letterpress and numerous illustrations are excellent, and the

volume is provided with two indices — one for subjects and the other

for authors. In the subject index the two kinds of type used in the

page numbers refer, we are told, in one case to text and in the other

to figure reference; in the author's index two kinds of type are also

employed, but, probably through an oversight, no explanation of their

use is given.

The defects which the book has are few compared with its excel-

lencies, and we do not hesitate to pronounce it a masterly production

of the highest quality of which Americans may justly be proud.

GHP

Neurone Theory. brochure on

the neurone doctrine and its opponent has come from the pen of

A. Hoche. The author gives a clear statement of the foundations

of the theory, and then considers it in the critical light of recent dis-

covery. His conclusions are that the neurone theory in its original

form is no longer tenable, and that the fibrillar theory must replace

it, so far as the histology of the adult nervous elements is concerned.

The nervous elements develop as independent cells, and become

secondarily connected by fibrillar growths, though in this later con-

dition they reassert their physiological independence in the various

aspects of their metabolism. The histogenesis and physiology of

nervous elements, particularly their trophic relations, follow then on

the lines laid down by the neurone theory, and in these respects this

theory may still be said to be valid. Dg

1 Hoche, A. Die Neuronenlehre und ihre Gegner. 51 pp. A. Hirschwald,

Berlin, 1899.

No. 397-] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 65

Polytomous Nerve Fibres. — Dr. E. Ballowitz! has found that the

enormous electric nerve fibres of the electric catfish of the Nile,

Malapterurus, do not branch as ordinary medullated fibres do, but

divide at once into from four to nine trunks. The most usual num-

bers were five or seven, the even numbers, six and eight, being less

frequent. The resulting fibres varied much in calibre, but were

always thinner than the main fibre, which, however, was not so large

in cross-section as the derived fibres taken collectively. A derived

single fibre may branch again dichotomously or trichotomously, as

' ordinary fibres do. The condition shown in the division of the main

fibre in Malapterurus is intermediate between that found in ordinary

nerve fibres and ‘in the electric ray, Torpedo, where the branches vary

between fifteen and twenty-five. G. H. P.

Nerve Cells of the Human Cortex. — Helen B. Thomson? has

undertaken some interesting computations concerning the composi-

tion of the brain in man. She finds that the total number of func-

tional nerve cells in the cerebral cortex of an adult man is in round

numbers ninety-two hundred millions, and yet the volume of these is

only 1.37% of the whole cortex. The number of giant cells in the

cortex corresponds almost exactly with the number of pyramidal

fibres passing to the spinal cord, and hence the pyramidal fibres are

probably the processes of these cells. o Hb

The Fur Seals and Fur Seal Islands. — The third volume of the

voluminous report on the Fur Seal and the Fur Seal Islands, by Dr.

David Starr Jordan and his associates, is just issued from the Gov-

ernment Printing Office. The first two volumes, issued some time

since, relate to The Fur Seal of the Pribilof Islands : its History, its

Natural History, and its Fate. The fourth volume, already issued,

consists of Dr. Leonhard Stejneger's report on The Fur Seal Islands

of Russia and Japan.

The present volume is due to the enlightened interest of Mr.

Charles Sumner Hamlin, then Assistant Secretary of the Treasury,

Who instructed the Commission to use all possible effort to complete

our knowledge of the fauna and flora of the regions visited.

The present volume of 630 quarto pages is devoted almost entirely

! Ballowitz, E. Ueber polytome Nervenfaserteilung, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xvi,

PP- 541-546.

? Thomson, H. B. The Total Number of Functional Cells in the Cerebral

Cortex of Man, etc., Journ. of Comp. Neurology, vol. ix, pp. 113-140.

66 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

to the natural history of Bering Sea. It was prepared under Dr. Jordan’s

direction, under the editorial supervision of Mr. Frederic A. Lucas. It

contains the following articles, most of them fully illustrated:

I. * The Main Divisions of the Pinnipedia,” by Mr. Lucas. In this

paper the distinctions between the Otariidea, or eared seals (with the wal-

rus), and the Phocoidea, or true seals, are fully developed.

2. “ The Species of Callorhinus, or Northern Fur Seal," by Dr. Jordan

and Mr. George A. Clark, Secretary to the Commission. In this paper

three closely related species or subspecies are indicated and named, corre-

sponding to the three well-known herds. These are Callorhinus ursinus `

(L), the fur seal of Komandorski, Callorhinus alascanus, the fur seal of the

Pribilofs, and Callorhinus curilensis, the fur seal of Robben Island and

the Kuriles. As the differences are slight, these may well be regarded as

subspecies, but from the nature of things they do not intergrade. The

generic name Callorhinus is retained as sufficiently distinct from the earlier

Callorhina, the two words being spelled differently. Those who hold other-

wise may call the fur seal Callotaria Palmer.

“ Variations in Size and Color of the Fur Seal,” by Mr. Lucas.

* Dentition of the Fur Seal," by Mr. Lucas.

4 Anatomy of the Fur Seal," by Robert E. Snodgrass.

* Brain of the Fur Seal," by Dr. Pierre A. Fish.

* Breeding Habits of the Fur Seal," by Mr. Lucas.

“Food of the Fur Seal," by Mr. Lucas. This is shown to consist

mainly of the seal-fish (ZAZerobromus callorhini), a species of smelt

hitherto undescribed, of the Alaskan pollock (Theragra chalcogramma),

and of a squid (Gonatus amenus). Practically no species available as

human food are commonly eaten by the fur seal.

9. * Mental Traits of the Fur Seal," by Mr. Lucas.

to. “ Causes of Mortality among Fur Seals," by Mr. Lucas.

11. “Internal Parasites of the Fur Seal," by Charles Wardell Stiles

and Albert Hassall. Of these’ the most important is the strongyle worm,

Uncinaria, which destroys large numbers of the seal pups on the sandy

rookeries on St. Paul. The eggs of this worm lie in the sand, adhere to

the fur of the mother, and are swallowed by the young. Most of the rook-

ery ground is rocky, but on sandy tracts, as on parts of Tolstoi and Zapadni

rookeries, the mortality is very great, the pups affected dying of anazmia.

In this paper fourteen species of Ascaris are described besides the Unci-

naria and a small tapeworm.

12. “The Beasts of the Sea," a translation from Steller’s original

account by Professor Walter Miller. This remarkable work (De Bestiis

Marinis), published in 1751, gives the first account of the sea cow, the sea

otter, sea lion, and sea bear, or fur seal.

13. “The Sea Bear,” a translation of an essay by Bishop Ivan Venia-

minof, 1839, by Dr. Leonhard Stejneger.

eS ey?

No. 397-] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 67

14. “ Pelagic Sealing,” by Charles H. Townsend, a valuable collection

of observations and records.

15. “Notes on the Fur Seals of Guadalupe, Galapagos, and Lobos

Islands,” by Mr. Townsend. This article and the preceding are illustrated

by excellent photographs.

16. “ Descriptions of the Guadalupe Seal, Arctocephalus townsendi,”

by Dr. C. Hart Merriam.

17. * Exploration of Guadalupe Island," by Dr. Wilbur W. Thoburn.

18. * Insects of Guadalupe," by William A. Snow.

I9. * Plants of Guadalupe," by Professor William Russell Dudley.

One new species, Talinum guadalupense, is described.

20. * Cruise of the Dora .Siewerd" (sealing schooner), by A. B. Alex-

ander.

21. * Fur-Seal Hunting in the Southern Hemisphere,” by Dr. J. A. Allen.

22. “Rookery Maps of the Pribilof Islands," by Lieut.-Comm. J. F.

Moses, U. S. N. |

23. “ Branding of Seals," by Dr. Jordan and Mr. Clark.

24. * Electrical Branding," by Elmer E. Farmer.

.25. “ Branding Experiments on St. Paul," by Colonel Joseph Murray.

26. * Branding Experiments on St. George," by Mr. James Judge.

27. “ The Blue Fox (Vulpes lagopus),” by Dr. Jordan and Mr. Clark.

28. * Mammals of the Pribilof Islands," by Frederick W. True.

29. “Birds of the Pribilof Islands," by William Palmer. Sixty-nine

species enumerated, with valuable notes and plates.

30. * Fishes of Bering Sea," by Dr. Jordan and Dr. Chas. H. Gilbert.

Two hundred and twenty-nine species enumerated, with notes and numer-

ous plates. The numerous species are all included in Jordan and Ever-

mann's * Fishes of North and Middle America."

31. * Fishes of Arctic Alaska," by Norman B. Schofield. Notes on

thirty-eight species, two, Argyrosomus alascanus and irn dea herschelinus,

being new

345 " "anicites of the Pribilof Islands," by Dr. William E. Ritter.

Eleven species described and figured, ten being new. These are Styela

greeleyi, Dendrodoa tuberculata and D. subpedunculata, Polyclinum glo-

dosum and P. pannosum, Aplidiopsis jordani; A maroucium kincaidi, A.

Bribilovense, and A. snodgrassi, and Synoicum irregula

33. “ Mollusks of the Pribilof Islands,” by Dr. Wiliam 1 H. Dall.

34. “ Insects of the Pribilof Islands,” by E. A. Schw

Two seal ticks are described as new, ko opin sie erat and

Zxodes arcticus, in a supplemental note by Professor Herbert Osborn

35. “ Crustacea of the Pribilof Islands," by Mary J. Rathbun. une

communis, iios en crassa, Spirontocaris barbata, and Spirontocaris

avina described as n

36. “Plants of ag Pribilof Islands,’ by James M. Macoun. With

notes and plates.

68 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

37. “ Algae of the Pribilof. Islands," by Dr. W. A. Setchell Thirty-

eight species noted.

Many of these papers deserve more extended notice or review, but

this note may serve as an index to them. D.S.-I

Fishes of the Potomac River. — In the United States Fish Com-

mission Bulletin for 1898, Dr. Hugh M. Smith and Mr. Barton A.

Bean give a valuable list of the fishes found in the waters of the

District of Columbia, with notes on their distribution. Eighty-one

species are enumerated. Ber

The Reappearance of the Tilefish. — In May, 1879, Captain

Kirby, of Gloucester, discovered in the deep waters south of Nan-

tucket a very remarkable fish, brilliantly colored and of high value

as food. This fish was described by Goode and Bean as Lopholatilus

chameleonticeps, and the common name of the tilefish was suggested

by Dr. Goode. This name alludes to its tile-like coloration, being

also an available syllable of Lopholatilus, its scientific name. In

1882 vast numbers of tilefish were killed by a cold storm, and were

found floating in the Gulf Stream. Since that time the species has

not been seen until 1897 and 1898. The explorations of the Gram-

pus under the auspices of the United States Fish Commission show

that the species now occupies its original range, having recovered

from the partial extermination of 1882. A full record of these

investigations is given by Dr. Hermon C. Bumpus in the Bulletin of

the United States Fish Commission for 1898. D. S.J.

The Nervous System of the Bony Fishes. — Dr. C. Judson Her-

rick, of Denison University, contributes to the Bulletin of the United

States Fish Commission for 1898 a valuable study of the peripheral

nervous system in bony fishes. DAT

A Filefish New to the United States. — Dr. Hugh M. Smith, in

the Bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1898, describes

and figures a species of filefish new to the waters of the United

States, and which he refers to A/utera monoceros, a species of the

Indian Ocean and tropical Pacific. The specimen was taken at

Woods Holl by Mr. Vinal N. Edwards, and is evidently like so many

others found in this locality, a straggler brought from the West Indies

by the Gulf Stream.

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 69

Fishes now referred to A/utera monoceros have been described

under very many different names, and it is highly probable that

more than one species is included under this title. A species of

this type has been described by Poey, from Cuba, under the name of

Alutera giintherina. The latter species has not been since seen. It

is scantily described, and if words and plates can be trusted, it differs

from Dr. Smith’s fish in the higher spine and truncate caudal fin.

It is probably not the same species, in which case two species of

short-tailed Alutera exist in our waters besides the long-tailed A/utera

schæpfi, punctata, and scripta. In any event this species is an inter-

esting addition to our fauna, whether it be Alutera monoceros or a

species distinct. DS. T

Fishes of Kadiak Island. — Mr. Cloudsley Rutter, now assistant

to the United States Fish Commission, made in May, 1897, a fine

collection of the tide-pool fishes in the vicinity of Karluk. This col-

lection is described in the Buletin of the United States Fish Commis-

sion for 1898. Fourteen species are enumerated, two of which are

new, besides a third, Meo/iparis rutteri, described as new by Gilbert

and Snyder in Jordan and Gilbert's * Fishes of North and Middle

America." 'The new species, which are well figured, are Sigmzstes

caulias and Porocottus bradfordi. Sigmistes is a new genus allied to

Oligocottus, with a smooth body, arched lateral line, and very long

dorsal. The single preopercular spine is hooked upward. D, S. J.

Fishes of the Congo. — Dr. G. A. Boulenger, of the British

Museum, has issued the fourth fascicle on new fishes of the Congo,

containing species of Polypteride, Clupeide, Mormyridz, and Cha-

racinidz, with detailed descriptions and excellent plates. D, S. J.

Fishes of Florida. — In the Report of the United States Fish Com-

mission for 1899, Dr. B. W. Evermann and Dr. W. C. Kendall give

a check list of the fishes of Florida, with references to all notices of

the localities of each species, and also a complete bibliography.

Five hundred and seventy-six species are enumerated, which shows

the thoroughness with which that interesting region has been

explored. The paper furnishes an admirable model as a faunal

catalogue, and it has great value to the student of geographical

distribution. D. S

Günther on the Fish Collections of Linnaeus. — The account of

the fishes, as given by Linnzus in the Systema Nature, is base

79 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

almost solely on the writings of other authors, notably those of his

associate and close friend, Peter Artedi, the “ father of ichthyology."

There was, however, in Linnzus's possession a small collection of

fish skins, the most important of these containing seventy-one spe-

cies, having been sent from Charleston, South Carolina, by Dr.

Alexander Garden.

Most of this collection is now preserved in the Collection of the

Linnzan Society of London. Dr. Albert Günther, president of this

society, in a recent address, has given an account of each of these

specimens. This account is in greater detail than one given in 1386

by Messrs. Goode and Bean, and some of its conclusions have an

important bearing on the nomenclature of North American fishes.

The examinations of Dr. Günther necessitate the following changes

from the names lately accepted by Jordan and Evermann: Felichthys

felis (Linnzus) for the Gaff topsail catfish, instead of <Az/urichthys

marinus (Mitchill); Galeichthys milberti (Cuv. and Val.), instead of

G. felis; if Dr. Giinther’s identification of Sz/uris felis is correct,

which we cannot doubt, it is strange that Linnaeus counted six

barbels when but four exist; EZpinephelus guttatus (Linnzeus), instead

of E. maculosus Cuv. and Val. (lunulatus, apua, and catus of authors) ;

Promicrops itaiara (Lichtenstein), instead of P. guttatus.

Dr. Günther shows that in forming his complex Perca guttata,

Linnzus had a specimen in hand from which his color notes were

drawn. Excluding erroneous synonyms, this specimen may be re-

garded as the typical P. guttata. Dr. Günther notes that Szellifer

Janceolatus has the downward directed spine of the subgenus Zesti-

dium. He, however, wrongly identifies it with the type of the latter

group, S. Z/ecebrosus, from Panama. The two species differ notably

in numbers of fin rays and gill rakers.

Besides these specimens, we may note that Dr. Einar Lónnberg has

given a supplementary account of the Linnzan fishes in the Univer-

sity of Upsala. The original type of Zxocwtus volitans is the flying

fish called Halocypselus evolans, as indeed the description indicates.

Exoccetus is therefore the right name for the group of flying fishes

having short ventrals, the Halocypselus of Weinland, while the name

Cypselurus of Swainson is revived for the large flying fishes.

D. S. J;

Meek on the Fishes of Lake Muskoka. — In the publications of

the Field Columbian Museum of Chicago, Dr. Seth E. Meek has

notes on the fishes of Lake Muskoka at Gravenhurst, Ontario. One

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF, RECENT LITERATURE. 74

new species, Notropis muskoka, is described. This species is of the

subgenus Chriope, an ally of N. cayuga. Etheostoma boreale, described

by Jordan from Montreal in 1884, and not since seen, has been redis-

covered by Dr. Meek in Gull Lake, near Lake Muskoka. jj ¢ j:

Function of Vascular Ampullæ in Composite Tunicates. — The

colonial blood vessels of the composite tunicates belonging to the

family Botryllidæ often show a considerable number of terminal

enlargements — the ampullæ. These are found almost anywhere

within the colony, but are especially numerous along its edges.

They have been regarded without much reason as developing

zoóids, an opinion generally abandoned for several more recent

views; namely, that they are reservoirs for blood, organs for the

excretion of the test matrix, or for respiration. Dr. F. W. Bancroft

has shown that they normally execute coórdinated pulsations, which

continue, with some change in the coórdination, after separation from

the rest of the colony. The rhythm of the ampullar pulsations is not

affected by the reversals of the hearts in the zodids. The pulsations

are very slow, and the contractile tissue seems to be a thin layer of

pavement epithelium. Such coórdination as the ampulle show is

brought about principally by blood pressure. In an estivating

colony of Botrylloides gascoi, the circulation was kept up almost

entirely by the ampulle. They must, therefore, be regarded as

organs for the propulsion of the blood. Cur

Sense Cells in the Integument of Worms. — L. Atherton? has

made a study of the integument of the fresh-water worm Tubifex,

with special reference to its nervous structures. The epidermis,

beneath which there is no basement membrane, is usually a single

layer of cells, produced apparently from the growing zone at the

caudal end of the worm. Sensory cells of a spindle shape, or more

swollen, occur isolated, in loose groups, or as well-defined clusters ;

externally they are provided with sensory bristles, and internally they

give rise to nerve fibres, which extend to the central nervous organs.

Isolated sensory cells are numerous over the caudal end, sparse over

the middle trunk region, and numerous again over the anterior part,

where they may bear more than a single sensory bristle. Loose

! Bancroft, F. W. A New dumme "s the Vascular Ampullz in the Botryl-

lide, Zool. Anze: eiger, Bd. xxii, pp.

? Atherton, L. The Epidermis of arii rivulorum Lamarck, with Especial

Reference to its Nervous Structures, Anat. Anzeiger, Bd. xvi, pp- 497-509.

72 THE AMERICAN NATWYRALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

groups of sensory cells are found on all regions of the body except

the anterior end. Well-defined clusters are found only on the

prostomium and first few segments. He

The Eyes of the Polyphemida. — The eyes of the family of

minute crustaceans, the Polyphemidz, have been the subject of

careful investigation by Dr. O. Miltz.! The eyes are compound, and

each retinal element or ommatidium is composed of two distal cells,

forming part of the corneal hypodermis, of five cells forming the

cone, of two supporting cells, and of a group of five retinular cells.

The nerve fibres pass centrally from the retinular cells. The devel-

opment, physiology, and biological significance of the eyes are con-

sidered. G. HP.

Zoülogical Notes. — An Uncinaria from a panther that died in

the Königsberg Zoo has furnished Cohn (Arch. de Parasitol., Vol. IL,

No. 1, pp. 5-22, 1899) with some important data on the life history

of these forms and the injuries they produce. An introductory dis-

cussion clears up the synonymy and shows that three good species

occur in the Felide. The form studied, U. perniciosa, was found

abundantly in small, dark-colored nodules in the wall of the small

intestine, each nodule containing a number of individuals, among

which the females were more numerous. A histological study of

these nodules showed that they always lay in the submucosa, which

‘was enormously thickened at that point at the expense of the circular

muscle layer, and that each opened into the intestinal lumen by a

small pore at which the epithelium was inturned. Larva much like

those of U. duodenalis, recently described by Looss, were numerous

in the intestinal mucus, and a single older form was met between

the villi. In the nodules, on the other hand, only sexually mature

individuals were found, together with the eggs. Cohn outlines the

life history as follows: There is no secondary host, but the larva

are brought directly into the intestine of the primary host, and when

they have reached a certain period of growth they invade the wall of

the canal and cause there the growth of nodules. The results of

other investigators are interpreted in the light of this work which

conforms, moreover, to the conjecture of Railliet in the case of

Sclerostoma equinum.

1 Miltz, O. Das Auge der Polyphemiden, A Bd. xi (1899), ERER 4

pp. 1-60, Taf. I-IV.

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 73

A new pelagic nemertine is described by Woodworth (Au. Mus.

Comp. ZoóL, Vol XXXV, No. 1, July, 1899). It was taken by the

Albatross while trawling at a depth of 500 to 2000 fathoms in the

Pacific Ocean, and differs from the forms obtained by the Cha/-

lenger expedition in several important particulars which justify its

inclusion in a new genus — Planktonemertes.

Metagenesis in the Coccidia and Hzemosporidia is the subject of a

recent important résumé by Schaudinn (Zool. Centralblatt, Vol. VI,

No. 22, pp. 765-783, October, 1899). The article is accompanied

by an extensive bibliography of the subject.

Notes on some exotic species of ectoparasitic trematodes, re-

cently published by S. Goto (Journ. Sci. Coll. Imp. Univ., Tokyo,

Japan, Vol. XII, No. 4, pp. 263-295, Pls. XX, XXI, 1899), include

studies made in this country, chiefly at the Newport Marine Labora-

tory. A dozen species, seven of which are new, are described with

care, numerous points in the synonymy cleared up, and many details

of anatomical structure worked out. One new genus, Dionchus, was

discovered which unites characters of the Gyrodactylide and Mono-

cotylide. American students are fortunate in having such satisfac-

tory descriptions and-illustrations of native forms as those given

ere.

C. T. Simpson has given in the Bulletin of the United States Fish

Commission for 1898 a readable and interesting account of the

Structure, habits, enemies, and commercial value of our fresh-water

mussels,

No. 5 of the third volume of the American Journal of Physiology

contains the following articles: * A Modified Soxhlet Apparatus for

the Extraction of Fat from Liquids," by A. E. Taylor; *A New Form

of Piston Recorder and Some of the Changes of the Volume of the

Finger which it Records," by W. P. Lombard and W. B. Pillsbury ; .

and “Secondary Rhythms of the Normal Human Heart,” by W. P.

Lombard and W. B. Pillsbury.

The first number of the Biological Bulletin, edited by the director

and members of the staff of the Marine Biological Laboratory at

Woods Holl, Mass., has appeared, and contains the following articles:

* Some Relations between Nervous Tissue and Glandular Tissue in

the Tunicata," by M. M. Metcalf; “Regeneration of Tissue composed

of Parts of Two Species,” by T. H. Morgan; “ Dinophilus gardineri

74 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

(sp. nov.)," by A. Moore; “Some Muscinz of North America," by

G. de N. Hough; and “ Experimental Studies upon Hydromedusz,”

by C. W. Hargitt. Under the head of *Bibliography and Publica-

tion " is printed the second report of the English committee on these

subjects.

BOTANY.

The Last Contribution from the U.S. National Herbarium’ is

one of the largest and best of this valuable series. It is chiefly

written by Dr. J. N. Rose, and is largely devoted to the Mexican

flora. The more noteworthy features are: (1) a proposed rearrange-

ment of the suborder Agavez, in which eight genera are recognized,

Manfreda is kept distinct from Agave, Bravoa is reduced to Poli-

anthes, and a new genus, Pseudobravoa, is established; (2) a synop-

sis of the small but difficult leguminous genus Nissolia, in which

thirteen species are recognized and figured; (3) partial keys to the

Mexican and Central American species of Zanthoxylum, Turnera,

and Clitoria; (4) a considerable series of critical notes on the

Malvacez, in which Anoda incarnata H. B. K. and a nearly related

new species are united in the reéstablished and undoubtedly valid

genus Periptera; (5) a synopsis of the species of Waltheria and

Cedrela ranging north of the Isthmus of Panama; (6) a key to the

Mexican and Central American species of Thalictrum; (7) the char-

acterization of many new and capitally illustrated Mexican species

of various orders; (8) the description of Treleasea, a new genus

of Commelynacez, with three species ranging from Texas southward

into Mexico; (9) notes on useful plants of Mexico.

The last subject is treated under the following heads: cereals and

vegetables, fruits, beverage plants, seasoning and flavoring plants,

medicinal plants, soap plants, tanning and dye plants, fibre plants,

" brush and broom plants, fence and hedge plants. The illustrations,

chiefly half-tones, are numerous, clear, and well chosen.

Regarding the systematic part of Dr. Rose's work, it may be said

that it bears internal evidence of great care and good judgment.

The copious and painstaking citation of literature and synonymy

testifies to the excellence of the present bibliographical methods in

the botanical work of the department of agriculture under Mr.

Coville’s direction. The economic portions of the paper have

1 Vol. v, No. 4, pp. 145-259, t. 18-64; issued Oct. 31, 1899.

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 75

unusual merit from the fact that the plants yielding the useful prod-

ucts are not named in the vague way too frequent in such discussions,

but have been subjected to the critical identification of a systematic

expert.

Besides the above-mentioned papers by Dr. Rose, the contribution

contains a short article by Prof. L. F. Henderson, characterizing two

new plants from Idaho, and another by Professor Coulter and Dr.

‘Rose, describing and figuring an interesting new umbelliferous genus,

Hesperogenia, from Mt. Rainier. HER

Bailey’s Botanizing.!— Under the title of Botanizing, Professor

Bailey of Brown University has issued a revised and enlarged edi-

tion of Zhe Botanical Collector's Handbook. Few of the methods

taught are likely to lead to measurably poor results, though experi-

ence will teach profitable modifications of some of them to any boy

with Yankee ideas, and most of the suggestions are likely to be

worth many times the cost of the book to a beginner. T.

Botanical Notes. — Important recent papers on seed anatomy are:

Pammel, ** The Histology of the Caryopsis and Endosperm of Some

Grasses ” (Transactions Acad. Sci. of St. Louis, VIII, No. 11); Pammel,

“ Anatomical Characters of the Seeds of Leguminosz, chiefly Genera

of Gray's Manual” (loc. cit., IX, No. 6) ; and Schlotterbeck, “ Devel-

opmental History of Important Seeds. The Anatomy of the Cotton

Seed and the Development of its Seed Coats" (Pharmaceutical

Archives, II, No. II).

A catalogue of the spontaneous hybrids of the European flora, by

E. G. Camus, is being published in current numbers of the /ourna/

de Botanique.

The most important recent publication on American fossil plants

is Professor Ward's * Cretaceous Formation of the Black Hills as

indicated by the Fossil Plants," extracted from the Nineteenth Report

0f the United States Geological Survey. The paper is profusely illus-

trated, largely by reproductions of photographs made directly from

the specimens.

In the advance sheets for December 19 of Consular Reports,

Edward H. Thompson, United States Consul at Progreso, gives

Some interesting information concerning sisal fibre, from which it

! Botanizing. A guide to field collecting and herbarium work.

Providence, Preston & Rounds Co., 1899.

76 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

appears that the fibre of this Yucatan agave was first brought into

considerable use between 1750 and 1780, though the first plantation

was not established until 1848. The largest plantation to-day is

said to be yielding about 375,000 pounds of cleaned fibre per month.

The Amoles, or saponifying plants, of Mexico are treated in Vol.

III of Za Naturaleza, by Dr. Manuel Urbina.

Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester of the United States Department of

Agriculture, has published the first part of a primer of forestry as

Bulletin 24 of his Division. The book is clear, simple, well illus-

trated, and attractively gotten up.

Robert T. Hill’s notes on the forest conditions of Porto Rico are

published as Bulletin 25 of the Division of Forestry of the Depart-

ment of Agriculture. A number of photogravures illustrate the

graining of the principal Porto Rican woods.

Persons who go to the Adirondacks will find useful a recently

issued flora of North Elba, by Professor Peck. It is published as

No. 28 of Vol. VI of the Bulletin of the New York State Museum,

and may be bought for twenty cents.

A comparison of the floras of the alpine and temperate regions on

the great Mexican volcanoes is published by Professor Heilprin in

Vol. III of the Mexican journal Za Naturaleza.

An interesting list of plants growing upon trees at Bad Nauheim,

classified according to their means of dissemination, by Jaap, is to

be found in the September-October number of the Deutsche bota-

nische Monatsschrift.

Tcones Selecte Horti Thenensis is the title of a new serial, devoted

to the plants flowering in the extensive collections of M. van der

Bossche at Tirlemont, Belgium. The plates are drawn by D'Apreval,

and accompanied by text by de Wildeman. The first fascicle

appeared in September, 1899.

Draba, as represented in the West by the aurea stylosa forms, is

analyzed by Heller in the December Bulletin of the Torrey Club,

with the result that three species and one variety are described as

new.

Some of the Canadian violets recently split off from what has

passed current for Viola cucullata, are brought together by J. M.

Dickson in the Journal and Proceedings of the Hamilton Association

Jor 1898-99.

No. 397] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 77

A chart showing the blossoming season of the wild-goose plum in

1898, published in Farmers’ Bulletin 103 of the Department of Agri-

culture, will be of interest to students of phenology.

Ten additional species of Sisyrinchium from the Southern States

are described by Bicknell in the Buletin of the Torrey Club for

December.

Captain John Donnell Smith has recently distributed the fifth

volume of his Exumeratio Plantarum Guatemalensium, etc., to which

are appended, as heretofore, extra-prints of his later articles pub-

lished in the Botanical Gazette descriptive of plants of this region.

The results of a biological survey of Mt. Shasta, California, are

published by Dr. Merriam as No. 16 of North American Fauna.

Though avowedly incomplete, his notes on the distribution of Shasta

plants are of unusual value because of the detailed data given under

each entry.

A catalogue of the ferns and flowering plants of South Dakota,

by Professor Saunders, constitutes Buletin 64 of the Agricultural

Experiment Station of that state.

The second fascicle of /cones Bogorienses, published by the Buiten-

zorg Garden, deals with the Anonacez of that establishment, and is

written by Dr. Boerlage.

Apropos of recent attempts to classify the species of Rosa on

anatomical grounds, M. Crépin publishes some valuable general-

izations in the thirty-seventh volume of the Buletin of the Royal

Botanic Society of Belgium.

A study of the Japanese lacquer tree, Rhus vernicifera, from the

standpoint of morphology and anatomy, is reprinted by Dr. Möbius

from the Abhandlungen of the Senckenbergische naturforschende

Gesellschaft.

A very curiously fasciated plant of an unnamed species of Cotyle-

don is described and figured in a teratological paper by Gallardo in

No. 4 of the Comunicaciones of the Buenos Aires Museo Nacional,

recently issued.

Students of hybrid docks will be interested in a paper on the

North European forms of the genus Rumex, by Murbeck, reprinted

from Botaniske Notiser for 1899.

78 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Professor V. M. Spalding's paper on the white pine (Pinus

strobus), revised and enlarged by Professor Fernow, is published as

Bulletin 22 of the United States Department of Agriculture.

A revision of the North American species of the genus Frullania,

by Professor A. W. Evans, is published in Vol. X of the Trans-

actions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

Professor Macbride has done a useful piece of work in allowing his

Myxomycetes of Eastern Jowa to expand into the handsome volume,

The North American Slime-Moulds, just issued by The Macmillan

Company — a volume which should be in every botanical library.

Students of kephir and similar ferments will find interest in a

paper by H. Marshall Ward and J. Reynolds Green, on a sugar

bacterium, reprinted from Vol. LXIV of | the Proceedings of the

Royal Society.

The October number of the Queensland Agricultural Journal con-

tains a report on the timber trees of a district of North Queensland,

by J. F. Bailey, which includes an annotated list of 111 species, sev-

eral of which are figured.

* Forestry Notes for Iowa" is the title of a paper by Professor

Macbride separately printed in advance from the tenth Report of

the Iowa Geological Survey.

A preliminary catalogue of plants poisonous to stock, by V. K.

Chesnut, is reprinted from the annual Æeport of the National Bureau

of Animal Industry, for 1898.

The Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club for November contains

papers on Lycopodium complanatum and L. chamecyparissus, by

F. E. Lloyd; the dichotomous Panicums, by G. V. Nash; Delphi-

nium carolinianum and related species, by P. A. Rydberg; New and

interesting plants from western North America, by A. A. Heller; A

new genus of powdery mildews — Erysiphopsis, by B. D. Halsted;

and The habitats of the Pelleas, by E. J. Hill.

Part I of the second volume of the Contributions from the botani-

cal laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania contains nine

papers, presenting the results of laboratory investigation in various

fields of botany.

In 1879 Professor Beal buried seeds of twenty-two species of

plants in the soil, in inverted bottles, and at the end of each period

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 79

of five years the viability of some of them has been tested. After

twenty years in the soil, nine species, all common weeds, germi-

nated, the percentage varying from 2 to 58, while thirteen species

failed to grow, — as appears from a note in the September number

|. of the Journal of the Columbus Horticultural Society.

From a recent article in Gartenfiora it appears.that at the great

St. Petersburg botanical garden 24,176 species and varieties of

plants are cultivated, the herbarium contains over a million and a

half specimens, and the library consists of 14,040 works, bound in

27,588 volumes.

PALEONTOLOGY.

The Later Extinct Floras of North America.' — In the preface

Dr. Hollick explains the conditions under which this posthumous

work of Professor Newberry's was prepared for the press. An

edition of twenty-five plates was issued without text in 1878, under

the title, ZZ/ustrations of Cretaceous and Tertiary Plants of the Western

Territories of the United States. Subsequently a revised edition of

these, with forty-three additional plates, was printed, but not dis-

tributed, being withheld for the completion of the text. Professor

Newberry's death stopped further progress on the work. Two sets

of the plates bore manuscript names. From these plates, Professor

Newberry's manuscript, the labels on type specimens, and Professor

Newberry's previous publications, the present text was compiled.

This was evidently a laborious undertaking carefully carried out,

as evinced by the text and occasional editorial notes.

One hundred and seventy-four species are figured and are described

in the text, with the exception of some species of which the editor

found no manuscript or other descriptions by Professor Newberry.

The plates are beautifully executed. The species described are all

from the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, and are from the

Western States and Territories, excepting Seguoia gracillima, de-

Scribed as also from New Jersey, and Salix membranacea, described

from New Jersey only. Six new species are described, namely, 42ie-

lites cretacea, Sabal grandifolia, Myrica (?) trifoliata, Salix foliosa,

1 Newberry, John Strong. The Later Extinct Floras of North America, a

posthumous work, edited by Arthur Hollick. Monograph of the U. S. Geological

Survey, vol. xxxv, pp. i-xvii, 1-295, Pls. I-LXVIII. Washington, 1898.

80 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Alnus serrulata fossilis, and Magnolia elliptica. A few new names

or new combinations occur due to the necessities of nomenclature

or corrections in generic reference. Many of Professor Newberry’s

species are figured for the first time. An important feature is the

figures of several specimens which are the originals of tracings sent

to Professor Heer, and from which that author published new species.

These are Populus litigiosa, Leguminosites marcouanus, Sapotacites hay-

denii, and Phyllites obcordatus. In a table is given a list of localities

from which specimens came as mentioned in the text.

It is most desirable in publication to state in what museums speci-

mens described are located, and the absence of such information in

this volume is an unfortunate omission. The undesirable tendency

to consider species as distinct, simply because they occur in different

geological horizons, is shown in several places, as under Salix meekii

Newberry, of the Dakota Group, Cretaceous, where the author says

that this species has a resemblance to several Tertiary species, “.. .

from which it might be unwise to regard it as distinct if they were

from the same formation.” Similarly it is undesirable to give a

separate name to fossils when their characters are so close to living

forms that they are systematically indistinguishable. Cases in which

this is done are Onoclea sensibilis fossilis, Corylus rostrata Sossilis,

Alnus serrulata fossilis. The description of fossil forms “ indistin-

guishable " from living forms, as stated in several cases, raises an

objection to the title of the volume, Zhe Later Extinct Floras of

orth America. Species of fossil plants, as of fossil animals, should

be based on the characters they present, independently of how long

they may have lived, as represented by the lapse of geological time.

ETL

Coal Measure Plants.' — In the course of publications by William-

son, Scott, Seward, and others, frequent reference has been made to

the Binney collection of fossil plants which was presented to the

Woodwardian Museum at Cambridge, England, in 1892. Although

some of the species have been repeatedly investigated during the

last few decades, the collection embraces other species which illus-

trate important morphological points hitherto overlooked, and thus

afford valuable evidence of a phylogenetic character. Mr. Seward

has undertaken.to indicate the nature of the data he has gathered

from the collection, and thereby places in the hands of working paleo-

1 Seward, A. C. Notes on the Binney Collection of Coal Measure Plants,

Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc., vol. x, iii, pp. 137.

No. 397.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 81

botanists a number of very essential facts. The present * Notes "

deal with four specimens of Lepidodendron Aarcourtii and Halonia

regularis, which the author regards as specifically identical; and

with a new genus of Cycadofilices to which he assigns the name of

Megaloxylon, as represented by a single species, M. scottii.

DP?

Matonia pectinata.' — In an important contribution to the //o-

sophical Transactions of the Royal Society, which gives evidence of the

most searching care, Mr. Seward selects Matonia as representing an

isolated type of ferns requiring further examination anatomically, in

order to determine its relations to the Cyatheacez and Gleicheniacez,

toward which it has been customary to assign it an intermediate

position. Mr. Seward concludes that while the genus must hold an

independent position among ferns, its affinities are most nearly with

those of the Cyatheacez. His studies of existing species are designed

to have a direct bearing upon the geological history of the Matoni-

nez, and he therefore brings into comparison Laccopteris and Mato-

nidium in particular; from all of which he concludes that Matonia

represents the survival of a family of ferns now confined to a few

localities in Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, and represented by

two living species, which in Mesozoic time had a wide geographical

range, being especially abundant in the European area during the

Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous times. The apparent absence of

the Matoninez from Tertiary formations suggests that these forms

reached their maximum development in the Mesozoic, and that

toward the close of the Cretaceous a decided restriction in geo-

graphical range had developed. DHPP.

Medullosa anglica.?— Dr. Scott's important contributions to our

knowledge of the Cycadofilices have been recently enlarged by the

description of a new species of Medullosa to which he assigns the

name of M. anglica. He points to the fact that several genera such

as Noeggerathia, Medullosa, Cladoxylon, Lyginodendron, Heteran-

gium, and Protopytis are now to be grouped under Potonie’s con-

1 Seward, A. C. The Structure and Affinities of Matonia pectinata, R. Br.,

Paleozoic Rocks. III. Medullosa anglica, a new representative of the Cyca-

dofilices, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Ser. B, vol. exci (1899), pp- 81.

82 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

venient name of Cycadofilices; and also to the very important

correlation of structures hitherto regarded as representing distinct

organisms, but now known to be different members of plants belong-

ing to the genus Medullosa.

The specimens of M. anglica studied were obtained from the

colliery at Hough Hill, Stalybridge, and are of exceptional interest,

not only as “being the first recorded British specimens of the

genus," but “also from their geological horizon, which is con-

siderably more ancient than that of the continental Medullosez.”’

They are at the same time the most complete examples of the genus

hitherto studied, and they thus furnish most important data with

respect to our knowledge of the entire group. Although lacking in

some of the most important structural characters (the fructification),

the material furnishes further and important additions to our knowl-

edge of the filicoid origin of the cycads.

NEWS.

WE learn that the Zodlogical Society of Holland is preparing a

series of synopses of the fauna of Holland, following somewhat after

the style of the Keys now being published in this journal.

The Pant World, hitherto published by Willard Clute & Co. of

Binghamton, N. Y., will be issued in future by the Plant World Co.,

Washington, D. C.

Dr. Elliott Coues, the well-known ornithologist and for some years

an associate editor of the American Naturalist, died in Baltimore,

December 25. He was born in Portsmouth, N. H., Sept. 9, 1842,

was graduated in arts and medicine from the Columbian University

at Washington, and served as assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army

from 1862 to 1881. He taught anatomy and zoólogy in Norwich

University, Columbian University, and the Virginia Agricultural

College. He was best known for his works on birds, including his

Keys to North American Birds (three editions), Birds of the Colo-

rado Valley, Birds of the Northwest, Ornithological Biography, etc.,

in which are to be found some of the best sketches in the language.

He also worked on mammals. During his later years he became

enamored with theosophy and neglected scientific work.

. Appointments: E. A. N. Arber, demonstrator in paleobotany in

the University of Cambridge. — Dr. F. W. Bancroft, instructor in

physiology in the University of California. — Dr. Edmond William

Wace Carlier, professor of physiology in Mason College, Birmingham,

England. — Dr. Dandler, privat docent for anatomy in the Univer-

sity of Vienna. — W. H. L. Duckworth, instructor in physical anthro-

Pology in the University of Cambridge. — Grafton Elliott-Smith,

demonstrator of anatomy in the University of Cambridge. — Dr. Otto

von Furth, privat docent for physiology in the University of Vienna.

— Dr. Martin Heidenhain, professor extraordinary of anatomy in the

University of Tübingen. — Dr. J. J. Jahn of Vienna, professor ex-

traordinary of geology in the newly established technical school at

Brünn, Austria, — Alfred Jentzsch, geologist at the Geological Lan-

desanstalt in Berlin. — S. J. Korshinsky, director of the herbarium

of the Academy of St. Petersburg. — Dr. Alfred Krolopp, assistant

84 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

professor of botany in the Agricultural School at Altenburg. —

W. Leslie, director of the botanical gardens in Trinidad. — Mr. Loye

H. Miller, professor of chemistry and natural history in Oahu Col-

lege, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands. — Dr. Thomas H. Montgomery,

Jr., assistant professor of zodlogy in the University of Pennsylvania.

— Dr. Erik Gottlieb Müller, professor of anatomy in the Karolinian

Institute at Stockholm. — Dr. Bohumil Nemesch, privat docent for

plant anatomy and physiology in the Bohemian University at Prag.

— James Louis North, keeper of the Museum of the Royal Botanical

Society in London.— Professor Edward Orton, state geologist of

Ohio, in succession to his father, the late Edward Orton. — Professor

Picart of Bordeaux, professor of anatomy in the University at Lille,

France. — Dr. Gustav Piotrowski, professor extraordinary of physiol-

ogy in the Veterinary School at Lemberg. — Dr. Mat. Semper, privat

docent for anatomy in the Technical School at Aachen. — Dr. E. O

Sisson, director of the histological laboratory at Keokuk, Iowa. —

Dr. Velich, privat docent for animal physiology and pathology in

the Bohemian University at Prag. — Nikolaus Warpachowsky of St.

Petersburg, director of fisheries for the district of Archangel. — Dr.

Wedekind, privat docent for natural science in the University of

Tübingen.

Deaths: Dr. Christian Brügger, naturalist and director of the

museum in Chur, Switzerland, in October, aged 66. — Dr. Deike,

paleontologist, in Mülheim. — Professor Theodor Ebert, geologist of

the Geological Landesanstalt in Berlin, in September, aged 42.—

Nikolaus W. Grigorjeff, a young phytopaleontologist in the govern-

ment of Charkoff, Russia, drowned July 16. — Dr. Ragnar Hult,

botanist, and docent in geography in the University of Helsingfors,

September 25, aged 42.— Dr. Matts Adolf Lindblad, formerly

docent for botany in the University of Upsala, June 3o, aged 78. —

Hippolyte Lucas, assistant in entomology in the Paris Museum,

September 29. — Dr. Josef Majer, formerly professor of anatomy in

the University of Cracow, July 3, aged 91. — Dr. Geza von Mihálo-

vics, professor of anatomy and embryology in the University of Buda-

pesth, aged 55.— Michael Iwan Pylajeff, a Russian mineralogist,

Feb. 3, 1899, aged 57.— Georg Ruscheweyh, lepidopterologist in

Buenos Aires, August 2, aged 72.— George, Baron Schilling von

Canstatt, ornithologist, in Scutari, Albania. — Dr. Adolf Schmidt,

diatom student, in Aschersleben, Germany. — Christian Schwemmer,

botanist, at Nürnberg. — Dr. Arthur Cowell Stark, ornithologist,

No. 397.] NEWS. 85

killed by a shell, November 18, at Ladysmith, South Africa. —

Siegfried Stauffer, founder of the natural history museum in Luzern,

August 3. — Samuel Stevens, entomologist and formerly a large natu-

ral history dealer in London, August 29, aged 82. — Friedrich Stolz,

student of cryptogamic botany, killed by a fall in the Tyrol, August

14, aged 21. — Dr. Carl Gustav Thompson, student of Hymenoptera

and custodian of the entomological collections at Lund, Sweden, in

September, aged 72. — Dr. Stephen Baron von Washington, ornithol-

ogist, at Pols, Styria, September 9, aged 41. — Rev. William Farren

White, entomologist, at Bournemouth, England, July 21, aged 65. —

George Buchanan Wollaston, student of ferns, at Clapham, England,

March 26, aged 85. — Frederik Mauritz van der Wulp, student of the

Diptera, at The Hague, aged 8o. — Professor R. Yatube, botanist, in

Japan. — John Bridgman, English entomologist, October 6, aged 63.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(The regular exchanges of the American Naturalist are not included.)

BANCROFT, FRANK W. A New Function of the Vascular reper in the

Botryllidz. Zool. seas 1899. Bd. xxii, Nr. 601, pp. 450-

CLARK, HERB L. The Synaptas of the New rides ont U. .S. Fish

Commission Bull. Pv 1899, 1899. pp. 21-31, Pls. X

First Supplement to the [urs List of the Coccida.

COOKE, GEORGE H. Te Pito Te Henua, known as Rapa Nui, commonly called

Easter Island, South Pacific Ocean. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1897, 1899. pp.

97723.

COULTER, JOHN M. and Rosg, J. N. A Synopsis of Mexican and Central

American Umbelliferz. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., i900. Vol. i, pp. 111—159, Pls.

III-XIII.

COVILLE, FREDERICK V. The Botanical Explorations of emm Nuttall in

California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, 1899. pp- 109-12

Davis, HENRY E. The Political tier tes of the District " Columbia.

Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., 3899. Vol. i, pp. 189-22

DERICK, CARRIE M. Notes on the Pbi of the Holdfasts of Certain

Floridez. Bot. Gaz. 1899. Vol. xxviii, pp. 246-263, Pls. XXI-XXIII

EVERMANN, B. W., and MansH, M. C. Descriptions of New Genera and Spe-

cies of gren from Puerto Rico. U. S. Fish Commission Rept. for 1899, 1899.

PP: 351-3

ds rdg Kam S. Practical Forestry in the Adirondacks. Bull. 26, U. S.

Dept. Agri., Div. Forestry, 1899. 85 pp., 20 pls.

GREELEY, ARTHUR W. Notes on the Tide-Pool Fishes of California, with a

Description of Four New Species. U. S. Fish Commission Bull. for 1899, 1899.

pp. 7-20.

Hopkins, A. D. Preliminary Report on the Insect Enemies of Forests in the

Northwest. Bull. 217, U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. Ent., 1899. 27 p

KELL A Statistical Study of the Parasites of the Unionidae Bull.

Ill. State fal Nat. Hist., 3899. Vol. v, pp. 399-418.

KiNG, FRANKLIN H. Principles ind Conditions of the Movements of Ground

win with a Theoretical Investigation of the Motion of Ground Waters by

Charles S. Slichter. 79/À Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv., 1897-98, 1899.

. 61-384.

KIsHINOUYE, K. Contributions to the Natural History of the Commander

Islands. No. XIII. A New Species of Stalked Medusa, Haliclystus stejnegeri.

Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1899. Vol. xxii, pp. 125-129.

Koroip, C. A. Plankton Studies, III. On Platydornia, a New Genus of the

Family Volvocide, from the Plankton of the Illinois River. JJ. ZI. State

Lab. Nat. Hist., 3899. Vol. v, pp. 419-440, Pl. XXXVIII.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED. 87

LAMBE, LAURENCE M. A Revision of the Genera and Species of Canadian

Palzozoic Corals. Geol. Surv. Can. Contrib. Can. Paleontology. Vol. iv, Part I,

1899, 96 pp., 5 pls.

CGUIRE, JOSEPH D. Pipes and Smoking Customs of the American Aborigi-

nes, based on Material in the United ome National Museum. Rept. U. S. Nat.

g Jor 1897, en im 351-645, 5 p

ASON, Oris e Latimer e ction of Antiquities from Porto Rico in

y N sal inet a the Guesde Collection of Antiquities in Pointe-à-Pitre,

Guadeloupe, West Indies. Washington, 1899.

EEDHAM, JAMES G. Directions for Collecting and pee. Dragon Flies, Stone

Flies, and May Flies. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 9 pp.

SHUFELDT, R. W. Experiments in Photography " Live Fishes. U.S. Fish

Commission Bull. for 1899, 1899. pp. 1-5, Pls. I-IX.

MITH, EDWIN F. Wilt Disease of Cotton, Watermelon, and Cowpea. Bull.

17, U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. Veg. Physiol. and Path., 1899. 72 pp., 10 pls.

STEVENSON, CHARLES H. The Preservation of Fishery Products for Food.

U. S. Fish Commission oan. for 1898, 1899. pp- 335-563, Pls. I-XLI

WILson, THoMas. Arrowpoints, Masson and Knives gi Prehistoric

Times. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1897, 1899. pp. 811-988, 65 p

WRIGHT, CARROLL D. The Economic aaa of the ae of Colum-

bia. Proc. Wash. Acad. Sci., 1899. Vol. i, pp. 161-187.

Buffalo Society = Natural Sciences. Bulletin. Vol. vi, Nos. 2-4, 1899.—

Geographical Journal. Vol. xiv, No. 6. — The Insect World. Vol. iii, Nos. 10, 11.

United States Commissioner of Education. Report * * * for the year 1897-98.

i E ashin s

Museum. Report * * * for the year ending June 29 1897. Washington, 1899.

XXVII, 1021 pp., pls., figs.

(Number 396 was mailed January 6.)

A New Work for the Student of Fungi and for the Mycological Clubs.

Underwood’s Moulds, Mildews, and Mushrooms

By Professor LUCIEN M. UNDERWOOD, of Columbia.

A Guide to the Systematic Study of Fungi and the Mycetozoa and their ate.

Illustrated with ten Heliotype plates, one colored. 236 pages. $1.

The contents includes chapters on : The Study of Mycology in general and its

Study in America in particular

The Relations of Fungi to other Plants. The Geographic Distribution of Amena

Reproducti -— ‘Constituents, and = un

Class I — Pu CETES. Clas — Methods = pase e and Preservation

fees owe of hog — Hints for iani Study.

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VOL. XXXIV, NO, 398” FEBRUARY, 1900

THE

AMERICAN

NATIURAEISET

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. The Angulation of the Limbs of Proboscidia, Dinocerata, and other

Quadrupeds in Adaptation to Weight . HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 89

II. The Specific Gravity of Some Fresh-Water Animals in Relation to

their Habits n STEPHEN R. WILLIAMS 95

III. The Mosaic of Single ic Twin Cones in in the Retina of Fishes

CARL H. EIGENMANN and GEORGE DANIEL SHAFER 109

IV. Note on the Genital Organs of Zaitha THOMAS H, MONTGOMERY, JR. 119

V. Willey on the Enteropneusta . . MAYNARD M. METCALF 123

VI. Synopses of North-American Invertebrates. VII. The Cyclome-

topous or Cancroid Crabs of North America . MARY J. RATHBUN 131

VIL Reviews of Recent Literature: Anthropology, Anthropological Notes — 145

ind Biology, A Study of Heredity among the Deaf » Blatchley's. 146

leanings fro!

Tunicates of Pribilof Islands, Physiology of the Cephalopods, Excretion

in Mollusca, The Heart of Anodonta, Grafting and gnome E in.

Hydromedusz, Regeneration in Grafted Tissue, Note — Geology, The 156

Absaroka Range of the Rocky Mountains —Petrography, Experimental 160

Petrography, Notes : prot

VIII. Publications Received 163

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXXIV. february, 1900. : No. 398.

THE ANGULATION OF THE LIMBS OF PRO-

BOSCIDIA, DINOCERATA, AND OTHER.

QUADRUPEDS, IN ADAPTATION

TO WEIGHT.

HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

WITH material which in most cases belongs to several indi-

viduals the reconstruction of an extinct animal requires the

greatest care and skill. When the proportions are determined

the work is merely begun, for delicate calculation is needed to

give the spine its proper curvature, to place the head in its

true position, and then to give the bones of the fore and hind

limbs their natural angles with each other. The angulation is

most important because it finally determines the elevation of

the body of the animal above the ground. Few of the mounted

skeletons in our museums have the limbs correctly placed, and

the drawings of skeletons, even in the best T are often at

fault in this respect.

Professor Marsh's statement in his monograph upon the

Dinocerata, that in my restoration of Loxolophodon published

in 1881, *the bones of the fore limb are in a position impos-

sible in life,” led me some years ago to study the means of

gO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ascertaining the position and angulation of the limbs in fossil

quadrupeds, and especially of the fore limb. Professor Marsh's

criticism refers to the fact that, in the restoration referred to,

the humerus is only slightly bent backwards, and this does not

indicate sufficient flexure at the elbow.

In cases of this kind our material for study lies in the artic-

ular surfaces of the fossil limb bones and a comparison of these

4 surfaces with those in the nearest allied living

ATN types. My ground for restoring the limbs of

* b Loxolophodon was the close likeness which

exists between the articular surfaces and shafts

of the humerus and radius

and ulna of this type and

^ those of the elephant.

In order to test the

forceof Professor Marsh's

criticism and to guard

ee ee aen

Fic. 1. Fic, 2. Fic, 3.

ANGULATION OF FORE LIMB.

Fic. 1. — Elephas indicus, 1 git dinal ti of humerus, ulna and radius

Fic. 2. Uintatheri C t longitudinal i f humerus, ulna and radius.

Fic. 3. — R Az 7 's, longitudinal secti fh , ulna and radius.

against what might be a misleading resemblance, full-sized

vertical sections were made of the fore limbs of Uintathe-

rium (Loxolophodon) cornutum and of Elephas indicus in the

Princeton collection. A section of a rhinoceros fore limb was

also made for comparison. These were reduced by photog-

raphy to a scale of 1 in 18 and are copied in Figs. 1, 2, and 3.

In each humerus a line (a-a) is drawn through the central

axis of the shaft and two lines (6-4) are drawn through the

No. 398.] ANGULATION OF LIMBS. 91

anterior and posterior intersecting edges of the proximal and

distal articular surfaces or facets.

Several facts are at once brought out by these sections which

bear upon the arthrology of the Ungulate limb.

(1) As the humerus, in the descent from the primitive bent-

limbed types, is directly more vertically forwards, the articular

facets are tilted from an oblique angle to more nearly a right

angle with the shaft.

(2) At the same time the proximal or scapular facet shifts

forwards, while the distal or ulno-radial facet shifts backwards

Fic. 4. — Mother elephant “ Hebe” and baby “ Americus,” showing the excessive straightening

over extension of the fore limb, (By permission, from a copyrighted photograph by

iber & Sons, Philadelphia.)

upon the shaft’s axis. An extreme instance of such shifting is

Shown in the transition from the rhinoceros (Fig. 3) to the

elephant type (Fig. 1).

(3) The proximal and distal articular facets shift uniformly,

and their edges are always found to be in nearly parallel planes,

b-b, bb.

In the straight-limbed Proboscidia and Dinocerata, by this

means the proximal articular facets of the humerus come to lie

almost directly upon the top of the shaft. In the Dinocerata

the articular facets are slightly more inclined to the axis of the

shaft than in the Proboscidia. The difference, however, is

92 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

only 4°, the elephant angle being 105°, while the Loxolophodon

angle is 109?. This greater inclination is trifling when com-

pared with the 130? of inclination seen in the rhinoceros, but

it indicates that the humerus of Uintatherium was slightly more

inclined and the elbow was slightly more bent than that of the

elephant; the limb as a whole was therefore slightly more bent

both in the standing position and in extreme extension.

The motions and positions of the elephant's limb, as shown

by instantaneous photography, are very surprising. It is safe

to say that the study of the skeleton alone would have given us

a very faulty conception of this animal. The two most striking

features are the great play of the wrist joint and the straight-

ness of the limbs. Fig. 5 is an accurate tracing of a photo-

graph of * Hebe," in a standing position, taken by Schreiber

& Sons, of Philadelphia. The skeleton fore limb, reduced to

the same scale, is sketched in, with as much flexure at the

elbow joint as a fair allowance for the enveloping muscles will

permit. It shows that, in standing, the bones of the fore limb

are in a nearly vertical line from the scapula downwards. The

elbow joint is, in fact, much straighter in extreme extension

than we should have inferred experimentally by fitting the

bones of the arm and fore arm together.

The conclusion is that the motions and positions of the

limbs in the ponderous representatives of the most highly

No. 398. ] ANGULATION OF LIMBS. 93

specialized Dinocerata were very similar to those of the modern

elephants. The hind limb was as straight as in the elephant,

and the fore limb in standing was a trifle more bent. A fore

Fic. 6. — Same animal as in Fig. 4, showing sharp flexure at the wrist.

(By permission,

from a copyrighted photograph by Schreiber & Sons, Philadelphia.)

limb of Uintatherium in the Yale College collection gives evi-

dence of considerable variation in this respect; some of the

Fic. 7. — Coryphodon testis. Collection, American Museum of Natural History, showing

PESCE lason of fore and hind limbs

more primitive species, such as Uintatherium mirabile, were

undoubtedly more straight limbed than others.

In the Coryphodontia of the lower Eocene, collateral ances-

tors of the Dinocerata, the angulation of the fore limbs is

94 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

almost as great as that in the rhinoceros. In the still earlier

forms, such as Pantolambda, of the basal Eocene, the angula-

tion is. almost equal to that in the Creodonta, from which this

entire order sprang.

There is no doubt, tarelor. that in my restoration of Loxo-

lophodon, as well as in Professor Cope’s restoration of the

same animal, which was published later, the fore limb is some-

what too straight. On the other hand, Professor Marsh seems

to have given the limb too much flexure in his restoration of

Uintatherium (Tinoceras) ingens, a slightly older type than

Loxolophodon.

The more vertical position of the limb is secondary, it is

observed, in all large quadrupeds. In the Titanotheres it has

not proceeded so far as in the above types of mammals. Among

reptiles it is observed in the heavy quadrupedal Sauropoda.

The straightening of the limb is an adaptation designed to

transmit the increasing weight through a vertical shaft. Cor-

related with it are the shifting of the facets into the direct line of

pressure and the alteration of their planes from an oblique to a

right or horizontal angle with relation to the vertical shaft.

THE SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SOME FRESH-

WATER ANIMALS IN RELATION TO

THEIR HABITS, DEVELOPMENT,

AND COMPOSITION.!

STEPHEN R. WILLIAMS.

THE questions I have examined are: What is the specific

gravity of animals living in water, and what bearing does their

specific gravity have on their life histories ?

These questions suggest the underlying problem of the spe-

cific gravity of protoplasms. I say protoplasms because two

eggs, though very similar in appearance, existing under exactly

the same conditions, may develop into two widely different

animals.

The first part of my paper deals with the specific gravities

of adult animals. The second part is a description of a number

of series of growing tadpoles, in which I have ascertained,

besides their specific gravity, their dry weight, and thus the

percentage of water they contain. The third section of the

paper has reference to the location of the water which, as

shown by Davenport (97-99, p. 285), is imbibed by the tadpole

in its period of rapid growth.

Protoplasm with its structure and functions very little spe-

cialized will be best found in simple, free-swimming water

animals. An Amceba is apparently a body of simple proto-

plasm, and if a method delicate enough to find its specific

gravity were devised, we should know very exactly how amoebic

protoplasm compares in weight with its own volume of pure

water, and how much effort would be necessary on the part of

l Contributions from the Zovlogical Laboratory of the e of Comparative

Zoölogy at Harvard College. E. L. Mark, Director. No. 1

96 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

the Amoeba to maintain itself at a given level. I have, how-

ever, not been able to get the specific gravity of Amæbæ.

But the larger soft-bodied animals, or animals with their shells

removed, those with a small amount of foreign matter only,

and especially embryos, offer favorable fields for the study of

the specific gravity of protoplasms, and consequently I have

made use of them.

Any information concerning the specific gravity of organisms

wil be of use in explaining motions, positions, and possible

foods of the different animals. Tadpoles, found to be nega-:

tively geotactic by Miss Platt (99), are forced to swim or to

adhere by their suckers if they wish to remain above the

bottom. The attitude of young tadpoles in an aquarium, as

they hang tail downwards while clinging to the glass sides by

their suckers, is due to the pull of gravity. Outdoors very few

young tadpoles are seen at the surface of ponds where one

knows they abound, though older stages are common at the

surface. Stir up the bottom, and the surface for an instant

will be black with tadpoles clinging to the bottom débris. An

individual of a later stage whose intestine is filled with gas

floats, can no longer feed on the bottom alga, and is out-

stripped in growth by his normal fellows.

In determining specific gravity I have used the method sug-

gested by Davenport (97-99) and used by Miss Platt (99),

that of placing the animal in a solution of its own density.

The density of this solution can be varied at will by the addition

of known amounts of the dissolved substance or of water.

I found it necessary to stupefy all the free-swimming ani-

mals experimented upon. For this purpose I generally used

chloroform as the most convenient reagent. It is, however,

unsatisfactory for Planaria, as the irritation causes a slime to

be secreted, which buoys up the animal greatly. It causes

Protozoa to burst. For Planarians a solution of CO2 gas in

water is excellent. For Stentors and Bursaria, being unable

to stupefy without killing, I tried four per cent formol, absolute

alcohol, CO2, and chloroform, each without success. One-half

per cent osmic acid and hot Perenyi's solution were fairly good,

though most of the Stentors contracted to balls under the

No. 398. ] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 97

influence of the reagents. Flemming’s solution (weak) gave

the best results. Many Stentors kept their extended shape

and upon microscopic inspection appeared little altered.

I used gum arabic to regulate the density of my solutions,

since, as suggested by Dr. Davenport, it is not injurious to

animals immersed in it. It is more convenient to take a solu-

tion of high specific gravity and lower this gradually by adding

water, than to increase the density by adding known weights

of gum. Since different pieces of gum vary noticeably in

density, two solutions made in exactly the same proportions

may vary perceptibly in their buoyant effect. Consequently,

to get a consistently acting medium which can be used through-

out a series of experiments and which, each time it is made up,

acts in about the same way, I made up a stock solution of 15

grams gum arabic and 30 cc. of distilled water. With a bit of

camphor to keep out bacteria and a glass-stoppered vessel to

prevent evaporation, there is no appreciable change in a month's

time. A long pipette and a large test-tube, both marked in

cubic centimeters on the outside, are the only apparatus neces-

sary. The marking on the outside of the test-tube is absolutely

essential to avoid uncertainty as to how many cubic centimeters

have been added to the mixture.

In making a series of gum-arabic solutions I found that a

gram of gum arabic when dissolved occupies between 0.66 and

0.72 cc. According to Landolt und Bórnstein's Tabellen (94),

the specific gravity of the gums which are included under the

name “gum arabic” varies between 1.31 and 1.45. The space

that one gram occupies varies, then, between 0.763 and 0.689 cc.

Comparing this with the observed volumes, I feel justified in

assuming as an average the space value 0.7 cc. for one gram

of dissolved gum arabic. On this basis the two ene which

follow (p. 98) have been computed.

To make my stock solution I used 15 grams gum, which at

0.7 cc. space per gram occupies 10.5 cc. Adding 30 cc. of (dis-

tilled) water, the whole volume is 40.5 cc. The total weight is

45 grams, and weight divided by volume gives 1.111 + as the

Specific gravity of the mixture. The second number in the

table is found by adding to 1 cc. of this mixture I cc. of pure

98 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

water and dividing the combined weight (2.111+) by the com-

bined volume (2), which gives 1.056 —. For the third place in

the table I added to 1 cc. of the original mixture 2 cc. of. pure

water, 3.111 + divided by 3 giving 1.037, and so on.

TABLE I. — SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SUCCESSIVE DILUTIONS OF GUM-

ARABIC SOLUTION.

Starting with 1 cc. of the stock solution and adding water 1 cc. at a time,

I gram gum arabic being reckoned as the equivalent of 0.7 cc. volume.

Vol.

added s: 1 3 3 4 5 G 7 a 9

Sp. gr. 1.1114/1.056—-|1.037 |1.028 |1.022 |r.o185| 1.016 |1.014 |r.OI2 |I.OII

Vol.

added IO II I2 I3 I4 15 16 IT 18 19

Sp. gr. |r.o10 |1.009 |1.0085| 1.008 |1.0074|1.007 | 1.0065|1.006 | 1.0058} 1.0055

Vol.

added 20 2I 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29

Sp. gr. |1.0053 |1.005 |1.0048 | 1.0046 | 1.0044 | 1.0042 | 1.0041 | 1.004 | 1.0038 | 1.0037

Vol.

added 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39

Sp. gr. |1.0036 |1.0034 | 1.0033 | 1.0032 |1.0031|1.003 |1.003 |1.003 |1.0029| 1.0028

TABLE II. — MODIFICATION FOR USE WITH MINUTE ANIMALS.

By starting with } cc. of the stock solution and adding -4 cc. of water at a time,

there is a smaller interval between two steps than is possible by the method

of Table I.

Vol. |

died o -33 .67 I 1.33 | 1.67 2 2.33 | 2.67 3

Sp. gr. |.111. | 1.083 (1.0667 1.056 |1.047 |t.o41 | 1.037 |1.033 |1.030 | 1.028

Vol.

addea | 3°33 | 367| 4 | 433 | 4.67| 5 | 533 | 567 | 6 | 6.33

Sp. gr. |1.025 | 1.024 | 1.022 | 1.021-|1.019+/1.018+] 1.017 | 1.0165 | 1.016-| 1.015

Vol.

added | 997 | 7 | 7-33

Sp. gr. |1.0145 | 1.014 | 1.013

No. 398.] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 99

I experimented with a Beaumé’s hydrometer to test how

nearly the calculated values of my table matched the observed

values of the hydrometer reading. One experiment began

with water giving a hydrometer reading of 1.003. After dis-

solving 5 grams of gum in 240cc. of this water, the hydrometer

reading was 1.011. Deducting the discrepancy of the reading

for the water taken, the true specific gravity of the solution was

1.008. (The exact reading is difficult to be certain of, because

of capillarity. I took the mean of a number of readings made

by myself and by other persons reading independently.) By

dividing the volume, 243.5 (counting one gram space as 0.7 cc.,

as in the tables), into the weight, 245, the specific gravity result-

ing is 1.006+. So the hydrometer read nearly 0.02 higher

than the calculated specific gravity. In another test, to 238 cc.

distilled water at slightly more than 1.000 sp. gr., 5 grams of

gum were added, whereupon the hydrometer stood at 1.010.

The calculated gravity is 1.0062+, a little less than 0.004

lower than the hydrometer reading. My results, then, are

somewhat lower than the hydrometer would have made them.

Taking into account the possible variation in the specific grav-

ity of the gum, the two correspond quite closely.

To determine whether different parts of a gum solution were

of the same density, I tested a single mixture: 254 cc. of a

solution in which the hydrometer stood at 1.037 were divided

into upper and lower halves as gently as possible. To each

half was then added its own volume of pure water. Testing

each, it was found that the lower half had a specific gravity of

1.020, while the upper read 1.018. As the solution had stood

for some hours before being divided, I have assumed that the

upper and lower halves of a solution were of the same density.

I have written above each sp. gr. value in the table the frac-

tion of the starting amount (in case of Table II 1 cc. of the

gum-arabic mixture) which was added in the form of pure water.

Taking, for example, the sixth place in Table II, the starting

quantity of the mixture + 1.67 times its volume of water has a

resulting specific gravity of 1.041.

In performing an experiment I put 1 cc. of the gum mixture

into a test.tube with a long pipette, taking care not to draw

100 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the gum above the 1 cc. mark and not to get any on the sides

of the test-tube. Then I lifted the animals with as little water

as possible into the solution. Where I knew that the specific

gravity was less than 1.111, I took 1 cc. of water with them.

Animals must be placed underneath the surface of the liquid,

not dropped upon it, as some are buoyed up by the surface film,

and so do not sink in solutions lighter than themselves. (Pla-

naria and snails are thus supported in common pond water.)

As it is very difficult to force out the gum adhering to the sides

of the pipette, I made an allowance for the diminution of bore

due to the adhering gum when adding the first cubic centimeter

of pure water. By using this pipette to add the water, the

gum mixture will soon be washed completely out into the test-

tube, where it belongs.

= The very heavy bodies — such as the Sigs and the very

light ones — such as the older tadpoles (in general, the ends of

the series) —afford the least accurate determinations of their

specific gravity. To have a uniform standard for all, I assumed

that in each case, after the addition of more water, an animal

floated unless in sinking it touched the bottom or curving end

of the test-tube.

I give my results in the form of a table (in which the animals

are arranged according to their systematic relations) showing

the number of specimens used, the average specific gravity, and

the probable error. In the case of starred animals the solutions

given by Table II were employed. This involved less rough

treatment than by using the method of Table I.

There are five animals at the end of the table which were

not tested in sufficient numbers to warrant comparison with the

others.

All the free-swimming poses tested (excepting old tadpoles)

tend, when quiescent, to be at the bottom and to rise must

swim. That the lighter animals need less effort to swim is

well illustrated by the two entomostracans, Cypridopsis and

Simocephalus. Simocephalus moves without much effort and

often very slowly in the water. Cypridopsis, on the other hand,

must move rapidly and continuously or it sinks. It requires

a distinct effort for a mosquito larva to get to the surface.

No. 398. ] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. IOI

TasBLE III.

j APAE NuMBEROF| AVERAGE | PROBABLE

SPECIMENS. | Sp. GR. ERROR.

*Stentor cceruleus — : : ; ‘ ; 72 1.016+ | .oo16

*Bursaria (sf.?) . : i ; ; ; 66 1.0142 00067

Hydra viridis L. v : : , : : 18 1.0095 .00I13

fusca L.

Hydra 1 ae glia d. i ; : ; 6 1.0115 .0009

Cordylophora lacustris Allm. . : ; . | 5 heads 1.016

lanaria maculata Leidy oF 1.030 0026

*Rotifer vulgaris Ehrbg. . I5 1,021 —

Dero intermedia Cragin . : aera : 36 1.022 002

Cyclops albidus Jurine . : : : : 16 1.0222 .0029

Simocephalus vetula Müller . : > : r 1.0136 .0012

Cypridopsis vidua Müller : : : : 40 1.046 -—

Culex (larva) . : : s : . II 1.0185 .0002

Agrion larve . i 3 : i : 8 1.046 —

Aquatic fly larvae (sf. 2) : j : : . | Many 1.0185 p

Physa (shell hi. ‘ i à ; : 4 1.037 —

Nephelis (s5.?) . : * : : ; I 1.037 ~—

Asellus . : äi ; i à : | 3 1.037 m

When there, the surface film holds up the breathing tube with

its spreading hairs. Whenever that support is lost the animal

sinks. A Cyclops, when moving slowly, can be seen to move

upwards with a jerking motion, then to sink slightly, then to

jerk again, and so on. To remain motionless it must have its

antennz on the surface film.

A sinking animal, like a lifeless body, always falls with the

heavy end downward. Many animals do not give special evi-

dence in this direction. Cyclops usually sinks head downward,

the tail being at an angle of 45? with the horizon. Hydra,

unless unusually dense near the mouth (for instance, with food

in the gastrovascular cavity), sinks foot downward. One with

a bud sank bud downward.

In the tadpole the center of gravity changes position in the

course of development. Up toa length of about 6 mm,, it is

in the head region, for that always sinks first. In later stages

the center of gravity moves backward nearly to the root of the

102 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

tail, and tadpoles hang in the water with the tail at least 20°

lower than the head. Many of the older ones seem no heavier

than water. As soon as tadpoles begin to depend on food

taken into the alimentary canal from without, the canal may

become filled with air or gas, so that the animal floats belly up.

This condition is not permanent, for I have isolated such floating

tadpoles and they regained the bottom in the course of a day.

I have seen a tadpole force from its mouth as many as twelve

bubbles of gas. After attaining the length of 10-11 mm., the

specific gravity of the tadpole depends much on the condition

of the animal and on the development of the lungs. The

refuse of the food in the alimentary canal, which consists of

partially digested green water plants and many diatoms, may

aid the animal in sinking. It certainly helps move back the

center of gravity of the animal from the head region toward

the tail.

H. '

I have found the specific gravity of four series of tadpoles —

two in the spring of 1898 and two in the spring of 1899. In

each instance one series was the young of Rana silvatica, the

other those of Bufo lentiginosus.

TABLE IV. — Speciric GRAVITY OF FROG AND Toap TADPOLES.

Rounp

LENGTH ID oe — - E om a

EN IN MM Eca. 23 4-5 6-7 8-9 | ro-11 | 12-13 | 14-15 |16-16+

Rana silvatica, 1898 — | — |r022|1.013| — |I.013| 1.008 | 1.005 1.0055

Rana silvatica, 1899 — |I-111/1.11—|1.050| 1.042| 1.028| — | 1.010|1.0052

Bufo lentiginosus, 1898 | 1.038 |1.037| 1.037, — |1.022|1.013|1.013|1.010| —

Bufo lentiginosus, 1899 | 1.037 | 1.037 | 1.030) 1.022| 1.017| — |1.016|1.016| —

This table calls for a few remarks.

I have been able to get no good determinations oe the specific

gravity of the eggs of the frog, for unless the egg envelope is

removed, the specific gravity is too high; and if the envelope is

removed from the youngest eggs, they break badly in the solu-

tion. The toads for the two years correspond fairly well with

No. 398.] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 103

each other, but the drop in specific gravity began a little earlier

in their growth in 1899 than in 1898. There is a great differ-

ence in the two series of frog tadpoles, however, that of 1898

being much lighter. Even allowing for possible individual

variation, the discrepancy is still too great to be accounted for

by the faults of the method.

In looking back at the history of the two cases I find an

explanation, which is based upon the work of Galloway ('98), who

found experimentally that tadpoles of Rana, Amblystoma, and

Bufo, kept in a warm place, imbibed proportionately more

water in reaching a certain stage than did those kept in the

cold. My first series of observations (Table IV) was made on

eggs of Raza silvatica, which were obtained in cleavage stages

March 26, 1898. These were kept at room temperature and

hatched out March 28-31 (two to five days), some reaching the

length of 7 mm. by the latter date. The second series was

collected April 11, 1899, and kept out of doors in a shallow basin

on the ledge of a north window.. On April 22 they had reached

a length of 7 mm. (after a period of eleven days), although still

in the egg, and on that day I brought them into the room to

hasten their hatching. Since the specific gravity of the

embryos in the second series was throughout so much greater

than that of the first, I infer that they must have contained

much less water, therefore have had smaller lymph spaces and

smaller vacuolated cell regions and water spaces. That is, the

. embryos reared in a higher temperature must have imbibed more

water than those exposed to the lower temperature.

But while the specific gravity depends on the amount of

water absorbed by the tissues of the embryo, it also depends

on the amount of animal matter. The proportional amount of

this animal matter present has been ascertained by weighing,

desiccating, weighing again, and computing what per cent of

the first weight the dry weight is. Since the animals from one

mass of eggs vary individually, I selected them on the basis

of length, not age, each observation being based on five or ten

individuals of a given length. .

In the series of tadpoles of frog and toad I have found the

Specific gravity, the average fresh weight, the average dry

104 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

weight, and the percentage dry weight.

partial vacuum over sulphuric acid.

They were dried in a

TABLE V.— RANA SILVATICA.

NuMBER OF| LENGTH Arce. An SPECIFIC -

Dame TADPOLES ( ) sicui put in GRAVITY

: : Weicut. | WeicHT | WEIGHT. ;

April 13 5 21 .00328 001 36 41.4 LEII +

April 13 5 4 .00 00132 38.37 LII —

April 21 5 6 .00402 00142 34.8 1.055

April 1 es IO 7 .00448 00126 28.1 1.055-1.037

April 1 S IO 8-9 00540 00105 19.4 1.037-1.022

April 21 5 9 00592 OO1IO 18.58 —

April 21 IO IO-II 00794 OOIIO 13.9 | r.022-1.018

April 22 5 13-14 02730 00144 B28 I.OIO

April 26 5 16-17 04100 00208 5 — :

April 28 5 16 05 2 4.5 1.009-1.0065

May 1 5 20 .067 50 00356 &2. | 2007

TABLE VI. — BUFO LENTIGINOSUS.

NuMBEROF| LENGTH. ce en Tm SPECIFIC

DATE FRESH Dry Dry

TADPOLES. ( GRAVITY.

EIGHT. | WEIGHT. | WEIGHT.

May 1 IO 3-4 OOIIS .0005 44-3 1.037

May 1 IO 4-5 00217 .0007 32.2 1.037

May 2 IO 6 00339 -00065 19.1 1.025

May 3 10 7 00354 00062 17.5 22

May 1o 10 8-10 .00867 .00077 8.8 1.018-1.016

May Io IO IO 01477 .00122 8.2 1.016

May 10 IO 12. 02496 00196 7.8 1.018—1.016

May 11 10 3-15 | .04455 | .00327 73

These tables show :

1. That the animals, while continually increasing in total

weight, really decrease in dry weight up to the age (about

IO mm. long in the frogs) where they take in food from

without.

No. 398.] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 105

2. That the specific gravity decreases with the increase in

volume, as one would expect if the increased volume is due to

imbibition of water.

3. That the percentage of dry weight continues to decrease

even after the absolute dry weight, owing to the acquisition of

food from without, begins to increase. A similar set of results

expressed in the form of a curve is given by Davenport (97-99,

p. 285).

In the case of the toad series growth was so slow that for

the greater lengths (8 mm. and upwards) I took toads from out

of doors. All had reached the feeding stage, the intestines of

all being full, and since the conditions were the same and the

lengths not greatly, different, their specific 'gravities were

essentially the same.

The preceding table was based on developing forms of

Amphibians. I give also for comparison the relation which

exists between dry weight and total weight in a few individuals

of essentially adult fish.

TABLE VII.

NuMBER OF | LENGT Live Dry Per CENT

INDIVIDUALS.| (mm.) WEIGHT. | WEIGHT. Dry WEIGHT.

Fundulus ., 2 32 2090 :0454 21.7

Fundulus I 35 .2780 0622 22.6

Fundulus 2 44 6336 -1490 23.6

Gasterosteus I - 3o -1449 0358 23-4

Gasterosteus I 60 1.4041 3179 28.6

These fish were dried ten days. The larger the fish is, the

greater the per cent of dry weight.

As one would expect, the armored stickleback has a greater

per cent dry weight than Fundulus.

III.

The last section of the paper has reference to the location of

the imbibed water in the tissues of the tadpole. I give three

100 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

cross-sections from tadpoles of Rana silvatica at different ages.

They are in black and white, all solid cell tissue being printed

black. They are all outlined with the camera to a magnifica-

tion of 30 diameters.

As nearly as possible they are from corresponding regions of

the body— the region just back of the thickened auditory epi-

thelium. No.1 is taken from a specimen

2% mm. long.

Plainly there are here very few spaces

which may contain water or lymph. The

cells also are very crowded and show no

vacuolation.

No. 2 is from a 10 mm. tadpole. The

change is remarkable, especially in the de-

velopment of the highly vacuolated mesen-

chyme. The neural canal is larger, while

n the cross-section of nervous tissue is not

magnified 30 diam.; tis- greatly increased.

al meio MN The cavities of the cesophagus, intestine,

and liver are large, and the pronephric tubules also increase

the interior space.

As the best example of the

change in individual cells, I call

attention to those of the chorda,

which are very strongly vacuo-

lated.

The cross-section (Fig. 3)

from a 20 mm. tadpole shows

that, except for the cluster of

cells on the right which forms

the limb bud, the area of solid

tissue has decreased greatly.

The epidermis is very thin com- Fıs. 2. — Cross-section R. silvatica, 10 mm.

pared to either of the other v ——ÀPHÀ

examples, and the cesophagus and intestinal wall are not more

than half as thick as in the preceding stage.

Table V shows that the actual tissue (dry weight) in speci-

men No. 2 must have been less than in No. r. That the actual

No. 398. ] SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF ANIMALS. 107

Fic. 3. — Cross-section R. silvatica, 20 mm. long, magnified 3o diam.

tissue is greater in the 20 mm. tadpole is due to the fact that

the tadpole has been taking in solid food for ten days.

RESULTS.

The specific gravity of certain fresh-water animals was deter-

mined and found to vary from 1.0095 (Hydra viridis) to a

maximum of 1.0460 (Cypridopsis).

The movements of an animal are closely related to its density,

and there is also a correlation between density and food habits.

Of the animals tested, Stentor may represent a typical case

of specific gravity in little modified protoplasm. The heavier

animals certainly have some specialized tissues which are

108 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

denser, while in the case of Hydra, the lightest, the extreme

vacuolation of the inner layer may well indicate a less repre-

sentative character of the protoplasm.

In the case of the developing animal the chief tissue to

absorb water, and, therefore, the tissue of most rapid increase

in bulk, is the mesenchyme. All of the walls of the internal

organs, however, grow thinner and less dense as the animal

increases in size.

This work has been carried on under Dr. Charles B. Daven-

port, whose suggestions are the basis of anything of value it

may contain.

PAPERS CITED.

DAVENPORT, C. B.

'97-99. Experimental Morphology. xvii + 508 pp., 140 cuts. New

York, The Macmillan Company.

GALLOWAY, T. W.

'98. Effect of Temperature on Growth of Tadpoles. Science. Vol.

viii, N.S., No. 189, p. 178. [Abstract.]

LANDOLT, H., UND BORNSTEIN, R.

'94. Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen. Zweite Auflage, xi + 563 pp-

Berlin, J. Springer.

PLATT, JULIA B.

'99. On the Specific Gravity of Spirostomum, Parameecium, and the

Tadpole in Relation to the Problem of Geotaxis. American

Naturalist. Vol. xxxiii, No. 385, pp. 31-38.

THE MOSAIC OF SINGLE AND TWIN CONES IN

THE RETINA OF FISHES!

CARL H. EIGENMANN anD GEORGE DANIEL SHAFER.

THE eyes of fishes have served as the basis of numerous

papers. A list of these dealing with the eye in its macroscopic

aspect has been furnished by Ziegenhagen (995) while those

dealing with its minute structure have been enumerated by

Krause (86) and Cajal (94).

During recent years the efforts have been largely in the

direction of the application of the methods of Golgi and Ehr-

lich, chiefly to work out the vertical relationships of the various

layers of the retina. The present paper will be devoted to the

horizontal relationships of two elements in the retina of fishes,

t.e., the single and the twin cones.

. Both elements are well known, and their relative positions

have also received mention, as will be seen from the following

summary of the literature.

The twin cones arise from two cells placed close together;

their nuclei are usually just within the outer limiting membrane.

The cone bodies are pressed together so that the faces in con-

tact are flat. The outer segments are separate. The line

joining the centers of the two elements of the twin cone may

be termed the axis of a twin. The single cones vary greatly

in their relative thickness when compared with the components

of a twin. Quite frequently they are much thinner than the

latter, and in some other instances their structure is strikingly

different. In the eye of Zygonectes, for instance (Eigenmann

(99), the basal portion of the single cones contains refractive

granules, increasing in size outward where the series ends ina

lenticular vacuolated body separating the granular from the

distal portion. The twins do not possess these granules. In

! Contributions from the Zoülogical Laboratory of the Indiana University, No. 26.

L 109

IIO THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Coregonus the outer segments of the single cones have a cen-

tral deeper staining core. In this respect they agree with the

rods. One of us was in doubt concerning these single cones,

inclining to the opinion that they were rods (Eigenmann ('99),

p. 548).

The rods are not taken into consideration in this paper. It

may be said, however, that generally the number of rods is

inversely proportional to the number of single cones.

The eyes examined were taken, for the most part, from

museum specimens preserved in alcohol, and originally not

intended for anatomical or histological purposes. The eyes

were sectioned in paraffine, and the sections stained with

hemalum and eosine, or the Biondi-Ehrlich three-color mix-

ture, or Weigert’s haematoxylin; the latter gave good results

even with the alcoholic material. No attempt has been made

in this paper to describe the extent of variation in the patterns

noted in different parts of the same retina.

The earliest notice that may have a possible bearing on the

present subject is that of Guennelon (1686). According to

Ziegenhagen, he noted that the retina of Gadus eglifinus is

striped. We are not at all sure that this observation related

to the arrangement of the twin and single cones.

The first undoubted notice that the twin and single cones

may form a definite pattern was that of Hannover (43), who

figured the pattern of the *'Ródspetten" and of the pike.

Both patterns figured are those of our diagram D. We find

the pattern of the pickerel to be that of diagram Æ.

Much later, Müller (72, p. 59) says that in Perca ffuvia-

tilis the twins are in excess, with such an arrangement that

each single cone is separated from its neighbor by the twins,

not counting the rods. He also stated that in many fishes

only single cones exist. |

Nunneley (58) and Krause ('68) described cones in the

eel, and here, according to Krause, only single cones are found.

Friis (79) examined a large series of fishes and found that in

Accipenser and Anguilla only single cones exist. He found

twin cones only in a large number of species, but states that in

all of these, single cones are always to be found about the ora

No. 398:] CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES. III

serrata. Among the species that he enumerates as possessing

twin cones only, there are certainly some in which single cones

are regularly distributed. He found twin cones only in the

retina of Scomber, Thynnus, Mugil, Gadus, Platessa, Hippo-

glossus, Rhombus, Salmo trutta, Coregonus, Clupea harengus,

and Clupea sprattus.

He found both twin and single cones in Belone rostrata,

Tinca, Ammodytes, Carassius, Abramis, Leuciscus. In the

selachians examined, only rods are to be found.

Ryder (95) discovered a regularity of arrangement of rods

and cones in the larva of Salmo salar. The rods referred to

are the single cones of authors. He believed this definite

grouping of rods and cones to have some homology with the

compound eye of the invertebrate. The arrangement he found

is that of our pattern D.

Beer (98) in a footnote calls attention to the fact that the.

cone mosaic is surprisingly plain and regular in Scorpzena and

Blennius, and can be seen with the ophthalmoscope. He fig-

ures pattern F.

Eigenmann (99) calls attention to the regularity of arrange-

ment in Zygonectes. The pattern noted is Æ, a slight modifi-

cation of that noted by Ryder in Salmo. He also found that in

Chologaster the twins predominate over the single cones, and

that in this genus the arrangement of the twins is a modifica-

tion of pattern C.

Finally Eigenmann and Hansell (99) in a short abstract

state that the twin and single cones are arranged in a regular

pattern, and that this pattern is either that described by Han-

nover and by Tot for fishes, or a slight modification of this

pattern,

The first notice of a regular alternation of twin and single

cones isthat by Hannover, and of the arrangement of twin and

single cones, with a definite arrangement of the axes of the

twin cones, is that by Ryder.

The work begun by Mr. G. Hansell under my direction has

been continued by Mr. Shafer and myself, and a number of

"Species have been examined to date. Mr. Hansell’ s work is

incorporated in the present paper, credit being given under the

112 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

head of the species he examined. We have found that the

arrangement of the twin and single cones is remarkably con-

stant for any given species,!

and that the arrangement dif-

fers considerably in different

groups of fishes, but that the

patterns in all of the species

examined can be derived seri-

atim from one or the other of

the patterns.

Pattern A, the pattern from

which all others can most

readily be derived, has not

been found in any species as

yet, but slight modifications of it have. In this simple pattern

there are twin cones only, and the axes of alternate rows of

twins are parallel, while those

of neighboring rows are at

right angles to each other. A

series of squares are formed

in this way whose sides are

the extended axes of four twin B

cones.

Pattern B is produced by a

slight twisting of the axes of

the twins so that if extended

they would form a rhomb.

This pattern was found in

Scorpena porcus. The angles of the rhomb measure 53° and

es e CX -) 127?. Theactual conditions

| found in the eye are shown

in Fig. i.

Pattern C is produced

from B by a still further

ae twisting of the axes of the

twins till they are parallel

1 The variation of the pattern in different parts of the same eye will be dealt

with in a later paper.

No.398. CONES JN THE RETINA OF FISHES. II3

to each other. This pattern was found in Sedastodes elongatus

(Fig. 2). A similar but less regular arrangement was found by

Eigenmann (99) in Chologaster cornutus (Figs. 3, 4?). In the

latter case there are also some single cones irregularly disposed

among the twins.

Pattern D is formed from

4 by the addition of a sin-

gle cone in the center of

the square. This pattern has

been known longer than any

other, and is evidently the

one described by Müller for

Perca, in which he says “ each

single cone is separated from

its neighbor by twins." It is D

found in the American and

the European species of Perca (Fig. 5), in which the single

cones are of nearly the same size as the components of the

twins, and in Micropterus (Fig. 9). It was also found in

Etheostoma caeruleum (Fig. 6), Apomotis cyanellus (Fig. 7), and

Pimephales notatus (Fig. 8). The three last eyes were pre-

pared and the figures drawn

by Mr. Hansell.

The closeness of the ele-

ments in the pattern and the

size of the elements are seen

to differ in the various species

examined.

Pattern Æ is but a slight

modification of pattern D, in

which some of the twins have

pg migrated along the faces of

the squares so that while their

axes, if extended, still form squares, the lines separating the

twins, if extended, form parallel lines instead of a continuous

line. This condition was found by Eigenmann (99) in Zygo-

nectes (Figs. 10, 11).

Pattern F is formed by adding a single cone at each angle

I14 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of the square of pattern A. This gives us rows which answer

to the description of Müller quoted above, but this pattern evi-

dently was not the one ob-

served by him. This pattern

was first figured by Beer (98)

in Blennius, in which the

large hollow square formed is

filled by a great number of

rods. The actual pattern

found in the eye of Blennius

was of interest (Fig. 12),

inasmuch as double series of

twin cones, one with axes

horizontal and one with axes

vertical, were, in several

places, interpolated without

disturbing the pattern already

present.

Pattern G is formed by

adding a single cone in the

center of the hollow square

of pattern 7. This pattern

was described by Ryder (95)

in Salmo. A pattern but a

little less regular was found

in some larval Coregonus

(Figs. 13-17).}

asmuch as these specimens of Coregonus were of interest in several

respects, a brief note may be added to the above. The material examined consisted

of recently hatched larvae preserved in 70 per cent alcohol. The material came

from the hatching station of the U. S. Fish Cóimniséloti. The heads were

imbedded in paraffine, sectioned and stained in haemalum-eosine or in Biondi-

Ehrlich's ‘ren ls mixture. Both methods gave excellent results. The twins

scopo with the single cones in such a way that each is surrounded by four

ividing plane points toward the space occupied by the single cone.

The DESS is not mathematically accurate in the eye. Many of the twin cones

are twisted, as it were, on their axes, and occasionally an extra single cone is to

be found besides the single one in the unoccupied space between four twin cones,

i.e. at the angles of the square. Each component of a twin cone consists of a

slender outer segment, a much thicker body, and a more or less vacuolated base

No. 398.] CONES IN THE RETINA OF FISHES, HIS

Pattern 77 is the most complicated found so far. The square

of pattern F is converted into a rhomb with angles of 60° and

120°, and a twin cone is added whose axis forms a diagonal

between the nearer angles of the rhomb. This makes two

equilateral triangles whose sides are formed by twin cones, and

whose angles are occupied each by a single cone. This pat-

tern has been found in Lucius (Figs. 18, 19).

No suggestion is offered as to the significance of these

various patterns or the causes that have led to the various

modifications.

In several species we have not so far been able to make out

any regularity or, in fact, the nature of the cones. These are

the catfishes and Catostomus, one of the suckers.

resting on the outer limiting membrane (Fig. 1). Below this membrane and

exactly opposite each cone is a conical nucleus with a diameter less than that of

the cone. With Biondi-Ehrlich the nuclei are stained a blue purple and the rest

of the structures pink, so that there is no difficulty in separating parts. The

single cones differ from the twins in possessing a central deeper staining core in

the outer segment (Fig. 13). Besides these nuclei there are a few others, more

spherical and slightly larger, just within the inner ends of this layer of cells — the

rod nuclei. This inner layer of cells seems most abundant about midway between

the optic nerve and the ora serrata. There are about two and one-half times as

many of the outer nuclei as of these inner.

116 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

(Eigenmann, Figs. 1-5 pas 10-19; Hansell, Figs. 6-9.)

All the — were made fro the aid of the camera lucida. All but one of

the figures were made under a NUR either of the Zeiss apochromatic 2 mm., or the Bausch

and Lomb, —

(1) P th ; (2) rods and cones; (3) outer nuclear layer; (4) outer reticular layer;

PN bodisonial cells a inner nuclear layer; (7) i QUT Veil? a inner reticular layer ;

(9) gan; SE le: (10) optic fibre layer; cz., cone

Fic. r. porcus, 2mm

Fic. x cbe an me of Sebastodes gem

Fic. 3. — Vertical section €— the retina sot Vigite Ion sepals iferus, depigmented with chromic

acid and stained wi ondi- Ehrlich's

Fic. 4 2,5, c. — A series a ait T sections pisi do retina, 2 mm. (2) Passes from the

outer margin of the retina the base of the cone bodies. (2) fuse through the basal

— of > cones, (o gis through the cone nuclei.

Perca, fz.

Fic. 8.— The same in Pimephal. t

Fic. 9. — same in Mier opterus — ve

Fic. 10.— Vertical se g 7 tatus, 2 mm

Fic. 11. — Tangential inet f th i t the depth of the cone bodies, showing th gement

of the Des 2 mm. ~~ 6mm,

mee in PL

Fic. 12. 7 Zi

Fics. 13-16. — Successive tangential sections through ede retina of a newly hatched ig

The sections represent the posterior face of successive sections through the same part of th

ina, 2 mm.

Fic. 13. — Passes through the outer part of the inner segments of the cones and the inner ends of

the € e

Fic. 14. — Passes through the bodies of the cones and shows to best advantage the arrangement of

the cones.

Fic. I5. QGercti ro ing the i a ya A 4h. 3. Esh 3.2.9 ging

to them.

Fic. 16. TOR midde of met bim —

ly hatched FOI sf. (?), 2 mm.

Fic. 1

Fic. 18. E t of th

Fic. 19. - Anse ent of the cones and cone cells in Luci icudatus, th the right,

the cone cells on the left, of the figure, 2 mm.

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118 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

PAPERS MENTIONED.

Those which we have not been able to examine directly are marked *.

BEER, THEODOR. '98. Die Accommodation des Auges in der Thierreihe.

Wiener. klin. Wochenschrift, Nr. 52.

CAJAL, Ramon Y. '94. Die Retina der Wirbelthiere. Wiesbaden, 1894.

CAJAL, RAMON Y. '96. Nouvelles contributions à l'étude histologique de

la rétine. Journ. de l’ Anat. et de la Phys. Vol. xxxii, p. 481.

EIGENMANN, C. H. '99. The Eyes of the Amblyopside. Arch. f. Ent-

wickelungsmechantk. Bd. viii, p. 545.

EIGENMANN, C. H., and HANSELL, G. '99. Preliminary Note upon the

Arrangement of Rods and Cones in the Retina of Fishes. Proc.

Indiana Acad. Sci. p. 167. E.

Friis, G. '79. Fiskegiet. Kjgben

GUENNELON. *1686. Nouvelles » A Republique des Lettres. Mars.

Article VIII.

HANNOVER, ADOLPH. '43. Mikroskopiske Undersögelser af Nervesystemet.

Vid. Sel. Naturvid. og. Mathem. Afh. el.

KRAUSE, W. *’68. Die membrana fenestrata der Retina.

Krause, W. ‘86. Die Retina der Fische. Juternat. Monatsschr. f.

nat. u. Hist. Bd. iii, pp. 8, 42

MULLER, H. '72. Gesammelte und hinterlassene Schriften zur Anatomie

und Physiologie des Auges. Leipzig.

NUNNELEY. *'58. Journ. Micr. Sci. Vol. vi, Pl. XI.

RYDER, JOHN A. '95. An Arrangement of the Retinal Cells in the Eyes

of Fishes partially Simulating Compound Eyes. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sct. Phila. p. 161.

ZIEGENHAGEN, PAUL. '95. Beiträge zur Anatomie der Fischaugen. Berlin.

NOTE ON THE GENITAL ORGANS OF ZAITHA.

THOMAS H. MONTGOMERY, Jr.

THE hemipterous genus Zaitha has a remarkable structure

of the inner genital organs, particularly in the male, which

deserves to be made known. Leidy (History and Anatomy of

the Hemipterous Genus Belostoma) assumes, as I believe most,

if not all, entomologists have subsequently done, that Belos-

toma and Zaitha are closely related genera of the same family.

He states (/oc. cit., p. 59): ** The principal marks of distinction

between Belostoma and Perthostoma (Zaitha) are in the form

of the promuscis; the form of the antennae; the form, com-

parative size, and situation of the patch of pubescence on the

hemielytra; the form of the posterior tibiz ; and the size and

form of the caudal setze."

Leidy gives a figure (Fig. 6) of the male genitalia of Belos-

toma haldemanum, and describes the testes as “irregularly

rounded masses, about two lines in diameter, . . . composed

(each) of a single long convoluted tube. From the testicle

passes off the vas deferens ; at first narrow, it gradually enlarges

aS it passes backwards, is a little contorted, and finally joins

the one of the opposite side to form the ductus ejaculatorius."

Very probably Leidy assumed that these organs were similarly

constructed in Zaitha, for he makes no reference to the latter

in this regard.

An examination of the male genital organs of Zaitha has

Shown me that they are very different from those of Belostoma,

as described by Leidy (I have not been able to procure Belos-

toma for personal study). Some fifty malés of Zaitha were

dissected by me recently (November and December), and the

genitalia in all showed the following structure (Fig. B). Each

testis (the testes are distinct from one another) is a large organ

Composed of five capsules or follicles (2 and 3). Each capsule

1s thickened in its anterior portion, but the posterior three-fifths

119

120 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of its course is represented by a narrow tube. These five cap-

sules are loosely connected together by tracheze, but there is

no tunic investing them; and their proximal ends are con-

nected by terminal fibres (1). Distally they connect (at 4) and

so join the vas deferens (5); and the vas deferens of the right

side joining with that of the left, these internal organs termi-

nate in the ductus ejaculatorius (6). The vasa are thin-

walled, transparent tubes, considerably

more delicate than the testes. In the

drawing (Fig. B) I have represented the

follicles more separated than they usu-

ally lie.

In this description I calla follicle of

the testis the two portions

numbered 2 and 3 in the

figure. . In the testes

2 Studied in December both

these parts are filled with

spermatozoa, and I can find

on sections no evidences

of earlier spermatogenetic

stages; consequently, the

testes must be considered

physiologically mature.

But is the portion marked

3 really a portion of a tes-

TN ticular follicle, or is it not

rather to be considered a vas deferens? If the latter alternative

be correct, we should regard the five follicles (2) composing each

testis to possess each a separate vas deferens (3), these five vasa

deferentia joining posteriorly (at 4) to form a single vas (5).

This point can be determined only by an examination of the

organs in young individuals, with regard to whether in early

stages spermatogonia and spermatocytes occur in the parts

marked 3.

The ovaries differ in appearance according to the season of

the year, Ze. the state of growth of the ova. In June the

ovarioles (follicles) are beaded in appearance. The small ova-

No. 398.] THE GENITAL ORGANS OF ZAITHA. 121

ries in December (Fig. A) have much the appearance of testes.

Each ovariole is proximally attenuated (3), then enlarges (4),

and distally is continued as a narrow tube (5). Perhaps, as in

the testicle, the portion marked 5 should be regarded as an ovi-

duct rather than a portion of an ovariole (follicle) ; in this case

the portion marked 6 would be the undivided portion of the

oviduct. Terminally is the vagina (7). (Fig. A represents all

five ovarioles of the left ovary, but for the sake of clearness,

only three ovarioles of the right ovary are shown; 8, the

rectum ; 9, the terminal ventral plate of the abdomen; 10, the

outline of the posterior edge of the abdomen.) Proximally,

the two ovaries are connected together by a fibrous thread (2,

thread of Müller); and this thread is connected by another

thread (1) to the pericardial wall The dimensions in Fig. B

Should be doubled to be in the same scale of drawing as

Fig. A. ;

From this description it will be seen that the female genital

organs of Zaitha and Belostoma are quite similar, but that the

male organs are very different. In Belostoma each testis con-

sists of a single convoluted follicle; in Zaitha, of five distinct

and well-separated, nearly straight follicles. Léon Dufour

(Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les Hémiptores) has

not only given a most admirable description of the genitalia of

Hemiptera, but also has insisted on their high value in taxonomy.

Their worth seems to me also to be of great importance for

classification. Consequently, when Belostoma and Zaitha differ

so markedly in the structure of their male reproductive organs,

we must conclude that these genera are by no means so closely

related as they have been assumed to be; that in fact it

might be proper to separate them into different families.

Zaitha shows more relationship to Nepa in these structural

characters than to Belostoma.

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHILADELPHIA.

WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA.

MAYNARD M. METCALF.

Dr. ARTHUR WILLEy has made such valuable contributions

to our knowledge of the morphology of the lower Chordata that

it is with high expectations one opens his recent memoir upon

the Enteropneusta. He describes in considerable detail many

points in the anatomy of three species of Ptychodera (two of

them new), of two species of Spengelia (one new), and of a

Tornaria, all from the South Pacific, and also describes as new

and distinct species belonging to the genus Ptychodera two

West Indian forms, from Bimini (in the Bahamas) and from

Jamaica. This anatomical part of the memoir is full of details

of considerable interest to the student of the Enteropneusta,

but hardly of such a nature as to permit description in this

review. The author's observations, however, serve him as a

foundation upon which to rest some very far-reaching theo-

retical conclusions, and to these it may be profitable to direct

attention, referring to so much of the anatomy as may be

necessary for a correct understanding of the basis for these

conclusions.

Willey’s first proposition is that “the gonads and gill slits

were primarily unlimited in number and coextensive in distri-

bution, the gonads having a zonary disposition and the gill slits

Occupying the interzonal depressions. The primary function

of the gill slits was the oxygenation of the gonads, their sec-

ondary function being the respiration of the individual.” In

Support of this contention that in the lower Chordata the series

of gonads once extended much further forward, while the series

of gill slits extended much further backward, the gill slits lying

between the gonads and serving chiefly for their oxygenation,

: * Willey, A. Zovlogical Results. Pt.iii, Enteropneusta from the South Pacific,

with Notes on the West Indian Species. Cambridge, University Press, May, 1899.

123

I24 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

the author urges (1) that in the Enteropneusta and Cephalo-

chordata the number of gill slits is indefinite, new ones being

added posteriorly throughout life; (2) that the number of gill

slits has become reduced not only among the Vertebrata, but

even within the group of the Enteropneusta, since one species,

Ptychodera auriantiaca, has as many as seven hundred pairs,

while another species, P. mzmeta, never has more than forty

pairs, these representing the two extremes so far as known;

(3) that in the intestinal pores and ciliated grooves of certain

Enteropneusta we have vestiges of the former posterior gill

slits of the now abbreviated series. The intestinal pores occur

in six species belonging to four genera. These pores may lie

either close behind the branchial region or at the posterior end

of the hepatic region. Schimkewitsch and Spengel have sug-

gested that these pores may in some way be related to gill slits.

In the Ptychoderidz the pores are absent, but instead of them

we have a pair of ciliated grooves extending from the anterior

end of the hepatic region nearly to the posterior end of the

body. In two species “these are not simple longitudinal fur-

rows, but undergo metameric or interannular sacculations," the

saccules * strongly resembling gill pouches” not yet open to

the exterior Willey believes that the restriction of the gill

slits to the anterior part of the body and of the gonads to the

middle portion of the trunk took place after the development of

a blood vascular system, which rendered the gonads no longer

directly dependent upon the gill slits for oxygenation.

Certain species'of Enteropneusta have two proboscis canals

connecting anteriorly with the proboscis coelom and opening

posteriorly by two pores on the dorsal side of the stalk of the

proboscis, near where it joins the collar. The distal extremity

of each of these canals may be swollen to form a considerable

vesicle, or “end sac." Secondarily, in some species one (or

both ?) of the proboscis canals may be interrupted, so that the

end sac, while opening to the exterior, has no longer any com-

munication with the proboscis coelom. In certain adults, though

not in the young, of one species, Ptychodera carnosa, Willey found

that one of the two proboscis pores ** may open ” not onto the

No.398. WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 125

posterior part of the dorsal surface of the proboscis stalk, as in

other species, but ** into the base of the medullary tube, some-

what behind the anterior neuropore.”’

* By a legitimate mental abstraction" Dr. Willey derives

from this fact a “theory, as to the broad truth of which” he

is himself “quite convinced," and which he states in these

words: * The proboscis pore of the Enteropneusta is repre-

sented by and is homologous with the inner or cerebral open-

ing of the neuro-hypophysial apparatus of the ascidian larva ;

the end sac of the Enteropneusta typically communicates inter-

nally with the ccelom, but within the limits of the group we

find signs of its emancipation from the ccelom ; the hypophysial

canal of the ascidian larva has no relations with the body cavity,

but it opens at one end into the medullary tube (cerebral vesi-

cle) and at the other into the branchial sac at the base of the

buccal cavity. Thus a special significance is given to the

peculiar mode of origin of the ascidian subneural apparatus

(gland and duct), and an explanation is forthcoming as to the

apparent absence of anything like a proboscis pore in the ascid-

ian larva.” This adds another and startling hypothesis to the

several that have been advanced as to the homologies of the

ascidian neural gland. Allow me to refer for a moment to

these.

Masterman's recent attempt to homologize the so-called noto-

chordal pouch of the Hemichordata with the ascidian neural

gland seems to imply a failure to understand the real nature of

the latter organ. The notochordal pouch, so far as we can

judge, is endodermal, a derivative of the pharynx. The neural

gland of ascidians! is derived from the central nervous sys-

tem, its duct is the anterior end of the central neural tube, and

its aperture is usually regarded as the neuropore. The neural

gland has no known relation to the endoderm, except that it

opens into a portion of the pharynx which may be of endoder-

mal origin, but which there is some reason to believe may be

derived from the stomodzeum.

1 I say the neural gland of ascidians rather than of Tunicata, because the neu-

tal gland of certain tunicates, the Salpide, is of such a peculiar nature that it is

difficult to compare it with that of the ascidians.

126 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Willey's attempt to homologize a portion of one or both of

the proboscis canals! and their pores with the ascidian neural

gland seems even a greater exercise of the imaginative faculty,

for these structures in Ptychodera are not only mesodermal,

but are a definite portion of the coelom. If they be homolo-

gous with one or both of the collar pores and collar canals, as

seems not improbable, then they must be regarded as nephridial

in their relationships, for Masterman has clearly demonstrated

the nephridial nature of the collar canals in Cephalodiscus.

Willey, however, does not claim that the proboscis canals and

collar canals of Ptychodera have been derived from the ascid-

ian neural gland, but rather that the gland in the ascidians has

been modified from a more primitive condition similar to that

in certain adult specimens of Ptychodera carnosa. How such

a proposition can be reconciled with the facts of the develop-

ment of the gland in the ascidians, where it is formed wholly

at the expense of the larval neural canal, it is very difficult to

see. Willey's statement that the * hypophysial canal" of the

ascidian larva “opens into the medullary tube” is hardly accu-

rate. It is morphologically a part of the medullary tube. Dr.

Willey must have had these facts clearly in mind, for he has

himself published one of the most valuable descriptions of the

ontogenetic development of the ascidian neural gland.”

The whole question of the homologies of the neural gland of

tunicates is an exceedingly complicated and difficult one. It is by

no means certain even that this gland is represented in the verte-

brates by either of the two portions of that compound structure

which is called the hypophysis cerebri, yet this homology pro-

posed by Julin is comparatively simple, since the ascidian

gland and one part of the vertebrate hypophysis are of neural

origin. Willey's theory is much more startling, for it claims a

genetic relationship between a portion of the central nervous

system in ascidians (the neural gland) and a portion of the

coelom (the proboscis canals) in Enteropneusta. Yet the only

foundation for the theory which I am able to find in his paper

1 Willey regards the condition with two proboscis pores as more primitive than

that with one.

2 Several further objections to the proposed homology might be urged, but it

seems hardly wise to treat the theory too seriously.

No. 398] WILLEY ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 127

is the fact that in certain adult individuals of one species of

Ptychodera he finds sometimes one, sometimes the other, of the

two proboscis pores opening “into the base of the medullary

tube somewhat behind the anterior neuropore." In younger

specimens he finds the single median proboscis pore opening

somewhat in front of the “anterior neuropore.” The occasional

peculiarity he has observed in Ptychodera carnosa seems a rather

narrow apex on which to found so broad a pyramid of theory.

Willey's third proposition as to regional pores and neph-

ric tubules is best presented by copying his own table, which is

self-interpreting, with the one explanation that the organs men-

tioned in the right-hand column are not intended to be repre-

sented as serially homologous with those in the preceding

columns.

Group A S EssENTIAL ORGANS

* RCHIMERIC SYSTEM. or EXCRETION

Ideal Pos : Mesomeric Opisthomeric | Regional pore

. + » |E IOLVOIIICIIC pores pores pores canals

Entero- Truncal pores

i 1 1

pneusta Eosigecn e (Spengelia) —

Cephalo- Przoral pit Hatschek's Lankester’s | Boveri’s nephric

chorda jand Olfactory pit) nephridium | brown funnels tubules

Renal vesicles:

Urochorda Neuro-hypophy- | Organ of Bo-

sis (in part)! janus(Molgu-

lidze)

A Pronephros

Vertebrata dh Mesonephros

Un en Metanephros

In some of the Ptychoderidae Willey found that the collar

nerve tube does not completely separate from the dorsal epider-

mis from which it arose, but that there are partially hollow con-

necting strands running from the nerve tube to the mid-dorsal

line of the collar, The more or less interrupted lumina of these

1 In part because coelomic element is wanting.

128 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vor. XXXIV.

hollow strands may in certain cases connect with the lumen of

the central nerve tube. These hollow strands or ** roots of the

Ptychoderide,”’ Willey says, “are genetically related to the epi-

physial complex of Craniota; in the crucial nuchal region of the

Enteropneusta are, therefore, to be found not the actual but

the nearest possible approximation to the actual primordia of

the . . . epiphysis cerebri of Craniota.” Of course this may be

true, yet it seems questionable if it be “ profitable for doctrine."

Willey's fifth proposition he states as follows: “Just as the

medullary tube of the collar is admittedly an invaginated por-

tion of the dorsal nerve trunk,! so the medullary folds which

arise and fuse to form the medullary tube are to be regarded as

specializations of the anterior portion of the pleural folds which

are retained in the Ptychoderidz as the genital pleura.” * The

genital folds of Enteropneusta, the atrial folds of Amphioxus,

and the medullary folds of Vertebrata belong to the system of

pleural folds of the body wall, and are differentiated from a

common primordium." In this connection it may be well to

remember that Amphioxus has both medullary folds and atrial

folds, and that there is no apparent relation between them.

Willey's sixth proposition refers to a recession of the “ pos-

terior neuropore " until it reaches and becomes associated with

the blastopore (** primitive anus ”) to form the neurenteric canal.

I do not, however, clearly understand the terms he uses.

Dr. Willey next discusses briefly the different regions of

pseudo-chondroid tissue, z.e., ‘stomochord, pygochord, and

pleurochords."

Willey points out that the tongue bars of the gill region of

the Enteropneusta “are not (ontogenetically) secondary, as they

are in Amphioxus," and that * by their development, size, and

1 Cf. Morgan (Journal of Morphology, vol. ix, 1894, p. 74). “ We seein Balano-

glossus that the ixvaginated dorsal nerve cord can correspond only to the anterior

end of the nerve cord of Amphioxus, and that the superficial dorsal nerve path,

stretching through the gill region, thence to the end of the body, must be the

homologue of the remainder of the nerve cord of Amphioxus."

No. 398. ] WILLE Y ON THE ENTEROPNEUSTA. 129

vascularity, they obviously constitute collectively the essential

organs of respiration. In Amphioxus the functional impor-

tance of the tongue bars is greatly diminished ; they are smaller

in size and lower in vascularity than the primary bars, and their

development is secondary."

In certain of the Enteropneusta the ventral edges of the gill

slits are swollen on the pharyngeal surface, and these thickened

areas of the walls of the successive gill slits are continuous, form-

ing a pair of lateral ciliated pharyngeal ridges. These “arch

round in front to unite in the epibranchial band," and represent

the endostyle of Amphioxus and the Tunicata.

In one part of his memoir Dr. Willey describes certain phe-

nomena of regeneration in Ptychodera flava, summarizing them

as follows:

(1) * When regeneration occurs in the region of the genital

pleurz the collar is regenerated from the pleurze.

(2) “ The collar nerve tube is formed by the fusion of true

medullary folds which are differentiated from the pleural folds.

(3) * The zones of the collar are differentiated from the annu-

lations of the body wall.

(4) “ In regenerating individuals the right and left proboscis

pores are approximately equal.

(5) “In regenerating individuals the lumen of the stomo-

chord! is at first entire."

I trust the absence of comment in this review upon some of

the proposed theories will not be interpreted as indicating my

acceptance of these theories. The paper is noteworthy for

the boldness and confidence with which it sets forth startling

propositions.

THE Woman’s CoLLEGE OF BALTIMORE,

January 9, 1900.

1 Notochord of Bateson:

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES.

VII. THE CYCLOMETOPOUS or CANCROID CRABS OF NORTH

AMERICA.

MARY J. RATHBUN.

In the Cyclometopa the carapace is usually broader than

long, regularly arched in front, and not rostrate; the epistome

is short and transverse; the outer maxillipeds have the fifth

joint articulated at the inner front angle of the fourth; there

are nine pairs of branchiz, their efferent channels opening at

the sides of the endostome or palate; and the genital organs

of the male are inserted at the bases of the last pair of trunk

legs.

This tribe contains many well-known crabs, including all

the large edible species of the United States — the common

“blue crab," or Callinectes, of our eastern coast, the stone crab

(Menippe) of the Southern States, and the large Cancer magister,

or common crab, of the Pacific coast.

The Cyclometopa, as represented in North America, may

conveniently be subdivided into three families: first the Can-

cride, containing the genus Cancer with eleven species, some

of which attain a large size and which frequent rocky and

sandy bottoms, and the genera Telmessus and Erimacrus, hairy

crabs inhabiting Bering Sea and the North Pacific and furnish-

ing food for fur seals.

The remainder of the crabs of cancroid shape, that is, trans-

versely oval or hexagonal and without projecting spines or

natatory feet, are included in the family Pilumnidz, many of

Which are small species inhabiting muddy qmd or living under

Stones or in crevices of rocks or sponges.

The family Portunidze, or the swimming aie have, with one

€xception, the last pair of legs developed into a swimming

131

132 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

paddle. They include the widespread pelagic Portunus sayi,

the “lady crab," or “calico crab” (Ovalipes ocellatus), and the

edible Callinectes.

In the key which follows, the same terms are employed to

indicate geographical distribution as in Professor Kingsley's

keys to the Macrura, with two additions. Although the species

of the southern half of Florida are excluded from the key as

belonging properly to the West Indian fauna, those of the

remainder of the Gulf coast are included. It has also seemed

advisable to indicate by the letters CH those species whose

northern limit is Cape Hatteras. The characters used are as

follows :

4 Alaska south.

P Puget Sound to San Francisco.

D Monterey to San Diego.

W Atlantic coast south to Cape Cod.

M Cape Cod to North Carolina.

S South Carolina to Florida.

G Gulf of Mexico.

CH Cape Hatteras, northern limit.

The bathymetrical limit is 100 fathoms.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THE TRIBE CYCLOMETOPA.

Antennulæ folded longitudinally. Outer maxillipeds long, overlapping

the epistome . CANCRIDÆ Latreille, Alcock

A’, Antennule folded idineversely or ‘ obliquely transversely. Outer maxil-

lipeds usually not overlapping the epistome.

B. Last pair of legs not modified for swimming

PILUMNIDÆ Leach = XANTHID# Alcock

B’. Last pair of legs usually modified for swimming, with the last two

joints compressed, very broad and paddle-like. Carapace widest

at the last antero-lateral marginal spine. Usually from 5 to 9

antero-lateral spines or teeth . . . PoRTUNID# Leach, Miers

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY CANCRIDA.

4. Buccal cavity completely closed by the outer maxillipeds . . Cancer

A’, Buccal cavity not completely closed by the outer maxillipe

B. Carapace broader than long, pentagonal. . nae Telmessus

B. Carapace longer than broad, suboval . . . . . Erimacrus

No. 398.) WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 133

THE SPECIES OF CANCRIDA.

Genus Cancer Linnæus.

Key to Species.

A. Ambulatory legs very broad and flat, especially those of the last pair

C. magister Dana APD

A’, Ambulatory legs of moderate width.

B. Fronto-orbital width small, about one-fifth width of carapace.

Front strongly advanced beyond outer orbital angles

C. productus Randall APD

B'. Fronto-orbital width more than one-fifth width of carapace. Front

not greatly advanced beyond outer orbital angles.

Fic. 1. — Cancer magister.

C. Color on the fingers extending from the li not more than

half the length of the fingers.

D. Carpus of cheliped with two spines at inner angle, one

below the other.

E. Antero-lateral teeth shallow, projecting little from

the carapace. Carapace very slightly areolated

| C. gracilis Dana APD

E’. Antero-lateral teeth strong, projecting well out from

. the carapace.

F. Fronto-orbital width one-third the width of the

carapace. Carapace strongly areolated

C. gibbosulus (de Haan) APD

F’. Fronto-orbital width nearly half the width of

the carapace. Carapace slightly areolated

C. jordani Rathbun, sp. nov.,! D

: 2e U.: S ies Mus. No. 22868, Monterey Bay, Harold Heath, collector.

The ne species noticed in this paper will be described in full in the Proceedings

of the Parr pn National Museum.

134 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

D’. Carpus of chelipeds with one spine at inner angle.

E. Antero-lateral teeth with dentate or spinulous margins.

F. Crests on hand feeble, granulate

C. anthony? Rathbun D

F'. Crests on hand strong, the upper ones spinulous

C. borealis Stimpson NM

E'. Antero-lateral teeth with margins simply granulate

C. irroratus Say NMS

C'. Color on the fingers extending from the tip more than half the

length of the fingers.

D. Fronto-orbital width one-third the width of the carapace

. antennarius Stimpson APD

D’. Fromto-orbital width nearly one-half the width of the

carapace. Carapace strongly areolated.

E -G

Fie. 2. — Tel het

E. Front truncate. Movable finger almost entirely

k-colored . . C. oregonensis (Miers) APD

E'. Front not truncate. Movable finger not more than

two-thirds dark-colored . C. amphietus Rathbun D

Genus Telmessus White - + + « « WZ, chetragonus (Tilesius) AP

Genus Erimacrus Benedict’ o + + « « + + HE. tsenbeckit (Brandt) A

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PILUMNID.;E.

A. The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels, if present, are

low, and are confined to the posterior part of the endostome, never

reaching to the anterior boundary of the buccal cavern.

B. Fronto-orbital border less than half the greatest width of the

carapace.

No. 398.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 135

C. Antero-lateral margin continued to the angle of the buccal

cavity. Carapace eroded . os. yptoxanthus

Cc’. Antero-lateral margin ending at he orbit.

D. A deep notch in the anterior border of the merus of the

external maxillipeds. Carapace nodose . . Daira

D’. No deep notch in the anterior border of the merus of the

external maxillipeds. Carapace not nodose

cloxanthops

B. Fronto-orbital border half or more than half the greatest width of

the carapace.

C. Chelipeds with a circular cavity on the anterior margin between

the carpus and manus . . . . Carpoporus

C. Chelipeds without a circular TECUM on the anterior margin.

D. Carpal joints of ambulatory M armed above with a

horned or lunate crest . , ."'Hetmcues

D’. Carpal joints of ambulatory igsi not pee with a horned

crest.

E. Carapace tresevecir oval.

F. Ambulatory legs spiny or ud on the upper

border Xanthias

FK Abols beri not eee nor iioii on the

upper border.

G. Four or more well-marked antero-lateral

teeth, excluding the orbi

Leptodius

G’. Four antero-lateral teeth (besides the or-

: bital), the first of which is low and more

or less fused with the orbital

urypanopeus

E'. Carapace more or less hexagonal or subquadrate.

F. Carpal and propodal joints of ambulatory legs

more or less cristate. . . Lophopanopeus

F*. Carpal and propodal joints of ambulatory legs

not cristate.

G. Ambulatory legs spinulous. pip erat

G’. Ambulatory legs not spinulous.

H. Three antero-lateral teeth besides the

orbital, the second normal tooth, or

that next the orbital, being obsolete

Glyptoplax

LP. Four antero-lateral teeth besides the

orbital, the second normal tooth, or

that next the orbital, being some-

times partially united with the or-

bital, but never obsolete.

136 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

J. Terminal segment of abdomen of

male oblong. Carapace sub-

quadrate, narrow (length about

three-fourths width), approach-

ing the Catometopa. Prominent

transverse dorsal ridges

Rhithropanopeus

J'. Terminal segment of abdomen of

male subtriangular. Carapace

when subquadrate, wider than

the preceding.

K. Front arcuate. Carapace

hexagonal | Neopanope

K'. Front with truncate or sinu-

ous lobes

L. Front very narrow and

advanced. Postero-

lateral margins

strongly converging.

Carapace hexagonal

exapanopeus

L'. Frontof moderate width.

Postero-ateral mar-

gins not strongly con-

verging. Carapace

subquadrate

Eupanopeus

A’, The ridges that define the efferent branchial channels extend to the

anterior boundary of the buccal cavern and are often very strong.

B. Fronto-orbital border just about half or less than half the greatest

breadth of the carapace, which is broad and transversely oval.

C. Antero-lateral margin much shorter than the postero-lateral.

Front with two simple lobes . . Eurytium

C. Antero-lateral and Pee hargin Fhia Front

with two lobulate lobes . . Menippe

B’. Fronto-orbital border much more tale half na: greatest breadth

of the carapace.

C. Carapace nodose . . . Lobopilumnus

C. Carapace not nodose, but often n granulate or spinous, and

usually hairy . . . . . > Pilumnus

No. 398. ] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 137

THE SPECIES OF PILUMNID&.

Genus Glyptoxanthus A. Milne Edwards . . . G. erosus (Stimpson) G

Genus Daira de Haan ou 4 ee s. o3 D. americana Stimpson? D

Genus Cycloxanthops Rathbun . . C. novemdentatus (Lockington)? D

Genus Carpoporus Stimpson. . .

Genus Heteractaea Lockington Æ. /unata (Milne Edwards and Lucas) D

Genus Xanthias Rathbun . . . . . . . 4. taylori (Stimpson) D

Genus Leptodius A. Milne Edwards Z. agassizii A. Milne Edwar

M(CH)G

Genus Eurypanopeus A. Milne Edwards. . Æ. depressus (Smith) MSG

Genus Lophopanopeus Rathbun.

Key to Species.

A. Upper margin of meral joints of ambulatory legs not spinulous.

B. Hands smooth, without lobe or tooth on upper margin

L. bellus (Stimpson) APD

B’. Hands with one or more lobes or teeth on upper margin.

C. Carpus of cheliped smooth or nearly so.

D. Color of pollex running far back on hand i

L. frontalis Rathbun D

D’. Color of pollex not running back on han e

L. heathii Rathbun, sp. nov.,? D

C. Carpus of cheliped very rough.

D. Carpal joints of ambulatory legs strongly bilobed.

E. Carpus of cheliped covered with reticulating ridges

enclosing pits of irregular shape

L. leucomanus (Lockington) D

E’. Carpus of chelipeds covered with tubercles

L. diegensis Rathbun, sp. nov,* D

D’. Carpal joints of ambulatory legs slightly bilobed

L. lockingtoni Rathbun, sp. nov., D

K California, on the authority of A. Milne Edwards.

i Mr. S. J. Holmes has compared specimens (not types) determined by Lock-

ington as Xantho novemdentatus, with C. californiensis, and pronounces them the

same. If the species are identical, Lockington’s measurements of his type must

be erroneous.

. Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 22870, Monterey Bay, Harold Heath, collector.

Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 4281, San Diego, 10 fathoms, H. Hemphill,

collector.

s Type, U. S. Nat. Mus. No. 19973, San Diego Bay, Steamer Albatross, collector.

Xanthodes latimanus Lockington is probably a Lophopanopeus, but is not deter-

minable with certainty.

I 38 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

A’. Upper margin of meral joints of ambulatory legs spinulous

L. distinctus Rathbun G

Genus Micropanope Stimpson.

Key to Species.

A. Second normal tooth of the antero-lateral margin absent

M. sculptipes Stimpson SG

A’. Second normal tooth of the antero-lateral margin present

M. xanthiformis (A. Milne Edwards) 27(CZ7)

Genus Glyptoplax Smith.

Key to Species.

A, Last tooth of lateral margin small but well marked. Median lobe of

the upper orbital margin strongly arcuate

G. smithii A. Milne Edwards M(CH)G

A’, Last tooth of lateral margin rudimentary. Median lobe of the upper

orbital margin subtruncate. . G. pusilla (A. Milne Edwards) G :

Genus Rhithropanopeus Rathbun. . . . R. harrisii (Gould) WMSG

Genus Neopanope A. Milne Edwards. |

Key to Species.

A. Dactylus of larger hand with a large basal tooth

N. Pere (Kingsley) G

A’, Dactylus of larger hand without a large basal too

B. Fingers white or light horn-color. KERESE teeth sharp and

much produced . N. texana (Stimpson) SG

B’. Fingers black or divi colend, in we males. Antero-lateral teeth

blunter and less produced . . W. texana sayi (Smith) MS

Genus Hexapanopeus Rathbun

H. angustifrons (Benedict and Rathbun) MSG

Genus Eupanopeus Rathbun.

Key to Species.

A, Carpus of cheliped with a groove parallel with its distal margin. Color

of immovable finger not eee. beyond the line of color on the

movable finger. . . E. occidentalis (Saussure) S

A’, Carpus of cheliped without VEO: Color of immovable finger extend-

ing beyond the line of color on the movable finger

E. herbstii (Milne Edwards) MSG

Genus Eurytium Stimpson. . . . . . . . E: limosum (Say) MS

Genus Menippe de Haan.

Key to Species.

A. Surface of carapace almost smooth. Antero-lateral teeth or lobes

shallow or little projecting . . M. mercenaria (Say) M(CH)SG

No. 398.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 139

A’. Surface of carapace anteriorly nodose. Antero-lateral teeth strong,

projecting well out from the carapace . M. nodifrons Stimpson S

Genus Lobopilumnus A. Milne Edwards . . . Z. agassizii Stimpson G

Genus Pilumnus Leach.

Key to Species.

4. Carapace concealed by a short, thick pubescence, which, when removed,

discloses tubercles on the gastric and hepatic regions

pannosus Rathbun G

A’. Carapace, when covered by a short, thick pubescence, not having the

gastric region tuberculate.

B. Superior orbital border with one or few long spines.

C. Superhepatic region unarmed

P. spinohirsutus (Lockington) D

C. Superhepatic region armed with spines or spinules

P. sayi Rathbun M(CH)SG

D, Superior orbital border either entire or armed with denticles or

spinules.

C. Outer surface of smaller hand only partially covered with

tubercles or spines . P. lacteus Stimpson G

C’, Outer surface of smaller bind entirely covered with tubercles

orspnes . . . . . . + £&. floridanus Stimpson G

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PORTUNIDE.

A. Last pair of legs broad, modified into swimming paddles,

B. Carapace decidedly transverse; antero-lateral margins cut into

nine teeth.

. C. Movable portion of the antenna excluded from the orbital

cavity by a prolongation of the basal joint of the antenna

Charybdella

C. Movable portion of the antenna not excluded from the orbit.

D. No longitudinal ridge on the palate . . . . Arenæus

D’. A longitudinal ridge on the palate.

E. Abdomen of male L-shaped . . . . Callinectes

E'. Abdomen of male triangular. . . . . Portunus

B'. Carapace not very broad ; antero-lateral margins cut into five teeth.

. C. Last tooth of antero-lateral margin developed into a spine,

longer than the other teeth or spines . . - Bathynectes

C'. All antero-lateral teeth similar . . 2. > Ovalipes

A". Last pair of legs narrow, with dactylus Lisceobin . + + Carcinides

THE SPECIES OF PORTUNID#.

Genus Charybdella Rathbun . . . . . . C. rubra (Lamarck) S

Genus Arenzus Dana TRES Uer A. cribrarius (Lamarck) MSG

140 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Genus Callinectes Stimpson.

. Key to Species.

A. Front with four intraorbital teeth.

B. Median pair of frontal teeth without an accessory tooth

. sapidus Rathbun NMSG

B'. Median pair of frontal teeth, each with an accessory tooth on its

inner margin . . ., C. sapidus acutidens Rathbun SG

A’. Front with six intraorbital ene

B. Intramedial region broad, its anterior width about three times its

length. Posterior TEN of antero-lateral teeth longer than the

anterlot . . . C.ornatus Ordway SG

B'. Intramedial region narrow, its anterior c idth about twice its length.

econd to sixth antero-lateral teeth equilateral

C. dane Smith SG

Genus Portunus Fabricius.

Key to Spectes.

A. Carapace wide; antero-lateral margin the arc of a circle with long

radius, whose center is near the posterior margin of the carapace

Subgenus Portunus = Neptunus de Haan

Fic. 3. — Callinectes sapidus.

B. First eight lateral spines or teeth subequal.

C. Front with six intraorbital teeth P. sayi (Gibbes) WMSG

c Front with eight intraorbital pun

P. gibbesii (Stimpson) MSG

B’. Second, fourth, and sixth lateral teeth or spines smaller than the

others P. xantusii (Stimpson) PD

A’. Carapace narrow ; beo E, narii the arc of a circle with short

radius, whose center is near the center of the cardiac region

Subgenus Achelous de Haan (including Helena and Amphitrite de Haan).

No. 398.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. I4I

B. Carapace with rounding posterior corners.

C. Posterior of the lateral spines of the carapace exceeding the

other spines or teeth but little if at all.

D. Three spines on manus P. anceps (Saussure) M(CHY}

D’. Two spines on manus.

E. Superior outer surface of manus smooth, iridescent

P. ordwayi (Stimpson) G

E'. Superior outer surface of manus with a longitudinal,

tuberculated ridge.

Fic. 5.—Carcinides manas.

F. Front with eight intraorbital teeth

P. spinimanus (Latreille) MSG

F’.. Front with six intraorbital teeth

P. depressifrons (Stimpson) S

142 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

C’. Posterior of the lateral spines of the carapace much longer

. than the other lateral spines or teeth

P. seb@ (Milne Edwards) MC )

B’, Carapace with sharp posterior angles

P. spinicarpus (Stimpson) M(CH)G

Genus Bathynectes Stimpson . . . . B. superba (Costa) M

Genus Ovalipes Rathbun. . . . . . : serat NE NMSG

Genus Carcinides Rathbun . . . . . . . . C.enas (Linnzus) M

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Say, THOMAS. ‘17. An Account of the Crustacea of the United States.

Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. irr Vol. i, pt. i, pp. 57-63, 65-

8o, 97-101, Pl. IV.

Say, THOMAS. '18. Appendix to the Account of the Crustacea of the

United States. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Vol. i, pt. ii,

445-458.

MILNE Epwarps, H. '34 Histoire naturelle des crustacés. Vol. E

chap. iv, pp. 363-468, and atlas.

GOULD, A. A. '4l A Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts.

. Crustacea. Pp. 321—341

GIBBES, LEWIS R. '50. On the Carcinological Collections of the United

States. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Vol. iii, pp. 167-201.

DANA, JAMES D. '52. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi-

tion. Vol. i, pp. 142-306, and atlas.

STIMPSON, WILLIAM. '57. Crustacea and Echinodermata of the Pacific

Shores of North America. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vi,

PP. 444-532.

STIMPSON, WILLIAM, '59. Notes on North American cpr No. I.

Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York. Vol. vii, pp. 49-93, P

d WiLLIAM. '60. Notes on North American rait No. Il.

Ann. Lyc. Nat. Hist. New York. Vol. vii, pp. 176-246, Pls.

I, v.

ORDWAY, ALBERT. '63. Monograph of the Genus Callinectes. /our7.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vii, pp. 567-583.

MILNE EDWARDS, A. '65. Études zoologiques sur les crustacés récents

de la famille des cancériens. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris.

Tome i, pp. 177-308, Pls. XI-XIX

SmitH, S. I. '69. Notes on New or Litt: Knows Species of American

Cancroid Crustacea. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. xii, pp-

274-289.

No. 398.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 143

MILNE Epwarps, A. '73-80. Les crustacés de la région Mexicaine.

VERRILL, A. E., and SMITH, S. I. '74. Report upon the Invertebrate

Animals of Vineyard Sound. Rept. U. S. Commissioner of Fish

and Fisheries for 1871 and 1872.

LocKiNGTON, W. N. '77. Remarks on the Crustacea of the West Coast

of North America, with a Catalogue of the Species in the Museum

of the California Academy of Sciences. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Vol.

vii, pp. 94—108, Sept. 4, 1876.

KINGSLEY, J.S. '78-79. List of Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic Coast,

whose Range embraces Fort Macon. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila-

delphia for 1878. Pp. 316-328 (1878), 329-330 (1879).

SMITH, S. I. '79. The Stalk-Eyed Crustaceans of the Atlantic Coast of

North America North of Cape Cod. Trans. Conn. Acad. Sci. Vol.v,

pp. 27-136, Pls. VIII-XII.

KINGSLEY, J. S. ’80. On a Collection of Crustacea from Virginia, North

Carolina, and Florida. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for

1879. Vol. xxxi, pp. 383-427.

RATHBUN, RICHARD. '84. The Fisheries and Fishery Industries of the

United States. Crustaceans. Pt. v, pp. 763-830. Pls. CCL

CCLXXYV, in separate volume.

SMITH, S. I. '86. Report on the Decapod Crustacea of the Albatross

Dredgings off the East Coast of the United States during the Sum-

mer and Autumn of 1884. Rept. U: S. Commissioner of Fish and

Fisheries for 1885. Pp. 605—705.

BENEDICT, JAMEs E., and RATHBUN, Mary J. '91. The Genus Panopeus.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xiv, No. 858, pp. 355-385, Pls. XIX-

BENEDICT, JAMES E. '92. Corystoid Crabs of the Genera Telmessus and

Erimacrus. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xv, No. 900, pp. 223-230,

Pls. XXV-XXVII.

NEwcownE, C. F. '93. List of Crustacea (Brachyura and part of Ano-

mura) in the Provincial Museum of British Columbia, with notes on

their distribution. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. British Columbia, 1893.

Pp. 19-30, Pls. II-V.

RATHBUN, Mary J. '96. The Genus Callinectes. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

Vol. xviii, No. 1070, pp. 349-375, Pls. XII-XXVIII.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Anthropological Notes. — The rate of erosion of the gorge of

Niagara has been variously estimated, and the length of time that

has elapsed since the river began its cutting has been shortened or

lengthened to correspond. Owing to the problems connected with

the relations of early man in America to the glacial epoch, the dis-

cussion of the value of Niagara as a chronometer, in No. 4, Vol. XXXI,

of the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, will be of interest

to anthropologists. Professor Tarr summarizes the results of the

many investigations in the following words: **Gilbert says that the

problem of the age of Niagara cannot * be solved by a few figures on

a slate nor yet by the writing of many essays. To this every one

who has given attention to the problem must assent. The longer

the study, the more complex the problem appears, and we are bound

to conclude that Niagara is not a good chronometer. Until more

evidence has been obtained concerning the length of the overflow at

Nipissing Pass, which some believe to have been long, others short,

we are bound to remain in doubt whether the age is from 5000 to

10,000 years or from 30,000 to 50,000 years."

In the American Anthropologist for October, 1899, appears a sec-

ond paper by Mr. W. H. Holmes upon * Preliminary Revision of the

Evidence relating to Auriferous Gravel Man in California." Mr.

Holmes devotes his attention chiefly to the Calaveras skull, the most

important of the human remains reported from the auriferous gravels.

He regards this supposed Tertiary relic as quite modern, probably

the skull of a Digger Indian. Notwithstanding his masterly summing

up of the evidence for the negative, the case cannot be considered

Closed until the facts presented by Becker, Wright, and King have

been explained. Mr. Holmes is unjust in his intimation that the

possessors of the skull have been neglectful of their obligation in not

taking further steps to prove its authenticity during the thirty-three

years that it has been in Cambridge. Professor Whitney adequately

described the skull in his volume on Zhe Auriferous Gravels of the

Sierra Nevada of Cali ifornia. It was always accessible to any one

145 :

146 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

wishing to examine it. Further evidence was obtainable only in the

locality whence it came. No opportunity to seek such evidence has

yet occurred during the short period in which the skull has been in

the possession of the Peabody Museum,

The sixth summer meeting of “ The American Association to Pro-

mote the Teaching of Speech to the Deaf" was held at the Clarke

School for the Deaf, Northampton, Mass., in June, 1899. In his

presidential address Dr. Alexander Graham Bell reviewed the his-

tory of the association from the time of its foundation in 1890, A

condensed account was also given of the present condition of instruc-

tion in speech-teaching in the United States. Only a few years ago

silent methods of instruction of deaf-mutes were everywhere in vogue ;

now speech is used as a means of instruction with the majority of

such pupils (53.1 per cent), and the total number taught speech and

speech-reading amounts to 6460, or 61.4 per cent of the whole.

There is a steady increase in the percentage of speech-teaching, and

Dr. Bell believes that the time is not far distant when speech will

be taught to every deaf child in America. In a reprint from Zhe

Association Review, Dr. Bell adds a number of tables of statistics

compiled from the American Annals of the Deaf. These show the

number of schools, pupils, teachers, and give lists of the schools,

with their location, official names, directors, etc. ti

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

A Study of Heredity among the Deaf.!— We are indebted to

Professor Edward Allen Fay for an important contribution to the

data of heredity. The collection of the large mass of material and

publication of the expensive tables were made possible by a liberal

use of the funds of the Volta Bureau, an institution endowed by

Dr. Alexander Graham Bell “ for the increase and diffusion of knowl-

edge relating to the deaf.”

The inquiry was begun in 1889. Circulars containing questions to

be answered were distributed widely among heads of schools for the

deaf, the deaf themselves, and their relatives and friends. Facts

were gathered also from journals for the deaf, school reports, and

Fay, E. A. Marriages of the soc in America. Washington, The Volta

Verdes: 1898 (1899). vii, 527 pp.

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 147

returns of census enumerators. The result was that more or less

complete returns were received of 4471 marriages in which one or

both of the partners were deaf. After deducting marriages of less

than a year’s standing, the total number of marriages of which the

results in regard to offspring are reported is 3078, and number of

children is 6782. These numbers are large enough to promise fairly

trustworthy results.

The first third of the book is taken up with a discussion of the

results, and the rest is devoted to a tabular statement giving the

details in regard to each marriage. This is followed by an index.

Within the space of a review one cannot do more than refer to

some of the conclusions which are of especial interest. Passing over

the statistics in regard to the relative fertility of the deaf and the

hearing, the proportion of deaf children in the total marriages of the

deaf, etc., we come to a comparison between the proportion of deaf

children born when both parents are deaf and the number when one

parent only is in this condition, and we find the surprising result

that in the first case there are only 8.458 per cent of deaf children,

while in the second there is a considerably larger percentage, namely,

9.856. This would seem to upset all one's ideas of heredity. But

the anomaly is explained to a great extent when we take into con-

sideration the nature of the deafness, whether congenital or acquired,

the ancestry of the parents, and their relationship to one another.

The author calls attention to the fact that deafness may be due to

a number of causes, such as various infectious diseases, malformation

of various auditory organs, and the like. It is not deafness as such

that is inherited, but some tendency to disease, or some abnormal

habit of growth. This makes it difficult to distinguish deafness

which is congenital and that which is adventitious, even when the

patient can be examined; and it is still more difficult to make the

distinction from the reports of cases such as were used in this

inquiry. Therefore it is not a matter of surprise that the author

fails to give a good definition of the two kinds of deafness.

Notwithstanding this uncertainty of definition, the results as to the

relative frequency of deafness in children of congenitally deaf parents

and parents adventitiously deaf are decidedly interesting. Thus it is ,

found that where both parents are congenitally deaf the percentage

of deaf children is 2 5.931; where one parent is congenitally deaf and

the other adventitiously deaf it is 6.538 ; while where both parents are

adventitiously deaf it is but 2.326. But where one parent 1s con-

genitally deaf and the other hearing 11.932 per cent of the children

148 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

are deaf; and when one parent is adventitiously deaf and the other

hearing the percentage is 2.244. Here appears again the surpris-

ingly large number of deaf children of hearing parents. But it is

very evident that adventitious deafness is transmitted much less

readily than congenital deafness. Indeed, it cannot be proven by

these statistics that the former is ever inherited, because of the

unknown error in the classification of the two varieties of deafness.

The statistics show that the presence of deafness among the

relatives of the parents increases very largely the chances that deaf

children will be produced, and this is, of course, what would be

expected. Taking the cases where both parents have deaf relatives

(not including descendants), the percentage of deaf children where

both parents are congenitally deaf is raised to 30.303; where both

parents are deaf but only one congenitally deaf the percentage is

10.903; where one parent was congenitally deaf and the other

hearing there is again a large percentage, 24.286; and where

both partners are adventitiously deaf there are 9.649 per cent of

deaf children. Now, taking the cases where only one parent had

deaf relatives, the percentages are 20.0, 5.536, 11.864, and 2.801,

respectively. Finally, where neither partner had deaf relatives the

figures are 4.167, 1.515, 15.789, and 0.364. In this last series the

first and third percentages represent one child and three children,

respectively, and the third one would be much reduced if one doubt:

ful case were discarded.

Over 45 per cent of the hearing parents whose family history is

recorded had deaf relatives, while this is true of only about 32 per

cent of the adventitiously deaf. This fact, taken in connection with

the evidence as to the effect of history of deafness in the family of the

parents in increasing the chances of deafness in the children, seems

to explain to a great extent the large proportion of deaf children of |

hearing parents compared with those of the adventitiously deaf which

appears in the general statistics. But even when the factor of family

history is taken into account, as in the tables summarized in the pre-

ceding paragraph, there is still to be found a remarkably large pro-

portion of deaf children of hearing parents. The author attempts

to explain this on the ground of consanguinity. When both part-

ners are deaf the largest percentage of deaf children is obtained

from consanguineous marriages, 32.258 per cent; and in consan-

guineous marriages where one partner is deaf and the other hear-

ing the percentage is nearly as large, 29.851. In cases of deafness,

then, the peculiarity of the parents seems to be more strongly

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 149

inherited when they have a common ancestry. Now it is found that

of the 3242 marriages where both partners were deaf only 12, or

0.370 per cent, were consanguineous; while of the 894 marriages

where one partner was deaf and the other hearing 18, or 2.013 per

cent, belonged to this class. The 20 deaf children born from the

latter class of consanguineous marriages constitute 13.2 per cent of

the total 151 deaf children born from marriages in which one of the

partners was a hearing person; while the 1o deaf children from the

former class of marriages constitute only 2.3 per cent of the total

429 deaf children having both parents deaf. It is difficult to see

why consanguinity should so intensify hereditary characteristics ; but

if it does do so, then this large proportion of consanguineous mar-

riages between the hearing and the deaf accounts to some extent for

the large proportion of deaf children. How far this goes to explain

the facts can only be determined mathematically ; and this the author

does not attempt. i

It is to be regretted that the author did not inquire more particu-

larly in regard to the condition of the parents of the deaf married

persons. The parents were simply included in the general inquiry

concerning “ other relatives,” with the result that on examining the

Tabular Statement of Marriages one is disappointed to find that

it is often impossible to tell whether the parents were hearing or

unreported.. If this point had been attended to, these statistics

might have been expected to furnish an important confirmation, or

the reverse, of Galton’s law of filial regression. R. P. B.

Blatchley’s ‘‘ Gleanings from Nature.” — Mr. Willis S. Blatch-

ley, State Geologist of Indiana, has published in book form, under

the head of Ganings from Nature, a number of fragments of popu-

lar science contributed by him to the press of Indiana and to Apple-

ton’s Popular Science Monthly.

The essays are truthful rather than literary, and they give vivid

touches of nature, the results of close and sympathetic observation.

The first essay discusses charmingly the harbingers of spring in

Indiana — the maples, skunk cabbage, trillium, yellow-hammer, fox

Sparrow, and the birds and flowers that mark the end of winter.

Other topics discussed are “ Two Fops among the Fishes,” “ Snakes,"

“The Gnat Catcher," * The Old Canal,” ** The Iron Weed," * The

Indiana Caves and their Inhabitants,” “The Tamarack Swamp,"

“The Katydids,” “The Winter Birds,” and * How Animals and

Plants spend the Winter."

I50 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The volume is well printed by the Nature Publishing Company, and

very well illustrated, in part with original photographs.

This book can be highly commended for its honesty and directness

of purpose. Its author stands on his own feet and neither poses

nor gushes, and his work is worthy of its purpose. DS

ZOOLOGY.

Artificial Production of Rhythmic Muscle Contractions. —

Professor Loeb’ has pointed out that certain solutions containing

ions of sodium, chlorine, lithium, bromine, iodine, etc., may cause

rhythmical contractions in muscle, and that solutions containing

certain other ions, calcium, potassium, magnesium, barium, strontium,

etc. check such contractions. It is supposed that the rhythmic

contractions are the result of the combination of the particular ions

with the muscle. The rhythmic action of the heart may be a natural

example of this kind of action. G. H. P.

Evermann and Marsh on Fishes of Puerto Rico. —In the

Report of the United States Fish Commission for 1899, Dr. Barton W.

Evermann and Willard C. Marsh give an account of new species

discovered by them in the late cruise of the Zisk Hawk about the

island of Puerto Rico under Dr. Evermann’s direction. An elabo-

rate account of these important investigations is in preparation. The

present paper gives a preliminary account of three new genera of

Blenniidz — Gillias, allied to Tripterygion ; Auchenistius, a Blenny,

allied to Auchenopterus; and Coralliozetus, allied to Ophioblennius

— and of twenty new species belonging to different families. These

are: Lycodontis jordani, Stolephorus gilberti, Stolephorus garmani,

Prionodes baldwini, Calamus kendalli, Doratonotus decoris, Sicydium

caguite, Gobius bayamonensis, Bollmannia boqueronensis, Microgobius

meeki, Gillias jordani, Malacoctenus culebre, Malacoctenus moorei, Mal-

acottenus puertoricensis, Auchenistius stahli, Auchenopterus albicaudus,

Auchenopterus rubescens, Auchenopterus cingulatus, Auchenopterus

fajardo, and Coralliozetus cardone. Most of these are small fishes of

! Loeb, J. Ueber Ionen welche rhythmische Zuckungen der Skelettmuskeln

hervorrufen, Festschrift zum 70. Geburtstage des Herrn Geheimrath Prof. Dr. A.

fick, pp. 101-119.

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 151

the coral reefs and rock pools, localities in which the greater number

of the yet unknown fishes of the tropics are likely to be found.

Evermann and Marsh are to be congratulated on the use of the

correct name of the island of Puerto Rico, instead of the lazy cor-

ruption of Porto Rico. This is, we believe, the first government

document of the United States in which the name is correctly spelled.

The spelling Puerto Rico is, however, now officially adopted by the

Government Board of Geographical Names. i =

Tunicates of Pribilof Islands. — Part III of “The Fur Seals

and Fur-Seal Islands of the North Pacific Ocean," published by the

Government, contains an account by W. E. Ritter of the Tunicates

of Pribilof. Eleven species are reported upon, ten of which are new

to science.

Physiology of the Cephalopods. — An excellent résumé of our

knowledge of the physiology of the cephalopods has been given by

Victor Willem in the Bulletin Scientifique de la France et de la Belgique,

Tome xxxi, pp. 31-54. The article is accompanied by an extensive

bibliography.

Excretion in Mollusca. — Cuénot' has studied the function of

excretion in mollusks by means of physiological injections, and

attains results which modify some generally accepted views derived

from anatomical and histological data. From the review of the lit-

erature on Mollusca one sees that the excretory function has been

ascribed primarily to the nephridia (organs of Bojanus), then also to

the pericardial glands of lamellibranchs, and finally without sufficient

proof to the modified pericardial epithelium and to certain scattered

liver cells,

The interior of any animal maintains a relatively constant composi-

tion, due to the presence of excretory cells which remove any excess

of normal material or any abnormal, że., excretory, substance which

would poison the organism. The cell exercises, however, the choice

among such substances, thus demonstrating the varied nature of the

excretory cells. Introduced substances may (1) enter into the cycle

of metabolic changes; (2) be attracted and precipitated in skeletal

or yolk material ; (3) undecomposed and unfixed, be collected by ex-

cretory cells, and thus impart color to the excretory organs. Certain

1 Cuénot, L. L'excrétion chez les Mollusques, Arch. de Biol., vol. xvi (1899),

PP. 49-96, Pls. V, VI.

152 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

cells absorb some substances with avidity, but are totally indiffer-

ent to others,

Among the variable types of excretory cells two appear to be con-

stant; the first absorbs indigo-carmine and refuses ammonium-car-

minate, while the second precisely reverses this action. Rarely

excretory cells do both, but even then the one more freely than the

other. These two types are associated with voluminous organs.

The indigo kidneys produce urea, uric acid, and urates, while in car-

minate kidneys, thus far known, none of these substances are formed,

though some non-indigo excretory cells contain urates. A tabular

view of such organs for various groups of animals is reproduced

on the opposite page, together with the products of each organ so far

as known.

After discussion of the special technique employed, the author

lists the various names by which the connective-tissue cells of mol-

lusks are designated by different investigators, and distinguishes at

least two types of such cells: (a) Reserve cells enclosing glycogen,

and (7) excretory cells. In the terrestrial pulmonate gastropods

the two functions are associated in a single cell, as in the liver cells

of vertebrates.

In two groups of mollusks the nephridia, instead of being lined

throughout their entire extent by a single type of excretory cell, pre-

sent noteworthy differences: in Amphineura the reno-pericardial

ducts of acid reaction eliminate actively carminate and litmus, while

the rest of the nephridium, formed of different cells, and with alkaline

reaction, eliminates indigo, In prosobranch gastropods the nephridia

present a series of anatomical and physiological differentiations :

Patella has two nephridia, very different in size but both eliminating

equally indigo; in Trochus and Haliotus the larger right nephridium

absorbs indigo alone; the left nephridium, very different in structure

from the other, becomes faintly colored by carminate; finally, in

monotocardic prosobranchs the single nephridium possesses two

sorts of cells. The most numerous, non-ciliate, eliminate indigo; the

others, ciliated, eliminate only carminate — the single nephridium

being thus a physiological equivalent of the two nephridia in the

Diotocardia (Trochus, etc.).

In the Amphineura, Solenoconcha, and Gastropoda there are, in the

connective tissue, numbers of cells acid in reaction, of which the vacu-

oles actively absorb carminate and litmus. These scattered cells cor-

respond physiologically to the pericardial glands of lamellibranchs and

to the branchial heart of cephalopods which have the same power.

No. 398.]

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

I53

MIXED KIDNEY (INDIGO AND CARMINATE).

Vertebrates (Mammals, |

0, etc.)

Convoluted tubules of

kidney (alkaline)

Urea, uric acid, hippuric

acid, etc.

InpDIGO KIDNEYS.

Tunicata (Phallusia, | Closed kidney or blind | Uric acid

olgula) vesicles

Sipunculida (Phascolion | Nephridium (acid) Urate

strombi)

Pulmonate gastropods | Nephridium (acid) Uric acid

(Oscanius)

Lamellibranchs Nephridia (acid) Urea, etc. Uric acid in

Lutraria

Cephalopods Nephridia Uric acid in Sepia and

Octopus macropus, Gua-

nine or Xanthine in O.

vulgaris

Crustacea decapoda

Labyrinth of antennal

kidney and often vesi-

cle (alkaline)

Leucomaine ?

Chilopoda (Lithobius,

Scolopendra, Geophi-

lus)

Malpighian tubes

Urates and uric acid -

Diplopoda (Iulus)

Malpighian tubes

Sodic urate and calcic ox-

alate

Insecta

Malpighian tubes (alka-

line) s

Very often urates and uric

acid

Busan RE

CARMINATE KIDNEYS.

Lamellibranchs (Pecten,

Cardium) .

Pericardial gland (acid)

Hippuric acid and sodic

hippurate

Hirudinea

Convoluted portion of

nephridia

Leucomaine ?

MO E uds Et s

Crustacea decapoda

Vesicle of antennal kid-

ney and branchial kid-

neys (acid

Carcinuric acid

Scorpions

Liver

154 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

The pericardial glands of lamellibranchs manifest three different

types: intra-auricular masses in Pecten and Ostrea, external epithe-

lium of the auricles (Mytilus), tubular glands opening virtually into

the pericardium (Naiades). Pecten maximus affords a clear transi-

tion from the type of the lamellibranchs to that of the gastropods

in that the connective tissue encloses, as in the latter, many isolated

cells, which are massed in the wall of the auricles. The products in

the cells of the pericardial glands of either type are engulfed by

phagocytes, which transport them into lacunæ of the circulatory sys-

tem. Some of these phagocytes reach the exterior through the bran-

chial membrane; the others become fixed for life in the connective

tissue.

In the cephalopods the excretory connective-tissue cells are accu-

mulated exclusively in the wall of the branchial heart and of the

appendix to that organ. In both organs, however, cells of a differ-

ent character are present. In various gastropods (Pulmonata, Opis-

thobranchiata, and some Prosobranchiata, as Cyclostoma) the liver

contains numbers of excretory cells which discharge their products

into the intestine.

The collaboration of closed excretory cells and phagocytes to

eliminate waste products, or at least to localize them in indifferent

regions, is found in many groups : Oligocheta, Polychzta, Hirudinea,

Sipunculida, Echinoderma. This method of excretion, which encum-

bers the tissue with masses of solid granules increasing with age, is

evidently an imperfect function, and not improbably contributes to

determine the death of the individual. Hinh Wisb

The Heart of Anodonta. — The action of the heart of Anodonta

has been fully studied by V. Willem.! Under ordinary circumstances

the heart beats four to six times per minute. Contraction can be

induced in an empty, quiet heart by injecting fluid into it, but an

overfilling of the heart will retard the rate of contraction. The

contraction of the ventricle drives the blood out under a pressure of

one to three and a half centimeters of water. When the ventricle

contracts, the auricles expand, and together these organs always fill

the whole pericardial space. The contraction of the ventricle acts as

a suction pump on the blood in the gills, drawing it into the auricles,

. and as a force pump on the blood in the arteries. G. HP.

1 Willem, V. Recherches expérimentales sur la circulation sanguine chez

l'Anadonte, Mem. couron. Acad. Roy. des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Artes

de Belgique, tome lvii, 28 pp., 2 pls., 1899

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 155

Grafting and Regeneration in Hydromeduse.— An interesting

series of experiments on grafting and regeneration of Hydromedusz

has been carried out by C. W. Hargitt! Small pieces of vigorous

hydroid stems were held together in different positions by slivers

of lead and were thus readily grafted. The bells of Gonionemus

were emarginated so as to check their spontaneous movements and

were then held together in pairs in various positions by being strung

on bristles. As a result of these experiments, it was found that

pieces of hydroid stems united with one another with great freedom

either orally or aborally, and thus gave evidence of no polarity. The

success of the experiments was quite independent of the sexes of the

individuals from which the parts came. While pieces from closely

allied species could be intergrafted, material representing different

genera did not respond successfully. The experiments on the

medusz showed that though these animals regenerated and grafted

freely, aboral grafts were never successful, the animal thereby show-

ing a marked polarity. CH, P:

Regeneration in Grafted Tissue. — As is well known, the tail of

one species of tadpole may be grafted on the body of another, and

the two parts in time form an effective union. If the two species

used have characteristically different kinds of pigment, the fate of

the tissues thus brought together can be easily followed. The

grafted ectoderm eventually covers. only the tip of the developing

tail, whereas the grafted mesoderm forms a considerable part of that

organ, z.e., at the beginning of grafting, the grafted tissues are sepa-

rated kan the stock tissues by a single transverse plane; later the

plane of separation between grafted ectoderm and stock ectoderm is

much posterior to that between the two kinds of mesoderm. Grafted

i tails when cut off regenerate, and the results of this process have

been studied by T. H. Morgan? If cut transversely, the cut surface

from which regeneration will take place may exhibit a face of ecto-

derm from the stock and of mesoderm from the graft. The grafted

tail may be cut obliquely, so that the cut surface will exhibit stock

and graft ectoderm and graft mesoderm. In all these cases the

regenerated tails are composed of cells easily referable to their

Sources, and it may be concluded that in regeneration from a region

:2.7 2 ? e POG h 2"

1 Hargitt, cw. E i tal Studies upon Hyd d

vol. i, No. I, pp. 37-51. October, 1899.

? Morgan, T. H. Regeneration of Tissue Composed of Parts of Two Species,

Biological Bulletin, vol. i, No. 1, pp. 7-14. October, 1899.

156 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

where the cells have been derived from two different species, the

specific characters of the cells remain distinct. G.H.P

Note. — No. 3 of Vol. XV of*the Journal of Morphology contains :

« Studies on the Maturation, Fertilization, and Cleavage of Thalas-

sema and Zirphza," by B. B. Griffin; “On the Blood-Plates of the

Human Blood, with Notes on the Erythrocytes of Amphiuma and

Necturus," by G. Eisen ; * The Phosphorescent Organs in the Toad-

fish, Porichthys notatus Girard," by C. W. Green; ‘On the Species

Clinostomum heterostomum," by W. G. MacCallum ; and “ Mitosis in

Noctiluca miliaris and its Bearing on the Nuclear Relations of the

Protozoa and Metazoa," by G. N. Calkins.

GEOLOGY.

The Absaroka Range of the Rocky Mountains. — In a presiden-

tial address before the Geological Society of Washington,’ and in the

Absaroka Folio of the United States Geological Survey,? Mr. Arnold

Hague has presented the results of many years’ field work in a region

that contains for vulcanologists problems of extraordinary interest.

The Absaroka Range forms the mountain barrier to the east of the

Yellowstone plateau, and is composed chiefly of horizontally stratified

volcanic flows and breccias thrown out from vents, the location of

which is not marked by conical volcanoes or even by any positive

trace which would show that such volcanoes existed. Thicknesses

from two thousand to five thousand feet of these lavas are deeply

trenched by streams draining the eastern face of a range which

marks in a sense the eastern escarpment of the great plateau that

forms the Yellowstone Park. Early breccia and basalt sheets over-

laid by late breccias and basalts make up the mass of these lavas.

The only interruptions to their horizontal continuity are massive

bodies of intrusive rock that invaded the lavas at two distinct

periods. i

Evidence of the age of the lavas is derived from the contained

plant remains and from the old topographies which underlie them.

The accumulation of volcanic material rests unconformably on rocks

1 Hague, Arnold. Early Tertiary Volcanoes of the Absaroka Range.

2 Folio No. 52, Geologic Atlas of the United States, Crandail and Ishawooa

Quadrangles. Washington, 1899.

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 157

ranging from archzan to cretaceous, and is confined within ancient

orogenic barriers on the north and south. Evidence of erosion

during the piling up of the eruptive material is shown by canyon

cross-sections, which give evidence of old depressions filled with

silts and gravels; this indicates that considerable erosion took place

at different times, with long interruptions in the local volcanic

activity. Over one hundred and fifty species of plants have been

identified from the tuffs and breccias, indicating a range in age from

eocene to upper miocene. They are thus geologically older than

the neocene rhyolites that form the greater portion of the Yellow-

stone Park.

The intrusive bodies occur as stocks and dikes ; an earlier group,

the * Sunlight ” intrusives, is characterized by orthoclase and augite,

and cuts the earlier breccias and basalts. The “Ishawooa” intru-

sives have broken into the later basalts as well as the earlier and

are more siliceous rocks, ranging from diorite and diorite porphyry

to true granitic types. Dikes are associated with all the larger

bodies, sometimes being offshoots from them, in other cases cutting

them or cut by them, and presenting a marvelous variety of struc-

tural and lithological types that afford material for the study of

extensive gradation between coarse crystalline and glassy volcanic

rocks. Many of the dikes of the Sunlight group are orthoclase

basalts, collectively called by the name “absarokite,” and are

related to coarser monzonite stocks, which range in composition

from quartzose augite syenites to coarse gabbros and diorites.

These older intrusive bodies occur in three principal masses that

form the points of a triangle, and about two of them the dikes show

remarkable radiation. The Ishawooa intrusives extend for a dis-

tance of fifty miles into the Yellowstone Park, occurring as stocks,

sheets, and dikes; they are usually conspicuous about the head

waters of the eastern flowing streams, but do not form culminating

summits, these being usually composed of the breccias or late basalts

Which overlie the intrusive rock. Dikes here, too, are abundant,

but radiation is not especially marked, the greater masses hav-

ing rather an axial trend in a northwesterly direction, as though

injected through a common fissure, rather than as forming inde-

pendent intrusions. The breccias in contact with the greater intru-

Sive bodies are indurated to a distance sometimes of more than one-

half mile. Coarse granites and diorites occur in both the intrusive

Series — a remarkable fact when we consider that the lavas invaded

by them are of Tertiary age.

I 58 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Mr. Hague concludes that variation in coarseness of crystallization

‘is not dependent upon pressure, but is far more affected by the rate

of cooling. He agrees with Professor Iddings in the belief that, for

the same stock and its complex of dikes, variations in composition and

structure are due to varying conditions of crystallization from a

single molten magma. Hague, however, differs from Iddings in his

conception of the significance of the apparent radiation of dikes

about the diorite and monzonite stocks of the Crandall quadrangle ;

Iddings believes this radiation to indicate that the central mass rep-

resented the root of a great conical volcano now eroded away, which

he reconstructed to a height of ten thousand feet above the pla-

teau at its present level. Mr. Hague fails to find any evidence of

the building up of great volcanic piles, but compares the region to

Iceland, where there are many centers of eruption and fissures

through which the lava breaks forth, old sources of eruption in time

becoming obliterated by fresh flows from newer vents.

The geologic maps of the Absaroka Folio show in very striking

fashion the horizontal character of the flows and breccias where the

digitate drainage intersects adjacent formations. The most con-

spicuous features shown by the map are the regular trend of the

main divide on the southwest, parallel to the Ishawooa intrusive

bodies, and the wonderful abruptness of the eastern gorges in con-

trast with the gentle slope of the streams which flow down to the

high basin of Yellowstone Lake on the west. A conspicuous feature

of the physiography is the remarkable curve from west to east of the

head of North Fork Stinkingwater River, its head-water trend con-

forming exactly to the trend of Sunlight Creek, across the high

divide formed by intrusive bodies in the Sunlight mining region.

The Absaroka folio is illustrated by reproductions from photographs

showing the deep canyon of Clark Fork cut in archzan granite,

Index Peak composed of breccias overlying palzozoic limestone

above archzean rocks, other pictures of dikes and breccias, and a

view of Sunlight Glacier, one of the small remnants of the great

glaciers that formerly played an important part in the erosion of the

plateau.

The geological history of the region is briefly as follows. Palæ-

ozoic and mesozoic sediments were deposited throughout a long

period to a thickness of many thousand feet, and at the close of

Laramie time, mountain-building took place, producing uplift and

deformation that was contemporaneous in all the ranges of the

northern Rocky Mountains. This post-Laramie movement produced

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 159

mountain ranges and plateaus which were considerably eroded before

the first volcanic eruptions. These eruptions throughout Tertiary

time are conceived to have had their manifestation by a variety of

processes, in part building up volcanic cones, in part ejecting fluid

lavas through fissures, and in part hurling out from vents which

have left but few traces enormous masses of brecciated volcanic rock

in a fashion that is without parallel in any region of active volcanoes.

This great accumulation of surface lavas was later invaded by igneous

magn:as believed to be the elevated portions of a great complex of

deep-seated crystalline rock; “where the underlying molten magma

was subject to the severest pressure, the material was squeezed up-

ward to higher levels following lines of least resistance, and consoli-

dated at greater or less depths beneath the surface. . . . The line

of Ishawooa intrusives marks the trend of one such upward move-

ment of molten magma, which for the most part congealed without

finding egress to the surface.”

The two most remarkable features of Mr. Hague’s observations

in the Absaroka volcanic district are the enormous mass of breccias

and the Tertiary granites and diorites. The explanation of the

origin of the former as from divers vents along fissures and the

demonstration of the coarsely crystalline character of the intrusive

stocks add new evidence to dispel the time-honored but erroneous

notion that great cones like Ætna or Vesuvius are essential features

of great volcanic activity, and that granite is necessarily a very

ancient rock. The Tarawera eruption of New Zealand and the

fissure eruptions of Iceland show that the cone is an incidental

product of eruption, not an essential. Geikie has brought forward,

in his Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain, much evidence to show

that similar fissure eruptions were the prevailing type that produced

the Tertiary basalt plateaus, and he too describes coarse granitic

rocks of Tertiary age. The chief point of difference in the Absaroka

Range is in the JSrecciated character of the horizontal lavas; the

brecciated fragments are of all shapes and sizes and of great varia-

tion in kind, but nearly always volcanic. How did these breccias

first crystallize as andesites or basalts in what were presumably con-

tinuous bodies of some sort, and later become broken up? This is

a problem that has long puzzled the Yellowstone geologists, and for

its complete solution an extended study and comparison of similar

tuffs and breccias throughout the Cordilleran district will probably

be required. T. A. Jaccar, JR.

160 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

PETROGRAPHY.

Experimental Petrography. — With the increasing number of

experiments being made in the attempt to discover the laws govern-

ing the formation of crystalline rocks from their magmas some

important truths should soon be disclosed. The latest contribution

to the subject has recently been made by Bauer,! who worked along

conventional lines. He fused powdered rocks, mixtures of powdered

minerals, and mixtures of chemical compounds, with and without the

addition of *mineralizers," held them at temperatures of 1000°—1400°

for ten or more hours, and then allowed them to cool. Unfortu-

nately he was unable to prolong the cooling stage to any great extent,

and consequently the products obtained were largely glassy.

The wolframates, boric acid, and borax served well as “crystal-

lizers." Under the influence of the first, quartz was produced, and

with the aid of the other two, hornblende. The addition of the

chlorides and fluorides to the mixture appeared to serve simply to

lower the fusing point.

The quartz was obtained as irregular grains in a mass composed

of a groundmass of glass, enclosing small laths of feldspar and larger

crystals of orthoclase, albite, olivine, and nepheline. This was pro-

duced by fusing a mixture of orthoclase, albite, mica, hornblende,

sodium chloride, potassium tungstate, boric acid, and sodium phos-

phate. The quartz is thought to have originated in the breaking up

The hornblende was obtained in three experiments. The most

interesting consisted in the fusion of a mixture of powdered phono-

lite and nepheline-basalt, neither of which contained any trace of the

mineral. The hornblende was a bright-green variety. In one of

the other two experiments powdered diorite was fused with boric

acid, sodium phosphate, and calcium fluoride at a temperature of

1000°. The resulting hornblende was brown, while that in the origi-

nal diorite was green.

The third experiment yielded also brown hornblende. In this

powdered hornblende was fused with sodium and calcium fluorides

and magnesium chloride.

Another interesting result reached was the discovery that the same

mixture under different conditions of temperature and rates of cool-

ing may yield entirely different products. For instance, the powder

1 Bauer, K. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., Bd. xii, p. 535.

No. 398.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 161

of a nepheline-basalt gave in one case a nepheline-basalt and in two

other cases limburgites.

In order that the best results may be reached the author declares

that specially prepared apparatus is necessary, but with a proper

equipment he believes that much might be learned concerning the

method of origin of the different types of igneous rocks by simple

fusion experiments.

Notes. — The dikes cutting the mica-gneisses in the vicinity of

Johns Bay, Maine, are similar in all essential respects to those near

Portland in the same state. Miss Bascom? reports that two are

olivine diabases, and a third is nonolivinitic.

Gratacap issues a plea? for a more interesting display of rocks in

museums than that one usually sees. He also suggests along what

lines such a display might be constructed to be at the same time of

interest and of value.

Judd? describes under the name of rockallite the peculiar rock of

Rockall Island in the Atlantic, 240 miles west of Ireland. The rock

consists of zgirite, quartz, and albite in the proportions 39 : 38 : 23.

The albite is sometimes porphyritic. An analysis gives :

SiO; AlOs Fe90; MnO NiO MgO CaO KO PO; Total

neos 4 1310. o 6 üt 37 696 = 99.83

The structure is granitic. Its systematic place is in the granite

group, although its feldspar is solely albite.

The rocks gathered by the International Boundary Commission

along the newly surveyed boundary line between the United States

and Mexico are granites, gabbro-diorites, diabases, diorite, porphy-

ries, rhyolites, andesites, and basalts One of the rhyolites is

Spherulitic.

The collection of rocks made by Alexander Agassiz in the Fiji

Islands contains specimens of granite, andesites, and basalts.

Eakle* describes augite-andesite as the predominant rock of the

islands. It varies from a very feldspathic type to a very basic type

that appears to grade into basalt. In addition to this andesite there

are also present hypersthenic and hornblendic varieties.

! Amer. Geol. (1899), vol. xxiii, p. 275.

2 Ibid., p. 281.

* Trans. pus Trish Acad., vol. xxxi, Pt. iii, p. 39.

* Lord, E. C. E. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxi, 1899, p. 773.

5 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. xxxiv (1899), p. 581. `

162 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Cole! suggests an approximately quantitative method for deter-

mining potassium in the constituents of igneous rocks. It is a blow-

pipe method differing from Szabo’s in that the assay is fused in a

bead of sodium carbonate. The advantages of fusing with sodium

carbonate in place of the gypsum used in the Szabo method are : (1)

The certainty of differentiating the potassium from the sodium flame ;

(2) complete decomposition of the assay ; (3) security against loss

of the assay ; (4) convenience.

1 Geol. Mag., March, 1898, p. 103.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(The regular exchanges of the American Naturalist t included.)

CORY, CHARLES B. The Birds of Eastern North America known to occur east

of the ninetieth meridian. Part II, Land Birds. Chicago, 1899.

DILLER, J. S. The Coos Bay Coal Field, Oregon. Washington, 1899.

ELLIOT, D. S. List of Mammals obtained by Thaddeus Surber, Collector for

the Mies chiefly in Oklahoma and Indian Territories. Field Columbian

Museum, Publication go, 1899.

RY, EDWARD, and Fry, AGNES. The Mycetozoa and some questions which

they suggest. London, * petis ” Office, 1899. 8

Not

Goto, SEITARO. Note some exotic species of Ectoparasitic Trematodes.

Journ. Sci. Coll. Imper. Univ. Tie Vol. xii, Part IV, 1

Kine, F. H. Irrigation and Drainage, Principles and Practice of their Cul-

Irri

tural Phases. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1899. 21, 502 pp., 162 figs.

$1.50.

MEEK, S. E. Notes on a Collection of Fishes and Amphibians from Muskoka

and Gull Lakes. Field Columbian Museum, Publication 41, 1899.

Australian Museum. Records. Vol. iii, No. 6, 1899. — — Geographical Journal.

Vol. xv, No. 1, January, 1900. coepti Geological Survey. Vol. iii. Balti-

more, 1899, 461, 80 pp., 35 pls. — Maryland Weather Service. Vol.i. Baltimore,

1899. a DD, 54 pls. — Natural Science Association of Staten Island. Proceed-

ings. . vii, No. 12. Dec. 9, 1899. — Revista Chilena de Historia Natural.

Ano si i IO, 11, 1899. — Science Gossip. January, 1900. — United States Com-

missioner of Education. Report for the year 1897-1898. Vol. ii, Washington,

1899. 1281-2640 pp.— United States Fish Commission. Bulletin. Vol. xviii.

Washington, eg 576 pp., 43 pls. — Wyoming Experiment Station. Bulletin 41.

Index Bulletin B.

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VOL. XXXIV, No. 399°

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THE

MARCH, 1900

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

I. On the Life History of ee Cornutus and Alternate Gener-

P. CALVIN

ation in Annelids

II. Some Notes on RE E di Regulation i in Pada

FRANK R. LILLIE

III. rci on the San Marcos —— ae rathbuni

Ww. A

On +h

P A

CONTENTS

sheha D.

MENSCH

ESE

Vein and its Tributaries in the Domestic Cat (Felis domestica)

CF.

V. The North-American Jumping Mice

VI. Fresh-Water Aquaria .

VII. uem of North-American Terral eiai. VIII. The Isopoda,

art I " HARRIET

W. McCLURE

RICHARDSON

VII. eium of Send, Lüexbue: Aoii pir Payne’s New World — —

Zoólogy, Koelliker’s Reminiscences, Degeneration of Duodenal Glands

in the Cat, Greeley on Tide-Pool Fishes of California, Development

of Brain Structures in

Amia, Scapanorhynchus and Mitsukurina, The

Lateral Line of the Toadfish, Greene on the Lateral Line of the Cali-

fornia Toadfish, Absence of

Retinal Pigment in the Dogfish, Pupa-

Grafting in Moths, € Followed by Mitotic Cell Division, A New

Grafts, Notes — suras Minnesota Plant

Unattached Hydroid,

Life, The Local Floras ee se England, Botanical Not

ews

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THE

AMERICAN: NATURALIST

Vor. XXXIV. March, 1900. No. 399.

ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS COR

NUTUS AND ALTERNATE GENERATION

"IN ANNELIDS.

P. CALVIN MENSCH.

Tne claim for the presence of an alternation of generation .

in annelids owes its origin chiefly to the results obtained in

study of the family of syllidians by the earlier authors, Milne-

Edwards, Savigny, De Quatrefages, Krohn, and more recently

by A. Agassiz. What subsequent proofs of the presence of

this condition in annelids have been presented still find their

Strongest support in the phenomena observed in a division of

this family, that of Autolytus.

In forms of Autolytus, like Autolytus cornutus, described by

Agassiz, after the young and so-called asexual animal has

attained a certain length,a new head is developed on the four-

teenth setigerous segment, and in this way the individual

becomes divided into what is known as the parent stock,

including the original head with its segments, and the bud or

stolon, including the new head with the remaining segments.

The stolon contains the maturing sexual products, and after

these reach a certain stage of maturity it separates from the

165

166 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

parent stock and becomes free-swimming. The parent stock,

as soon as the stolon is separated, regenerates the lost segments

and in like manner develops a second and possibly a third or

fourth bud. (In some forms of Autolytus (4. varians) the

regeneration of new segments takes place before the shedding

of the mature stolon, and thus a chain consisting of, at times,

as many as eight stolons in different stages of development,

becomes attached to the parent stock. In Autolytus cornutus,

however, as in Procerza, the stolon matures and becomes sep-

arated before an addition of new segments takes place, so that

the parent stock of this form never bears more than a single

stolon at a time.) During the process of separation the stolon

undergoes such changes as are of service to it in the change of

its life from among hydroids to that of surface swimming, the

most conspicuous of which are the modification of the para-

podia and the development of the swimming setze. The sexual

differences, as will be seen in comparing the free stolons, are

also very conspicuous and appear quite early in the develop-

ment of the stolon.

The free-swimming male stolon of an Autolytus was first

described by Oersted, in 1843, as a new species of annelid to

which he gave the name Polybostricus, while the free female

stolon of another species (Autolytus prolifera) was similarly

described by J. Müller, in 1853, under the name of Sacconereis.

It was not until 1862, however, that Agassiz, in observing the

separation of the stolon in Autolytus cornutus, demonstrated

for certain the relation of the parent stock and stolons.

Alternate generation for annelids was first suggested by

De Quatrefages in 1843, after observing a part of the budding

process in a syllid (Sy//is monilaire) previously described by

Savigny ; later again by Krohn, in 1852, for Syllis prolifera,

but the first complete description of the process was given by

Agassiz, in 1862, in a paper entitled * On Alternate Generation

of Annelids and the Embryology of Autolytus Cornutus." The

development of the stolons of this syllid and their subsequent

separation he followed stage by stage, and established the

identity of the separately described Polybostricus and Saccone-

reis without a doubt. The stolons he described as sexual indi-

No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS. 167

viduals which have been separated from the parent stock by a

process similar to that of fission. The parent stock he regarded

as distinctly asexual and as reproducing only by the separation

and budding out of sexual stolons. A diagram of Agassiz's

description of the cycle of generation would therefore be as

follows :

Stolon = X < Eggs

Egg = Parent Stock

Stolon = X < Eggs

In this wise he attributed to Autolytus cornutus a distinct

alternation of generation — in reality the only accurate alter-

nate generation ever described for any annelid, and his original

diagram of Autolytus cornutus still stands in some of our recent

zoólogical text-books as a classical figure for the verification of

alternation of generation in annelids.

The asexual condition of the parent stock is, however, not

as constant as was supposed by Agassiz. In many of the

specimens examined, particularly in individuals from which a

first stolon has been separated, sexual products appear in the

twelfth and thirteenth and even at times in the eleventh seg-

ment of the parent stock. At the time when the first stolon,

i.e., the stolon which originally formed a part of the body of the

parent stock, becomes filled with sexual products none of the seg-

ments of the parent stock give any indication of the presence of

reproductive products. In older individuals, however; in which

apparently after a second or possibly a third stolon has been

separated, I have found reproductive products in some stage of

development in a large number of the specimens examined.

Of such parent stocks found with reproductive products, by far

the greater number were females, and of these I have been

able to obtain individuals in which the ova had attained a size

almost equal to that of mature ova. The different stages in

the development of the sexual products I have been able to

follow more successfully in a near relative of Autolytus, Procerea

ornata, the budding of which is in all respects similar to that

of Autolytus cornutus. Of this species I have been able to find

female specimens of parent stocks with ova in all stages of

development up to the time when the ova are discharged from

168 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the body. The egg-sac, which it may be assumed also appears

in these specimens, I have not been able to observe.

The external appearances of a parent stock with reproduc-

tive products in the stages of development in which I have

been able to observe them differ very little from a parent stock

in which no such products are as yet present. Occasionally

I have found that the anterior eyes appear somewhat larger,

but no modifications of the parapodia, such as would indicate

the epitokal condition so common in other syllidians, were

observed. In all sexually mature parent stocks of Procerza

I have found a third pair of eyes near the inner insertion of the

palps. These are present as mere pigment spots in very young

individuals of both Procerzea and Autolytus cornutus, but as a rule

disappear or remain very inconspicuous in the adult. In several

of the specimens in which the ova were nearest mature, conspicu-

ous ventrally directed lenses were present. -A similar development

of this third pair of eyes I have observed in the epitokal syllid

Odontosyllis, taken at a time when the eggs have reached com-

plete maturity; so that the appearance of this pair of eyes in the

parent stock of Autolytus at this time might, I think, be looked

upon as partaking of the epitokal condition in other syllidians.

The percentage of parent stocks found with sexual products

is by all odds too great to be looked upon as merely accidental.

In a number of individuals examined, from all of which the

stolons had recently been separated, and in which regeneration

of segments was taking place (in this way eliminating as far

as possible such individuals as are developing a first stolon),

reproductive products were found to be present in as many as

five out of twenty specimens examined for Autolytus Cornutus,

and in as many as six and sometimes seven out of twenty speci-

mens of Procerza examined. The stages of development of

the reproductive products varied from early stages in which the

presence of sexual cells could only be determined by the exami-

nation of sections to the more mature ova already referred to. By

eliminating the apparently less mature individuals and selecting

only such as would indicate by their size and general appearance

that at least a second stolon had been separated, as many as ten

to twelve out of twenty specimens were found to contain sexual

No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS. 169

products. Such conditions would strongly indicate that the pres-

ence of reproductive products toward the close of the phenome-

non of budding is a constant stage in the life history of these syllids.

The life history of Autolytus cornutus would, therefore, con-

sist in: (1) The development, from the egg, of the parent

stock; (2) the development of sexual products in segments

posterior to the thirteenth setigerous segment, the development

of a head on the fourteenth, and the separation of these seg-

ments for the formation of the free-swimming stolons, Polybos-.

tricus (å) and Sacconereis (9); (3) regeneration of the lost

segments and the formation in this way of a second and possi-

bly a third or fourth stolon; (4) finally, the development in

the parent stock of sexual products and the conversion of it

into a sexual individual (Fig. 5). While the sexual products

are forming, the regeneration of lost segments is still taking

place, but in none of the specimens found had this new growth

gone farther than the formation of a small bud, consisting of no

more than eight or ten distinct segments.

As compared with a diagram of the cycle of. generation as

described by Agassiz, we would then have :

Stolon — x « Eggs

Eggs — Parent Stock — x « Eggs

Stolon = x < Eggs

This would therefore be, not a sexual generation alternat-

ing with an asexual, but at most no more than a sexual dimor-

phism — a sexual individual budding off sexual stolons, and as

its own sexual products mature, partaking more or less of the

epitokal form of other syllids and itself becoming sexual.

Alternate generation has also been claimed for chain-form-

ing syllidians, as Myrianide ; but the presence of reproductive

products in the posterior segments of the parent stock is of so

common occurrence that the existence of such a generation has

already prior to this been disputed by St. Joseph and Malaquin.

Korschelt and Heider in their text-book of Comparative Em-

bryology, in accordance with the papers of Krohn and Agassiz,

describe this process as a true alternation of generation, and

hold it as distinctly different from the fission in Ctenodrillus,

170 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Protula, and Nais, in which all divided individuals are sexual

and alike in all respects, and which, they assert, cannot be

regarded as a true alternation of generation. They summarize

the budding of Autolytus as **a process that is to be placed

alongside that of strobilization in the Scyphomedusz.”’ The

presence of reproductive products in the parent stock of Auto-

lytus throws doubt upon this comparison, and it appears to me

more plausible to place these forms alongside the processes

described by Brooks for the Hydromedusz (Mem. Bost. Soc.

Nat. Hist., Vol. III, No. 12). Particularly striking in this respect

is the similarity in the life history of Autolytus cornutus to the

life history of Cunina octonaria, which he gives in a diagram as

follows :

Hydra — Medusa x « Eggs

Egg — Planula — Actinula — Medusa x « Eggs

Hydra = Medusa X < Eggs

Here, according to Brooks, there is asexual multiplication with-

out alternation of generation. . Since in Autolytus cornutus and

Procerzea the parent stock also becomes sexual, just as does

the actinula, we would have, in the life history of these syllids,

nothing more than the parent stock undergoing asexual multi-

plication, and forming stolons just as in the asexual multipli-

cation of the actinula to form hydra. Taking the meaning of

alternation of generation, as defined by Brooks in his work on

the Hydromedusz, as the commonly accepted one, — a defini-

tion which is also in accord with the descriptions given by

Korschelt and Heider, — we would have in the syllids, for which

a true alternation of generation has been claimed, no alternate

generation at all, but simply a dimorphism resulting from an

asexual multiplication of the parent stock.

Without taking into consideration the morphological value of

the stolon it would appear more plausible, therefore, to regard

stolonization in Autolytus as a process akin to that of fission

in other annelids — unlike the fission in Dero, AZlosoma, and

other forms where the divided individuals are identical in all

respects, in that it has direct reference to the distribution of

the sexual products, yet similar to these in that all the resulting

divisions are in reality sexual individuals.

No. 399.] HISTORY OF AUTOLYTUS CORNUTUS I71

Another aspect of this question is, however, presented by

the morphological characters of the stolon itself. In the proc-

ess of its development the stolon has been provided with a

head very similar in structure to that of the parent stock, and

with eyes even larger and more advantageously placed than

those of the parent stock. The alimentary canal, moreover, is

in a state of degeneration; the crowding of the reproductive

products, particularly in the female stolon, has greatly reduced

its calibre, and to all appearances it has ceased to function.

Organs for the prehension of food are absent, a mouth-opening

being formed simply by a union of the broken intestinal wall

with the hypodermis, and it is quite evident, by the changes

that have taken place in the alimentary canal of the mature

stolon, and also by the continuous absence of food particles

within it, that the stolon in its free-swimming stages does not

feed. The stolon would then in reality reduce itself to a series

of segments, some of which, in the male, or a large number of

which, in the female, are gorged with reproductive products

and provided with organs fitted for the proper distribution of

the reproductive products—a condition similar to, but, by

virtue of a head formation, more advanced than that which has

been described for the sexual fragmentation in the Palolo worm.

While the stolon must, for want of a better expression, be

regarded as a distinct individual, in connection with the problem

of alternation of generation the morphological value of such a

Structure might well be questioned.

The existence of a true alternation of generation in annelids

so long as it is supported alone by the phenomena presented by

Autolytus seems to me far from being established, and it is

doubtful if a more extended study of any of the syllidians

would add more to this proof. The presence of reproductive

Products in even a smaller percentage of parent stocks than

were found in Autolytus cornutus or Procerzéa could still hardly

be looked upon as of purely accidental occurrence. Instead of

regarding the presence of such sexual products in the parent

Stock of Autolytus as accidental, it seems to me more plausible

to regard it as the continuance of a more primitive condition in

which the animal zz ¢o¢o assumed, at the ripening of the sexual

172 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST.

products, an epitokal form like that in Eusyllis, Odontosyllis,

and Exogone, and stolonization as a secondary condition ac-

quired for the purpose of a more perfect distribution of the

sexual products. The complete epitokal changes in Autoly-

tus have already been observed by Malaquin in Autolytus lorge-

feriens, and described by him under the name of “ epigamie,”

and it is very probable that a further study of the different

species of Autolytus found along our coast would yield similar

results. From our present knowledge it would appear that, as

in Autolytus cornutus, the epitokal changes have been lost, or

at least in greater or lesser part suppressed, in the parent stock

of some syllids, and that in this way closely related forms of

syllidians may exhibit sexual changes as various or more so than

are shown in different species of Nereis ; but it is very doubtful

whether in any of our species the loss of sexual products has

been so equally shared with these other changes as to leave a

distinctly asexual parent stock.

The high development of the head of the stolon would form

the strongest argument in favor of the distinct individuality of

the stolon. Malaquin (Recherches sur les Syllidiens) has, how-

ever, already shown that the head of the stolon in different

species of syllidians presents very different grades of develop-

ment. In making this comparison he says: ** L'individualisa-

tion du stolon diminue de plus en plus, au fur et à mesure qu'on

suit la marche graduelle de ce phénoméne. autrement

dit la téte qui marque pour ainsi dire le degré de perfectionne-

ment de son individualité, se simplifie de plus en plus et arrive

méme à ne plus se former du tout." His figures, in which he

compares the head of the stolon of Haplosyllis hamata, in the

formation of which no development of a head takes place, with

that of Trypanosyllis, in which a small head supplied with eyes

is present, and, by different intermediate forms, with the com-

plicated head structures of Autolytus, very clearly indicates, as

had already been suggested by Huxley, that the stolon among

syllids is not as distinctly individualized as would appear in

observations on Autolytus by itself.

URSINUS COLLEGE, COLLEGEVILLE, PA.,

900

SOME NOTES ON REGENERATION AND REGU-

LATION IN PLANARIANS.

FRANK R. LILLIE.

I. THE Source or MATERIAL or New PARTS AND LIMITS

OF SIZE.

Many observers have noted the tendency of planarians kept

without food to diminish in size. My attention was specially

directed to this phenomenon by some experiments undertaken

to test the effect of external conditions on the regeneration of

Planaria maculata. I had already studied the effect of tem-

perature on the regeneration of this form in conjunction with

Mr. Knowlton.! I next undertook to test how far the chemical

constitution of the medium affected the rate and form of regen-

eration. As an introduction to the systematic study of this

subject, I made some experiments to determine whether any of

the substances dissolved in the water of the habitat is necessary

for regeneration. For this purpose I redistilled some of the

ordinary distilled water of the laboratory, using flasks of Jena

glass to get rid of the minute traces of copper found in water

from copper stills. Permanganate of potash was dissolved in the

water in the Jena flask to destroy traces of organic matter, and

the distillate was again distilled in the same manner to insure

the greatest possible degree of purity. The redistilled water

thus obtained was carefully oxygenated by running a stream

of air through it.

The pieces of planarians used for the experiments were

washed in this water and then transferred to more of the same;

the vessels (cleaned in strong acid) and water were changed

frequently to get rid of any traces of bacterial growth. I soon

found that under these circumstances regeneration went on as

1 Lillie and Knowlton. The Effects of Temperature on the Development of

Animals, Zoj;. Bull., vol. i.

173

174 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

rapidly and as well as in tap water or the water of the habitat ;

thus demonstrating that the substances contained in these

waters were not necessary for regeneration.

However, the decrease in size already mentioned was so rapid

and marked as to appear to deserve special study. So I isolated

a number of active planarians in the redistilled water, measured

them, and kept them in a thermostat at temperatures that

ranged from 20° to 27° C. The dishes and water were changed

regularly and frequently, measurements of each individual being

made at the same times. The table on the opposite page shows

the history of these specimens; less than half of the actual

measurements in this series are given.

It will be noted that the rate of decrease was not the same

in all; in 2, for instance, it was much more rapid than in the

others. This is probably due in part to greater activity of 2.

Nor is the rate perfectly uniform in any given specimen,

probably owing to variations in the temperature and in activity

at different times.

The smallest specimen obtained (No. 5, after 43 days) was

certainly less than one-hundredth the bulk of the original

animal. Its length was one-fifteenth the original length, its

width one-third the initial width, and if we suppose that its

dorso-ventral diameter was reduced by only one-half, the bulk

would be one-ninefieth of the original bulk. But there can be

little doubt that its dorso-ventral diameter was reduced more

than one-half.

Increase by fission was entirely stopped, but, on the other

hand, the power of regeneration remained. Thus, when No. 5

had been reduced to less than one-half its original length, it

was cut in two parts, and both regenerated completely, although

with constant diminution in bulk. The same experiment suc-

ceeded in No. 3, after it had been starved to less than one-

fourth its original length.

It is thus demonstrated that from a given individual one of

less than one-hundredth the original bulk may be produced

by appropriate means. This constitutes a criticism on those

experiments that have been made to determine the limits of

regeneration in planarians by direct operation. The possible

No. 399.] NOTES ON PLANARIANS. 175

Days. I. | 2. 3. 4. 5.

I 235. EE IO X I 6 x .5 9 X 75

5 y. 5.5 X <5 2X1 Ox 4 8x 3$

12 6.5 6 4 Xx 533 6 x .66 Dead. yx:

17 6X .5 4 X .33 $ X4 4X.3

i35 us

23 4X-.5 25x55 43 X -5 esi E

E ID. **]-Cut in two. edad s aene

1.25 X .3 (tail)

L26 x 3 1.75 X .3 (head)

(head) 1.25 X .3 (tail

f 37.4 Partial regen- T5 Partial regenera-

eration. Died. tion.

I.4 X .3 (head)

.9 X .3 (tail)

Complete re-

two days later.

40 2:3 X..4 2.7 X4 Bik ad

2.28 X «4 6 x .25

Cut in two. Lost by accident.

Tail end, 1.1 :

1.9 X .4 X .45 ge

43 Cut in two. erated in four

Parts died in days (partly).

two days. Head end, .9|

little new tis-

sue.

Table giving history of five planarians in distilled water. The vertical columns

should be read separately. There is a slight discrepancy in the measurements of

? and 3 for 17 and 23 days, no doubt due to an error in observation. The

column to the left gives the number of days from the beginning of the experiment.

The measurements, made after 17 days with the ocular micrometer, have all been

reduced to millimeters.

176 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST, [Vor. XXXIV.

limits of regeneration have been found by such experiments to

be not much less than one-sixteenth of the bulk of the original

animal. That a much lower limit has not been found is due

partly to the extensive exposure of internal tissues along the

cut surfaces, and partly (perhaps) to limitation of variety of

tissue, but certainly not, it would appear, to deficient size.

Do all organs suffer equally in the reduction? It might be

expected that the organs of reproduction would suffer first, as

they do not contribute to the life of the individual; but the

specimens used in the experiments were not sexually mature,

so this point was not settled. The other systems of organs

were reduced in apparently similar proportions. Thus the

intestinal diverticula in 5 were reduced to five on each side,

and the branches of the longitudinal nerves were apparently

equally reduced.

Does the reduction affect chiefly the size or the number of

the cells? A careful histological study would be necessary to

answer this question in detail. Not having made this, all that

I can say is that the branched pigment cells lying near the

surface, that are readily visible under a low magnification, are

reduced to very few, but their size is not noticeably affected.

Do the processes of reduction retrace the steps of normal

growth and development? I think that this question must

be answered in the affirmative. Certain it is that specimens

reduced by starvation to a smaller size than just hatched

specimens of the same species resemble these in their general

proportions, the relatively greater breadth in proportion to

length as compared with mature specimens, the smallness of

the cephalic lobes, and in the small number of the intestinal

diverticula and branches of the longitudinal nerves. It would

be interesting to determine whether or not these artificial

embryos, as they might be termed, could under favorable cir-

cumstances repeat the steps to the mature and fully grown

condition from which they were reduced. I see no reason to

doubt that this is possible.

In regeneration, under the circumstances of these experi-

ments, two processes are taking place side by side; not only is

new tissue being formed at the cut end, but the old tissues are

No. 399.] - NOTES ON PLANARIANS. 177

undergoing a translocation and partial redifferentiation to

accommodate themselves to the new proportion that must be

assumed. The new tissue at the cut end must be formed

entirely from the old tissue, and the final result involves, there- -

fore, an extensive working over of the old material. The

original tissues, with constant losses, owing to destructive

metabolism, are moulded into the form of a new individual.

In trying to form a mental image of the forces at work in this

complex rearrangement, one can think only of an “internal

mould" (an expression of Buffon to which Professor Whitman

has called my attention) No less remarkable is the mainte-

nance of form in individuals that gradually waste away to one-

hundredth part or less of their original bulk. Such individuals

in all stages of reduction appear normal in all respects, physi-

ologically as well as morphologically. They are active and

exhibit perfectly normal reactions, showing no indications of

sickness.

VASSAR COLLEGE, Jan. 4, 1900.

REMARKS ON THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER,

TYPHLOMOLGE RATHBUNI STEJNEGER.

W. W. NORMAN.

Tnroucu the kindness of Mr. Leary, Superintendent of the

U. S. Fish Hatchery at ‘San Marcos, Texas, the Biological

Laboratory of the University of Texas became the possessor

of a small number of living salamanders that came up from

subterranean waters 181 feet below the surface.

It has been the aim of the writer to study the habits of

these strange animals, but through ill-luck only a single speci-

men is at the present writing alive, and the new arrivals at the

well are becoming scarce.

For a systematic description of the animals the reader is

referred to Stejneger's paper in the Proc. of the U. S. Nat.

Mus., Vol. XVIII, No. 1088.

A good idea of the animal may be had from the pictures

accompanying this description.

The animals were kept in a large shallow basin of water con-

taining water plants and some small organisms, such as water

fleas.

Unless disturbed, the salamanders appear at all times either

resting, or very slowly walking along. They move a few steps

at a time, wait awhile, and go again. They have no particular

pose when quiet except that they always rest on their four feet,

holding themselves up from the bottom of the vessel, and fre-

quently retain the position of the legs as if in the act of walk-

ing. Indeed, this position represents them as if suddenly

! A few years ago the late Professor Norman secured a number of specimens of

the Texas cave salamander for me, to enable me to study the structure of their eyes.

He himself intended to study the habits of the species. In September of 1899,

Mrs. Norman placed his notes and photographs in my hands, and these are repro-

duced in this paper. The notes are just as he wrote them. I have added as

foot notes a few observations on living specimens kindly furnished me by Super-

intendent J. L, Leary, of San Marcos. — C. H. EIGENMANN.

179

180 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

stopped. This is beautifully shown in the photograph (Fig. 1)

where the large animal has the left legs near each other, and

the right far apart. If the vessel contains, for example, water-

cress, they crawl in among the branches, stop as when walking

on firm bottom, with the legs in such a position as fits easiest

for gliding in among the twigs.

They are never seen to move faster than a slow, easy walk,

except when disturbed by external stimuli! Then one of three

methods of locomotion may follow.

I. The walking speed may pass into a grotesque run by

long strides and corresponding winds of the body ; or, 2. This

passes into a combined movement of legs and tail, the last act-

Fic. 1. — Photograph of a living salamander from the side.

ing asfin. 3. Atits greatest speed the legs are laid lengthwise

against the body, and the tail only used for locomotion.

The legs are exceedingly slender and weak. If the animal

is placed on a table out of water, the body falls to the floor, and

at best the animal may wriggle a few inches.

1 The motion in water is, for the most part, slow and cautious, the movement

of the long legs being apparently calculated to produce the least commotion in the

water. The motion suggests that of a cat creeping upon its prey, or the elephan-

tine progression of the snapping turtle. The feet are lifted high in walking, and

the body is kept from the bottom by the full length of the fore arm and leg. I

ordinary progression the body slopes from the nose to the tail, which drags (Fig. 1).

d of moving the limbs is as follows : Left hand and, when this is nearly

ready to place, or usually when placed, the right foot. When the right foot is

placed, then the right hand and then the left foot. As the hand of one side is not

raised till the foot of the same side is placed, the enormous strides of the long-

legged creature causes it to step on its hand or even beyond. Its natural gait is a

deliberate progression by means of its feet with three feet usually on the ground.

Any attempt at great rapidity by this means of locomotion results in a most undig-

nified and futile wriggle. When going slowly the head is held sloping upward.

When walking rapidly it is held sloping down, so that the snout is near the

ground.

No. 399. ] THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER 181

In water, however, the weight of the salamander is so little

that the legs are amply strong for its locomotion. Professor

Stejneger lost sight of this point when he guessed that the

animal used its tail for locomotion and its legs as feelers, for

he says: ‘Viewed in connection with the well-developed,

finned swimming-tail, it can be safely assumed that these

extraordinarily slender and elongated legs are not used for

locomotion, and the conviction is irresistible that in the inky

darkness of the subterranean waters they serve the animal as

feelers.”’

No definite information has been obtained as to their habits

in nature,

They show no reaction against light, either as a response by

motion to the direction of the rays or to the quantity of light.

Fic. 2.— The same as Fig. 1, but from above.

If kept in a vessel, one-half of which is dark and the other half

light, the animal is found about as much in one as the other,

and on emerging into light from the dark half indicates in no

way an awareness of the difference.

If in a tangle of plants, as watercress, they are found there

about the same as in any other part of the vessel.

If they are headed against a current, the flowing water acts

as stimulus urging them on. If the current strikes them from

behind, they move more rapidly in the direction of flow.

The sense of touch is highly developed. There is, however,

no experimental evidence that this is confined to any particular

region. If the surface of the body is touched anywhere except

at the blunt truncated snout, the animal responds at once by

moving away. If the stimulus causes it to swim away, it may

182 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

go (say 12 or 16 inches) till it strikes the side of the vessel,

after which it soon comes to a standstill.

If, however, it is struck say with the flat side of a scalpel

handle sufficiently hard to move the entire animal even an inch

backwards, it may not react, and this may often be repeated

FiGs. 3 and 4.

Fic. 3. — Dorsal surface of a salamander Pastors in formalin.

Fic. 4. — Ventral surface of the same specimen.

before it reacts by moving away. A possible explanation of this

is that in normal life it is every day striking itself against obstacles,

especially the sides of the vessel (when in confinement).

The animal was kept in water about an inch deep, so that

its head was near the surface. The waves of the water set

going by a gentle puff of the breath act as a sure stimulus. It

is exceedingly sensitive to any motion of the water.

No. 399. ] THE SAN MARCOS SALAMANDER. 183

But little evidence thus far shows in favor of a sense of

smell. All attempts at feeding (except one) have been in vain.

No attention was given to meat or other articles placed near it.

Examination of a dead specimen showed chitinous remains of

such Crustacea as Cyclops. To-day (April 18) I offered a sala-

mander a small piece of the abdominal muscle of a crayfish. -

The bait was held by means of forceps about 5 mm. in front of

the snout. The animal moved slightly forward, and the bait

was kept at about the same distance. Suddenly it was snapped

off and swallowed. The animal snapped off a second piece,

but a third was refused.!

1 If a glass rod or other object is held a little to one side and in front of the

animal, it will cautiously turn its head in the direction of the rod. If the latter is

then made to describe an arc about the side of the salamander, the head will fol-

low it with a continuous motion, expressive of the greatest caution, as far as it can

be followed without moving any of the limbs: A sudden jar, produced by tapping

the rod on the bottom of the aquarium at such a time, causes the salamander to

jerk its head back and rear back on its limbs as far as it can. The same effect is

produced if the rod is introduced too rapidly.

If a piece of crayfish tail is held by pincers in the fingers a short distance in

front or to the side of the head of the salamander, there is the same cautious motion

forward till the snout comes in contact with it. There is then a momentary hesi-

tation, followed by a sudden snap and seizure.

The salamander may be pulled from side to side by the meat, after it has once

secured a hold, without causing it to let go. All of its caution is apparently

directed in approaching the food without disturbance. After it has secured a hold

it will struggle to maintain it.

ON THE FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES IN

CONNECTION WITH THE POSTCAVAL VEIN

AND ITS TRIBUTARIES IN THE DO-

MESTIC CAT (FELIS DOMESTICA).

Ci F, We McCLUKE.

VARIATIONS of the postcaval vein and its tributaries are not

of unusual occurrence, as is attested by the considerable litera-

ture on-this subject. It is also generally conceded that these

variations from the normal condition, to whatever cause they

may be due, occur with greater frequency among domesticated

animals than among those living in the wild state.

The object of the present paper is to emphasize especially

the frequency with which such venous abnormalities may occur

in a given number of individuals of the domestic cat (Felis

domestica).

During the last five years the writer has observed that varia-

tions of the venous system, of some sort or another, occur with

great frequency in the domestic cat; and in 1898—99 twenty-

five cats dissected by students in the Princeton Laboratory

were more carefully examined for such variations, with the

following results : a

In only ten of the twenty-five examined was the venous sys-

tem apparently normal, while in 60 per cent, or in fifteen of

the cats, thirty-three distinct abnormalities were met with in

Connection with the postcava and its tributaries. These, for

descriptive purposes, have been grouped in the following table

under five types.! !

The cats in which these abnormalities were found were

chosen at random from those brought into the Laboratory and

! The figures represent the actual size of the preparations. The veins are in

black and the arteries shaded. The numbering is the same for all of the figures.

Many of the smaller arteries and veins have been omitted from the drawings.

185

186 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

were not, after dissection, selected on account of the abnormal-

ities which they presented.

NUMBER

oF CASES

TYPES. OBSERVED

—

. PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS (Vv. Cardinales fost.).

(a) Left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis sinistra) absent. 3

(4) Left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis sinistra) present. 2

2. THE COMMON ILIAC VEINS (V. iliaca communis sinistra and

dextra) UNITE TO FoRM THE POSTCAVAL VEIN OPPOSITE

THE MIDDLE OF THE SIXTH LUMBAR VERTEBRA, WHICH

Is CONSIDERABLY CEPHALAD OF THE NORMAL POINT OF

JUNCTION (opposite the posterior half of the seventh). The

ilio-lumbar veins also, in each case, open into the right and

left common iliacs and not into the common postcava, as is

usually the case in the cat. . 3

3. THE MIDDLE SACRAL VEIN (V. PS media] AND ITS Re

LATION TO THE VEINS OF THE PELVIC REGION.

(4) Opens into the right common iliac vein Su iliaca LATTE

dextra ‘ 4

(4) Opens into angle of union at two veins p bit join veins üt

right and left aas — à è à i

4. PERFORATION OF A VEIN

(a) An artery j 6

(4) A nerve 3.

5. DOUBLE VEINS WHERE Di IS Ness PxsstKT 7

Description of the Venous Abnormalities.

I. PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS (Vv. Cardinales

post.). — Our knowledge of the development of the postcaval

vein and our interpretation of the significance of the persist-

ent double postcaval veins are largely due to Hochstetter,! who

has shown that these veins are the homologues of the posterior

cardinal veins of the embryo: and of lower vertebrates.

Wilder and Gage? state that double postcaval veins occur in

the domestic cat once in about ten cases. This percentage is

somewhat less than that found by the writer (20 per cent), but

perhaps represents more accurately the conditions commonly

met with. In either case the percentage is extremely large when

we consider how rarely this abnormality is met with in man.

1 Hochstetter. Anat. Anz., Bd. ii, Morph. Jahrb, Bd. xiii, and Anat. Anz.

Bd. iii. 2 Anatomical Technology, § 962.

No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 187

Five cases of persistent posterior cardinal veins were met

with by the writer in twenty-five cats examined. In three of

these cases the left common iliac vein (V. iliaca communis si-

"istra) was absent, and in two it

was present.

(a) PERSISTENT POSTERIOR

CARDINAL VEINS. LeEFr Com- 7

MON ILiAc VEIN (V. iliaca com-

munis simistra) ABSENT.

The three examples of this

type were essentially the same

in character and are well repre-

sented by Fig. 1.

In each instance the union of Dextra Sinistra

the two posterior cardinals (17)

with the common postcaval vein

(1) took place in the neighbor-

hood of the kidneys. In two

instances this union was opposite

the third lumbar vertebra, and

in one, opposite the fourth. In

the former the right renal veins,

single in one case and double in

the ether, opened into the right Fte. :.— Princeton. Morphological Museum,

. i . No. 6or. Ventral aspect. V. cardinalis

posterior cardinal; in the latter 4,44 and sinistra persistent. V. iliaca

(Fig. 1) the right renal vein (7) «wis sinistra lum D nas

opened into the common post- zia interna. s. V. sacralis media. 6.

cava. (1). (earum CARA. suite libre

a Sach instance, as in Fig. f Geen A. iL me "ir

thesingleleftrenalvein(7)opened sacralis media. 17. V. cardinalis post.

intotheleft posteriorcardinal(17). .

The middle sacral vein (V. sacralis media), Fig. 2 (5), in each

of these three cases, was connected with the posterior cardinal

veins (17) in a characteristic manner. It opened into the

angle of union of two veins which joined, respectively, the

right and left posterior cardinal veins (17) at varying dis-

tances from the point of union of the external and internal

iliac veins,

188 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

(b) PERSISTENT POSTERIOR CARDINAL VEINS. Lrrr Cov-

MON ILIAc VEIN (V. iliaca communis sinistra) PRESENT.

Abnormalities of this type have been described as occurring

in man, by Cruveilhier, von Gruber, Kollmann,! Lobstein, Nic-

olai, Quain, Wilde, and others.

Kollmann, with whom the writer is fully in accord, states as

follows regarding the significance of this type of abnormality :

* The significance of this condition can, according to my inter-

pretation, only be as follows: Persistence of both cardinal

veins, together with the connecting branch (Verbindungsast)."

By the * Connecting branch" is meant the vessel which is

subsequently developed between the veins of the left hind

extremity and the right posterior cardi-

nal vein, in correlation with the appear-

ance of the functional kidneys and the

. atrophy of the distal portion of the left

posterior cardinal vein. -This vessel

becomes the left common iliac vein (7.

iliaca communis sinistra).

No instance was met with by the

writer in which the * Connecting

branch" ran in the reverse direction,

that is, between the veins of the right

Tute. Worreferencetongm. Mnd extremity and the left posterior

"— "€ cardinal vein. Abnormalities of this

type, however, have been described by Timmermann, Walter?

Walsham, and others, as occurring in man.

Two cases were met with by the writer in which the poste-

rior cardinal veins were persistent, together with the ** Connect-

ing branch."

In one (Fig. 3) the union of the two posterior cardinals (17)

with the common postcava (1) was opposite the third lumbar

vertebra; in the other (Fig. 4) this union was opposite the mid-

dle of the sixth lumbar vertebra.

In the first-mentioned case, represented by Fig. 3, where the

1 Kollmann gives a a complete bibliography relating to this type of abnor-

mality in Bd. viii of the Azat. Anz., p. 113.

2 See Kollmann’s primi

No. 399.] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 189

two posterior cardinals unite with the common postcava oppo-

site the third lumbar vertebra, the middle sacral vein (V. sacra-

lis media) opens into the angle of union of two veins which, as

in that case previously mentioned (Fig. 2), join, respectively,

Dextra

o. deg; ntral aspect are inalis

sinistra SREE: ex sp T. iliaca

communis sinistra present. 2. V. iliaca

communis. For remaining numbers, see

Fig. 1.

veins of the right and left

Venn aspoet V. cardinali deca asinine ge

padina P dn communis gei. va In addition to the above

>. V. iaca communis. 13. A. mesenterica post. mode of union, which

g TET seems to be characteris-

tic for the middle sacral vein, whenever both posterior

cardinals unite in the neighborhood of the kidneys, the

middle sacral vein again opens into the right post-cardinal by

an additional vessel. This third vessel, Figs. 3, 5 (2, sinistra),

extends between that portion of the middle sacral vein which

Opens into the left posterior cardinal and the right posterior

cardinal vein. It opens into the latter, opposite the point where

For

190 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the right external iliac artery (9), Fig. 3, arises from the aorta.

Although the connection of this third vessel with the middle

sacral vein is abnormal, its relative position, and especially its

connection with the right posterior cardinal at the above-men-

tioned point, lead the writer to the conclusion that it is the

* Connecting branch " (Verbindungsast) which normally grows

between the veins of the left hind extremity and the right pos-

terior cardinal vein, in correlation with the appearance of the

permanent kidneys and the atrophy of the distal portion of

the left posterior cardinal vein. This

so-called ** Connecting branch," un-

der normal conditions, becomes the

left common iliac vein (V. iliaca

communis sinistra) and returns the

blood from the left hind extremity

. to the postcaval vein. In this par-

ticular instance, however, the vein

does not connect with the veins of

the left hind extremity, but arises

from the middle sacral vein by

means of two radicles that soon be-

come confluent, Fig. 5 (2, sinistra).

The significance of this unusual

connection will be spoken of in con-

i d E nection with the following topic.

post. 18. N. obturatorius. For re- The second case met with by the

maining numbers, see Fig. r. : 5 s i

writer, in which the posterior car-

dinal veins persist, together with the “ Connecting branch ds

(V. iliaca communis sinistra), is represented by Fig. 4.

In this instance the persistent left posterior cardinal vein

(17) unites with the corresponding vein of the right side, oppo-

site the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra, and not, as in the

preceding case, in the region of the kidneys. The left poste-

rior cardinal is also here of less importance physiologically, as

is indicated by its relative size, than either the right posterior

cardinal or the left common iliac vein (2). It is evident, there-

fore, that the bulk of the blood from the left hind extremity

was carried to the common postcava, chiefly by the left common

Sinistra.

No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. IgI

iliac vein (* Connecting branch"), which is normal in every

respect and has, as is usually the case in the cat, the middle

sacral vein (5) opening intoit. The ilio-lumbar veins (6), which,

usually in the cat, open into the common postcava (1), in this

instance (Fig. 4), open into separate vessels on the right and

left side, respectively. That the vessel (17) on the left side,

into which the ilio-lumbar vein (6) opens, is the left posterior

cardinal vein and not the so-called * Connecting branch" is

evidenced by the fact that the vein in question persists in com-

mon with the left common iliac (* Connecting branch"). In

addition to this, the left posterior cardinal (17), in Fig. 4, lies

ventrad of the aorta at the point where it unites with the cor-

responding vein of the opposite side, a circumstance character-

istic of the left posterior cardinal vein.!

The “Connecting branch" is not usually present when the

left posterior cardinal persists. Its absence, under these condi-

tions, is undoubtedly due to the circumstance that the left pos-

terior cardinal vein, during all stages of development, continues

to collect the blood from the left hind extremity, which makes

uncalled for the development of a vessel to share in its function.

When for some reason the ** Connecting branch " does persist,

together with the left posterior cardinal, so far as the writer's

experience extends, one vessel is usually developed at the

expense of the other. This idea is well borne out by a com-

parison of Figs. 1, 3, and 4.

In the type of abnormality represented by Fig. 1, the “ Con-

necting branch ” is absent, and the left posterior cardinal per-

sists as far forward as the kidneys.

In Fig. 3 the left posterior cardinal is likewise persistent as

far forward as the kidneys, but the ‘Connecting branch,"

though present, collects little, if any, of the blood from the left

hind extremity.

In Fig. 4 both vessels persist, but the left posterior cardinal is

insignificant, while the “ Connecting branch " is normal in every

respect, and undoubtedly, on account of its large relative size,

is the chief collector of the blood from the left hind extremity.

1 In the preparation represented by Fig. 4 the common internal iliac artery (10)

is unusually long. Compare with corresponding arteries in Figs. 1, 3, 6.

102 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

The middle sacral vein and the * Connecting branch” (V. 2/-

aca communis sinistra) must be developed in close relation with

each other, since the former normally opens into the latter. It

is not. strange, therefore, in one

instance (Fig. 3) where the

‘“« Connecting branch ” is abnor-

mal, that it should arise from

the middle sacral vein.

2. ON THE PRESENCE OF UN-

USUALLY Lonc Common ILIAC

Dextra Sinistra

Fic. 6. Fic. 7.

Fic. 6. Pru NOTE Miseum, Ao bo. Unusually long Vv. iliacæ communes

vhich unit vertebra. Ventra l aspect.

iliaca communis. . mesenterica post. For remaining numbers, se e Fi 1g. I.

Fic, 7. peri Morphological can No. 6o Same as Fig. 6. Ventral aspect. M

teries omitted in the drawing. WR A Misi X. Opposi igin of Aa. iliace externe

from aorta. For remaining indien. see Fig

Veins (Vv. iliace communes). — The point at which the single

postcava joins the right and left common iliac veins is normally,

with slight variations, opposite the middle of the seventh lum-

bar vertebra. In three cats, not including those which pos-

sessed well-defined double postcaval veins, the point of union

of the two common iliacs with the common postcava was

found to be opposite the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra,

No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 193

which is considerably cephalad of the normal point, and to

result in relatively long common iliac veins (2), Figs. 6, 7.

The writer was at first inclined to regard these three cases

as instances in which the posterior division of the left posterior

cardinal vein, instead of the “Connecting branch," persists as

the functional left common iliac vein, and for the following

reasons : :

1. Because in one instance (Fig. 7) the middle sacral vein

(5) opens into the angle of union of two veins, as in those

cases in which both posterior cardinal veins persist (Fig. 1).

2. Because the left ilio-lumbar vein (6), in all three cases,

opens into the left common iliac (2) and not into the common

postcava (1), as is normally the case in the cat. (See Figs. 6, 7.)

3. Because the functional left common iliac vein (2), in all

three cases, unites with the corresponding vein of the opposite

side in front of the middle of the sixth lumbar vertebra and,

in this respect, resembles the left posterior cardinal vein (17)

in Fig. 4, which persists there, in addition to a left common

iliac vein (* Connecting branch "). *In other words, if the left

common iliac vein (2) were absent in Fig. 4, the latter would

resemble, so far as the veins are concerned, the conditions met

with in Fig. 6.

One marked difference exists, however, between the relative

position of the left common iliac (2) in the three cases cited

above and that of the left posterior cardinal vein (17) in Fig. 4.

In the latter the vein lies ventrad of the aorta, the position it

should normally assume were the vessel a persistent cardinal

vein. In the three other cases, of which Fig. 6 is an example,

the aorta (8) lies ventrad of the vein, which should not be its

position unless a transposition of the vessel has taken place, a

circumstance incapable of proof. "Whatever the significance of

this abnormality may be, it is certainly worthy of mention, for

it further emphasizes the fact that variations of the postcaval

Vein and its tributaries are of unusual frequency in the cat.

3. THe MippLE SacraL VEIN (V. sacralis media) AND ITS

RELATIONS TO THE VEINS OF THE PELvic ReGion. — Much has

already been said concerning this vein, but its variations are so

Pronounced, that it seems best to specify them more in detail.

194 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

The middle sacral vein usually opens into the left common

iliac, and this was found to be the case by the writer in 60 per

cent of the cats examined. In some instances this vein (5) was

found to open into the left common iliac (2), near the point of

union of the external and internal iliac veins (3 and 4), Fig. 6.

In other instances its connection

with the left common iliac was

somewhat cephalad of this point.

In four cats, or 16 per cent of

those examined, the middle sacral

vein (5) opened into the right com-

mon iliac (2), Fig. 8. This was

the case with one of those prepara-

tions in which the common iliac

veins were unusually long and

joined the single postcava opposite

the sixth lumbar vertebra.

In five cats, or 20 per cent of

those examined, the middle sacral

vein (5) opened into the angle of

union of two veins which joined a

vein of the right and left side, re-

spectively (Figs. 1, 3, 7).

4. ON THE PRESENCE OF Fo-

RAMINA IN VEINS THROUGH WHICH

ARTERIES AND NERVES Pass. —

(a) Six cases were met by the

writer in which a vein presented a

completely formed foramen through

which an artery passed. In four

Fic. 8. — Princeton Morphological -- TT

seum, No. 606. Perforation of V. a of these cases the internal iliac

communis dextra by A. iliaca aig

dextra, Ventral aspect. a. V. iliaca artery passed through a foramen

communis. 13. mesenterica post.

3 H TP "

GM M remaining qum. iN the common iliac vein. In the

A D

bers, sec Fi EET

ge hue Ris two remaining instances a lumbar

artery passed dorsad through a foramen in the postcaval vein.

Two cases were met with in which the right internal iliac

artery (11) passed through a foramen in the right common

iliac vein (2), as represented by Fig. 8.

No. 399.] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 195

The foramen, which, in both cases, was situated near the

juncture of the external and internal iliac veins, was complete,

so that the artery could be dissected away from the vein with-

out injuring the latter. After passing through the foramen

the artery naturally lies dorsad ‘of the vein, but in its subse-

quent course assumes its usual position at the side of the

vein.

Two cases were met with, in which the left internal iliac

artery passed through a foramen in the left common iliac vein.

Since there is no essential difference between any of these four

cases, so far as the character and relative position of the foram-

ina are concerned, Fig. 8 will serve as a description for all.

Treadwell! has described an abnormality as occurring in the

cat somewhat similar to these four cases described above, but

on account of the poor condition of his preparation, he was

unable to locate accurately the exact position of the foramen.

An examination of his figure leads the writer to the conclu-

sion that his preparation is similar, in every respect, to that

represented above by my Fig. 8.

The two cases in which a lumbar ártery passed through a

foramen in the postcaval vein resemble those mentioned above,

so far as the completeness of the foramina is concerned, and,

therefore, need no further mention. It is interesting to note,

however, that in each instance the vein was penetrated by the

same lumbar artery, the artery situated just cephalad of the

ilio-lumbar artery.

(6) Foramina, when present, were not exclusively connected

with the transference of arteries. In three cats both obturator

nerves (18), Fig. 5, were found to pass through foramina situ-

ated at the point where the external and internal iliac veins

unite,

The foramina in each instance were complete, and, as in the

Case of the arteries, the nerves were easily dissected away

without injuring the veins.?

! Anat. Anz., Bd. xi, p. 717

* Ogle (Journ. of Anat. and Phys., vol. xxix) describes a case as occurring in

man, in which the left hypoglossal nerve pierced the wall of the left vertebral

196 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV.

It is well known that the perforation of a vein by an artery

or nerve is not, by itself, of unusual occurrence, but that it

should occur with such frequency in the domestic cat, and in

connection with so many other abnormalities, is deemed by the

writer as worthy of mention, as it further emphasizes the

unstable condition of the veins in the lumbar and pelvic

regions.

Whatever the cause may be which has produced this type of

abnormality, it is probably the same for both nerve and artery,

and, Treadwell says, ‘‘may be referred back to the origin of

the vessels in the embryo, where an interference between the

formative cells of the artery and those of the vein has resulted

in a penetration of one by the other."

It seems worthy of emphasis to note, in this connection,

that in each instance it is the vein which is perforated and

never the artery.

5. DOUBLE VEINS WHERE ONE IS NORMALLY PRESENT. —

This type of abnormality is, likewise, of fairly common occur-

rence, and is only mentioned to further emphasize the frequency

of venous abnormalities in the regions in question.

In seven instances veins which are usually single were paired,

and with one exception, Fig. 1 (left double ilio-lumbar veins, 6),

this duplicity occurred in connection with the veins of the right

side.

Four of the above-mentioned cases refer to the renal veins

and three to the ilio-lumbar.

In one case, Fig. 8 (6), the right ilio-lumbar vein (V. z/ze-

lumbalis dextra) opened into the postcava (1) by two veins,

but laterad of the postcava the two veins were fused together,

and through the cleft thus formed the right ilio-lumbar artery

(15) passed.

The question might be asked, —Is the manner in which this

cleft is formed, in any sense, comparable with that of the

foramina mentioned above in connection with the postcava

and common iliac veins?

It seems probable to the writer, since the foramina in the

common iliac veins are located near the point of union of two

veins, that these foramina may have been formed as the result

No. 399. ] FREQUENCY OF ABNORMALITIES. 197

of a secondary union of the veins behind the artery or nerve

which passes between them.

As previously stated, the lumbar artery, which, in two cases,

was found to penetrate the postcava, was the one situated just

anterior to the ilio-lumbar veins. In the case represented by

Fig. 7, this artery (19) lies between the common iliac veins, near

their point of union. If in this instance the veins should fuse

behind the artery, a foramen would be formed which resembles

in every respect the two met with in the postcava.

So far as could be ascertained by the writer, the number of

abnormalities of the arterial system, in general, was small.

This was also the case with the veins of the

neck and fore-limb regions, which in no way

approximated those found in connection with

the postcava and its tributaries.

. The arterial abnormalities were chiefly

confined to the ilio-lumbar and iliac arter-

ies, an example of the latter being figured

below (Fig. 9).

Oné conclusion which may be drawn from

a perusal of the preceding pages is that, in

the cat, the veins of the lumbar and pelvic

regions appear to be more liable to variation

than those of any other region of the body.

Whether this variation may be the result,

as some might maintain in virtue of the

Shifting character of the lumbar vertebra,

of a general instability of this region is an open question.

The greater frequency, however, with which abnormalities

of the postcava and its tributaries occur, whatever the causes

may be which produce them, may possibly be explained on the

following grounds: The veins of the lumbar and pelvic regions

possess a marked primitive arrangement in the embryo, which

differs from that of the adult. In the transition from the em-

bryonic to the adult condition, the veins, on account of the

changes which they have to undergo, thus readily lend them-

Selves to variations when, for any cause, their normal develop-

ment is interrupted.

numbers, see Fig. r.

198 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

It is without the purpose of this paper to discuss the causes

which are responsible for the production of venous abnormal-

ities. It seems fair to assume, however, that any cause which

may disturb the character of the normal stimuli that control

the development of an organism may correspondingly influence

the veins, by either arresting, accelerating, or even annulling

their development.

Such causes, the effects of which undoubtedly influence

these normal stimuli, must be numerous, and among others

the following might be mentioned: Domestication, inbreeding,

disease, drugs, and shock.

It seems, therefore, reasonable to assume that breeding

experiments, carried out on these lines, might give us some

clue as to the direct causes, as well as the relation of cause

and effect, which are responsible for the production of abnor-

malities of the vascular system.

PRINCETON, N. J., January, 1900.

THE NORTH-AMERICAN JUMPING MICE.

J. A. ALLEN.

THE jumping mice of North America form a peculiar group,

restricted, with one exception, so far as now known, to the

middle and northern parts of North America, ranging from

North Carolina, Missouri, New Mexico, and central California,

northward to Labrador, Great Slave Lake, and the Yukon River.

They are a little larger than the common house mouse, with

very long hind legs and a very long tail. They are yellowish

brown above and white below, the color of the dorsal and ven-

tral areas being sharply separated by a broad lateral line of bright

yellowish orange. They generally prefer moist meadows, marshy

thickets, and the edge of woodland, but some species frequent

deep forests, near streams. They are thus necessarily local in

distribution, and not generally abundant, and being apparently

nocturnal in habits are not often met with. They also pass the

severer parts of the winter in hibernation. Opinion seems to be

divided in reference to whether they constitute a distinct family

type, or merely form a well-marked subfamily of the Old World

Dipodidz, or Jerboas, with which they were formerly associated

generically by early writers, and of which they may be consid-

ered the American representatives. They were first generically

separated from the Old World Jerboas by Coues in 1875, under

the name Zapus, which he considered to represent also a dis-

tinct family, Zapodide.

The members of this genus greatly resemble each other in

size and color; so much so that, with the scanty and imperfect

material then available for study, Baird, in 1857, and Coues,

in 1877, recognized only a single species. A second was made

known by Miller in 1891, and a third by Allen in 1893, while

during the following six years some twenty additional species

and subspecies were added. Mr. Edward A. Preble, assistant

in the United States Biological Survey, has recently made a

199

200 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

revision of the group,! recognizing three subgenera, twelve spe-

cies, and nine additional subspecies, of which two subgenera,

three species, and five subspecies are characterized as new.

One of the species, and the only non-American species known,

is the Zapus setchuanus, from Szechuen, China, the type and

sole representative of Preble’s new subgenus. Eozapus. The

molar pattern, as figured by Preble, is, however, so different in

this type from that of the American forms of Zapus that it

seems well entitled to full generic rank. The twenty Ameri-

can forms are separated into two subgenera, Zapus proper and

Napaeozapus, the latter differing from the former mainly in the

absence of the minute upper premolar always found in Zapus.

Napzeozapus comprises the single species, Z. insignis, described

by Miller in 1891, with its subspecies abietorum and roanensis.

The Z. insignis group, characterized among other features by

a white-tipped tail, in contrast with the species of Zapus, is an

Eastern type, described originally from New Brunswick, and since

found to range southward, in the Canadian fauna, to the moun-

tains of North Carolina, where it forms Mr. Preble’s subspecies

roanensis, and westward to the north shore of Lake Superior,

where it constitutes the same author’s subspecies abietorum.

These subtractions leave seventeen forms —ten species and

seven subspecies — in the restricted subgenus Zapus, which

collectively cover the whole of the North American range of

the genus Zapus, the subgenus Zapus being found throughout

the range of Napzeozapus as well as elsewhere.

As already said, only one species, Zapus hudsonius, was rec-

ognized prior to the description of Z. insignis Miller in 1891,

but of course many other forms were confounded under this

name; but even now in its restricted sense, or as defined by

Preble, it has, including its four well-marked subspecies, by far

the most extensive range of any member of the genus, being

found from the southern shore of Hudson Bay southward to

New Jersey and in the mountains to North Carolina, and west-

ward to Iowa and Alaska.

1 Preble, Edward A., assistant in Biological Survey. Revision of the Jumping

Mice of the Genus Zapus, North American Fauna, No. 15, Aug. 8, 1899, pp. 1-41)

1 plate and 3 text-figures.

No. 399.] NORTH-AMERICAN JUMPING MICE. 201

Mr. Preble, in this revision of the group, has done a good

piece of work in seemingly a very acceptable manner, he having

had at his command practically all of the material available in

our museums and private collections, including the types of all

of the recently described forms, the specimens examined by him

numbering nearly one thousand.

Of the thirty specific and subspecific names applied to mem-

bers of this group, seven of the nine synonyms are referred to

the long known Zapus hudsonius. A list of the species and

subspecies recognized by Mr. Preble here follows, with a brief

statement of their ranges, so far as known, based on Mr. Preble’s

excellent paper. Much still remains to be learned about the

group, especially in respect to the geographical distribution of

most of the forms, but a good foundation has been laid on which

to build the final superstructure.

SUBGENUS ZAPUS.

1. Zapus hudsonius (Zimmermann). Type locality, Hudson Bay. From

Hudson Bay south to New Jersey and in the mountains to North Carolina ;

west to Iowa and Great Slave Lake. (Includes Z. 4. canadensis Batchel-

der and Z. h. hardyi Batchelder.)

1a. Zapus hudsonius ladas Bangs. Eastern Quebec, north to Hamil-

ton Inlet, Labrador.

Là. Zapus hudsonius americanus (Barton). Vicinity of Raleigh, N. C.,

north along the coastal plain to southern Connecticut and the lower Hudson

ley.

1c. Zapus hudsonius campestris Preble. Great Plains, from Mani-

toba to Nebraska, and northeastern Colorado, west over eastern Wyoming.

1d. Zapus hudsonius alascensis Merriam. Yakutat Bay, north to

Yukon River.

5 Pant tenellus Merriam. Known only from vicinity of Kamloops, B. C.

Zapus A Allen. Rocky Mountain region, from New Mexico

to forthece Albert

3a. Zapus Rap minor Preble. Plains of Saskatchewan.

36. Zapus princeps oregonus Preble. Blue Mountains of Oregon.

4. Zapus major Preble. Known only from the type, from Warner

oe Oregon

5. Zapus isa did Preble. Known only from the type, taken in

the Ruby Mountains, Nevada.

6. Zapus trinotatus Rhoads. Coast region, from Frazer River, B. C.,

to northern California. (Includes Z. imperator Elliot.)

202 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

6a. Zapus trinotatus alleni Elliot. Mount Shasta and Sierra Nevada

of California.

7. Zapus montanus Merriam. Cascade Range, Oregon.

8. Zapus orarius Preble. Coast of California from Point Reyes to

Mendocino County.

9. Zapus pacificus Merriam. Rogue River Valley, Oregon, and south-

ward into California. :

Io. Zapus saltator Allen. Northern British Columbia.

SUBGENUS NAPAOZAPUS.

11. Zapus insignis Miller. New Brunswick, northern New England,

Adirondacks and Catskills of New York, and southward in the Alleghanies

to Maryland.

II a. Zapus insignis roanensis Preble. Roan Mountains, N. C.

11 5, Zapus insignis abietorum Preble. Quebec and western Ontario.

FRESH-WATER AQUARIA.

L. MURBACH.

Tue lover of nature, taking his early spring walks, often

feels the desire to cultivate a nearer acquaintance with the

living things that he sees in ponds and pools along his way.

He may dip up samples here and there, taking some water

weed and a string of the jelly beads containing toads' eggs,

place them in glass jars or aquaria at home, and gain further

pleasure, for a few days at most, and then the whole mass

becomes foul and is thrown away. His ill-success is due to

the improper balance between animals and to the popular

mi tion that an aquarium with animal life should be

uncovered so that the animals can get air to breathe; and the

remedy lies in keeping the aquarium, once properly balanced

from one spring to another, so well covered that scarcely any

evaporation of water can take place. To this then may be

added new organisms from time tó time.

None of the numerous notices on the keeping of aquaria

that I have seen describe permanent aquaria without changing

the water; yet this is one of the most desirable features — to

keep the aquarium, year in year out, for observing the interest-

ing succession of forms, often including representatives of ani-

mal groups from Protozoa to Crustacea, with an almost equal

diversity of aquatic plants.

Some of the pond scum (alge), drawn by light and ad-

hering to the side of the glass, may be made to decorate the

side of the aquarium with almost any pattern in green — let-

ters, or your monogram if you choose. Some of my experience

may be useful to the reader, and I gladly give it for what it

mày be worth.

Seeing the algæ in my largest aquarium accumulate on the

side most strongly lighted, it occurred to me that they might

be made to form a definite design by regulating the light.

203

204 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

First a stencil of paper or pasteboard was used, but as this

was not permanent enough, one of my students, living next

door to a tinsmith, cut out the monogram of our school and

attached it to the outside of the aquarium, having previously

cleaned the inside with a scraper. In a few weeks the letters

« D. H. S." were sharply marked by the sun's ray-pencils and

the microscopic green plants within. (See figure in /ourn.

Applied Micros., July, 1899, Vol. II, No. 7.) The stencil may

be removed at any time for inspection, but should be kept in

position the half of each day, while the strongest light falls on

the aquarium to keep the letters from being obliterated. This

experiment serves to illustrate the movement of green plants

towards the source of light, and has interested many of our

visitors.

Such balanced aquaria also have a practical value in the

schoolroom or laboratory; each one will have its own fauna,

and may serve as a source of animalculee — Amcebz and other

Protozoa so highly prized by the young teacher — and larger

animals and plants for demonstration, experiment or research,

in more nearly their natural environment, than those kept in

water changed daily. This last spring we had a nice illustra-

tion of this fact ; some fairy shrimps (Branchipus) were placed

in a glass jar with water and plants of their habitat, and a few

were placed in one of the balanced aquaria of the same size and

receiving the same lighting. Those in the first jar died in a

few days (the common experience of every one who has tried to

keep them in the laboratory for demonstration), while those in

the aquarium lived three times longer.

In one small aquarium jar, set up over a year ago, containing

mostly diatoms, Oscillaria, some water fleas and Rotatoria, there

has been a good supply of Amcebz for class use. Another

larger one, képt over two and one half years, in which a large

` snail, some water weed, and smaller animals constitute the

balance, furnishes sun animalcules for demonstration. The

largest one, with glass plate sides, slate bottom and ends, has

been kept nearly two years without change or addition of water.

It is stocked with aquatic plants, Cladophora, Myriophyllum,

Lemna, Wolffia, Anacharis, and many single-celled algae. The

No. 399.] FRESH-WATER AQUARIA. 205

largest animal representative is a so-called “ bull-head ” (one of

the species of Uranidze), about four inches long, kept princi-

pally for the balance, and because he needs no further attention

than a few earthworms every few days. In this aquarium fresh-

water polyps, Polyzoa, and other interesting forms appear in

their season.

In speaking of the time these aquaria have been kept, it is

to be understood without changing the water but covered in

such a way as to require very little or no additions of water to

supply evaporation.

The aération of the water for the breathing of animals will

be readily seen to come from the oxygen given out by the plants

while they feed (during photo-syntax) on the carbonic acid gas

given out by the animals. The only thing needing attention

is the feeding of such animals as cannot find their source of

food in the aquaria themselves, and this should be done so

carefully that no food is left to decay.

For aquaria almost any kind of glass vessel that can be

securely covered against dust and bacteria may be used — jam

jars, battery jars, culture dishes and globes for the smaller win-

dow aquaria; window glass, properly cemented into wooden

frames that are kept coated with paraffin or asphalt varnish,

for a medium size; and slate bottom and ends, with plate-glass

sides, for the larger though more expensive ones.

In setting up the aquaria it is better to begin with water from

some clean pond containing considerable plant and animal life.

Fill up to within a few inches of the top with water, and then

add about j. its bulk of plants and animals; or hydrant water

may be used, adding some plants, and later the animals desired.

Where there is no choice, snails and Crustacez are the most

convenient for use, unless they are hostile to the organisms

desired for experiment. The snails feed on the plants, giving

these carbonic acid in turn for food, while the Crustacez feed

mostly on the débris from other organisms.

If the animals keep near the surface, too many are prob-

ably present, and some must be removed or more plants added.

When the plants become yellow they are too abundant or have

not had light enough. In some cases the water becomes foul

206 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

on first setting up the aquarium, and as this is one way of

obtaining certain desirable results, keep it covered until the

foul odor disappears, and if new plants do not appear in time,

add plants and animals to suit, and it may prove to be the best

aquarium you have. Marine Protozoa have been kept this way

in jars brought from the seashore several years ago.

CENTRAL HIGH SCHOOL,

DETROIT, MICH.

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES. VIII.

THe ISOPODA — Part I.

CHELIFERA, FLABELLIFERA, VALVIFERA.

HARRIET RICHARDSON.

Tue Isopoda represent an order of Crustacea widely dis-

tributed and varying greatly in their mode of life and in their

habitat. They abound not only in the sea, where they are

taken in shallow water and from the greatest depths, but large

numbers of them are also found in ponds and streams and other

bodies of fresh water. The terrestrial Isopoda form a large

and important group, and are commonly known as “ pill-bugs."

Many of the Isopoda live a free existence, while others are

parasitic. These latter are found in the mouths and gills of

fishes, in the branchial cavities of Decapoda, on Copepoda,

and on other Isopoda.

In the following key the marine forms have not been limited

bathymetrically. Where it has been possible, the depth from

which the specimens were taken has been given. The fresh-

water and terrestrial forms are included.

The lettering for the distribution of species has been adopted

in accordance with what has been used in former papers of this

series of synopses on marine invertebrates: A for Alaska south ;

P for Puget Sound to San Francisco; D for Monterey to San

Diego; JW, Atlantic coast south to Cape Cod; M, Cape Cod to

North Carolina ; S, South Carolina to Florida ; G, Gulf of Mexico.

The literature on the Isopoda has been limited in the

following list to those papers which treat especially of

North American forms. The most important of these are:

1817. Sav, THOMAs. An Account of the Crustacea of the United States.

Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Vol. i, pt. i, pp. 393-401,

423-433, 482-485.

207

208

1852.

1853.

1854.

1857.

1866.

1874.

1875.

1877.

1880.

18835.

1887.

1897.

1898.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV.

DANA, JAMES D. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expe-

dition. Vol. i, pp. 696—805.

STIMPSON, WM. Synopsis of the Marine Invertebrata of Grand

Manan, Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. Vol. vi.

DANA, JAMES D. Catalogue and Descriptions of Crustacea col-

lected in California by Dr. John Le Conte. Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sct. Philadelphia. Vol. vii, pp. 175-1

STIMPSON, WM. Crustacea and E chinodénilata of the Pacific

Shores of North America. Journ. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. Vol. vi.

BATE, SPENCE. In Lord's * Naturalist in British Columbia." Pp.

281—284.

VERRILL, A. E., and SMITH, S. I. Report upon the Invertebrate

Animals of Vineyard Sound. Rept. U..S. Fish Comm. for 1871-

1672.

STUXBERG, A. Om Nord-Amerikas Oniscider. Ofversigt af

Vetensk. Akad. Forhandl., No. 2.

HARFORD. Description of a New Genus and Three New Species of

cadi e-Eyed Crustacea, pp. 54, 55, and Descriptions of Three

New Species of Sessile-Eyed Crustacea, with Remarks on Ligia

occidentalis, pp. 116, 117. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 1876.

Vol. vii.

LoOcKINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific

Coast, with Descriptions of Some New Species, p. 36, and Descrip-

tions of Seventeen New Species of Crustacea, pp. 44-46. Proc.

California Acad. Sci. 1876. Vol. vii. |

HARGER, Oscan. Report on the Marine Isopoda of New England

and Adjacent Waters. Rept. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1878.

HARGER, Oscar. Reports on the Results of Dredging, under the

Supervision of Alexander Agassiz, on the East Coast of the United

States, during the Summer of 1880, by the U. S. Coast Survey

Steamer B/ake, Commander J. R. Bartlett, U. S. N., commanding.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoil., Harvard College. Vol. xi, No. 4, pt. xxiii.

HANSEN, H. J. Oversigt over det vestlige Grønlands Fauna af

Malakostrake Havkrebsdyr. Vidensk. Meddel. fra den Naturh.

Foren. t. Kjobh. Pp. 177-198.

BENEDICT, JAMES E. A Revision of the Genus Synidotea. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. Pp. 389-404.

BENEDICT, JAMES E. The Arcturidz in the U. S. Nat. Museum.

Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. Vol. xii, pp. 41—51.

BENEDICT, JAMES E. Two New Isopods of the Genus Idotea from

the Coast of California. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington. Vol. xii,

PP. 53-55.

WALKER, ALFRED O. Crustacea peerage by W.'A. Herdman

in Puget Sound, Pacific Coast of North America. Trans. Liver-

pool Biol. Soc. Vol. xii, pp. 279-281.

No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 209

1898. CALMAN, W. T. On a Collection of Crustacea from Puget Sound.

Ann. New York Acad. Sci. Vol. xi, No. 13, pp. 274-282.

1899. RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Key to the Isopods of the Pacific Coast

of North America, with Descriptions of Twenty-two New Species.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xxi, pp. 815-8

1900. RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Key to the Isopoda of the Atlantic Coast

of North America, with Descriptions of New Species. (In manu-

script, to be published later.)

In addition to those mentioned, the works of G. O. Sars,

H. J. Hansen, Schicedte and Meinert, Stebbing and Budde-

Lund, have been of much assistance in the compilation of this

key.

SYNOPSIS OF THE ISOPODA.

a. Legs of the first pair cheliform. Uropoda terminal. Pleopoda, when

distinctly developed, exclusively natatory. . . . . I. CHELIFERA

4'. Legs of the first pair not cheliform.

4, Uropoda lateral.

c. Uropoda forming together with the terminal segment of the

Decr a caudal fan. Pleopoda for the most part

natatory. . II. FLABELLIFERA

e whats valvedikc, deflated: Michi over the pleopoda,

which, to a great extent, are branchial. III. VALVIFERA

&. Uropoda terminal.

c. Free forms.

d. Pleopoda exclusively branchial, generally covered by a

thin opercular plate (the modified first pair).

IV. ASELLOTA

dŒ. Pleopoda fitted for air-breathing. . V. ONISCOIDEA

c. Parasitic forms. Pleopoda, when present, exclusively bran-

chial in the adult form, and not covered by any operculum.

VI. EPICARIDEA

I. CHELIFERA.

a. Body scarcely attenuated behind. Mandibles without palp. Anterior

maxillae with only a single masticatory lobe and a one-jointed palp ;

posterior ones quite rudimentary. Epignath of maxillipeds narrow

Second pair of legs ambulatory in character. . Family I. Tanaide

a’. Body narrow, produced, depressed. Mandibles with a three-jointed

palp. Anterior maxilla with two masticatory lobes and a two-jointed

palp ; posterior ones well developed and setose. Epignath of max-

illipeds large, laminar, branchial in character. Superior antenna

with two multi-articulate flagella. Second pair of legs with a large,

broad, flat hand, for burrowing purposes. . Family II. Apséudide

210 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

FAMILY I. TANAID&.

a. Pleopoda only three pairs. Uropoda simple, short, single-branched.

Tanais Audouin and Edwards

a’, Pleopoda five pairs. Uropoda double-branched.

6. Eyes wanting.

c. Inner branch of uropoda two to three-jointed. Pleopoda in

female very small or rudimentary.

d. Incubatory pouch formed only by two lamelle issuing

from bases of fourth pair of legs. Pleopoda in

female rudimentary. Gnathopods alike in both-sexes.

Mandibles well oie with cutting edge coarsely

dentated. . . . Cryptocope G. O. Sars

d'. Incubatory pouch bona: Pleopoda in female small,

sometimes wanting. Gnathopods in female of nor-

mal appearance, hand dilated, fingers strong, thumb

serrulated, in male slender, fingers simple. Man-

dibles very small and feeble in structure, with cutting

edge narrow eptognathia G. O. Sars

c. Inner branch of seine: eight to nine-jointed. Pleopoda

well developed. . . Aloatanais Norman and Stebbing

&. Eyes present.

c. Gnathopods in male imperfectly chelate, without any finger,

or with finger very short and immovable

Heterotanais G. O. Sars

c. Gnathopods in male with chelz fully developed.

d. Gnathopods in male sometimes very much elongated,

with carpus attenuated, hand very large, oblong,

finger elongate and curved, immovable, strongly

tuberculate within. Thoracic appendages not spe-

cialized into an anterior and a posterior series.

Marsupium of female formed of eight large lamella

from the four first free segments.

Leptochelia Dana

@. Gnathopods in male with chelz very stout, the distal

section of the penultimate joint extremely broad, with

a toothed margin. "Thoracic appendages specialized

into an anterior and a posterior series. Marsupium -

of the female of the normal structure.

Neotanais Beddard

Genus Tanais Audouin and Edwards.

a. Periopoda having the first three joints short and broad, dilated and

affixed to the sides of the thorax like plates of mail.

Tanais loricatus Spence Bate, A, 10 fms.

a’, Periopoda, with joints not dilated, slender.

No. 399] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 211

Fic. 1. — Tanais alascensis. Fic. 2.! — Gnathia cerina. Fic. 3.! — Cyath arinata

à. Abdomen composed of six segments. Body robust and tapering.

Tanais robustus Moore, M

&. Abdomen composed of five distinct segments. Body slender,

elongated. |

c. With transverse setiferous bands crossing first and second

abdominal segments. Terminal segment with a blunt

median projection. Uropoda three-jointed.

Tanais cavolinii Milne Edwards, V

c. Without transverse setiferous bands crossing first and second

abdominal segments. Terminal segment with slight me-

dian notch. Uropoda seven-jointed.

Tanais alascensis Richardson, A, 6-8 fms.

Genus Cryptocope G. O. Sars. . Cryptocope arctica Hansen, JV, 170 fms.

Genus Leptognathia G. O. Sars

4. In female inner branch of uropoda twice as long as outer. The second

or first free segment of thorax is about two-thirds as long as the third,

which in turn is about equal to the fourth and fifth. Sixth and seventh

segments are progressively somewhat shorter. Propodus of first pair

of legs less robust than carpus.

Leptognathia ceca (Harger), JV, surface to 48 fms.

a’. In female inner branch of uropoda more than three times as long as

outer. The second, or first free segment of thorax about same size

as the last one, both being shorter pol = others. Propodus of

first pair of legs scarcely smaller than c

Leptognathia longiremus tienes AV, 35-40 fms.

1 Figures taken from O. Harger.

212 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Genus Aloatanais Norman and Stebbing.

Aloatanais hastiger Norman and Stebbing, JV, 1750 fms.

Genus Heterotanais G. O. Sars. Heterotanais limnicola Harger, JV, 48 fms.

Genus Leptochelia Dana.

a. Gnathopods in male greatly elongated, with tuberculate immobile finger.

Upper antenne three-jointed, with rudimentary flagellum in female,

much more elongated, and with a multi-articulate flagellum in male.

b. Inner branch of uropoda five-jointed. Antennulz, with

basal segment nearly one-half length of the whole organ,

are more than one-third as long as the body.

Leptochelia rapax Harger, JV, one-half fm.

’. Inner branch of uropoda six-jointed. Antennule, with

basal segment about one-third length of the whole organ,

are about two-thirds as long as body.

Leptochelia savignyi (Krøyer), N, surface

a’. Gnathopods in male not greatly elongated. Upper antennæ three-

jointed, not elongated in male.

b. Inner branch of the uropoda five-jointed. Terminal abdominal

segment rounded behind.

Leptochelia (?) filum (Stimpson), JV, 8 fms.

FK. Inner branch of the uropoda six-jointed. Terminal abdominal

segment pointed posteriorly.

Leptochelia dubia (Krøyer), JV, surface to one-half fm.

Genus Neotanais Beddard. JVeotamazs americanus Beddard, M, 1240 fms.

FAMILY II. APSEUDID.

a. Lower antennz with a scale articulated to the end of the second joint.

First free segment of the thorax with epimera conspicuous, spine-

formed, porrected. First five pair of pleopoda with both branches

usually one-jointed. Exopods on both pairs of gnathopods.

Apseudes Leach

a. Lower antennz without a scale. Carapace composed of head and two

following segments coalesced. . Sphyrapus Norman and Stebbing

Genus Apseudes Leach.

Apseudes gracilis Norman and Stebbing, W, 1750 fms,

Genus Sphyrapus Norman and Stebbing.

. Sphyrapus malleolus Norman and Stebbing, N, 1450 fms.

II. FLABELLIFERA.

a. Legs in the adult in six, apparently only in five pairs.

Family III. Gnathiidæ

a’. Legs in the adult in seven pairs.

No. 399.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 213

4. Uropoda lateral and superior, outer branch arching over base of

telson. Body cylindrical, narrow, elongated.

amily IV. Anthuride

&. Uropoda lateral.

c. Abdomen consisting of six segments.

d. Uropoda with both branches developed; mostly lamel-

liform.

e. Maxillipeds with the palp free, the margins of the

ast two joints more or less setose, never fur-

nished with hooks.

f. Mandibles with the distal half stout, very con-

spicuous, uncovered, or with only the

anterior margin concealed ; from the base

towards the middle directed forwards and

a little outwards.

g. Mandibles with the rather broad, more

or less tridentate, cutting edges meeting

squarely behind the large upper lip ;

the secondary plate and peculiar equiv-

alent for the molar well developed.

First maxillae having the plate of the

first joint armed with three spines, that

of the third with many. Second max-

ille of moderate size, the three free

plates very setose. Maxillipeds with

the palp rather broad, very setose.

amily V. Cirolanide

g’. Mandibles with the distal part produced

ope a long SE process, the pair

; the secondary plate

and molar haatea. First maxillz

having the plate of the first joint un-

armed, of the third, carrying one very

long spine. Second maxillae small and

feeble, the free plates almost rudimen-

tary, with few setze. Maxillipeds with

the palp narrowed, not very setose.

amily VI. Corallanide

f. Mandibles with the distal half narrow, most

or all of it concealed by the upper and

lower lips ; from the base towards the apex

directed gradually inwards.

Family VII. Alcironide

€. Maxillipeds with the palp embracing the cone

formed by the distal parts of the mouth organs,

214 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

the inner upper margin and apex never setose,

the apex and sometimes the inner upper margin,

at least in the males and females without eggs,

being furnished with outward curved hooks

f. Mandibles with the secondary plate very often

visible ; palp with no inflated joint. Maxil-

lipeds commonly seven-jointed, sometimes

four-jointed, the last joint in the latter case

rather short, obtuse. Antenna long, un-

Rond with well-defined peduncle and fla-

ge . Family VIII. Ægidæ

F: seandtbiee with no is wna plate ; the palp

in adults with first joint or both first and

second joints inflated. Maxillipeds always

four-jointed, last joint rather long and

narrow, subacute. Antenna much reduced

without clear distinction between peduncle

and flagellum. Family IX. Cymothoide

ad’. Uropoda with one of the branches almost obsolete or

rudimentary — not lamelliform.

Family X. Limnoriide

€. Abdomen consisting of less than six segments.

d. n with two segments. Uropoda with one

branch fixed, immovable. Family XI. Sphæromidæ

d'. Abdomen with four segments. Uropoda with both

branches movable. . . . Family XII. Serolide

FAMiLY III. GNATHIID4E.

Genus Gnathia Leach. z

a. Mandibles in male with the basal part ornamented on the superior margin

with an elevated crest, which is irregularly dentate. Legs furnished

with many spiny processes. Gnathia cristata (Hansen), JV, 116 fms.

a’. Mandibles in male without elevated crest on the superior margin. Legs

without spiny processe:

à. Mandibles in ok with slight notch outside, inner edge obtusely

produced in the middle, tip acute, slightly incurved. Front of

head not vite in the middle beyond the antero-lateral

angles. . Gnathia elongata (Krøyer), W

&. Mandibles in ‘mals carinate on outer side near the middle, the

carina ending in a tooth-like process, irregularly and bluntly

toothed near the base within, turned upward at apex. Front

of head produced in the middle much beyond the antero-lateral

angles.

Gnathia cerina (Stimpson), W, 10-220 fms. (See Fig. 2, p. 211-)

No. 399.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 215

FAMILY IV. ANTHURID&.

a. Labium terminating in two rounded lobes. Mandibles with cutting

edge of two or three blunt teeth, and a semicircular saw in place of

molar and spine row ; palp three-jointed. First maxillae simple, with

apical teeth. Maxillipeds with three to six broad, flattened joints.

6. First five segments of the abdomen coalesced into a single seg-

ment in the female.

c. Maxillipeds three-jointed. Flagella of both pairs of anten-

nz few jointed in female ; of first multi-articulate in male.

Anthura Leach

c. Maxillipeds four-jointed. Flagella of both pairs of antennz

rudimentary, ot the first pair not greatly developed in the

male. . . . Cyathura Norman and Stebbing

&. Segments of bibi distinct. Maxillipeds six-jointed.

Anthelura Norman and Stebbing

@. Labium terminating in two points, acuminate. Mandibles without

teeth, lancet-like, lobes at base forming channel. First maxille

spear-like, distally channeled and serrate. Maxillipeds elongate,

with four to five joints, the second of which is elongate. Abdomen

with six segments and caudal segment distinct. Antenna in both

sexes with many jointed flagella. ^ Calathura Norman and Stebbing

Genus Anthura Leach. Anthura tenuis (Harger), JV, surface to 19 fms.

Genus Cyathura Norman and Stebbing

Cyathura carinata (Krøyer), VM, surface to 1914 fms. (See Fig. 3, p.211.)

Genus Anthelura Norman and Stebbing.

Anthelura abyssorum Norman and Stebbing, JV, 1750 fms.

Genus Calathura Norman and Stebbing.

Calathura branchiata (Stimpson), W, 20-200 fms.

FAMILY V. CIROLANID#.

a. Peduncle of the second antennz five-jointed. Plate of the second joint

of the maxillipeds furnished with hooks.

6. Eyes present. Uropoda with the inner angle of the peduncle

produced.

c. First and second pairs of pleopoda equal in length, with at

least the inner branch submembranaceous.

Cirolana boh

c. First pair of pleopoda with both branches hard, and form-

ing a large operculum. Second pair of pleopoda sub-

membranaceous . . Conilera Leach

/. Eyes wanting. Uropoda with the inser angle of the peduncle

not produced. . . . . Cirolanides Benedict

216 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

a’. Peduncle of second antenne four-jointed. Plate of second joint of

maxillipeds without hooks. Uropoda with inner angle of peduncle

the antenna. . .

Genus Cirolana Leach.

a. Fifth abdominal segment with lateral angles free, not covered by the

fourth segment. . . Cirolana linguifrons Richardson, D, surface

at F3

P p

a à €

Fic. 5.1— a, Mandible of Cirolana borealis ; p, palpus of

the second pair; 7, first joint; 2, second joint; 72, lobe of the second

first pair; 7, first joint; /1, lobe of the first joint; 2, second joint ;

3, third joint. 4, Maxilliped ; z, first joint; e2., epignath ; 2, second

T joint ; 7?, lobe of the second joint; a, 4, c, d, e; palpus.

Fic. 4.! — Cirolana

concharum.

b. Frontal lamina posteriorly or clypeus anteriorly produced horn-

like, especially so when seen from the side.

Cirolana virginiana Richardson, M, 81 fms.

FK. Frontal lamina and clypeus unarmed, not produced horn-like ;

anterior margin of the clypeus connected with the frontal

lamina.

c. Frontal lamina narrow, elongate, four to six times longer

than broad.

d. Extremity of exterior margin of inner branch of the

uropoda emarginate.

e. Terminal segment emarginate at its extremity.

Cirolana concharum (Stimpson), NM, surface to 18 fms.

Terminal segment not emarginate at its extremity.

Cirolana impressa Harger, M, 115-321 fms.

d'. Extremity of exterior margin of inner branch of the

uropoda not emarginate.

e. Second pair of antenne long, extending beyond

the posterior margin of the third thoracic seg-

ment. Cirolana borealis Lilljeborg, S, 233 fms.

1 Figures taken from Hansen,

No. 399.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 217

é. Second pair of antenne short, reaching to the

middle of the first thoracic segment.

Cirolana folita Harger, JV, 17—190 fms.

c. Frontal lamina broad, short, scarcely twice as long as wide.

d. Terminal segment with the posterier margin armed

with many (twenty-six) robust spines. Branches of

uropoda with apex rounded.

Cirolana harfordi (Lockington), APD, surface to 40 fms.

d'. Terminal segment with the posterior margin armed

with a few slender spines. Branches of uropoda

with apex acute.

Cirolana parva Hansen, G, 25-27 fms.

Genus Conilera Leach.

Conilera cylindracea (Montague), SG, 111—159 fms.

Genus Cirolanides Benedict.

Cirolanides texensis Benedict, Texas, fresh-water

Genus Eurydice Leach.

a. Second pair of antennz in male extend to the posterior margin of fourth

abdominal segment; flagellum consists of twenty-five joints. Termi-

nal segment truncate between the post-lateral teeth.

Eurydice caudata Richardson, D

a’. Second pair of antenne in male extend the entire length of the body ;

flagellum consists of eighteen joints. Terminal segment rounded

between the post-lateral teeth. . Eurydice convexa Richardson, G

FAMILY VI. CORALLANID#.

Genus Corallana Dana. . . . . . Corallana truncata Richardson, D

FAMiLY VII. ALCIRONID4E.

Genus Alcirona Hansen. . . . Alcirona krebsit Hansen, G, 25-28 fms.

FAMILY VIII. ÆGIDÆ.

a. Body rather compact. Superior antenna short, with first two pedun-

cular joints more or less expanded. Epistome large, linguiform, pro-

jecting between the bases of inferior antennz. axilli with

palp composed of five joints. Front separating the whole or a great

part of the first article of the first pair of antenna. Flagellum of

the first pair of antenne composed of many joints. Abdomen com-

peek. ee ee er Aga Leach

a’. Body depressed. Superior antennz short, with basal joints not ex

panded. Epistome very small and narrow. Maxillipeds with palp

composed of only two joints. Front covering more or less the

218 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

peduncle of the first pair of antenna. Flagellum of first pair of

antennze composed of four to six joints. Abdomen relaxed.

. Eyes present. Anterior pairs of legs with propodus more or less

expanded, dactylus forming a very large and evenly curved

hook. Mandibles with the cutting edge expanded inside to

a linguiform lamella ; palp well developed, with basal joint

much elongated. Abdomen not much narrower than thorax.

Rocinela Leach

8. Eyes wanting. Anterior pairs of legs with propodus not expanded,

dactylus abruptly curved in the middle, and terminating in a

very sharp point. Mandibles with the cutting edge simple,

acuminate; palp of moderate length. Abdomen narrowing

abruptly to a much smaller width than the thorax ; terminal

segment very large. . . . « + + + + Syscenus Harger

Genus Æga Leach.

a. Peduncle of the first pair of antennz plane or concave, joints fitting

into each other. Frontal lamina plane or concave.

b. Terminal segment of body pointed at extremity. Eyes distant.

: 4: ga psora (Linn), N, 30-218 fms.

2’. Terminal segment of body not pointed at extremity.

c. Terminal segment posteriorly bisinuate. Surface of segment

smooth, without carina.

Æga ecarinata Richardson, G, 88 fms.

c. Terminal segment emarginate or truncate.

d. Terminal segment emarginate. Eyes distant.

Aga webbii Güerin, S, 333 fms.

d'. Terminal segment truncate.

e. Eyes contiguous. Propodus of the posterior pre-

hensile legs with a cultriform lamina.

Æga crenulata Lütken, N

e. Eyes not contiguous. Propodus of posterior pre-

hensile legs without cultriform lamina.

Æga lecontii (Dana), D

a’. Peduncle of the first pair of antennæ well rounded and with joints com-

pressed. Frontal lamina convex or compressly elevated.

b. Eyes contiguous. Terminal segment incised.

ga incisa Schiœdte and Meinert, S, 263-440 fms.

V. Eyes not contiguous.

c. Terminal segment linguate, incised posteriorly.

Æga arctica Lütken, JV.

c. Terminal segment triangular, entire.

d. Terminal segment, with apex rounded.

ga microphthalma Dana, D

d'. Terminal segment, with apex produced.

Ega ventrosa Sars, N, 120 fms.

No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 219

Genus Rocinela Leach.

a. Eyes contiguous. Head produced into process in front.

Rocinela oculata Harger, S, 252 fms.

a’. Eyes not contiguous. Flagellum of second pair of antennz with four-

teen to sixteen joints.

b. Propodus of prehensile legs with two to four spines.

c. First thoracic. segment with antero-lateral angles produced

horn-like at sides of head. Frontal margin of head pro-

duced. Rocinela cornuta Richardson, A, 625 fms.

c. First thoracic segment normal. Frontal margin of head

not produced.

d. Spots present on both sides of the fourth thoracic seg-

ment. Rocinela maculata Schicedte and Meinert, N

d'. Spots wanting on fourth thoracic segment.

e. Spots present on fourth and fifth abdominal seg-

ment and base of terminal segment.

Rocinela belliceps (Stimpson), A PD, surface to 1 38 fms. (See Fig. 6, p. 221.)

g. Spots wanting on fourth and fifth abdominal seg-

ments and base of terminal segment.

Rocinela americana Schicedte and Meinert, NM, 85-157 fms.

2’. Propodus of prehensile legs with five to six spines.

Rocinela laticauda Hansen, APD, 82-660 fms.

Genus Syscenus Harger. . . Syscenus infelix Harger, M, 231-435 fms.

FAMILY IX. CYMOTHOID#.

a. Head not at all immersed or set in the first thoracic segment.

6. Uropoda inal tciliated. Eyes large, conspicuous.

ZEgathoa Dana

&. Uropoda and terminal segment not ciliated. Eyes small.

c. Posterior angles of first thoracic segment prominent or pro-

duced, very often acute ; posterior angles of the following

segments increasing gradually in length, the first of these

very often scarcely prominent, the posterior ones very often

produced, abruptly longer than the first. Epimera of the

first segments extending beyond the posterior angles of the

segment ; posterior ones produced, acute. Nerocila Leach

č. Posterior angles of first six thoracic segments scarcely or

not at all prominent; those of the seventh segment pro-

duced. Epimera of first segments very often almost or

quite reaching, or not reaching by a short distance the

posterior angle of the segment.

d. Body compact. Head not constricted. Uropoda very

often more or less longer than terminal segment.

Legs gradually increasing in length. Anilocra Leach

220 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

a’, Body relaxed, Head constricted at the base. Uropoda

much shorter than terminal segment. Legs gradually

much longer successively ; seventh pair abruptly

verymuchso. . . . . . . . Olencira Leach

a’. Head more or less immersed or set in the first thoracic segment.

à. First pair of antennz contiguous at the base.

c. Epimera of the first pair with a carina produced in the form

ofa spoon. Ungulz very long, unequal in length; those

of the third pair longest, abruptly longer than second pair.

Terminal segment transverse. . . . Ceratothoa Dana

c’. Epimera of the first pair not produced. Ungule mostly

very short, very rarely long, equal in length. Terminal

segment subtriangular, semicircular, often bilobed.

Meinertia Stebbing

2’. First pair of antennze manifestly distant at the base.

c. Abdomen maniféstly separated from the thorax, abruptly

narrower than thorax. . . . . Cymothoa Fabricius

c. Abdomen contiguous with thorax, not narrower than thorax.

Livoneca Leach

Genus /Egathoa Dana.

a. Surface of head smooth, evenly convex. Second pair of antenna ten-

jointed. First thoracic segment longer than any of the succeeding

segments, which are of equal length.

A-gathoa loliginea Harger, M

a’. Surface of head with central portion sharply raised above the lateral

portion, which is deeply excavate just in front of the eyes. Second

pair of antennz eight-jointed. First three thoracic segments sub-

equal ; last four subequal, and somewhat shorter than first three.

"Egathoa medialis Richardson, M, 3-25 fms.

Genus Nerocila Leach.

a. Terminal segment regularly rounded. Head subtruncate in front.

Eyes distinct, black. . . . . . . Nerocila munda Harger, N

a’, Terminal segment cordate, acuminate. Head rounded in front. Eyes

_ indistinct, obscurely defined. -

à. Uropoda scarcely longer than the apex of the terminal segment.

Nerocila acuminata Schicedte and Meinert, GSM

2’. Uropoda much longer than the apex of the terminal segment.

Nerocila californica Schicedte and Meinert, D

Genus Anilocra Leach.

a. Terminal abdominal segment regularly rounded. All the epimera extend

fully t i angies of their p li g segments. Branches

of uropoda longer than terminal segment.

Anilocra occidentalis Richardson, D, 19 fms. (See Fig. 7, P- 221-)

a’. Terminal abdominal segment subcordate. Two first epimera reach the

posterior angles of the segments ; last four do not reach the angles

tU FP

No. 399-.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 221

y Q7 FINE 7, — 1

Fic. 6.— Rocinela belliceps. — F1G. 7. — Anilocra occidentalis. Fic. 8. 7;

of the segments. Branches of the uropoda much shorter than termi-

nal segment. . . . . Anilocra laticauda Milne Edwards, M.S

Genus Olencira Leach. . . . . Olencira pregustator (Latrobe), MSG

Genus Ceratothoa Dana. . . > . - . Ceratothoa linearis Dana, M

Genus Meinertia Stebbing. Meinertia transversa Richardson, G, 347 fms.

Genus Cymothoa Fabricius.

a. Terminal segment lanceolate. . . - Cymothoa lanceolata Say, M

a’. Terminal segment transverse ; posterior margin widely sinuated or

bilobed.

à. Anterior angles of the first thoracic segment short, acute ; sides

of the segment a little constricted. Inner branch of the

uropoda much shorter than outer branch.

Cymothoa excisa Perty, MSG

3’. Anterior angles of the first thoracic segment very large, equaling

or surpassing the front of the head, rounded. Sides of the

segment flexuous. Inner branch of the uropoda manifestly

longer than outer branch. . . Cymothoa astrum (Linn), M

Genus Livoneca Leach. ; i

a. Abdomen immersed in thorax, the sides of the first segment being

almost entirely covered by the seventh thoracic segment. `

b. Head narrowly rounded in front.

Livoneca californica Schicedte and Meinert, PD

8’. Head broad, roundly truncate in front.

Livoneca vulgaris Stimpson, D

a’. Abdomen not immersed in thorax, the sides of the first segment free.

à. Uropoda much longer than caudal segment ; inner branch

narrow, obtuse, much shorter than outer branch. Epimera -

of last two thoracic segments not longer than segments.

Livoneca redmanni Leach, SG

222 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

&. Uropoda hardly surpassing the caudal segment; both

branches equal in length. Epimera of last two segments

of thorax surpassing the segments. Head narrowly

rounded in front. . . Lévoneca ovalis (Say), NM.SG

FAMILY X. LIMNORIIDA.

Genus Limnoria Leach. . . . Limuoria lignorum (Rathke), AVMS

FAMILY XI. SPHAROMIDZ.

Outer branch of the uropoda small, almost rudimentary.

Cassidena Milne Edwards

. Outer branch of the uropoda not rudimentary.

6. Both external and internal branches of the uropoda projecting

and exposed; outer branch capable of folding under inner.

c. Terminal segment of the abdomen entire.

d. Margins of the head not produced. Antenne conspic-

uous. Legs normal. Mandibles with a. five-jointed

palp. Spharoma Latreille

d’, Anteater, d beni PEU M the head produced, con-

crating. the antenna »Fropodts. of first and second

pairs of tylus. Mandibles

th a three-jointed palp. . Tecticeps Richardson

c. Terminal segment of the abdomen excavated at its extremity.

Dynamene Leach

2. Only the external branch of the uropoda pitis and exposed ;

outer branch incapable of folding under inn

c. All the thoracic segments of equal wei Penultimate

abdominal segment in male generally produced in spine.

"Terminal segment excavated with or without median lobe.

Cilicea Leach

c. Sixth segment of the thorax much enlarged, and produced

at the center far backwards, covering the shorter seventh

segment for the most part. Terminal segment excavate.

Nasa Leach

Genus Cassidena Milne Edwards. . Cassidena lunifrons Richardson, M

Genus Sphzroma Latreille.

a. Body widening gradually from head backwards. Thorax transversely

ridged and provided with three longitudinal rows of small tubercles.

Branches of the uropoda very large, expanded.

Spheroma amplicauda Stimpson, APD, surface

a’. Body not increasing in width. Surface of thorax smooth. Branches

of the PRS not Henn.

6. Extremity inal duced in a rhomboid

einai gy gk pp Rig Spharoma rhomburum Richardson, D

No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 223

V. Extremity of terminal abdominal segment not produced.

c. Surface of abdomen tubercular.

d. Uropoda not reaching apex of terminal segment ; outer

branch the shorter and not denticulate. Terminal

segment with eight tubercles.

Spheroma octoncum Richardson, D

d'. Uropoda surpassing the apex of the terminal segment ;

outer branch the longer and provided with four teeth

on external margin. Terminal segment with four

tubercles.

Spheroma destructor Richardson, Florida fresh-water

c. Surface of abdomen smooth. ;

d. Outer branch of the uropoda denticulate on its external

margin.

Spheroma quadridentatum Say, MS, surface to % fm.

4. Outer branch of the uropoda not denticulate.

e. Outer branch of the uropoda half as long as the

inner branch, and half as wide.

Spheroma thermophilum Richardson, New Mexico, fresh-water

c. Outer branch of the uropoda not much shorter than

inner branch, and of equal width.

Spheroma oregonensis Dana, APD, surface to 12 fms.

Genus Tecticeps Richardson.

a. Terminal segment of abdomen pointed. Outer branch of uropoda

much longer than inner branch. First pair of antenna reach the

posterior angle of the first thoracic segment. Second pair reach the

middle of the second thoracic segment. Sixth and seventh pair of

legs show a marked disproportion in the length of the propodus.

Tecticeps alascensis Richardson, A, 9-106 fms. (See Fig. 8, p. 221.)

a’. Terminal segment of abdomen widely rounded. Outer branch of uro-

poda not longer than inner branch. First pair of antenne reach the

posterior angle of the third thoracic segment. Second pair of antenne

reach the middle of the fourth thoracic segment. Sixth and seventh

pairs of legs show only a gradual increase in length.

Tecticeps convexus Richardson, D, 5 fms.

Genus Dynamene Leach.

a. Frontal margin of head produced in a quadrangular process ; first two

joints of the first pair of antennz dilated.

Dynamene dilalata Richardson, D, surface

a’. Frontal margin of head not produced ; joints of first pair of antenna

not dilated.

b. Abdomen tuberculated. Neither branch of the uropoda reaching

the extremity of the abdomen.

Dynamene tuberculosa Richardson, A D, surface

224 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

2’. Abdomen not tuberculated. Inner branch of the uropoda reach-

ing the extremity of the abdomen

c. Ultimate segment of the abdenit ridged. Branches of

uropoda of equallength. Sinus at extremity of abdomen

funnel-shaped.

Dynamene benedicti Richardson, D, surface

c. Ultimate segment of abdomen smooth. Outer branch of

uropoda but little more than half as long as inner branch.

Sinus at extremity of abdomen small.

Dynamene glabra Richardson, D, surface

Genus Ciliczea Leach.

a. Terminal segment with three sinuses, one above another in a longitu-

dinal series, the two upper openings heart-shaped. Outer branch of

the uropoda armed with four spines.

Cilicea cordata Richardson, A, surface

a’. Terminal segment with one sinus. Outer branch of the uropoda un-

armed.

b. Sinus without teeth. Cilicæa carinata Richardson, S, 440 fms.

&. Sinus with teeth.

c. Sinus with four teeth. Median tubercle at base of terminal

segment single. . . Cilicea caudata (Say), M, surface

c’. Sinus with six teeth. Median tubercle at base of termin

segment double.

Cilicea caudata gilliana Richardson, D

"Genus Nesa Leach. . . . . . . JVesa (?) depressa Say, M, surface

Nesa (?) ovalis Say, S, surface

FAMILY XII. SEROLIDA.

Genus Serolis Leach.

Serolis carinata Lockington, D, 3 fms. (See Fig. 9, p. 225-)

III. VALVIFERA.

a. Body more or less broad, depressed. Legs usually nearly alike, but

^ first three pairs sometimes with propodus dilated and dactylus reflexed.

Family XIII. Idoteide

a’. Body narrow, scarcely depressed. Four anterior pairs of legs unlike

ree posterior pairs, and not ambulatory, nor strictly prehensile,

directed forward, slender, ciliated, with terminal joint minute ; last

three pairs stouter, ambulatory, with terminal joint bifid.

Family XIV. Arcturide

FAMILY XIII. IDOTEIDA.

a. Sides of head emarginate or cleft and laterally produced beyond the

eyes, which are situated upon its dorsal surface. Three anterior

No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 225

Fic. 9. — Serolis carinata. Fic. ro.

airs of legs, with penultimate joint or propodus dilated, and forming,

with reflexible dactylus, a prehensile hand. All the epimera distinct.

Chiridotea Harger

a’. Sides of head entire and not laterally produced. Eyes lateral. Legs

all ambulatory ; three anterior pairs with penultimate joint not or

not much dilated.

à. Flagellum of second pair of antennz well developed and multi-

articulate.

c. Palpus of maxillipeds four-jointed. Epimera of all the seg-

ments well developed and evident in a dorsal view. Abdo-

men (including the terminal segment) consisting of three

segments with lateral sutures, indicative of another partly

coalescent segment. . . +--+ =: - Idotea Fabricius

¢. Palpus of maxillipeds not four-jointed. Abdomen consisting

of one segment, uniarticulate.

d. Palpus of maxillipeds th ee-jointed. All the epimera

coalesced and perfectly united with the segments.

Synidotea Harger

d. Palpus of maxillipeds two-jointed. Epimera of second,

third, and fourth segments coalesced and perfectly

united with the segments ; those of the fifth, sixth,

and seventh segments distinct and well developed.

Colidotea Richardson

2’. Flagellum of second pair of antenna not multi-articulate.

c. Flagellum of second pair of antennae rudimentary. Second

pair of antenna a little longer than first pair.

Edotea Guérin- Ménéville

g. Flagellum of second pair of antennz usually obsolete. Sec-

ond pair of antenna much longer than first pair.

226 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

d. Legs subequal. Antenne geniculate. Palp of max-

illipeds four-jointed. Body angulate.

Erichsonella Benedict

a’, Third and fourth pairs of legs usually markedly shorter.

Fifth, sixth, and seventh pairs gradually increasing

in length. Antenne not geniculate. Palp of max-

illipeds two-jointed. Body slender, linear, smooth.

Cleantis Dana

Genus Chiridotea Harger.

a. Species large, elongate-ovate. Outer branch of uropoda (or opercular

valves) minute.

ó. Joints of the peduncle of the antennz not dilated; flagellum

eight to fourteen-jointed. Antero-lateral cervical lobes promi-

nent. . Chiridotea entomon (Linn.), AP, surface to 15 fms.

8’. Joints of the peduncle of the antennz greatly dilated ; flagellum

seven to eight-jointed. Antero-cervical lobes prominent.

Chiridotea sabinii (Krøyer), AN, surface to 15 fms.

a’. Species small, orbiculate-ovate. Outer branch of uropoda at least half

as long as inner.

6. Antennz little longer than antennule ; flagellum seven-jointed.

Eyes inconspicuous. Antennule longer than the peduncle of

the antenne. . . . Chiridotea cecas (Say), NMS, surface

8’, Antennz twice as long as antennule ; flagellum twelve-jointed.

Eyes usually distinct. Antennulæ do not surpass the peduncle

of the antenne.

Chiridotea tuftsii (Stimpson), VM, surface to 25 fms.

Genus Idotea Fabricius.

4. Terminal segment emarginate at its extremity.

Idotea resecata Stimpson, AD, surface

a’. Terminal segment not emarginate at its extremity.

Body slender, linear, filiform.

c. Terminal segment truncate at apex.

Idotea gracillima Dana, D

c. Terminal segment not truncate at its extremi

d. Post-lateral angles of terminal segment prominent and

separated by a tooth from subtriangular middle por-

tion, which bears a small tooth at the middle.

Idotea urotoma Stimpson, P

d'. Postlateral angles not separated by a tooth from

middle portion.

Jdotea rectilineata Lockington, D, 30-40 fms.

&. Body oblong-ovate.

c. Terminal segment truncate at its extremity.

dotea metallica Bosc, NM, surface 91 fms.

č. Terminal segment not truncate.

No.399] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 227

d. Terminal segment regularly and broadly rounded at its

extremity, with small median tooth.

Idotea wosnesenskii Brandt, APD, surface to 9 fms.

d'. Terminal segment acute or distinctly toothed at its

extremity.

e. With prominent post-lateral angles or teeth on

either side of median tooth.

f. With acute lateral teeth.

Idotea marina (Linn.), VM, surface to 119 fms.

f. With rounded lateral lobes.

g. Epimera of second, third, and fourth

segments short, not reaching the post-

lateral angles of their respective seg-

ments.

Idotea ochotensis Brandt, A, surface to 18 fms. (See Fig. 10, p. 225.)

g. Epimera of all the segments reaching the ,

postlateral angles of their respective

segments.

À. Sides of thorax arcuate

Jdotea stenops Benedict, D

h’. Sides of thorax more nearly parallel.

Idotea whitei Stimpson, PD

e’. With sidesssloping regularly to produced extremity.

Idotea phosphorea Harger, N, surface to 18 fms.

Genus Synidotea Harger.

a. Terminal abdominal segment emarginate or notched at its extremity.

b. Two spines or tubercles overhanging the frontal notch.

c. Spines united near the base

Synidotea pallida Benedict, A, 695 fms.

c. Spines free at base.

Synidotea erosa Benedict, A, 483 fms.

P. No spines or tubercles overhanging the frontal notch.

c. With a low ridge arising between the eyes and interrupted

on the median line.

d. Outlines of abdomen subparallel.

Synidotea nebulosa vH A, 9-32 fms.

d'. Outlines of abdomen strongly arcuat

Synidotea angulata esit AP, 31-38 fms.

c. Without a ridge between the eyes.

d. Outline of abdomen subtriangülar.

e. Front not excavated.

Synidotea consolidata (Stimpson), P

g. Front excavated.

f. Outlines of thorax subparallel.

Synidotea marmorata (Packard), JV, 36-129 fms.

228 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

. Outlines of thorax strongly arcuate.

Synidotea bicuspida (Owen), AN, 5-1314 fms.

d'. Outlines of abdomen rounded.

Synidotea laticauda Benedict, A, surface to 56 fms.

a’. Terminal abdominal segment pointed at its extremity.

6. Undulations of body not tubercular or spiny.

c. Tubercle in front of eyes not margined.

Synidotea nodulosa (Krøyer), AW, 16-119 fms.

č. Tubercle on the frontal margin and forming a part of it.

Synidotea levis Benedict, A, 29-36 fms.

/. Undulations of the body tubercular and spiny.

c. Four spines on the front of the head; body spinous.

Synidotea muricata (Harford), A, 25 fms.

c’. A wedge-shaped tubercle behind the frontal notch ; body

tubercular. . . . Synidotea picta Benedict, A, 9 fms.

Genus Colidotea Richardson . . . . Colidotea rostrata (Benedict), P

Genus Edotea Guérin-Ménéville.

a. Anterior angles of head produced into horn-like projections. Lateral

angles of thoracic segments produced into horn-like projections.

Four tubercles situated on dorsal surface of head.

dotea acuta Richardson, JV, 105 fms.

a’. Anterior angles of head not produced into horn-like projections. Lateral

angles of thoracic segments not produced into horn-like projections.

Two tubercles situated on dorsal surface of head.

é. Lateral margins of thorax nearly even. Anterior angles of

head not salient. Lateral margins of terminal segment

scarcely indented.

Edotea triloba (Say), NM, surface to % fm.

2’. Lateral margins of thorax angulated and salient. Anterior

angles of head salient. Lateral margins of terminal seg-

ment indented ; terminal segment rather elongated.

dotea montosa (Stimpson), NM, 2-40 fms.

Genus Erichsonella Benedict.

a. Surface of body smooth throughout. Outline of body regular. Anten-

nule short. Terminal segment of body with but slight traces of a

lateral tooth near its base on either side.

Erichsonella attenuata (Harger), M

a’. Surface of body tuberculated. Outline of body serrate. Antennule

long. Terminal segment with a prominent lateral tooth near its base

on either side. Large bifid tubercle on center of head. Median

longitudinal row of tubercles on each thoracic segment.

Erichsonella filiformis (Say), M, 4M to 7 fms.

Genus Cleantis Dana.

a. Flagellum consolidated and forming a single piece. Abdomen com-

our segments. Terminal abdominal segment with rounded

No. 399.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 229

extremity ; terminal portion of segment obliquely truncated, the

oblique portion being surrounded by a raised margin.

Cleantis planicauda Benedict, G

^ Flagellum composed of three joints. Abdomen composed of three seg-

ments. Terminal abdominal segment with acute post-lateral teeth on

either side of rounded posterior portion. Surface of segment smooth

throughout. eec ap Cleantis heathii Richardson,

FAMILY XIV. ARCTURID/E.

Fourth segment of thorax not greatly longer than others. Marsupium

of female composed of four pairs of plates. Arcturus Latreille

Fourth segment of thorax much longer than any of the others. Marsu-

pium of female consisting of two plates affixed to this segment.

Astacilla Fleming

Fic. 11. — Arcturus intermedius.

Cenus Arcturus Latreille

a. End of terminal abdominal segment notched, as seen from above.

b. Body smooth and free from spines.

Arcturus beringanus Benedict, A, 29-36 fms.

V. Body spiny.

c. Head and six segments of thorax, each with a pair of spines

on the dorsum. Second and third articles of the antenna

without spines. Arcturus longispinis Benedict, A, 55 fms.

230 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

č. Head and segments of thorax with not less than two pairs

of spines to the segment.

d. Head with one large median spine on the anterior part

of the head in front of the eyes.

Arcturus intermedius Richardson, A, 10 fms. (See Fig. 11, p. 229.)

a’. with three spines on anterior part of head in front

at eyes.

Arcturus murdochi Benedict, A, 13% fms.

a’. End of terminal abdominal segment without notch.

. Thorax without spines above the epimera.

Arcturus glaber Benedict, A, 55 fms.

&. Thorax with spines above the epimera.

c. Terminal segment of abdomen armed with a long median

terminal spine, projecting beyond the end of the segment.

Arcturus floridanus Richardson, S

c. Terminal segment of abdomen not armed with long median

terminal spine.

. Four anterior segments of thorax with spines or tuber-

cles. Middle surface of abdomen with prominent

spiny projections. With conical lateral projections.

Epimera pointed.

Arcturus baffini (Sabine), AV, 110-150 fms.

d’. Four anterior segments of thorax without spines or.

tubercles. Middle surface of abdomen without any

indication of prominent spiny projections. Without

conical lateral projections. Epimera less pointed.

Arcturus feildeni Miers, JV, 30 fms.

Genus Astacilla Fleming.

a. With eyes. Head excavate in front without rostriform point. Fourth

thoracic segment subcylindrical. Terminal abdominal segment with

a prominent, subacute tooth on each side, above the middle, directed

outward and backward ; extremity obtuse.

Astacilla granulata (G. O. Sars), JV, 7-250 fms.

a’. Without eyes. Head with a rostriform point in front between the

antennule. Fourth thoracic segment wider at the anterior end, and

tapering to the posterior end. Terminal terim segment with a

pair of teeth on each side ; extremity acu

Astacilla ceca Benedict, JV, 1825 fms.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Payne’s New World. — The second volume of this work, com-

posed by an Oxfordian scholar, was published last year, and for its

great intrinsic value deserves an extended notice ; indeed there are

but few historic works treating about this western continent that are

written in a more careful and painstaking spirit. The full title is:

Edward John Payne, History of the. New World, called America, Vol.

II. Oxford, at the Clarendon Press, 1899 ; octavo, pp. 27, 548. The

volume begins with a sociological discussion on the pre-Columbian

condition of the American tribes, their warrior and peasant classes,

and the origin of the industrial class. Woman was the primitive

laborer; she became enslaved by capture or by purchase, and the

marriage question in the earliest epochs was nothing but a part of

the problem of the food quest. The organization of the laboring

class and the distribution of slaves and of land form another socio-

logical chapter well worth studying. Then follows the discussion on the

origin of the tribe, the horde, the family, the clan, the great house,

together with the tribal migrations and the motives impelling peoples

to migrate. The headings of subsequent sections of the work are as

follows: Antiquity of Man in America; Ethnological Unity of the

Aborigines; Origin and Process of Language; Material Aspect of

Speech; Adaptation of Elementary Movements to Articulation;

Mechanics of Language — Repetition; Original Aspects of Person-

ality; Dynamics of the Holophrase ; Differentiation of the Noun and

Verb; Dispersonalization; Distinction of Number in Objects; Prim-

itive Applications of Arithmetic; Calendars or Time-reckoning ;

Mexican Calendar; Spread of Man over the New World ; History

of the Nahuatlacá (Mexicans); First Nahuatlacan Immigrants ;

Aculhuan Pueblos of the Plateau; The Valley of Mexico; The

Aztecs; Peruvian Advancement.

To give our readers an idea how interestingly the material is

handled by Payne, we transcribe what he says about agricultural

communities, exclusively composed of women (pp. 10, 11), as have

been discovered in many parts of the inhabited earth. ‘Such com-

munities were formed, it would seem, by the same process of spon-

231

232 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

taneous emigration, derived their continuity from periodical visits,

usually once a year and lasting for a month in the spring, by males

from other tribes. Columbus, while coasting Haiti (1493), heard

of such a community from an Indian who visited him on boar

the Niña. The account was precise; the women of ‘Matinino’

admitted annually, as temporary members of their tribe, a certain

number of male visitors, who carried back with them, on departing,

the male children born in each interval, the women retaining the girls

to replenish their own society (Las Casas, Historia, Vol. I, p. 434).

Later accounts afford a body of evidence strongly tending to prove

the existence of such societies in the valley of the mighty stream on

which these communities have indelibly stamped the name of River

of Amazona. He who summarily rejects these accounts knows little

of the realities of the transition from savagery to barbarism. Women,

as the Spaniards.often found to their cost, can use the bow and

arrow not less effectively than men. In possession of this deadly

weapon, as well as of the materials of subsistence, they might easily

form independent communities, and maintain them by the means

adopted by the South American Amazons for an indefinite period.

When women, says Southey, have been accustomed to accompany

their husbands to battle, there is nothing that can be thought

improbable in their establishing themselves as an independent

race and thus securing that freedom for their daughters which

they had obtained for themselves.”

It is important to notice that one-half at least of the volume treats

of linguistics. The languages of the American natives are ana-

lyzed and, as to their mental capacities, compared with those of the

Old World.

Some are possessed of highly polysynthetic features, whereas

others have scarcely attained the lower degrees of agglutination. A

few of their number may be called analytic, like those of the Maya

family, but the majority are synthetic. A. S. GATSCHET.

ZOOLOGY.

Koelliker’s Reminiscences. — The reminiscences of a long life of

interesting and worthy activity form the latest volume from Professor

Koelliker.! The book contains a little over four hundred pages, of

1 Koelliker, A. Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben. Leipzig, W. Engelmann.

1899. vi-+ 399 pp. 8 plates, and 1o text-figures.

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 233

which the first fifty are devoted to an autobiography, followed by

something over a hundred on the author’s scientific and other trav-

els, and concluded by a résumé of his scientific work. There are

numerous illustrations, including several portraits of the author.

Degeneration of Duodenal Glands in the Cat.— Stöhr! has

recently shown that in fully grown cats single duodenal glands, or

even parts of such glands, may completely degenerate; the degen-

eration begins with a thickening of the connective tissue surround-

ing the glands, followed by the death of the gland cells and their

absorption by leucocytes. P.

Greeley on Tide-Pool Fishes of California. — In the Buletin of

the U. S. Fish Commission for 1899 is a report by Arthur White

Greeley, teacher of biology in the State Normal School of San

Diego, on the fishes collected by him at the tide pools of

California.

The small marine sculpins originally forming Girard's genus Oli-

gocottus are here divided into seven genera: Blennicottus Gill,

Oxycottus Jordan, Rusciculus Greeley, Dialarchus Greeley, Oligo-

cottus, Clinocottus Gill and Eximia Greeley; and four new species,

Blennicottus recalvus, Rusciculus rimensis, Dialarchus snyderi, and

Eximia rubellio, are described and well figured. Greeley shows that

the original types of Blennicottus globiceps and Oligocottus maculosus

belonged to the northern forms, the species called Béennicottus bryosus

and O/igocottus borealis, by Jordan and Evermann. This fact necessi-

tates the new names of JB/ennicottus recalvus and Dialarchus snyderi

for the species common to the southward of Monterey. The figure

of D. snyderi is apparently taken from a female and fails to show

the separation of the enlarged first anal ray on which the genus is

based.

Mr. Greeley concludes from his study of intergrading forms that

no real difference exists between the northern species of Gibbonsia

(evides) and the southern Gidbdbonsia elegans.

The pools of the rocky coasts of California, a region with high

tides and a profuse growth of alga, are especially rich in fish life.

Those from Pescadero to Monterey have been very fully studied by

Mr. Greeley, more carefully than by any one else. On the coast of

Mexico the poisonous milky juice of the tree called Hava (contain-

1 Stöhr, P. Ueber Rückbildung von Duodenaldrüsen, Festschrift der phys.-

med. Gesellschaft su Würzburg, pp. 209-214, 1 Taf., 1899.

234 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

ing strychnine) has been found very useful in killing the fishes of

these pools, often not to be captured in any other way. Mr. Greeley

found a good substitute for this poison in the commercial chloride of

lime. D. S. J.

. Development of Brain Structures in Amia. — A. C. Eyclesheimer

and B. M. Davis give in the Journal of Comparative Neurology a

valuable study of “The Early Development of the Epiphysis and

Paraphysis in Amia.” The paper indicates that much is still to be

known as to the origin of epiphysial outgrowths from brain structures.

b. sd

Scapanorhynchus and Mitsukurina. — In the Annals and Maga-

zine of Natural History, Mr. A. S. Woodward, of the British Museum,

has a note on Mitsukurina owstoni Jordan, an extraordinary lamnoid

shark with a long flat blade on its snout, lately described from the

deep waters of Japan.

Mr. Woodward shows that Mitsukurina is very closely related to

the Cretaceous genus Scapanorhynchus, of which species are known

from Mount Lebanon and from the chalk of England.

Mitsukurina and Scapanorhynchus agree in the elongate, blade-

like snout, which is, however, longest in Scapanorhynchus. The

skeleton, dentition, and gill openings seem to be similar in the two

genera, and there appear to be no great differences in the fins.

The dense shagreen is also similar in the twó ; the structure of the

basal cartilages of the fins in Scapanorhynchus is unknown ; nor is

anything known of the claspers.

Mr. Woodward concludes that Mitsukurina is probably identical

with his genus, Scapanorhynchus, this name being of prior date.

On the other hand, it may be urged that this identity is not proved,

and that the specific differences are considerable. There are great

disadvantages in the identification of recent fishes with fossil genera

which are more or less imperfectly known.

More complete knowledge of the extinct forms often shows that

the recent species have undergone such differentiation as should

constitute generic difference. I think it, therefore, better to retain

for the recent shark the name Mitsukurina, although recognizing its

` close relationship to its Cretaceous homologue.

The family Mitsukurinidz is supposed to differ from Carchariidze

(Odontaspididz) in the presence of a Polyodon-like snout, and per-

haps in the structure of its fins and claspers. The writer knows too

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 235

little of the fossil forms of this type to form a final opinion as to

whether, in view of the relations of the fossil forms, the family Mit-

sukurinide can be maintained. D. S.

The Lateral Line of the Toadfish. — Miss Cornelia M. Clapp,

professor of zoólogy in Mount Holyoke College, presents as a

doctor's thesis in the University of Chicago a careful study of

“The Lateral Line System of Batrachus tau."

Dr. Clapp concludes that the lateral line represents an organ of

special sense. ‘The ear seems like a connecting link between the sys-

tem of lateral line organs from which it has probably originated and

the most highly sensory structure in Vertebrata — the eye. Ayers

has shown that the auditory organ is in reality a series of canal

organs innervated by two distinct cranial nerves." It seems certain

that a more thorough knowledge of the changes in these cutaneous

sense organs found in fishes and in the embryonic stages of higher

types is essential to the understanding of the nervous system itself

as developed in higher forms.

It may be noticed that the proper name of our toadfish is Opsanus

tau, not Batrachus tau. The name Batrachus was applied by Bloch

and Schneider in 1801 to the scaly toadfishes of the tropics, which

had still earlier received from Lacépède the name Batrachoides.

The name is not, therefore, available for any other genus, and the

second name in date, the first ever given to the type in question,

must be chosen. This is Rafinesque’s Opsanus. ngi.

Greene on the Lateral Line of the California Toadfish. — In

the Journal of Morphology, Dr. Charles Wilson Greene, of Stanford

University, has an elaborate study of the complex lateral line* of

another species of toadfish, Porichthys notatus, of the California coast.

This species has several lateral lines, each of the most complex char-

acter, far more specialized than in the common toadfish. The pores

in the genus Porichthys are accompanied by round shining bodies

resembling the luminous spots in certain deep-sea forms, as Ster-

noptyx and Myctophum. In Porichthys the shining bodies are not

known to be self-luminous, and their origin is plainly in the lateral

line.. The other genera are not related to Porichthys, and in them

the luminous spots are not outgrowths from the lateral canal system.

Dr. Greene makes no attempt to discuss the homology or signifi- .

cance of the lateral line. Too few forms have yet been studied to

make such discussion conclusive. He gives a full account of the

236 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

anatomy of the shining bodies in Porichthys. He concludes that

these are true phosphorescent organs.

Thus far no specimens have been found to be luminous in the

aquarium, and light has not been developed through electric stimu-

lation, or by excitement through ammonia. Bom

Absence of Retinal Pigment in the Dogfish.

the retina of the common dogfish (Mustelus vulgaris) Schaper! has

made the noteworthy observation that the retinal pigment cells,

which in most vertebrates are loaded with dark pigment granules,

are in this animal absolutely devoid of such particles. P.

Pupa-Grafting in Moths. — The method of grafting young ani-

mals, as devised by Born for tadpoles, has been applied by Cramp-

ton? to the pupz of moths. An injured pupa at best regenerates

sufficient integument to cover the wound. Parts of two longitudi-

nally split pupa joined in natural proportions failed to unite, but

anterior and posterior portions cut at any level united. Compounds

slightly smaller than normal or enlarged by the insertion of a ring

failed to coalesce. Fragments grafted on whole pupz formed exactly

those portions they would have formed had they remained on the

original pupa. Pupz are easily united sidewise or endwise, but in

these, as in all other cases, the union is that of the integument and

superficial parts only. The results of these experiments on the colors

of different species are especially interesting. When individuals of

two species having different colors were united so that their hamo-

lymphs mingled, the outcome was almost always a double animal

whose colors were normal. The same result was obtained from

united males and females in species with differently colored sexes.

The colors are probably produced, as a rule, through the action on

the hemolymph of a localized internal factor such as the “ ferment "

cytoplasm assumed by Mayer. P.

Amitotic Followed by Mitotic Cell Division. — The observa-

tions of Gerassimoff, that cooling would convert the mitotic division

of Spirogyra cells into amitotic, and of Pfeffer and Nathanson, that a

lSchaper, A. Die nervósen Elemente der Selachier-Retina in Methylenblau-

praparaten, Festschrift zum siebenziegsten Geburtstag von Carl von Kupffer, 10 pp»

2 Crampton, H. E. An Experimental Study upon px mit de Archiv für

Entw.-mech., Bd. ix, pp. ple? Pls. XI-XIII, 1899.

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 237

temporary use of ether would call forth in the same plant a tempo-

rary amitotic division, led Häcker * to subject developing eggs to the

action of ether to ascertain whether their mitotic division could be

converted into a temporary amitotic one. The results of these experi-

ments are that when the eggs of Cyclops are subjected to the action

of five per cent ether for from two to three hours, they begin to divide

by a process many steps of which have all the appearances of amitotic

division, and that after being returned to fresh water they reassume

normal mitotic division. Cells, then, after dividing by what to all

appearances is amitosis, may return to mitosis. Till further study

proves absolute identity the author prefers to call this induced ami-

tosis pseudoamitosis. P.

A New Unattached Hydroid.— In a paper on Woods Holl Hy-

droids, L. Murbach? redescribes Corynitis Agassizii and its medusa

Gemmaria, and gives an account of a very remarkable unattached

hydroid. It is represented by a single unbranched polyp of the

Tubularian type with two circles of tentacles. A primitive perisarc

envelops the hydrocaulus, at the end of which polyp buds are given

off. Sexual reproduction takes place, the gonophores being between

the two circles of tentacles. The polyp moves slowly from place to

place and may be caught floating in quiet water. The author names

it Hypolytus peregrinus and forestalls the systematic reviser by the

statement: “Should the name here proposed for this new genus be

preoccupied, I propose instead Gonohypolytus." P.

Hydra Grafts. — The grafting of hydras has been studied by

H. W. Rand? Lateral grafts do not persist as permanent abnor-

malities, but either constrict and separate from the stock or are

resorbed by it. If the graft is large or has tentacles, it, as a rule,

eventually separates from the stock; if it is small and without dif-

ferentiated parts it may be resorbed. All the pieces that were

resorbed were much larger than the minimum piece capable of regen-

erating if not employed as a graft. Lateral grafts differ from buds

in that they do not separate from the stock as readily as buds do

1 Hicker, V. Mitosen im Gefolge amitosen-ahnlicher Vorgänge, Anat. Anzeiger,

Bd. xvii, pp. 9-20, 1900. |

2 Murbach, L. Hydroids from Woods Holl, Mass., Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.

vol. xlii, pp. 341-360, Pl. 34, 1899.

3 Rand, H. W, The Regulation of Graft Abnormalities in Hydra, Archiv fiir

Entw.-mech., Bd. ix, pp. 161-214, Taf. V-VII, 1899.

238 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

from parents. The regulation of abnormalities in Hydra appears to

be independent of external conditions, and seems to be rather an

effect of certain qualities inherited by the organism. P

Notes. — The third edition of Van Gehuchten's! well-known text-

book on the nervous system of man has just been published. The

work has been increased in bulk and now appears in two volumes

of about six hundred pages each. The first volume contains a full

account of the gross anatomy of the nervous system, the neurone,

and the finer anatomy of the spinal cord ; the second volume deals

with the finer anatomy of the brain.

No. VII of Vol. III of the American Journal of Physiology contains

the two following articles: ‘The Poisonous Character of a Pure

NaCl Solution," by Jacques Loeb, and * Observations on the Degen-

eration and Regeneration of Motor and Sensory Nerve Endings in

Voluntary Muscle," by G. C. Huber.

BOTANY.

Minnesota Plant Life.” — The broad scope of the botanical

work that is being done in Minnesota by Professor MacMillan is

evidenced by the present volume. Minnesota Plant Life is the third

volume of the botanical series of the reports of the natural history

survey of the state. Notwithstanding, the book is not only not at all

technical in the accepted sense, but, in accordance with the avowed

purpose of the author, it is presented in as untechnical and popular

a form as possible. Every botanist is quite too familiar with the

result of the usual popular presentation of any portion of the sub-

ject. Popular treatises on biological science, especially, have come

to stand for everything that is loose in thought, inexact in treatment,

and antique in doctrine. Matters have practically reached a point

where no master in scientific thought will write a popular treatise,

and where no mere dilettante is able to write a scientific one. Pro-

fessor MacMillan's book is proof that it is possible to write popularly,

1 Van Gehuchten, A. Anatomie du système nerveux de l'homme, tomes i, ii.

Louvain, I Y

? MacMillan, Conway, Professor of Botany in the University of Minnesota.

St. Paul, Zhe Pioneer Press, 1899. 8vo, xxv, 568 pp. Four plates and 240

illustrations.

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 239

îe., untechnically, and at the same time in a genuinely scientific vein.

While one may not agree at every point with the detail of the text, he

is struck by the fact that there is here no loose statement and anti-

quated theory, while rare inexactitudes are to be explained by the

difficulty of presenting in popular form, which is always quasi-didac-

tic, matters upon which botanists themselves are not harmonious.

The tenor of the volume is indicated by the author's purpose to

present the plant world as an assemblage of living things. This is

accomplished by presenting the different taxonomic groups morpho-

logically, by treating generally of structures and functions from an

adaptational standpoint, and by pointing out the main biological

facts in plant association. The first two chapters, which are in

many respects the best, the most suggestive ones in the book, deal

briefly but in a clear, elementary manner with distribution, zonation

and migration. Considering its brevity, the question of zonation is

especially well handled. An objection that might be brought against

the treatment in certain places (pp. 5, 9, and elsewhere) is that it

is quite too teleological. The allegorical method of statement is

certainly the readiest, and, among scientists, it is perhaps as good

as any. Taken in connection with the appalling literalness of begin-

ners, it is unsafe, and invariably leads to confusion, if not to error,

in the consideration of purpose and design.

Chapters III-XL, constituting much the larger part of the book,

are concerned with a survey of the groups of plants from the

slime moulds to the composites. The part dealing with the crypto-

gams is especially good, noticeably superior to the portion given

over to the flowering plants. The latter is fluent and readable, but

the structural standpoint is predominant to the exclusion of many

matters of interest. The latter fact is probably to be explained by

the need of keeping the size of the volume within reasonable limits.

The author is certainly right in placing the consideration of structure

before that of function and adaptation. Had it been possible, how-

ever, a modicum of the two would have increased the interest and

the suggestiveness of this portion. The chapter upon the bacteria

is a model of its kind. The freshness of the matter, taken with its

concise thoroughness, will make it the most interesting and instruc-

tive part of the book, not only to those to whom the work is addressed,

but to many botanists as wel. In Chapter XX the author has not

been so fortunate in his treatment of seeds and their production. No

exception can be taken to the statement, but the exposition will doubt-

less produce confusion in the subject for those who come to it for the

240 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. Line

first time. The same criticism holds elsewhere in the treatment of

alternation of generations. Though both are confessedly stumbling-

blocks for beginners, it seems certain that a development of these

matters phylogenetically would have been more logical and more

successful.

The consideration of adaptation to environment is comprehensive

and replete with suggestions. Occasional inaccuracies creep in, and

' in a few instances doubtful or debatable explanations are presented

as certain. The ecological factors considered are gravity, mechan-

ical forces, heat, light, moisture, soil composition, and biological

environment. Following this a chapter is given to the treatment of

hydrophytes and one to xerophytes. Halophytes and mesophytes

are also considered briefly. The treatment is good in the main, but

in certain places it lacks coórdination. This is doubtless due to

lack of space, since the detail itself has apparently required pruning.

The last two chapters deal with the intimate processes in the life of

the individual and of the species. Protoplasm is treated of in a

peculiarly striking and clear manner. Nutrition, growth, movement,

protection likewise receive elementary treatment in simple logical

fashion. The maintenance of the species, involving the phenomena

and problems of propagation and reproduction, is clearly stated and

is most suggestive.

. Books, like people, are well dressed when the dress is not noticed.

Until they attain this standard, however, it is a distinct pleasure to

have to do with a book in so many ways faultless as the present one

in the art of printer and engraver. When it is borne in mind that it

belongs to the dubious class of “ state-printed " books, it is at once

seen how painstaking the author must have been to have produced

a book of such uniform excellence of press-work and illustration.

It is novel and encouraging that a book of this sort should be

published by the Board of Regents of a large university for the

instruction of the people of the state. It is a distinct misfortune

that the book is not on the market, as it should be found as a ref-

erence or reading book in all schools in which botany is taught.

FREDERIC E. CLEMENTS.

Britton pub-

lished a list of state and local floras ot the United States and Brit-

ish America, which has been of very great use to botanists working

on the classification and distribution of our native plants. One

hundred and six titles appear for the New England States. Miss

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 24I

Mary A. Day, of the ‘Gray Herbarium, has just distributed a pam-

phlet,! reprinted from Vol. I of &hodora, in which 258 titles of

books and papers referring to the flora of New England are cited,

bringing the record down to the end of 1899. Miss Day’s pains-

taking care, and the exceptional facilities afforded by the great libra-

ries clustered about Boston and the interest in her work of the

members of the New England Botanical Club, have resulted in the

compilation of a bibliographic aid which should be in every botanical

library in the country. T.

Botanical Notes. — The Zenth Annual Report of the President

of Columbia University states that the herbarium and the principal

part of the botanical library.of that institution have been transferred

to the New York Botanical Garden, while for the future the advanced

work in botany of the University will be carried on in the laborato-

ries of the Garden. By this combination of the resources of the

University with those of the Garden, the latter gains, it is stated, at

the beginning of its career, a scientific equipment and a scientific

importance which otherwise it could hope to achieve only slowly,

while the University receives at once the advantage of the added

facilities of the Garden, which, now considerable, will become of the

greatest importance as the years go on. The Garden has inaugu-

rated a new publication, under the title of Journal, which is intended

to give popular information on the development and work of the

establishment, and is to be edited by Dr. MacDougal.

The “Talcott Arboretum” of Mount Holyoke College, as appears

from a recent number of American Gardening, is a glazed structure

covering 6430 square feet and with a maximum height of 27 feet

9 inches.

The question of the classification of odors and their use in dis-

tinguishing things is again raised by W. C. Alpers in a paper on

* Odor Standards,” in the Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical

Association, Vol. XLVII, p. 221. He suggests a classification for .

the use of pharmacists, based on the chemical compounds which

produce the odor sensations by reacting on the olfactory serum.

Odor classifications, like that of Linnzus, and that of flower odors by

Delpino, have their value at present, but rest on a more indefinite

foundation than that proposed by Mr. Alpers. Kerner has given

1 Day, M. A. The Local Floras of New England. 8vo, 28 pp. Cambridge,

1899. 35 cents.

242 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

such a preliminary classification of flower odors in his Z/anzeneben ;

but, as Mr. Alpers intimates, “a new field of research is spread before

us for unlimited work" on the composition of volatile substances before

a classification approaching perfection can be made.

J. B. S. Norton.

Erythea, a wide-awake journal devoted largely to Western Ameri-

can botany, which has existed for seven years, is to be closed with

the final part for 1899. It will be missed in many libraries, and

yet the problem of the bibliographer will be simplified by a reduc-

tion in the number of journals that he must keep track of.

Part XXI of /ittonia for July to December, 1899, contains the

following papers by Professor Greene: “ A Decade of New Gutier-

rezias," “ Some Western Species of Xanthium,” * Four New Violets,”

* New or Noteworthy Species," XXV-XXVI, “ Segregates of Caltha

leptosepala,” *New Species of Arenaria," and “West American

Asperifolie," IV.

Part III, second series, of Minnesota Botanical Studies contains two

articles on alga, two on lichens, and synonymic conspectuses of the

native and garden Aconitums and Aquilegias of North America.

Cratzgus, a genus in which species-splitting has heretofore been

restricted to a rather remarkable degree, is proving to comprise a

very large number of apparently separable forms as represented in

North America, and Mr. C. D. Beadle, of the Biltmore estate, pub-

lishes in the Botanical Gazette for January a first instalment of

studies in this genus, in which seven species are described as new.

In fact, it appears as if almost anywhere in the middle South and

West a half dozen nondescript red haws can be picked up in a day’s

botanizing, in their fruiting season, in autumn.

Mitella, of the trifida section, is passed in review by Piper in

Erythea e December, with es result that four new species are

described.

The Umbelliferz: of Mexico and Central America are treated in

an excellent paper by Coulter and Rose, issued in January as a

brochure comprising pp. 111—159 of the first volume of the Proceed-

ings of the Washington Academy of Sciences.

Rhodora for January contains an editorial note and a series of

short articles on the dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium pusillum, in New

England.

No. 399.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 243

A systematic revision of the genus Najas, by A. B. Rendle, con-

stitutes Vol. V, Part XII, of the current series of botanical Zrans-

actions of the Linnean Society of London, issued in December.

A morphological and anatomical study of Pogonia ophioglossoides

is published by Holm in the American Journal of Science for January.

Several new grasses from Pringle's Mexican collection of 1899 are

described by Scribner in Circular No. rọ of the Division of Agro-

stology of the United States Department of Agriculture.

Professor von Wettstein contributes a paper on the pistillate

flower of Ginkgo to the December number of the Oesterreichische

Botanische Zeitschrift, in which he regards the flower as an axillary

bud with two transverse carpels.

Professor Thaxter, whose thorough work in the Laboulbeniacez

has given him a most enviable reputation, publishes in a recent num-

ber of the Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences

diagnoses of a large number of new species of the typical genus

Laboulbenia, preliminary to a supplement to his monograph of the

order.

The subject of plants injurious to stock, on which considerable

work has been done by American botanists, is further discussed by

Mr. Carruthers, the consulting botanist of the Royal Agricultural

Society of England, in No. 40 of the Journal of that society. A note

by Dr. Labesse, in Vol. XVIII of the Bulletin of the Société d'études

scientifiques d'Angers, shows that in France the tubers of Œnanthe

crocata are a source of considerable danger to stock.

Der Tropenpflanzer for January contains an interesting illustrated

article by H. J. Boeken on the ien and preparation of fiber from

Agave sisalana, in Yucatan.

The Botanical Magazine of Tokyo for December contains a portrait

of the late Professor R. Yatabe. Professor Yatabe was trained at

Cornell University, and was well known to many American students

a quarter of a century ago, before returning to his native country,

where he exerted an important influence in the development of the

botanical work of the great Tokyo University.

A biographical sketch of H. G. Bloomer, with portrait, is published

by Jepson in Zrythea for December.

244 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

NEWS.

Dr. ERNST EBROMAYER, professor of forestry in the University

of Munich, has resigned.

The Supreme Court of Missouri has allowed the Shaw Botanical

Gardens to sell a portion of their unproductive real estate. With the

proceeds about twenty acres will be added to the gardens.

The Society of American Bacteriologists was organized at New

Haven during Christmas week with a membership of over thirty.

Professor W. T. Sedgwick was elected president, and Professor

H. W. Conn, of Middletown, Conn., secretary for the coming year.

We hear from Science that the manuscript of a new edition of

Coues’s Key to North American Birds was left by the late Dr.

Coues in a finished condition.

Appointments: Dr. Hugo Berger, professor of physiography in

the University of Leipzig. — Dr. J. W. Gregory, of London, professor

of geology in the University of Melbourne, Australia. — Dr. Hunn-

berg, privat docent for anatomy in the university at Giessen. — Dr.

L. Hiltner, head of the bacteriological laboratory of the health office

in Berlin. — Dr. E. Jacky, assistant in botany in Proskau. — W. L.

Jepson, associate professor of botany in the University of California.

— Dr. Itefan Jentys, professor of botany in the University of Agram.

— Dr. J. C. Klinge, head botanist of the botanical gardens at St.

Petersburg. — Mr. Frank Leney, of the British Museum, assistant

curator of the museum at Norwich, England. — Dr. D. W. Merill,

assistant in biology in the University of Rochester. — Dr. Benjamin

Lincoln Robinson, Gray professor of botany in Havard University.

— Dr. George Howard Parker, assistant professor of zoólogy in Har-

: vard University. — Dr. G. Tanfiljen, head botanist in the botanical

institute at St. Petersburg. — J. L. Luckett, demonstrator of physiol-

ogy in the University of: Cambridge. — Dr. Karl Wenle, docent for

ethnology in the University of St. Petersburg.

Deaths: Count Wladimir Dzieduszycki, curator of the Lemburg

Natural History Museum, in Galicia, September 19, aged 71. — Dr.

Thomas Egleston, emeritus professor of mineralogy in Columbia

University, in New York, January 15. —Dr. Henry Hicks, English

geologist, November 18, aged 62.— Dr. Paul Knuth, professor of

botany in the University of Kiel, October 3o, aged 45.— William

Pamplin, an English botanist, August 9, aged 92.

(No. 398 was mailed February 28.)

GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY

Kiener’s Species —— et Iconographie des Coquilles Vivantes.

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VOL. XXXIV, NO. 400 APRIL, 1900

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. The Relation of Fungus and Alga in Lichens GEORGE JAMES PEIRCE 245

II. A Flagellated Heliozoan . : HOWARD CRAWLEY 255

III. Reactions of Infusoria to Cisnicéla: A isim. . H.S. JENNINGS 259

IV. The Basal Segments of the Hexapod Leg E LU L. B. WALTON 267

V. Notes on the Psychology of Fishes . . + . -RW SHUFELDT 275

VI. A New Museum Tablet > FRANK C. BAKER 283

VII. The Lower and Middle Sonoran Zonos in Arizona and New Mexico

VIII. Synopses of North-American —À VIII. The Caine

Part II HARRIET

IX. Reviews of Seco Litera Isl fibi pon pum Report of the Smith- 311

sonian Institution, oen Notes— Zoólogy, Beasts, Lake Urmi, 314

Reissner's Fibre, Preliminary List of the Mammals of New York, The

Trait ied the Sandhill Stag, Structure in the Mammalian Egg, Bob, Our

Native Birds, The Tree Frog, The Protoplasm of the Salmon Egg,

akeyi of Invertebrates, A Recent Book on Insects, Sheep Tick,

Nauplius Stage of Penæus, Sense Organs of Nereis, Breeding Infusoria,

Swiss Infusoria, Growth in the Rhizopodan Shell, Abyssal Rhizopoda,

A New Colonial Flagellate, Sporulation in Ameeba, e 335

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VoL. XXXIV. April, 1900. No. 400.

THE RELATION OF FUNGUS AND ALGA IN

LICHENS.

GEORGE JAMES PEIRCE.

IF one did not constantly read, even in the newest text-books

for older! as well as for younger students,? that the associa-

tion between fungus and alga in lichens is uninjurious to the

latter, I should not feel impelled to add to the already volumi-

1 See Textbook of Botany, by Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, Schimper, translated

by Porter (Macmillan Company, 1898), p. 375: The fungus derives its nourishment

Saprophytically from the organic matter produced by the assimilating alga, with-

out at the same time behaving as a parasite and injuriously interfering with its

vegetative activity.

In the fourth German edition (received by me, Jan. 19; 1900, as a separate)

Schenck says, p. 336: Was das Verhültniss von Pilz zu Alge anbelangt, so um-

spinnt der Pilz mit seinem Mycel die Algenzellen, schliesst sie in ein Hyphen-

gewebe ein und ernährt sich von den durch die assimilirenden grünen Algenzellen

erzeugten organischen Stoffen ; er kann aber Haustorien in die Algenzellen hinein

entsenden und sogar deren Inhalt aufzehren.

? See Coulter’s Plant Structures (D. uae & Co., 1899), p. 80: In the

case of lichens the symbionts are thought by some to be mutually helpful, the

alga manufacturing food for the fungus, n sponse providing protection and

water containing food materials for the alga. Others do not recognize any spe-

cial benefit to the alga, and see in a lichen simply a parasitic fungus living on

the products of an alga. In any event the algz are not destroyed, but seem to

thrive.

245

246 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

nous discussion of symbiosis in lichens. In spite of all the evi-

dence, old and new, and in spite of common sense, the lichens

are only too often described as furnishing the most perfect

examples of the mutually beneficial association of two utterly

different kinds of organisms, — one of these able to lead a normal

and perfect existence when by itself, the other absolutely de-

pendent for food upon other organisms, living or dead. Let

me, therefore, once more direct the attention of biologists to a

scrutiny of these peculiar forms.

Every one now admits that lichens consist of two distinct and

separable parts, of colorless fungus-like hyphze, which form the

greater part of the mass of the lichen, and of chlorophyll-con-

taining alga-like cells, known as gonidia. Repeatedly it has

been shown that the gonidia of lichens are not merely alga-like,

but are alge, often found free in nature, growing not only on

‘the same surfaces as furnish the seat of attachment of lichens,

but on many others also, growing and multiplying as healthy

individuals whenever external conditions make active life pos-

sible, passing over other periods in one or another of the rest-

ing conditions known to biologists. No one now questions

that lichen gonidia are alge, and that with due care gonidia

can be identified with already known species of alga found

outside of lichen associations. Identification on mere inspec-

tion of the gonidia in the lichen is not always possible, nor

would it always be correct. For example, Hedlund? says that

the alga which forms the gonidia in species of Micaria usually

looks like Glceocapsa and frequently occurs on rotten wood,

but that, when cultivated on this wood under abundant illumi-

nation and free from fungus enemies or algal competitors, the

alga multiplies rapidly, becomes deep green, the daughter-cells

separate, and none has the thick gelatinized wall which is one

of the characters of Gloeocapsa. Conditions wholly external

to the algal cells, especially such influences as affect their free-

dom, cause these cells to depart from their Protococcus type

and to develop qualities and habits characteristic of a wholly

1 Hedlund, T. Kritische Bemerkungen über einige Arten der Flechtengat-

tungen Lecanora, Lecidea, und Micarea. Bikang till K. Svenska Vet. Akad.

Handlingar, Bd. xviii. Stockholm, 1892.

No. 400.] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 247

different genus. Assuming that Hedlund’s experiments weré

conducted with sufficient cleanliness to prevent Protococcus

from replacing Gloeocapsa, this return from Gloeocapsa-like

characters to the original Protococcus characters is interesting

evidence of the influence of living competitors (other algae) and

enemies (fungi), as well as of lifeless forces (light, food, etc.),

upon the appearance of living organisms. Since small alga

are so modified, both inside and outside of the lichen body, by

external influences, their identification and the identification of

gonidia become in some instances matters of difficulty, in which

experiment must play an important part.

As to the fungus-like component of lichens, all are now agreed

that the hyphze are fungus, but the identity of any fungus com-

ponent of lichens with species of fungi living otherwise is diffi-

cult to prove and is absolutely denied by many. According to

Reinke,! the fungus components of the lichens of to-day came:

from fungi no longer existing as distinct species. That this

is necessarily true it is impossible to see; that it is true is hard

to believe, for, as has been shown above for the gonidia, the

other organisms with which it is associated, as well as the life-

less forces to which it is subjected, may so influence an organism

that its appearance and behavior will be profoundly modified.

Although Moller’s? now classical experiments in cultivating the

fungus components of certain simple lichens on artificial media

were successful as far as they went, they did not go so far as

to show that the fungus could reproduce itself by ascospores

formed in normal apothecia, and, after all, only lichens of simple

thallus form were cultivated at all. It is only natural, but also

greatly to be regretted, that the extremely slow growth of li-

chens and of their fungus components has deterred most bota-

nists from experimenting on these interesting plants. Reinke’s

view can be proved or disproved only by successful culture of

1 Reinke, J. Abhandlungen über Flechten, III. /ahré. f. Wiss. Bot., Bd. xxviii

(1895), p. 64: Kein Flechtenpilz ist bisher im freilebenden Zustande beobachtet

worden — abgesehen von den Basidiolichenen — und es hat demnach den An-

Schein, dass alle Pilze, aus denen sich Flechten entwickelt haben, als Pilze zu

Grunde gegangen sind.

? Móller, A. Ueber die Cultur flechtenbildender Ascomyceter ohne Algen.

Jnaug. Diss. Münster, 1887.

248 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

the fungus from spore to spore, and whether or not we believe

with him that the fungus components of lichens no longer

exist by themselves in nature, we certainly must call them

fungi.

What isa fungus? However a systematist might answer this

question, a physiologist would say that a fungus is a low de-

pendent plant, demanding at least non-nitrogenous food in a

state of comparatively high elaboration (sugar, fat, oil, or simi-

lar carbon compounds), since it is unable to manufacture such

food for itself. It follows, therefore, that a fungus must be

either parasitic or saprophytic, or, to follow the newer terminol-

ogy,! metatrophic or paratrophic. When a fungus enters into

association with an alga to form a lichen, the fungus allies

itself with an independent plant, one able to manufacture all

of its own food. The lichen is then composed of a dependent

plant which must receive elaborated food, and of an independ-

ent plant which needs only food materials and light in order to

take care of itself. What then is the nature of the association

between these two? Reinke? and his sympathizers believe (a)

that the association is consortism; (4) that the two members

of the consortium are dependent upon and beneficial to each

other; and (c) that the consortium is autonomous. On the

other hand, many botanists, probably in the minority at the

present moment, see in this association not a mutually advan-

tageous association, but the parasitism of one plant upon

another. Reinke, de Bary,* and many others assert that the

association of fungus with alga in lichens cannot be simple par-

asitism because, if this were the case, the fungus would con-

sume the alga, and that would be the end of the association.

Such a conclusion is not required by the evidence. It must

first be shown that the influence of the fungus is so violent and

so exhausting that the alga is not able, by producing slightly

more food, by refraining from less economical ways of repro-

1 Fischer, A. Vorlesungen über ras pp- 47, 48. Jena, r897.

2 Reinke, J. Abhandlungen iiber Flechten. II. Die Stellung der Flechten im

sherman prim i f. Wiss. Bot., Bd. xxvi, pp. 524-542, 1894.

Reinke, J cit., Bd. xxvi, p. 530, etc.

* de Bary, A. Die Erscheinung der Symbiose. Strassburg, 1879.

No. 400.] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 249

duction (e.g., zoóspore formation), by dividing in certain planes

instead of in others, etc., to meet the extra demand made upon

it by the fungus and to form some cells which are affected only

indirectly, if at all, by the fungus.!

On these points a few remarks may be made. In the first

place, those algae which form the gonidia of lichens will grow

and multiply faster under almost any conditions than the fun-

gus, and they grow and multiply in lichens less rapidly than

under favorable conditions outside. In the lichen itself they

grow and multiply very rapidly at times, much more rapidly

than the fungus. For example, the gonidia in a fragment of

Ramalina reticulata, the California lace-lichen, may be made to

grow and to divide very rapidly by placing the piece in water

in the comparative warmth of the laboratory in winter. The

whole lichen does not grow; only the gonidia multiply and

grow; the fungus grows but little, if at all. Out of doors such

conditions frequently occur in all lichens. During warm rains

or fogs, or dews, the gonidia have the advantage; they multiply

and grow much more rapidly than the fungus; many gonidial

cells recover what they had lost by too intimate association

with the fungus. In this way new generations of gonidial cells

are produced which continue the race in the lichen body and

thereby prevent the fungus from devouring all at once. In

other words, though the fungus may be parasitic upon the alga,

the more vigorous alga is not wholly and at once consumed

by its parasite, whatever may be the ultimate fate of the gonid-

ial cells one by one.

Having seen that the association of fungus and alga in

lichens is not destructive to all the algal cells at once, it must

be shown whether the fungus is destructive or injurious to any.

In all lichens the hyphz and gonidia are in most intimate con-

tact, the hyphz either closely clasping the gonidial cells or

filaments, or actually sending one or more haustoria into the

separate gonidial cells. As a result of such intimate contact,

Osmotic movement of food and other substances must take

1 Hedlund, T. Loc. cit. Peirce, G. J. The Nature of the Association of Alga

and Fungus in Lichens. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., Third Series, Botany, vol. i, No. 7,

1899. |

250 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

place between the hyphz and the invested gonidia. That such’

a movement does not take place it is impossible to believe unless

one assume that the nature of the limiting membranes of algal

and fungal cells is such that osmosis is a physical impossibility.

This assumption would be self-destructive, however, for if these

membranes were impervious to the dissolved substances in the

algal and fungal cells, all osmosis would be impossible, and the

cells would all die from lack of food and water. There must

then be osmotic movement between fungus and alga. In

obedience to the ordinary laws of osmosis there would be move-

ment of dissolved substances from regions of more to regions

containing fewer molecules of. these substances. The alga

under the influence of light manufactures complex nutritious

non-nitrogenous carbon compounds, which are at times, if not

always, in soluble forms. These substances would tend to

migrate from the algal to the fungal cells. This physical

phenomenon is of the utmost physiological importance to the

fungus, for it thereby gains the food it needs. Such a transfer

is inevitable so long as the conditions of intimate contact, of

permeable membranes, of supply of food and demand for it con-

tinue the same. If the demand for food by the fungus or any

part of it exceed the ability of the alga, or of any algal cell, to

manufacture enough for its own needs and those of the fungus,

the fungus will consume the alga itself. The numbers of empty

gonidial cells in the lichen body are sufficient evidence of this,

but this evidence cannot always be found, for only at times

does the fungus demand so much of the alga that the body

substance of the alga must be given to feed the fungus.

The slow-growing fungus component of the lichen draws

food from the more rapidly growing algal cells in which the

food is manufactured. Such taking of food is evidently para-

sitism. It can be nothing else. The intimacy of contact of

hyphz and gonidia precludes any other supposition than that

the hyphz osmotically draw food from the necessary and help-

less alge. If the alge grew and multiplied less rapidly, or if

the fungus grew more rapidly, or if the alga made less and the

fungus demanded more food, or even if fungus and alga always

1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit., p. 225, etc.

No. 400, ] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 251

grew at a constant rate instead of the alga sometimes growing

much faster than the fungus, the parasitism of fungus on alga

would result much sooner in the destruction of each algal cell.

As it is, the fungus destroys the algze, but only by degrees, and

so slowly that a new generation is mature before the first is

consumed.

If there is osmotic transfer of non-nitrogenous food from

alga to fungus, there may also be osmotic transfer of something

else from fungus to alga. Presumably there is. De Bary,

Reinke, and others say that the fungus supplies the alga with

water and mineral salts. Undoubtedly this is true, but I doubt

this being other than by the capillary movement of columns

or films of water, holding mineral salts in solution, between

and along the hyphz which, running more or less parallel with

one another, form continuous capillary tubes from the substra-

tum throughout the body of the lichen. By this means the

fungus certainly does supply the alga, but so would cotton fibres

or glass tubes similarly placed. It cannot be questioned that,

in its position in the lichen, the alga needs to have water and

mineral salts conducted to it, but its position is not of its own

seeking, natural, or necessary, or at all evidently advantageous.

In its natural habitat the alga (Protococcus, Gloeocapsa, Nostoc,

etc.) could supply itself with aqueous solutions of needed food

materials without the intervention of a dearly paid servant.

It is alleged by some that what the fungus obtains from the

alga is merely the excess of organic matter elaborated by the

latter, and that the alga is manured by the waste substances

produced by the fungus. Such conceptions of the physiology

of living organisms are anything but definite. According to

this, plant cells and plant bodies are leaky affairs from which

nutritious substances ooze in appreciable quantities. Every one

knows that this is not true. The ooze theory of the nutrition

of the associates in the lichen must, therefore, be abandoned.

It is said that, if the fungus were simply parasitic upon

the alga, the algal cells would not so rapidly multiply, would

not look so healthy as they often do in the lichen thallus.

Besides the reason already given for this, it seems to me cer-

tain, from my study of Ramalina reticulata, and of some others

252 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of our California lichens,! that the algal cells invested or pene-

trated by fungus filaments try by frequent division to produce

cells which shall be quite free from contact with hypha. The

contact of the hypha exerts an irritation which induces more

frequent division, and at a smaller size than normally takes

place in gonidia not in contact with hypha.. Gonidia may fre-

quently be found in the lichen thallus, large and wholly free

from contact with hypha.. These gonidia divide less frequently

than the others and are by all means nearest the typical algal

cells of the same species in size, color, form, thickness, and

composition of wall,etc. These free gonidia are fed with water

and mineral salts, are protected against drought and certain

other dangers, and may really benefit by being enclosed in a

mass of fungus hypha. Gonidia which are not merely loosely

enclosed in the lichen body but are tightly invested if not pene-

trated by hyphz, although they may be supplied with food

materials and may be protected, are also robbed of part of the

food they elaborate and are actually irritated by their associate.

That they are ultimately sucked dry by the fungus I have

recently shown in the paper already referred to.

In an increasing number of lichens it is being found that the

hypha not merely closely invest the gonidia, thereby making

possible the osmotic movement of elaborated food from alga to

fungus, but that the hyphz actually penetrate the gonidia by

haustoria. These haustoria either apparently merely penetrate

the cell-wall, pushing back the protoplasm, or they actually

penetrate the protoplasm also. Where it is possible to demon-

strate in any species of lichen that haustoria actually occur in

the gonidia, there can be no doubt that the association is of

unmixed injury to the alga, and of unmixed benefit to the

- fungus. The movement of aqueous solutions through the haus-

toria from the gonidia to the hyphze is different, however, only

slightly in degree and not at all in kind from that which takes

place between gonidia and closely clasping hyphal branches.

The absorption of food is easier, the parasitism more perfect

and more evident, when haustoria connect hyphz and gonidia

1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit.

No. 400. ] FUNGUS AND ALGA IN LICHENS. 253

than when the hypha merely enclose the gonidia, but the

hyphz are parasitic in both cases.

The foregoing argument, based on observations reported in

detail elsewhere,! shows, I believe, that there are no physiologi-

cal or structural reasons for supposing that the association of

fungus and alga in lichens is other than the actual parasitism

of the former upon the latter. If the lichens are merely fungi

and algz associated together as parasite and host, these associa-

tions are no less remarkable and interesting, though less moral,

than if they were ideal alliances for mutual aid. Experiment

has still to show whether the characters of the lichen thallus are

formed by the fungus mainly, or by the fungus under the influ-

ence of its host, how far substratum, illumination, nutrition,

etc., affect the character of the association. Experimentation

on lichens demands endless patience and considerable skill, for

lichens grow with prodigious slowness, and the chances of a

culture becoming infested with mould or bacteria before it has

accomplished the purpose designed are only too great. Some

of the problems puzzling systematic lichenologists can be

solved. only when illuminated by experimental culture of the

fungus component of the lichen thallus under definitely known

conditions.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CALIFORNIA,

January, 1900.

1 Peirce, G. J. Loc. cit.

A FLAGELLATED HELIOZOAN.

HOWARD CRAWLEY.

Ix sore water taken from the pond in the Botanical Gardens

at the University of Pennsylvania, in August, 1899, the two

Heliozoa here figured were found. :

Of these, that shown in Fig. 1 possessed a typical heliozoan

body of foamy protoplasm. There was a clear, colorless outer

layer, while the central portion consisted of an aggregation of

small spherical bodies, greenish, reddish, and yellowish in color.

The nucleus was invisible, and a contractile vacuole was not

observed.

The most striking feature of the animal was the pseudopodia.

These were of two kinds. The longer closely resembled those

of Actinophrys. They projected in a more or less radial direc-

tion and showed considerable freedom of movement, frequently

sweeping through large arcs. They always, however, preserved

their straightness. At different times they varied greatly in

length, and were often wholly withdrawn. i

The shorter pseudopodia were extremely delicate strands of

protoplasm that projected radially from the surface of the

animal. The outer end of each of these was modified in such

a way as to render it more conspicuous, but I was not able to

determine the exact nature of this modification. In the speci-

mens that were observed, the entire system moved in concert,

the movement consisting in an alternate lengthening and

shortening of the pseudopodia. Fig. 1 shows them at the

greatest length that I observed. | In such cases the spherical

body of the animal appeared as if inclosed by a definite ring.

At other times these pseudopodia were wholly withdrawn.

The animal was highly polymorphic, and occasionally, when

all the pseudopodia of both kinds were drawn in, its shape

departed so far from the spherical that it might have been

taken for a sluggish Amoeba.

255

256 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

On account of the clear cortical layer, the color of the

central mass, the two kinds of pseudopodia and the nature

of their movements, and the invisibility of the nucleus, the

animal bears a close resemblance to Vampyrella lateritia, as

described by Leidy (* The Fresh-Water Rhizopods of North

America," U. S. Geol. Sur., Vol. XII, Washington, 1879).

There is a discrepancy in the nature of the terminal modi-

fications of the shorter pseudopodia. Leidy states that these

resemble the head of a pin, which was not the case in the

Fic. 1.

animal that I found. Nevertheless, the appearances tally so

closely in all other respects that it may be referred to that

genus.

The second heliozoan, shown in Fig. 2, was exactly like the

first in all respects but one. The size, 80 & in diameter, was

the same. The long pseudopodia were identical in both animals,

and the bodies, with their clear cortices and colored central

masses, wholly alike. The difference consisted in the fact that

the short pseudopodia of the form shown in Fig. I were repre-

sented in the other by a mantle of flagella. This whole system

moved in unison, but the movement of each individual proto-

No. 400.] A FLAGELLATED HELIOZOAN. 257

plasmic process was the lashing of a flagellum, and not the

beating of a cilium.

While the spores of Heliozoa are in several cases flagellula,

the possession of a series of flagella by the adult forms has

been noted in but one other case. Eugène Penard (* Sur un

heliozoaire nageur, Myriophrys paradoxa, gen. nov., sp. nov.”

Arch, Sci. Phys. et Nat., Tome IV, No. 9, pp. 285—289, Pl. III,

I5 Septembre, 1897) describes a single individual which he

Fic. 2.

found in fresh water, also in August. This animal was about

40 in diameter. It was furnished with pseudopodia of the

Acanthocystis type, and possessed an external skeletal layer

beset with minute scales (écailles). There was a large con-

tractile vacuole and an evident nucleus. It therefore will be

seen that in several essential characters it differed wholly from

the form here described. Concerning the flagella, Penard says :

* On pourrait plutót comparer ces cils à de petits flagellums, qui,

par leur abondance, formeraient une véritable chevelure."

Penard considered the flagellated condition to be permanent,

258 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

and created for the organism a new genus and a new species.

He saw, however, but one individual. I was more fortunate in

that I found many individuals of the two kinds that I have

figured.

It is known that a pseudopodium may turn into a flagellum,

and, conversely, that a flagellum may turn into a pseudopodium.

This, together with the fact that these two animals were identical

in all respects but one, and that they occurred side by side in the

same drop of water, renders it very probable that they are only

different conditions of one and the same animal. There seems,

then, no good reason for creating a new name, and I accordingly

suggest retaining that used by Leidy, Vampyrella lateritia, even

though the definition of this species must be somewhat enlarged.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Feb. 5, 1900.

REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS:

A CRITICISM.

H. S. JENNINGS.

In the January number of the American Journal of Physiology,

Garrey ! gives the results of extended experiments on the effects

of chemicals in causing motor reactions in the flagellate Chilo-

monas. From the chemical side the paper is a valuable one, as

being the most thorough study yet made of the specific effects

of chemicals in causing reactions in unicellular organisms, and

in treating the subject from the standpoint of modern physical

chemistry. On the other hand, that portion of the paper which

treats of the part played in the reactions by the organisms

seems to me much less successful, and it is my purpose to

point out certain criticisms on this part of the work.

Garrey found that the motor reactions of Chilomonas are set

strongly in operation by certain chemicals, ** very swift shooting

movements being induced," so that the organisms, as a result

of these movements, soon leave the sphere of influence of the

substance in question. This effect is termed by Garrey “ chem-

okinesis’’; it is analogous to that which I have called “negative

Chemotaxis" in Paramecium. The chief portion of the paper

is devoted to determining the relative strength of various chem-

icals in causing this reaction, and the exact factors in the solu-

tions that produce the effect; interesting and valuable results

are here brought out.

In certain organic acids (acetic, butyric, lactic) and their

salts Garrey found the flagellates to form aggregations, as Par-

amecium does in solutions of CO2 and acids of all sorts ;?

! Garrey, Walter E. The Effects of Ions upon the Aggregation of Flagellated

Infusoria. Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. iii, pp. 291-31 5.

? Owing to the failure of his attempts to repeat my experiments with solutions

of CO, and inorganic acids, Garrey denies my results with Paramecia. His fail-

ure was unquestionably due to neglect to fulfill the necessary experimental condi-

tions. I have never known the experiments to fail when properly carried out.

239

260 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

these aggregations, he says, are due to “true chemotropism."

In that portion of the work which deals with the way in which

these aggregations are formed and with the part played by the

organism, it seems to me that Garrey neglects certain facts

that are absolutely fatal to the view of these matters which he

puts forth. He did not determine the mechanism of the reac-

tions of Chilomonas, — the exact way in which the organism

moves when stimulated, — and this seems to me the first requi-

site for an understanding of how the reactions are brought

about. Garrey’s point of departure is his definition of tropism

(which he says is the same as zaxis).

Taking heliotropism as a type, he says: “ In heliotropism the

organism is so oriented that its axis or plane of symmetry coin-

cides with the direction of the rays, and symmetrical points on

the surface of the body are struck by the light rays at the same

angle." He then quotes with approval, for the case of chemo-

tropism, Professor Loeb's generalization: * The essence of

chemotropic orientation would then consist in the animals plac-

ing themselves in such a position that symmetrical points on

the surface of the body are cut by the diffusion lines at the

same angle." The movement of Chilomonas into drops of

organic acid, Garrey says, is “true chemotropism," and he

states that the organisms move toward the center of diffusion

“as if orienting themselves to radially disposed lines ; lines

which may represent the paths of diffusing molecules or ions."

From this one might infer that Chilomonas actually does so

orient itself *that symmetrical points on the surface of the

body are cut by the diffusion lines at the same angle," and

then swims forward in this position, as required by the general-

ization; Garrey says nothing to the contrary. Yet the animal

does nothing of the sort. The very elementary fact seems to

have escaped Garrey that Chilomonas, as is well known, is

unsymmetrical, so that it is impossible for it to orient itself in

this manner ; there ave no such symmetrical points to be thus

cut. (In Chilomonas the so-called “upper” or larger lip lies at

the dorso-dextral angle of the anterior end, as will be seen by

consulting Fig. 9 ? of Pl. XLV of Bütschli's Protozoa, so that

the animal is unsymmetrical both dorso-ventrally and dextro-

No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 261

sinistrally.) Furthermore, observation of its movements shows

that it makes no attempt to do the impossible; instead of

retaining any such position as the generalization calls for, it

swims in spirals, a certain side of the animal being always

toward the inside of the spiral; as Bütschli says, they “de-

scribe rather narrow circles” (Bütschli, Flage//ata, p. 853).

These facts, of the lack of symmetry of the organism, and its

swimming in spirals, might be thought to be facts of capital

importance for a decision as to whether it falls under Professor

Loeb’s generalization or not; they are nowhere mentioned by

Garrey. It is well known that the Infusoria are prevailingly

unsymmetrical, so that it is quite impossible for most of them

to fall within this generalization. An attempt to apply it to one

of the Hypotricha, for example (see figure on p. 262), where not

only the form of the body but the structure and distribution of

the locomotor organs are strikingly unsymmetrical, would bring

out the absurdity of the attempt, and observation of the actual

movements of the organisms, as detailed in the Fifth of my

Studies,! only accentuates the impossibility. It may be re-

garded as axiomatic that a principle which requires the sym-

metry of organisms cannot be applied to organisms that are -

unsymmetrical. On this account I have not previously consid-

ered it worth while, in my Studies on Reactions, etc., to show

the relation of Professor Loeb’s well-known generalization to

the movements of the prevailingly unsymmetrical Infusoria.

The generalization was evidently made from a study of bilater-

ally symmetrical animals, and may be of the greatest value for

an interpretation of their activities; it is obviously inapplicable

to unsymmetrical organisms.

I have described the mechanism of the motor reactions of

Chilomonas, on pp. 231—234 of the same number of the Amer-

ican Journal of Physiology, as that in which Garrey’s paper

appeared. Later study of their reactions in the production of

the aggregations described by Garrey has convinced me that

these aggregations are produced through the mechanism of the

described motor reaction, in a manner exactly analogous to the

production of the similar aggregations of Paramecium in weak

1 Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. iii, p. 249.

262 THE AMERICAN. NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

acids, described on pp. 314, 315, of the Second of my Studies.}

This possibility is not discussed by Garrey, apparently because

of a preconceived view that chemotropism must take place ac-

cording to Professor Loeb's generalization above quoted. He

says: *Jennings's motor reaction cannot account for orienta-

and, therefore, that it has nothing to do with tropisms.

This unsupported sweeping denial seems a peculiar way of

meeting such a detailed account of the production of orientation

through the motor reaction as I have given for the thermotaxis

of Paramecium on pp. 334-336 of the Second of my Studies.

The general proposition that a motor reaction cannot cause

orientation seems still more remarkable. Consider an organ-

ism, as in the figure, lying obliquely to the line of action of

the incoming stimulus, which is indicated by the four straight

arrows. Its position is at first a-a. After the stimulus has

acted for a.time, the organism is found to be oriented as shown

at 6-8, with its longitudinal axis in the direction of the lines of

force. Now, how can this orientation possibly take place except

through a motor reaction? The animal has certainly moved

under the influence of the stimulus from the position a-a to the

position 4-4, and such a movement under the influence of a

stimulus is what is commonly known as a motor reaction.?

1 Amer. Journ. v Pio. vol. ii, pp. 311 -341.

2 Garrey's attempt to attribute to me the absurd idea that the principle of. a

motor reaction is new (/oc. ¿ity p. 313, note), is perhaps‘ unworthy of mention.

The comparison of the motor reaction of. Paramecium with that of a muscle,

No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 263

The essential feature of the characteristic motor reaction of

these organisms, as I have described it, is that they turn, when

they do turn, toward a structurally defined. side, whatever the

line of action of the stimulus. For example, the organism in

the figure (one of the Hypotricha) turns to the right, in the

direction indicated by the curve c-Z. But evidently the organ-

ism may come into the position 4— as easily by turning to the

right as by turning to the left; in the former case it must

simply keep turning somewhat longer. As a matter of fact,

orientation to most stimuli occurs in the Hypotricha in exactly

the manner illustrated — by turning to the right. This is true

for chemical, osmotic, mechanical, and thermal stimuli ; whether

for electric stimuli and light has not been shown.

The precision of the orientation, and whether a large number

of organisms will be oriented in the same way, depends upon

the question as to what influences produce the motor reaction.

Suppose that in the figure the stimulating agent is something

that acts steadily in lines coming in the direction of the

straight arrows. Now, I have shown in the Fifth of my

Studies that many of these organisms are much more sensi-

tive at the anterior end than elsewhere, so that a stimulus at

the anterior end produces a different effect from a stimulus

elsewhere on the body. When, therefore, the organism is so

oriented that the lines of force impinge directly on the anterior

end (position 4—0), it will, of course, be differently affected as

compared with a position in which the sensitive anterior end is

wholly or partly protected by the remainder of the body. Thus

different reactions may be caused in the two cases; in one

position the motor reflex may be caused, in the other not. If,

for example, the motor reflex is caused when the lines of force

impinge on even a small part of the anterior end, then the

organism will not cease giving the reaction until it is oriented

with anterior end directed away from the side of incoming

which Garrey makes for my information, I had already developed at length to

show their.identity in character, in two papers (Amer. Journ. of Phys., vol. ii, p.

339; Amer. Journ. of Psychol., vol. x, p. 513). I had counted it a chief result of

my work that it had reduced the supposed attractions and repulsions of these

organisms to a motor reflex “ of the same order as the motor reflexes of higher

animals," as I have expressed it elsewhere.

264 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

force. If a large number of such organisms are in the field of

the force, they will soon all show a common orientation, and

when they move they will all move in the same direction. Ad

that is necessary for orientation to take place in this way ts that

the organism shall be differently affected when tt is in one post-

tion from the way it ts affected in another position. It is diffi-

cult to imagine any agency that can cause orientation in which

this condition is not fulfilled.

When the organism is once oriented with reference to a con-

stant stimulus, of course no further reaction is necessary; it

simply keeps up the normal forward motion until this motion

brings it into new relations with the stimulus, when the motor

reaction is again caused, resulting in a readjustment of orien-

tation. In the hypothetical case above supposed, if the organ-

ism swims in a curve instead of a straight line, it will soon

come into a position such that the lines of incoming force

impinge on the sensitive anterior end ; the motor reaction is

thereby induced until the animal has come again into the

position where the anterior end is not thus affected.

Garrey says: “ All these motor reactions have nothing to do

with ¢vopisms, for these motor reactions are only the expression

of a very sudden change in the stimuli, while the characteristic

of the tropism is the stationary condition of the stimuli.” He

fails to consider the fact that, stationary as the stimuli may be,

the organisms with which he is dealing are zo stationary ; by

their own. movements the organisms come into new relations

with the stimuli, and these new relations may result in the

production of the motor reaction, causing a readjustment of

orientation.

To summarize, the chief points which I would make in criti-

cism of Garrey's conclusions are as follows :

1. In all work upon the reactions of organisms to physical

and chemical agents, it is necessary to consider the structure

and normal activities of the organisms, as well as the nature of

the agents acting as stimuli.

2. Orientation such that * symmetrical points on the surface

of the body are cut by diffusion lines at the same angle" (or

by any other lines at the same angle) is impossible in unsym-

No. 400.] REACTIONS OF INFUSORIA TO CHEMICALS. 265

metrical organisms, such as are a large proportion of the

Infusoria.

3. Observation of the movements of the Infusoria, both the

unsymmetrical and the symmetrical, shows that they do not

orient themselves even approximately in the manner above ex-

pressed, but that they swim as a rule in spirals, and orientation

usually takes place through a motor reflex, characterized by

the fact that the organism, when it turns, turns toward a

structurally defined side.

4. A sudden change in the stimulus is not necessary to pro-

duce a motor reaction, as Garrey has stated, for the organism

itself, by moving, comes into new relations with a constant

stimulus, and by these new relations the motor reflex may be

caused, resulting in a readjustment of orientation.

5. The gatherings of Chilomonas in drops of organic acid,

described by Garrey, take place, according to my observations,!

through the mechanism of the motor reaction of Chilomonas,

described in the Fifth of my Studies. Whether this is “true

chemotropism” or not depends on the definition of chemo-

tropism.

6. The orientation of Chilomonas takes place through this

motor reaction, and in general it is impossible for an unoriented

organism to become oriented except through a motor reaction

of some sort (except where passively moved, like a dead body).

ANN ARBOR, MICH., Feb. 6, 1900.

1 The observations on which this statement is based are detailed in a paper by

the author in the April number of the American Journal of Physiology.

THE BASAL SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG.

L. B. WALTON.

AT the base of each leg in the Hexapoda are a series of seg-

ments and sclerites which enter into the composition and serve

as a support of the appendage. These are the trochanter, coxa

genuina, meron! trochantin, and antecoxal piece. The difficul-

ties in the way of accounting for the origin of these segments

and homologizing them in the various orders have caused mor-

phologists more or less trouble.

By reason of the fusion which has.taken place between the

trochanter and femur in the Myriopoda and Hexapoda, many

writers on insect anatomy hold that the trochanter is merely a

portion of the femur which has in some manner become con-

stricted so as to form an apparent but not an actual segment.

The fusion, however, between the two parts is a specialization

acquired during the later embryonic stages of development.?

A similar case of ankylosis is often noticeable between certain

segments of the appendages in Crustacea. Bordage? has

advanced the theory, from observations based on certain Phas-

mida, that the two segments have become coalesced in the

Arthropoda as a result of ecdysis. Since the same fusion,

however, is very pronounced in the Myriopoda, particularly

among the Diplopoda, where Verhoeff * believes the trochanter

1 In order to distinguish between these two parts, which havé been confused

under the name “coxa,” I have called the piece articulating with the trochanter

coxa genuina, and the posterior lateral part articulating with the epimeron, meron

(from wig = thigh), since its lateral margin is always found in articulation with

the epimero

*The * recited trochanter " of Hymenoptera [Terebrantia] appears to be

a secondary modification, the lower part [‘‘afophysis,” Ratzeburg] being derived

from the femur. This is the view held by Sharp, Camé. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 520.

? On the Probable Mode of Formation of the Fusion between the Femur and

Trochanter in Arthropoda. Comptes Rendus de la Société de Biologie, tome v, No.

28, pp. 839-842, 1898. Also Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., vol. iii, pp. 159-162, 1899.

* Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Glomeriden.. 1895. _-

267

268 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

is in many cases entirely absent, it is evident that it is a

characteristic of a primitive stem form, and has not arisen, as

Bordage suggests, from an “ancestral form belonging to the

existing Phasmids in which there was a distinct articulation

between the two consecutive segments."! In addition to

ecdysis, insisted upon by Bordage,? we must take into consid-

eration various other selective factors, chief among which

appear to have been mutilations by enemies. The severing of

the segments, which resulted from either factor, would prob-

Fic. 1. Metathorax ; c, coxa genuina; m, n; eps, —: epm,

epimeron ; a, antecoxal piece; s, sternum; £ (?), Micuidbi 7 wienn J, femur

ably occur near the base of the appendage, and the favored

forms would be those in which the two segments were

approaching the fused condition, the invagination of the

chitinous wall preventing undue hemorrhage. Autotomy,

"which Bordage so fully explains, would undoubtedly play an

important part here. It also appears advantageous to poly-

1] have adopted the translation as given by Austen.

2 The position of Bordage in regard to the manner in which the fusion has

come about is clearly on the side of Neo-Lamarckianism, since he attributes it to

* a mechanical strain," and says that it is an “example of a character acquired by

use...and then transmitted by heredity.” This conclusion, however, as I have

BENEAT to show, seems unwarranted,

No. 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 269

podial forms that a series of the appendages move more or less

in unison, and it is obvious that such rhythmic motion is better

maintained with the articulation of a coxa and trochanter alone

than with an additional articulation between the trochanter

and femur. This may be a factor in accounting for the more

pronounced fusion of the two segments in the Diplopoda.

In 1893 Hansen! endeavored to homologize the trochanter

of the Hexapoda with the ischiopodite in Crustacea. This

homology was based on the supposition that the part assumed

by him to be the trochantin? in the Cicadaria (Cicadidzx, Ful-

X12

Fic. 2. — Hydrophilus triangularis. Mesothoracic coxa.

goridæ, Cixidæ, etc.) was the homologue of the coxopodite in

Crustacea. In referring to Machilis, he has considered the

trochantin of the prothoracic coxa as a primary segment, homol-

ogous with the coxopodite. From comparisons, however, with

both Chilopoda and Diplopoda, we would regard the trochantin

rather as a specialized character of the Hexapoda, which is

absent in the Crustacea. Homologies based upon the form of

the segment and manner of articulation certainly appear ques-

l Zur Morphologie der Gliedmassen und Mundtheile bei Crustaceen und

Insecten. Zool. Anz., pp. 193-198, ppr 1893.

2 It seems probable that Hansen has here applied the name * trochantin " to

the antecoxal piece and trochantin ses oce

270 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

tionable, since pronounced variations often occur within the

limits of a single group.

Until a closer relationship can be dion in the lines of de-

scent of the two groups, Hexapoda and Crustacea, it would

seem that an attempt to homologize the segments of the

appendages. would scarcely

be justified. For the time

being, we must assume that

the segmentation of an ap-

pendage is a result brought

about by certain indefinite

factors, and that in these

groups it does not neces-

' sarily imply a phylogenetic

relationship.

That the trochanter of the

Myriopoda and Hexapoda

X6 represents a distinct seg-

Wie. jiis raris Moewhewi ment doeme obvious, and

coxa; x, area formed by development of coxal that its fusion with the

groove [Fig. 4 ig and corresponding to lateral

portion of c, Fig femur took place in some

ancestral A tbe form appears probable.

Three sclerites, as a rule, enter into the composition of the

segment to which the name coxa is given, vís., coxa genuina,

meron, and trochantin. Audouin? applied the name “ trochan-

tin"? to the lateral margin of the posterior coxa (meron) in

Dytiscus circumflexus, erroneously believing it homologous with

the trochantin on the anterior and mesal coxa of Buprestis

1 Compare Arachnida, or, in Coleoptera, the metathoracic coxa of Dytiscus and

Hydrophilus

s Recherches anatomiques sur le thorax des animaux sien et celui des

insectes hexapodes en particulier. Ann. Sci. Wat., tome i, p. 12 24.

3 This word had been previously used by Chaussier [Littré, Dio. de Médecine,

p. 1632] during the latter part of the eighteenth century to designate a small

process on the upper part of the femur in the human skeleton. From the note

Audouin appends, he evidently felt some constraint in conforming to the custom

of transferring such terms to invertebrate anatomy when no homologies could be

demonstrated.

* In the metathorax of the Coleoptera the trochantin has been lost through

specialization, although traces of it are noticeable among many forms (H

philus, certain Cerambycidz, etc.).

No. 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 271

gigas, which he subsequently mentions.!_ Later, in his contri-

bution to Cuvier’s “Le Regne Animal," he figures the pro-

thoracic trochantin of Oryctes nasicornis. The present confused

terminology of these segments is due to the preceding error

of Audouin. Newport? made a somewhat similar error by

describing the anterior margin of the coxa (coxa genuina) in

Hydrous piceus, as the metathoracic trochantin. Among the

recent writers on insect anatomy, Packard? confuses the tro-

chantin with the meron;

Miall and Denny ® hold

that the occurrence of

the joint applied to the

coxa (trochantin) “is so

partial" that it need

scarcely be taken into

consideration ; Sharp*

believes with Packard

that the posterior part

of the coxa (meron) in

Panorpa represents the

trochantin ; while Com-

stock, in a description

of the metathorax in

Euchromia gigantea, Fis. 4.—Periplaneta orientali nego PC c', coxal .

agrees essentially with groove formed for reception of fem

the preceding, although he correctly figures the trochantin of

the prothorax and mesothorax. Lowne’ regards the piece

1 Etude de la poitrine ou des pattes inférieures et latérales du mesothorax.

Ann. Sci. Nat., tome i, p. 426, 1824. This is merely a continuation of Recherches

anatomiques

2 Todd’s elpeti of Anatomy and Physiology, p. 916, 1835-59-

8 Systematic Position of the Orthoptera in Relation to the Orders of Insects.

Third Report U.S. Ent. Com., 1880-82. A Text-Book of Entomology, p. 95, 1898.

* The Structure and Life History of the Cockroach, p. 61, 1886.

5 Camb. Nat. Hist., vol. v, p. 104, 1895

? Manual for the Study of Insects, p. 504, 1895. It was due to Professor Com-

stock’s suggestion of a possible error in considering the lateral margin of the meta-

thoracic coxa of Euchromia as the actual eg aud of the mesothoracic

trochantin, that the study leading to this paper was commenced.

T The Anatomy, Physiology, egt ca and vimm of the Blow-Fly,

vol. i, p. 179, 1890-92.

272 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

termed by him “ epitrochlea”’! as “certainly the trochantin of

Audouin," ignoring his previous suggestion that one should

adhere to the rule of priority. Several other writers, notably

Latzel (Chilopoda), Comstock and Kellogg (Lepidoptera), and

Kolbe (Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, and Panorpa), have mentioned

the existence of an apparent suture in the coxa of certain

groups under consideration, but without attempting to discuss `

its meaning.

Immediately in front of the metathoracic coxa, particularly

among the Coleoptera, a small sclerite is discernible, which

bears the name of ante-

coxal piece. .This is also

well shown in Cicada,

some species of which

(Cicada dorsata) possess

a piece homologous with

that found in the Cole-

optera ; while in others

(Cicada tibicen)? instead

of being chitinized, the

part is often membrana-

d^ ceous in structure, and

serves to retain the coxa

X12 more firmly in the coxal

Fic. 5.— Scutigera sp. Coxa An fusion of coxa Cavities, thus indicating

petto ei iaa its origin ; and the pres-

ence of a homologous piece in the mesothorax of many

Coleoptera (Passalus, etc.), occurring at the same time with the

trochantin, proves that it is distinct from the latter.

The origin of the three pieces, coxa genuina, meron, and

trochantin, the relative positions of which are shown in the

accompanying figures, is more difficult of explanation. A

Striking characteristic of the Hexapoda and Chilopoda is the

more or less complete fusion of the first two (coxa genuina and

1 The homology of this with the trochantin appears doubtful.

2 Although a good series was examined in which the other sclerites were well

chitinized, the absence of chitinization in the antecoxal piece may be the result of

immaturity. This, however, would not alter the conclusion.

No 400.] SEGMENTS OF THE HEXAPOD LEG. 273

meron) into the so-called coxa. Theoretically the episternum 1

and epimeron may be regarded as corresponding basal seg-

ments of these fused pieces, and taking into consideration the

apparent absence of a piece homologous with the meron in the

Diplopoda, we are led to the interesting inference that this

group represents a class in which each primitive metamere

bears a pair of appendages, while the Chilopoda and Hexapoda

represent a widely divergent class, in which two primitive

metameres have attained a more com-

plete fusion, the rudimentary append-

age belonging to each posterior segment

fusing with the base of the functional

appendage belonging to the anterior

metamere? The posterior appendage

would then be represented by the

meron and epimeron.* In this case

we can refer the origin of coxa genu-

tna and episternum, as well as the

meron and epimeron, to the same

causes which produce segmentation

in the appendage. The trochantin

appears to be nothing more than a

part of the antecoxal piece, a lateral

prolongation of which became con-

stricted off in a primitive form.

Again we are confronted with the

question as to the origin of the ap-

pendages in the Arthropoda, whether they are ventral or dorsal

parapodia, or a fusion of the two, as in Nereis, or whether the

ing with meron and epimeron,

1 Frequently tl to be cut off from the coxa by the sternum

or by the trochantin, buth in esis cases the coxa is usually prolonged internally, so

that it west the epistern

nt there dry to be better evidence for believing that these pieces

Ph a fusion of the segments than to hold that an exopodite and entopodite

are represented.

8 A study of the position and homologies of certain of the pleural and dorsal

sclerites in Hexapoda and Chilopoda appears to confirm this inference.

* While thus far the Petty of embryological evidence appears to be against

this view, it seems possible that secondary modifications have caused a misinter-

pretation of the lines of cidem

274 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

origin was entirely independent of the parapodia. A study of

Peripatus appears to throw no light on the subject under dis-

cussion, beyond indicating that in using the term “ primitive

metamere °” we must not exclude the idea that such a metamere

may in turn represent a fusion of an indefinite number of

annuli. Evidence is thus added to a segment-fusion theory

rather than to the biramose theory.

While it appears possible that the exopodite and entopodite

in Crustacea may have developed from dorsal and ventral para-

podia, in direct contrast to the manner indicated above for the

Chilopoda and Hexapoda, further study may show a common

origin of the two processes.

SUMMARY.

In Hexapoda and Chilopoda the “coxa” is composed of two

more or less fused segments, coxa genuina and meron.

The antecoxal piece results from the chitinization of the

membrane connecting the coxa with the sternum.

The trochantin probably originated from a lateral portion of

the same membrane.

Audouin erroneously homologized the lateral margin of the

posterior coxa in Dytiscus circumflexus with the trochantin of

the prothorax and mesothorax. s

The trochanter represents a distinct segment of the legs.

The meron and cora genuina, together with their corre-

sponding basal segments epimeron and episternum, give evi-

dence of a fusion between two primary metameres in the

Hexapoda and Chilopoda.

In Hexapoda and Chilopoda the anterior metamere bears the

functional, and the posterior, the rudimentary leg.

Of the primitive Hexapoda, Neuroptera [Planipennia] exhibit

the most generalized condition in the development of the coxa,

while in Thysanura and ers sel a high pris of speciali-

zation is shown.

ANATOMICAL LABORATORY, BROWN UNIVERSITY.

October 27, 1899. —

NOTES ON THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES.

R. W. SHUFELDT.

Last year Dr. C. O. Whitman of the University of Chicago

delivered a very able lecture on * Animal Behavior," it being

one of the biological lectures from the Marine Biological

Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.! In the leading paragraph

Dr. Whitman very truly points out the fact that ‘animal behav-

ior, long an attractive theme with students of natural history,

has in recent times become the center of interest to investiga-

tors in the field of psychogenesis. The study of habits, in-

stincts, and intelligence in the lower animals was not for a long

time considered to have any fundamental relation to the study

of man's mental development. Biologists were left to cultivate

the field alone, and psychologists only recently discovered how

vast and essential were the interests to which their science

could lay claim " (p. 286). This is as true a statement as has

been made in the premises in question in any connection, and

the person who has paid any attention to psychological literature

during the last ten years is well aware of the fact that in the

discussions that have been going on there on the subject of

instinct and intelligence, the psychologist has been compelled

over and over again to draw upon the observations made by

the biologist upon the habits and physiology of animals in order

to lay down the very base for his theories in regard to the afore-

said faculties. Professor Whitman's recent researches have lent

a powerful impulse to the interest taken in this subject, the

more so from the fact that being a trained biologist himself,

and possessed of a keen appreciation of the modern advances

in psychology, he has been enabled to attack the question in

the double capacity of naturalist and psychologist. So far as

the writer’s present information carries him, the researches of

this observer have been chiefly devoted to the studying of the

1 Boston, Ginn & Company, 1899.

275

276 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

habits and behavior of leeches (Clepsine), the large fresh-water

amphibian Necturus, and to the various species of wild and

domestic pigeons.

From these he draws very broad conclusions, so without

entering upon a discussion of the theories touched upon in this

meritorious memoir, for I have already done that elsewhere,! the

present paper will take into consideration only such facts as

concern the behavior of fishes. Moreover, what is here said

will refer in particular but to the true bony fishes, or Teleostei,

although, for aught that is known to the contrary, it is probably

true of the entire group. Aside from some few well-known

exceptions (Amblyopsis and congeners), that fishes possess

excellent visual powers, even to the extent of keen discrimina-

tion between objects, there can scarcely be any manner of

doubt. Therefore their appreciation of light and their sensi-

tiveness to it follow as a natural consequence. Further, there

is every reason to believe that fishes are so organized that they

are extremely sensitive as to any disturbance of the element in

which they live, when such disturbance is made within the

range of the power of their nervous organization to appreciate

it. Whether any fish is as sensitive in this respect as a leech

(Clepsine) I think is an open question, for, as Whitman has

shown, we have but to touch with extreme care with a point of

a fine needle the surface of the water over a leech, when the

latter is in a dish containing it, to see the animal suspend the

act of respiration, s/ightly expand its body, and hug closer to

the glass or china dish wherein it has been placed. This exper-

iment must be performed with great caution, for any undue dis-

turbance will effectually defeat the looked-for result. The very

extreme sensitiveness of the creature is absolutely remarkable.

Coming now to the sensitiveness of fishes, I take occasion to

quote in full a note that Professor Eigenmann furnished Dr.

Whitman with for use in his paper on “ Animal Behavior.” ;

it runs as follows: ** Chologaster papilliiferus, a relative of the

blindfishes living in springs, detects its prey by its tactile

organs, not by its eyes. A crustacean may be crawling in

1 R. W. Shufeldt, M.D. Animal Behavior. Popular Science, vol. xxxiv, No. 3,

PP- 45, 46. New York, N.Y., March, 1900.

No. 400. ] IE PSFYCHOLOUPF OF- FISHES. 277

plain view without exciting any interest, unless it comes in

close proximity to the head of the fish, when it is located with

precision and secured. The action is a very strong contrast to

that of a sunfish, which depends on its eyes to locate its prey.

A Gammarus seen swimming rapidly through the water and

approaching a Chologaster from behind and below was captured

by an instantaneous movement of the Chologaster, when it

came in contact with its head. The motion brought the head

of the Chologaster in contact with the stem of a leaf, and

Fic. 1.— The Snowy Grouper (Epinephelus niveatus), juv. Photographed from life

by R ldt.

instantly it tried to capture this also. Since the aquarium was

well lighted, the leaf in plain sight, it must have been seen and

avoided if the sense of sight, and not that of touch, were

depended upon.

“In Amblyopsis, the largest of the blindfishes of the Ameri-

can caves, the batteries of tactile organs form ridges projecting

beyond the general surface of the skin. Its prey, since it lives

in the dark and its eyes are mere vestiges, is located entirely by

its tactile organs. This is done with as great accuracy as could

be done with the best of eyes in the light, but only when the

prey is in close proximity to the head. Coarser vibrations in

278 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the water are not perceived or are ignored, and apparently

stationary objects are not perceived when the fish approaches

them. Ifa rod is held in the hand, the fish always perceives it

when within about half an inch of it, and backs water with its

pectorals. If the head of a fish is approached with a rod, the

direction from whence it comes is always perceived and the

correct motion made to avoid it. This reaction is much more

intense in the more active young than in the adult. One

young about 10 mm. long determined with as great precision

the direction from which a needle was coming as any fish with

perfect eyes could possibly have done. It reacted properly to

avoid the needle, and this without getting excited about it.”

That fishes with perfect eyes depend entirely upon them in

the detection and capture of their prey is easily proved by the

difference in their behavior when feeding in perfectly clear or

in muddy water. This experiment can be made ina large

aquarium containing a number of hungry black bass, and turn-

ing a few small yellow perch loose among them. If the water

be clear, short work is made of the victims, but their capture is

made less and less certain the muddier the water happens to

be. It is more than likely that some of the semi-blind deep-

sea fishes, as, for example, Mancalias shufeldtit, are quite as

sensitive to disturbances of a very delicate nature of the water

in their immediate neighborhood as is Amblyopsis of the Mam-

moth Cave of Kentucky. Onthe other hand, the eyes of some

of these fishes have come to be of enormous size in proportion

to the size of their owners, and this to gain all the available

light possible. Consequently, there is probably a compensat-

ing distinction in this regard among such fish as I have here

noticed; in other words, the more perfect the sight the less

need of a highly organized sensitive apparatus and vice versa.

But now comes another question in the behavior and psy-

chology of fishes that will require a far greater knowledge on

our part of the habits and history of these vertebrates, before

biologists will arrive at anything like a unanimity of opinion

regarding the matter, or the observations in the premises, and

the observed facts are sufficiently numerous to insure the solu-

tion of the entire problem. It involves the whole question of

No. 400.] THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES. 279

instinct and intelligence and some of the knottiest points in

the entire range of biology. It has been observed in fishes

that many of them have the habit of “pausing before the

bait" prior to making a seizure with the jaws. This, accord-

ing to Whitman, has its origin in fear, and he studied quite

closely the corresponding, though somewhat different series of

acts in Necturus. It is an instinctive timidity rather than a

strategic approach of the fish not to alarm its prey and thus

defeat capture. The long and careful series of experiments

made by Professor Whitman in the case of numerous speci-

mens of Necturus, both young and old, seem to prove very con-

clusively that their intensely shy behavior, when approaching

their prey or food, is due to an innate timidity or really fear.

Young sunfishes (Lepomis) I have studied for many years at

different times and places in aquaria, and I have observed the

habit in the young of that species of “ pausing before the bait,”

or really their food, prior to taking it. The same behavior

obtains in the adult sunfishes, but in them it can be overcome

by education to a large extent, for I have seen them immedi-

ately attack in numbers one’s finger when placed in the water

of the aquarium containing them; whereas, when the experi-

ment was first tried, they evidently all stood in great fear of the

object, however gently it was placed in the water. A study of

the young and old of Chztodon in this connection and the method

of some of the species of that genus of taking their prey would

be interesting.

In speaking of the marked timidity of Necturus in the tak-

ing of its food or seizing its prey, Professor Whitman says:

* If this series of acts represents an organic sequence, and if

the behavior as a whole takes the form determined by the

organization, as seems to me beyond reasonable doubt, we have

an instinct the history of which may be coextensive with the

evolution of the animal. We stand at the end of an intermi-

nable vista. The specific peculiarities of organization in Nectu-

rus form but an infinitesimal element of the problem. Scarcely

a feature of the instinct belongs exclusively to Necturus. It

is at least widely diffused among vertebrates, especially among

fishes. The differences in the manner of execution among dif-

280 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ferent forms, so far as I have observed, are of quite a super-

ficial nature. The instinct evidently has its root in the general

instinct of preying, which is doubtless coeval with animal

organization " (p. 307).

In the adults of some species of fish it is very evident, in the

matter of seizing their prey, that the elements of both Zesz/a-

tion and fear are entirely absent, as witness the bold rush of

the pike to capture a minnow, or the manner in which a trout

or a salmon instantly takes the artificial fly. Hundreds of sim-

ilar cases could easily be cited.

This autumn the writer has been making photographs of liv-

ing rare fishes at the building of the U. S. Fish Commission at

Washington, D. C., and among them were some beautiful spec-

imens of the young of the Snowy Grouper (Epinephelus nivea-

tus) (see figure 1) and the Big-eye (Pseudopriacanthus altus).

Both of these species exhibit a most remarkable behavior under

certain conditions. The Snowy Grouper, for instance, when over-

teased in any way, or sometimes without even that provocation,

or when its food is presented to it, whether the act be voluntary

or involuntary, passes through a peculiar fit or spasm, simulating

all the symptoms of a dying fish. Not only this, but the speci-

men so behaving changes in color from the normal brownish-

black to a pale leaden hue, and as the spasmodic stage of the

attack subsides, the fish comes to lie perfectly motionless upon

its side, or else floats on the bottom, belly upwards. It will

remain in this condition for nearly half an hour, when signs of

animation again make their appearance, and the individual grad-

ually assumes its former normal condition and color. The Big-

eye is another species exhibiting somewhat similar attacks under

nearly like conditions, but this species, I am told, sometimes

dies in one of its more violent spasms. It is a well-known fact

that some species of large fishes that prey upon smaller species

will not devour them unless captured when making an exciting

attempt to escape and in full vigor of health. They will not

touch a dead specimen, or even one in the act of dying. I have

noticed this especially in the case of pickerel. Now this pecul-

iar fit that seizes the young of the Snowy Grouper may be due

to the result of an acute reaction caused by fear; but, on the

No. 400.] THE PSYCHOLOGY OF FISHES. 281

other hand, it may be something of the nature of “feigning

death," and thus be useful to the form in nature. . Possibly

there may be some large form in the seas that preys upon

young Snowy Groupers, and prefers to take them only in the

excitement of actual chase, and ignores a dead or dying one.

If this chance to be true, these peculiar **fits" of Epinephelus

and. Pseudopriacanthus are in favor of the preservation of the

species. Indeed, we are hardly yet upon the threshold of our

knowledge of the habits and dehavior of fishes in nature, much

less are we enabled to solve the problem in an untold number

of cases, how in any special instance any special act in a fish's

behavior first arose, and whether that act is wholly or only in

part prompted by instinct. Whitman’s “Animal Behavior”

and similar memoirs will in the future have a beneficial result

in stimulating investigation and research in such directions.

A NEW MUSEUM TABLET.

FRANK C. BAKER.

For the past five years the writer has been experimenting

upon a durable and convenient museum tablet, which would

remain perfectly flat when the label and specimens were

attached, and which would give the largest amount of exhibi-

tion room with a minimum of label area. Such a tablet has

been worked out by the writer and a short description of it

may be of interest to those having the same problem to meet.

I might say, however, that the idea was first conceived while

examining the tablets in the American Museum of Natural

History, New York, upon which are mounted Hall’s types of

fossils.

The foundation is No. 20 binder’s board, which has been

found quite heavy enough for all practical purposes. About

the edge of this is bound black gummed paper, similar to that

used for binding lantern slides. The center for the specimens

and label is next prepared, and for this the writer has selected

a grade of manilla cardboard identical with that used for herba-

rium genus covers ; this is of a rich cream color and does not

fade when exposed to the light, and presents a surface admi-

‘rably setting off the black, full-faced type used. At a first

glance a finished tablet appears as though made of ivory.

This board is cut just enough smaller than the tablet to allow

a black border of an eighth of an inch. For very light speci-

mens a black center is used, cut just small enough to allow an

eighth of an inch of light margin between it and the black

border of the tablet, and also to leave room for the label which

is generally 3 x 1 inch.

In securing a good black the writer was compelled to resort

to a thin black paper used by paper-box manufacturers, as no

printer seemed able to print a uniform black, the first ones

printed being gummy, and the last shading into a gray. The

283

284 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

black center is first pasted upon a manilla board with good

library paste, and then the board is attached to the tablet by

simply gumming the edges with a thin solution of Le Page's

glue poisoned with corrosive sublimate to keep insects away.

At this point the tablet must be placed under a press to dry,

in order to avoid warping. The writer has used thin sheets of

lead for this purpose, which have been very successful.

After drying for three or four hours the tablet is ready for

the labels and specimens ; the former being printed upon the

same stock as the tablet cover, and attached by putting a few

drops of glue upon the ends and in the middle, and placed

under a press for an hour or so. For order, class, family, etc.,

a tablet 3 x 1 inch has been adopted and the printed label

glued to it. For genera a tablet 3 x % inch has been found

desirable. The tablets have been graded in the following

sizes, the unit width being three inches : 3 X 2, 3X 4, 3X6,

3X9, 6x6, 9X9. These sizes will accommodate any speci-

mens save those which should be placed in special upright

cases. The larger tablets, 6 x 6 and 9 x 9, will need to have a

piece of heavy paper pasted on the reverse side, to keep them

from warping. The specimens are attached to the tablets with

Le Page's glue.

The expense of these tablets will not exceed one and a half

cents each, and several hundred can be manufactured in a day.

A case installed in this manner presents a handsome appear-

ance and greatly increases the facility for examination.

It has been urged by some that the tray is better adapted

to museum purposes than the tablet, on account of the danger

of mixing species. In answer to this the writer would say

that the collections of the Chicago Academy of Sciences have

been mounted upon tablets for the past six years, and up to

the present time no mixing has taken place. Of course care

must be used, with the tray equally as with the tablets, to

guard against accidents. The new tablet spoken of above has

been in use in the institution mentioned for the past five

months.

THE LOWER AND MIDDLE SONORAN ZONES IN

ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO.

T. D. A. COCKERELL.

FoR some years it has been a matter of controversy whether

the Mesilla Valley (3800 ft. altitude) in New Mexico should be

regarded as Lower Sonoran. The present writer classed it as

Upper Sonoran, and later placed it in an intermediate zone,

which he proposed to call Middle Sonoran. Dr.C. H. Merriam,

on the other hand, regarded it as true Lower Sonoran, and so

mapped it.

The writer, unfortunately, had never been able to study the

true Lower Sonoran until his visit to Phoenix last year. This

visit, while undertaken for other purposes, enabled him to

reach some new conclusions, which are here set forth. While

the discussion is largely technical, it is hoped that it will arouse

some general interest, as the conclusions reached are of practi-

cal as well as theoretical interest.

We have in New Mexico and Arizona a number of fertile

valleys, of which the Salt River and Mesilla Valleys are per-

haps the most important. The Salt River Valley, in particular,

is said to export more fruit than all the rest of Arizona com-

bined. Now these valleys, between them, have to supply cer-

tain markets, and it is of the highest importance to each one

that it should produce that which grows to a reasonable degree

of perfection and finds a ready sale. If the valleys all belong

in the same zone, they may be expected, speaking broadly,

to produce the same crops, and it may be that in so doing

they will overstock the market. But if there is in reality a

great diversity in the agricultural conditions of the several

valleys, so that they not only differ in detail but belong to

different life zones, — this is a fact of the utmost practical

importance, since it indicates that there may be such diversity

in products as almost to avoid injurious competition. More-

285

286 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

over, if this diversity exists, it is of great value to the ranch-

man or orchardist to be made aware of it, since he will not

then waste time and money by setting out plants which cannot

be expected to succeed.

As a matter of fact, such problems as these have already

been largely solved in the cultivated areas, by the experience

—often tedious and expensive — of the residents. But they

have not been solved for the areas which may yet be brought

under cultivation, nor are the facts sufficiently accessible to

residents in other states who expect to locate in the arid west.

Yet again, even those residents who are satisfied with what their

own locality will produce, are usually not acquainted with the

possibilities of other districts, possibilities which affect them

in so far as they affect the markets.

Last spring the writer had the pleasure of meeting Dr.

Merriam at Washington, and at his suggestion made for him

alist of the commoner trees and shrubs of the Mesilla Valley.

Dr. Merriam, glancing over this, at once said : ** With possibly

one or two exceptions, these are a// Lower Sonoran types."

My investigations in the Salt River Valley have convinced me

of the justice of this statement, and it may be said at once

that, so far as the native flora is concerned, the Mesilla and

Salt River Valleys may very well be placed in the same zone.

The illustrative data given further on suggest more precisely

the actual condition of affairs. Many of the plants which are

abundant and conspicuous in the landscape are entirely the

same, while others are so similar that they may be held to

indicate rather the fact that we are three hundred and odd

miles to the west of the New Mexico Valley than in a different

life zone. In the list of insects common to the two valleys,

also, we find many of the characteristic Mesilla Valley types,

described as new from thence in recent years. The absolute

differences, discussed under headings 3 to 5, are important

in their way, and doubtless will be emphasized by further

research; but it is at least questionable whether they indicate

a different life zone, or, rather, whether they would fice

one if no other facts supported the division.

Turning now to the cultivated products, the conditions are

No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 287

entirely different. The contrast, instead of being weak, is of

the strongest possible kind; and if the valleys compared are

not in different zones, then life zones have no meaning for the

horticulturist. We thus arrive at this conclusion :

In the arid west the influences of temperature upon the

cultivated, irrigated plants, derived from moister regions, are

very much greater than upon the native plants or animals,

which have become so adapted that they endure without harm

enormous variations of heat and cold.

Hence it results that from the horticulturist’s standpoint,

the Middle Sonoran zone is a very real division, and belongs

rather with the Upper than the Lower Sonoran. We may

almost define the Middle Sonoran as a zone having the culti-

vated products of the Upper Sonoran and the native products

of the Lower.

It will of course be understood that the data here given are

only illustrative, and the time is not ripe for statistical tables.

It will be a matter for future research to determine the exact

details of the differences between the two zones. It is reason-

ably to be expected, however, that we may by patient study

find native species of plants and insects which afford reasonably

close indications of the horticultural zones, and thus enable us

to decide the zonal position in advance of cultivation. Such

decisions will be greatly assisted when we are in possession of

more precise meteorological data, but unfortunately we know too

little at present about the daily variations of temperature in the

several localities where weather observations have been made,and

the differences between the temperatures of adjacent localities.

Although Tucson is considerably higher than Phoenix, it is

undoubtedly Lower, as distinguished from Middle, Sonoran.

Oleanders, olives, Washingtonia and date palms, pepper trees,

and a cultivated Parkinsonia were seen there; and Professor

Toumey tells me there is a “hot pocket" some fourteen miles

to the east, where orange trees are growing. -

One circumstance which artificially emphasizes the horti-

cultural distinction between the Mesilla and Salt River Valleys

is, that in the latter it is possible to irrigate the higher levels

at the side of the valley, while in the former only the bottom

288

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

[Vor. XXXIV.

CULTIVATED PLANTS OF SALT RIVER VALLEY AND THE

MESILLA VALLEY.

SALT River VALLEY.

MzsiLLA VALLEY.

PLANT. (Minimum winter temperature, | (Minimum winter temperature,

gaa FY) 9° F.)

Date palm. Does well. Cannot stand the winter cold.

Washingtonia palm. ditto. ditto.

Olive. itto. ditto

Orange. Does well at the sides of the ditto

valley.

Almond. Will bear a good crop if| Cannot escape the frost in

protected by smudges. spring.

Peach. Does well. -| Does well.

Pear. ditto. itto

Apple. Climate too hot and dry in| ditt

summer.

Fig. Tree grows well without pro- | Killed to the ground in ex-

tection, but not successful| posed places; grows well

| asacropon account of the| and fruits abundantly when

dryness. protected by four walls.

Pomegranate. Does well; much used for Small plants growing in pro-

edges. tected situations

Grape. Wine grapes do well.

Oleander.

Pepper tree(Schinus).

Sorghum.

Alfalfa.

Sugar beet.

Irish potato.

Raisin and wine grapes do

well.

Does well.

` ditto.

ditto.

Does well, but summers rather

too hot and a

Can be grown in the cool part

of the year, Feb.-May.

Can be grown fairly well from

Feb.-May.

Winter too cold.

Not tried; winter doubtless

Grows to perfection.

Summers probably too: hot

for best results; Feb.-May

too cold.

Summers too hot; Feb.-May

too co

lands are under ditch.

In the cold weather the cold air settles

in the lower lands, leaving the sides of the valley relatively

warm, and hence it is that oranges can be cultivated with great

success in the region about Ingleside, while they do not suc-

_1 From the observations made by Mr. W. G. Burns of the Weather Bureau at

Phoenix it appears that the lowest temperature at that paz in n January, 1900, was

34° F., but on Feb. 7, 1899, the mercury fell as low as 24°

No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 289

ceed commercially at Phoenix. The Larrea in the Mesilla

Valley occupies only the higher levels, its lower limit, a little

distance from the valley bottom, being as clean-cut as if it had

been planted. But in the Salt River Valley the Larrea covers

the whole area, and grows to a great size in the bottom lands,

which are never so cold as to injureit. It is the desert land,

once occupied by the Larrea, which has under irrigation been

converted into the most flourishing orchards ; and could the

Larrea land of the Mesilla Valley be irrigated the results would

doubtless be most gratifying.

These examples show us the value, on the one hand, of an

exact knowledge of temperature conditions; and the fallacy,

on the other, of mapping the temperature for the entire country

from the observations made in a few widely scattered localities.

Thus the temperature tables for Phoenix would not apply to

Ingleside, nor those for Mesilla Park to the bench a couple

of miles away. The writer has discussed the subject from his

own standpoint, that of the fauna and flora ; but he would not

be understood to undervalue in any degree the knowledge of

temperature in mapping life zones; all he would urge is, that

for the proper mapping of zones on the temperature basis, we

need a mass of information we do not possess, and are not

likely to possess in the near future.

REPRESENTATIVE Facts REGARDING THE NATIVE FAUNA

AND FLORA.

(1) Species Common to the Mesilla Valley and Salt River Valley.

PLANTS.

Perezia nana Gray. Larrea tridentata DC.

Pluchea (Tessaria) borealis Gray. _ Cladothrix lanuginosa Nutt.

Pectis papposa Harv, and Gray. Hoffmanseggia stricta Benth.

Aster spinosus Benth. Populus Jremonti inm

Helianthus annuus L. Salix fluviatilis

Baccharis glutinosa Pers. Atriplex canescens rn Tun) James.

Verbesina encelioides (Cav.) Gray. Datura meteloides

No attempt was made to catalogue the flora. The plants

above cited are merely some of those which are so abundant

and conspicuous as to give a character to the landscape.

290

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

[Vor. XXXIV.

Besides the identical species of Baccharis and Atriplex, the

Salt River Valley has another Baccharis and two other species

of shrubby Atriplex not found in the Mesilla Valley.

It seemed to me that the cottonwoods (Populus fremonti) of

the Salt. River Valley were not perfectly identical with those

of the Mesilla Valley, but the species is presumed to be the

same.

INSECTS.

Colias eurytheme Boisd.

Pyrameis cardui (L.).

Lycena exilis Boisd.

Libythea bachmani carinenta

(Cram.).

Synchloë lacinia Geyer (larvæ on

Xanthium and sunflower).

Heliothis armiger Hubn. (Buckeye).

Asphondylia neomexicana (Ckll.).

A, atriplicis (Towns).*

Diplosis atriplicicola Ckll.*

Chilocorus cacti (L.).

Drosophila ampelophila Loew.

pyramicus Rog.

Hesperotettix viridis (Thos.).

Spherophthalma dona-ang | Ckll..

and Fox.*

S. foxi Ckll.

Coleophora suedicola Ckll.

(Tempe).*

Eromene (Euchromius) ocellea

Haw.) Zell. (Buckeye).

Megilla maculata (De Geer).

Aphalara suede, Schwarz. MS.

(Tempe).

Allorhina mutabilis Gory.

Microcentrum retinervis Burm.

Dicraneura cockerelli Gill.*

Stictocephala festina Say.

Eriococcus tinsleyt Ckll. (leaf-form).*

Phenacoccus helianthi Ckll.*

Calliopsis coloradensis coloratipes

Perdita asteris Ckll.*

P. salicis Ckll.

Exomalopsis solani Ckll. (Tempe).*

Agapostemon melliventris Cress.

(Tempe).

Halictus pseudotegularis Ckll.

H. meliloti Ckll.*

Prosapis mesille Ckll. *

Mellisodes agilis Cress.

Cockerellia albipennis helianthi

Aspidiotus juglans-regie albus

Ckll.*

Hormilia elegans Scudder.*

The species and varieties marked with an asterisk were

originally described from Mesilla Valley specimens.

I have included some species found at Buckeye, as, although

this is not actually in the Salt River Valley, it is virtually

part of the same region.

No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 29I

(2) Representative Species similar to, but not identical with, those

of the Mesilla Valley.

PLANTS.

Spheralcea variabilis n. sp. — The common perennial Spheralcea of the

alt River Valley, which at first sight might be taken for S. /oóata

Wooton, pines common in the Mesilla Valley. The leaves vary from

IX to over 3 inches long, and resemble in shape those of lobata, being

quite long, with obtuse lateral lobes ; but they average broader, are some-

what more regularly and finely crenulate, or the margins almost entire,

and the living leaves have the surface, and especially the margins, much

more wrinkled. The difference between the plants, as seen living, is

sufficient to strike the eye, but it is a difference in average rather than

absolute characters. There is, however, one character of greater value ;

the carpels of lobata are conspicuously cuspidate, whereas in variabilis

they are rounded at the top, and bear no cusps. It may therefore be

said that variabilis resembles lobata in its leaves, but angustifolia rather

in its fruit. The basal portion of the carpels is very strongly reticulated,

as in lobata. The flowers are as in lobata. This plant is here called

ecies, being about as distinct as the other members of its series —

angustifolia, lobata, and fendleri; but it would be possible to regard

variabilis as a race of lobata, or both as races of fendleri

SS. variabilis was found freely blooming about phali in October.

It is not so tall a plant, on the average, as S. dodata.

Jsocoma acradenia (Greene) Greene. — This is the common Bigelovia of

the vicinity of Phoenix, exactly occupying the place taken in the Mesilla

Valley by Z. heterophylla wrightii. I had confused the Phoenix plant

with Z. hartweg?, but I found the real hartwegi (certified as such by Dr.

Greene) abundant at Tucson, taking the place of acradenia. Z. acra-

denia has the flowers of hartwegi, with the foliage (only smaller) of

_ heterophylla wrightii.

Cucurbita palmata Watson.— Common in the Salt River Valley, taking

the place of the Mesilla Valley C. fetidissima.

Prosopis velutina Wooton. — The mesquite of Arizona, found at Phoenix,

Mesa, Buckeye, Tucson, etc., is distinct from P. glandulosa Torrey, the

mesquite of the Mesilla Valley.

Acacia greggii Gray. — Abundant in the Salt River Valley ; much larger

than the species of the Mesilla Valley.

Echinocactus lecontei (Engelm.) Toumey. — This barrel cactus takes the

place of the Mesilla Valley Æ. wislizeni Engelm.; the latter, however,

occurs at Tucson. Æ. /econtei is usually considered a variety of E.

wislizeni, but when I saw it, it seemed to me distinct, and Professor

Toumey tells me that it is a valid species.

292 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Kallstremia grandiflora 'Torrey. — Very abundant in Phoenix; a very

beautiful flower, which ought to be in cultivation. It is allied to the

much less conspicuous X. drachystylis Vail. of the Mesilla Valley.

K. grandiflora arizonica Ckll, with much smaller flowers and much

shorter flower stalks, is also common at Phoenix.

K. californica (Wats.) Vail. det. Wooton, was found near Buckeye.

It has never been seen in the Mesilla Valley.

Croton sp. — The common Croton of the Mesilla Valley is C. neomexicanus.

At Phoenix I found in its stead a tall species closely allied to C. texensis,

but less leafy at the top, and with very much denser pubescence on the

leaves. No description has been found to fit it, and it may be

undescribed.

Lycium gracilibes Gray. — Abundant in the Salt River Valley, taking the

place of the Mesilla Valley Z. Zorreyz.

INSECTS.

Spherophthaima gloriosa (Sauss.) takes the place in the Salt River Valley

of S. pseudopappus in the Mesilla Valley. This is a so-called “ velvet-

ant,” covered with long white hairs.

(3) Species entirely different from those of the Mesilla Valley.

PLANTS.

Cereus giganteus Engelm. — The giant cactus.

Holacantha emoryi Gray. — The crown of thorns.

Parkinsonia torreyana Wats. and P. microphylla 'Torrey. — The two

species of palo verde.

Hetherotheca subaxillaris (Lam.) B. and R.—A yellow flowered composite,

very abundant throughout the Salt River Valley. Itis doubtless native,

as I found two new bees (Perdita mellina Ckll. and P. heterothece

Ckll.) specially attached to it.

The above are conspicuous in the landscape ; no attempt was

made to catalogue the less conspicuous forms.

SCALE INSECTS.

It is an interesting fact that allied or identical plants in the

two regions under consideration are in certain cases infested

by entirely different scale-insects. Thus:

‘The Larrea in the Salt River Valley is infested by Dactylopius irishi Ckll.

and Yachardia larree Comst., while the same plant in the Mesilla

Valley produces Dactylopius steelii Ckl. and Towns., Zcerya rileyi

Ckll. and Eriococcus larree Parrott and Ckll. —

The mesquite (Prosopis velutina) in the Salt River Valley is infested by

KXerophilaspis prosopidis Ckll. and Thiaspi arizonicus Ckll;

No. 400.] ZONES IN ARIZONA AND NEW MEXICO. 293

Tucson it produces Aspidiotus candidulus Ckll, Toumeyella mirab-

is CklL, Eriococcus quercus toumeyi Ckl. and the Xerophilaspsis.

The mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) of the Mesilla Valley produces

Icerya rileyi Ckll and Dactylopius prosopidis Ckl. The mesquite

(Prosopis juliflora) of Jamaica produces Zcerya rose R. and H. and

Dactylopius virgatus Ckll.

(4) Species of the Mesilla Valley absent from the Salt River Valley.

A curious case is that of the mistletoe of the cottonwood, Phoradendron

macrophyllum (Phoradendron flavescens var. macrophyllum Engelm.,

Bot. Wheeler Surv., p. 252) which is abundant and destructive on the

Populus fremonti of the Mesilla Valley, but does not go up the valley

of the Rio Grande as far as its host, or down into the Salt River Valley,

where the same cottonwood abounds. Itis not that it is absent from the

Gila basin, for it was first described from the Gila and Bonita Rivers.

Its absence from the —— mee — is oe sé aopa

McClatchie; and, indeed,

The bag-worm (Oz£eticus NONAS of the Mesilla Valley, piee com-

mon.at Tucson, was not observed in Salt River Valley.

(5) Ants of Buckeye and the Mesilla Valley.

A series of ants collected at Buckeye was kindly determined

for me by Mr. Ernest André, and it appears that the ant-fauna

of this region has little in common with that of the Mesilla

Valley, as witness the accompanying lists :

MESILLA VALLEY.

Camponotus maculatus maccooki Pogonomyrmex barbatus Sm. (race

Forel

. fuscatus).

C. marginatus decipiens Emery. P. badius Latr.

Formica subsericea subpolita Mayr. P. californicus Buckl.

Forelius maccooki Forel. Monomorium minutum Mayr.

Lasius umbratus bicornis F oerst. M. pharaonis

Dorymyrmex pyramicus Rog. Pheidole morrisi Forel.

Aphenogaster albisetosa Mayr. Solenopsis geminata Fabr.

A. cockerelli André. Cremastogaster leviuscula clara

Tapinoma anale André. ayr.

T. sessile Say. . Labidus harrisii (Hald.).

Atta (Trachymyrmex) n. sp.?

BUCKEYE.

Atta versicolor Perg. Dorymyrmex pyramicus Rog.

Cremastogaster atra Mayr. Prenolepis vividula guatemalensis

_Aphenogaster pergandei Mayr. Forel.

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES. VIII.

THE Isopopa. — PART II.

ASELLOTA, ONISCOIDEA, EPICARIDEA.

HARRIET RICHARDSON.

In addition to the references to the literature already given

in Part I of the Synopsis of the Isopoda is the following list of

papers pertaining especially to the fresh-water forms.

1871.

1874.

1876.

1881.

1890.

1899.

PACKARD, A. S. The Mammoth Cave and its Inhabitants. Amer.

Nat. Vol. v, p. 751.

SMITH, S. I. The Crustacea of the Fresh Waters of the United

States. Rept. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1872-1873. Pp. 657-661.

FORBES, S. A. List of Illinois Crustacea, with Descriptions of New

Species. Budi. I. State Lab. N. H., No. 1, pp. 8-13.

HARGER, Oscar. Description of Mancasellus brachyurus, a New

Fresh-Water Isopod. Amer. Journ. Sci. (3). Vol. xi, pp.

304, 305.

PACKARD, A. S., and Core, E. D. The Fauna of Nickajack Cave.

Amer. Nat. Vol. xv, pp. 879-880.

GARMAN, H. A New Fresh-Water Crustacean. Bull. Essex

Institute. Vol. xxii, pp. 28-30.

Hav, W.P. Description of a New Species of Subterranean Isopod.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.’ Vol. xxi, pp. 871, 872.

SYNOPSIS OF THE ISOPODA (continued).

IV. ASELLOTA.

a. Eyes generally present. First pair of legs prehensile or subcheliform.

à.

ast three pairs of legs ambulatory, not natatory.

Three posterior segments of thorax not sharply marked off from the

four anterior ones, and not smaller. Caudal segment large, shield-

like. Eyes, when present, lateral or subdorsal, not placed on

peduncle-like projections of the head. Superior antennz issuing

close together. Legs subequal in length.

295

296 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

c. Lateral parts of head scarcely expanded. Eyes, when present,

small, lateral. Peduncle of inferior antenne without small

accessory appendage outside of third joint. Legs ambulatory,

except first pair, which are distinctly subcheliform ; legs with

dactylus generally uniunguiculate. First pair of pleopoda in

female very small, not operculiform. Outer lamella of second

pair very large and incrusted, so as to form, together with

the corresponding lamelle of the other side, a sort of oper-

culum, covering the two succeeding pairs.

Family XV. Asellidz

c. Lateral parts of head lamellarly expanded. Eyes, when present,

usually subdorsal. Peduncle of inferior antenne generally

with small accessory appendage outside of third joint. Legs

ambulatory, except first pair, which are sometimes prehensile ;

legs with dactylus generally bi- or tri-unguiculate. First pair

of pleopoda in female transformed into a single, large oper-

culum. Outer lamellz of two aca pairs narrow and

confluent with basal part . . Family XVI. Janiride

&. Three posterior segments of it, ‘as a rule, sharply marked off

from four anterior ones, and much smaller. Caudal segment

more or less vaulted above, subpyriform. Eyes, when present,

placed on the tips of lateral peduncle-like projections of the head.

Superior antennæ placed widely apart. First pair of legs much

shorter than others. Succeeding pairs more or less rapidly

increasing in length . . Family XVII. Munnidæ

Eyes wanting. First pair of S bdbicbbesstté: Last three pairs of

legs natatory, with some joints flattened and ciliated. First pair of

legs shorter than three following pairs. Second, third, and fourth

pairs very elongate . . . . . . Family XVIII. Munnopside

FAMILY XV. ASELLIDH (FRESH-WATER ISOPODA).

Mandibles without a palp. Last six pairs of = with dactylus biun-

guiculate Mancasellus Harger

Mandibles wits a dives: jobohed potis Lari six t pue of ad uniunguicu-

ate.

5. Eyes present. Body oblong, depressed. Head seca narrower and

shorter than first thoracic rar Caudal segment not longer

than broad . . . Asellus Geoffroy

F. Eyes wanting. Body dong, ul narrow. Head large, not narrower

than first thoracic segment, and longer. Caudal segment much

longer than broad . . . . o . Ceeidotea Packard

Genus Mancasellus Harger.

Lateral margins of head entire. :

Mancasellus brachyurus Harger, Virginia

No. 400.1] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 297

a’. Lateral margins of head not entire.

à. Lateral margins of the head with a deep cleft on either side.

Mancasellus macrourus Garman, Ky., Tenn.

2’, Lateral margins of the head with a large rounded sinus on each side

in the middle.

c. External antennz as long or longer than the body.

Mancasellus lineatus (Say), South Carolina

c. External antenna half as long as the body.

Mancasellus tenax Harger, Lake Superior

Genus Asellus Geoffroy.

a. Caudal stylets, or uropoda longer than terminal abdominal segment.

Post-lateral margins of head without spines.

6. Caudal stylets broad and flattened. Propodus of first pair of legs

much enlarged and subglobular, with a prominent acute tooth

about, or a little above, the middle, and a lobe bearing one or two

acute teeth near the base on its palmar margin.

Asellus communis Say, Conn., Penn., Ind., Il., Mich., Miss.

&. Caudal stylets extremely narrow and cylindrical. Prapodüs of first

pair of legs narrow, elongate, without prominent acute teeth on

its pen margin.

Asellus attenuatus Richardson, Virginia

a’. Caudal stylets shorter than terminal abdominal segment. Post-lateral

margins of head produced into prominent lobes bearing spines.

à. Post-lateral lobes bearing each several stout spines. Lateral margins

of all the thoracic segments except the first with no emargination.

Flagellum of first pair of antenne consists of eleven to thirteen

joints. Caudal stylets broad and flat, half as long as terminal

abdominal segment . . . Asellus brevicauda Forbes, Illinois

&. Post-lateral lobes bearing each a single spine. Lateral margins of

all the thoracic segments except the first distinctly emarginate.

Flagellum of first pair of antennze consists of nine joints. Caudal

stylets broad and flat, but narrower than in 4. brevicauda, and

three-fifths as long as terminal abdominal segment

Asellus intermedius Forbes, Illinois

Asellus tomalensis Harford, California

The description of this form is so meagre and insufficient that it is

impossible to place it in the key with the other species of Asellus.

Genus Czcidotea Packard.

4. Caudal stylets nearly half as long as body; basal joint or peduncle

nearly twice as long as inner ramus; outer ramus from one-third to

one-half as long as inner branch. First pair of antenne short, reach-

ing but little beyond the second joint of the second pair of antenne.

Cecidotea stygia Packard, Ind., Ill., Ky.

a’. Caudal stylets no longer than terminal abdominal segment ; basal joint

or peduncle shorter than innér ramus; outer ramus most as long as

298 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

inner branch. First pair of antennz long, reaching to the end of the

third joint of the second pair of antennz, and being nearly twice as

long as those of C. stygia.

Cecidotea nickajackensis Packard, Tennessee

FAMILY XVI. JANIRIDA.

a. Eyes dorsal Antennz of the first pair well developed, with multi-

articulate flagellum, or with flagellum rudimentary. Antennz of the

second pair long, with multi-articulate flagellum; peduncular joints

not dilated. Mandibles with a three-jointed palp, and with cutting

part separated from molar part by a deep incision.

6. Head without any true rostrum. First pair of antennz extremely

small, with flagellum rudimentary. Second pair of antenne of

moderate length, without any distinctly squamiform appendage.

First pair of legs not prehensile. Uropoda iud small,

branches very short, nodiform . FOE each

&. Head with. prominent rostral ecce Cr in us. or xe a

comparatively short rostral projection. First pair of antennz well

developed ; flagellum multi-articulate. Second pair of antenna

very much elongated, with a well-marked, scale-like appendage

outside of third joint. First pair of legs prehensile. Uropoda

largely developed, with branches slightly unequal.

c. Head with lateral parts produced to very prominent acute lappets.

Segments of thorax with lateral parts laciniate and produced.

Caudal segment aE ood on each side, at the end, a triangular

expansion . Ianthe Bovallius

c. Head with bue jeu not PRIUS into lappets. Segments

of thorax with lateral parts not produced, not laciniate. Caudal

segment rounded, not expanded laterally . . Janira Leach

a’. Eyes lateral. Antenne of the first pair small, with flagellum obsolete.

Antennz of the second pair short, with peduncular joints dilated,

rudimentary flagellum composed of five articles, and equal in length

to the width of the head. Mandibles with a three-jointed palp, and

with cutting part composed of five teeth . . . Jzropsis Koehler

Genus Jara Leach.

a. Anterior margin of the head broadly excavated on each side over the

* bases of the antenna. Extremity of terminal segment notched for

the insertion of the uropoda, the median point being almost imper-

ceptible . . . . Jara marina (Fabricius), JV, surface

a’, Anterior margin of the nad nearly straight. Extremity of terminal

segment with a double excavation, the median point reaching the

extremity of the sides . . . . Jæra wakishiana Spence-Bate, A

Genus Ianthe Bovallius.

&. Head with prominent rostrum.

No. 400.1] ANORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 299

b. Lateral margins of head produced into two angulations. Terminal

segment of the body, with central posterior portion acute, triangu-

lar. Epimera evident . . ZJanthe triangulata Richardson, D

V. Lateral margins of the head produced in one anterior angulation.

Terminal segment of the body, with central ere portion

nearly straight, rounded. Epimera not eviden

c. Rostrum as long as the head. Flagellum of ES pair of antennae

12-articulated, shorter than the breadth of the head. Fla-

gellum of second pair of antennz 5o-articulated. First

thoracic segment shorter than second. Second and

third segments equal, and longest, much longer than

seventh. Terminal segment smooth on dorsal side,

without spine-like tubercle. Peduncles of uropoda

longer than postero-

lateral angulations of

terminal segment.

Janthe spinosa (Har-

ger), W, 80-100 fms.

Fic. 12. — Jeropsis Fic. 13. — Munna Fic. 14. — Eurycope

lobata. fabricii. cornuta.

c. Rostrum much longer than head. Flagellum of first pair of

antenna 60-7o-articulated, nearly as long as the breadth of

the head. Flagellum of second pair of antennz 280-articu-

lated. First thoracic segment as long as second. Seventh

segment longest. Terminal segment of body, with a single

spine-like tubercle on its dorsal side. Peduncle of uropoda

shorter than rd angulations of terminal segment

of body . . Janthe speciosa Bovallius, V

a’. Head without iet d, in place o à which i is small median point.

Janthe erostrata Richardson, A

Genus Janira Leach.

a. Anterior margin of the head straight.

Janira maculosa Leach, JV, 100-116 fms.

a. Anterior margin of the head not straight.

300 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

6. Front of head three-lobed, the center lobe subacute, rather longer

than others, but not rostrate. . Janira occidentalis Walker, P

&. Front of head produced in the middle in a short, sharp rostrum, and

the antero-lateral angles of head also produced.

c. Antero-lateral angles of head sharp. Lateral margins of first

four thoracic segments obtusely incised, each showing two

broad angulations. Uropoda of female shorter than half the

terminal segment; those of male as long as terminal segment

of body . . . Janira tricornis (Krøyer), JV, 5-50 fms.

c. Antero-lateral sates of the head shorter and less sharp. Mar-

gins of the first thoracic segment rounded, not emarginate.

Uropoda alike in the two sexes, and as long as the terminal

segment of the body.

ints alta (Stimpson), W, 35-300 fms.

Genus Jaropsis Koehler . . . . . Jeropsis lobata Richardson, D

FAMILY XVII. MUNNID2.

Genus Munna Krøyer.

a. Caudal segment, with lateral edges evenly convex, and each armed with

a single slender denticle ; apical lamelle distinctly serrated. Eyes

large. Superior antennae, with flagellum composed of four joints,

including very small apical joint. Flagellum of inferior antenne

longer than peduncle. Last pair of legs scarcely longer than body.

Legs slender. Uropoda obliquely truncate at tip.

unna fabricii Krøyer, W, 12-200 fms.

a’. Caudal segment, with lateral edges rather bulging in front, and each

armed with four strong denticles; without any serrulated lamellz.

Eyes small. Superior antennz, with flagellum composed of three

articulations, including very small apical joint. Flagellum of inferior

antennz not attaining the length of the peduncle. Last pair of legs

scarcely longer than anterior division of body. Legs shorter and

stouter than usual. Uropoda produced at tip into several dentiform

projections, one of which is hook-like.

Munna kréyeri Goodsir, JV, 10—60 fms.

FAMILY XVIII. MUNNOPSID.

a. Head of moderate size, deeply emarginate on each side for the insertion

of the antennz ; frontal part produced. First four thoracic segments

transversely excavated dorsally. Superior antennz, with flagellum

multi-articulate. Natatory legs of the same structure, carpal joint

ő. Body, with anterior division much broader than posterior ; three

posterior segments densely crowded together. Caudal segment

No. 400.] JVORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 301

oblong-oval. Mandibles without any molar expansion; cutting

structure, though somewhat different in size; two succeeding

pairs elongated. Dactylus wanting on natatory legs. Uropoda

simple, biarticulate . . . . . Munnopsis M. Sars

/. Body, with anterior division less skarpy marked off from posterior ;

three posterior segments very large and broad. Caudal segment

semioval. Mandibles with molar expansion ; cutting edge divided

into strong teeth. First pair of legs shorter than three succeed-

ing pairs, which are subequal in length, and very much elongated.

Dactylus distinct on natatory legs. Uropoda biramous, branches

Single-jointed . . . . Eurycope G. O. Sars

a’. Head very large and bend. iaae truncated in front, lateral

parts greatly expanded. First four thoracic segments slightly exca-

vated transversely. Superior antennæ, with flagellum not much

elongated. First two pairs of natatory legs of similar structure,

carpal joint large and expanded, cordiform ; last pair much narrower

than two succeeding pairs, carpal joint but slightly expanded. a

segment triangular in form . . . + Ilyarachna G. O.

Genus Munnopsis M. Sars . Wiede bos M. Sars, V, 20-122 ws

Genus Eurycope G. O. Sars.

Eurycope ioris G. O. Sars, N, 119—220 fms.

Genus Ilyarachna G. O. Sars

PNR hirticeps G. O. Sars, JV, 100-227 fms.

V. ONISCOIDEA (Terrestrial Isopoda).

a. Buccal mass not very prominent below. First maxillæ, with two plu-

mose setæ on the inner plate. Mandibles with molar expansion

obsolete, e vd triturating surface, it being replaced by brush-

like recurved se

6. External d generally long, close together, with antennal

openings large. Body, as a rule, scarcely able to be contracted

into a ball. Head less sanfte immersed in first thoracic seg-

ment. Lateral parts of the head separated by a vertical mar-

ginal and infra-marginal line. Clypeus arched. Legs generally

long. Uropoda produced, reaching beyond the terminal segment

of the abdomen and the preceding segment. Terminal segment

narrower than preceding ones and — produced at end.

amily XIX. Oniscide

6’, External antennz generally short, with lae openings small.

Body able to be contracted into a ball. Head immersed in first

thoracic segment. Lateral parts of the head undifferentiated.

Clypeus perpendicular. Legs generally short. Uropoda short,

flattened, not reaching beyond the terminal segment of the

302 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

abdomen or the — segment. Terminal € short

and broad . . Family XX. Armadillidide

a’. Buccal mass Laine Fir irst Pos with three udis setz on the

inner plate. Mandibles with molar expansion large and broad, exhib- -

iting a finely fluted triturating surface.

6. Head without any lateral lobes, frontal part rounded. Eyes well

developed or wanting. Inner antennz with last joint very small,

and without distinctly developed sensory filaments. Posterior

maxillae with two thick hairy bristles. Maxillipeds with terminal

part distinctly.five-articulate, masticatory lobe truncate at tip,

epignath short. External sexual appendages in male double.

Inner branches of first pair of pleopoda of a similar structure in

both sexes, that of second pair in male terminating in a long

stylet. Both branches of uropoda styliform.

Family XXI. Ligiide

&. Head with distinct, though not very large lateral lobes, front more

or less produced. Eyes small or wanting. Inner antennz with

last joint well dcmlüped and tipped with a number of delicate

sensory filaments. Posterior maxille without any bristles.

Maxillipeds with terminal part generally imperfectly articulated,

masticatory lobe terminating in a thin lash, epignath narrow,

linguiform. Sexual appendage of male simple; inner branch of

both first and second pairs of pleopoda transformed for copulative

purposes. Uropoda with branches conically tapered.

Family XXII. Trichoniscidae

' FAMILY XIX. ONISCID2.

a. Flagellum of external antenna biarticulate. External opercular ramus

of the first, second, and rarely of the third, or all the pairs of abdomi-

nal appendages furnished with trachee.

6. Abdomen abruptly narrower than thorax. Epimera of all the

ominal segments small, subappressed.

Metoponorthus Budde-Lund

%. Abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax. Epimera of all the

abdominal segments large, prominent, well developed.

c. Body very convex, capable of being rolled up into a perfect ball.

Joints of the flagellum of the external antenne subequal.

Last abdominal segment reaching very little beyond the

epimera of the preceding segment. External branches of the

uropoda equal in both sexes. External opercular branch of

all the abdominal appendages furnished with trachez.

Cylisticus Schnitzler

c. Body more or less depressed, with lateral parts lamellarly ex-

panded. Joints of the flagellum of the external antennze with

No. 400.] JVORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 303

the first joint generally longer than the second, often subequal,

or even alittle shorter. Last abdominal segment generally not

reaching beyond the epimera of the preceding segment. Ex-

ternal branches of the uropoda longer in the male than in the

female. External opercular branch of the first and second pairs

of abdominal appendages, and, in some of the species, of all

the pairs, furnished with trachee . . . Porcellio Latreille

Flagellum of external antennz triarticulate. External opercular ramus

of the abdominal appendages containing no special respiratory organ.

b. Front of head produced at the middle and at the sides in tubercles ;

lateral tubercles hornike . Alloniscus Dana

&. Front and sides of head not brodiond 4 in EN With or with-

out lateral lobes.

c. Abdomen abruptly narrower than the thorax. Epimera of

thoracic segments small. Epimera of abdominal segments

. very small, but manifest. External branches of the uropoda

styliform . . Philoscia maye

cœ. Abdomen not svipür- narrower r hes horas. Epimera of

thoracic segments large. Epimera of abdominal d

arge. External branches of the uropoda conica

d. Surface of body granulated or tuberculate. pea of all

the thoracic segments with the posterior angle acute.

Basal article of the uropoda oblong, with the outer side

obliquely carinated. . Oniscus Linnzus

d'. Surface of body setigerous, acsi: Tandika. Epimera

of the first three thoracic segments with the posterior

angles roundly obtuse, of the fourth segment straight,

d of the other segments acute. Basal article of the

uropoda short and broad, with the outer side sulcate.

Lyprobius Budde-Lund

Genus Metoponorthus Budde-Lun

a. Inner-mala of the right nina with four to five, of the left mandible

with six pencils of hairs. Second and third joints of the peduncle

of the second pair of antenna furnished with a small apical tooth ;

first joint of flagellum much longer than second joint. No middle

frontal lobe. Color brown, or reddish-brown

Metoponorthus pruinosus Brandt, North America

a’. Inner mala of the right mandible with four, of left mandible with five

pencils of hairs. Second and third joints of the peduncle of the

second pair of antennae without small apical tooth; first joint of

flagellum shorter than second. Middle frontal lobe small, widely

rounded. Color varying from gray to black, with three longitudinal

lines of white spots . Metoponorthus virgatus Budde-Lund, Florida

Genus Cylisticus Schnitzler.

Cylisticus convexus De Geer, North America

304 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV.

Genus Porcellio Latreille.

a. Surface of body smooth.

à. Frontal median lobe of head rounded, a little produced. Articles

of the flagellum of the external antenna equal in length. Last

segment of the abdomen with its extremity widely rounded.

Porcellio formosus Stuxberg, California

&. Frontal median lobe of head more acute, minute. First article of

the flagellum of external antenne equal in length to the other, or

a little longer. Last segment of the abdomen with its extremity

acute. . . . . . Porcellio levis Latreille, North America

Fre. 15. — Alloniscus perconvexus. Fic. 16. — Actoni llipti

a’. Surface of body roughly granulate or tuberculate.

6. Inner mala of the mandibles with four to five pencils of hairs.

Body with spots.

c. Third joint of the peduncle of the second pair of antenne fur-

nished with a small apical tooth. Frontal lateral lobes of

moderate size. Color varying from gray to black, with three

longitudinal lines of white spots. Flagellum with joints sub-

equal, or first shorter than second.

Porcellio rathkei Brandt, North America

c. Second joint of the peduncle of the second pair of antennz

furnished with a large apical tooth. Frontal lateral lobes

large. Color yellow; body spotted with black, spots arranged

in longitudinal lines. Flagellum with first joint a little longer

than second joint. Porcellio spinicornis Say, North America

&. Inner mala of the right mandible with four to five pencils of hairs,

of left mandible with seven to eight pencils. Body without

spots. Frontal lateral lobes of head large, oblique.

Porcellio scaber Latreille, North America

No. 400.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 305

Genus Alloniscus Dana.

a. Surface of body very densely granulated. Margins of epimera serrated.

Alloniscus mirabilis Stuxberg, California

a’. Surface of body punctate.

6. Lateral processes of head large, prominent.

— Alloniscus cornutus RRA California

V. Lateral processes of the head small, scarcely prom

Alloniscus dedi Debe Or., Cal.

Genus Philoscia Latreille.

4. Body smooth, without spines.

4. Body striped with two broad dorsal bands.

Philoscia vittata Say, North America

&. Body not striped, but dotted with numerous spots

c. Frontal marginal line straight. Color varying from black to

brown, with white spots.

Philoscia nigricans Budde-Lund, Louisiana

c’. Frontal marginal line produced in the middle, a little arcuate.

, Color violet, with white spots.

‘Philoscia brevicornis Budde-Lund, Louisiana

a’. Body with numerous spines above . Philoscia spinosa Say, Georgia

Genus Oniscus Linnzus.

a. Caudal segment a Bue shorter than inner branch of the uropoda.

Oniscus asellus Linnaeus, North America

4'. Caudal segment exactly equal to the inner branch of the uropoda

Oniscus affinis Say, North America

Genus Lyprobius Budde-Lund.

Lyprobius pusillus Budde-Lund, California

FAMILY XX. ARMADILLIDID.

4. Outer branch of the uropoda small or very small, smooth. Clypeus

with the superior margin entire, lobated at the sides. First thoracic

segment, often the second also, with the epimera posteriorly cleft,

rarely entire. Exterior opercular branch of all the pleopoda furnished

trac b

a’. Outer Vivi of the uiios iiti flattened, tankaliee Clypeus with

the superior margin lightly sinuated, not lobated. Epist of the

first thoracic segments simple, entire. Exterior opercular branch of

the first and second pairs of pleopoda furnished with tracheæ.

Armadillidium Brandt

Genus Cubaris Brandt. . Cubaris cali d Semaine California

baris affinis (Dana), California

NEA Piin pisum (Bndide- Lund), Florida

Genus Armadillidium Brandt.

Armadillidium vulgare (Latreille). North America

306 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

FAMILY XXI. LIGIDÆ.

a. Uropoda with branches equal in length, styliform, often filiform. In-

terior mala of the mandibles with numerous pencils of hairs. Last

segment of body broad, with distinct epimeral plates. Maxillipeds

with palp 4—5-jointed ; epignath rounded. . . . Ligia Fabricius

a’. Uropoda with branches unequal in length.

é. Extremity of uropoda furnished with two long apical bristles. In-

terior mala of the right mandible with three pencils of hairs, of

the left mandible with five pencils of hairs. Last segment of

body small, and without any epimeral plates. Maxillipeds with a

five-jointed palp; epignath narrow, linguiform. Ligidium Brandt

/. Extremity of uropoda not furnished with two long apical bristles.

. Styloniscus Dana

Genus Ligia Fabricius.

4. External antennz shorter than the body.

4. Uropoda about equal to half the length of the body.

Ligia occidentalis Dana, D, Littoral

&. Uropoda not equal to half the length of the body.

c. Uropoda equal to one-fifth i length of the body.

igia pallasii Brandt, AP, Littoral

c. Uropoda nearly equal to Bonum the length of the body.

igia oceanica (Linn.), W, Littoral

a’, External antennz longer than body or equal to length of y. Uro-

poda about equal to two-thirds the length of body.

Ligia exotica Roux, D, Littoral

Genus Ligidium Brandt.

a. Inner process of the basal article of the uropoda three times shorter

than the external terminal branch; internal terminal branch reaching

the apex of the external branch; the two terminal hairs equal in

length to the external branch.

Ligidium hypnorum (Cuvier), P, Littoral

a’. Inner process of the basal article of the uropoda four times shorter

than the external terminal branch; internal terminal branch long,

extending much beyond the apex of the external branch, being a sixth

part longer; the two terminal hairs short, equal in length to half the

external branch. . . Ligidium tenue Budde-Lund, A, Littoral

Genus Styloniscus Dana . CM A gracilis Dana, California, Littoral

Genus Euphiloscia Packard. . . Euphiloscia elrodit Packard, Indiana

This genus probably belongs here.

FAMILY XXII. TRICHONISCIDA.

a. Abdomen abruptly narrower than thorax. Head rounded in front, with

distinct, though small lateral lobes. Terminal abdominal segment

truncate attip . . . . «+ . Trichoniscus Brandt

No. 400.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 307

a’

Abdomen not abruptly narrower than thorax.

. Head rounded in front, not lobated at the sides. Abdominal epim-

era but little developed — . . - Scyphacella Smith

&. Head triangularly produced in front; with ices lateral lobes.

Abdominal epimera lamellarly expanded.

c. Body sculptured dorsally with more or less distinct longitudinal

ribs. Terminal abdominal segment truncate at apex. Basal

segment of the i Rie not simulating the epimera of the

preceding segmen Haplophthalmus Schóbl.

c&. Body not ipsc. done aiin abdominal segment

rounded posteriorly. Basal segment of the uropoda simulating

the epimera of the preceding segment . Actoniscus Harger

Genus Trichoniscus Brandt.

Trichoniscus pusillus Brandt, North America at Niagara

Genus Scyphacella Smith . . . Scyphacella arenicola Smith, W, Beach

Genus Haplophthalmus Schóbl.

Haplophthalmus puteus Hay, fresh water, Indiana

Genus Actoniscus Harger. . . Actoniscus ellipticus Harger, JV, Beach

VI. EPICARIDEA.

a. Body of female distinctly segmented, more or less asymmetrical, twisted

either to right or left. Maxillipeds lamellar, biarticulate, and more

frequently exhibiting a small terminal joint. Legs seven pairs, some-

times obsolete on one side. Incubatory plates five pairs, more or

less arching over the ventral surface of the thorax. Pleopoda form-

ing simple or double lamellz, all of the same structure, rarely obso-

lete. Male with all the segments of the thorax sharply defined.

Last larval stage with the flagellum of the antennz 4-articulate ;

legs of uniform structure; uropoda with inner branch shorter than

outer. Parasitic on decapodous Crustacea.

Family XXIII. Bopyrida

a’. Body of female perfectly symmetrical, the segmentation only visible, as

a rule, in the middle of the dorsal face. Maxillipeds lamellar, with-

out any terminal joint. Only five pairs of legs present. Incubatory

plates comparatively small, sometimes greatly reduced in number,

and scarcely at all partaking of the formation of the marsupium,

which constitutes two separate cavities, bounded by the lateral walls

of the body itself. Pleopoda generally rudimentary or wholly absent.

Male with head and first segment of thorax coalesced. Last larval

stage with the flagellum of the antennz 5-articulate; legs of the

first pair shorter and thicker than the others; uropoda with the

branches subequal. Parasitic on Schizopoda.

Family XXIV. Dajidz

308 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

FAMILY XXIII. BOPYRIDE.

a. Elongated appendages attached to the sides of the thorax in the female.

6. Branchiz affixed to the sides of the abdomen in both sexés. Ab-

dominal branchiz in the male slender, bcne. ; in the female

branching . lone Latreille

&, Branchie affixed to the va of ‘the olid in the female.

dominal branchiæ wanting in male; in female these appendages

are simple sacs, not branching . . Cx &Argela Dana

a’. Thorax in female without elongated dida:

5. Body of female with one side greatly swollen and much longer than

other. Segments of thorax only visible dorsally, coxal plates

only present on shorter side. Abdomen consisting of five seg-

ments. Only first leg present on larger side, others wholly

obliterated. Four pairs of pleopoda presni Male with abdomi-

nal segments fused. Phryxus Rathke

/. Body of female with ipie: side Goode "Thorsx distinctly seg-

ment Abdomen consisting of six segments. All the legs

prescut on both sides.

s oed in female obsolete, replaced by fleshy ridges. Uropoda

wa Bopyroides Stimpson

c. anie in female sini Diodi distinct

d. Legs of female with an adhesive process (exopod) attached

to the coxal joint of the legs. This process is papillose

in the first four pairs, rudimentary in the last three.

Terminal joint of legs is inflated, without claw. Abdomi-

nal appendages elongated, coarsely pinnate.

epon Duvernoy

d'. Legs of female without exopod. Terminal joint of legs n not

inflated. Abdominal appendages not pinnate.

é. Pleopoda well developed, biramous.

Pseudione Kossmann

g. Lateral margins of abdominal segments divided by

marginal furrow into superior and inferior rami;

inferior rami conical, papilliform ; superior rami con-

sisting of two equal elongated lamelle.

Phyllodurus Stimpson

Genus Ione Latreille. . . . . . . . Jone cornuta Spence Bate, 4

Genus Argeia Dana.

a. Head transverse. All the thoracic appendages present. All the

abdominal appendages present. . . Argeia pugettensis Dana, P

a’. Head bilobate. Thoracic branchial soap di apparently absent in

some of the anterior segments. Last three pairs of abdominal appen-

dapes wanting =- > e oo . . Ama ondas Stimpson, P

Genus Phryxus Rathke . . . . . Phryxus abdominalis (Krøyer), N

No. 400.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 309

Genus Bopyroides Stimpson

a. Margins of body, specially at the head, very acute and somewhat

recurved. Lateral extremities of the abdominal segments sharpl

uare-cut . Bopyroides acutimarginata Stimpson, P

a’. Margins of the beds not pka PEERS hippolytes (Krøyer), W

Genus Cepon Duvernoy . . s . Cepon distortus Leidy, M

Genus Pseudione Kossman i Pseudione giardi Calman, P

Genus Phyllodurus pane . ; PAylldérin abdominalis Stimpson, P

FAMILY XXIV. DAJID&.

Genus Dajus Krgyer . . . . . . . + . Dajus mysidis Krpyer, V

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1897. — This

volume contains a number of papers upon anthropological subjects,

some of which have been reviewed in this journal.

* Mescal: a New Artificial Paradise" is described by Havelock

Ellis from his own experience with the drug. Mescal— not to be

confounded with the intoxicating drink distilled from the agave — is

the blunt dried leaves of the cactus, called Anhalonium Lewinii. It

is used by the Kiowa Indians and some other southwestern tribes.

Though the use of mescal buttons is prohibited by the government,

the practice of chewing them yet prevails among the Kiowas. ‘“ The

rite usually takes place on Saturday night; the men then sit in

a circle within the tent round a large camp fire, which is kept

burning brightly all the time. After prayer the leader hands each

man four buttons, which are slowly chewed and swallowed, and

altogether about ten or twelve buttons are consumed by each man

between sundown and daybreak. Throughout the night the men sit

around the fire in a state of reverie, — amid continual singing and the

beating of drums by attendants, — absorbed in the color visions and

other manifestations of mescal intoxication, and about noon on the

following day, when the effects have passed off, they get up and go

about their business, without any depression or other unpleasant

after effect." Mr. James Mooney called the attention of the An-

thropological Society of Washington to this intoxicant in 1891. Dr.

Weir Mitchell later published an account of the effects of the drug.

Mr. Ellis describes the effects of mescal, especially the color visions,

upon himself and also upon an artist friend.

Anthropological Notes. — Accompanying No. 4, Vol. X, of the

Bulletin of the Anthropological Society of Paris is a list of the papers

published by Dr. L. Manouvrier between 1880 and 1899. There

are twenty-six titles classified as: ‘ Scientific Philosophy” ; ** Gen-

eral Psychology”; * Reports"; “Sociology”; thirty-one as * Cere-

bral Anatomy and Physiology"; **Craniology"; * The Brain and

311

312 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

the Intelligence”; thirteen as ** Evolution of the Human Species”’;

* Relations between the Function and the Organ"; twenty as

* Ethnic Evolution”; “ Ancient and Modern Races"; thirteen as

* Abnormal Human "Variations" ; * Retrogression and Degenera-

tion"; and twelve as * Anthropologic Technique."

In the Bulletin de la Société d' Anthropologie de Paris, Tome X, pp.

328-381, appears a valuable paper by M. G. M. Soularus, entitled

* Recherches sur les dimensions des os et les proportions squelet-

tiques de l'homme dans les different races." In his introduction

M. Soularus reviews the history of the study of the long bones of the

human skeleton from the time of White — whom he persistently calls

* Witte" — to the recent investigations of Manouvrier, to whom he

acknowledges his indebtedness for the idea of measuring the circum-

ference of the bones and deriving an index by comparison with the

length. One hundred and seventy-four skeletons were measured, of

which thirty-four were of the white race, sixty-five of the black, thirty-

two of the American, twenty-four of the yellow, and sixteen of the

Malayo-Polynesian race.

The conclusions are that the femur is shortest among the Ameri-

cans, and the largest among the Europeans. The average length of

femur among the negroes is equal to that of the whites of North

Africa. As to the yellow race, it occupies a median position between

the whites and negroes. Though the femur of the Americans is the

shortest, it is the largest in circumference. The European index

and diameter is greater than the negro.

In the males the tibia is shortest among the yellow race and the

Americans ; negroes and Europeans are equal; the longest average

occurs among the Polynesians. Here again the race with the short-

est tibia has the bone of largest diameter. __ :

The shortest humerus is found among the negroes, the longest

among Europeans. The yellow race and the Americans have a

humerus but little longer than that of the negroes. But the diam-

eter, and hence the index, is always least in the negro group.

After comparing the individual bones of the two sexes the author

arrives at the following general conclusions :

1. The average length of the bones, their circumference, and their

index of section vary in each race and in each sex.

The relation of the circumference of a long bone with its length

is also variable. In general, the shorter the bone the greater its

relative circumference. Sexual differences are greatest in the yellow

race and among Europeans, least among the Arabs and negroes.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 313

2. The vertebral column varies equally in each race and in each

sex, both in length and in diameter, as a whole and in segments. It

is longest among people with short limbs, short among the negroes

with long legs.

3. For each race and each sex the relation between the length of

the femur plus the length of the tibia to the height of the body is

determined. The importance of the index of cross-section is shown

in this connection, for the stature is found to be less in the case of

long bones with low indices and greater in the case of short ones

with a high index than would usually be determined by the mathe-

matical method.

“The Unity of the Human Species ” is the title of a twenty-page

article in which the Marquis de Nadiallac endeavors to establish the

thesis that man belongs to a single species uniform in anatomical

structure and in the manifestations of his intelligence. He says in

conclusion : “ By the side of the similarity of the anatomic structure

of man in all times and of all races, I have sought to place the sim-

ilarity of his genius, as proved by the identity of his conceptions.

The ossuaries which contain the remains of his predecessors, the

custom of coloring his bones red after they have been denuded of

their flesh, the mysterious symbol to which we have given the name

Swastika, and other conceptions, other almost universal creations,

which it would be easy to add, all tend toward the confirmation of

the knowledge given to us by the earliest arms, the first tools and

implements of flint, and the most ancient pottery. We believe it

impossible to misapprehend or mistake the proofs that flow from

modern researches, all of which affirm with an irrefutable eloquence

the unity of the human species."

* Recent Research in Egypt." — Dr. W. M. Flinders Petrie in a

brief paper calls attention to the important discoveries made by

archeologists in Egypt during the years 1895-97. During this short

period the known history of the Nile Valley has been carried back a

thousand years or more beyond what was previously regarded as the

beginning of things. Now we look for the beginning many centu-

ries before the pyramids, probably 5000 B.C., or even earlier.

Miss Fletcher's paper upon * The Import of the Totem," and that

by Dr. Fewkes, entitled * A Preliminary Account of Archzological

Field Work in Arizona in 1897,” have been noticed in the Naturalist

of January, 1898, and July, 1899.

314 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

* A New Group of Stone Implements from the Southern Shores of

Lake Michigan " is the title of an attractively illustrated article by

Dr. W. A. Phillips. Most of the implements are made from flakes;

the trap cobblestones from which they were flaked do not readily

lend themselves to the blocking out of blades from nuclei. p p.

ZOÓLOGY.

Beasts.— The author of Beasts belongs to that order of natural-

ists who, to the dread of housewives and maids and to the delight of

all healthy boys, fill their pockets, cupboards, and rooms with reptiles

and rodents of every description. From the pages of Mr. Kennedy's

book we gather that a young crocodile occupied one shelf of his

bookcase, a python another, and a pair of white rats a third. In one

corner of the room stood the kennel of an armadillo; a vivarium

abounding with salamanders, frogs, and tortoises stood by the window ;

and from somewhere emerged at night a potto, which became so

hilarious that three several policemen roused the inmates of the

house to warn them against burglars. The book is made up of short

sketches of the interesting ways of all these creatures, and of many

more, put together loosely, in a familiar style, the chief characteris-

tics of which are sympathy for the whole range of the animal king-

dom and a keen love of humor.

It is when animals refuse to behave after the rules laid down for

them in the books that they have the greatest interest for Mr. Ken-

nedy. When a toad, instead of rolling its cast skin into a ball and

swallowing it with gusto, as it ought, takes it down “slowly and

disgustfully "; when a tadpole - covers itself with ridicule ” by trying

to jump about before it has cast its long clumsy tail, — then it is that

he thinks their actions worth chronicling. The curious awkwardness

which some animals display in the capture of their food is the sub-

ject of some amusing pages. Worms, in particular, prove a severe

test to the intelligence and patience of many of the reptiles. The

“crass stupidity ” of the lower reptiles prevents the author's interest

in their habits from passing into affection. A white rat, however,

1 Kennedy, Wardlaw. Beasts. Thumb-Nail Studies in Pets. London, The

Macmillan Company, 1899. Illustrated with numerous drawings and photographs.

152 pp. Price $1.50.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 315

and a mongoose evidently won a warm spot in his heart. The chap-

ter on the mongoose, in particular, is a charming study of a fascinat-

ing subject. The almost human inquisitiveness of the creature, his

fondness for toys and love of human fellowship, are lovingly dwelt

on. Frequent reference to the need of care and thought for the wants

of the creatures which are imprisoned as pets, is evidence of the

author’s sympathy for them and his acute observation of their habits.

The final chapter of the book is on birds, which the author never

deprives of their liberty ; the chapter is a strong appeal against the

terrible destruction of birds for millinery purposes.

A hearty, cheerful tone pervades the book, humorous turns of

speech and thought abound, and if the style is now and then almost

too colloquial, the fact is explained by the statement that the sketches

were originally prepared for a school paper. Happy must be the

boys under such a master; it would be hard for the dullest or the

most thoughtless to come under his influence without acquiring a

keener observation, a wider interest, and a more tender sympathy.

Ri H,

Lake Urmi. — The natural history of Lake Urmi in northwestern

Persia has been described by R. T. Günther. The lake lies in the

highlands that separate the river systems of the Atlantic, the Indian,

and the Arctic Oceans and has no outlet. It has been described as

* dead," but its waters, though containing about three-fifths as much

saline matter as the Dead Sea, harbor a number of organisms. Masses

of zodgleea of micrococci invested by diatoms, and numbers of the

brine shrimp, Artemia urmiana, find life possible in this water. It

was estimated that about twelve hundred Artemias per cubic meter

was a fair average for the whole lake. The fresh-water streams flow-

ing into the lake contain fish which, when carried into the lake, are

killed by its salinity. The conditions of the fish faunas of the sev-

eral rivers indicate that the lake has for a long time been an efficient

barrier to intercommunication. A description of the land fauna and

flora surrounding the lake and a list of the local names of many ani-

mals are given. The paper also includes descriptions of the species

of animals both recent and fossil collected by Giinther, but worked

up by other authorities. : P.

1 Günther, R. T. Contributions to the Natural History of Lake Urmi, North-

western Persia, and its Neighborhood. Journ. Linnean Soc. Zoöl., vol. xxvii, pp.

345-453, 1899.

316 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Reissner's Fibre. — This fibre has been found by Sargent! to

extend from the posterior end of the spinal cord anteriorly through the

central canal and the ventricles of the brain to the anterior end of

the optic lobes. The fibre was identified in representatives of all the

chief groups and subgroups of the vertebrates, upwards of sixty dif-

ferent species having been examined. In no case where the material

was perfectly preserved was the fibre absent. The uniformity of the

fibre and the fact that it can be demonstrated by a great variety of

methods lead the author to the conclusion that it is not an artifact,

but a normal structure and probably nervous in character. The

paper is accompanied by figures from photographs which demon-

strate very conclusively the presence and position of the fibre. p,

Preliminary List of the Mammals of New York. — In 1842 Dr.

J. E. DeKay published a work on the mammals of New York, giving

descriptions of all the species then known to inhabit the state, with

figures of most of them, this work forming Part I of the Zo/ogy

of New York, published under the authority of the state. Since

that date no general survey of the mammal fauna of the state had

been attempted till the appearance in 1899 of Mr. Gerrit S. Miller's

* Preliminary List of the Mammals of New York."? As Mr. Miller

says: **To write a preliminary paper on this subject fourteen years

after the appearance of Dr. C. Hart Merriam's two volumes on the

mammals of the Adirondack region, and fifty-six years after the

publication of DeKay's elaborate work on the mammals of the state

at large, may at first seem paradoxical” ; but he gives good reasons

for calling his list a preliminary one. He justly claims that “ one of

the most important results of the recent great increase in our knowl-

edge of the mammalian fauna of New York is the realization that

nothing more than preliminary work can be done now. The whole

area of the state must receive a thorough biologic survey before

final results can be expected." And what is true of New York, it

may be added, is equally true of any other considerable area of

North America, and probably of any other equal area of the world,

so little is really known of mammalian life anywhere. Until within

very recent years, the small mammals of no portion of this or any

1 Sargent, P. E. Reissner’s Fibre in the Canalis Centralis of Vertebrates.

Anat. Anz., Bd. xvii, pp. 33-44, Taf. I-III, 1900.

2 Miller, Gerrit S., Jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. Bulletin of

the New York State Museum, vol. vi, No. 29, October, 1899, pp. 271-390. Issu

Nov. 18, 1899. :

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 317

other country were more than superficially known, as witness the

large number of new and previously unsuspected forms that have

come to light through careful and systematic collecting in even the

longest settled parts of the United States.

Not the least interesting part of Mr. Miller’s paper is his historical

summary of the work thus far accomplished in making known the

mammalian life of New York State, in which he traces the gradual

advance of our knowledge of the subject from 1842 to the present

time. During the forty years immediately following the publication

of DeKay’s work only three species were added to the list of the

state, while eighteen have been added during the last ten years.

The total number of known New York mammals has been raised

from fifty-six in 1842! to eighty-one in 1899, while doubtless others

still remain to be added by further research. These additions are

mentioned in chronological order, and also shown by a tabular

arrangement. ‘Thirty-one species have been described and named

from New York specimens, of which twenty are now regarded as

synonyms of previously described species. The type localities of

all are given on account of their interest from the point of view of

systematic zodlogy.

he eighty-one species and subspecies listed by Mr. Miller include

eight cetaceans, two seals, and three introduced species of Old World

rats and mice. Deducting these leaves sixty-eight species of strictly

indigenous land mammals known as inhabitants of the state. In some

six or seven instances increase in the total number of forms is due to

the recognition of subspecies, two forms being recognized as occurring

within the state instead of one, as in DeKay’s time, as in the case of

the red squirrel, chipmunk, flying squirrel, red-backed mouse, cotton-

tail (three forms instead of one), mink, etc. Lumping these, as was

formerly done, would reduce the number of New York mammals to

about seventy-three as against the fifty-six known to DeKay.

In other words, the twenty-four additions to DeKay’s list include

sixteen species and eight subspecies, the latter being in most cases

covered by DeKay’s names.

The faunal areas, or “ life zones ” of the state, are considered at.

length, from the point of view of birds and plants as well as mam-

mals. Following this is the list proper. Under each species are

cited the authorities for the names adopted, and all the principal

references to the species as New York animals. The text under

each species is so arranged and subdivided as to give (1) the type

1 DeKay gave sixty-five, but nine of these have proved invalid.

318 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

locality of the species; (2) its faunal position ; (3) its habitat; (4)

its distribution within the state; (5) its principal records for the

state; and (6) remarks. The distribution of the various species

within the state, and the citation of “ principal records,” are in gen-

eral given with satisfactory detail. It hence seems strange that Dr.

Holder's paper on the Atlantic right whale (Balena cisarctica) should

have been overlooked, especially since the paper (Bulletin American

Museum Natural History, Vol. I, No. 4 (1883), pp. 99-1538, Pls. X-

XIII) was based primarily on a Long Island specimen, the skeleton of

which has been on exhibition for twenty years in New York's greatest

Museum of Natural History. A reference to Audubon and Bachman

(Quadrupeds of North America, Vol. I, p. 148) on the former occurrence

of the fox squirrel in New York would perhaps have been of interest.

We regret to see that Mr. Miller adopts Mr. Bangs's proposed

change of name for the common deer, from the well.established and

familiar Virginianus of Boddaert for Americanus of Erxleben. It

would not be regrettable if Erxleben had really used the name in a

nomenclatural sense for this deer, which he clearly did not do, or

even intend to do. Erxleben says : “ Differtne vere Americanus vti

Pennanto videtur ? " and then gives its differences from Cervus dama,

and cites the authors who have written of it. As he wrote in Latin

he naturally used the word ** Americanus " in the sense of, Does the

American deer truly differ? etc. The context shows that where he

gave names to either species or varieties, they are given as marginal

headings, as under, for example, Cervus elaphus (Regni Animalis, p.

301), where our elk or wapiti is named (p. 305) Canadensis = Cervus

elaphus y Canadensis; and so on throughout the * Systema Regni

Animalis.” The case of the common deer, as treated by Erxleben,

is thus not at all parallel to that of the elk; in the latter case a

name was formally given ; in the former, only by a violent distor-

tion of the author's evident meaning and intentions can a name be

extracted from Erxleben for the Virginia deer. ;

Mr. Miller gives also a useful list of the fossil species thus far

reported from the state, numbering five, as follows : peccary, horse,

elephant, mastodon, and the big rodent Castoroides. A detailed

bibliography of 103 titles concludes this interesting and important

piece of work. We regret to see, however, that Mr. Miller was com-

pelled to submit to a system of “editing rules in bibliography," so

out of harmony with nearly all similar work in zodlogical bibliography,

simply because they have been “ adopted by the Regents of the Uni-

versity of the State of New York." jJ A. X.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 319

The Trail of the Sandhill Stag. — We confess to a feeling of

disappointment on laying down Zhe Trail of the Sandhill Stag, by

Ernest Seton-Thompson. If it had been the first book by that author

which had come to our notice, the feeling would probably have been

one of interest and pleasure, but the standard set in Wild Animais

J Have Known was so high that the present story, measured by it,

fails to answer our expectations. For such of our readers as have

not yet made the acquaintance of. Mr. Seton-Thompson's style, the

remedy against a similar disappointmént is simple ; let them begin

with the story of the Sandhill Stag and then pass to the earlier and

more fascinating work. In the story at present under consideration,

as in his earlier stories, the author has attempted to tell the life story

of a species by painting the portrait of an individual who possesses

to an extraordinary degree the characteristics of his kind. In

the present instance the subject is a black-tailed deer, a buck of

marvellous size, crowned with an enormous pair of antlers. A boy,

in whom the old barbarian instinct of the chase is overpowering,

catches sight of the beautiful creature and pursues him on various

occasions. Finally, after a long three days' chase over the snow, the

stag, after seeing his mate murdered by one of the lad's more callous

companions, is at last, and in spite of all stratagems, hunted to his

lair, and comes face to face with his pursuer. The lad, however, is

touched by the expression of nobility in the creature's gaze; his

better nature asserts itself, and hunter and his intended victim part

with an increase of mutual respect.

The moral of the story is obvious, perhaps too obvious. The serv-

ice which the author's earlier work has performed in teaching love

and sympathy for animals has undoubtedly been enormous, but it was

done by revealing in an unusual degree the secrets of the creatures'

lives. The reader shared their pleasures and anxieties, and uncon-

Sciously became their friend. In this later tale the boy's feelings

rather than the stag's are portrayed.

. If the story is a little less effective, the illustrations are as charm-

ing as ever, and the workmanship of the book itself reflects unusual

credit on the designer and the publisher.

It is the hope of all who are watching Mr. Seton-Thompson's

work that he may be able to reap, in the field which Mr. Hamilton

Gibson tilled so faithfully, a splendid harvest. There is no more

lSeton-Thompson, Ernest. The Trail of the Sandhill Stag. With sixty

drawings in black and white and a frontispiece in color. New York, Charles

Scribner’s Sons, 1899. 93 pp. Price $1.50.

320 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST [Vor. XXXIV.

effectual way to overcome the general indifference to the sufferings

of our fellow-creatures than by spreading a knowledge of their tragic

lives. EH.

Structure in the Mammalian Egg. — Professor Flemming! re-

examines the ovarian eggs of the rabbit and finds that thin sections

show a real reticulum of stained fibres. Previously, in the fresh

eggs, he could not decide whether the fibres he saw branched and

anastomosed or not. In the present preparations the yolk granules

seem, when smallest, to be imbedded in the fibres, and the author

thinks they arise there and only later get into the spaces of the

network.

In the cavity of the Graafian follicle there is also a reticulum.

This is regarded as the result of coagulation of the follicular liquid

by the reagents used. It is not the same in normal as in abnormal

follicles and is of a much finer mesh in small follicles. The net-

work in the egg can be distinguished from that in the follicular

' liquid by its coarser, less regular spaces.

From the illustrations given, the reader might easily infer that the

differences between the egg structure and the coagulum were merely

of degree and not of kind, and see in them support for Alfred

Fischer's contention that the so-called structure-reticulum is itself a

coagulum. However, the author believes the egg reticulum to be

the same as that seen in fresh material, and Mon not the result of

coagulation. EX X

Bob? is a story that will appeal strongly to all lovers of

animals. It will appeal also to lovers of literature. It is the story

of a poet's mocking-bird told with a delicate humor, a keen and lov-

ing sympathy. To Lanier, as to many lovers of birds, there was :

something repugnant in the thought of caging a wild bird; Bob was,

therefore, an unsought though welcome guest. The reader, however,

lays down the little volume with the feeling that the bird's liberty

could not have been sacrificed in a better cause. In this little

volume, and in the sonnets which form the epilogue, Bob has cer-

tainly found a memorial such as falls to the lot of few.

The reader will naturally not look for a scientific study, a care-

ful record of the number of feathers shed during the moult, or the

1 Festschrift Carl von Kupffers, Jena, 1899.

? Lanier, Sidney. Bob. The Story of Our Mocking-Bird. New York, Charles

Scribner’s Sons, 1899. With sixteen illustrations in color. 64 pp. Price $1.50.

No. 400.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 321

weight of food taken in a day; but he will find a charming study of

the personality of the bird, and many graceful or playful reflections

by the way.

The illustrations are from colored photographs, reproduced with

an unusually pleasing effect. They represent various young mocking-

birds in the attitudes described in the text. R. H.

Our Native Birds. — This is a book! which should be within the

reach of every school-teacher and of every person interested in pre-

serving for future generations the wild life which forms so large a

part of the attraction which nature exerts. The author begins with

some of the statistics, which are now only too easy to obtain, of the

steady decrease of song and game birds, and explains with unusual

fairness the causes of this diminution. He gives full weight to a

consideration very generally overlooked, namely, the destruction of

shrubbery and the draining of wet places, incidental to the growth

of towns and cities. Subsequent chapters are devoted to a descrip-

tion of the means by which we may prevent the destruction of birds

and restock places from which they may have been driven. The

better enforcement of the existing laws, or the enactment of new

ones, particularly the introduction of gun license to reduce indis-

criminate shooting, the spread of interest and knowledge through

Audubon societies and the popular magazines and books, are urged

with warmth, and at the same time with judgment. [Interesting

advice as to planting shrubs, vines, and trees, furnishing water for

bathing and drinking, and allowing waste places to grow up with

- something that will furnish food and cover, is evidence of the prac-

tical character of the author's mind. The vexed question of the

English sparrow's position is also treated with fairness, though many

readers will take well-grounded exception to the method recommended

for its destruction, vzz,, the use of poison. The subject of hunting

and of encouraging boys to hunt is hardly treated in a manner con-

sistent with the tone of genuine sympathy for animals evident in the

rest of the book. Throughout the book there are frequent references

to authorities.

There is a marked absence of literary skill, both in the style and

in the arrangement of the matter; it is not a book that one would

read for amusement or for pleasure, but for those in search of help

1 Lange, D. Our Native Birds. How to protect them and to attract them

to our homes. With illustrations. New York, The Macmillan Company.

162 pp.

322 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

and advice in efforts to lessen the frightful destruction of wild life

everywhere prevalent, the book will be an encouragement and an

assistance. e e

The Tree Frog. — A second interesting contribution to the natural

history of European Amphibia by one who loves his subject is to be

found in the Quarterly of the Natural History Society of Zurich, issued

Feb. 15, 1899. H. Fischer-Sigwart, having previously described the

life of Rana fusca,! now tells us of the habits of the tree frog, y/a

arborea L. The spawning, larval life, feeding, hibernation, etċ.,

were studied both in the open and in his terrarium, where he kept

many of these creatures (some for ten years), with greater satisfaction

to himself than to his neighbors, who complained of the noise made

by the ardent males. A tabulation of many observations upon the

singing of these frogs and the state of the weather does not support

the common belief in their powers as weather prophets, though show-

ing that cold, stormy weather checks, as sr warm weather increases,

their musical efforts.

A long series of observations upon their color led to the result

that they resembled the background in every case except one, slowly

assuming various combinations of yellow, green, brown, gray, bronze,

rust-red in harmony with the leaves, earth, cement, iron pipe, etc.,

they remained upon.

For details we must refer to the —— pages of the origin

A. A.

The Protoplasm of the Salmon Egg.? — Professor His has added

another study to his previous noteworthy work upon the egg of the

salmon. As before, he emphasizes the study of live material, while

the interesting photographs that accompany his paper show, as far

as photographs can, the appearance of preserved and sectioned

material.

The ievtebite that collects in a heap (subsequently to divide

into the cells of the blastoderm) acts, when removed from the egg,

like a viscid liquid. It is made up of a clear * Hyaloplasma " and

a turbid, granular * Morphoplasma." As development proceeds,

these two parts undergo progressive changes in relative amount and

arrangement. The changes in the distribution of these two parts

1 See review in the American Naturalist, June, 18

98.

2 Protoplasmastudien am Salmodien Keim. 4/4. Konig. Sach. Gesell. Wiss.

Bd. xxv, 1

No. 400.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 323

of the protoplasm and the lack of any fixed permanent structure make

one of the main theses of the author’s work. His conception of the

organization of protoplasm as derived from preserved material and

from fresh material is that the Morphoplasm forms a framework en-

closing Hyaloplasma in its meshes. In young cells the framework

is uniform and fine meshed; later various modifications arise, so

that the end result is very different in different cells and organisms.

This morphoplasmic framework is continuous with the nucleus, and

with the cell wall which is an actual membrane or modification of

the framework and connected by radiating strands with the rest of

the framework. The Hyaloplasma is a translucent, viscid liquid

not visibly acted upon by reagents that act on proteid matter; it is

thought to be inert, not living. Where large areas of clear Proto-

plasma, ectosarc, are seen to be contractile, it is really the Morpho-

plasma of the limiting membrane and of the few strands that pass

through the liquid that is the real agent. When granules are seen

moving through the Hyaloplasma they are supposed to be really in

unseen strands of Morphoplasma.

The Morphoplasma is full of granules, microsomes, or plasmo-

somes. These may stand at irregular intervals, and hence there

must be some substance to hold them together, ż.e., the strand is not

merely a row of granules but consists of granules imbedded in a

connecting substance supposed to be a viscid liquid not mixing with

the Hyaloplasma. Though it is difficult to distinguish microsomes

from yolk granules, secretions, etc., yet the author thinks there are

real plasmosomes as essential elements of the strands of Morpho-

plasma. Though thus agreeing with Biitschli, that protoplasm has

two non-miscible liquids as basis of its organization, the author

does not accept the alveolar theory of structure as accounting for

the morphoplasmic framework which is often seen as actual fibrils

and not membranes.

As development proceeds, the undifferentiated protoplasm becomes

differentiated, the meshes enlarge, the strands thicken and become

fewer, and all the various specializations of cell division appear. Of

the many interesting details of the latter phenomena here recorded,

we will mention only the new interpretation of the well-known ring,

or vesicle-like, appearances of the chromosomes as they are coming

together in the formation of daughter-nuclei. The author thinks

the Morphoplasma is prearranged in meshes of different size in dif-

ferent parts of the cell traversed by the chromosomes in moving

from the equator of the spindle to the polar regions, and that when

324 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

they pass through the narrow meshed regions they assume a corre-

sponding slender form, to expand later in the wider rings in the

region of wider meshwork. The chromosomes are collections of

chromatic granules which are arranged on the walls of the meshes,

hence they outline a figure corresponding to the shape and size of

the mesh. All this, the author concedes, would lend itself to the

idea that we are dealing with an alveolar or vesicular structure.

The formation of new cell walls by the thickening and fusing of

strands of the framework is apparently similar to the mode of mak-

ing cell walls in the cleavage of echinoderm eggs as described by

G. F. Andrews. And the conception of chromatin granules moving

along strands of protoplasm, as do granules in the pseudopodia of

rhizopods, is also the same as the flowing or filose movements there

described for the interalveolar plasma in various animal tissues and

eggs. Considerable space is given to the description of remarkable

amoeboid movements performed by the cells of the blastoderm ; they

may send out very long finger-like pseudopodia which are at first

chiefly clear Hyaloplasma but may become granular and be with-

drawn. "These activities, however, are not known in the normal state,

but seem to be called forth by the stimuli that come to the blasto-

derm, when removed to a compressorium for observation. Among

other interesting observations we will mention only the occurrence

of multiple asters in eggs that had not been fertilized, a phenomenon

similar to that observed by T. H. Morgan? in echinoderm eggs.

The unfertilized eggs of the salmon may be kept in running water

for weeks without losing life. In the rainbow trout, also, unfertilized

eggs were not dead at the end of several weeks.

Sections of such eggs kept seventeen days show numerous asters

in which the radiating lines connect with a rather uniform mesh of the

morphoplasm or else with the rays of other asters. At the center

of each aster is a group of granules, representing the centrosome.

E. A. A.

Embryology of Invertebrates.*— The first part of the original

German edition of Korschelt and Heider's Embryology of the Inverte-

brates appeared in 1890, and the last part in 1893. The translation

1 The Living Substance. Journ. of a Supplement 1897.

2 The Action of Salt Solutions, etc. Roux’s Archiv, Bd. viii, 1897.

3 Korschelt, Dr E. and Heider, Dr. K. Text-book of the Embryology of

Invertebrates. Vol. i translated by E. L. Mark and W. M. Woodworth; vols. ii '

and iii translated by M. Bernard and revised and edited by M. F. Wood

The Macmillan Company.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 325

of this monumental work was undertaken by Mark and Woodworth,

and the first part of the English edition was published in 1895.

Since then the translation has been continued by Matilda Bernard,

under the editorship of Martin F. Woodward; and last year two

additional parts were issued. The portion of the work thus far ren-

dered into English represents about two-thirds of the German text,

the chapters on the mollusks, tunicates, and amphioxus having not

yet appeared in translation. From these facts it might be inferred

that translation was a more time-consuming process than original

composition, but the true explanation is doubtless found in the liberal

opportunities given to German teachers for work of this kind as com-

pared with that afforded to Englishmen and to Americans.

The body of the work is well translated, and although considerable

freedom is sometimes taken in the adjustment of the substance of

a paragraph to its new dress, we have found no place in which this

change can be said to have seriously altered the sense. In com-

paring the several parts, we are inclined to believe that the first is

more closely translated than the remaining two.

The arrangement of materials is a model of exactitude. The coarse

print, fine print, and notes of the original are rendered as such, and

the editor’s additions are always clearly indicated by brackets. The

more recent literature is usually given in an appendix.

The incorporation of new material was evidently one of the most

difficult problems confronting the translators. This naturally has

been greatly increased in the last two parts, for the assimilation of

almost a decade of embryological work is no small task. As a rule,

this has been met by the insertion of the more important new titles

in the Literature Appendices, and occasionally by the addition of

footnotes. Unsatisfactory as this method often is, it is difficult to

see how it could have been improved upon except by a rewriting of

the original text.

The way in which Anlage shall be rendered into English is a

question that confronts every English translator of German embryo-

logical work, and, as the solutions of this question seem to be as

numerous as those who attempt it, one is not surprised that the

translators of the last two parts should substitute for the word “ fun-

dament," used in the first part, their own choice, “rudiment.” This

calls for some defense, which is given in the preface to the second

part, where Darwin’s unfortunate use of “rudimentary” for * vestig-

ial” is pointed out as a root of much evil. While this whole matter

is one rather of convenience than of importance to the zoólogist, its

326 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

influence on future lexicographers must be at least confusing, and

should even a small proportion of the terms proposed be adopted,

the uninitiated might be led to believe that with a command of

Anlage and Zug almost any idea could be expressed in German.

In one respect the English edition is a noteworthy advance over

the German original. The latter is paged continuously and is con-

cluded with a subject and an author’s index. The English parts

have each their own paging, a table of contents, and double indices,

thus rendering them much more readily usable as reference books.

It is to be regretted that this general improvement has not extended

to the presswork. Unfortunately in this respect the English edi-

tion is decidedly behind the German. In the first and second parts

the illustrations, particularly, lack the clearness of the German cuts,

and in the third the muddiness of the figures is often a really serious

defect. Notwithstanding these shortcomings, the unabridged trans-

lation of such a masterly work is a boon to the English-reading

zoological student, and one can do no less than wish that good

fortune may aid in the completion of so worthy a task. P.

A Recent Book on Insects. — In Our Insect Friends and Foes,

How to Collect, Preserve, and Study Them (G. P. Putnam's Sons, New

York and London, 1899. xix, 377 pp., 225 illustrations), Miss Belle

S. Cragin gives directions for collecting, raising, and preserving

insects, brief notes on their structure, habits, and habitats, with more

detailed notices of some of the commoner forms of hexapods and

shorter accounts of related arthropods.

Miss Cragin's book shows a purpose so sincere, and her project is

so praiseworthy, that it is especially unfortunate not to be able to

commend her effort. The directions for the collection and preserva-

tion of insects, though not better than others equally available, do

not seriously offend by what they contain or omit. The more detailed

accounts, however, show so slight a personal knowledge with the subject

that very little can be said in favor of the book as a guide to instruct

young students or to quicken their interest in the study of insects.

The essential characteristics for a book on insects, written for

young people, are an attractive literary style, clear, concise, and

accurate statements arranged in logical, scientific sequence. Judged

from this standpoint, Miss Cragin's book cannot be regarded as even

moderately successful. It would be hard to find a book dealing with

insects in which the orders and families are arranged in so confusing

and unscientific a manner. Misleading and inaccurate statements

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 327

are frequent. The Coleoptera are said to include over eleven thou-

sand species; a statement that is true, but surely an unhappy way of

recording that more than eleven thousand beetles are credited to

America, north of Mexico; the larvz of some snout beetles have jointed

legs; the firefly, with luminous thoracic spots, is incorrectly placed in

the Lampyride ; the Hercules beetle is not the largest true insect;

more than one Termite is found in North America, and the northern

range of the species credited to that region is far beyond Massachu-

setts; all tropical Phasmidz do not have wings that look like leaves.

The repetitious character of the text is especially tiresome, and the

list of books for reference wholly inadequate.

Finally, the illustrations are very evenly bad; it would take much

search to find a more atrocious series. Figs. 89 and g2 are trans-

posed. S. H.

Sheep Tick. — The gross anatomy and histology of the female.

genital tract of Melophagus ovinus are described in detail by Pratt

(Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., Vol. LXVI, pp. 16-42, Pls. II, III), complet-

ing and extending the work of Leuckart (1858). Each ovary consists

of two ovarioles, possessing two follicles apiece, and both ovaries

and ovarioles alternate in the production of the ova. From the

germarium are produced follicular, nutritive, and egg cells; while

the ovarioles are similar to those of Musca, and the peritoneal cover-

ing of the ovary is peculiar only in its thickness and extent. The

fused proximal portions of the oviducts form a median vessel serving

as a receptaculum seminis and lying in the virginal female in a plane

perpendicular to that of the uterus, later at an acute angle to it.

The ducts of the two pairs of milk glands, which provide nourish-

ment for the larva during intrauterine development, open by a single

opening into the uterus; the anterior of the two pairs is more or

less rudimentary. The structure of the vagina is such as to permit

of extreme distention at the time that the fully developed larva is

extruded. R. H. Worcorr.

Nauplius Stage of Penzeus. — Although F. Müller announced as

early as 1863 that Penæus emerged from the egg in its nauplius

stage, this statement remained unconfirmed, notwithstanding the

fact that Penzeus has been studied by several investigators, till the

past year when Kishinouye! rediscovered this stage in material col-

lected on the Japanese coast.

! Kishin ouye, K. On the Nauplius Stage of Peneus. Zool. Anz., Bd. xxiii,

PP- 73, 74, 3 Figs., 1900.

328 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST; [Vor. XXXIV.

Sense Organs of Nereis. — F. E. Langdon! has described three

kinds of sense organs in the skin of JVzreis virens Sars. The diffuse

sense organs consist of groups. of bipolar nerve cells whose bodies

form a part of the external epidermis, whose peripheral ends extend

as sense bristles into the surrounding water, and whose central pro-

jections are in the form of nerve fibres terminating probably as peri-

cellular nerve baskets around ganglion cells in the central nervous

organs. The diffuse sense organs are most numerous in those parts of

the body most exposed to contact, and represent organs for mechani-

cal and possibly chemical stimulation. The prostomium possesses

an anterior and a posterior pair of cephalic organs, each of which

consists of a group of bipolar cells whose peripheral processes end

in the epidermis, and whose central processes terminate in the brain.

The anterior pair differ from the posterior in that their cell bodies

lie between epidermis and brain instead of in the brain. The third

class of organs consists of groups of spirally arranged cells, hence

called spiral organs. The central processes from these organs take

a direction appropriate for nerve fibres, but have not been traced

into nervous organs. Their function as epidermal eyes is, therefore,

hypothetical. P.

Breeding Infusoria. — As bearing upon the problem of death it

is interesting to note that the doctor's thesis of Dimitri Jonkowsky’

records some partial repetition of Maupas's famous work upon

Infusoria. Maupas found degeneration and death befell many

Infusoria when they were bred for many generations without conju-

gating, but that the change in the nuclear machinery that takes

place in conjugation would start another long series of generations.

That degeneration is necessary without such renewal seems less

probable from the experiment of the present author, though his evi-

dence is not conclusive. In the case of FPleurotricha lanceolata

(Ehbg.) 458 generations were reared in eight months and yet no

degeneration was found, except in a few cases in the last generation.

He suggests the rapidity with which the animals breed, which was

greater in Maupas's experiments, may be a factor in the occurrence

of degeneration. Bearing in mind the sensitiveness of many Infuso-

ria to the chemical and physical nature of the liquid they are reared

in, it seems not unlikely that degeneration may depend upon other

1 Langdon, F. E. The Sense Organs of Nereis virens, Sars. The Journ. of

Comp. Neurology, vol. x, No. 1, pp. 1-77, Pls. I-III, 1900.

2 Verh. des Naturhist. med. Verlins zu Heidelberg, Bd. vi, 1898.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 329

factors than the lack of conjugation, and that we do not yet know

any limit to the length of life these creatures may have under proper

conditions. EX X

Swiss Infusoria. — The school of Swiss zoólogists at Geneva,

undtr the able leadership of Professor Yung, has in recent years

shown great activity in the investigation of the local fauna. This

work has been of high order and is abundantly illustrated with litho-

graphed plates. That an interest in the Infusoria would still linger

in the home of Claparéde is indeed to be expected, though a list of

new genera and species of Ciliata from the environs of Geneva

comes as a surprise. Nevertheless Dr. J. Roux has discovered there

a dozen new ciliates whose structure and relationships he discusses

at length in a recent paper.’ He also describes and fully figures

a score of other forms concerning which his studies have added

important information. Of prime interest is his Monomastix ciliatus

— a new member of the Mastigotricha which combines characters

of the Ciliata and Flagellata, having the cilia and nuclear conditions

of the former and the flagellum of the latter. An amplified descrip-

tion is given of Zionotus vesiculosus Stokes, originally described as

from this country. The discussion of Loxodes rostrum sheds light on

a number of controverted points; the animal is flattened dorso-ven-

trally, not laterally, and the peristome is ventral, though placed

to the left, being bordered by fine cilia and transverse stria which

have heretofore been interpreted as long cilia. The genus should

be removed from the Trachelina to a new family, Loxodina. Various

American species of this genus have been ill-founded, resting merely

on inconstant variations in color, number of nuclei, and excretory

vacuoles. On account of its superb illustrations and the critical

Character of the discussions, this paper is of especial value to all

American workers in this much neglected group, and it is to be

hoped that Dr. Roux will continue his studies. CO AU.

Growth in the Rhizopodan Shell, after its formation at the

time of the division of the parent, as acs by Rhumbler, is

contested by Penard in a recent paper.? In observed cases in a

! Roux, J. Observations sur quelques ciliés des Environs de Genéve, avec la

description de nouvelles espéces. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., tome vi, pp. 557-636, Pls.

XIII, XIV, 1 1899.

?Penard, E. Sur la croissance supposée de la coquille chez les Thécame-

biens. Arch. Sci. Phys. et Nat., IV Pér., tome vii, 23 pp., 1899.

330 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

number of species the new shell is usually as large as the older one,

and when differences do occur, they are but slight and as often

present larger shells as ‘they do smaller ones. The differences in

size among the individuals of a given species in one locality are

usually small, the greatest number presenting the medium dimen-

sions, while dwarfs and giants are equally rare. These extremes are

examples of variation within the species and cannot represent the

young and the old — the extremes of a growth series. The instances

cited by Rhumbler of great differences in size are explained by the

supposition that more than one species has been included in the

series, the author contending here, as elsewhere, for the recognition

of a greater number of species in this group. The process of repair,

local growth about the mouth, resolution of the shell, and exuviation

are none of them regarded as proofs of the growth of the shell as a

whole. The author's extended observations on the Rhizopoda thus

lead him to confirm the views of Verworn. C A E.

Abyssal Rhizopoda. — Dr. E. Penard has recently published! an

account of his interesting studies upon the Rhizopoda from the bot-

tom of Swiss lakes. His attention was given to collections of the

bottom ooze, from which he describes a characteristic fauna of

peculiar species. Many of these are new, differing from the littoral

species to such an extent as to necessitate, in the author's estimation,

varietal or specific distinction. In numbers they exceed the strag-

glers from the shore fauna which occasionally invade the depths.

The author does not favor the view that the Rhizopoda are some-

times pelagic in habit, and suggests that their floating is due to the

gases of putrefaction. This is certainly not the case in some Ameri-

can waters where their numbers and activity entitle them to rank as

planktonts. The abyssal Rhizopoda are most abundant at depths of

25-50 meters, being modified by shore contamination above that

limit, and decreasing in numbers below it. Their distribution is

widespread, though irregular as to species. During the winter sea-

son they decline in numbers as their food, the diatoms, is at a mini-

mum at that time. In addition to the Léman, eight other Swiss lakes

were explored, and the same types of abyssal Rhizopoda were found

in all of them. This fauna, living under almost unchanging con-

ditions of great pressure, low temperature (about 4? C.), little or

no light, no currents, and little food but diatoms, exhibits certain

!Penard, E. Les rhizopodes du Lac Léman. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., tome vii, pP-

1-142, Pls. I-IX, 1899.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 331

peculiarities. As compared with littoral species, those of deep water

are more variable, being often irregular in shape or ornamentation,

Quadrula, for example, lacking the regular arrangement of the plates

of the shell. They are also of larger size, and are more transparent,

being less heavily charged with salts of iron and manganese, which

cause the brownish and purplish tints of the shell. The contractile

vacuoles are less active, as they are in those species also which

inhabit sea-water, and the capacity of encystment seems in large

measure to, have been lost. Starch grains are frequently found in

the protoplasm, though no Zoóchlorellae were detected. The author

suggests that diatoms may be retained within the protoplasm for a

considerable length of time undigested in a temporary symbiotic

relationship. On account of the great similarity of the abyssal

Rhizopoda of the different lakes not at present connected, the sep-

arate origin of these faunas from the common littoral group is not

accepted, and the idea is advanced that they represent a relict fauna

of the preglacial or glacial period. C A. K.

A New Colonial Flagellate. — The Illinois State Laboratory of

Natural History has recently issued a bulletin! on 7/a£ydorina cau-

data, an interesting new genus of the family Volvocidz, described

by C. A. Kofoid. This is a colonial form of sixteen or thirty-two

biflagellate cells arranged in a horseshoe-shaped coenobium which

bears three or five tails, formed by the envelope at the posterior end.

The cenobium is flattened, and is slightly twisted in a left spiral.

The cells appear to be arranged in one layer, and the two faces of

e plate are exactly alike, as alternate cells upon either face bear

flagella. In development the young colonies pass through a Gonium

and a Eudorina stage and subsequently flatten, so that the cells of the

two faces are regularly intercalated. This genus presents the most

pronounced type of functional and structural polarity, and exhibits a

greater degree of axial differentiation than any other genus of the

family. The organism has been found in late summer and fall

months for four years past, and has occurred in the waters of the

Upper Mississippi, Illinois, and Wabash basins. The paper contains

a key to colonial Volvocidz.

. 1 Kofoid, C. A. Plankton Studies. III. On Platydorina caudata, a new

Genus of the Family Vólvocidz, from the Plankton of the Illinois River. Bul. ZU.

State Lab. Nat. Hist., vol. v, pp. 419-440, Pl. XX XVIII, 1899. :

332 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Sporulation in Amæba. — C. Scheel’ describes and figures a

most interesting method of reproduction in Am@eba proteus observed

in the winter of 1897—98. The conditions leading to this hitherto un-

known method of rapid increase in this fresh-water Amceba could not

be determined, nor could various experiments bring about the same

results in material from the same locality, examined in 1898-99.

The Ameeba was studied both alive and in prepared sections and

a pretty complete series of stages obtained.

The creature draws in its pseudopodia, takes on a spheroidal form,

and then secretes a cyst or case that ultimately shows three succes-

sive layers. Within this the Amceba rotates rapidly, once a second,

in all directions with frequent change; it looks as if ciliated, but no

evidence of cilia was found, and its motions may be due to pseu-

dopodia. After several days this rotation ceases.

In one case a contracting vacuole was seen discharging rhythmi-

cally to the exterior, when the cyst was partly formed.

The nucleus divides into pieces, and when there are about 20-30

they become arranged near the surface. These in turn continue to

divide until 500-600 small nuclei are formed in the outer part of

the Amceba, while the central part has none. Cell walls appear about

the nuclei, first about the outermost ones, and gradually the pieces

of protoplasm so circumscribed separate as small Amcebas. These

break out through the cyst, which has in the mean time become

softened and broken up.

The whole process lasts from two and a half to three months.

In this way hundreds of small Amcebas, 10—14 p in diameter, are

set free at one time.

The author was able to isolate the young and rear them to recog-

nizable Amæba proteus in two and a half to three weeks. EA X

Notes. — The second number of Vol. I of the Biological Bulletin

contains the following articles: * The Early Stages in the Develop-

ment of the Hypophysis of Amia calva,” by J. M. Prather; “ An

Extraordinary New Maritime Fly,” by V. L. Kellogg; ‘On the Varia-

tion in the Position of the Stolon in Autolytus," by P. C. Mensch;

* Gordiacez from the Cope Collection," by T. H. Montgomery, Jr. ;

and “ A Preliminary Account of the Spermatogenesis of Batrachoseps

attenuatus, Polymorphous Spermatogonia, Auxocytes, and Spermato-

cytes," by G. Eisen.

l Beiträge zur Fortpflanzung der Amoeben. Festschrift Carl von Kupfers,

Jena, 1899.

No. 400.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 333

The first number of Vol. X of the Journal of Comparative Neu-

rology contains “ The Sense Organs of Nereis virens, Sars,” by F. E.

Langdon; ‘‘ The Roof and Lateral Recesses of the Fourth Ventricle,

Considered Morphologically and Embryologically," by J. A. Blake ;

* Observations on the Weight and Length of the Central Nervous

Organs and of the Legs in Frogs of Different Sizes," by H. H. Don-

aldson and D. M. Schoemaker ; and * A Report of the Neurological

Seminar of the Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Holl, Mass.,

for the Season of 1899," by A. D. Morrill. The number also con-

tains an obituary notice of Fanny E. Langdon, by Professor Reig-

hard, and the usual literary notices.

Miss K. J. Bush has published in the Proceedings of the Academy

of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia a description of a number of new

species of gastropods belonging to the genus Turbonilla from the

western Atlantic fauna. The paper includes a synoptic list of

species and a thorough revision of the synonymy, based upon exam-

ination of a number of museum collections.

Dr. S. Prowazek has published in Vol. XI of the Vienna Arbeiten

a very exhaustive and fully illustrated account of the conjugation of

Bursaria truncatella. He also contributes many interesting obser-

vations on the structure, nutrition, excretion, encystment, conjugation,

division, and parasites of Sty/onychia pustulata.

The Echinorhynchi parasitic in Cetacea have been brought together

in a critical discussion by Shipley (Arch. Paras., Vol. IL, pp. 262—

269).

In a paper on the Porocephali of the dog and some other mam-

mals, Neumann! shows that, contrary to the generally accepted

belief, the larval forms of these parasites are not accustomed to

abandon their cysts, but probably perish in them, and that, except

in rare cases, they are harmless to their hosts. The larval form of

P. constrictus, which is recorded as a dangerous parasite of man in

Africa, is probably as innocuous as other species, and certainly was

not the cause of death in the cases reported.

A revision of the Echiurida and a discussion of their geographical

range are appended by Shipley? to his account of the forms collected

! Neumann, G. Sur les Porocephales du chien et de quelques mammiferes.

Arch. Paras., tome ii, No. 3, pp. 356-361, 1899.

? Shipley, A. E. On a Collection of Echiurids, etc. A. Willey's Zo. Results,

Pt. iii, pp. 335-356, 1 plate, May, 1899.

334 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

by Dr. Willey. He lists a total of thirty-one good species, belonging

four to Bonellia, four to Echiurus, one each to Hamingia and Sac-

cosoma, and twenty-one to Thalassema, for which genus a good

analytical key is given. .From the geographical distribution some

interesting points are excerpted. Bonellia favors warmer or temper-

ate waters; Echiurus, colder regions in both hemispheres, without

known species in connecting regions ; Hamingia and Saccosoma are

both northern forms. Of Thalassema the only species found outside

of tropical and subtropical seas occur at points under the direct

influence of the Gulf Stream. |

A gape worm, Syngamus, has been reported by Railliet (Compt.

Rend. Soc. Biol, March 4, 1899), which, like that recorded by von

Linstow (Amer. Nat, Vol. XXXIII, p. 903), infests herbivorous

mammals; it appears to be common in Annam cattle, but, unlike its

avian congeners, harmless. 3

The rhynchodzal glands of Tetrarhynchus have been subjected to

a careful study by Pintner.! These glands, which correspond to the

greater part of the structures interpreted by Lang as rudimentary

salivary glands, stand in close relation to the probosces, that is, to

organs which are peculiar to a well-circumscribed group of animals

aberrant in character. Their distribution, form, and chemical reac-

tion show them to be most closely related to the cephalic glands of

nemertines. They are neither cystogenic, nor mucous glands, and

no evidence was found as to their real function.

Simondsia paradoxa, the extraordinary nematode described by

Cobbold, has been found again by von Ratz (Zeitschr. f. Thiermed.,

Bd. III, pp. 322—329), whose brief report covers chiefly pathological

data I

A ee on the Strongylide adds another to the valuable

series of taxonomic summaries on groups of parasites, published by

Stossich. An analytical key to the subfamilies and genera is fol-

lowed by descriptions of the species. The references to the litera-

ture on each species are particularly full, but the nomenclature is

open to some criticism. A comprehensive list of hosts and a good

index, including "m add much to the usefulness of the

paper.

1 Pintner, Th. Die His eo agate der Tetrarhynchen. Ard. Zool. Inst.

Wien, Bd. xii, pp. 1-24, 3 plates,

2 Stossich, M. Strongylide. ae monografico. Bull. Soc. Adriat. Sci.

Nat. Trieste, vol. xix, pp. 55-152, 1899.

No. 400] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 335

BOTANY.

The Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.' — It has been the

dream of years with Professor Bailey of Cornell to close the nine-

teenth century with a comprehensive index to American horticulture,

viewing plants from the garden rather than the herbarium, and con-

sidering them as living, growing, varying things rather than biblio-

graphical formule. To this end he spent a year in indexing all of the

prominent American plant and seed catalogues, as a preliminary

step, and then enlisted the interest and services of a large number

of artists, expert gardeners and botanists, with whose coóperation he

now has the work so well in hand that the first of the four volumes

of which it is to consist is given to the public with the promise that

the others shall be issued before the end of the year.

The volume already published, covering the initials 4 to D, is a

quarto of over 500 pages, illustrated by a number of full-page plates,

and nearly 800 cuts in the text; and, as is the plan of the entire

work, is made first hand, from original sources of information, the

botanical matter nearly all newly elaborated from the living plants,

and the cultural directions often repeated by several growers experi-

enced in methods adapted to American conditions. The editor

very modestly says that he considers his book only a beginning,

bringing together scattered data as a foundation for other studies.

It is sufficient to say that it is well written, well printed, and, though

unequally so, well illustrated.

The botanical treatment of so large and shifting a subject as the

plants cultivated in a given country is a matter of some interest.

Florists’ and gardeners’ varieties, because of their very transient

nature and great number, are not characterized nor even enumerated,

though the types under which they may be grouped are considered

in the more popular genera of the moment. But the species and

more permanent varieties are systematically handled, and the very

real objection, that the systematic treatment of the plants grown in a

single country deals with too shifting a quantity to have value of

any permanence, is to a certain extent met by the introduction under

the more important genera of supplementary lists of species which

should be, or are likely to be, elements of our trade.

Nomenclature in botany is sufficiently difficult and complex to

! Bailey, L. H., and Miller, Wilhelm. Cyclopedia of American Horticulture.

New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900.

336 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

furnish occupation for a large number of thinkers and writers, and

when the transient forms evolved under the hand of man and adver-

tised and marketed in accordance with prevalent business methods

have to be taken cognizance of, it becomes almost a pigs-in-clover

proposition. For some years past the leaders in horticultural thought

have been agreed on the adoption of simple and short vernacular

names for such forms, and official action tending to secure a consist-

ent application of principles of good taste, good sense, and business

wisdom has been taken at various times by the American Pomologi-

cal Society, the representatives of the principal experiment stations,

and the Society of American Florists, while in 1893 a botanical

congress at Madison, on the report of a committee of international

membership, endorsed the actions of these bodies with the recom-

mendation that, for practical reasons, the great Index Kewensis be

- taken as the basis of nomenclature for the more permanent forms

bearing Latinized names. These various conclusions have been

made the working basis of the Cyclopedia, and although the parti-

tioning of the work among many persons has made the results

attained less uniform than would have been the case if one person

had done it all, the book is going to place in the reach of makers of

American trade catalogues a model which they can follow, and which

it will be to their ultimate business interest to follow; while such

action on their part will do very much to raise the semi-science of

the botany of cultivated plants to a position where the general monog-

raphers of plants can take cognizance of and utilize its great array

of facts — a result which in one way or another the first half of the

twentieth century must see achieved. T.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

(Regular exchanges are not included.)

ALEXANDER, P. Y. Darwin and Darwinism Pure and Mixed, a Criticism,

with Some Suggestions. John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, London, 1899. 12,

346 pp.

Cox, Ui O. A Syllabus of Elementary Physiology with References

and Laboratory Exercises. Mankato, Minn. n.d., 8, 167 pp-

DENIKER, J. The Races of Man. An Outline of Anthropology and ad

.GIARD, ALFRED. rthénoge

des Organismes Pluricellulaires. Vol. jubilaire cinquantenaire de la Société de

Biologie. 14 pp.

ILL, BENJAMIN F. Notes on a Set of Rocks from Wyoming, Collected by

Professor Wilbur C. Knight of the University of Wyoming. Contrib. Geol. Dept. |

Columbia nn LII.

HOoLLICK, ARTHUR. The Relation between Forestry and Geology in New

Jersey. risa Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LV

ICK, ARTHUR. Some Features of the Drift on Staten Island, N. Y.

Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. L.

InviNG, JoHN D. Some Contact Phenomena of the Palisade Diabase. Con-

trib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LI.

JULIEN, ALEXIS A. Building Stones, Elements of Strength in their Consti-

tution and Structure. Contrib. Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ.

Kemp, J. F. A Brief Review « the Titaniferous Magostitas, Contrib.

Geol. Dept. Columbia Univ. LIV.

Kemp, J. F. Granites of Southern Rhode Island and Connecticut, with

oa on Atlantic Coast Granites in General. Contrib. Geol. Dept.

Columbia Univ. LVII. :

R, J. GRAHAM. Note on Hypotheses as to the Origin of the Paired

ca ot Vertebrates. Proc. Cambridge-Philos. Soc. X, 227-235.

ACDOUGAL, DANIEL TREMBLY. The Nature and Work of Plants.. An

Introduction to the Study of Botany. New York, The Macmillan Company,

1900. xvii, 218 pp. 80 cts.

PARKER, T. JEFFREY, and HaAswELL, WILLIAM A. A Manual of Zoology.

Revised and Adapted for the Use of American Schools and Colleges. New York,

The Macmillan Company, 1900. xxv, 363 pp-, 327 figs.

PINCHOT, pen Report of the Forester for 1899. Washington, 1899.

PLATE, L. Ueber Bedeutung und Tragweite des Darwinschen Selections-

princips. Leipzig, Wilhelm Engelmann, 1900. 153 pP-

RICHARDSON, HARRIET. Description of a New Species of Idotea Suis Hako-

date Bay, Japan. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. XXII, 131-134.

SHUFELDT, R. W. Notes on the Mountain Partridge (Oreortyx pictus) in

pnus Ornis, Nov., Dec., 1899, pp. 71-76, Pl. I.

337

338 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

TOWNSEND, C. N. Pelagic Sealing, with Notes on the Fur Seals of Guada-

lupe, the Galapagos and Lobos Islands. Washington, 1899.

TRELEASE, WILLIAM. The Classification of Bcesidon] Publications. Re-

printed from .Scie

WEBSTER, C. T A Monograph on the Geology and Paleontology of the

Iowa Devonian UE Statements relating to. Charles City, Iowa, 1900.

PP-

Cincinnati gy of Natural vagin Journal XIX, No. X — Crate

Journal. XV, No. February, 1900. — Zhe Insect World. IV, No. Jan

uary, 1900. — Johns porca: Hospital. ‘Bulletin. XI, No. 107. ae 1900.

— Missouri Saa Gardens. Eleventh Annual Report. St. Louis, 1900.

I s pp. 62 pls. — Museo Nacional de Montevideo. Anales. Tomo II, Fasc. XII.

899. ek mee Science Association of Staten Island. paccm si VII, Nos.

13, 14. — Revista Chilena de Historia Natural. Ano IV, No. 1900. — Santiago

de Chili. kiyageng des Deutschen wissenschaftlichen Aeon Band IV,

Heft 1. 1899.— nce Gossip. VI, No.69. February, 1900. — United States

Department of ae Division of co eit Bulletin 22. — University

of Tennessee. Record. October, 1899. — West Virginia Agricultural Wein

Station. Bulletins 61, 62. — Wyoming Experiment Station. Bulletin

(Number 399 was mailed March 30, 1900.)

GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY

Kiener’s Species General et Iconographie des Coquilles Vivantes.

Continué par le Dr. P. FISHER, Aide-Naturaliste au Museum d'Histoire

Naturelle. Complete in 165 parts, forming 12 volumes with 902 plates,

superbly colored after the natural specimens. Edition on vellum paper.

4to. Published at 1800 francs, offered at $250.

above well-known work on shells and one of the finest ever re

—the arms being accurately and carefully colored by competent artists —

especially worthy the attention of naturalists and librarians on mass of the ies

price at which it is offered, being less than half the cost of importa

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VOL. XXXIV, No. gor’

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

I. Marine Biology at Beaufort . . Professor H. V. WILSON

II. The Fruiting of the Blue Flag (Iris vated L.)

Professor J. G. NEEDHAM

HI. A Contribution to the Natural T and Development of

Pennari

nnaria tiarella McCr. Professor CHAS. W. HARGITT

. R. W. SHUFELDT

IV. The Worm ries Results of the Polar —— under

Dr. Hen

V. Synopses ae Takki EEE 1 The Scorpions,

Solpugids, and Fedipalpi NATHAN BANES

VI. Reviews of Recent Literature: edes. The Natural History of the

VII. Pu

Musical Bow, Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1897, Report of

the Commissioner of Education for 1897-98, Notes — Genera! Biology,

Protoplasmic Streamings — Zoó/ogy, A New Practical Zoólogy, Gogorza's

List of the Vertebrate Animals of the Philippines, Lungless Salamanders,

The Egg of the Hagfish, Waite's Fishes of the Thetis Expedition, Smitt

on Lycodes, Abbott on Chilean Fishes, Moreno on the Olfactory Nerves

of Fishes, California Water Birds, Ovogenesis in Tunicates, Reproduc-

tion of Ameba, Arctic Deep-Sea Fauna, Arctic Marine Animals, Notes

— Botany, Phenological Observations in Canada, King’s Irrigation and

Drainage, Trimen’s Flora of Ceylon, Nuclear Phenomena in Ustilaginex,

Cell Division in Sporangia and Asci, Notes — Petrography, The =o

graphical Province of Essex AOS Mass.. N epheline-Syenites, No

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The American Naturalist.

ASSOCIATE EDITORS:

J. A. ALLEN, PH.D., American Museum of Natural History, New York.

E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D. , Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore.

WILLIAM S. BAYLEY, PH.D., Colby University, Waterville.

CHARLES E. BEECHER, PH.D., Yale University, New Haven.

DOUGLAS H. CAMPBELL, Pu.D., Leland FAES Junior University, Cal.

J. H. COMSTOCK, S.B., Cornell University, [thac

WILLIAM M. DAVIS, M.E., Harvard i University, ‘Camiridge

ALES HRDLICKA, M.D., Mew

D. S. JORDAN, LL. = dee ide Tyce University, California.

CHARLES A. KOFO H.D., University of Illinois, Urbana, Lil.

J. G. NEEDHAM, bx Ae Forest University.

ARNOLD E. ORTMANN, PH.D., Princeton Univer.

D. P. PENHALLOW, S.B., F.R.M.S., McGill Univer Montreal.

H. M. RICHARDS, S.D., Columbia University, Ne

W. E. RITTER, Pu.D., University of California, Berkeley.

FRANK RUSSELL, Pu.D., Harvard University, Cambridge.

ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, LL.D., University of Michigan, Ann

ERWIN F. SMITH, S.D, Q. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington.

LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, sim cie ngton.

W. TRELEASE, S.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Lou

HENRY B. WARD, PH.D., University of Ne enin, Linc

S. WATASÉ, PH.D, University of Chicago.

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST is an illustrated monthly magazine

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AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXXIV. May, 1900. No. 401.

MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT.

H. V. WILSON.

THE sandy strip of land which extends along the North Caro-

lina coast, separating the ocean on one side from the system

of sounds on the other, is interrupted at intervals. The breaks

or inlets thus convert the strip into a series of long, narrow

islands, known as banks. On the mainland, opposite the

inlet between Shackelford and Bogue banks, is the town of

Beaufort, some 350 miles south of Baltimore and 250 north-

east of Charleston. The coast line here runs nearly east and

west, and Beaufort is at the end of a little peninsula which juts

out from the mainland toward the south, and is nearly sur-

rounded by water. Beaufort inlet is a mile and a half.in width,

and it is about the same distance, in a straight line across the

harbor, from the town to Fort Macon, at the extreme end of

Bogue bank. The harbor occupies an area some four or five

miles wide, passing to the east and west into the shallower

waters of Back (opening into Core, thence into Pamlico) and

Bogue sounds, respectively.

The harbor is diversified with numerous sand shoals, mud

flats, salt marshes, all more or less submerged at high water ;

339

340 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV.

at which time, with the centerboard up, a “sharpy ” (the favor-

ite form of sailboat, imported here from Connecticut) may be

sailed in a straight line from the inlet to the town. Behind

the protecting shoals the water is always quiet, so that one

may go collecting in this part of the harbor in a skiff at times

when the breakers are high in the inlet and running freely

along the seaward edge of the shoals. The wealth of life buried

in the sand shoals and mud flats is remarkable — every spadeful

infa aT id

OAAS a Iss yi 27,

7 MS prin, P Is

Shacxel

ord.

Banks

i»

Fic. x. —Beaurort HARBOR. After U. S. C. and G. S. Chart 420.

Yue

QW ow Qu

brings up something. Worms are of course best represented,

although sea anemones, holothurians, spatangoid urchins, bur-

rowing Crustacea, and mollusks abound. The natural absence

of rocks over the bottom forces the sessile forms to make use

of whatever will afford a foothold. Diopatra tubes become

covered with ascidians, these with alga, hydroids, polyzoa, and

. small tubicolous annelids. Algz and sponges fasten on par

tially submerged shells. The oyster beds (“oyster rocks" in

the local vernacular) distributed round the margin of the flats

afford a home for many other attached mollusks, and for anem-

ones and sponges, while crabs, gasteropods, nudibranchs, ophi.

No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 341

urans crawl about over the shells, and burrowing shrimps bury

themselves in the mud beneath and between them.

Passing from the shoals into the deeper water of the harbor

channels, the bottom is found in places to be sandy, elsewhere

muddy or covered with a shelly detritus. In many places one

may collect with a long-handled scraping net, working from a

skiff or sailboat. But for any extensive bottom collecting the

dredge and trawl, with a steam launch, are necessary. Sponges,

sea feathers and fans, the beautiful Renilla, Astrangia and

rarely other corals, starfish, sea urchins, sand dollars, bottom-

loving shrimps, crabs, mollusks are thus taken.

The sea bottom outside the inlet, within five or six miles off

the coast, has been pretty well explored with dredge and trawl.

Near shore, in many places, the bottom is a sticky mud, cov-

ered with sand dollars and with abundant medusz (Chiropsal-

mus). A sandy bottom is more common. The slope is gradual,

the depth at five miles from the beach line being, in general,

eight to nine fathoms. Many forms which are commonly seen

on the beach, cast up after a storm, grow in abundance in lo-

calities within the five-mile limit. Certain crabs (Persephona,

Hepatus) and starfish (Astropecten, Luidia) may especially be

mentioned as conspicuous examples. The beach collecting

after a southerly blow is often good. Quantities of anemones

(Paractis), holothurians, compound ascidians, spongon; and

stranded jellyfish are to be had.

The wharf piles at Morehead City (railroad terminus) and

Beaufort, and the stone jetties on each side of the inlet de-

serve to be mentioned. They are among the best collecting

places for attached forms — algæ, hydroids, sponges, polyzoa,

anemones. Beaufort is a capital place for the study of pelagic

types. A strong tide sets into the harbor, bringing a great

variety of hydromedusæ, Entomostraca, pelagic worms, and a

wealth of larval forms. Certain interesting Protozoa (Acantho-

metra, Noctiluca) are very abundant. The proximity of the

gulf stream (the roo-fathom line, which marks the western

bank of the stream,! is some fifty miles distant) frequently

leads to the presence in the harbor of many forms character-

1 Agassiz. Three Cruises of the * Blake,” vol. i, p. 257-

342 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [ VoL. XXXIV.

istic of more southern waters. These forms often appear in

large numbers, and many remain for weeks. Among such

may be mentioned Physalia, Porpita (Professor Brooks men-

tions! that he has here taken nearly all the siphonophores

known to occur on the Atlantic coast), the rhizostomous me-

dusa Stomolophus, the pelagic annelid Amphinome. On a

calm evening in Beaufort harbor, with a flood tide, it is best

to abandon the tow net for the dip net. The individuals are

abundant enough to make the use of the latter successful, and

the perfect condition in which delicate forms, such as Diphyes,

Lucifer, Cuninas, Phyllosoma larva, etc. may thus be taken

repays for the time spent.

Beaufort itself is a quaint and attractive town, with its wide,

grassy lanes, and inclining trees (live oaks, mulberries, elms),

which show plainly the direction of the prevailing wind. Viewed

from the harbor the town presents a long line of white houses

that edge the shore, each with its upper and lower porch, from

which (more especially the upper) the harbor in turn offers a

very pleasing picture. In the late afternoon, when the glare

has become less intense, the picture is one that stays in the

memory as a restful composition of sky and water, the latter

broken here and there with green marsh islands and white

shoals, with sand dunes on the banks and breakers in the inlet

shutting in the view. To the eastward big reels, on which

seines are wound, make a detail suggestive of the village life.

The climate is equable, but cold comes occasionally, as in

last February, when the fig trees were killed to the ground.

The summer temperature is not unpleasant, though one's work-

room should be a large, airy one close to the shore (“an the

town front," as the saying is) and open to the sea breeze. I

have before me a record of temperatures made by Professor

E. A. Andrews during the warmer part of the year. The

observations were taken at 7 a.m and 9 p.m. daily. During

May the temperature at these times was, day after day, 74°-

75^. In June there were some cold days, the thermometer

going down to 66°, the weather growing warmer, though, in

the latter part of the month, when 78?—79? was reached. Dur-

1 Report of the President of the Johns Hopkins University, p. 82, 1883.

Fic. 2. — BEAUFORT — A PART OF THE “TOWN FRON

(The photographs made use of in the preparation of this article have been kindly loaned by Professor J. I. Hamaker.)

Cect am a

Fic. 3. — East END or BEAUFORT — THE TOWN SHORE.

344 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ing July and August the temperaturé on many days was 79°-

81°, rarely going a degree or two above that, and much more

frequently dropping several degrees below. In September the

weather was cooler, the range being from 67? to 80?. At

midday a very common summer temperature is 85? — only

occasionally (at the times when 100?—105? is registered for so

many of the cities) is it warmer. During the past season the

laboratory was comfortable day and night, save once in June,

when the heat of the lamps made microscopic work trying.

With proper precautions Beaufort is a healthful as well as a

pleasant summering place for most people. Morehead City,

across the harbor, is a well-known resort in this part of the

South, and many people come also to Beaufort. The fishing,

sailing, and the daily bath make the days pass agreeably for

those who have nothing else to do, and contribute much to the

bten-étre of naturalists who are spending a working vacation.

The ocean beach is a hard, fine one, and the surf bathing

about like that of the better known Jersey coast. For the

regular daily bath, however, most people prefer the harbor.

With a skiff, in five minutes, one reaches a clean sand shoal,

over which the ocean water is flowing from the inlet opposite,

and with the first plunge becomes aware of the pleasure that

lies in this part of the day’s routine.

This is not the place for a catalogue of the Beaufort fauna

and flora. And, indeed, many as are the forms known to

occur here, which have been identified, much systematic work -

will be necessary before they can all properly be listed. More-

over, forms hitherto not known to occur here are discovered

often in abundance with every season of work. The more

important published lists of Beaufort forms are contained in

the following papers :

Wm. Stimpson, M.D. “A Trip to Beaufort, N. C." Amer.

Journ. of Sci, Series 2, Vol. XXIX, 1860., The paper con-

tains lists of ascidians, mollusks, and decapod Crustacea. The

Lingula of the south Atlantic coast is here first described, al-

though McCrady, writing shortly after from Charleston (Amer.

Journ. Sci Vol. XXX), mentions that it “was found more

than ten years ago on our coast by the Rev. Thomas J.

No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 345

Young,” and that Professor Louis Agassiz, at his laboratory

in Charleston harbor, had had specimens. McCrady was, I

believe, the first to observe Lingula larvae, since described in

Professor Brooks’s well-known paper and taken in Beaufort

harbor, both by Professor Brooks and (during the past season)

by Professor J. Y. Graham.

Coues and Yarrow, “ Notes on the Natural History of Fort

Macon, North Carolina, and Vicinity " (Nos. 1-3), Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci. Phila., 1871, 1877. The vertebrate lists are much

more complete than the invertebrate. There are recorded

24 mammals, 133 birds, 27 reptiles, 6 amphibia, 111 fishes.

Of the invertebrates recorded the only list approaching com-

pleteness is that of the mollusks (147).

A. E. Verrill, * On Radiata from the Coast of North Caro-

lina," Amer. Journ. Sci, 1872. This paper includes lists of

ceelenterates and echinoderms (Coues and Yarrow’s Collec-

tion).

A. E. Verrill, * Notes on Natural History of Fort Macon”

(Coues and Yarrow’s Collection of Annelids), Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sci. Phila., 1878.

J. S. Kingsley, * On a Collection of Crustacea from Virginia,

North Carolina, and Florida," etc., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila.,

1879.

J. S. Kingsley, “ List of Decapod Crustacea of the Atlantic

Coast," whose range embraces Fort Macon, Proc. Acad. Nat.

Sct. Phila., 1878.

In these two papers of Kingsley’s there are recorded over

sixty decapods for Beaufort harbor.

Jordan and Gilbert, * Notes on Fishes of Beaufort Harbor,

North Carolina,” Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1878.

E. A. Andrews, “ Report upon the Annelida polycheta of

Beaufort, North Carolina,” Proc. U. S: Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV,

189r. ;

Many of the Beaufort forms have been first described by

some of the older naturalists, whose collections were made

farther south, along the coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and

Florida. Among such may be especially mentioned Catesby!,

1 Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands.

346 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV.

Bosc}, Say?, Le Sueur’, Louis Agassiz’, Gibbes’, Stimpson‘,

McCrady*. Other forms are constantly met with, which were

first described by naturalists working farther north, on the

Virginian coast (H. E. Webster)’, on the coasts of Rhode

Island and New Jersey (Leidy)?, coast of New York (De

Kay), New England coast (Verrill!!, Verrill and Smith P, Gould :

and BinneyP). Other well-known memoirs, which are espe-

cially useful for systematic work at Beaufort are: Alexander

Agassiz’s “ North American Acalephz "5; Verrill's * Revision

of the Polypi of the Eastern Coast of the United States” 1;

the various reports on the results of dredging, under the su-

pervision of Alexander Agassiz, by the U. S. Coast Survey

Steamer Blake (published in the Memoirs and Bulletin of

the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy); Dall’s * Catalogue of

Mollusks and Brachiopods of Southeastern Coast of United

States, ^

In the Studies from the Biological Laboratory of the Johns

1 Hist. Nat. des Crustacés ; Hist. Nat. des Vers

? An Account of the Crustacea of the United States, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sct.

Phila., vol. i, 1817-18, The Complete Writings of Thomas Say on the Conchology

of the United States, edited by Wm. G. Binney, 1

3 Observations on Several Species of the eae Actinia, Journ. Acad. Nat.

Sei. Phila., vol. i, 1817-18.

* Contributions to the Natural History of the United State

5 On the Carcinological Collections of the United States, ‘id sce dep of

new species, Proc. Amer. Ass. Adv, Sci., vol. iii, 1850.

ê Notes on North American Crustacea, Ann. Lyceum Nat. Hist. of N. Y., vol.

vii, 1862. On Some kamki Mail Invertebrates inhabiting the Shores of

South Carolina, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. v, 1856.

7 Gymnophthalmata of Charleston Harbor, Proc. Elliott Soc. Charleston, vol. i,

1853-58.

8 Annelida chaetopoda of the Virginian Coas

? Marine Invertebrate Fauna of Coasts d ‘Rhode Island and New Jersey,

Journ. Pa. Sci. Phila., vol. iii, 18

D The Natural History of New York, Pt. i, Zoölogy. The volume on Mol-

lusca and Crustacea is particularly ant to the collector, because of its con-

densed descriptions of “ extra limital ” form

H New En,

12 Report on Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound, 1873.

13 Report on the Invertebrata of Massachusetts, 2d ed.

M Must. Cat. of Mus. of Comp. Zoology, 1865.

15 Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 1, 1866-69.

16 Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 37, 1889.

Vestiti ttis Un

Fic. 4. — To THE EAST OF BEAUFORT — SHACKELFORD BANK IN THE DISTANCE.

F1G.5. — SAND DUNE ON SHACKELFORD BANK.

348 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

Hopkins University, and in the Johns Hopkins University Cir-

cular, from 1880 on, naturalists working at Beaufort will find

many papers and notes of faunistic interest, in which new

forms are described or known ones recorded. Among these

may be mentioned Professor Brooks's papers on “ Meduse”

(Studies, 1882, 1883); and the lists and notes by Professors

McMurrich (Actiniz), Osborne (Mollusca), Nachtrieb (echino-

derms), Jenkins (fishes), collected together under the title

* Notes on the Fauna of Beaufort, N. C." (Studies, 1887). A

great many facts of general natural history interest (system-

atic, distributional, ecological) will also be found scattered

through the pages of the morphological and embryological

memoirs which have been appearing since 1880 as the result

of the work of Professor Brooks and his students at Beaufort.

At the laboratory of the U. S. Fish Commission, which was

maintained during the past summer at Beaufort, the various

species observed were recorded, and specimens preserved for

the museum collection of the laboratory. It is planned that

the record of each species shall include mention of the localities

in which it is fairly abundant, most convenient collecting meth-

ods, time of year during which breeding goes on, brief natural

history notes on habits of adult (food, enemies, parasites, rate of

growth, time and extent of migration, etc.) and on the life his-

tory (character of eggs, where and how deposited, possibility of

artificial fertilization, period of embryonic development, charac-

ter of larva and period of larval development, habitat, food and

enemies of larva). The economic value of such a knowledge

of the natural history of the region will be readily understood,

and it is equally obvious to what an extent it will aid natural-

ists engaged in the study of the abstruse problems of morpho-

logical and physiological embryology, of comparative anatomy

and physiology. Its value in connection with similar results of

the work at other coast stations, to the study of the variability

of organisms, may be here alluded to.

To carry out such a scheme of work for a rich fauna like that

of Beaufort will require years. An excellent basis has, how-

ever, been built up, and profitable lines of study marked out by

the members of the Johns Hopkins Marine Laboratory and by

No.40.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 349

other naturalists. During the past season’s work (1899) of

the Fish Commission Laboratory many of the previously known

facts, some recorded, some unrecorded (in the possession of

former workers at Beaufort), have been brought together and

confirmed, and important additions have been made. The

forms actually collected during the season included 238 spe-

cies of marine invertebrates, some 70 fishes, 50 birds, a num-

ber of reptiles, amphibia, insects and arachnoids, and a very

considerable number of land plants and alga. In the case

of a good number of species, notes along the lines indicated

above were made. In gathering the data of the record all

members of the laboratory lent their assistance, during such

time as they were able to spare from their special investiga-

tions. I would especially thank Professors W. K. Brooks,

E. W. Berger, J. Y. Graham, J. I. Hamaker, T. G. Pearson,

Dr. D. S. Johnson, Dr. G. A. Drew, and Dr. Caswell Grave.

Identifications and notes on breeding times have also been very

kindly contributed by Professors E. A. Andrews, C. B. Daven-

port, J. S. Kingsley, George Lefevre, M. M. Metcalf, J. P.

McMurrich, E. B. Wilson. In another season's work, doubt-

less, all the recorded forms will have been taken and identified.

Further progress can only be made by a formal division of

labor among the members of the laboratory. With the great

awakening of interest, which is so apparent to-day, in the phe-

nomena exhibited by animals and plants regarded as living

units, it should not be difficult to find naturalists who will

gladly work up the local natural history of the groups embrac-

ing the particular forms on which they may be investigating

problems of a morphological or physiological character.

From among the forms occurring at Beaufort the following

common summer ones may be selected with the purpose of giv-

ing a conspectus of the local fauna and flora. The months

given immediately after the name of each species are breeding

months, but it is not implied that breeding is limited to these

months. In many forms breeding undoubtedly continues

through a large part of the year — oyster eggs, for instance,

have been fertilized in December by Dr. Caswell Grave. With

a few exceptions the forms listed were noted during the past

350 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

season. The exceptions include forms recorded by myself in

1886, 1894, 1898.

Protozoa. — Noctiluca miliaris and A

abundant in the tow throughout summer.

Sponges. — Chalina arbuscula, Microciona prolifera, Cliona

sulphurea, and several other monactinellid sponges are com-

mon. No eggs nor gemmules have been observed during the

earlier summer months, but by September Ist a number of

species are breeding.

Celenterates.

Hydrozoa. — Hydroids: Hydractinia echinata, with gono-

phores, June; Eudendrium ramosum, with gonophores, June ;

Sertularia carolinensis (sp.?), with gonothecæ, June; Ag/ao-

phenia trifida; Campanularia sp.; Parypha cristata, with gono-

phores, June, July. Hydromeduse : Liriope scutigera, July,

August ; Vemopsis bachet, July, August ; Cunoctantha octonaria,

adults and parasitic larvae, July, August; Cunina sf., parasitic

larve in Liriope, August; Turritopsis nutricula, July, August ;

Margelis carolinensis; Eutima mira. Siphonophores : Diphyes

sp., Physalia arethusa, Porpita linneana.

Scyphomeduse. — Stomolophus meleagris, Chiropsalmus quad-

rumanus, Dactylometra quinquecirra, Cyanea versicolor (sp. ?).

Ephyra larva (s5.?), common in tow, July, August.

Actiniaria and Madreporaria. — Paractis rapiformis, Autac-

tinia capitata, Adamsia sol, Aiptasia pallida, Cerianthus ameri-

canus, Astrangia dane, Oculina sp. Arachnactis larvæ, in

tow, August.

Alcyonaria. — Renilla reniformis, May, June, July; Zepto-

gorgia virgulata, May, June, July ; Rhipidogorgia flabellum.

Ctenophora. — Mnemiopsis gardeni.

Echinoderms. — Starfishes : Asterias arenicola, April; Luidia

clathrata, August ; Astropecten articulatus, August ; large bipin-

narias with budding starfish in tow, July. Ophiuroids: Amphi-

ura sf., June, larva a pluteus (species dredged three to nine

fathoms, outside inlet); Ophiura brevispina, July, August, eggs

discharged shortly after nightfall; Ophiothrix angulata (sp.?),

June, July; Ophiolepis elegans, nine fathoms, outside inlet,

eggs nearly mature July 12. Echinoids: Arbacia punctulata,

tra sf. are

No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 351

June, July ; Zoropneustes variegatus, June, July; Moira atro-

pos, August; Mellita testudinata, early September. Holo-

thurians: Thyone briareus; Leptosynapta girardii (sp.?), with

apparently mature eggs, July; small synaptas abundant in

night tow, August.

Worms. — Annelids : Amphitrite ornata, June; Petaloproctus

socialis; Notomastus sf.; Marphysa sanguinea; Diopatra cuprea;

D. magna, egg mass containing larvæ, July ; Nereis limbata, Sep-

tember; Hydroides dianthus, July ; Harmothoe aculeata; Axio-

thea mucosa, June, July; Arabella opalina ; Loimia turgida ;

Arenicola cristata, June to August; Sabella microphthalma ;

Pectinaria gouldii; Sabellaria vulgaris, July ; Autolytus cor-

nutus, August, September (in tow); Proceræa ornata; P. tardi-

grada, early September (night tow); Rhyncobolus americanus ;

Chetopterus pergamentaceus, June to August; Sthenalais

picta. The interesting pelagic form, Amphinome pallasii

(one of the Blake species), appeared in the harbor July 18;

eggs and sperm were freely discharged. Other * worms":

Bdelloura candida, June; Meckelia rosea (sp.?); Cerebratulus

ingens; Sagitta sp., June to September; Thalassema mellita,

June; Balanoglossus brooksii, B. kowalevskii (sp.?). Professor

Andrews in 1885 discovered the presence of the interesting

form Phoronis (P. architecta Andr.). Actinotrocha larvz are

common in the tow during summer.

Mollusca. — In Stimpson's list (oc. cit., 1860) 174 mollusks

are recorded. Coues and Yarrow (/oc. cit.) again list most of

these and record a few others. Osborn (doc. cit.) records still

others. The following may be mentioned :

Lamellibranchs: Venus rugosa (sp.2) June, the burrowing

form Lithodomus lithophagus, Cytherea gigantea, Dosinia dis-

cus, Moctra solidissima, Tagelus gibbus, T. divisus, Modiola

plicatula, Pholas sp. (small species found in rotten wood ; shells

of P. costata common), Solenomya velum, Anomia glabra, Arca

transversa, A. ponderosa, A. pexata, Cyclas dentata, Cardium

magnum, Pecten dislocatus, Donax fossor, Tellina alternata,

Ostrea virginiana, Xylotria fimbriata (and other shipworms)

August, Pinna semi-nuda, Lima sp. Venus mercenaria, Rocel-

laria stimpsont.

352 IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL.. XXXIV.

Gastropods. — Fulgur carica, June, July; F. canaliculata ;

Neverita duplicata, June, July ; Szgaretus perspectivus; Purpura

hemastoma, eggs deposited in confinement, July; Strombus

alatus; Fasciolaria tulipa, June, July ; Crepidula fornicata,

June ; C. plana, June; /lyonassa obsoleta ; Urosalpinx cinerea,

June; Oliva literata; Ovulum unzplicatum ; Fissurella alter-

nata; Littorina irrorata; Chetopleura apiculata.

Among the opisthobranchs, species of Aphysia, Æolis,

Doris, Polycera, Scyllæa (on gulf weed), Ancula, occur.

Among the pteropods, Styltola vitrea is occasionally abun-

dant. Among the cephalopods, Loligo pealii is rarely taken,

and a form of lighter color (sf.?) more commonly. Squid

eggs are frequently dredged during summer, outside the

inlet.

Crustacea. — As has been mentioned, something over sixty

decapods are recorded for the locality. Beaufort is far enough

to the south for the crab fauna, in particular, to show something

of that variety, which becomes so pronounced in the tropics.

Decapods. — Panopeus herbstii, June, July ; Lupa sayi, July ;

Sesarma reticulata; Menippe mercenaria (“stone crab"); Calli-

nectes hastatus, June; Ocypoda arenaria; Libinia canaliculata ;

Hepatus decorus; Gelasimus pugnax; Persephona punctata, Sep-

tember; Platyonichus ocellatus ; Porcellana ocellata, Septem-

ber; P. macrocheles, July, August (commensal in Chætopterus

tubes); Pinnotheres ostreum ; Pinnixa chetopterana, August (a

rarer commensal in Chzetopterus tubes) ; Hippa emerita; Eupa-

gurus vittatus, June; E. longicarpus; E. pollicaris ; Penaeus

setiferus (sold during latter part of August and September) ;

Palemonetes vulgaris, July; Alpheus heterochelis, July to Sep-

tember; Alpheus minus, September; Gebia affinis, June; To-

seuma carolinensis, August ; Lucifer sp., summer. The taking

of the curious “false hermit” (Hypoconcha arcuata) may be re-

ferred to—the form has been recorded by Stimpson from South

Carolina.

Among the forms belonging to other groups of Crustacea

may be mentioned: Squilla empusa, Lysiosquilla excavatrix,

Diastylis sp. (this cumacean is regularly taken in the night tow

throughout summer); a large isopod (Ligia sp.), very abundant

No. 401.]. MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 353

on wharves; an isopod (Gyge sf.), parasitic in branchial cavity

of Alpheus heterochelis; another parasitic isopod (Livoneca

ovalis, with embryos in August), common on gills of pinfish ;

Orchestia sf.; Caprella s., June. Numerous copepods and

cladocera, many with eggs or embryos, are constantly taken

in the tow throughout summer.

Among the cirripeds may be mentioned the common rock

barnacle and ivory barnacle (Balanus eburneus), Lepas anatifera,

which frequently appears in the harbor; a small Lepadide

(Dichelaspis sf.), a common parasitic form on the gills of the

edible crab, with abundant eggs in July, — this interesting

form is probably the species mentioned by Fritz Müller (Facts

Jor Darwin, p. 137) as occurring at Desterro on same crab

(Lupa diacantha), —it differs in specific points from the sev-

eral other members of the genus, described by Darwin and

Hoek (Challenger Report). Limulus is of course abundant,

young specimens swarming on the sand shoals in early sum-

mer (June). The eggs of Limulus were, as far as I know, for

the first time artificially fertilized in 1882 by Professor H. L.

Osborn at Professor Brooks’s laboratory here.

Naturally but little attention has been paid to the tracheate

arthropods — enough though to show that the locality is an

excellent one for these groups. A few characteristic forms

are: the slender, long-legged myriapod Cermatia forceps,

sphinx moth, Phlegethontius carolina (larva, ** tomato-worm,”

excellent for anatomical work and for metamorphosis), rhinoc-

eros beetle, Dynastes tityrus. One of the large hunting spiders,

Lysosa sp. (carrying cocoon in early September), is abundant.

The cow-killer ant (burrowing mutillid wasp, female wingless),

Spherophthalma sp., is a common form.

The polyzoa have not been studied. The common forms

are species of Vesicularia, Bugula, Membranipora, Escharella,

Pedicellina (species with spines, probably P. echinata). The

only brachiopod known here, Lingula pyramidata, and its larva

have already been spoken of. The particular locality in the

harbor (first mentioned by Coues, /oc. cit) where Lingula,

associated with Renilla and Amphioxus, was extremely abun-

dant some years ago, has been encroached upon by a growing

354 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV. .

shoal and is no longer a good collecting place. Some equally

good spots may in time be located.

The tunicates, too, are badly in need of systematic work.

A large ascidian, Styela s^. (doubtless the Cynthia vittata of

Stimpson's list), two to three inches high, is extremely abun-

dant on the sand shoals and wharf piles. Another large and

translucent form, Ascidia s., is fairly abundant on wharf piles

and old shells, breeding in May and June. Molgula manhat-

tensis, Perophora viridis (breeding in June and July), Amarce-

cium sf. are common species. Appendicularia sf. is a common

form in the tow throughout summer — Professor George Le-

fevre has found it breeding from April to August. Doliolum

sp. is occasionally taken in the harbor through the summer —

both the nurse with stolon and buds, and the sexual form with

ripe eggs.

The variety of fishes that may be taken in a short time in

Beaufort harbor and adjoining waters is so great as to make it

evident that the number recorded (Jenkins, /oc. cit., gives 134)

for the region will be greatly increased when systematic col-

lecting has been carried on for a few years. Some nine miles

from Beaufort inlet the coast line makes a sharp, right-angled

bend, with Cape Lookout at the angle. From the end of the

cape a narrow line of shoals extends much farther out. The

cape and its submerged continuation form a wall, as it were,

reaching seaward for fifteen miles. Cape Lookout itself is so .

shaped as to embrace a bay, a quiet and beautiful sheet of

water, Lookout Bight. The coast configuration thus forms a

remarkable natural trap into which fish, migrating northwards,

fall. It is doubtful whether a better place can be found any-

where on our coast for the carrying out of observations on

oceanic species and on bay and river species during the oceanic

period of their life. The seining that has been carried on at

Cape Lookout has been extremely interesting and successful,

both as regards the variety of forms and the number of indi-

viduals taken.

The following species may be mentioned from the harbor

and adjacent waters: Amphioxus is found, but is not common

— the pelagic larva are taken in the tow (July). The com-

No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 355

monest sharks are the « sharp-nosed," Carcharinus terre-nove,

* shovel-headed," Sphyrna tiburo. Young ‘ hammerheads,”

Sphyrna zyge@na, are very abundant in the early summer in

some years. The sawfish, Pristis pectinatus, is frequently

taken. The sting ray, 7xygoz sayi, and butterfly skate, Pzero-

platea maclura, are abundant. Several eagle rays are occasion-

ally taken (cow-nosed ray, A/znoptera quadriloba, last summer),

and the sea devil, Manta birostris, has been caught at Cape

Lookout. Several cyprinodons (Fundulus, Cyprinodon, Gam-

busia) are abundant alongshore and in “salt ponds " — F. hetero-

clitus, with ripe eggs, July. Blennies are abundant about the

wharf piles, Hypleurochilus multifilis depositing its eggs on

sponges, etc., August. The toadfish, Batrachus tau, and its

eggs (summer) are of course abundant. Selene vomerand some

other ** moonfishes," two halfbeaks (Hemirhamphus braziliensis,

H. unifasciatus), the shark pilot, Echeneis naucrates, pipefish,

Siphostoma floride, and Hippocampus hudsonius, Nomeus grono-

viz (in bell cavity of the rhizostomous medusa, Stomolophus),

several swellfishes (Logocephalus levigatus, Chilomycterus geo-

metricus, Tetrodon turgidus) may be referred to. The com-

monest summer food fishes are the bluefish, Spanish mackerel,

sheepshead, jumping mullet, sea mullet, hogfish (Orthopristis

chrysopterus), pinfish (Diplodus rhomboides), croaker, spot, por-

gee, weakfishes (local ** trouts," Cynoscion regale, C. maculatum),

* blackfish ” (Serranus atrarius), a number of flounders (floun-

der spearing with a torch of “ fat” pine is a common occupa-

tion on summer nights). The menhaden (local **fatback ")

fishery is an important industry. Some attention was paid

during the past season to the breeding condition of the edible

species, and June would seem to be a good month for fish-

cultural work — the hogfish, porgee, and sea mullet are breed-

ing at that time.

Birds.—'The laboratory is indebted to Professor T. G.

Pearson, of Guilford College, for the identification of some

fifty summer birds. Gulls and terns are uncommon in the

harbor. In the salt marshes several herons are abundant,

also the clapper rail and the marsh wren (Worthington's), the

interesting false nests of which are easily found. The Florida

356 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. . [Vor. XXXIV.

cormorant is frequently seen flying across the harbor. Charac-

teristic shorebirds are the black-bellied plover, oyster catcher,

willet, spotted sandpiper, yellow legs. Other characteristic birds

seen about the harbor are the fish crow and boat-tailed grackle.

In the town, and in the woods back of the town, and on the

banks, many species are found which are common in the central

part of the state (mourning dove, flicker, kingbird, crested

flycatcher, phoebe, towhee, cardinal, mocking bird, brown

thrasher, titmouse, Carolina chickadee). In the winter there

is said to be good duck shooting in the neighborhood of the

town.

Other Vertebrates. — A number of lizards are abundant in

and back of the town (Anolis carolinensis, Eumeces fasciatus,

Cnemidophorus sexlineatus, Sceloporus undulatus). Alligators

are said to be common in localities close to Beaufort, espe-

cially in White Oak River, opening into Bogue Sound. Speci-

mens are occasionally brought into Beaufort. The bank ponies

quickly attract the attention of the newcomer. They run wild

on the banks and adjacent parts of the mainland, and are peri-

odically corralled (“penned”) for branding and sale. The

ponies are fond of the salt-marsh grass, and droves may, on

almost any day, be seen wading or swimming between the

shore and the marsh islands. Deer are fairly abundant in

localities, both on mainland and banks. Other common mam-

mals are the mink, raccoon, opossum. Coues (loc. cit.) says

the “marsh hare” (Lepus palustris) is “the most abundant

and characteristic mammal” on Bogue bank. Porpoises are

frequently seen in the harbor; the pairing season, according to

Coues, is in April and May.

Dr. D. S. Johnson and Mr. W. C. Coker, of Johns Hopkins

University, made, during the past season, a reconnaissance of

the flora of the region, the results of which Dr. Johnson has

embodied in two papers (on the flora of the banks, and the

algae of the harbor), which will appear in the Fish Commission

publications. Dr. Johnson describes the peculiar physiographic

characteristics of the banks, which (I quote from his unpub-

lished paper) * vary in width from a quarter of a mile to a mile

and a half, and in height from nearly sea-level, in the case of

No. 401.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 357

certain fresh water and salt marshes, to a maximum height of

perhaps forty feet in the case of some of the wind-blown dunes.

The conditions prevailing on the higher parts of these banks

are quite peculiar, in that while the shifting sandy soil holds

very little water, yet the air is very damp, since during the

growing season the prevailing wind is a strong sea breeze satu-

rated with moisture. Thus are to be explained, perhaps, the

frequent occurrence in this very dry soil of many plants which

usually occupy a much damper soil, and the striking abundance

of epiphytic lichens, liverworts, mosses, and ferns.” While

the algal flora is not so varied as on more rocky parts of the

coast, a very considerable number of species are present in

abundance. Among these may be mentioned Hypnea musci-

Sormis, Ulva lactuca, Dictyota dichotoma, Rhabdonia tenera,

Gracilaria confervoides, Codium tomentosum, Padina pavonia,

Sargassum vulgare, Dasya elegans, Melobesia pustulata, and

species of Callithamnion, Ectocarpus, Enteromorpha, and Poly-

siphonia.

With its rich and accessible fauna it is not to be wondered

at that Beaufort should have been so attractive to naturalists.

Among those who carried on investigations in this locality

before 1880 may be mentioned Professor Louis Agassiz, Dr.

Stimpson, Dr. Gill, Dr. Coues, Dr. Yarrow, President Jordan,

Professor Morse, Professor Packard, Professor Webster. In

1880 the marine laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University,

which during the previous two years had been located at

points in the Chesapeake Bay, was stationed here. A large

house near the extreme eastern end of the town was rented

continuously, and an excellent equipment, including a 47-foot

sloop and a steam launch, was provided. Professor Brooks,

with his students and co-workers, continued their investigations

year after year at Beaufort (with the exception of 1883, when

the laboratory was stationed at Hampton, Va.) until 1886,

when they spent the summer in the Bahama Islands. During

most of the years since that time the Johns Hopkins laboratory

has been stationed in the Bahamas or in Jamaica, with returns

to Beaufort at intervals. The important share which this labo-

ratory has had, since its inauguration in 1878 at Fort Wool, in

358 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

determining the character of zodlogical study in America is

well known. A list of its members will be found to include

many of the leaders in this branch of science in the several

parts of the country, and the number of memoirs and papers

based on observations made during its sessions is very large.

During the last few years there have been in Beaufort, from

time to time, parties of naturalists from Columbia (under Pro-

fessor E. B. Wilson) and other universities, as well as from the

Johns Hopkins. The U. S. Fish Commission has for years

been familiar with the fact that Beaufort presented many

opportunities for the scientific study of economic problems.

The large number of edible fish and Crustacea, the extensive

beds of clams and oysters, make the region one of commercial

importance. At Professor Brooks’s laboratory many contribu-

tions to the life histories of edible forms (shrimps, crabs, fish,

oyster) were made. As a continuation, along economic lines,

of Professor Brooks’s discoveries concerning the development

of the American oyster, Lieutenant Winslow’s experiments on

the artificial propagation of oysters may be mentioned. Pro-

fessor Brooks, Lieutenant Winslow, Professor H. L. Osborn

have all pointed out what an abundant “set” of spat may be

had, and how rapidly the spat grows. An extensive survey of

the oyster grounds of North Carolina was carried out some

years ago, under the direction of Lieutenant Winslow ;! and the

U. S. Fish Commission, conjointly with the director of the

Geological and Natural History Survey of North Carolina,

Professor J. A. Holmes, has had in progress since last Sep-

tember a reéxamination of a part of the ground, with especial

reference to the present condition of planted beds. As an

outcome of this work we may expect to have, in the near

neighborhood of Beaufort, a carefully planned and conducted

experimental oyster farm, on which a continuous series of obser-

vations may be carried out for some years, with the sure

expectation that improvements in oyster culture will result.

! Winslow, Lieutenant Francis. Report on the Waters of North Carolina, with

reference to their possibilities for oyster culture, State Printer. Raleigh, 1886 ;

Report on the Sounds and Estuaries of North Carolina, with reference to oyster

culture, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Bulletin No. ro, 1889.

No. 4o1.] MARINE BIOLOGY AT BEAUFORT. 359

A year ago the director of the Geological Natural History Sur-

vey of North Carolina represented to the U. S. Commissioner

of Fish and Fisheries, Hon. George M. Bowers, how desirable

it was for the material development of the marine fisheries that

some step be taken toward providing a headquarters, where

continuous observations might be made on the natural history

of the fauna of the south Atlantic coast, and how suitable the

town of Beaufort was for such a purpose. In May Dr. H.

M. Smith, in charge of the Division of Scientific Inquiry,

announced (Sczence, Vol. IX, No. 227) the decision of the

Commission to maintain, during the summer, at Beaufort, a

laboratory for the prosecution of researches in marine biology.

A suitable building was rented, and a proper equipment, includ-

ing small boats, steam launch, dredges, trawl, etc., was pro-

vided. The laboratory was occupied from June 1 to September

15. A dozen naturalists were there, representing the Johns

Hopkins University, University of Alabama, Baldwin Univer-

sity, Trinity College (N. C.), Guilford College, University of

North Carolina. Mention has already been made of the fact

that, in addition to the individual research work, considerable

attention was paid to the accumulation of data on the local habi-

tat, breeding times, etc., of the more abundant species of the

region. The laboratory building is rented continuously, and

the equipment and collections are stored there. The labora-

tory will reopen for work in June. As at Woods Holl, no

charge is made to the occupants of tables.

While the temporary laboratory now organized at Beaufort

answers many needs, it is greatly to be desired that a perma-

nent Fish Commission station be established there. A bill

providing the necessary appropriation for such a station is

now before Congress. The policy of maintaining Fish Com-

mission stations, at which ample opportunity is offered for sci-

entific investigation, has been fully justified by the history of

the station at Woods Holl. The results of the purely volun-

tary researches of the naturalists who have annually visited

this station are of the highest value. In no way can the

Fish Commission accumulate useful information concerning the

animal and plant life of a region, so rapidly and at so little

360 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

expense, as by maintaining a well-equipped laboratory, open to

all who come to study the natural history of that region. Pro-

fessor Alexander Agassiz, in his report on the Museum of

Comparative Zoólogy for the year 1894-95, points out the

mutual advantages that result from coóperation between the

Fish Commission and those engaged in research work in biol-

ogy. Mr. Agassiz has especially in mind the Woods Holl sta-

tion, but his remarks have a wider applicability. Mr. Agassiz

remarks that * no university laboratory can hope to obtain the

facilities accruing from the maintenance of the fleet of small

boats and steamers, and of the personnel which forms a neces-

sary part of the equipment of the Fish Commission Station”;

and farther on: * The mere collecting of material for ordinary

investigation, at a marine station, is not expensive, but it is

expensive to carry on the continuous observations of eminent

specialists, and subsequently to publish their investigations.

Such observations could well be carried on in connection with

the work of a Government Fish Commission, and are not only ger-

mane to its investigations, but all important to their success." !

The bill providing for a marine station at Beaufort has the

earnest support of many naturalists and college presidents in

the North, West, and South. It is widely recognized how

advisable, both from the scientific and economic standpoint, it

is to have several stations along our coast at which observa-

tions may be carried on year after year. The wisdom of such

a course becomes manifest when we consider the length of the

coast, the difference in the character of its fauna at widely sep-

arated places, and the migratory habits of many animals (food

fishes, etc.). It may safely be said that many of the most inter-

esting economic problems, such, for instance, as the effect of

the feeding ground on edible animals, and the possibility of

altering such grounds, can only be solved after a comparison

of results, obtained at various points on the coast, has been

made, and the same is true for the broader Muy of variation

in its strictly scientific aspect.

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA.

1 Italics are mine.

THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG

(IRIS VERSICOLOR L.).

JAMES G. NEEDHAM.

AT the time of the adjournment of my college classes last

June, I spent a few hours afield, watching the blue flags and

their insect visitors, at first solely for the pleasant recreation

that such study affords. But I soon made a few enticing

little discoveries which set me to work in earnest. I began by

locating all the clumps that were easy of access from my

home in Lake Forest, and then I studied them daily during

the flowering season, and almost daily thereafter throughout

the summer.

The facts that first caught my attention were: (1) that there

are many visitors to these flowers that seem to have been

unnoticed hitherto; (2) that most of these are illicit visitors ;

and (3) that the ill-adapted ones are habitually deceived by the

flower itself as to its proper entrance. I propose to give in the

following pages the more important results of the season's

observations.

It seemed to me that any new study of this so familiar

flower should be undertaken on somewhat broader lines than

are usually followed. The reproductive phase of the plant is a

unit, and the flower is but one of a series of devices for fur-

thering the reproductive process. Bud and flower and capsule

and seed are the successive centers of interdependent ecologi-

cal phenomena, determining the start in life of the next gener-

ation. I have tried to study the effect of insects upon the

outcome of the reproductive process as a whole, and I discuss,

below the chief ecological relations under the following head-

ings: Pollination ; The Waste of the Nectar; The Destruction

of the Flowers; Fertilization ; The Destruction of the Seeds;

Inflorescence, and Chances of Maturing Fruit; The Relation

of Habitat to Fertility; Alteration of Environment.

k 3601 >

362 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

I. PorriNATION.

The flowers of the Iris have long been known to be entirely

dependent on insects for the transference of their pollen. The

structure of the flower has so

often been described, there is

no need of describing it again ;

if the reader has forgotten, he

may refresh his memory by

reference to the accompanying

figures. He will recall a flower

divided into three parts, requir-

ing three separate visits by the

insect which would obtain its

stores; in each part an ex-

trorse anther placed with its

back against an overarching

branch of the extremely large,

three-parted style (Fig. 1, K);

below anther and style a passage-

way to the nectary, with the

usual guide streaks at its en-

trance, is formed by the chan-

neled sepal. The stigma is

restricted to the upper surface

of an inferior, transverse, flap-

like appendage of the style

branch, just beyond the apex of

the anther (Fig. 2). This flap

is very thin and remains ap-

pressed to the style, with its

free border toward the entrance,

the stigmatic surface covered.

The pollen-laden back of an

'* entering insect, rubbing against

it, readily everts the flap and

The arrow indicates the position deposits pollen on the stigmatic

on the proboscis ofap z

surface. Released, it closes

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 363

elastically, and the rubbing of an emerging insect only closes

it the more tightly.

Although the flowers are slightly protandrous, ripe pollen

and fresh stigmatic surface may be found in the same flower at

some period of zstivation. In case insects fail there is no pro-

vision for self-pollination by withering, as is the case in some

members of the Iris family; the stigma, lifted away from the

anther before maturing, remains so permanently.

I shall now discuss briefly the insects which I have seen to

enter these flowers, taking them up in the order of their impor-

tance as agents of pollen distribution. I therefore begin with

two small bees of closely similar size and habits: C/isodon

terminalis Cr., Osmia distincta Cr.

These bees exhibit such perfection of adaptation as was the

delight of the naturalists of Sprengel's day, and as will ever be

delightful to observe. They were seen only in warm sunshine,

during the season of abundant flowers; late and straggling

flowers seemed to be neglected by them altogether. They

were not the most numerous nor the most conspicuous visit-

ors ; but they visited very many flowers in rapid succession,

securing the transference of the pollen with superior precision.

Each bee alights squarely at the entrance and without the

slightest pause speeds down the arched passageway, and does

not stop until its head is wedged in the bottom, with the pro-

boscis extended through one of the two holes (see Fig. 1, 5)

leading to the nectary. A step backward and another momen-

tary thrust of the proboscis, and away to another flower. That

it rubs the stigma on entering may be seen by the tilting of

the style tip; this is readily seen at a distance of several

meters. Osmia distincta was perhaps a little less swift in its

passage than the other, and this species alone was seen occa-

sionally stopping on the way out from the nectary to scrape

up some of the pollen fallen beneath its feet.

Next in order should be mentioned a group of syrphus flies :

Helophilus letus Loew.; Syrphus torvus O. S.; Eristalis dimi-

diatus Wied. Of these the first-named was a very common

visitor. Of the other two I saw but a single specimen of each

on Iris flowers, although the last-named was abundant on flowers

364 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

of the spreading dogbane. These are a little larger than 77.

letus, and probably found the entrance way to the flower too

close quarters. H. detus visits the flowers for pollen only.

Its proboscis is too short to reach the nectar. It wanders in

at the entrance, rubbing first the stigma and then the anther

with its back, swinging its proboscis from side to side, the ter-

minal flaps sweeping the fallen pollen from the floor of the

passageway. The down of its back was generally found well .

dusted with Iris pollen, and as an agent in pollination it was

certainly second only to the bees above mentioned.

In the method of their operations these bees and syrphus

flies stand in striking contrast. The bees enter and leave the

flowers on the run, visiting very many in a remarkably short

time; the syrphids loiter about the entrance, turning this way

and that and, although entering cautiously, remain inside some

time; but between visits they spend much time disporting

themselves with their fellows in the sunshine. While a syr-

phus fly is visiting one flower a bee will visit a score.

Bombus separatus Cr. —'The Iris and the bumblebee were

the subjects of one of Sprengel's early studies on the relation

between flowers and insects. Sprengel thought the bumble-

bee the only insect concerned with the fertilization of the

European species (/ris germanica) which he studied. Müller

attributed rather more importance to a very long-tongued, nec-

tar-eating syrphid, Rhyngia rostrata. American writers on

[ris versicolor have treated the bumblebee as the visitor of

first importance. My observations do not corroborate this

opinion. I saw but three bumblebees on Iris flowers during

the entire season, and each of these was seen but a few sec-

onds, entering from one to three flowers at one side only, and

then departing. The visits were not such as bumblebees make

to flowers which they habitually seek. They showed evident

dissatisfaction. Indeed, they seemed to me ill-adapted. They

are too large; they enter with difficulty and some delay, and

crowd the stigma too roughly in passing. In the single visit

which I was able to observe in detail the stigmatic flap was

torn from the style for half its width; the bumblebee de-

scended the passage with its proboscis retracted, made no

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 365

attempt at sucking, but scraped the trough of the sepal with

its legs, gathering pollen.

Halictus disparilis Cr. — This minute bee is a common,

though not a conspicuous nor an important visitor. It enters

the flower by crawling beneath the tip of the style back down-

ward, traverses the stigma, and walks back and forth, the

length of the anther clinging to its underside, dislodging with

its claws large quantities of pollen (Fig. 2). A strikingly

large load of pollen is thus collected upon the hairs of its ven-

tral surface. So it spends a long time under a single anther

and visits but few in gathering its load. While it is highly

probable that the bee everts and pollinates the stigma on

Fic. 2. — A minute bee (Halictus disparilis Cr ;) collecti llen f the Iris anther; a., anther.

JS filament ; s, style. 'The arrow indi I f i t i he fl

entering, it is certainly very wasteful of pollen. A more equi-

table arrangement is seen in its relations with Ludwigia poly-

carpa, which it visits in pools near by, and whose small flowers

will furnish a load of pollen only for the traversing of a multi-

tude of stigmas.

Trichius piger Fabr.— This ubiquitous flower beetle, ob-

served by Robertson at Carlinville in the flowers of Z. verst-

color, was rather common here. The channeled sepal seemed

a favorite place for an afternoon nap. I found several there

undoubtedly asleep — one so soundly that, after carrying it

about in the flower in my hand for half an hour, I still had a

chance to wake it. After repeatedly tickling two of its feet

that were hanging over the edge of the sepal it at length

stirred, then stretched itself like a lazy boy awaking; in a

little while it was lively enough.

I saw one beetle in the passageway eating fallen pollen.

The species is not ill-adapted by its size for visiting these

flowers, and should it pass directly from flower to flower, it

366 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

might be an important agent in pollen distribution; but I have

not seen one pass from flower to flower directly and am in-

clined to think it rarely does so. It is little disposed to flight

and is much more at home clambering among the thyrsoid

clusters of Rhus and Ceanothus. Furthermore, on reaching an

Iris flower it is habitually deceived as to the point of entrance

and tries for some time to get in at its center, between the

branches of the cleft style. After clambering in and out of

the central cleft repeatedly the proper entrance is at length

stumbled upon. It cannot, of course, reach the nectar, and

the supply of pollen on the floor of the passageway is very

meager. If seeking pollen it might, if it had wit enough, get

plenty of it by entering the other side up.

Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr. (the Flag Weevil), — This

beetle is one of the most characteristic insects affecting the

blue flag, and one of the commonest. It is often found in the

passageway to the nectary, picking up stray pollen grains,

other grains sticking to its rostrum and feet and to the scaly

ventral surface of its body, but not to its smooth back. What

has been said of the preceding species, as to its part in pollen

transference, and as to its activities in and about the flower,

will apply almost literally to this species.

Desiring to learn whether they would transfer pollen prop-

erly, and finding too few entering the flowers of their own

accord, I picked up a number of them with forceps and placed

them in various positions on the flowers. They all, wherever

placed, ran rapidly into the central cleft of the style, seeking to

enter there, climbed out, and returned to try it again repeat-

edly. A few then climbed out at the sides between two sepals

and crawled through the space between sepal and style into the

entrance way, without touching either stigma or anther. A

far larger number came upon the proper entrance. Most of

these latter climbed over the tip of the style and down its outer

tace, entering back downward, traversing both stigma and

anther. A lesser number wandered out upon the tip of the

sepal and returned to enter right side up; owing to the lack

of pollen on their smooth backs, these would effect nothing,

though they touched the stigma.

No. 4o1.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 367

Single individuals taken from the flower again and again and

replaced on top, though they sought to enter speedily, went

about it in the same bungling way as before. They did not

readily learn by experience.

Aylota fraudulosa Loew.; Sepsis violacea Meig; Chlorops

proxima Say; C. assimilis Macq.; Chrysogaster nitida Wied.

— These active little flies are minor pollen thieves, all small

enough to run into the open passageway, gather a few pollen

grains, and run out with them. The first is large enough to

brush a low stigma in passing, and the second, a strutting,

micro-hymenopter mimicker, might strike a stigma with its

tilting wings; but all are very unimportant, both in pollination

and in their petty thievery.

Lastly, I should not omit to mention thrips, a few of which

are to be found in almost every flower, and, antithetically, a

humming bird (Zvochilis colubris Linn.) which I saw make

several thrusts, in succession, with its beak into the proper

entrance of these flowers.

II. THE WasTE OF THE NECTAR.

Two important sources of waste of nectar were much in evi-

dence throughout the season — lepidopters and weevils.

A. LEPIDOPTERA. — These were, by day, skipper butterflies

(Hesperidze), and at dusk, two species of moths ! :

Eudamus tityrus Fabr., seen at flowers several times.

Eudamus pylades Scudd., seen at flowers but once.

Pamphila hobomok Harr., seen at flowers continuously.

Pamphila peckius Kirb., seen at flowers continuously.

Pamphila cernes Bd.-Lec., seen at flowers continuously.

Pamphila mystic Scudd., seen at flowers not uncommonly.

Leucania pallens (?), seen at flowers several times.

Evergestis stramentalis, seen at flowers several times.

The pamphilas were the most conspicuous and persistent o:

all visitors. Throughout the season one could find at even the

! Another moth, Crambus /aqueatellus Clem., was seen twice, vainly plying its

proboscis at the proper entrance.

368 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

smallest clump of flowers one or more of these skippers sitting

in the position shown in Pl. I, Fig. 2, far from anther and

stigma, stealing the nectar. They get it with some difficulty,

to be sure, the holes opening into the nectary not being visible

from the outside. They must stand outside and insert the pro-

boscis obliquely between the sepal and the base of the style,

plying and thrusting with it until a hole is found. Repeated

trials occasion loss of time, and when the hole is found not all

the nectar adjacent to it can be reached from one position.

Nevertheless, one cannot witness the persistences of the skip-

pers, and their abundance throughout the season, without

being convinced that they get a large share of the nectar.

Very interesting as bearing on the validity of long-accepted

theories of floral coloration (which some are nowadays saying

were accepted without sufficient experimental proof) are the

habits of the pamphilas in visiting the flowers. When the

question is raised, Do the guide streaks really guide? the pam-

philas on the blue flags will furnish affirmative evidence. Fig.

3 shows a flower as seen from above. The center of the

flower is at the deepest point between the divisions of the

style, and the lines of these divisions all point toward the cen-

ter, analogously to the guide streaks on the corolla of Convol-

vulus. There are special guide streaks, to be sure, at the proper

points of entrance; but these are in unusual places and are also

arranged radiately about the center of the flower. Pamphilas vis-

iting the flowers habitually try to enter at the center. One will

roam over the summit of the flower, returning to try for en-

trance at the central cleft, again and again. When one has

strayed to the end of the style branch and stumbled upon the

right entrance, it will generally be seen to try for a moment to

enter there. After several ineffectual attempts at the center, it

will pass over the edge of the sepal and descend backward or

sidewise to the position shown in the plate (Fig. 4). That

something similar was observed by Professor Charles Robert-

son is indicated by the two words which I have underscored in

the following quotation: * Sometimes butterflies obtain nectar

in an illegitimate way, by backing down to the base of the

flower and inserting their proboscides between the bases of the

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 369

‘falls’ [sepals] and the style divisions." ! He mentions Chryso-

phanes thoe Boisd. and Lec. and Pamphila peckius Kirb.

I have mentioned above that the flower beetle, Zrichius

piger, and the flag weevil, Mononychus vulpeculus, are deceived

as to the proper entrance in a quite similar manner, with the

difference that when these stumble upon the true entrance

they can enter there. I have never seen any one of these ill-

adapted visitors alight directly at the proper entrance; all fol-

Fic. 3. — Top view of the flower; false guide streaks.

low to the center the lines simulating the guide streaks of. an

ordinary open flower. But the Iris flower was not evolved by

these insects, nor with them. Proper visitors know where the

entrance is and make no mistakes. And if the bees afore-

named pass from nectary to nectary with a speed that the eye

can hardly follow, must we conclude that they are not guided -

by the coloration of the flowers? Must we say the striking -

lines of violet and yellow at the entrance aid them not, be-

cause they give no sign? I think not. I may enter a barber

Shop guided entirely by a striped pole and yet give no sign. I

1 Robertson, Charles. Junius Gazette, vol. xxi, p. 80; "-

370 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

believe it an analogy which does no violence to the truth if we

compare a clump of the flowers to a business block in a city.

Those whose business is there go about so automatically one

might think they see nothing, while strangers have to stop and

read the signs; and the rapidity with which the stranger will

learn to feel at home will depend, not alone upon the persist-

ency of his presence there, but also upon his mental adaptabil-

ity to such knowledge.

B. Mononycnus (the Flag Weevil and its Train).— This

weevil wastes the nectar inordinately. It stands on the out-

side of the nectary and, with its beak, sinks a shaft into the

nectariferous tissue, nibbles a little, makes another hole, and

another and another, until the nectar is left flowing from many

punctures, attracting swarms of insects of all sorts. One is

shown in Fig. A of the plate, together with a number of its

attendants. It is no uncommon thing to find the ovary almost

covered with insects following in the wake of the weevil, collect-

ing the sap it has set flowing. The muscids are most numer-

ous; I have seen a weevil making a puncture with three flies

facing him and one on his back, all trying to get their probos-

cides to the puncture, crowding one another like pigs around a

trough. During hours of sunshine, competition is so keen that

insects with proboscides to insert into the beetle punctures

(Muscide, Capside, Pentatomidz, etc.) seem to have a decided

advantage. I have seen the following feeding at the weevil

punctures :

Muscidz, abundant, of a number of common species.

Capsidz, abundant, especially the first named :

Pecilocapsus goniophorus Say, in four varieties.

Pecilocapsus affinis Reut.

Calcoris rapidus Say.

Lygus pratensis Linn.

Pentatomida, very common. .

Euchistus ictericus Linn.

Euchistus tristigmus Say.

Podisus spinosus Dall.

Coccinellida, common.

Megilla maculata DeG. x

Hippodamia 13-punctata Linn.

No. 401.] ZHE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. | 371

Lampyridz, common at dusk and on dark days, especially the first-named:

Telephorus carolinus Fabr.

Podabrus bastlaris Say.

Podabrus rugulosus Lec.

Lucidota atra Fabr.

The following insects, seen more rarely :

Mordella marginata Melsh.

Male mosquito (undetermined).

III. THE DESTRUCTION OF THE FLOWERS.

The flowers of the blue flag when bitten have a sweetish

taste, which seems to invite their destruction at the jaws of a

number of insects that are ever near at hand. -I observed

adult flag weevils, noctuid moth larvæ, and grasshoppers to be

especially destructive while the flowers were in full bloom.!

Any service the weevils may render as pollinators is greatly

overbalanced by the destructiveness of their feeding habits.

Not content with puncturing the walls of the nectary, they

sometimes riddle the perianth leaves and the style divisions,

destroying or (what is equally fatal) displacing the parts con-

cerned in fertilization.?

All the grasshoppers (Acrididæ and Locustidæ) about the

flag beds and in the neighboring sedges eat the freshly opened

flowers, mainly nibbling a little at the margins of the petals or

sepals and doing little real harm, but sometimes destroying the

flowers completely.

The destructive moth larvae were of three species: Arsi-

lonche albovenosa Goeze, Mamestra sp.?* and Spilosoma con-

1 Feeding upon the wilted flowers a day after they had closed and when re!

? This weevil has been reported by Mr. G. C. Davis as very destructive to

pner garden Irides, at Flint, Mich. Znsect nig vol. vii, p. 201, 1894.

3 I did not rear this species; two of my larve taken for rearing were parasitiz

with a species of Apanteles; the remainder bs well as many in the field) died of

some bacterial disease. Arsilonche albovenosa was abundantly parasitized with

Rhogas intermedius Cr.

372 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV.

grua Walk. At the time the Iris flowers opened, these larvae

were well grown. They then forsook the leaves, on which

they had been feeding hitherto, for the daintier floral diet.

Chetopsis enea Wied. and its Train.— This little bud-

destroying ortalid fly deserves special mention, because in cer-

tain situations it does more to prevent fruiting than all other

insect enemies combined. Furthermore, its attack comes earli-

est; its larva enters the pedicel at the base of the flower bud

and bores downward into the common flowering stem (pe-

duncle), killing not one bud, but the cluster of two or three

arising at that point. Thus the flowers are killed before they

open and are left to decay.

Walking through a pasture near Lake Bluff, Ill., one day, I

was led to examine some large clumps of flags by the very bad

odor of their Chaetopsis-killed flowers. In clumps of several

hundred plants each, not a single flower had been permitted

to open. Finding Chetopsis larve still present in some of the

pedicels, I collected a hundred or more terminal branches of

the flower clusters and placed them on end in a jar, with a

little water, some gravel, earth, etc., in the bottom, covered

the jar with fine netting, and set it aside to await develop-

ments.

My little jar yielded, not a single species, but a little com-

munity — a succession of interdependent forms, such as one

often finds among insects with a brief life history, able to take

advantage of a transient food supply. First there appeared a

number of pomace flies (Drosophila phalerata Meig), which had

probably been attracted to the buds by the souring of their

saccharine juices. Next appeared the ortalids (Chetopsis «nea

Wied.), the cause of all the trouble. These I found left the

stems when full-grown larva and pupated on the wet soil in the

bottom of the jar. By this time the rotting buds were teeming

with oscinid larvae and studded all over the outside with pupe,

from which soon issued swarms of the minute fly, Oscznzs soror

Macq. With these also appeared a small number of beetles

(undetermined) and a few parasitic Hymenoptera (Spalangia

drosophile Ashm. and Heptamerocera sf.?). Finally, after the.

decaying buds had been completely overrun with mycelial

No. 4o1.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 373

threads of fungus, there appeared fungus gnats (Scatopse puli-

caria Loew.) in great numbers. It is quite probable that the

ortalids attacking the fresh buds, the pomace flies coming

when the saccharine juices of the flower first begin to ferment,

the other flies and beetles clearing up the rotting débris, with

a few parasites to hold the commonest in check, form an entirely

natural succession of forms belonging with such conditions.

IV. FERTILIZATION.

Not wishing to leave actual fertilization out of account, I (1)

_ pollinated by hand a large number of flowers and marked them

for examination later, and (2) counted the fertile and abortive

ovules in a large number of capsules developing from flowers

fertilized by insects. In my hand-pollination experiment half

the flowers were treated with their own pollen, half with pollen

from other plants. Before the seeds had grown sufficiently to

be distinguished with certainty from the abortive ovules, grass-

hoppers and Mamestra larvae had eaten all but a few. Those

that remained happened to be half self-pollinated, half cross-

pollinated, and the result may be worth mentioning, even

though they were but few. The average by capsules was as

follows :

Cross-pollinated, ovules, 79; fertilized, 74, unfertilized, 5 (for 2 capsules).

Self “ “ 82; ‘ 16, Im ( “ 2 “ :

These were small capsules, from flags growing among thick

sedges. i

In a flourishing flag clump growing in the edge of a wood-

land pool I selected thirty well-developed capsules from flowers

fertilized by insects, for the following tabulation. The position

of the several capsules in the cluster is indicated by the letter-

ing in the first column, which is the same as that of Fig. 4.

374 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

TABLE I. — AVERAGES OF FERTILIZATION BY INSECTS

FOR 30 CAPSULES.

VERAGE P CEK NUMBER OF

CAPSULES. NUMBER OF FERTILIZED. | UNFERTILIZED. | SR E CAPSULES

FERTILIZED.

COUNTED.

la 126 74 52 58.73 IO

Ib 129 57 2 44.96 5

Ic II4 2 82 28.07 5

IIa 123 44 79 3577 5

II 4 113 40 73 35.39 5

Totals Naba? 43 68 P 30

V. Tue DESTRUCTION OF THE SEEDS.

I observed two types of seed destroyers, ecologically speak-

ing : (1) those which are locally destructive, and (2) those

which are with the flag in all the situations in which it grows.

The influence of situation will be discussed under a subsequent

heading, but here may be mentioned the insects locally destruc-

tive to the developing seeds. These are grasshoppers, Mames-

tra larvee, and ovipositing damsel flies of the genus Lestes.

The grasshoppers are very destructive in meadow clumps

and in the drier, more grassy situations, sometimes eating all

the capsules over considerable areas, while generally disdaining

to eat the leaves at all.

Of the three moth larvæ already mentioned as feeding on

the flowers, only Mamestra remains to attack the developing

ovary; the others return to their aforetime diet of leaves. But

Mamestra, having once bitten into a juicy capsule, will eat

nothing else thereafter, so long as capsules are obtainable. In

my rearing cages a single larva would eat out all the seeds from

a well-grown capsule in two days. Mamestra hardly comes into

competition with the grasshoppers, since it avoids the drier

situations where these are numerous enough to be destructive.

The injury from Lestes was: still more local and was of a

sort apparently not hitherto recorded. It was confined to flags

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 375

growing in standing water. The sheltered pools in which the

Iris thrives best are the special haunts of these insects. Lestes

uncata Kirby and L. unguiculata Hag. were abundant, and the

females of these species punctured the fruiting stems so thickly

in Ovipositing as to kill perhaps a fourth of them. These egg

punctures sometimes completely encircled the stem, but were

more often confined to the more exposed side, overhanging the

water. I observed as many as 250 punctures to the inch in

length of stem in several cases. All were above water, some

extending nearly to the top of the stems.! Nearly every well-

exposed stem was thus killed outright or so injured as to pre-

vent the maturing of its seeds. ;

Many other Odonata are seen constantly about the flag

clumps. Longfellow singled out a natural associate when he

wrote of the Fleur-de-lis :

The burnished dragonfly is thine attendant ;

but the showier dragonflies which habitually poise on the sum-

mits of the sword-shaped leaves have no ecologic relation to

the Iris, save indirectly through their relations with other

insects, :

Of ubiquitous flag-seed destroyers I have found but two;

the larvz of a very pretty little tortricid moth, Penthina hebe-

sana Walk., and the larva of the flag weevil (Mononychus vulpecu-

lus Fabr.. The moth larvae were common, the weevil larve,

. abundant; both were often found attacking the same capsule.

The larva of Penthina bores a hole into the seed capsule at

its base, generally under the protecting tip of a bract, and eats

its way upward through the seeds, usually consuming in its

lifetime about half the contents of a single cell. Then it

undergoes its transformations under the bract, or withered

perianth, or in its burrow.?

1 Egg parasites of Odonata have not in this country been hitherto reported ;

I bred from these Lestes eggs in flag stems five species of egg parasites and one

hyperparasite, all of which proved to be species new to science. These are now

in Mr. Ashmead's hands for uicta These species of Lestes oviposit even

more abundantly in Spharganium lea

? With this species there was peabar found another tortricid (Cacæcia

rosaceana Harris) of almost identical habits.

376 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VOL. XXXIV.

The flag weevil (Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr.) has already

been mentioned as a denizen and, to some extent, a destroyer

of Iris flowers. The height of the season for the adult weevils

is the blossoming time of the flowers. Even then they are not

very active; I have found them flying freely from clump to

clump only in the hot sunshine of early afternoon. They will

dodge around the base of the flower like a squirrel around a

branch when a hand approaches, but they will rarely fly; they

will oftener fall to the earth or into the water. The females

when ovipositing are still more shy and difficult to observe. I

was able to see the details of the process of egg laying on only

‘one day —a very windy day, when everything about the wee-

vil was in motion, and my own movements were, therefore, less

noticed. The mother beetle rapidly gnaws a little hole through

the wall of the ovary and, taking a few steps forward, inserts

an egg into it. She then walks a little way and repeats the

process or gnaws aimless little pits over the surface of the

ovary The wounds thus made are quickly stopped by the dis-

charge from mucilage cells, which are abundant in the walls of

the ovary. The egg is often inserted into the external face of

an ovule.

When the egg hatches, the larva at once begins a shallow

furrow across the outer ends of the developing seeds, travers-

ing from two to ten of them. Thus it spends the larger part of

its larval life, doing no damage whatever. In fact, during this

stage it is in considerable danger of being eaten, along with

the seeds, by grasshoppers or Mamestra larva. Entering upon

its last larval stage, the larva burrows downward and begins

feeding on the softer tissues of the center of the seeds. It

eats voraciously and grows with marked rapidity. It burrows

parallel with the axis of the capsule through the center of from

three to five seeds, leaving of them only empty rings. Its

growth is completed and all its damage is done during this

stage, which lasts only about a week. Then it transforms

1 Possibly these blind pits may serve for the confusion of the weevil’s parasites.

I found a little egg, presumably that of a parasite, just within the entrance to a

hole, at the bottom of which a weevil egg was lying. Mr. J. Hamilton found the

parasites (n. Mews, vol. v, pp. 287, 288, 1894).

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 377

within its burrow and remains there as an imago, until the

bursting of the capsules in autumn causes the seeds and the

weevils to be shed together.

To determine the extent of the damage done by the weevil

to the flag seeds, I picked at random, in several situations, fifty

well-developed capsules and counted the weevils inthem. The

result by capsules was as follows:

Number of larvz per capsule, o, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 16.

Number of times occurring, 3, 2, 4, 8, 4, 11, 3, 6 1, I, 2, I, I, I

Thus, but three were found without larvae in them; two con-

tained such numbers (fifteen and sixteen, respectively) that

there were hardly enough seeds to insure their development ;

the total number of larvae was 269, the average number per

capsule, five. Each larva destroys on an average about four

seeds; a preceding table has shown that the average number

of seeds developing per capsule (among thirty counted) was

forty-three. So it appeared that the weevils destroyed nearly

half the seeds in capsules which had escaped other destroyers,

all of which had had their turn first.

While this weevil is the most constant enemy of the blue

flag, it is at the same time the one best regulated. Unlike

other enemies, it is present on or in the plant throughout the

season, and, though occurring everywhere, it is never wholly

destructive anywhere. Its own habits furnish checks to too

great multiplication. This is but saying that the weevil repre-

sents a higher type of ecologic specialization. It has become

adapted for living on the blue flag exclusively. Other enemies

might totally devastate the flag clumps and, in the next gener-

ation, turn to some other food plant; but excessive injury by

the weevil means future starvation for its kind. The grasshop-

pers, Mamestra and Chzetopsis, work a havoc that strikingly

suggests a disturbance of the balance of nature. But the wee-

vil goes its accustomed way — the way into which it has been

led by natural selection — and gets its living unobtrusively ;

and save for the rather rare damage to flowers, which may as

often be done after fertilization as before, the flags show no

visible sign of the burden which, under natural conditions,

they are doubtless able to carry.

378 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

VI. INFLORESCENCE, AND CHANCES OF MATURING FRUIT.

The flowering stem of Z. versicolor bears a terminal cluster

of three flowers and generally one or more lateral clusters of

two flowers ! each, the latter springing from the axils of alter-

nating bracts. Fig. 4 represents a stem which bore the typical

complement of flowers. For convenience of reference I desig-

nate these clusters by the Roman numerals applied to them

in the figure. Cluster / is developed in all

(100 per cent); cluster //, in about 60 per

cent of the stems; cluster ///, in about 10

per cent of them; and cluster /V is rarely

developed; I found it but once during the

season.? The small letters indicate the

several flowers in the clusters and also

the order of their opening. The clusters

are nearly isochronous, but there is some

irregularity. Flower / a is generally the

first to open. The few flowers which I

Fic. 4.—Diagram of the Marked for observation opened in the

ee morning before nine o’clock, and closed by

withering during the afternoon of the day following. Flowers

a, 6, and ¢ follow each other in regular succession, each being

! The statement of Goodale (Wild Flowers of North America, p. 32, 1882) that

"the flowers may be single or in clusters of two, rarely more” is certainly not

true for the vicinity of Lake Forest; I found but a single clump to which it would

at all apply — a clump of much-dwarfed plants growing on a very dry hillock in a

pasture near Fort Sheridan. This singular clump bore twenty flowering stems, of

which five had cluster Z only, with but two flowers (a and 4) in that cluster;

twelve had clusters Z and ZZ developed, with the second flower (4) developed in

Z7 but twice; and three with clusters Z, ZZ, and 7/7 developed, and only one flower

(a) present in cluster ZZZ. Elsewhere I found three examples of cluster / in

which a fourth flower (7) was developed, and two in which the third flower (c)

was not developed. The usual four bracts were developed in all; but the termi-

nal bract, usually sterile, was fertile in three, and the third bract, usually fertile,

was sterile in the other two. I also found a single cluster ZZ containing three

flowers.

? These percentages w were derived from a count of 214 stems — the same ones

other localities near Lake Forest yielded slightly different results, as follows:

cluster Z developed in all (100 per cent); cluster ZZ developed in 87 (67.5 per

cent); cluster 7/7 developed in 21 (16.3 per cent).

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 379

open for two days. Sometimes there is an interval of a day or

two with no flower open. Some striking differences in time

of flowering, due to situation, will be noticed under the next

heading.

I collected 214 stems from five different localities and stud-

ied them to determine the proportionate fertility of the several

capsules. Wholly infertile stems I disregarded altogether, and

capsules developing any seed at all I counted fertile ; Table II

summarizes the results of the count. Disregarding localities

for the present, the total percentages of fertility are as follows :

Flower Ja, 75 per cent; Z b, 63 per cent; I c, 28 per cent.

u Z1 a, 66 per cent ; IT b, 43 per cent.

*- Za, 68 per cent; LIT b, 54 per cent.!

Clearly, the advantage is with the earlier flowers.

But is there not further significance in these facts? In con-

nection with the occasional occurrence of an extra flower in

clusters / and // they seem to me to suggest that the flower

cluster is in process of reduction by elimination of the later

flowers. The observations of one season will not determine

such a matter. It is sufficient to record the conditions of the

present, that the future student may have the criteria necessary

for determining it.

VII. Tur RELATION oF HABITAT TO FERTILITY.

My observations were all made on the eastern slope of the

narrow Lake Forest moraine, which forms a part of the west

shore of Lake Michigan, its wave-worn eastern edge rising

abruptly some seventy feet from the water. Numerous sharp,

post-glacial ravines, whose puny streams take their origin

among the pools, marshes, and “ potholes” of the crest of the

moraine and reach the lake level only at their mouths, give con-

siderable variety to the otherwise uniform and scarcely percep-

tible eastward slope. I found and studied the blue flag growing

in eight different sorts of situations. ^ These will be referred to

by numbers in the succeeding tables, as follows :

! The higher percentages for cluster ZZZ are somewhat misleading, because

this cluster is developed only under the most favorable conditions. — .

380 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Locality I. — A small clump of perhaps fifteen plants, grow-

ing in the edge of a little creek that was formed by the conflu-

ence of a number of ravines, near the lake and almost at the

lake level. But one clump was found in this situation, and it

bore but fourteen flowering stems; but, because of its striking

vigor, fertility, and comparative exemption from insect ene-

mies, it is included in the table.

Locality 2. — A large area of flags, growing in an upland

meadow pool that was the head water of one branch of the

forementioned creek. This was the most extensive and the

most typical of the clumps studied.

Locality 3. — A large and compact clump, growing in the

edge of a woodland pool.

Locality 4. — Isolated single plants, growing between the

sedges and the open water in a woodland pool.

Locality 5. — A large number of scattered plants, growing

among the sedges of a **filled-in"" pool.

Locality 6. — A typical glacial “ pothole " in deep woods on

the summit of the moraine, with abrupt banks, some depth of

water in the middle, closely bordered with great oaks, and

almost filled with a dense growth of buttonbush (Cephalan-

thus) The flags grew between the buttonbush hummocks and

the shore, tall and spindling, with remarkably pale flowers.

They bloomed late, the water of the pothole being rather cold,

and, with the exception of two flowering stems which grew

upon an unoccupied hummock, set no seed at all; hence this

locality is omitted from Table II.

Locality 7. — At the foot of a hill bordering the creek men-

tioned above (locality 1), in a pool of cold water, the outflow

from a spring, grew perhaps fifty plants, intermixed with cat-

tails and sedges. These made a very promising appearance,

but they bloomed late; the flowers were considerably damaged

by weevils and set little seed, and that little was early destroyed

and none left for tabulation.

Locality 8. — In a bottom-land pasture bordecide the creek

numerous large, apparently healthy, clumps on dry ground.

This ground had once been marshy bottom land; but as a result

of pasturage, tillage, and deforestation of the hills above floods

THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG.

No. 401.]

Pl. I. — Two Iris flowers, with some illicit visitors. Entering the cleft in the style of flower a, Pamphila peckius Kirb. ; on the left side of the nectary, a

flag weevil (Mononychus vulpeculus Fabr.) surrounded by a group of Muscidz ; below, a lampyrid (Telephorus carolinus Fabr.), also seeking nectar.

On flower 4, Pamphila cernes Bd.-Lec. stealing the nectar; ny nectary; o. ovary. This, and Fig. 3, photographed from life by the author.

382 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

had increased, and the creek had deepened its channel, leaving

the flag clumps high and dry. The flowers were destroyed by

Chaetopsis, setting no seed at all.

Thus, only the five first-named localities were available for

the following tabulation. `

TABLE II. — COMPILATION OF DATA’ ON IRIS FRUITING.

CAPSULES FERTILE. | By CLUSTERS.

3 & s s S E "n $ jo A

5 From |No. E Ei $ ysis * is Li FE E

5 «| E 1a) Ele] EIF EENE S SE E

" i t EIN § Sigs] E WS

à, x À A ee a

loc. 1 | 14|| 10 9 9 28 66%, o| 8| 57%| 7| 50%

" 3 10291. 65 81 36 212| 57%] | 74| 59%| 34| 27%

: * 4 | 29| 18 20 8 46 63% o| 13| 52% 16%

« 4 | gl 21 18 6 45| 63%| 1| 16| 64%| 6| 25%

“es oot I 7 2 26 35% o| 7| 28%| 1| 4%

Total |214||t6r| 75%|135| 63%| 61| 28%|357| 56%| 1|118| 55%| 51| 24%

loc. 1 | 10| 7 4 II| 55%| o| 4| 40%

* 2 |75| 56 39 95| 63%| 2| 38| 50%

IH “ 3 |15| 10 7 17| 57%| 4| 6| 40%

“ 4/13) 8 5 13| 50%| 3| 4| 34%

UE ER 3| ro% 12| 0

Total |128| 84| 66%) 55, 43% 139| 5470, 21| 52| 41%

lo.1 | 7| 5 6 11| 79%| o| 5| 71%

* 32 1347 8 4 12| s0% o| 3| 25%

Tow. IRSE 1 21100 j| o| 1/100%

III

uir 1| 1 I 2|100% | o| 1/100%

“ 5 I o [e] I [e] :

Total | 22]| 15| 68%| 12| 54% 27| 61%| 1| 10| 45% "

IV A single example from loc. 1, both capsules fertile.

This study by localities shows that the flags which grow in

shallow water with open exposure to the sun have the better of

it. Doubtless this but indicates their natural habitat.

The inference previously drawn from this table, that the

earlier flowers have the advantage, is strikingly corroborated

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 383

by the study of localities 6 and 7, in which cold water and

consequent late flowering are accompanied by nearly total

infertility. While various reasons might be assigned for this

advantage, I am inclined to believe that the principal reason

is the coincidence of the visits of the bees, pollen distribu-

ters par excellence, with the time of blossoming of the early

flowers.

The following table expresses in general terms the relation

which ravage by insect enemies was seen to bear to situation.

The first three columns express broadly the more potent fea-

tures of the several situations. In six columns are indicated,

by abbreviations of their respective scientific names, the six

chief insect enemies: Mononychus, Penthina, Mamestra, Arsi-

lonche, Orthoptera (grasshoppers), and Cheetopsis ; the numbers

in these columns merely indicate the relative destructiveness of

the insects named for each locality. In the last column is

given the percentage of injury done by the species that was

most destructive in each locality.

TABLE III. — RELATION OF INSECT RAVAGE TO IRIs HABITAT.

WATER. Insect ENEMIES. * E >

g EXPOSURE TO SUN. : ; : ; ii.

P A t Temperature. š š Š [T a X be

mount. S È S < è S AS

1 || Open 6 inches) Warm 11411 2 10

2 n 1-6 * y a413iris14105]. 3

3 “ 4 &« & 21472 6/2 5 40

£u 6 * " 3/41/1121 5] 6]| 6

5 || Overtopping sedges || Wet soil 5|6|2|3|1|4]| 6

6 || Deeply shaded o-20 inches| Cold I ; 45

7 || Open o-4 “ |Cold(spring)| 1|4 | 3 215]| 50

8 S Moist soil I || 100

So the blue flag is growing in certain native habitats now,

under altered conditions, apparently not normal to it, in which

it meets with enemies against which it is not fitted to cope.

384 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

. VIII. ALTERATION OF ENVIRONMENT.

The blue flag has been less.disturbed by the progress of

civilization than most native species. Wild trees and shrubs

and flowers have been uprooted, and cereals and forage crops

planted in their place, for the farmer coveted their fields. But

the Iris grows in wet places, not at once available for tillage.

Yet it has suffered, both directly and indirectly ; directly,

through artificial drainage, drying up its native shoals; indi-

rectly, through the influence of the change upon insects affect-

ing its life history. It would be worth much to know, for the

sake of comparison, what its relations to insects were before

the white man came. In the absence of such certain knowl-

edge there are facts of ecological adaptation which may justify

an opinion as to some results of the change. To “ civiliza-

tion " I am inclined to attribute the following phenomena:

1. The Destructive Abundance of Chetopsis enea Wied. —

This species is an habitual enemy of the coarser, succulent

grasses and cereal grains,! boring in their stems. Successive

broods could not be maintained on the Iris, but the cultivation

of corn and oats affords it almost unlimited opportunities for

multiplication. A neighboring cornfield of the preceding year

may well have furnished the swarms that devastated the Iris

in locality 8. The scattering growth of the native coarser

grasses in this region would not be likely to yield such swarms

any season.

2. The Injury locally wrought by the Grasshoppers. — These

were all field and meadow loving species, such as have doubt-

less become much more numerous in this region since the cul-

tivation of their food plants was begun. Partial drainage,

bringing the forage grasses and the flag clumps into closer

proximity, would encourage the attack.

3. The Nectar-Stealing of the Pamphilas.—The constant

presence of large numbers of these butterflies, so well adapted

for another type of flower, upon the Iris, which is so well

adapted to another type of insect, furnishes an example of

1 Vide Howard, L. O. An Ortalid Fly Injuring Growing Cereals, Znsect Life,

vol. vii, pp. 352-354 (Fig.), 1895.

No. 401.] THE FRUITING OF THE BLUE FLAG. 385

marked unfitness where nature generally shows the finest

adaptations. ‘Civilization " may well be held responsible for

this. The larva of the pamphilas feed on grass, and meadows

and pastures have greatly increased the amount of grass avail-

able for their food. The butterflies, on the contrary, feed only

on the nectar of wild flowers; these have correspondingly

diminished in number; and the supply of nectar available for

so specialized an insect has become very scant. They visit the

Iris, because “stern necessity compels.” They are equally

abundant about the flowers of Geranium maculatum Linn.,

which blooms at the same time, and about every other species

from which they can get any nectar. Were enough nectar

available in flowers adapted to them, I think it quite likely that

they would leave the Iris flowers unmolested.

I could not satisfy myself as to whether the apparent scar-

city of the finely adapted bees (the only insects for which the

nectar of the blue flag is made entirely available) was due to

the diminishing of the nectar stores by the pamphilas or to

some more remote cause effecting a decimation in the actual

number of bees. But they were few about the flowers at the

most favorable times ; and the foregoing tables zai shown

the ovules incompletely fertilized.

I trust I have shown in the foregoing pages that the flower

should be studied as only one factor in the reproductive

process, its pollination, one of the links in the chain of cir-

cumstances, binding together two generations. It should be

studied (1) in relation to local fauna and flora, (2) in relation

to latitude, season, and situation, and (3) in relation to chang-

ing conditions of environment. Past studies of flowers and

insects, though very numerous, are only complete in having

completely demonstrated the interdependence of these and in

having shown the existence of numerous coadaptations between

them. There are broader ecological adaptations yet to be

worked out, which may explain the fitting of a species to its

place in natural society, but which will certainly require the

coöperation of students, in various places and for a long time, ~

content to spend much labor in gathering and correlating

ecological data. i

386 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Nore. — For help generously given me in the determination of the names of

the insects mentioned in the foregoing paper I am indebted to a number of gentle-

men, as follows: Coleoptera, Mr. Samuel Henshaw ; Microlepidoptera, Professor

C. H. Fernald ; other dimus Professor John B. Smith ; Hesperide, (T

Healy; Apinz, Professor Charles Robertson; and, through the kindness of D r

L. O. Howard, the following from the division of entomology of the Department

of Agriculture : Hymenoptera, Mr. W. H. Ashmead ; Diptera, Mr. D. W. Coquil-

lett; Hemiptera, Mr. O. Heidemann.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE NATURAL HISTORY

AND DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA

TIARELLA McCr.

CHARLES W. HARGITT.

I. INTRODUCTORY.

Tue observations of which the following paper is a summary

have been carried on during three summers at the Marine Bio-

logical Laboratory, and in part at the laboratory of the United

States Fish Commission, from the directors of which I am very

glad to acknowledge many courtesies and facilities for prosecut-

ing the work.

The circumstances attending the work have been so varied

during the years of its continuance that it may be hoped most

of the errors liable to hasty observation have been avoided, and

to a considerable measure the error liable to the personal equation

of prepossession, where time is not allowed for its elimination.

Pennaria tiarella McCr. was first described by Ayers (52),

under the name of G/obzeeps tiarella, who has summarized its

generic characters in substance as follows : Polypodon rising

from a creeping root, branched. Short stems from the branches,

supporting each a single polyp. Polyps encircled by three

rows of arms, basal, median and near summit ; the arms of the

upper rows ending in globular heads. Polyp not retractile in

tube. The name of the genus, Globiceps, from the peculiar

form of the arms. The specific name from the number of the

rows of arms. He gives no account of its distribution, except

to mention that it has been taken at Sag Harbor and in Boston

Harbor. Of its habitat he merely mentions that it occurs on

fucus or similar substratum.

It was later described by Leidy (55), under the name of

Eucoryne elegans. McCrady (57) was the first to recognize its

true affinities with the Pennaride and designated it by the

387

388 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

name under which it is now known. |. L. Agassiz early pointed

out nomenclatural objections to the name Globiceps of Ayers,

and Eucoryne of Leidy, and at the same time indicated certain

. differences between the diagnostic characters of this hydroid

and those originally designated as distinctive of the genus by

Cavolini and Goldfuss. A. Agassiz (65) in the catalogue of

the North American Acalephz has, however, followed the des-

ignation of McCrady, and has in turn been followed by most

American students of the Hydroidea.

Still later, however, Allman (71) took up the suggestion of

the elder Agassiz concerning the unavailability of the generic

terms Globiceps and Eucoryne and, discrediting the conten-

tion of McCrady as to the identity of the form with that of

Pennaria, proposed the new generic name Halocordyle. He

bases his claim for such distinction wholly upon the apparent

difference as to the arrangement of the arms, or tentacles,

those of the hydroid under consideration being distributed in

verticillate whorls about the hydranth, while those of Penna-

ria gibbosa have them somewhat promiscuously distributed

over the body of the polyp.

It might be sufficient warrant for doubt as to Allman's con-

tention that his diagnosis is based chiefly upon published fig-

ures of the hydroid, having in neither case had access to living

specimens. And when added to this there is recognized the

further fact that a careful study of several species from differ-

ent regions, and from the same region, shows all degrees of

intergradation in these respects, an unhesitating dissent from

Allman's view will not be regarded as extravagant.

IL MATERIAL AND METHODS. |

The material chiefly used was obtained at Woods Holl dur-

ing the summers of 1897, 1898, and 1899, and in almost un-

limited quantities. Material of P. Cavolini was secured and

preserved by the writer from the Bay of Naples in 1894, and

was used in many points of comparison, as will be indicated in

appropriate phases of the paper. In general, collections were

made at low tide and in the waters in and about the harbor,

No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 389

from eelgrass, piles of the Fish Commission docks, and from

fucus and rocks in the shallowed waters in and about the rocky

outlet of the * hole." Material specially for the developmental

work was usually collected, when convenient, during the later

afternoon, so that no considerable time should elapse before

the discharge of the eggs. When by reason of tides this was

not practicable, collections were made at other hours, and the

material placed in floats off the exposed sides of the docks,

where conditions of water, temperature, etc, would be as

nearly normal as possible. Experiments, however, showed

that this precaution was not essential, no apparent differences

being distinguishable between collections brought to the labor-

atory aquaria and those floated outside.

For killing and fixing, many methods were tried, but without

that marked preferential distinction for one or a few which is

often found for other material. Almost any of the standard

fixing agents will give fairly good results. If any preference is

assignable, I should give it to the stronger solutions of Klein-

enberg's picro-sulphuric acid, or picro-acetic, in which the

acetic acid was often used in a solution as strong as IO per

cent. The various corrosive solutions gave results of about

equal value, and for carmine staining was specially good.

Perenyi’s fluid gave fairly good results, though less certain

than the others. Flemming’s fluid, while affording admirable

fixation, rendered subsequent staining so difficult as to make

its value secondary.

For surface study of the eggs, out of a very large number

of experiments with numerous staining agents, only one gave

results of sufficient value to be worth record, namely, Conklin’s

picro-sulphuric-haematoxylin, and this, when compared with

results upon such eggs as those of Mollusca, was quite infe-

rior, though enabling one to distinguish definitely considerable

of the internal organization of the egg from surface views. In

no other egg, save that of Eudendrium, have I found such dif-

ficult material from which to secure even approximately good

differential staining reactions. Whether this is due to some

physiological condition peculiar to these eggs, or to their pecul-

iar opacity, I am unable to say.

390 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

III. NATURAL History.

Pennaria tiarella is one of the most abundant and beautiful

hydroids to be found in the waters of the northeastern Atlan-

tic coast, occurring abundantly in tide pools, upon piles of

docks, fucus, etc. Its generic name indicates one of its most

conspicuous features, namely, the feather-like form of the main

stem and its branches, which spring laterally and alternately

from either side. When growing in dense tufts or colonies

this feature is often obscured in a measure or, in some cases,

even lacking entirely. In size it varies greatly as found under

varying conditions of environment. Under the best conditions

it may have a height of six inches or even more, while under

circumstances less favorable it may scarcely have a height of

more than two inches.

In this connection may be noted a rather interesting and, so

far as I know, an unrecorded peculiarity of habitat, namely, its

occurrence during the summer under apparently two conditions,

the one appearing considerably earlier and finding a habitat, as

already indicated, upon rockweed, piles, etc., the other occur-

ring later and in great abundance upon eelgrass. The latter

form rarely attains the larger size given, but it matures with

much greater rapidity and has apparently a much briefer period

of activity, hardly covering more than about four or five weeks.

It is further distinguished by a higher coloration of the colo-

nies and the meduse. Again, the medusz free themselves

with much greater frequency and ease, and swim much more

actively. The ova of the two forms likewise show the same

difference of coloration, those of the latter being a brighter

orange and much more conspicuous, while those of the former

are of a creamy white, with the slightest tint of dull pink.

Morphologically these forms exhibit no constantly distinctive

differences. The first, from its habit in usually deeper water,

and thus constantly submerged condition, does not exhibit that

marked feather-like bilateralism common in the eelgrass form,

which, from the fact that it often floats upon the surface and,

at low tide, often lies quite exposed, would come naturally to

assume the bilateral form. This fact may likewise account in

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 391

part for the higher coloration exhibited by the latter, and might

naturally occasion the more rapid development of the colonies,

as well as the greater activity of the medusz, since their expo-

sure at low tide and always near the surface would give them

the advantage of the naturally higher temperature of the sur-

face water. May it not be probable that this condition is an

adaptive one for the more rapid multiplication of the sexual

persons which, by their greater activity, secure a greater dis-

tribution ? For it must be noted that the medusz of the deep-

water forms are much less active, in many cases never becoming

free at all, and when becoming so rarely swimming actively.

During one entire season I failed to detect this feature which

I have since found to be a very common one, At one time I

was inclined to suspect that, as McCrady had suggested (57),

the ova might have developed within the bell of the medusz

and emerged as planule, for, in more than one collection

brought in during the early morning, numbers of planulze were

found among the fucus-bearing hydroids, and among the stems

of the colonies themselves, while the yet living medusz were

found still attached to the hydranths. McCrady’s observations

may have been due in part to the fact that in many cases these

deeper water medusz do not seem to discharge the ova freely,

and, since the free exposure of the ova within the bell of the

medusa insures usually their fertilization, so, as a matter of

course, the development follows without interruption. It is

more probable, however, that his observations were due to a

misinterpretation of the singular phenomena of segmentation,

to be described later.

After the discharge of the ova the medusze, when free, con-

tinue to swim about actively for a time, but soon begin to show

signs of decline and rarely live beyond a few hours, sometimes

twelve or even twenty-four, though A. Agassiz has recorded

their living in confinement for several weeks. My own obser-

vations, however, show no confirmation of this. They rather

confirm the observations of McCrady, who remarks upon the

“apathetic condition of the ipie. following the expulsion of

the planules."

In common with most hydroids Pennaria is distinctively a

392 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

summer organism, at least in its actively vegetative condition.

I have not found records of its occurrence in flourishing condi-

tion later than November, and during several years of observa-

tion have not taken it in mature form earlier than June, though

its seasonal variation may be considerable. After its more

active period there is an evident decline in vigor, and later a

degeneration of the polyps and hydrocaulus, and a recession of

the ccenosarc within the stoloniferous hydrorhiza, followed by

a period, more or less prolonged, of quiescence. This is chiefly

a seasonal peculiarity, induced doubtless by coincident changes

of temperature, food, etc. It may occasionally, however, be

induced by conditions purely local and temporary. Colonies

now and then show an evident decline for a period of varying

extent and then may revive and regain their normal activity

within a few weeks. In these cases no discernible cause is

evident, and hence they have been designated as purely local

and temporary.

Pennaria exhibits in a very marked way the phenomenon of

“alternation of generations." The nonsexual, or vegetative,

phase comprises the splendid hydroid features whose natural

history has now been outlined. Its sexual, or medusa, phase

presents an organism which Agassiz (65) has characterized as

“one of the most remarkable of our naked-eyed medusa." In

form it is elongate-oval, slightly smaller at the oral end. In

Pl. I, Figs. 2 and 3, are shown adult medusz with developing

and mature eggs. Its size varies slightly, but averages about

I.5 mm. in length, and .8 mm. in short diameter.

In its natural history the medusa exhibits some very interest-

ing features. Some of these have already been pointed out,

such as the variation in coloration, activity, etc. Smallwood

(99) has observed in working out its development evidences

of degenerative conditions which harmonize with some of the

observations previously cited, and with similar conditions

among not a few other of the Hydromedusz, e.g., Clava,

Hydractinia, etc.

The medusz mature with comparative rapidity and show a

rather marked periodicity as to the time of liberation. And

here again there is a rather sharp difference between the so-

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 393

called eelgrass forms and those of the deeper water habit. The

former are liberated usually from about 7 to 8 P.M., followed

almost immediately by the discharge of the sexual products.

In the latter form the time of liberation varies from about 10

to 12 P.M. In each case the male medusz are, as a rule, first

set free, usually from a few minutes to half an hour. Fertili-

zation of the eggs occurs at once upon their discharge.

In Pl. I, Fig. 2, is shown a mature medusa as it appears

within a few hours of its liberation from the hydroid. At this

time the nearly mature ova occupy almost the whole interior of

the bell, often distorting in some measure its form. In no

case, however, have I observed any such remarkable distortion

at this stage as that described and figured by Agassiz (65), and

I am disposed to suspect that his specimen must have been a

very unusual one, for certainly with ova surrounding the whole

of the manubrium and compressing it greatly a one-sided dis-

tortion must be rather difficult to understand. As the ova

grow about the manubrium they are flattened, disk-shaped bod-

ies of an outer convex and an inner concave aspect. Approach-

ing maturity they begin to assume a more or less spherical

form, as indicated in the figure. Just prior to the release of

the medusa, and perhaps induced in part by the rhythmic con-

tractions by which this is effected, they assume a perfectly

spherical form; the mesenterial membrane becomes more

closely fitted to each individual egg, and at the moment of

release the animal has the form exhibited by Pl. I, Fig. 3. Swim-

ming rapidly about with the characteristic jerking movements

common to these smaller medusz, the ova are discharged one

by one as the animal swims, and thus a considerable distribu-

tion is secured to the ova and the new colonies to arise from

them. In the growth and maturity of the male medusa essen-

tially the same phenomena are exhibited. The sperms closely

pack the whole subumbrella cavity, but as the medusa is about

to be liberated the mesentery seems to contract, and quickly

following this, as release is effected, the membrane is ruptured

and the sperms discharged in immense numbers.

394 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

IV. MATURATION AND FERTILIZATION.

Under these heads I shall give at this time only the merest

synopsis of my observations, for there are many points yet to

be worked out in detail, and to these I shall give special atten-

tion in a later paper, which is, however, well under way and

may, I trust, appear within the near future.

As Smallwood has pointed out (99), and as Doflein ('96) has

also shown for Tubularia, and as I have found in Parypha, the

ova grow within an ovarian mass of primitive ova by the con-

sumption of their fellows, nuclei of which may be seen in all

stages of degeneration, both about and within the growing

eggs. In Parypha the most perfect illustrations of degenera-

tive metamorphosis and amitotic division are shown, and in

this form they are not wholly disintegrated during the process

of segmentation of the egg, nor even till after at least the

ectoderm of the larva is very clearly established.

. As the egg grows the nucleus migrates toward the periphery,

becomes very indefinite in form, and also seems quite indiffer-

ent to ordinary staining processes. In only a few cases have

I found from surface preparations, and in observations upon

the living egg, any clear examples of polar bodies. However,

the fact that the ova are devoid of membrane and are peculiarly

opaque would naturally obscure or render quite transient these

bodies. The ova are of relatively large size, varying from

.4 mm. to.5 mm. in diameter, and heavily yolk-laden, and, as

already indicated, vary in color from a creamy white with faint

trace of pinkish hue to a clearly orange color.

Fertilization occurs very soon after the ova are discharged

from the medusa, and hence only external, unless, as indicated

in another part of the paper, where, after the velum is ruptured

as well as the mesentery suspending the egg, fertilization

may readily take place within the bell cavity. A number of

experiments and observations have demonstrated this quite

conclusively. Artificial fertilization is quite easy and can be

controlled at will Very soon after extrusion of the egg,

sperms may be seen surrounding it in great numbers, in some

cases completely covering it and adhering for some time. The

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 395

entrance of the sperm produces a profound effect upon the

egg, which up to that time has been quite passive. Examined

under a low power the egg very soon after access of the sperm

shows a sort of convulsive surface torsion, which after a few

minutes quite disappears, and the egg again becomes quiescent.

But within half an hour, often sooner, the phenomena of cleav-

age begin and usually go forward with comparative rapidity,

the entire process, so far as surface features are concerned,

becoming complete within a few houts, though varying greatly

in different eggs and under slight differences of temperature.

V. CLEAVAGE.

Of cleavage phenomena in Pennaria it is extremely difficult

to formulate an account, and that for several reasons. A glance

at the figures which present only some of the more striking

aspects of the subject will afford one, and perhaps a sufficient,

reason. Again, the unusual opacity of the eggs renders diffi-

cult, either in the living or preserved material, any critical

insight into other than the surface phenomena. There seems

to be no law or order attending the process. Every egg isa

law unto itself and is absolutely indeterminate as to order or

rate of development. Beyond the accounts of Wilson for Ren-

illa (84), and Metschnikoff for Ratkea and Oceania (86), the

literature at my command affords nothing comparable, and

these are only remotely so. Andrews (98) points out * Some

Ectosarcal Phenomena in the Eggs of Hydra," which, while in

some features they are similar to some aspects associated with

these phenomena in Pennaria, seem yet to be of a decidedly

different character. Similar ectosarcal features were more or

less obvious in the eggs of Pennaria, bits of protoplasmic mat-

ter at times being extruded and even detached from the sur-

face of the egg, including at times considerable portions.

Again, the presence of more or less definite protoplasmic bands,

or bridges, during the earlier phases of cleavage is a very con-

Spicuous feature in Pennaria. That it may in some way be

associated with fertilization, the entrance of several Spermato-

zoa, artificial conditions, or otherwise, would seem not improb-

396 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

able. The highest powers of the microscope revealed nothing

which seemed quite comparable with the so-called spinning

movements of protoplasm, to which Andrews has directed

attention.

So anomalous are these phenomena that during the first sev-

eral series of observations the conclusion was unavoidable that

they were strangely abnormal or, perhaps, pathologic. Accord-

ingly, the first series were wholly discarded, except a few speci-

mens which had been isolated in watch glasses and set aside

more out of curiosity than otherwise, and left overnight. An

inspection the following morning revealed several apparently

normal larve. The observations of the following night were

to the same effect, though at this time a considerable series of

all sorts were isolated with pains to eliminate possible error,

and with results quite assuring, in that in a very large propor-

tion of the cases perfect larve resulted and continued to de-

velop. Following this, systematic collections were made and

painstaking observations and records kept of every feature

associated with development.

Occasionally an egg would segment with a fair degree of

regularity into the two, four, and eight cell stage, as shown in

Pl. II, Figs. 7, 8. But beyond this point it was difficult to fol-

low any order in the cleavage, though it might continue with

more than ordinary regularity as compared with the average of

its fellows, It was utterly impossible to trace anything like a

definite lineage of cells, notwithstanding repeated and careful

attempts. By no means was it possible to predict the direction

or course or rate of any division beyond the first or second

phase of the cleavage, and even then only occasionally.

While Wilson (84) has noted a considerable degree of indi-

vidual variation in the cleavage of Renilla, he is still able to

reduce it to some half dozen types. With Pennaria, however, -

while it is possible to recognize some few rather predominating

types in the earliest cleavage, as, for example, a centripetal, a

centrifugal, and a vertical, yet they are not of. sufficiently pro-

nounced character to constitute well-defined types which are

distinguishable as such. In no case were there any clearly

defined and symmetrical equatorial phases recognizable, though

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 397

occasionally incipient aspects of it were detected. This may

be due in part to the membraneless condition of the eggs, but

perhaps rather to their more or less evident amoeboid condition,

which asserted itself in the earlier phases. Again, the eggs

early became somewhat flattened and disk-shaped, and only as

the external phenomena of cleavage were completed did they

resume an approximately spherical form. In Pl. II, Figs. 1-6,

are shown a single series of cleavage phases noted at intervals

of ten minutes or less. All were sketched from life by the aid

of a camera, and, as will be noted also, there are presented only

the earlier phenomena. As segmentation progressed its super-

ficial aspects became less and less evident, owing to the opacity

of the eggs, and only in a few cases were attempts definitely

made to follow it to anything like completion. In these and

other figures will readily be recognized the amceboid aspects

referred to above.

Reference has been made incidentally to the variable rate of

segmentation. This feature was quite as marked as were

others, both as to individual eggs and blastomeres. In many

cases a single blastomere would divide at a rate quite phenom-

enal, so that it was difficult to sketch adequately successive

phases, while others might remain in a state of inaction for an

indefinite period or even be engulfed bodily into the more rap-

idly segmenting portion. Then, also, in many cases cleavage

seemed to begin in a somewhat discoidal fashion at a single

pole and only gradually extend to other portions, as shown in

Pl. IV, Fig. 1. This could hardly be due to any marked

inequality in the distribution of the food yolk, for in this respect

the eggs of Pennaria seem to be quite isotropous, and indeed

there seems little if any definite polarity of any sort evident in

these eggs. Occasionally, as shown in Pl. IV, Fig. 1, cleavage

appeared to advance from a single area, but in the large pro-

portion nothing of the sort was evident, and, as Conklin (97)

has shown in molluscan eggs, where the greatest variation in

matter of yolk distribution is distinguishable, there is none the

less a perfect symmetry of rate and character of cleavage. This

would seem to be only another illustration of the inadequacy of

any known law as an explanation of all cleavage phenomena.

398 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

That these are really cleavage, and not merely amceboid phe-

nomena, can hardly be matter of serious doubt, even when con-

sidered from the more superficial phenomena already presented.

If, however, other evidence were needed, it is available in the

greatest profusion from sectional sources, portraying the inter-

nal structure and organization of the egg. In Pl. IV, Figs.

1-6, are shown camera sketches, of a few sections only, of

eggs in different stages of segmentation. That they are clearly

correlated in general features with the superficial features

already noted there is no doubt whatsoever, though there may

be many points of detail which need attention, but which can

only be touched upon at this time. That Pl. IV, Fig. 2, is com-

parable with that of Pl. II, Fig. 7, as a two-cell stage must be

obvious at a glance. There are, however, here some interest-

ing facts to which a moment's consideration may be directed.

It will be seen, for example, that there are present, in the sec-

tion, portions of several nuclear figures, a somewhat unusual

condition at this stage of development. However, here again

there is something in common with what Wilson has recorded

in certain cases in Renilla, namely, the internal nuclear divi-

sion preceding that of the cytoplasm which followed, or lagged,

as it were, finally dividing at once into an equal number of cells.

It is, however, quite different in that in these the nuclear cleav-

age seems constantly to outrun that of the cytoplasm. It had

occurred to me that possibly there might be here what has

been noted by Loeb (99), Norman (96), and others, namely, a

sort of artificially produced cleavage of the nucleus, induced by

some chemical or pathological stimulus. The comparison of

many sections, preserved under different conditions, and by

different methods, however, leads me to conclude that it is a

perfectly normal condition so far as these particular eggs are

concerned. I have also observed the same thing in the eggs

of other hydroids, and Hickson (93) calls attention to a similar

condition in the cleavage of Allopora. It would seem as if

from some cause, not perhaps easily distinguishable, that all

the phenomena of cleavage in some of these organisms have

been greatly modified, that in some way the nucleus and cyto-

plasm have, as it were, been thrown out of concord, and their

No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 399

rhythmic relations disturbed to such an extent that this very

erratic and anomalous type of segmentation has resulted. May

it not be within the line of possibilities that the peculiar meth-

ods and conditions of growth and maturation of these and some

similar eggs have in some way been the occasion of the disturb-

ance?' While only a suggestion, yet it seems not without the

range of possibilities. |

In Pl. III, Figs. 1-7, are shown conditions not uncommonly

met with, which are specially interesting in that from one such

were derived spontaneously two perfect embryos, a fact, so far

as I am aware, quite unusual, if not unique, though Metschni-

koff ('86) cites a somewhat similar case in the development of

Oceania armata. It does not seem clear, however, from his

account whether the cases are quite similar, certainly not in

the details of the cleavage. Following the first cleavage in

these eggs, during which the blastomeres become widely sepa-

rated, the two halves proceed to develop quite independent of

each other and show no disposition to reunite until the cleav-

age is quite advanced, apparently to the point of completion or

nearly so, when usually they gradually approximate and finally

fuse into a typical morula and develop into a normal embryo.

In at least one case a specimen which showed this aspect in a

very marked degree at an early stage gave rise to two perfect

larva, though of small size. The specimen was carefully iso-

lated in a large watch glass and set aside as a test case, and the

next morning the larvae were found in perfect condition, as indi-

cated. Several others of similar character were subsequently

isolated in the same way, but in only the one case did this

spontaneous division show itself conclusively. That such

cases, though rare, are not strange among these organisms

may be very well conceded, specially when the peculiar phe-

nomena associated with the early development are familiar.

VI. COMPLETION OF SEGMENTATION AND FORMATION OF THE

PLANULA.

Following the more conspicuous and anomalous aspects

already considered, the egg gradually assumes a nearly spher-

400 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ical form, hard to distinguish from the freshly discharged ovum,

almost all surface aspects of cleavage having disappeared. In

this form it remains apparently quiescent for some hours, dur-

ing which time, however, internal cell division goes on quite

actively, as sections clearly show. With completion of this

internal cleavage the embryo becomes a solid morula, with

only the faintest indications of any differentiation into an ecto-

derm (cf. Pl. IV, Fig. 6). Following this, however, the spe-

cialization of an ectoderm soon takes place, and the embryo

begins to assume the characteristic pyriform, or oval, shape of

hydroid planule. Within from twelve to twenty hours cilia

make their appearance over the ectoderm, and the free life of the

larva is assumed. Up to this time, however, and for some time

after, no definite endoderm has been formed; the entire mass

of internal cells seem scarcely distinguishable from each other,

except that near the central portion the remains of yolk débris

are more or less apparent. It is not till after some hours of

larval life that an endoderm is gradually specialized from the

internal cell mass and takes on an appearance quite similar to

that of the forming ectoderm. After the establishment of the

diploblastic condition there still remain a mass of undifferen-

tiated cells, intermingled with yolk granules, which seem gradu-

ally to disintegrate and are consumed as food by the developing

larva, which, up to the polyp stage, is wholly without mouth or

other means of taking solid food, though in all probability

absorption of water with soluble matter in small proportion

takes place.

The larval history of Pennaria seems considerably longer

than the corresponding period of many other hydroids. In

several cases specially noted the planule did not settle for

attachment and transformation till some five days following

the beginning of development, and only at the end of seven

days were tentacles well marked, as shown in Pl. III, Fig. 10.

The tentacles originate by a process of budding, the lower, or

filamentous, series appearing first, those of the other series

following somewhat later.

Secretion of the perisarc begins almost at once after the

attachment of the larva, preliminary to transformation. At

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 401

first it is an exceedingly delicate, almost indistinguishable,

transparent film about the base of the polyp. This gradually

thickens and soon hardens into a sheath about the growing

polyp, covering at first the entire larva. Annulation of the

perisarc seems to occur at no very definite time or place in its

growth. In some’ cases it is apparent almost from the first.

In others it only becomes apparent at a considerably later

time, and nearer the hydranth than the base. As to the sig-

nificance of the annulations, either in origin or function, nothing

very definite can be said. That the perisarc itself is a protect-

ive adaptation seems almost beyond question; but whether

the annulations characteristic of this and many other hydroids

is an additional adaptation, rendering the stem flexible, etc.,

may be doubtful.

VII. ABNORMALITIES.

The eccentric forms of cleavage already considered naturally

raise the question as to probabilities of corresponding anoma-

lies among the larvæ of these forms, and also of the resulting

polyps; whether at any rate any variation appears from the

normal type of embryo. The answer in part may be inferred

from a glance at Pl. I, Figs. 4-6. These represent but three

out of a considerable number of eccentric forms observed dur-

ing the progress of the work. As will be seen, Fig. 4 repre-

sents what might be designated as a twin planula, having a

rather broad and blunt anterior and a bifurcated posterior.

In Fig. 5 is represented a second type, quite common, which

differs from the former chiefly in the shape of the body of the

embryo, which is somewhat spindle-shaped, and also in the

slender and attenuated character of the posterior bifurcated

portions. In Fig. 8 is shown a third type which is some-

what unusual. The body portion is decidedly eccentric in

shape, with irregular tentaculate processes arising from it at

various points and of various sizes and shapes.

Whether such anomalies occur to any extent under perfectly

natural conditions, of course, cannot be said. But from their

occurrence under the most favorable conditions in aquaria, and

Since, moreover, they seemed in no way to interfere with subse-

402 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

quent development, it may be inferred that their occurrence in

a state of nature is not inthe least improbable. Similar abnor-

malities have been reported among other genera of hydroids,

eg., Bunting (94) figures embryos of very similar character.

Now whether all such anomalous planulz develop into normal

polyp may not be easily determined. That many should not

is only what constantly happens with the most typical. That

some of them develop there is not the slightest doubt. In

Fig. 6 is shown a specimen which had become fixed in the

ordinary way and had developed tentacles upon apparently

two polyps heads. And in this connection it may be noted

that in many cases these anomalous processes have been seen

to be resorbed into the body of the larva as it approaches the

period of transformation. This may suggest that they are per-

haps only temporary processes which may serve some tempo-

rary function of doubtful significance. The larva shown in

Fig. 4 might suggest that it had its origin as a twin from a

single egg which had segmented somewhat as represented in

Pl. III, Fig. 4, where development of the two halves of the

ovum had gone on so apparently independently. But in no

specific case, several of which had been isolated and watched

with care, had any such form resulted. Nor, further, in speci-

mens of similar larve carefully sectioned was there any special

evidence of such an origin.

I am rather disposed to consider them as due in all cases to

the intrinsic prepotency of hydroids to bud and branch; for,

as I have repeatedly observed, and as Pl. I, Fig. 8, will show,

the budding propensity asserts itself very early in the polyp

life. -

Concerning abnormalities among adult hydroids of this genus

I have made no extended observations. Bunting (94) refers to

several cases among Hydractinia and Podocoryne. But in these

the polymorphic conditions would, it seems to me, render them

specially favorable subjects in which to expect such diver-

gencies, while in Pennaria, at least, this element is lacking.

In Fig. 1 of the text is shown a somewhat unusual, though

possibly not abnormal, young polyp. As will be noted, its

unusual feature consists chiefly in the total annulation of the

No. 401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 403

stem, including the branch. This is in rather striking con-

trast with those figured in the plates and in the well-known

annulations of the stems of the Pennaridz. I was for a time

constrained to wonder whether this might not have been a speci-

men of some other genus which had accidentally been brought

in with the collections and had developed along with the Pen-

naria. Such a supposition is not impossible of course, yet the

general aspects of the hydroid are so peculiarly pennarian, the

annulations excepted, that I am rather

constrained to regard it as simply a

specimen which exhibits, in an unusual

degree, a phenomenon which in itself is

one of the most variable among hydroid

characters, and that it shows how un-

reliable must be such a character for

diagnostic purposes.

VIII. EXPERIMENTAL.

1. Darkness. — The liberation of the

medusæ and the discharge of the sexual

products upon the approach of darkness :

suggested this as a possible cause of the Pech

unusual activity at this time. Accordingly, several experiments

were made to determine whether such were really the case.

Colonies of both sexes were collected about 3 p.m. and were

carefully excluded from light in suitable receptacles, but in no

case could they be induced to discharge their products or become

free at an earlier time, though that such conditions might have

at some time in the life of the race been a factor in determin-

ing the periodicity of their maturity and release may not be

improbable. But, as has already been pointed out, the fact

that the deeper water forms do not become free or discharge

the sexual products until toward midnight would certainly

seem to suggest that darkness alone could not be the deter-

mining factor.

2. Temperature. — The observation that during specially

warm weather larger numbers were liberated suggested the

404 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

possible influence of temperature upon the maturity of the

medusz, and suggested also additional experiments. Artificial

change of temperature by means of heat or ice had a very

noticeable effect, both upon the activity of the medusz and

the cleavage of the eggs, the reduction of temperature by a

few degrees materially retarding the rate of cleavage, while

raising it a corresponding amount proportionately accelerated

these phenomena. This was likewise evident in the develop-

ment and activity of the larvae.

3. Artificial Division of the Eggs.— During the earlier

phases of segmentation experiments were made to determine

the effects of detaching small portions of the egg, in imitation

of the observed spontaneous detachment of particles from the

surface, to which reference has already been made. From

repeated experiments it was conclusively shown that removal

of small portions, and indeed of considerable portions, did not

materially retard or modify the development of the eggs, or

prevent their final development into perfect larvae.

Again, the experiment of dividing eggs at the first cleavage,

and at the second, and also of dividing them into several por-

tions, was made in a considerable number of cases, with the

results of obtaining from these fractions perfectly normal,

though small, embryos, which continued to thrive and, finally,

in the usual time transformed into perfectly nor-

mal polyps. Pl. III, Fig. 11, shows one of these

(a) e half-egg polyps which was isolated and reared

e d under conditions which leave no shadow of doubt

B (2 as to the genuineness of the case. And this is

e £ only one of a considerable number, some from

O "m » smaller portions, which: were similarly secured.

Cos In Fig. 2 of text are shown a series of planulz of

normal and artificially produced specimens, in

which the relative sizes are clearly exhibited.

On a preceding page attention was directed to a rather remark-

able feature, namely, the natural origin of two embryos from a

single egg, by a spontaneous division at some point during the

segmentation. These facts would seem to show conclusively

that so far as the hydroids are concerned there is no such pre-

Fic. 2.

No.401.] DEVELOPMENT OF PENNARIA TIARELLA. 405

determined organization of the egg as that a given part must

necessarily determine a given organ or part. For in the half

or fourth embryos the number of tentacles arising in the polyp

was of the same number and arrangement as in the normal one.

So, too, in the formation of perisarc, rate of growth, etc.,

there was nothing to indicate that the larva was other than a

normal one in every respect, that of size alone excepted.

It may not be without the range of these facts to refer in

passing to similar experimental work by Driesch, Wilson, Loeb,

and others and to refer in particular to that which is in some

respects rather unique. Concerning the capacity of portions

of eggs regularly to develop into perfect embryos it is unnec-

essary to make special mention at this time. Loeb has shown

(93) that under the unusual stress of osmosis, induced by vary-

ing the density of the medium, double or multiple embryos of

sea urchins might be produced almost at will. This has since

been matter of common experiment. What seems to me of

special note in connection with these experiments on Pennaria

is that not only may such experimental results be obtained, but

that similar results have been obtained in perfectly normal

ways, that the entire phenomena of cleavage reproduce at some

phase or other an almost identical counterpart of former experi-

mentation along these lines. No one can follow the segmen-

tation of the ova of Pennaria in its extremely variable and

anomalous aspects without the conviction that there are here

involved intrinsic forces, quite as pronounced as any which

have been involved in the artificially operative chemical and

physical agents to which reference has been made. That they

may comprise much of chemistry and of physics is not ques-

tioned. But if so, they are intrinsic and integral.

SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY,

March 1, 1900.

406

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

LITERATURE €ITED.

AvERS, W. O. Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist.

.Lripv, J. Marine Invertebrates of New Jersey and Rhode Island.

McCrapy. Proc. Elliott Soc. Nat. Hist.

AGASSIZ, L. Cont. Nat. Hist. U. S. Vol. iv.

AGASSIZ, A. North American Acalephe.

ALLMAN, J. G. Gymnoblastic Hydroids.

VARENNE, A. DE. Recherches des Polypes Hydraires.

WiLSON, E. B. Variation in Yolk Cleavage of Renilla. Zool. An-

zeiger.

WILSON, E. B.. Development of Renilla. PAilosophical Trans.

METSCHNIKOFF, E. Embryol. Studien an Medusen. Wien.

Hickson. Early Stages in the Development of Distichopora violacea.

Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.

LoEB, J. Physiological Morphology. Biol. Lect.

BUNTING, M. The Development of Hydractinia. Journ. of Morph.

DorLEIN, F. J. Die Eibildung bei Tubularia. Zeitschr. f. wiss.

Zool.

NorMAN, W. W. Segmentation of Nucleus without Segmentation of

Protoplasm. Arch. f. Entwick. d. Organismen. Bd. iii.

CONKLIN, E. G. The Embryology of Crepidula. Journ. of Morph.

Vol. xvi.

ANDREWS, E. A. Ectosarcal Phenomena in Eggs of Hydra. Johns

Hopkins Univ. Circ. November. -

Logs, J. On the Nature and Process of Fertilization, etc. Amer.

Journ. of Phys.

SMALLWOOD, M. Morphology of Pennaria. American Naturalist.

408 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fic. 1. Single colony of Pennaria, natural size, showing mode of typical

branching, attachment to substratum, et

. 2. Medusa about mature, show ng form of ova at this stage, mode of

attachment, etc.; ov, ova; rc, radial canals; 1, tentacles

Fic. 3. Mature medusa, parts as in Fig. 2. Ova potoci spherical, and clus-

ion.

. 6. Rather unusual type of polyp, with small bud, 4, on side of body, and

with less than usual number of tentacles

Fic. 7. ‘Typical planula, about twentydoor hours after laying of the egg.

Fic. 8. An unusual larva, similar in some respects to that of polyp in Fig. 6,

but with several bud-like is ence, EV.

Vol. XX XIV, No. 4or.

PLATE I.

CUT HT

NN NAR AG

NS Y

410 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE II.

Ic. 1. Egg in first cleavage phase; ?,a protoplasmic band connecting the

blastomeres.

IG. 2. A second phase of cleavage, indicated by furrow cutting off a small

blastomere at x. Two protoplasmic strands are shown, one, 7, the same as in

Fig. 1

Fic. 3. Next phase ten minutes later.

Fics. 4-6. Show successive phases in progress of the development.

IGS. 7-11. Show phases of cleavage in another egg, which differ in some

respects from the former, yet resulting in practically same condition

Vol. XXXIV, No. 401. PLATE II.

412 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE III.

Fics. 1-5. Show a phase of "tif not uncommon, in aei after the first

division, the blastomeres segment in a perfectly independent w

F Show the final csi of the two portions, pe^ in Fig. 8, the

resulting morula, which gradually assumes the planula form of Fig. 7 of Pl. I.

The figures of this series are somewhat diagrammatic.

Fic. 9. Young polyp phase soon after attachment.

Fic. 10. Polyp with budding tentacles, 7.

Fic. 11. Fully grown polyp, with full vim gaa s tentacles, mouth, annu-

lation of perisarc, etc. Sketched from life, with cam

PLATE III.

Vol. XXXIV, No. 401.

414 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fic. 1. Section of entire egg in early cleavage phase, showing more ra apid

rate at one pole, while the ic i a a pi eae nucleus and no indications of

segmentation. Camera sketch, x abou

2. Two-cell Fan At the le ee is hows a perfect nuclear spindle, s/,

and in the opposite blastomere several asters, which may indicate the nuclear

divisions which have occurred, without involving the cytoplasm.

G. 3. Section of egg, X 135, showing various internal cleavage conditions,

dud superficial; z, nuclei in resting conditio

Fic. 4. Portion of egg more highly m nifio 4

Fic. 5. Portion of another egg, Fue essentially similar conditions.

Fic. 6. Section of egg at completion of segmentation, showing a mass of

nuclei partially organized into a cellular ectoderm, ec.

PLATE LV:

Vol. XXXIV, No. gor.

GONE

DEN

P UNS

THE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE POLAR

EXPEDITION UNDER DR. NANSEN.

(A REVIEW.)

R. W. SHUFELDT.

WHAT was accomplished. for the science of ornithology

during the journey of the Fram under Dr. Nansen and the

intrepid explorers and naturalists who accompanied him in the

North-European polar seas, during the years 1893-96, now

appears in the form of a valuable quarto brochure, issued by

its distinguished authors, to whom my thanks are due for a

complimentary copy.!

This excellent work exhibits throughout great care in prepara-

tion, scientific accuracy, and a marked attention to details, de-

scriptions and methods of presentation of the facts in the hands

of its authors. It is handsomely printed and is illustrated by

two plates devoted to Rosse's gull (Rhodostethia rosea). The

first of these is an uncolored one, facing page 16, and represents

two specimens of the bird, suspended by their legs in such a

manner as to exhibit the pattern of the plumage upon their

ventral and dorsal aspects. They were shot August 3, 1894.

In the second plate, at the close of the work, we have a beauti-

ful colored figure of this famous gull sitting on the ice, with

another individual in flight in the background. In the distance

we see the Fra» firmly frozen in the ice pack, while far beyond

the horizon the picture is completed by the cold red sky of

those north polar seas. The birds in this plate are specimens

of the young in first plumage.

By the aid of my camera I have copied this latter plate and

offer it here as an illustration to the present review.

e Norwegian North Polar Expedition, 1893-96. Scientific Results edited

by Fridtjof Nansen. — IV. An Account of the Birds by Robert Collett and

Fridtjof Nansen. Published by the Fridtjof Nansen Fund for the Advancement

of Science. Christiania, Jacob Dybwad; London, New York, Bombay, Long-

mans, Green & Co.; Leipzig, F. A. Brockhaus, 1899. Cloth, pp. 1-54, 1 plate, 1

figure in text.

417

418 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

From the Introduction we ascertain that the work is divided

into four (IV) sections. In the first three sections the observa-

tions recorded are extracted from Dr. Nansen's personal jour-

nals, and supplemented by his verbal comments and explanations

during the preparation of the work. The first section (I) has

to do with the journey along the north coast of Siberia, from

Yugor Strait (July 29,

1893), until the closing-in

of the ship to the north-

west of the New Siberian

Islands on Sept. 25, 1893

(78° 50! N: Lat., 132° 20'

E. Long.).

“The birds observed

during this time were

principally on their way

southwards. After the

closing-in of the ship, no .

birds were seen until the

following year."

The second section (IJ)

gives the observations

made at the time that the

Fram was drifting with

por ol (R. rosea). Young in first eo ae From the ice towards the north-

otograph of original plate by the author west, during the first sum-

mer, 1894, up to the time

when Nansen and Johansen started on their sledge journey,

March 14, 1895. This last point lies in about 84° N. Lat.

Ores cE Long.

* The first bird seen in the spring of 1894 (a gull, probably

Pagophila eburnea) appeared on May 13; birds were seen now

and again until after the middle of August. After August 23,

or the day when all the channels and lanes about the ship

began to freeze up, no birds were seen." .

Eight specimens of R. rosea were shot and preserved during

this part of the journey. They were all young birds of the

year.

No. 401.] RESULTS OF THE POLAR EXPEDITION. 419

The third section (III) gives the observations made during

the aforesaid sledge journey, in the spring of 1895 to August

1896. During the journey in the Polar Sea, the first bird

seen (a Fulmarus glacialis) was observed on May 29, when the

travelers had begun to approach the north side of Franz Josef

Land. That part of the journey in which the highest latitude,

86° 13.6', was reached was undertaken so early in the year that

* no birds were yet visible." |

The fourth section (IV) gives the observations made on the

Fram after Nansen and Johansen had left in March, 1895, until

the return of the ship in August, 1896. Great importance

attaches to the ornithological records made during this part of

the exploration. In the first place, * birds were observed in the

highest northerly latitudes, in which birds on the whole have

been known to exist," and farthest north of all was found F.

glacialis, of which a specimen was observed in 85? 5' N. Lat.

During this part of the cruise, the Fram being confined to a

comparatively limited area northeast of Franz Josef Land, the

total number of species observed was ten (10), namely, P/ectro-

phenax nivalis, Sterna macrura, Pagophila eburnea, Rissa tri-

dactyla, Rhodostethia rosea, a specimen of a Larus, which is

stated to have been black-backed, a Stercorarius (species unde-

termined), Fulmarus glacialis, Cepphus mandti, and Alle alle.

* None of the species, however, seemed to occur in any great

quantity.” |

* The last summer, 1896, when the Fram was north of Spitz-

bergen, the first bird (a snow bunting) was observed on April

25. It now appeared that for a distance of at least four hundred

kilometers north of Spitzbergen, or between 81? and 83? N.

Lat. the Arctic Ocean is inhabited by an abundant bird life,

doubtless consisting principally of young, not yet mature birds,

. Which spend the summer months here, in and near the open

channels in the ice." ‘Among the specimens occurring here,

sometimes in great numbers, may be named Cepphus mandtt,

Alle alle, and Pagophila eburnea. A few specimens of waders

(4igialitis hiaticula and Crymophilus fulicarius) were also

found in these northern latitudes, and a specimen of Xema

sabini was observed."

420 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Under the names of the various birds observed in the body

of this memoir are given full accounts of habits, localities,

plumage descriptions, and matters of general interest to orni-

thologists everywhere. At the close of the work we find an

index, which simply presents the scientific names of the thirty-

three (33) species of birds observed during the entire journey.

They are as follows: gialitis hiaticula, Alle alle, Anser sege-

tum, Archibuteo lagopus, Arquatella maritima, Branta bernicla,

Cepphus mandti, Colymbus arcticus, Crymophilus fulicarius,

Falco esalon, Fratercula a. glacialis, Fulmaris glacialis, Ha-

relda glacialis, Lagopus lagopus, Larus argentatus, L. fuscus,

L. glaucus, L. marinus, Nyctea scandiaca, Pagophila eburnea,

Phalaropus hyperboreus, Plectrophenax nivalis, Rhodostethia

vosea, Rissa tridactyla, Somateria mollissima, Squatarola hel-

vetica, Stercorarius crepidatus, S. longicaudus, S. pomatorhinus,

Sterna macrura, Totanus nebularius, Uria lomvia, and Xema

sabini. In other words, it will be noted that there was but one

passerine bird observed (the snowflake, P. nivalis) ; a ptarmigan,

five waders, two hawks and an owl, two ducks and two species

of geese; and the balance of the list, made up of gulls, terns,

guillemots, auks, fulmars, jægers, and the dovekie, together with

divers and puffins, represent strictly a circumpolar avifauna —

few birds, and those essentially boreal forms. Taken as a whole,

this is one of the most important contributions to the orni-

thology of high northern latitudes now extant, and it constitutes

a very substantial addition to our knowledge of the habits,

species and migrations, plumages and variations of the ornis of

the Arctic Circle, and its distinguished authors are to be con-

gratulated upon the completion of their worthy labors.

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES.

IX. THE Scorpions, SOLPUGIDS, AND PEDIPALPI.

NATHAN BANKS.

TuEsE three groups belong to that order of the Arachnida

known as the Arthrogastra. It may be separated from the

other arachnids of the United States, and practically of the

whole world, in the following manner:

Abdomen plainly segmented, palpi of male not modified for a genital organ,

rarely of small size,-no jointed abdominal spinnerets Arthrogastra

Abdomen not plainly segmented, joined to the cephalothorax by a slender

pedicel, palpi of male modified for a os organ, at least one pair

of jointed abdominal spinnerets. . Araneida

Abdomen not plainly segmented, broadly mied é to EIE R no jointed

spinnerets, male palpi not modified, of small or even minute size

Acarina

The three groups of the Arthrogastra treated in this paper

are easily distinguished by the following characters :

1. Abdomen ending in a poison sting, base of abdomen beneath bearing

a pair of appendages with teeth (pectines) ; palpi chelate at tips,

legs without patelle ; porian part of abdomen much narrower than .

the anterior part . . . » Scorpionida

Abdomen not ending in poison sing ; no peclaes palpi not chelate at

tips 2

2. Hind coxe heated a ie T: ‘taped PT hind noba of two

segments, no sternum, no patelle in any legs . . . . Solpugida

Hind coxz without such appendages, hind trochanters not biseg-

mented, patellz in at least some of the legs ; sternum often present,

ody considerably constricted between cephalothorax and abdomen

Pedipalpi

PEDIPALPI.!

The Pedipalpi are ere dinem so that there is but a

meri ican Naturali ist will undertake

be cannot be placed i in the keys, and Haw corrections and criticism fer Pulvis

ision.

421

422 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

slender representation of them within our limits. These, how-

ever, belong to the three principal groups — Tartaridz, Phryn-

ide, and Thelyphonidz. They are all of moderate to large

size; there is a patella in at least some of the legs; there are

no tactile organs on the hind coxa; the mandibles are of mod-

erate size; the body never ends in a sting; and the palpi are

never chelate at the end; the abdomen is usually elongate, and

when short it is not joined broadly to the cephalothorax, as in

the Phalangida.

In the Tartaridz the thoracic segments bearing the third and

fourth pairs of legs are not united to the head, as in most

arachnids, but free, and their scute showing as separate pieces

on the dorsum. The abdomen is rather slender, tapering each

way, and at tip is a long triangular

telson. The palpi are short and

terminate in a stout claw. The

legs, except the first pair, are pro-

vided with a patella. The Thely-

phonidz are readily known by the

presence of a long multiarticulate

telson or tail; whence the popular

name of “whip scorpions.” The

body is depressed and the abdomen

joined broadly to the cephalotho-

rax. Our single species, although

greatly feared, is not poisonous.

The Phrynidz are separable from the other Pedipalpi by the

tenuity of the connection between the cephalothorax and abdo-

men. The body is broad and flat, without a tail. Of the three

species recorded from our country, two are quite doubtful.

The Pedipalpi are tabulated as follows :

Fic. 1. — Admetus. 4, telson.

—

Cephalothorax transversely divided in posterior part, no eyes, telson

short . . (fam. fora ens pentapeltis Cook €

Cephalothorax entire, eyes pres

. Abdomen with a long carta TOA abdome quite iain

united to cephalothorax . . . (fam. Thelyphonide)

Miside oe Lucas ¢Tex., Fla., Ariz.)

Abdomen lacking xd telson, ene to pte by slender

pedis .. . A : (fam. PArynide)3

No. 401.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 423

. Frontal border of cephalothorax with long teeth, only two long spines

on upper inner edge of tibia of palpus

Acanthophrynus coronatus Butl. (Cal.)

Frontal border of cephalothorax only denticulate, more than two long

spines on upper inner edge of tibia of palpus, smaller species 4

Between the two longest a of tibia of palpus there are two small

Admetus fuscimanus Koch (Fla.)

spines

Between the two diy en spines of tibia of palpus is only one short spine

Admetus whitei Gerv. (Tex.)

SCORPIONIDA.

The scorpions are readily known from all other arachnids

by the presence of two peculiar characters; the body termi-

Fic 2. — Centrurus. a, cephalothorax ;

* abdomen; c, cauda; d, telson; e,

ads f, palpus ; 4, hand ; /, fingers;

orsal area; d.k., dorsal keel;

LA. Mni keel.

nates in a poison sting, and on the

venter, near base of abdomen, is a

pair of appendages, each bearing a

number of lamella; these are the

pectines, or combs. The palpi are .

enlarged at tip and chelate; the

claw being of three parts, vzz.,

the hand, or basal portion, and

two fingers, one movable, the other

fixed. There are usually three

groups of eyes. The last five

segments of the body are much

narrower than the others and form

the cauda or tail. These segments

bear ridges which are called

“keels.” The legs have no pa-

Fic. 3. — The two forms of sterna in scorpions. s,

sternum; £.7., genital plate ; 7, jugum.

424 THE AMERICAN NA TURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

tella. The exact number of species occurring in our country

is uncertain, owing to the fact that several Mexican species

may be found in southern Texas.

uua

kami

—

. Only two lateral xA sternum broad, pentagonal; small short species

m. Chacti E Broteas alleni Wood. e Ca pes

Three to five lateral ne : ;

Sternum broad, pentagonal, inai no spine i ads the E. . 3

Sternum long, triangular, usually a spine under the sting . . . 14

At base of last tarsal joint at least one spur on inner and one on

outer side ; no spine under the sting . . . (fam. Vejoviide) 6

At base of last tarsal joint only one spur, which i is on the outer side ;

sometimes a hump under the sting . . . (fam. FE 4

A hump under the sting

No hump under sting; TNR ERE deed PERRERA on anterior

margin, cauda small, claws large, color dark

isthacanthus elatus Gerv. (S. Fla.)

Comb with six to eight teeth. . Diplocentrus lesueuri Gerv. (Fla.)

Comb with twelve to fifteen teet

Diplocentrus whitei Gerv. (Tex., Cal.)

Central area of each comb divided into at least eight small pieces 8

Central area of each comb divided at most into six small pieces 7

Movable finger with at least five small teeth, sting of $ as usual

Uroctonus mordax Th. (West Coast)

Movable finger with at most three small teeth, sting of ¢ swollen at

Uroctonus phaiodactylus Wood. (Cal., Utah)

ase

: Pénullimate teu joint of three front legs with long hairs on back; a

strong tooth near the under edge of the movable mandibular fin-

ger; very large and hairy

Hadrurus hirsutus Wood. (Southwest)

No hairs on back of these tarsal joints, no tooth near tip of under edge

of movable mandibular finger, smaller species . . . (Vejovis) 9

. Hand with distinct ridges or keels, more or less granulate . . to

Hand smaller, without keels, the corners rounded and smooth . 12

On the underside of the first caudal segment the median keels are dis-

tinct and sharp, although fine, the sting is very slender and long

Vejovis punctipalpi Wood. (N. Mex., Nev.)

On the underside of the first caudal segment there are no median keels

or extremely indistinct, the sting of ordinary length .

. Hand strongly keeled, no keels on hind tibiz, color yellowish or green-

. Vejovis boreus Gir. (Neb. to Idaho, Utah, and Nev.)

Hand bh hatoi keeled, hind tibiæ with very plain keels, color uni-

form reddish-brown, legs paler . Vejovis mexicanus Koch (Tex.)

On under side of first caudal segment the median keels are plain, but

—

Vri

—

a”

—

-—

.401.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 425

not indicated by black lines, hand very slender, the fingers longer

than in Vejovis spinigerus, color uniform yellowis

Vejovis flavus Bks. (N. Mex.)

On underside of first caudal (à no median keels, or at most only

indicated by blacklines .

. 13

. Underside of cauda not very dni the kets all Indicsthd by black

lines, palpi usually yellowish

Vejovis spinigerus Wood. (Tex., Ariz., Cal.)

Underside of cauda, with the whole of dorsum and the palpi dark red-

dish-brown ; no black lines indicating the keels on cauda, smaller

than the preceding. . . Vejovis carolinus Koch (S. C. to Tex.)

A tarsal spur at end of the first tarsal er of legs 3 and 4

(fam. Buthide)

Pale ; no spine under sting, teeth on finger of palpus in many oblique

rows, with stouter teeth at end of each and to one side; thirty to

thirty-five teeth in combs, under keels of last caudal segment very

strongly toothed . . . Uroplectes mexicanus Bks. (Tex., Cal.)

No tarsal spur at apex of first tarsal joints, usually a spine under the

stin 4 fam. Centrurid@) 15

. The oblique rows or ih: on de finger o of paps have on each side a

parallel row of minute teeth . . (Centrurus) 17

No parallel rows each side j so 0

The ends of the oblique rows of an olan a distinct spine

under sting, id to twenty-two teeth in comb, color dark red

brown . Tityus floridanus Bks. (S. Fla.)

The ends of the rows ae maai but often connected in one direct

line, cauda and palpi very long and slender

Isometrus maculatus De Geer (S. Fla.)

No spine.under the sting, cauda very long and slender

Centrurus exilicauda Wood. (Cal.)

At least a small spine or tubercle under the sting, cauda less slender 18

Body vittate with black and yellow 3 i ce: 24

Body nearly uniform reddish-brown or : blackish

: 19

- Body a rig ITEE cephalothorax very ees aiti lBirongir

granulat : . . Centrurus nigrescens Pock (Tex.)

Body reddish « or yellowish dius au 20

Fingers paler than hand, yellowish, adrei din veð d spine under

sting often small and blunt Centrurus eri pines Gerv. ios

Fingers usually darker than han

- Color yellowish-brown, combs with shy more + thant tventydoar ih

spine under sting not very prominent

Centrurus testaceus De Geer (S. Fla.)

Color reddish-brown, combs with usually more than twenty-five teeth,

spine under s well — usually much larger than the pre-

ceding. <P ae . 4. Centrurus gracilis Gerv. (Fla.)

426 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

22. A small pale median spot on the anterior border of the cephalothorax,

legs pale yellow, cauda pale

Centrurus carolinianus Beauv. (S. States)

No such median spot on anterior margin of the cephalothorax, legs

marmorate with brown, cauda brown, dark stripes on cephalothorax,

broader than in preceding — . . . Centrurus Aentzi Bks. (Fla.)

SOLPUGIDA.

These curióus arachnids are strongly separated from all

other groups by various characters. There isa pair of thoracic

stigmata; the cephalothorax is divided into three parts, the pos-

terior two not covered with a chitinous shield; the mandibles

Fic. 4.— Eremobates. a, coxal appendages.

are very large and porrect ; the hind coxze bear several T-shaped

appendages; the hind trochanters are bisegmented ; the coxa

are approximate, so that there is no sternum, The body is not

depressed in the slightest —a rare character in the other Arthro-

gastra (except Phalangida).

The species live in wild desert, often sandy, regions, and wan-

der chiefly at night. Our genera and species may be tabulated

as below.

. Anterior margin of the cephalothorax rounded, sloping each side

i; mmotrecha) 9 1

Anterior margin truncate... , s ..... . (Eremobates) 2 ?

. Movable finger of $ mandibles with two large subequal teeth with den-

üee between them ee x 3

Movable finger with but one large tooth, others much smaller . 4

Some short conical spines under tibia of the palpus in both sexes

Eremobates sulbhurea Sim. (Colo., N. Mex.)

No such spines under tibia in either sex

Eremobates formicaria Koch (N. Mex.)

1 Ammotrecha, ».#. for Cleobis Simon (1879), not Dana ( 1847).

2 Eremobates, #.”. for Datames Simon (1879), not Stal (1875).

vri

.401.] NORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 427

Movable finger of $ mandibles constricted from below near apical third

remobates californica Sim (Ariz., Cal.)

Movable finger not constricted from below

The movable finger near apical fourth is pelddenly —" iois abies,

very large species . . . Eremobates cinerea Putn. (Ariz.)

The movable finger, if carbene from above, it is much before the

apical fourth . . ; 6

. Only slender hairs on inner cdd of pow sid tibia of 3 p Md

Eremobates pallipes Say (Kan., Tex., Colo., Wy.)

Spine-like bristles on inner side of femur and tibia of ĝ palpus 7

Upper finger stouter than usual, narrowed near tip, a small tooth near

middle of movable finger, tips of palpi black

remobates magna Hanc. (Tex., Ariz.)

Upper finger slender throughout, no tooth near middle of movable

finger ; Sas 8

. Small conical spines on underside of tibia of 4 palpus

Eremobates formidabilis Sim. (Cal, Ariz.)

No such spines on tibia of $ palpus

Eremobates putnami Bks. (Cal.)

Lower finger of mandibles finely, but distinctly, denticulate beyond

large teeth ; a broad dark band on middle of metatarsus of palpus

Ammotrecha californica Bks. (Cal.)

Lower finger not denticulate

- Upper finger with a very plain Ads above at bai tos herb are

several small teeth followed by three large subequal teeth

Ammotrecha peninsulana Bks. (Ariz.)

Upper finger with less distinct ridge, below there are two large teeth, a

small one, then a large one . . Ammotrecha cube Lucas (Fla.)

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The Natural History of the Musical Bow. — Mr. Henry Balfour,

the distinguished curator of the Pitt-Rivers Museum at Oxford, has

recently published a monograph of eighty-seven pages, with many

illustrations, upon the Musical Bow. The archer’s bow is regarded

as the prototype of a large series of stringed instruments of music.

Though some writers consider the bow as the origin of all stringed

instruments, Balfour believes that we must refer back to a plurality

of ancestors for this class of instruments. Three stages are observ-

able in the transition from the archer’s bow, pure and simple, to the

bow adapted specially for the production of musical sounds.

1. The archer’s bow is temporarily converted into a musical in-

strument at the present day by the tribes of southwest Africa —

the Damaras, Mandingos, Kaffirs, etc.

2. The second stage is represented by those monochord instru-

ments that are practically bows and nothing more, but which are

made for musical purposes alone. These are found in the Niger

and Benue river regions, in the Kamerun, Lower Guinea, and Fer-

nando Po countries.

3. The third stage is that in which a resonator is attached more

or less permanently to the bow. To this class belong a large num-

ber of African instruments covering a wide area, chiefly south of

the equator, and principally associated with people of the wide-

spread Bantu stock.

Mr. Balfour is * convinced that nothing of the nature of a musical :

bow is represented ” by the figure in the Mexican codex, which Mr.

Saville identified as a musical instrument used by the ancient Mexi-

cans. The author believes that the custom of using the musical

bow in America was introduced from Africa. The accompanying

map shows that the instrument is used in Patagonia, Bahia, Surinam,

Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies in the New World.

It is not found outside of India and Japan in Asia. In Europe the

bow has been the legendary prototype of musical instruments in

Greece and Rome. It is not found in Australia. ER

429

430 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (Vor. XXXIV.

In à

Report of the United States National Museum, 1897.

monograph of 282 pages Mr. Joseph D. McGuire describes “ Ameri-

can aboriginal pipes and smoking customs." Two hundred and

thirty-nine figures in the text and four plates illustrate the various

types of pipes and their distribution over the American continent.

The custom of smoking prevailed in the New World for centuries

before the arrival of the whites. The pipes used were of an endless

variety of substances, shaped in as many forms as there were mate-

rials. The straight tube was the most primitive form and was the

only one common to the whole continent. Mr. McGuire's conclusions

are too extended for presentation in a brief review, yet it is worthy

of note that he regards many types as modern — produced subse-

quent to the time of the discovery. For example, * The disk pipe,

usually found in the states of Illinois, Missouri, and Kentucky, with

specimens from Ontario, are of mound type, though their outline is

so similar to the jew's-harp as to raise suspicion that such an in-

strument furnished the model for the pipe." “ The Iroquoian pipes

found along the river St. Lawrence and in the neighborhood of the

Great Lakes may be said to vary one from the other more than

pipes found in the eastern United States. . . . These pipes

with but slight doubt show that their period is subsequent to the

arrival of the French.” “The form called the Delaware pipe

appears to be of totemic character, is carved with considerable

skill, and impresses one as being of recent origin, and made with

modern metal tools." Even the skillfully shaped mound pipes are

believed to have been made with metal tools obtained from the

early French traders and voyageurs.

“Te Pito Te Henua, known as Rapa Nui: commonly called

Easter Island, South Pacific Ocean," is the title of a belated

article by Geo. H. Cooke, surgeon, U. S. N. The island lies 2.100

west of the South American coast and 1.100 east of Pitcairn Island,

the nearest inhabited land. In 1:886 the population had been re-

duced from several thousand to 155 natives. The mental and

physical characters of the people are described, a vocabulary of

three pages is furnished, and some account is given of their villages

and habitations. "The remarkable ruins of the island were reported

upon by W. J. Thomson, U. S. N., in the U. S. National Museum

Report for 1889. Dr. Cooke alludes to the belief among the pres-

ent inhabitants that their own ancestors carved the megalithic

monuments,

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 431

“The Man's Knife among the North American Indians — a study

in the collections of the U. S. National Museum " — is a paper of eight-

een pages by Professor O. T. Mason, and supplements that pub-

lished in 1890 upon * The Ulu, or Woman's Knife.” The knives

used by the men of the American race may be classified in three

groups : the curved knife, straight blade, and a metal blade per-

forming the function of a burin. With the introduction of iron the

arts of the peoples using the curved knife were greatly improved.

This is especially noticeable in the Northwest, where the carving

of the older period with beaver-tooth or shark-tooth knives was of

an inferior kind.

* Arrow Points, Spearheads, and Knives of Prehistoric Times," a

profusely illustrated paper of 188 pages, by Dr. Thomas Wilson,

. concludes the volume. After dealing with the spears and harpoons

of the paleolithic period, the origin, invention, and evolution of the

bow and arrow, and superstitions concerning arrow points and other

prehistoric stones in the opening chapters, Dr. Wilson describes the

flint mines and quarries in western Europe and in the United States.

From the quarry at Spiennes, Belgium, flint implements have been

distributed over southern Belgium and northeastern France. Fifteen

neolithic stations, extending over forty-five communes, have been

found, all in direct relation with Spiennes, creating a network of

roads which have remained in use until modern times.

At Grand Pressigny the débris of the flint quarries still en-

cumbers the ground for miles around. It is of a peculiar yellow or

waxen color, and hence can be easily traced through northern,

western, and central France, and even into some of the lake dwell-

ings of Switzerland. At Mur-de-Barrez, France, shafts and galleries

were dug in the search for the best flint. Perhaps the best known

quarry is that at Brandon, England, which covers twenty acres and

consists of shafts or pits partly filled, dispersed over the surface,

sometimes so close together as to break into one another.

The best known flint quarry in the United States is at Flint

Ridge, Licking County, Ohio. The ridge is about eight miles in

length east and west, and two and one-half north and, south. The

flint is not in nodules, but in a continuous stratum from three or

four to seven feet thick. The worked area is about two miles square

and is covered with soil to a depth of four to ten feet.

The composition and structure of the materials employed in the

manufacture of arrow points and spearheads are illustrated in repro-

432 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ductions from microscopic sections. ‘These weapons are then clas-

sified in several groups, according to their shape. Dr. Wilson

believes many of the * humpbacks " were not rejects, as has been

supposed, but that they were intentionally chipped into this form to

be used as knives. Again, many of the implements having the form

of arrow and spear points were intended to be used as knives.

F. R.

The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1897-98 con-

tains a vast amount of information relating to educational interests

in America and in foreign countries. A chapter is devoted to edu-

cation in Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines. Besides the edu-

cation of the older civilized countries, that of Australia, Tasmania,

and New Zealand, of India and various South American republics,

is considered. Of special interest to anthropologists is the chapter

upon psycho-physical and anthropometrical instruments of precision

in the laboratory of the Bureau of Education. Many of the ninety-

two illustrations represent new pieces of apparatus. Dr. Arthur

MacDonald contributes an exhaustive experimental study of Wash-

ington school children (pp. 989-1140). ‘The investigation included

a special study of 1.074 children and the anthropometrical measure-

ment of 16.473 white and 5.457 colored children. His conclusions

as to the children specially studied were :

1. * Dolichocephaly, or long-headedness, increases in children as

ability decreases. A high percentage of dolichocephaly seems to be

a concomitant of mental dullness.

2. Children are more sensitive to locality and heat on the skin

before puberty than after.

3. Boys are less sensitive to locality and more sensitive to heat

than girls. ,

4. Children of the non-laboring classes are more sensitive to

locality and heat than children of the laboring classes.

5. Colored children are much more sensitive to heat than white

children. This probably means that their power of discrimination

is much better, and not that they suffer more from heat."

In Dr. MacDonald's conclusions from study of the larger series of

children we find the surprising statement that “in colored children

brightness increases with age — the reverse of what is true in white

children."

An educational directory concludes Part I of Vol. I. F. R.

No.401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 433

Notes. — The Smithsonian Institution has issued a reprint, in a

single pamphlet, of two papers by Professor Otis T. Mason that were

published in the Smithsonian Reports for 1876 and 1884: * The

Latimer Collection of Antiquities from Porto Rico in the National

Museum,” and * The Guesde Collection of Antiquities in Point-à-

Pitre, Guadeloupe, West Indies.”

In his preface to the reprint Professor Mason states that con-

siderable literature has accumulated relating to the Greater and

Lesser Antilles since the first publication of the papers. The num-

ber of collars known now amounts to one hundred, the number of

zemes has been also greatly increased. The Guesde collection is

easily identified with the Carib work of the continent of South

America, The preface concludes with a list of publications relating

to West Indian antiquities which contains thirteen titles.

In the Proceedings of the Linnean Societies of New South Wales

Mr. R. Etheridge, curator of the Australian Museum, describes the

spear becket of New Caledonia. The beckets in the Australian

Museum are from six to thirteen inches long and are of plaited cord,

with an “eye” at one end and an “ overhand " knot, or a “ grum-

met head,” at the other. The cord is a square or flat sinnet made

from tightly twisted rush or grass, or a less tightly twisted beaten-

bark string. Labillardiere is quoted as authority for the statement

that the beckets of New Caledonians were of cocoanut fibre and

fish skin at the beginning of this century. Twelve beckets are

figured in the five accompanying plates.

Mr. Etheridge describes also the “ widow’s cap” worn during the

period of mourning by Australian women. It is of gypsum plaster,

two or three inches in thickness, and varying in weight from four to

fourteen pounds.

Mr. W. R. Harper gives an account of the exploration of aborigi- -

nal rock shelters at Port Hacking, Australia. Human skeletons

and objects made by man were found. Two of the three shelters

mentioned contained impressions of hands in red and black pigment.

The Annual Report of the director of the Field Columbian

Museum for 1898-99 contains a number of valuable plates, a half

dozen of which are of anthropologic interest. The list of accessions

to the department of anthropology includes several groups of figures

illustrating aboriginal industries and customs.

Dr. Ales Hrdlitka presented before the annual meeting of the

American Medico-Psychological Association, 1899, the results of his

434 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

examination of the brain of an adult male Eskimo, a member of the

party of six brought to New York in 1896 by Lieutenant Peary. In

size and complexity of conformation the cerebrum indicated a degree

of development equal to that of the average white person. The parts

of the encephalon did not have the relative proportions that exist in

the white brain. The frontal lobes were about equal in size to

those of whites, while the portions posterior to the fissure of Rolando

were considerably larger. The paper is illustrated by seven excel-

lent plates.

In a reprint from the Archives of Neurology and Psychopathology,

Vol. I, No. 4, 1898, we find a discussion by Dr. Hrdlicka of the

* Dimensions of the Normal Pituitary Fossa, or Sella Turcica, in the

White and Negro Races, an anatomical study of fifty-seven normal

skulls of white and sixteen normal skulls of colored individuals.”

Since marked enlargements of the pituitary body are of a pathogenic

nature, it is considered desirable to determine the normal dimensions

and the range of variation in its size. This can best be accom-

plished by measuring the pituitary fossa. The length, width, and

depth of the fossa were measured, and a module derived similar

to the skull module of Schmidt. The relation to the total size of

the skull was obtained by multiplying this module by 1000 and

dividing the result by the circumference of the skull, expressed in

centimeters. F OR.

GENERAL BIOLOGY.

Protoplasmic Streamings. — Martin Heidenhain! adds some very

interesting observations to our knowledge of the remarkable phe-

nomena of currents seen in so many vegetable cells. In the elon-

gated cells of the hairs in the flowers of the pumpkin he studied

especially the movements of the granules. In favorable specimens

there are apparent gliding movements of the granules, even when

the protoplasm seems quiet. Frequently, however, the protoplasm

is actively moving in masses, producing those constant changes in

the form and arrangement of the strands that join the central,

nucleated region with the protoplasm lining the cell wall, that have

been described by other observers. But even when there is, appar-

ently, eee rest of the protoplasm, the granules may move

1 Einiges über die sogenannten Protoplasma-Strómungen, Sitz.-Ber. Phys-Med.

Gesell. omen 1898.

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 435

along as if carried by a current; that they are not in a current of

protoplasm seems demonstrated, the author thinks, by the fact that

granules pass in different directions close to one another, and one

may even advance against the “stream” or crowd of others going

in an opposite direction. "These same facts strengthen the author's

belief that protoplasm is not a liquid.

The author explains these apparently automatic movements of the

granules (and of the chlorophyll bodies) as due to contractility, not

resident in the granule but in the adjacent protoplasm. He adopts

the inotogmata hypothesis of Engelmann, and conceives fibrils made

of living particles emporarily joined. Along those transitory fibrils

waves of contraction proceed, and thus the adjacent, inert, dead

granules are, in some way, forced along. The granules are moved

along in temporary routes made by the contractile fibrils.

The basis for the assumption of such hypothetical fibrils is: (1)

the existence of visible fibrils, (2) certain changes in optical value,

and (3) waves of contraction seen under the microscope. The

author agrees with Biitschli that the structure of the protoplasm in

these cells is that of a foam; he sees striations and cross-connections

in masses where shape and arrangement change in such wise that

the existence of a foam seems to underlie the above appearances.

But in the structure lines, lamellae he thinks them, he also sees

long and short fibrils which are sometimes stationary, sometimes

moving along like granules. These curious fibrils are soft and easily

break up; they are, he maintains, in the walls of the alveoli, that is,

between the vesicles of the foam structure. He supposes these

fibrils are the remnants, or ruins, of hypothetical contractile lines of

protoplasm which are no longer functional.

The changes in optical value spoken of are passages from bright

to dark which are seen in the lamellae, and interpreted as being

coexistent with changes in the contractile material.

The waves of contraction seen are bendings in the ww straight

lamella, or striations.

Whatever the nature of these remarkable cecal vaciar fibrils, their

existence harmonizes the divergent views of Flemming and of

Bütschli to the extent that a foam structure is found with actual

fibrils between the alveoli; in this and in several other points the

author's observations confirm some of the facts recorded for various

animal cells by G. F. Andrews! and open a most suggestive field of

research upon oft-tried material. E. A. A

1 The Living Substance. Boston, Ginn & Company, 1897.

436 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

ZOÓLOGY.

A New Practical Zoülogy.'— A new elementary text-book of

practical zoólogy on the lines already made familiar by Huxley and

Martin's E/ementary Biology has been published under the joint

authorship of the late T. J. Parker and W. N. Parker. The student

finds an introduction to the principles of zoólogy through a study of

the frog, which occupies somewhat more than a third of the volume.

Then follow chapters on the amceba, hamatococcus, infusorians,

hydra, earthworm, crayfish, fresh-water mussel, amphioxus, dogfish,

and rabbit. Many of these chapters include discussions of general

zoological problems especially well illustrated by the particular

animal under consideration; thus, under Infusoria, biogenesis and

abiogenesis are discussed, and under Hydra and its allies, alternation

of generations. "The book is concluded with a chapter on the struc-

ture of the cell and its róle in development, as illustrated by verte-

brate embryology. There are numerous good illustrations, and the

practical directions are such asare of real value. The volume forms

an important contribution to the list of laboratory text-books. P.

Gogorza's List of the Vertebrate Animals of the Philippines.

In the Annals of the Natural History Society of Madrid for 1888,

José Gogorza y Gonzalez gives under the title of “Datos para la

Fauna Filipina,” a list of the vertebrate animals known from these

islands. The list is based largely on the collections in the museum

at Madrid, the collections of numerous Spanish engineers and explor-

ers, notably Francisco Martinez, Carlos de Mazarredo, José Pérez

Maeso, Domingo Sánchez, and Regino Garcia.

Thirty-five species of mammals are recorded: 156 of birds, 87 of

reptiles, ro of amphibians, and 292 of fishes. No new species are

described in any group. The nomenclature of the fishes is not very

modern, being apparently based solely on Giinther’s Catalogue of the

Fishes of the British Museum. There is, however, evidence that the

work has been conscientiously performed. All the species mentioned

are ascribed to a definite locality, a fact which indicates that the

paper is not at all a compilation, and that the collection on which it

is based is a very rich one, though doubtless not including more than

a third of the fishes actually visiting these islands. Ds

1 Parker, T. J., and Parker, W. N. An Elementary Course of Practical Zöol-

ogy. xii + 608 pp., 156 illustrations. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1900.

No.4o01.]] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 437

Lungless Salamanders. — In the Zoologischer Anzeiger, Dr. Einar

Lönnberg, of Upsala, has an interesting list. of salamanders which

have the lung rudimentary or wanting. The catalogue includes the

results of his own work and that of Harris Wilder, Camerano, and

Moore.

Salamanders may in this regard be divided into three classes : (1)

those in which the lungs extend to the groin and are about 60 per

cent of the length of the body. ‘To this class belong certain Asiatic

species of Diemictylus (Molge); (2) those in which the lungs

extend only halfway from the axil to the groin, measuring 38-45

per cent of the length of the animal. To this class belong other

species of Diemictylus, species of Salamandrella, Ranideus, and,

among American species, Ambystoma punctatum and A. microstomum.

Apparently the American species of Diemictylus (viridescens, toro-

sus) have not been studied; (3) those without lungs or with merely

a rudiment. In this class, among American species, belong the fol-

lowing : Ambystoma opacum (rudiment), Aneideslug ubris, Plethodon

cinercus, P. glutinosus, Spelerpes porphyriticus, S. ruber, S. longicauda,

S. guttolineatus, S. bilineatus, Manculus quadridigitatus, Desmognathus

Juscum, D.brimlcyorum, D.nigrum, and D.achropheum. Other species

of Spelerpes, with Leurognathus and Batrachoseps, are known to

belong to this category, which probably includes all Plethodontide

and Desmognathida.

* Camerano has rightly pointed out the importance of the lungs as

a hydrostatic organ, and it seems quite possible that the great length

of the lungs in many forms is an adaptation to aquaticlife. But the

lungless salamanders are not necessarily obliged to lead a terrestrial

life, even if many of them do so; on the contrary, some of them are

very positively aquatic in their habits." Such do not, however, as is

the case with Diemictylus, remain suspended in the water, but crawl

or wriggle at the bottom. "m RT

The Egg of the Hagfish. — In the Proceedings of the Natural

History Society of Copenhagen, Adolt Severin Jensen has a valuable

account of the egg o; the hagfish (Myxine glutinosa), entitled “Om

Slimaalens Æg.”

The egg of this singular creature was first described in 1859 by

Allen Thompson. It has been noticed a few times since then,

mostly from specimens taken in the stomachs of other fishes, but

most who have written on the animal and its biology have never

found a perfect egg.

: 438 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The conclusion of Mr. Jensen's observations is that the hagfish

fastens its egg by wiry, hair-like appendages to objects on the sea

bottom. These appendages are fastened to either pole of the egg,

which is oval in form. Jensen figures a dead stalk of Cellepora, to

which four eggs are attached.. He gives also several figures of the

sucker-like anchors (“ thread cells," or “ spider cells "), each with two

to four lobes in which the hairs which hold the egg terminate.

A species of hagfish (Zo/istotrema stouti), rather distantly related

to Myxine, occurs on the Pacific coast, and is abundant in the Bay

of Monterey, where various features of its structure have been studied

by several workers in the Hopkins Seaside Laboratory, notably by

Dr. G. C. Price, Dr. F. M. McFarland, Dr. C. W. Greene, Dr. Bash-

ford Dean, Dr. Franz Dóflein, and Dr. Howard Ayers. For a long

time the egg of this species was unknown. At last the Chinese

fishermen began to bring them in, saying that they got them by press-

ing the bodies of the females. Many of them were half decomposed

when received. Later Dr. Dean and Dr. McFarland discovered that

these eggs were not taken from the females at all, but from the

stomachs of the males, which accounts for their half-digested condi-

tion. Nearly all the eggs of hagfish thus far found at Monterey are

from the stomachs of male fishes.

Dr. Dean figures one individual in which the clumps of wiry fila-

ments which hold the egg are caught in the encasing slime of an

adult animal. ‘The investigations of Mr. Jensen indicate that these

eggs should be sought on the sea bottom attached to bryozoa or alge.

Mr. Jensen notes that the Atlantic hagfish has no larval or Ammo-

coetes stage, such as the lamprey passes through, the young, of six

centimeters, being similar to the grown fish. In this respect the

California hagfish agrees with Myxine. DE E

Waite's Fishes of the Thetis Expedition. — In the Memoirs of

the Australian Museum, Mr. Edgar R. Waite gives an account of the

fishes taken by the trawling expedition of H. M. S.-C. Zhetis, Capt.

C. P. Hildebrand, in the waters about Port Jackson. The collection

obtained, of which a brief preliminary report has been already pub-

lished, is a very interesting one, and the paper is one of the most

valuable contributions yet made to the natural history of Australia.

The excellent plates are to be especially commended.

One hundred and seven species were obtained by the Thetis, nine

of which are new. These are: Dasyatis thetidis, Chimera orgilbyt,

Anthias pulchellus, Monacanthus setosus, Sebastes (rather Sebastodes)

No.4o01.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 439

thetidis, Lepidotrigla modesta, Parapercis ocularis, Histiopterus farnelli,

and Paralichthys tenuirastrum. A new name, var. elevatus, is pro-

posed for the Australian representative of Macrorhamphosus scolopax.

Two new genera, Paratrachichtys (trailli) and Pterygotrigla (polyom-

mata, in place of Hoplonotus, preoccupied), are defined.

_ Perhaps the most interesting of the new forms is Sebastodes thetidis.

That genus, now known to be represented by about fifty species off

the coast of California and a dozen more in Japan, and a few off

Chili, has its range thus extended southward to Australia. The new

species is one of the extremes of the type, somewhat allied to S. nigro-

cinctus, but still more spinous about the head. In the present sys-

tem it would be the type of a distinct subgenus, or possibly genus,

standing at the very opposite extreme of the series from Sebastodes

paucispinis, the original type of the genus.

The nomenclature and sequence adopted by Mr. Waite are thor-

oughly modern and in accordance with the law of priority. We may

perhaps question the identity of the Australian horse mackerel with

Sarda chilensis of Chili, or of the kingfish with Lenola /a/audi of

Brazil. 'These identifications have been accepted by authors, the

present writer among the number, but it seems better not to regard

à species as cosmopolitan until actual comparison has shown it to

be so. In most cases of this kind comparison of adequate material

will show specific difference.

It is to be hoped that this very acceptable piece of work will be

followed by many others until the natural history of Australia is

thoroughly known. D. $ J.

Smitt on Lycodes. — In Annals and Magazine of Natural History,

Professor F. A. Smitt, of Stockholm, has a brief review of the spe-

cies of Lycodes of the North Atlantic. He maintains that all speci-

mens known to him are referable to four species. Zycodes reticulatus,

vahlii, sarsii, and muræna. Lycodes perspicillum (L. rossii), he thinks,

is the young of Z. reticulatus, which is probably correct. Zycodes

rigidus is a “ mixture of sterile or deformed specimens” of vahlii

and reticulatus. Zycodes gracilis is a northern variety of Z. vahiii,

with the head shorter (less than 22 per cent of total length ; more

than 22 per cent in typical vahlii). He suggests that Lycodes

murcna is probably “a local or evolutional form of Zycodes sarsii.”

But that is about all that one could claim for any of the species in a

group like Lycodes, in which the species are all closely related and

vary much with conditions.

440 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The characters of position of lateral line and numbers of pectoral

rays used by Jordan and Evermann as a clue in this group are not

noted by Dr. Smitt. DS F

Abbott on Chilean Fishes. — Mr. James F. Abbott, a graduate

student of Stanford University, now teacher in a Japanese academy

at Otsu, gives in the Proceedings of the Academy at Philadelphia

notes on fishes collected at Valparaiso by Rear-Admiral Beardslee,

U. S. N. Among these is a species of Hippoglossina macrops, which

was originally, perhaps, incorrectly recorded as from Mazatlan. There

is also a new species of Sebastodes, allied to S. oculatus and S. dar-

wini, To this Abbott gives the name of Sebastodes jenynsi.

Moreno on the Olfactory Nerves of Fishes. — In the Annals of

the Natural History Society of Madrid, José Madrid Moreno gives an

account of his studies of the olfactory nerves of fishes carried on in

the laboratory at Naples. The anatomy of these nerves and their

terminations is described in species of Scylliorhinus, Catulus, Scor-

pzna, Raja, Pagellus, and Serranus. D Sy

California Water Birds — No. IV (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Zoöl.,

Vol. II, No. 3, 1900). — Mr. Leverett M. Loomis gives us the latest

results of his studies on the migration of sea birds on the western

coast of North America. The bulk of the paper consists of a

detailed record of observations made at Monterey Bay and vicinity

from Sept. 18, 1896, to Nov. 14 of the same year; but the portion

of most interest, at least to the general zoólogist, is the discussion

of the data obtained, and the conclusions drawn.

The following extracts will indicate not merely the results arrived

at by the author, but as well the scope of his studies in this difficult

but fascinating field; for the evidence on which the conclusions

rest, the paper itself must be consulted.

“ These investigations seem to prove (1) that the Shearwaters off

Monterey find their position and shape their course by the land-

marks ; (2) that birds do not possess a mysterious superhuman

faculty for determining direction, 7 the Shearwaters would not

have been bewildered in the fo

“ It seems reasonable to conclude that young birds in the journey

from their birthplace to the winter home of the species are depend-

ent upon the guidance of the old birds who know the way, because

they have traveled it.”

No. 401.) REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 441

*'To sum up the whole matter in a single sentence: It is held

that bird migration is a habit evolved by education and inheritance

which owe their origin and perpetuation to winter with its failure of

food." W. E. R.

Ovogenesis in Tunicates. — Dr. F. W. Bancroft has published

(Bulletin of the Mus. of Comp. Zoól., Vol. XXXV, No. 4, 1899) an

extended account of his studies on the ovogenesis of Distaplia

occidentalis.

In general, the development of the gonads and their ducts re-

sembles that found in Perephora, Clavelina, and Ciona.

The most significant difference consists in the fact that the funda-

ment of the ovotestis is present in the youngest stages in Distaplia,

whereas in the other species it appears quite late in ontogeny.

To the question which type of ovary is more primitive, that

represented by Clavelina, where there are two separate germinative

epithelia, or that found in Distaplia with but a single such epithe-

lium, the author is inclined to give the distinction to the Distaplia

type, since here it occurs in a smaller and simpler species, and is

itself simpler.

Dr. Bancroft goes at length into the question of the origin and

fate of the test cells, discussing the whole matter in the light of the

more recent statements by Davidoff and Salensky, based on their

observations on Distaplia magnilarva. He does not confirm the

results of these authors, and as his studies pertained to a species

very closely related to the one studied by them; and, furthermore,

as he had the opportunity, through the great courtesy of Professor

Salensky, to examine slides of D. magnilarva, it would seem that his

critical findings should be conclusive on this much discussed problem.

The function of these cells, the author believes, is to furnish

.nutriment to the growing ovum. He concludes that they are par-

ticularly active in this capacity in the early stages of the growth of

the ovum, while the nucleus exerts its principal activity in the later

stages in converting this nutritive material into yolk.

The germinative vesicle diminishes in size gradually and continu-

ously with the increase in quantity of yolk in the ovum. Wir

Reproduction of Amæba. — In addition to the common and recur-

ring bipartite division of Amada proteus, Scheel’ has described a

1 Scheel, C. Beitráge zur Fortpflanzung der Ameeben, Festschrift zum sieben-

sigsten Geburtstag von Carl von Kupffer, pp. 569-580, Pl. LI. Jena, 1899.

442 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

method of sporulation, or multiple reproduction, which takes place

within a cyst formed by the animal itself. This cyst is thick-walled,

spherical, and transparent, and, although without stalk or adhesive

organ of any sort, it regularly sticks fast to small objects in the

water, being found singly or in groups on sticks or stones. The

series of changes were not observed in full, but the nucleus of

the amoeba is reduced by a series of direct divisions into a large

number of daughter-nuclei. When this number has reached some

five or six hundred the body of the amceba divides into as many

independent daughter-individuals, and these are set free by the grad-

ual decay and bursting of the cyst wall A flagellate stage does

not occur in Ameba proteus, but the spores enter directly upon the

amceboid condition.

'The causes of the multiple division in the encysted condition were

not determined. The process is not related to sexual reproduction

and apparently does not occur at regular intervals. Experiments

by starvation, excess of food, evaporation of the water, and by trans-

ferring the animals to water from other localities, z.e., by changed

conditions of existence to bring the amcebas to encystment and

sporulation, were uniformly without success. H. B. W.

Arctic Deep-Sea Fauna. — One of the most important results of

recent Arctic exploration is the discovery of a true deep-sea fauna.

An address delivered recently to the German Zoólogical Society by

Dr. Schaudinn,* on the expedition made in 1898 by Drs. F. Schau-

dinn and F. Roemer to Spitzbergen, contains a preliminary report on

this fauna.

This expedition set out to make collections in the Spitzbergen

Sea, and successfully tried to reach the deep Arctic basin discovered

by Nansen. This deep, called by Schaudinn the * Nansen Rinne,”

was reached north of Spitzbergen in 81° 32', and a number of deep-

sea dredgings were made. A true deep-sea fauna was discovered

entirely different from the Arctic fauna of the shallow sea surround-

ing Spitzbergen (and from the other Arctic faunas hitherto known).

Its most striking feature is the presence of an abundance of Hexac-

tinellid sponges, a group never found previously in the Arctic regions,

all of them belonging to new genera. These sponges are so plenti-

ful that their remains form a very characteristic deposit on the bot-

tom, composed of the spicules- of the dead sponges closely connected

and densely interwoven, so as to form a fine network, the meshes of

1 Schaudinn, F. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Gesellsch. (1899), pp. 227 ff.

No.401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 443

which are filled with mud ; after washing out the mud, about one-

third of the volume remains as a glittering mass (** Glaswolle ").

A detailed report on the peculiarities of this deep-sea fauna will

be given in a separate work entitled Fauna Arctica, and will be, no

doubt, one of the most interesting additions to our knowledge of the

Arctic faunas. A. EO.

Arctic Marine Animals. — The material collected by the Prince-

ton Expedition to North Greenland in 1899 has been sorted out, and

part of it has been identified. It proves to be the largest collection

of Arctic marine life ever made in the neighborhood of Inglefield

Gulf and Smith Sound. Of the animals reported by former expedi-

tions (Hayes, Nares, Peary Expedition of 1894), nearly every species

is represented in the collection, while many additional species were

taken which have not yet been recorded from these parts.

The chief value of this collection lies on the zoógeographical side,

adding new localities to the known range of Arctic forms from parts

hitherto almost unknown. These localities, situated so far north

(76—79^), will be very valuable in the construction of a connection

between many species now known from the Atlantic and Pacific

parts of the Arctic seas. Some species seem to be truly circumpolar

in distribution, while in others the connection seems to be inter-

rupted. For the establishment of such cases an investigation of the

fauna of this region as well as that of the northern coast of Siberia

is necessary, and the collections of the Princeton Expedition to

North Greenland, when published, will, in this respect, add consider-

ably to our knowledge. A. E. O.

Notes. — Dr. Thiele reports in Fauna Arctica a new solenogaster,

Proneomenia thulensis, found by the German Arctic Expedition of

1898. It is characterized by a radula with many small teeth and

by a multifid receptaculum.

In the Munich Sitzungsberichte Mr. A. M. Przesmycki reports his

success in staining the nucleus of living Opalina and Nyctotherus

with neutral red. The chromatin elements show the deeper color,

and the phases of nuclear division may be watched in the living

organism,

Text-books of zoólogy have made the statement that the mouth in

the Infusoria is formed by the simple division of the parental organ.

In the Heidelberg Verhandlungen Dr. A. Schuberg describes the

origin of the peristomal region of Euplotes patella as a series of

444 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

extensive and complicated growth processes in which no simple

plane of division can be recognized.

An interesting prorhynchid turbellarian from deep wells in New

Zealand has been described by Haswell (Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci.,

Vol. XL, pp. 631-645, Pl. XLVIII). It is most closely related to

the Prorhynchida and not to the Alloioccela, as at first believed.

The complicated pharynx, the lateral vitello-germarium, and the

unpaired lateral testis are among the important peculiar structural

features of this form which the author includes provisionally in the

genus Prorhynchus.

In an extended study of the morphology and physiology of EugZena

gracilis, Zumstein (Inaugural-Dissert, Basel, 1899) shows that this

species does not manifest anything of an animal method of life. Its

nutrition may be purely holophytic, purely saprophytic, or both com-

bined, but thrives best under the latter. The colorless variety of the

species may be transformed into the green, or vice versa, with corre-

sponding change in manner of nutrition.

The frequency of trematodes has been studied by Hausmann

(Centralbl. f. Bakt. u. Par., I. Abth., Bd. XXVI, pp. 447-453) in

birds from Baden and the vicinity of Basel. The percentage of

infection found was, Grallatores 29, Raptatores 26, Natatores 25,

Corvidz 24, which is from three to six times as de as numbers

previously listed from birds.

Number IX of the third volume of the American Journal of Physi-

ology contains the following articles: *On the Reactions of Chilo-

monas to Organic Acids,” by H. S. Jennings; “Notes on the

Individual Psychophysiology of the Crayfish,” by G. V. N. Dearborn ;

* On the Artificial Production of Normal Larva from the Unfertilized

Egg of the Sea Urchin," by J. Loeb ; and **On the Maximum Pro-

duction of Hippuric Acid in Rabbits," by W. H. Parker and G.

Lusk.

In a reply (Archiv f. die ges. Physiologie, Bd. LXXIX, 1900) to a

criticism of his paper on the psychic qualities of ants and bees, Albert

Bethe tells us that the chief error in his work is that he did not

distinguish clearly enough between objective expression and sub-

jective “ Empfindung” in our own psychological processes. He

says that he agrees with Uexküll that the question concerning the

Psyche of animals does not belong to the realm of exact science,

and he declares that he is ever willing to discuss the question

No. 40o1.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 445

whether or no ants and bees have the power to purposefully modify

their acts (Modifications vermögen besitzen), and whether a * Rema-

nenz” of a stimulus is possible in them. But whether they possess

a psychical quality or not, he will not discuss, since the objective

expressions of animals and the causes of these are all that legiti-

mately belong to biological research. W. E. R.

A supplementary part has been issued to Vol. XV of the Journal

of Morphology and contains the following articles: * On Protoplasmic

Structure in the Eggs of Echinoderms and some other Animals," by

E. B. Wilson; * Studies upon the Early History of the Ascidian Egg,"

by H. E. Crampton ; * The Spermatogenesis of Amphiuma,” by J. H.

McGregor; “ The Calciferous Glands of the Earthworm, with Appen-

dix on the Circulation," by N. R. Harrington; “ The Changes in the

Structure of the Pancreas Cell," by A. Mathews; and * The Sper-

matogenesis of Anasa tristis," by F. C. Paulmier. The supplement

has a paging of its own, but is unaccompanied by a table of:contents

or title page.

BOTANY.

Phenological Observations in Canada.— Mr. A. H. Mackay!

gives an account of some interesting phenological observations made

in Canada during the seven years 1892 to 1898. This was one of

the lines of work undertaken by the Botanical Club of Canada, and

from nine to nineteen reports were received each year, giving more

or less completely the time of the appearance of leaves, flowers,

and fruits and the migration of birds. The author calls attention

to the many difficulties of obtaining complete and accurate records ;

for example, the more rare species may easily escape notice until

they have been in flower for some time. Again, some individual

plants are earlier than others in the same locality, and in the same

individuals certain branches are earlier than others, hence the records

were made to include “first appearance " and ** becoming common.”

A phenological date is defined as *a sort of mathematical function

of variables," which is influenced by variations in temperature, of

atmospheric pressure, sunshine, precipitation, together with the local

constants, latitude, elevation, slope, proximity of bodies of water,

and character of soil. The rapidity with which a season advances,

1 Canadian Record of Science, vol. viii, pp. 71-84, 1900.

446 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

therefore, is governed “ by the varying balance of the meteorological

conditions affecting the organisms." A table is given of twenty

objects most commonly observed, showing the average date for each

of the seven years. From these the normal date or phenochron of

each species is computed, together with the phenological norm or

phenochron of the entire list for each year. Other tables are given

of objects selected from different counties and provinces. If ob-

servers are symmetrically placed over a county, are competent and

careful, and put the same interpretation on what constitutes “first

appearance” and “becoming common,” the averages would give

phenological norms for the comparison of a very important character

of the country with that of another, and more especially the compari-

son of one season with another in the same country, which, after a

series of years, would contribute to the solution of the problem of

secular variation of climate.

In 1897 the idea was extensively taken up in the schools of Nova

Scotia as a part of the prescribed course in nature study, the pupils

themselves making the observations under the guidance of the

teachers. Hundreds of reports were sent in from as many school

districts. It is believed to be a convenient means for the stimulation

of pupils in observing all natural phenomena while going to and

from school. H C lum

King's Irrigation and Drainage. — The high standard of excel-

lence already established in the Rural Science Series under the

editorship of Professor L. H. Bailey is fully maintained in the latest

volume,’ Although this volume is quite complete in itself, it may be

regarded, in a way, as supplementary to Professor King's work on

soils, with which the series began. Like that, the present work is

addressed primarily to practical farmers and agricultural students, but

at the same time it contains much of value to all interested in the

nutrition of plants. :

In an introduction of sixty-five pages the author discusses with

considerable fullness the importance of water to the plant, and

details some noteworthy experiments carried on by him at the Uni-

versity of Wisconsin to determine the quantity of water used by

cultivated plants in coming to perfection under ordinary field con-

ditions. The data thus obtained for various crops figure in impor-

! King, F. H. 7rrigation and Drainage: principles and practice of their cul-

tured phases. New York, The Macmillan Company, 1899. 12mo, xxii+ 502 pp»

163 illustrations.

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 447

tant ways throughout the book. Part I, on Irrigation Culture,

opens with an account, historically developed, of The Extent and

Geographical Range of Irrigation. Then follow chapters on The

Conditions which make Irrigation Imperative, Desirable or Un-

necessary, The Extent to which Tillage may take the Place of Irri-

gation, and The Increase of Yield due to Irrigation in Humid

Climates ; then several chapters regarding the practical manage-

ment of water under various conditions, and finally a chapter on

Sewage Irrigation. Part II deals with the principles and practice

of Farm Drainage.

In almost every chapter one finds an immense amount of infor-

mation clearly displayed in tabular form and often representing the

results of the author’s experimental contributions to the subject.

Then, too, one gains confidence in the author’s general statements

from the evident fact that they are based upon wide personal obser-

vation of irrigation and drainage practice, both in this country and

in Europe. The author champions no pet theory; he lets facts

speak for themselves and lead the way to broad principles of prac-

tical value.

The illustrations, largely reproductions from photographs, are, for

the most part, of unusual excellence, and so reproduced as to show

clearly the features intended to be seen. RLS

Trimen’s Flora of Ceylon.' — Seven years ago, Professor Trimen,

then director of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Ceylon, began the

publication of a manual of the plants of that important island, which

has now been brought to a conclusion in the fifth * part," or volume.

The author lived to bring out only the first three volumes, and the

other two have been seen through the press by Sir Joseph Hooker.

To the concluding volume are appended a key to the orders, genera,

and aberrant species of Ceylon flowering plants, with diagnostic

characters of the orders; a chapter on the forests and waste lands of

Ceylon, by A. F. Broun; a chapter on the distribution of the rain-

fall in Ceylon, by F. Lewis; a history of Ceylon botany, by G. S.

Boulger; a table of corrections; and comprehensive indices to the

entire work. T.

14 Hand-Book to the Flora of Ceylon. Containing descriptions of all the

Species of flowering plants indigenous to the island, and notes on their history,

distribution, and uses. By Henry Trimen. Continued by Sir J. D. Hooker.

London, Dulau & Co., 1893-1900. 5 vols., 8vo.

448 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Nuclear Phenomena in Ustilagineze. — Contributions such as Pro-

fessor Harper presents! have been few, but are much needed to

explain this class of plants. He studied, in particular, the germina-

tion, growth, divisions, and fusions of Ustilago antherarum and U.

Scabiose. He finds that in fusions of conidia, which are apparently

caused by chemotactic stimuli, no nuclear changes take place, yet

the cytoplasmic union of the cells causes them to increase in size,

and gives them power to resist unfavorable conditions. It may be

a primitive or degenerate sexual union. J. B. S. NORTON.

Cell Division in Sporangia and Asci.?— Dr. Harper has contrib-

uted another very valuable investigation upon the morphology of the

structures named. Among the Phycomycetes he has studied spore

formation in sporangia of Synchitrium, Pilobolus, and Sporodinia,

and for comparison, ascospore formation in Lachnea scutellata among

the Ascomycetes, in which he was able to find stages undiscernible

in his previous work on Peziza and Erysiphe.

In Synchitrium he regards the uninucleated cell as the vegetative

body of the plant, the supervening multinucleate condition consti-

tuting, in his view, a sporangium rather than a thallus body. Cleav-

age by invagination of the plasma membrane follows this multinu-

cleation, the contents of the “ sporangium ” being segmented, from

without inward, into irregular plasma masses containing numerous

nuclei. This cleavage resembles what is seen in some insect eggs.

The segmentation of the protoplasm does not occur by repeated

bipartitions or by the formation of walls, simultaneously, about the

several nuclei. Orientation with respect to the nuclei is not evident

at first, but becomes apparent later, in the final subdivision of the

contents of the sporangium into uninucleate plasma segments. A

shrinkage then occurs, followed by increase in size of these “ proto-

spores” and the subsequent repeated division of their single nuclei,

to form from eight to twelve or more in a single “ protospore.” The

number of them is not definite as in the ascus, but seems to depend, |

according to Harper, on the individual conditions of nutrition in the .

different * protospores.”

Substantially the same cleavage process of spore formation was

observed in three species of Pilobolus and in Sporodinia. There is

nothing in the process of spore formation described in the Phycomy-

1 Harper, R.C. Nuclear Phenomena in Certain Stages in the Development

of the Smuts, 7rans. Wis. Acad. Sci; vol. xii, pp. 475-498, Pls. VIII, IX. Octo-

ber, 1899. 2 R. A. Harper, in Annals of Botany, December, 1899.

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 449

cetes which at all resembles the free cell formation in the ascus,

where the spores are cut out of the ascus plasm by the revolution

of the aster rays. In the Phycomycetes we have isolation of the

*protospores" by successive irregular segmentations, not simulta-

neous, but progressive. ‘This progressive segmentation has no

parallel in the asci, where from the start a single nucleus forms the

center for the formation of each daughter-cell”’ (p. 517). Harper

finds it possible to connect the cleavage processes of the Phycomy-

cetes with other cases of division by constriction, as in cell division

in Cladophora, or in the abstriction of conidia in Erysiphe, as

described by him, but he finds no connecting link between this

general process of spore delimitation and free cell formation in the

ascus. This stands as opposed to the older view of Brefeld that

the ascus merely represents an evolution out of the ancestral sporan-

gium, from an indefinite to a definite number of spores of definite

size and form. Moreover, in the origin and character of the “ epi-

plasm," regarded as a distinctive feature of the ascus, and that of

the * episporal slime " of the sporangium, Harper finds no connection

whatever. A possible origin of the processes seen in the ascus is

suggested tentatively in such phenomena as Strasburger described

(Zellbildung und Zelltheilung) for swarm-spore formation in CEdogo-

nium. This, however, the author has not as yet been able to confirm

by personal investigation.

The general conclusion is that the Ascomycetes cannot have

arisen from the Phycomycetes, — the ascus seems to stand by itself

as a peculiar structure, whose origin is at present in obscurity, — and,

finally, the author's researches, together with those of Thaxter on

the Laboulbeniacez, seem to point very strongly to a multiple algal

origin of the fungi and the subsequent independent evolution of

certain forms of spore production by different groups.

H. F. ROBERTS.

Notes. — The Cactaceæ of the Galapagos Islands are passed in

review, by Dr. Albert Weber, in the Buletin of the Paris Museum

for 1899, and four species are recognized, of which two, pertaining

to the genus Cereus, are characterized as new, while the other two,

belonging to the genus Opuntia, were described and named in 1898.

. Purpus, of the Darmstadt Botanical Garden, publishes an

article on North American cacti which have proved hardy in Germany,

in Die Gartenwelt of January 7. Several reproductions from photo-

graphs represent the species referred to.

450 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

Dr. Schumann contributes an article on the art of collecting cacti

to the Votizb/att of the Berlin Botanical Garden of December 29.

Parsonsia paddisoni, a new apocynaceous plant yielding large

edible tubers, is described by R. T. Baker in No. 95 of the Proceed-

ings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales, which contains

several other papers of botanical interest.

The botany of New Zealand receives fourteen contributions,

covering various groups of flowering plants and cryptogams, and

abundantly illustrated, in the twenty-third volume of the Zyansactions

and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, the frontispiece for

which is a portrait of the veteran botanist Colenso.

A study of the seed dispersal of Pinus sylvestris and Betula alba,

the results of which are published by Robert Smith in the Annals

of Scottish Natural History for January, shows that the seeds of the

former have been effectively carried by the wind to a distance of

886 yards, and of the latter to a distance of 489 yards, from the

parent trees,

The most imposing brochure of the first volume of the Proceedings

of the Washington Academy of Sciences, the publication of which has

just been concluded, and the form, typography, illustration, and

make-up of which constitute a model worthy of the study of all

publishing bodies, is devoted to a description of a new genus and

twenty new species of fossil cycadean trunks from the Jurassic of

Wyoming, by Professor Lester F. Ward.

The geographical distribution of Solanum carolinense, Tribulus

terrestris, and 7: maximus, is discussed by Pammel in Bulletin No. 42

of the Iowa Agricultural College.

The lime content of the soil, which plays an important róle in the

growth of certain plants, has been carefully worked out about

Cognac by Guillon, whose results, with especial reference to viticul-

ture, are given in the Revue de Viticulture for January 6, with the aid

of a colored map. :

The * Report on the Progress of Pharmacy," in the Proceedings

of the American Pharmaceutical Association for 1899, contains a large

amount of information, tabulated by plant families, which is not

likely to be found so readily elsewhere by botanical students.

. The results of all available American chemical analyses of nuts,

and a discussion of the value of nuts as food for man, are contained

in Bulletin No. 54 of the Maine Agricultural Experiment Station.

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 451

Farmers’ Bulletin No. rog of the Department of Agriculture at

Washington deals with saltbushes, — plants adapted to salt or alkaline

regions, — and is written by Dr. P. B. Kennedy.

The Bulletin de Herbier Boissier, under the editorial care of M.

Autran, curator of the herbarium which was founded by Boissier and

is maintained near Geneva by M. Barbey, suspends publication on the

conclusion of Vol. VII. It is to be continued by a series of octavo

Mémoires, the first of which, a continuation of Professor Schinz's

* Pflanzenwelt Deutsch-Südwest-Afrikas," was issued on Jan. 15,

1900.

An interesting account of the one-time London Botanic Garden,

established by Salisbury in 1807, and the later history of which

seems to have passed into oblivion, is given by W. Roberts in the

Gardeners’ Chronicle of February 3.

The Gardeners’ Chronicle of February 24 contains a figure of the

monument to David Douglas in the parish churchyard at Scone and

a transcript of the inscription which it bears, as well as a portrait

and short biographical sketch of this interesting man, of whom it

has been said that no other collector has ever reaped such a harvest

in America, or associated his name with so many useful plants, and

that nobody, not even Fortune, has conferred so much honor on the

Royal Horticultural Society, and so much benefit to horticulture in

general as regards the importation of plants.

A good portrait of Professor A. S. Hitchcock, who is this year

Director (or President) of the Académie Internationale de Géo-

graphie Botanique, is issued with the March Buletin of that organi-

zation.

The first fascicle of Vol. XVII of Za Cellule has as frontispiece a

portrait of the late Professor J. B. Carnoy, and contains the address

delivered at his funeral by Dean Gilson of the University of Louvain.

Portraits of the Tulasne brothers form the frontispiece to Vol.

XVI of the Bulletin of the Société Mycologique de France.

Dr. Willis, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Peredeniya,

Ceylon, calls attention to the new research station of that important

establishment, in the Botanical Gazette for March. The facilities of

the garden are freely offered to competent investigators.

The March number of the Journal of the New York Botanical

Garden contains an interesting account of the herbarium of the New

York Garden and of its new home.

452 IHE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The genus: Crategus receives a further accession of eleven new

species. for the Eastern States in a contribution by W. W. Ashe to

the Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society, published in

February. .

The results of an sucer study by Hosen of abrine, the

highly toxic albuminoid of Abrus precatorius, are published in the

current volume of Za Cellule.

Cereus mojavensis, one of our interesting desert cacti, is figured in

the Botanical Magazine for March.

A revision of the species of Plantago commonly referred to P.

Patagonica, by Bek. Morris, appears in the Bulletin of the Torrey

Botanical Club for March, and apparently contains the results of

careful study.

The North-American species of Chatochloa are revised by Scrib-

ner and Merrill in Bulletin No. 2r of the Division of dens: of

the United States Department of Agriculture. .

In a note in the Journal of Botany for February, Dr. Masters

states that while the Glyftostrobus pendulus of English gardens is

merely a variety of Zaxodium distichum, there is a true Glyptostrobus,

which, while in garden specimens that have not yet reached the

fruiting age cannot be separated from Taxodium, is yet amply dis-

tinct when fruiting, in its elongated (not peltate), cone-scaled and

evidently winged seeds.

A supposed bigeneric hybrid between Cystopteris Jragilis and

Asplenium Trichomanes is described from the Jura by Parmentier in

the Bulletin de / Adimi Intérmationaie de Grape Botanique for

February. ~

A catalogue of the flora of Montana and the Yellowstone National

Park, by Dr. Rydberg, constitutes the first volume of the Memoirs

of the New York Botanical Garden — a volume of nearly 500 pages,

issued i in February, 1900.

An analytical list of the plants of Rovereto i is published by Pro-

fessor Stefani in Vol. V of the Atti della I. R. Accademia . ,.. degli

Agiati, and should be of use to visitors to the region of the Adriatic.

A botanical bibliography of the Argentine Republic is reprinted

by F. Kurtz from Vol. XVI of the Boletin de la Academia Nacional

de Ciencias de Córdoba.

No.401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 453

Among the applications of photography now being presented in

The Process Photogram of London, that of recording tree forms, in

the March number, is of interest to botanists, since, as the editor

says, it is truly “a very difficult task to give a photographic account

of a tree."

PETROGRAPHY.

The Petrographical Province of Essex County, Mass. — A very

careful and critical study of the igneous rocks of Essex County, Mass.,

is given us by Washington! in a recent series of papers in the

Journal of Geology. The district ‘is characterized as one of rocks

which are more acid or more basic than normal, high in alkalis,

with Na,O predominating over K,O, high in iron oxides, especially

FeO, rather high in Al,O;, and low in MgO and CaO.” The rock

types recognized are granites, quartz-syenites, diorites, essexites,

gabbros, rhyolites, and the dike rocks, aplite, microgranite, diabase,

paisanite, and camptonites. The essexites embrace also pulaskites

and litchfieldites, characterized by the presence of albite, aes

egirite, and alkaline amphiboles.

All these rocks are regarded as differential phases of a laccolitic

mass, with a composition approximating that of an acid diorite.

The first differentiation of this magma is thought to have given

rise to the granites, syenites, diorites, and the granito-diorite dikes,

and a further local differentiation of the basic forms to foyaites,

essexites, and paisanite-tinguaite dikes.

Each of the rock types occurring in the district is carefully described,

and of each a chemical analysis is given. The work is thorough.

As the result of the paper, Essex County becomes one of the best

known petrographical provinces in the country.

he two most interesting dike rocks? of the district are a glauco-

phane-sólvsbergite containing cordierite, and an analcite-tinguaite.

Analyses of these two rocks follow:

SiO. TiO, AlO, Fe,0, FeO MgO CaO NaO K,O H,O P,O; Ign.

64-38 o 15.97 2.91 3.18 o .85 7.28 | 5.07 08 ee

56.75 JO »*éj 330 "(59 ud — 4) :d4$ 490. C049 3. wi 99.92

Nepheline-Syenites. — The corundum-bearing nepheline-syenites

of Ontario are of such economic interest that the Canadian official

V dots: of Geol., vol. vi, p. 787, uin in vii, pp. 53, 105, 284, and 465.

. er. Journ. Sci., vol. vi, 1898, p

454 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. |. [Vor. XXXIV.

geologists have recently carefully examined them. Coleman ! describes

an exposure on the New York branch of Madawaska River, in Dun-

gannon township, as a light and gray banded rock cut by a pegma-

tite dike composed of large crystals of nepheline and muscovite.

In the syenite are nepheline, albite, oligoclase, labradorite, orthoclase

microcline-biotite, scapolite, calcite, muscovite, and occasionally

augite and apatite. Corundum is also present, as small grains and

large crystals usually associated with muscovite. Specimens obtained

from exposures in other portions of Dungannon and neighboring

townships present variations from the rock referred to above, but

they are not of special significance.

In one case, however, a medium-grained white rock from Methuen,

Peterboro County, consists essentially of a plagioclase, more acid than

the plagioclase of the anorthosites.

The corundum in these rocks is thought to represent the excess of

A10; that existed in a magma supersaturated with alumina, but not

saturated with silica.

Miller? outlines the situation of three belts of the corundiferous

rocks. These rocks, like those referred to by Coleman, are syenites,

nepheline-syenites, and an anorthosite. The last-named rock was

analyzed, with this result : :

SiO, AlO; FeO; FeO CaO MO NaO KO CO, Tot.

26.24 29.85 1.30 2.12 16.24 2.41 1.98 MT 1.00 = 101.35

Its feldspar has the formula Ab,, Any, ze, it is a bytownite. The

rock is from the Seine River.

Another occurrence of nepheline syenite in New Jersey is added

by Ransome ° to those already known in the State. The rock forms a

portion of the trap mass of Mt. Gilboa, near Brookville, which is

intrusive in Triassic beds. The constituents of the syenite are:

orthoclase, anorthoclase, and other feldspars, nepheline, hornblende,

sgirine, biotite, cancrinite, muscovite, analcite, natrolite, apatite,

fluorite, and calcite, the last six named, with the exception of apatite,

being secondary. An analysis gave:

SiO, TiO, Al,O; Fe,0, FeO CaO BaO MgO K,O Na,O H,O F

54.68 -79 21.63 2.22 2.00 2. 105 A 4.58 7.03 2.15 .22

SOs, P405 Total Less O —F

07 .28 99.81 — .09 = 99.72-

1 Journ. of Geol., vol. vii, 1899, p. 437.

2 Amer. Geol., vol. xxiv, 1899, p. 276. -

3 Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. viii, p. 417.

No. 401.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 455

With this syenite are also associated a biotite and a hornblende-

syenite and a hornblende-granite. The major portion of the trap

mass is a fine-grained hypersthene-gabbro. The relation of the

syenites to the trap could not be discovered.

Notes. — The granite-gneiss near Middletown, on the Connecticut

River, is, according to Westgate,’ an igneous rock. The rock is a

biotite gneiss, often containing eyes of feldspar consisting of cores

of single orthoclase crystals enclosing grains of other feldspars, and

sometimes surrounded by peripheral zones of a granular feldspar.

A second series of analyses of Italian volcanic rocks is presented

by Washington. Among them is an analysis of ciminite from La

Colonetta, on the south slope of Monte Cimino; one of the “ mica-

trachyte," or selagite, from Monte Catini, Tuscany ; one of an ande-

site from Radicofani, Tuscany, and one of the well-known leucitite of

Capo di Bove. The analyses of the ciminite (I), the selagite (II),

and the leucitite (III), follow:

SiO; TiO, AlO; FeO FeO MgO CaO BaO NaO K,O H,O Tot.

57.31 40 14.71 I.21 4-37 7:80 6.90 1.35 6.38 .18 = 100.61

56.39 2.07 - 1488. 336 354. 7:83 4.06 L30. 784 1.33 = 9960

45-99 +37 17.12 4.17 5.38 5.30 10.47 .25 2.18 8.97 .45 = 100.65

The ciminite analysis differs from the original analysis of Washing-

ton's type rock in showing less Al;O; and more MgO. The difference

in the two analyses i is explained as due to incomplete separation of

the two oxides in the earlier analysis. The selagite appears to be

a minette-like form of ciminite, differing from the latter in possessing

biotite in place of olivine and orthoclase.

An excellent description of the titaniferous iron ores of the Adi-

rondacks appears from the pen of J. F. Kemp.’ The ores are shown

to contain small quantities of hypérsthene, augite, plagioclase, and

many of the other constituents of gabbros. From their close asso-

ciation with rocks of this class, the author regards the ores as dif-

ferentiation products of their magmas, in the same way that the

titaniferous ores of Minnesota, of Sweden and Norway, and of other

places are believed to be varietal phases of a similar magma. Inci-

dentally, the paper describes a few gabbros and anorthosites from

near Lake Sandford, in Newcomb township.

1 oe of Geol., vol. vii, 1899, p. es

mer. Journ. Sci., vol. ix, 1900, p. 4

Seeds Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. fp Pt. in, p. 377.

PUBLICATIONS RECEIVED.

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BENNETT, J. H. HOBART. Genesis of Worlds. Springfield, Ill., 1900. xvi,

45 pp. AAA alis . Untersuchungen über Mikrostrukturen des

erstarrten Schwefels nebst Bemerku ungen über chi éco und

Uebersáttigung des Schwefels und einiger anderer Kórper. Lei ipzig, W. Engel-

O. viii ; «50. —

Morris, CHARLES. Man and His Aor. A Study in Evolution. New York,

The Macmillan Company, 1900. 238 pp. $1.25. — NEWBIGIN, MARION L.

Color in Nature. A Study in Biology. London, John Murray, 1898. xii, 344

pp. A cag aa Ris — "imn of the Crustacea of Norway. Vol. iii,

Pt. i-iv. Bergen — WAGNER, ADOLF eber M Problem der “ ange-

borenen s apriorichen] Sariei, ” Berlin, 1900 7 — ZITTEL, KARL

ook of Palæontology. Vol. i. Translated d. edited by Charles R.

bs oU Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1900. viii, 706 pp., 1476 illustrations.

we FRANK M. iot eos ed of Wave-Formed I at ey Apos

Amer. Geol. 1900. 192—194. — DEARBORN, ie

Notes the A yeda of the Crayfis h Am a F

Phys. iii, No. 9.— KINGSLEY, J. S. The Ossicula adina Tufts

pins id Studies. b y February, 1900. — ROBERTSON, CHARLES. ite Towi and

p. 1 hee — WAITE, EDGAR

Scenic i Results of the ‘Trawling "Expediiol of EM S. Thetis. Mem. IV

Australia poria 128 pp:, 31 pls., chart. i ASI .L. Present

Condition. of th n Oyster Experiment and s Native Oyster Industry.

| Report of the Pes Oron] Biologist. dicen Ore. 13 pp.

Biological Society of Washington. Piccoli. - Vol. xiii, pp. 123-135. — Bul-

letin of the Johns MEME pr fec Vol. xi, No. 108. March, 1900. x7 a

Columbian | esei a ed i Director for rS.

"var rm Nos rch and April Illinois State

aboratory of Natural History Ballot ta. v, Aade 10.— The = t Worl

Vol. iv, Nos. 2 and 3. February and March.— /nternational Mon ol.

No. March.— Massachusetts Agricultural College. Thirty- Seventh A

Report. 1900. 228 pp.— Modern Medicine. Vol Nos

Novitates. 1900. "Now 1-4.— Ontario [resp UR. "Sei "Thirtieth ‘Annual

Report. Toronto, 1900. 127 pp.— Revista Chilena de Historia Natura

iv, No. 2. — Revista di Scienze Biologische. Ano ii, Nos. 1, 2. — Sociedad Cini.

Memorias y Revista. Tomo xiv, Nos. 1-4 (1899-1900). — Science Gossip. Vol. vi,

os. 6, r States Department of Agriculture. Division of aromia

Bulletin 22. — ington Academy of Sciences. Nol. ii, pp. 1-40. — Washington

presina of Science. Proceedings. Vol. ii, pp. 31-40. March, 1900. — Wisconsin

Natura Vol vi No. 1. January, 1900.— Wyoming Experiment Station.

Bulletin p

(Number goo was mailed April 27.)

456

GRAND WORK ON CONCHOLOGY

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ntinué par le Dr. P. FISHER, Aide-? e au Museum d'Histoire

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VOL. XXXIV, No. 402” JUNE, 1900

FHE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

The Neurone Theory in the Light of Recent Discoveries

Professor G. H. PARKER 457

Variationin the Venation of Trimerotropis . Professor JEROME McNEIL 471

Notes on the Mammals of Prince Edward Island . ROBERT T. YOUNG 483

The Cactus Bees; Genus Lithurgus . Professor T. D. A. COOKERELL 487

The Advance of Biology in 1897 . . Professor C. B. Po pis 489

On the Interpretation of Unusual Events in Geologic Reco

Illustrated by Recent Examples Professor F. T SIMONDS 495

Synopses of North-American hinini X. The Oxyrhyn-

Oxystomatous Crabs of North America. MARY J. RATHBUN 503

Reviews of Recent Literature: Anthropology, The Races of Man — 521

Zoólogy, The White-Fish of Lake Chapala, Evermann on Species and 523

Subspecies, Smith on the Fishes of Woods Holl, Eigenmann on Blind

Vertebrates, Microbdella biannulata, Locomotion of Solen nomya, ze

Bones, Otocysts of the Heteropods, Capillaries and Sinusoids, Villi

the Mammalian Intestine, Notes

IX. News 529

X. Note on Cestode Nomenclature . : ; . Professor H. B. WARD 533

XI. Publications Received 534

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXXIV. June, 1900. No. 402.

THE NEURONE THEORY IN THE LIGHT OF

RECENT DISCOVERIES.!

G. H. PARKER.

THE nervous system differs from all other systems of organs

in that its cellular elements show the highest degree of differ-

entiation. Thus, in the digestive system, the destruction of a

few liver cells means only a minute diminution in the amount

of bile secreted, a loss that can be entirely replaced through

the slightly increased activity of the remaining cells; and in

the muscular system the removal of a few muscle fibres from

a given muscle may be made good physiologically by a minimal

increment of work from the remaining fibres; but the loss of

à few or even of a single sensory cell in the retina will produce

a blind spot in that organ which no amount of activity from

the adjoining cells, aside from possible regeneration, can ever

replace. Each sensory cell in the more efficient parts of the

retina has a. function dependent upon its position and, there-

fore, different from that of any neighboring cell; and, while

this may not be absolutely true of all parts of the nervous Sys-

1 A lecture delivered before the Section of Biology of the New York Academy

of Sciences, Jan. 29, 1900.

457

458 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

tem, it is vastly more characteristic of nervous structures than

of any other organs in the body. While in most systems dif-

` ferentiation may be said to have reached the gross organs, in

the nervous system it has extended beyond this to the cellular

elements. It follows, therefore, that to know the nervous sys-.

tem anatomically a study of its gross organs is not sufficient ;

we must know its cellular composition. Hence it is that our

more fundamental knowledge of the structure of nervous organs

is a product of the present century, the century of cellular

research.

Although the enunciation of the cell doctrine by Schwann

in 1839 was accompanied with a remarkably full description of

the cellular components of most animal tissues, including the

nervous, it was not until over half a century later that a con-

sistent cellular analysis of nervous organs was accomplished.

This was set forth in the conception of the neurone as ad-

vanced by the Berlin histologist and anatomist Waldeyer in

1891. The theory of the neurone can best be approached by

reviewing briefly the historical steps that lead up to it.

While it is possible that some of the earlier microscopists,

and particularly the Scotch anatomist Monro, were acquainted

with nerve fibres, the first unquestionable description of these

structures was given by Fontana (1781), and Stieda, who has

reviewed this subject with much care, justly designates this

Italian physician as the discoverer of nerve fibres. Fontana’s

discovery, which for some time failed of the recognition that it

deserved, was eventually confirmed by Treviranus (1816) and par-

ticularly by Ehrenberg (1833), whose studies showed that the

central nervous organs, as well as the peripheral nerves, were

composed of definite fibres. Fontana’s work may be regarded

as the first step in the modern portrayal of the finer anatomy

of nervous organs in that it is the earliest unquestionable

description of nerve fibres.

Ehrenberg in the narration of his discoveries not only

described and figured nerve fibres, but he also gave an account

of other microscopic bodies found in nervous organs, such as

crystals, blood corpuscles, and certain roundish bodies which

he called * Kugeln " and which subsequent investigators termed

No. 402.] THE NEURONE THEORY. 459

ganglion cells. In 1836 Valentine described these ganglion

cells with much care, and two years later Remak claimed that

in the sympathetic nervous organs of vertebrates ganglion cells

were directly connected with nerve fibres. This proposition

was supported and broadened by Helmholtz in 1842, who main-

tained that what Remak had claimed for the vertebrates was

also true for invertebrates. Seven years later, in 1849, Kol-

liker in the first volume of his newly established Zeitschrift für

wissensckaftliche Zoologie pointed out the inconclusiveness of

the observations of Remak and of Helmholtz. The fibres that

these authors had described as arising from ganglion cells were

marked in no way as indubitable nerve fibres. Doubtless they

were nerve fibres, but the histological knowledge of that day,

as Kolliker rightly maintained, did not preclude them from

being fibres of another kind. Kölliker then proceeded to show

that, in the central nervous organs of vertebrates, ganglion cells

could be found that were directly connected with fibres pos-

sessing medullary sheaths. As medullary sheaths are found

only on nerve fibres, it follows that Kolliker's demonstration

was the first in which it was shown beyond doubt that nerve

fibres are directly connected with ganglion cells. The connec-

tion thus demonstrated made it clear that from this time on

ganglion cells as well as nerve fibres must be reckoned as essen-

tial parts of nervous organs. This may be said to be the sec-

ond step in the development of our ideas on nervous tectonics.

The third step in this direction was taken by the histologist

Leydig, who, in describing the finer anatomy of the arthropods

in 1855, stated that the central nervous organs of the spider

contained, in addition to ganglion cells and nerve fibres, masses

of material composed of many very fine interlacing fibrils. The

minutely granular appearance of this material led Leydig to

call it * Punktsubstanz,”’ though he did not commit himself to

the idea that it was granular rather than finely fibrous. In

1872 Gerlach, by the use of gold chloride, discovered an essen-

tially similar material in the central nervous organs of verte-

brates, and, while he assumed for this material a network

structure rather than a simple interlacing of fibrils, the facts

that he had at hand were in reality much the same as Leydig

460 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

had previously presented. In both vertebrates and inverte-

brates it was early recognized that this finely fibrous material

was directly continuous with the living substance of both nerve

fibres and ganglion cells, and therefore formed an integral part

of the nervous organs. To this substance, whether it be from

vertebrates or invertebrates, His gave the convenient name of

* neuropile."

As no other material aside from the three his far Me

ered has been found to be necessarily connected with nervous

organs, we may regard such organs as made up of a combina-

tion of nerve fibres, ganglion, or, as they are often called, nerve

cells, and neuropile. The mutual relations of these three

materials must next be considered.

The problem of the relation of these nervous materials has

been discussed chiefly from the standpoint of the anatomical

origin of nerve fibres. When a nerve fibre is traced into a

central nervous organ, from what is it found to take its origin ?

Does it pass out from a ganglion cell, does it originate from

the neuropile, or does it come from some other source? This

is what is meant by the anatomical origin of nerve fibres, and,

on this question the earlier neurologists were divided into three

schools. First, there were investigators, like Buchholz, who

attempted to maintain that all nerve fibres arose directly from

ganglion cells. Next, there were those who, with Leydig at

their head, believed that nerve fibres were formed by a drawing

together of many fibrils in the neuropile, whereby the transmit-

ting core of a fibre was established. The advocates of this

view also believed that the fibrils of the neuropile were derived

from the finely divided processes of ganglion cells, and that,

therefore, nerve fibres were connected with gangliom cells

through the neuropile. Hence they rightly designated their

view as that of the indirect origin of nerve fibres as contrasted

with the origin of these structures directly from ganglion cells.

Finally there were those who, like Gerlach, maintained that

both methods of origin occurred, ż.e., that some fibres arose

directly from cells and others indirectly through the neuropile.

In support of this opinion Gerlach instanced the condition of

the spinal nerves in vertebrates (Fig. 1), in which the dorsal

No. 402.] ` THE ‘NEURONE. THEORY. ^" 461

fibres spring from the neuropile, Z.e., have an. indirect: origin,

and the ventral fibres arise directly from ganglion. cells in the

ventral horn of the cord. This example was practically conclu-

sive, and later neurologists have been generally free to admit

that nerve fibres differ as to their mode of origin, some coming

directly from cells, others indirectly, z.e., from the neuropile.

All-absorbing as many of the neurologists of the past found

this problem of the anatomical origin of nerve fibres, its. solu-

tion was followed by no important generalizations. This is

probably due to the fact that the views of both the principal

Fic. 2 Ideal. 1 £ Lia * 1 3:1 : L $ ward 1

of a ventral neurone. The d l begins in the integument (/), has its cell body

Situated in the d 1 lion ( t h dat the d lside(D). The ventral

neurone has its cell body. in the ventral part of the cord (V ) and is distributed peripher-

ally to muscle fibres (AZ). `

contending parties proved to be correct, and the whole conflict,

like the inconclusive battles of military history, was lost sight

of. But the mass of observations accumulated in the discus-

sion of the anatomical origin of nerve fibres was destined to

become a soil from which new growth was to spring. The

change that now came over this field of inquiry was in part due

to the invention of:two.new methods of research, Golgi’s silver

impregnation method and Ehrlich’s methylen-blue staining, and

in part to a new way of looking at old problems, which, though

vastly stimulated by the results obtained through the new.

methods, was in a measure independent of these. It is note-.

462 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

worthy that this new departure was initiated to a large extent

by one of the oldest working neurologists, Kólliker, who, in his

presidential address, delivered before the Anatomische Gesell-

schaft at Munich, in May, 1891, pointed out the relative unim-

portance of the problem of the anatomical origin of nerve

fibres and raised the really vital question, Is there any nerve

fibre not directly connected in some part of its course with

a ganglion cell? To this question Kölliker gave a negative

reply, and this reply has been confirmed by all subsequent

investigators. Every nerve fibre, be it of direct or of indirect

origin, is somewhere in its course directly connected with a

ganglion cell. In the vast majority of cases the fibres are

associated each with a single cell and no more; but in some

instances, as, for example, among the worms, fibres are known

to be directly connected with several cells.

Kolliker's generalization contains the germ of the neurone

theory and leads at once to the statement of that theory as

made by Waldeyer in an address before the Berliner medi-

cinische Gesellschaft in June, 1891. This may be stated as

follows : The nervous system is not correctly described as

composed of nerve fibres, ganglion cells, and neuropile, but it

is composed of nervous cells whose bodies we recognize as

ganglion cells and whose processes are the cores of the nerve

fibres and the neuropile directly connected with these cells.

The nervous system then is made up of units, each one of

which consists of a ganglion cell provided with longer or

shorter processes, the cores of the nerve fibres, and produ-

cing from its surface and from that of its fibres fine fibrils,

which collectively constitute its neuropile and which bring it

into physiological connection with other such units. To these

nervous units Waldeyer gave the name * neurones," and the

belief that neurones are the structural elements of the nervous

system constitutes the neurone theory.

It must be plain from what has been said that each neurone

is nothing more than a modified cell. It is characterized, as 4

rule, by the possession of only one nucleus, and its most obvi-

ous peculiarity is that its cytoplasm is in part drawn out into

very delicate and enormously elongated processes, the cores of

No. 402.] THE NEURONE THEORY. 463

the nerve fibres. If the neurone is only a cell, it should then

show the general properties of a cell, and it is from this stand-

point that the neurone theory has been most satisfactorily

tested. In this connection it is necessary to examine briefly

the development of nerves, the degeneration and regeneration

of nerves, and the nature of the neuropile.

The development of a nerve was early sketched by Remak

(1836) and by Schwann (1839) ; both maintained that each fibre

consisted of a series of cells fused end to end. This view was

accepted by many later investigators,

notably by the English embryologist

Balfour, who showed that in the elas-

mobranch fishes the nerve fibres were

early represented by lines of cells.

This hypothesis of the chain structure

of nerve fibres was not, however, with-

out its opponents. Von Kupffer seems

to have been the first to catch the idea

that at least the core or axis cylinder of pipi ET sa tieng pica

a nerve fibre was an outgrowth from — CPig Ta com ot aD Four

the ganglion cell. This view was sub- cells are shown in pro

sequently supported by others, especially ^ future nerve pora E nies

by His, whose brilliant investigations cells have extended beyond the

í limits of the cord; those of th

on the development of the nerves show two other cells still lie within

beyond a doubt that the axis cylinder .

is an outgrowth from a ganglion cell (Fig. 2). The forming

axis cylinders may become surrounded by cells that eventually

develop into the sheath cells of the fibre, and these undoubtedly

formed the lines of cells mistaken by many investigators for

developing nerve fibres. The resolution of a nerve fibre into a

chain of cells, as implied in Remak’s original description, is

entirely at variance with the neurone theory, but the establish-

ment of the idea that the essential part of every nerve fibre, the

axis cylinder, is an outgrowth of a ganglion cell is in perfect

accord with it. In the development of its parts, the neurone

acts asa single cell; its processes, the axis cylinders of the

nerve fibres, are its outgrowths.

The degeneration and regeneration of nerves also afford an

464 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

opportunity of testing the theory. It has long been known

that when a nerve is cut or a bundle of fibres in a central

organ injured, some fibres degenerate in one direction, some

in another. The question naturally arises, do these degenera-

tions take place in accordance with the assumed cellular nature

of the neurone?

Experiments upon large protozoans have shown that when

these unicellular animals are cut in two so that one part, which

may be the smaller, contains all the nucleus and the other is

without even a fragment of this organ, the part without the

nucleus invariably soon dies, while that. which retained the

nucleus may regenerate the lost part and continue to live.

The nucleus is in some way absolutely essential to the con-

tinued life of the cell.

The same is true of nerve fibres. If a nerve be cut, that

portion of each fibre which is thus severed from the nucleus-

bearing part, the so-called ganglion cell, invariably dies, even

though it remains among the tissues of the body and is bathed

in the fluids that are presumed to nourish it. This rule holds

for all the degenerations of the nervous organs; after sever-

ance the non-nucleated portions of the neurones degenerate

precisely as the non-nucleated portion of the protozoan body

degenerates. The degeneration of nerve fibres then takes

place in accordance with the conception of the neurone as a

single cell.

Precisely as the. nucleated portion of the divided protozoan

body continues to live and may regenerate its lost parts, so the

nucleated portion of the neurone remains alive, and, if the

injury has not been too severe, may reéstablish itself by throw-

ing out new axis cylinders from the cut end of the old one, and

thus new fibres may by growth reéstablish many of the former

connections. Regeneration in the neurone, as in the protozoan

cell, takes place from the nucleated part ; and this phenomenon,

as well as that of degeneration, points very clearly to the con-

clusion that the nucleus of the neurone, like that of any other

cell, is a center on which the life of even the most remote

portion of the cell is dependent.

This conclusion leads us directly to an important interpre-

No. 402.] THE NEURONE THEORY. 465

tation of the neuropile. If the nucleus of each neurone is a

center from which the life of the whole neurone is controlled,

then this contro] must extend, in the case of a given neurone,

over that portion of the neuropile associated with it; in other

words, the neuropile cannot be considered a diffuse network,

as claimed by Gerlach, but must be regarded as divided into.

provinces, each one of which is under the rule of the neurone

with which that particular part is associated (see Fig. 1). The

boundaries between these provinces must, then, mark the real

limits of the neurones, and that such boundaries actually exist,

at least in a physiological sense, is to be inferred from two

classes of observations. First, in the degeneration of the cen-

tral fibres of one of two intimately associated sets of neurones,

the degeneration proceeds into the neuropile but not across it,

showing that the separation of the neurones lies somewhere in

that material. Secondly, since the embryonic cells from which

neurones finally develop are in the beginning often widely sep-

arated from each other, it follows that their association must

be brought about by their gradual growing towards each other,

and, as their first step in union would be that of the simple

contact of their neuropile masses, it is possible that this rela-

tion is all that ever exists and that the points of separation in

the neuropile are the original contact points of the developing

neurones. For this ingenious suggestion we are indebted to

the Swiss neurologist Forel, who, with a keen appreciation of

the significance of the embryological investigations made by

His, has given us what has been called the Contact Theory

of the relation of neurones. This theory, which, when

coupled with du Bois-Reymond’s hypothesis of a neuropile

capable of movement, has been eagerly followed up by many

psychologists, is generally supposed to be an essential part of

the neurone theory itself; but, though it was undoubtedly so

regarded by its earlier advocates, it must be borne in mind

that it is in reality nota necessary part of this idea, which has

to do with the conception of the neurone unit asa cell rather

than with the mutual relations of such units.

The discussion has now led us to a position where a fairly

full statement of the grounds for the neurone theory may be

466 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

made. First, embryology has shown that the nervous system

in the beginning is a mass of essentially independent cells,

some of which by throwing out processes to form nerve fibres

and by other modifications become converted into specially dif-

ferentiated nervous cells, or neurones. Secondly, the cellular

character of each neurone is asserted in later life in that all

parts of the neurone remain dependent upon their connection

with the nucleus for continued existence and are independent

of adjoining neurones. This is seen in the peculiarities of the

degeneration and regeneration of nerve, operations that are

paralleled in experiments on protozoan cells.

Notwithstanding the obviousness of the cellular nature of

the neurone, it must not be forgotten that these cells are of a

very exceptional character. Imagine a cell whose nucleated

body, scarcely visible to the naked eye, is lodged in the spinal

cord of some such animal as an elephant, and whose process, in

the form of an axis cylinder as fine as gossamer, stretches from

this place through meters of flesh to the animal’s foot, and yet

the relation of the most distant part of this process to the cell

body is so subtile that, should the connection be anywhere sev-

ered, the degeneration of the disconnected part invariably fol-

lows. It is not strange that such cells as these were not

clearly understood by the earlier histologists, for even now

they may well excite our wonder.

The objections to the neurone theory are naturally of very

recent origin. One of the first to be raised was that of the

direct union of cell

bodies through their

coarser processes.

This was found by

Dogiel to occur in the

ganglionic layers of

the retina (Fig. 3)

F16. 3.— Two ganglion cells from the verte! inashowing and similar conditions

protoplasmi (slightly modified from Dogiel). vere recorded by

other investigators in various nervous organs; but these in-

stances have always proved exceptional, and, while it must be

admitted that nervous cells are sometimes united directly, such

y DE.

Wal

BSN

No. 402.] THE NEURONE THEORY. 467

cases seem to be relatively rare. So far as their bearing on

the neurone theory is concerned, I agree with Barker that they

form no greater objection to the general theory than the occur-

rence of Siamese twins does to the general idea that the human

species is represented by separate individuals. This form of

objection has certainly shown itself to be trivial.

A much more serious obstacle comes from the work associ-

ated with the name of Apáthy. This investigator has devel-

oped methods which in point of perfection exceed the Golgi

V m

Fic. 4. — Posterior view of a transverse section of the ventral nerve chain of a leech (modified

from Apáthy). The median plane of the leech is represented by D (dorsal), V (ventral).

the left side (Z), t p g y:

a sensory being rej lin solid black, and a motor one dotted. On the right

' Side (R) the nervous elements are represented according to Apathy. The neurofibrils

begin in or betw he i ithelial cells (E), fr hich they pass centrally

5 y ep (4), wW.

into sensory ganglion cells (S) or motor ganglion cells (Af). From the latter, coarse

neurofibrils pass peripherally to muscles. The neurofibrils are produced by nerve cells,

a nucleus of one of which is shown at JV.

and the methylen-blue methods as much as these surpassed the

ones before them. Apdthy’s methods do not outline neurones ;

they differentiate the transmitting substance within the neu-

rone. Instead of a coarse nerve fibre or ganglion cell colored

homogeneously, one finds a clearly differentiated system of

delicate fibrils that constitute collectively the transmitting

apparatus of the nervous organs. The peculiarities of Apá-

thy's methods can be easily appreciated by inspecting the

accompanying diagram (Fig. 4), taken from the nervous system

468 THE AMERICAN .NATURALIST. (VoL. XXXIV.

of the leech and outlined on the left side in accordance with

the older methods and on the right after Apathy. It: will

be seen at once that Apáthy's methods have to do with the

interior of neurones, whereas the older methods dealt with their

outlines only. When the fibrillz so clearly demonstrated by

Apathy are traced, they are found to begin in some cases possi-

bly between the external epithelial cells of the skin, in. most

cases certainly within these cells, around whose nuclei they

form a network, after which they extend as. bundles of fine

fibrils (sensory nerve fibres) to the central nervous organs.

Here they separate, and either enter into the formation of a true

network (in what has been called the neuropile) or pass at once

into a ganglion cell, in the substance of which they form a net-

work. Ganglion cells of this structure are supposed to be sen-

sory (Fig. 4, S). Motor ganglion cells (77) are also penetrated

by the fibrils from sense organs, which then form a branching

system just within the periphery of the cell. From this periph-

eral system (external plexus) branches extend inward to unite

around the nucleus in a second system (internal plexus), from

which a single large fibril emerges to make its way eventually as

the transmitting organ of a motor fibre to a muscle into whose

fibres it may enter after branching. These fibrils are the trans-

mitting organs of the nervous system and are called by Apáthy

* neuro-fibrils "; and what is most characteristic about them is

that, from their beginnings in or about the sensory cells to their

endings in the muscles, they are absolutely continuous; they

branch and recombine, but they never show lack of continuity ;

and this continuity of the fibrillar substance is the feature that

characterizes what has been called the fibrillar te

supposed opponent of the neurone theory. -

Apáthy's opposition to the neurone theory does not stop here:

for he has.a conception of the structure of the nervous system

quite at variance with the tenets of this theory. He holds that

the cells connected with) nervous operations are of two kinds,

which he calls nerve cells and ganglion cells. ; Nerve. cells are

those cells that produce fibrillar substance, and this substance

in its growth enters sensory cells, ganglion cells, muscle cells,

etc.; in short, it is the means of binding the whole nervous

No. 402.] THE NEURONE .THEORY. 469

system together: Ganglion cells are those cells that produce

what is transmitted by the fibrillar substance, namely, nervous

impulses. :

So far as I am aware, Apathy has never placed upon record

the observations that justify these distinctions, and, as criticism

and acceptance of his unsupported statements are equally pre-

mature, it seems to me that, till facts are presented, this side

of his work must be passed over. If this is done, the character

of the fibrillar substance is the only feature of Apáthy's work

that requires present consideration. The distribution of this*

substance is for the most part within neurones. Hence Apá-

thy’s discoveries have to do mostly with the internal anatomy

of the neurone, and from this standpoint they afford no ground

for attacking the neurone theory. In one respect, however,

they bear in an important way on this theory, namely, in the

structure they indicate for the neuropile. Is the neuropile a

continuous network made up of the anastomosés of neurofibrils,

as claimed by Apathy, or does it lack this continuity in that it

is composed of systems of branches derived each from a sepa-

rate neurone and related only through contact, as implied by

the neurone theory ?

Apáthy's figures and statements favor in an unqualified way

the idea of continuity, but the solution of this problem, one of

the most difficult in modern histology, is to be accomplished

only by the aid of many hands. It is, therefore, gratifying to

find that Bethe has devoted no small amount of time to a criti-

cal study of Apáthy's methods and results. Bethe has con-

firmed many important statements made by Apáthy, but he

has been unable to find reasons for accepting Apáthy's distinc-

tion of ganglion and nerve cells, and he has shown that Apá-

thy's generalization of motor fibres, being characterized by one

coarse fibril, and sensory fibres by many small ones, does not

hold true for the arthropods. He has, however, confirmed the

principal statements of Apáthy as to the presence of neurofibrils

in nerve fibres and in cells ; and, on the important question of

the nature of the neuropile, Bethe agrees in his conclusions

with Apáthy in stating that it is a continuous network. When,

however, the facts for this conclusion are sought for in the

470 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

body of Bethe’s paper, they are found to be not very convin-

cing. In his third study ! on the central nervous system of the

crab (Carcinus), he discusses the question of fibrillar continuity

in the neuropile and states that in this animal he has never

been able to discover continuity between the fibrils of two

neurones, though he has some evidence from the leech that

he believes supports this idea and that he proposes to publish

later. Sucha statement of lack of conclusive evidence on an

all-important point can scarcely be called a confirmation of the

*idea of continuity.

These seem to me the most important contributions made

against the neurone theory, and I believe it must be admitted

they are not fatal objections. In no case has any one made

observations which show that each neurone does not begin as

an essentially independent cell, suffering eventually remarkable

modifications, but still retaining its character as a single cell.

In no case has any one shown that the individuality of the

adult neurone, as seen in the degeneration and regeneration of

its parts, has suffered any reduction as compared with that of

the simple cell from which it came. It seems to me, therefore,

that the neurone theory is still intact, and that what has been

shown by this new work is that the interior of a neurone has a

most delicate and complicated fibrillar structure, which possibly

is a means of welding together adult neurones much more

closely than has been generally admitted. But of this we

have as yet no adequate proof.

1 Bethe, Albrecht.. Das Centralnervensystem von Carcinus Maenas. Ein

anatomisch-physiologisch Versuch. II. Theil. (3. Mittheilung). Archiv für mikro-

scop. Anat. Bd. li, pp. 382-452, Taf. XVI-XVII. 1898.

VARIATION IN THE VENATION OF

TRIMEROTROPIS.

JEROME McNEIL.

A. RECENT study of nearly all the known species (fifty out of

fifty-four) of the orthopteran genus Trimerotropis has afforded

the writer an opportunity to note the amount of variation which

occurs in the venation of the tegmina and wings of a single

genus. Three out of the four subfamilies of Acrididz found

in North America north of Mexico, z.e., Acridine, Tryxalinze,

and CEdipodinze, present but a single and little modified type of

venation well represented by the 7”. vinculata Scud (Figs. 1, 2).

The remaining subfamily, Tettiginz, is so extremely differ-

ent as to show little relationship to Acrididz. In all the draw-

ings the terminology used is that of Comstock and Needham,

with the very slight modifications necessary to adapt it to

Orthoptera. The homologies have been determined by the

writer from a study of the tracheation of the tegmina and

wings of nymphs, which is to be published shortly.

It will be noticed by those familiar with this nomenclature

that the branches of X. have been named as if they were acces-

sory branches entirely, whereas it is very probable that some

of them represent the primary forks of that vein. At present

it is impossible to be quite certain of these homologies, so that

the simplest way of naming them has been employed without

claiming for it complete accuracy.

VARIATIONS WITHIN A SPECIES.

For the purpose of studying the variation within the limits

of a single species I have selected 77. saxatilis McN., a species

from Arkansas and southern Illinois, and one of the three spe-

cies known to occur east of the Mississippi. This form was

not selected because of its being unusually variable in venation,

471

472 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

but because I had a larger number of specimens (fifty-seven) of

this than of any other species, and these were all collected dur-

ing the same season in four or five counties of northwest Arkan-

sas, except three, which came from Union County, Illinois. At

the same time it is well to note that it is more variable in color

than any other species known to me. It frequents stony sur-

faces exclusively, and its colors vary with the colors of the

stones. On black rocks it is nearly black in color, while on

eg v9 WS OM, My RY Agu Ag

or e Ei !

; i , ris

ddA And.A AtA Ob Ci Cy Cut

Fic. x.

m A2 “Ay UndA :

F1G. 2.

C., costa; Sc., subcosta; R., radius ;. 2.1, first fork of radius; R.s, radial sector; R.s 7, 2, etc.,

1, first c second M = - — P. 3

; Cu.

ubi ected rae of cubitus; Cw.1 7, 2, pe ta ani

second forks of C.;; Cug, 1, first fork of C.,; Tst A., first anal ve yi 2nd A., second anal

vein; 24d A t fork of 2nd 4.; 2nd A.s, sector of 2nd A.; 2nd A.s 1, 2, first an nd

AER forks a the sector * the ecu anal vein; 3rd A., third d vein ; ard A., 1-8,

accessory branches of 3rd

The tegmina and wings are divided by the Ae veins and their branches into areas which

take the name of the vein or branch immediately anterior.

hillsides covered with black and white lichen-covered fragments

of chert it is colored black, white, and green, so that away from

its environment it is a very conspicuously colored insect. It

will require, however, more extended observations than I have

been able to make to know whether or not there is any relation

between variation in coloration and venation.

No. 402.] THE VENATION OF TRIMEROTROPIS. 473

In the tegmina C. and Sc. are simple veins which do not

vary in such a manner as to be readily noted; the former is

about halfway between the anterior margin and the three suc-

ceeding veins, which are so closely approximate on the proxi-

mal half of the tegmina as to appear one vein to the unaided

eye. MR. is quite variab!z, though R., does not share in this

variation. Æ., has normally three branches in the male and

four in the female, but of the fifty-seven specimens examined

six males have four branches and one male has two, and eight

females have three branches; thus about 24 per cent show

irregularity in this respect. Within the genus the variation

which normally occurs in the number of branches of œ. i

exactly the same; within the subfamily the range is inis

ably greater, being but one in Celes and six in Pachytylus,

both old-world genera. In a single instance the apical part of

R.s with two branches has lost its connection with the basal

part with one branch, and the former is separately connected to

R., (Figs. 3 a, 3 b).

No similar variation is normal in the genus nor within the

subfamily, so far as I know. The second branch of A., may

474 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

lose its connection with R., and become attached to the first

branch (Figs. 4 a, 4 b).

This arrangement is abnormal in the genus and probably in

the subfamily, and occurs but once in the fifty-seven speci-

mens; but in this case the irregularity is present in both teg-

mina. In a single instance, also, the third branch in one

tegmen forks. Finally, in three specimens, two males and one

female, R., leaves R., and becomes attached to M.: (Figs. 5 %

5 4).

No. 402.] THE VENATION OF TRIMEROTROPIS. 475

This occurrence is common in Psinidia eucciata, if it is not

the rule, and it seems to be natural to CEdaleus. The fork of

R. is quite variable in position. Generally it is one-third the

width of the tegmina at this point distad of M. fork, but in

three cases it is more than one-half, while in one instance it is

more than once, and in another one-eighth, the width of the

CF,

tegmina distad of the same point. This is certainly equal to

any similar variation normal to the genus and is rarely exceeded

in genera of the subfamily. 77. has two simple forks, JZ, and

M.3, which do not vary conspicuously. The fork of M., how-

ever, which is usually decidedly proximad of the fork of Cu., in

four females and two males, is parallel with it or even slightly

distad. In a single instance the cross-vein, which is always

Fic. 6 4.

present at the outer end of area M., and which usually, in

the genus as well as in the subfamily, when present, con-

nects M. and Cz, joins the main stem of M. with Ch

(Figs. 6 a, 6 8). :

The intercalary vein, which is usually separated apically

from M. by once, male, or two or more times, female, its width,

has this relation reversed in a single female and seven males.

476 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

In one specimen M., loses its connection with 77.; and appears

to be a continuation of Z. (Figs. 7 a, 7 b).

ist A

Fic. 7 4.

Cu. is quite variable, typically; C»., has a single anterior

branch which leaves the stem near the base, but in one speci-

men this branch is joined to Cz.: below its middle, and in one

case there are two branches on one side. In the genus there

ist A

Fic. 82.

are never fewer than one, nor more than two, branches nor-

mally. In one female in one tegmen the branch of Cu., 1$

transferred to M., (Figs. 8 a, 8 b).

No. 402.] THE VENATION OF TRIMEROTROPIS. 477

. Ist A. and 2nd A. are simple veins, whose variations are not

easily noted; but 377 A., while usually simple and free to the

posterior margin or with its apex lost among the numerous

cross-veins of the anal area, is definitely connected apically

. with 2z4 A. in four males and two females. In all cases except

one this fusion is common to the two tegmina. This is the

rule in Chortophaga. |

In the Wing.

As in the tegmina, C. and Sc. are simple and vary little; the

former occupies the costal margin ; the latter is approximate to,

or fused with, C. on the distal one-half or one-third of the

wing; R.ı remains simple. KR., varies greatly, while it gener-

ally has one branch; in five males and one female it has none,

FiG. 9 a.

and this is the usual condition in. Encoptotaphus, Chortophaga,

and Derotmema. This branch of R., varies from less than one-

fourth the length of R., in two males and one female to more

than one-half in five males and four females; when normally

developed it is about one-third. œ. fork should be halfway

Fic. 94.

from the union of M. and R. to the tip of the wing. In

numerous specimens it is a little more, and in two males and

two females less, than one-third of the way. In two males R.s

has no branch and is connected with M., instead of R., (Figs.

9 a, 9 5).

478 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

The union of R., with 77.: in the wing is characteristic of

the genus Dissosteira (except D. venusta Stal). M. is also

quite variable. Its forks are always simple, but in four males

they join R. separately (Figs. 10 a, 10 8).

Usually, the stem of M. before it branches is rather more

than the width of the area M.; but in five males and two

females it is less than once as wide, in this respect resembling

FIG. 104.

Fic. 11 8,

the genus Arphia; and in seven males and five females it is

more than twice as wide, which is the usual condition in the

genus Hippiscus. Cz. Ist A., 2nd A.,, and 2nd A ., offer no easily

noted variations; but the union of 2nd A., 2 with 27d A., may

be, apparently, distant from the base as much as two-fifths, or

as little as one-fourth, the length of the latter. When the dis-

tance is less than two-fifths, however, a diagonal cross-vein at

this point indicates the normal connection of the vein and its

branch.

No. 402.] THE VENATION OF TRIMEROTROPIS. 479

In conclusion it may be said that the variations in the teg-

mina and wings of one side average nearly two in the females

and rather more than two in the males, as variations on one

side are generally repeated upon the other; the average num-

Mir

istA

FIG. 124.

ist. A

Fic. 13 4.

ber on both sides would be not much less than four. There

were almost exactly three variations in the tegmina to two in

the wings.

VARIATIONS WITHIN THE GENUS.

In addition to the variations which have already been men-

tioned as occurring in Zr. soxatilis the following have been

480 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

noticed, one or more times, in other species of the genus. In.

Tr. lanta the’ second and third branches of R., have a common

stem (Figs. 11 a, 11 3).

In Tr. azurescens, M., may fork (Figs. 12 a, 12 6).

Mai

Lst. A

* Fic. "4 o.

In Tr. albolineata, Cur: loses its connection with Cz.2 and

becomes attached to M., (Figs. 13 a, 13 å).

Unless the tegmina figured by Saussure! is abnormal, this is

the usual condition in the genus Scintharista. In the species

Tr. vinculata, Cu., may be branched (Figs. 14 a, 14 8).

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS.

I. Variations in venation which occur within a single species

are much greater than those differences which distinguish one

genus from another. That is to say that many of the variations

which occur are not restricted to what are commonly consid-

ered specific limits, but are such as are paralleled only in widely

separated genera of the subfamily, and some of them do not

normally occur within the limits of the subfamily.

2. Variations in venation which occur in the various species

1 Saussure, H. de. Prodromus Edipodionum, Pl., Fig. to. Geneva, 1884.

No. 402.] THE VENATION OF TRIMEROTROPIS. 481

of the genus merely serve to strengthen the conclusion just

formulated, and, except in the number of branches of radius in

the tegmina and wings, are greater than normally occur in the

subfamily.

3. Variation affects chiefly the veins R., M., and Cz. in the

tegmina, and R., and M. in the wings, and these on the outer

half of the wings only.

4. Variation in venation is more frequent in the tegmina

than in the wings.

5. When the tegmina are widened, new veins are supplied

by accessory branches of R., and Cz.,.

NOTES ON THE MAMMALS OF PRINCE EDWARD

ISLAND.

ROBERT T. YOUNG.

THE following is an annotated list of mammals observed

during a three weeks’ stay in Prince Edward Island in the

fall of 1897.

I. Sciurus hudsonicus gymnicus. — A fairly common species.

My specimens agree pretty closely in size with those from New

Brunswick and Nova Scotia. It is interesting to note that skins

from this section average decidedly smaller than those from

Ontario (Miller)! and Labrador (Bangs)? This seems rather

strange, considering that in grading off into the southern form,

loquax, it increases rather than diminishes in size. Average

of six specimens from New Brunswick (American Museum of

Natural History, New York): total length, 277; tail, 110; hind

foot, 43. Average of ten from Digby, Nova Scotia (Bangs):

total length, 296; tail, 113 ; hind foot, 45. Average of two

from Prince Edward Island (Young): total length, 282; tail,

113; hind foot, 45. Average of four from Hamilton Inlet,

Labrador (Bangs) : total length, 309; tail, 120; hind foot, 48.

Average of eight from Ontario (Miller) : total length, 309; tail,

121; hind foot, 47. Average of eight Sciurus h. loquax from

Liberty Hill, Connecticut (Bangs) : total length, 318 ; tail, 134 ;

hind foot, 47. ;

2. Mus musculus. — One specimen was caught in a bushy

field, largely grown up with Juncus, near Georgetown.

3. Peromyscus canadensis. — Two specimens were all that I

secured, both being taken beneath a stump fence bordering

some wet woodland, near Kensington. As both are imma-

ture I cannot state with certainty the variety, but they appear

! Mammals of Ontario, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxviii, No. 1, pp. 1-44.

2A Review of the Squirrels of Eastern North America, Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington, vol. X, pp. 145-167.

483

484 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

to be Peromyscus canadensis. The scarcity of this species

seems remarkable.

4. Evotomys gapperi. — A sail series was eal: mostly

along the borders of woods.

5. Microtus .— The meadow mouse of Prince

Edward Island is apparently an intermediate form between

M. pennsylvanicus and M. terrenove. It has the slightly more

flaring zygoma and slightly greater interorbital constriction of

the latter species. Regarding the enamel pattern of ;z 3, which

Bangs! considers a characteristic feature of M. terrenove, I

have not been able to distinguish any constant difference

between that species and M. pennsylvanicus, although I. have

examined carefully the skulls of both species. The nose

patches in my specimens, while more pronounced than in M.

pennsylvanicus from New Brunswick and other points, are less

so than in M. terrenove ; and the color of the back is about

intermediate between that of the latter species and of M. penn-

sylvanicus from New Brunswick, some skins having the brown-

ish gray color of New Brunswick specimens, and others the

reddish cast of ¢errenove. The under parts are similar in

M. terrenove, M. pennsylvanicus from New Brunswick, and in

the Prince Edward Island skins. The hind foot in M. ter-

rænovæ ranges, according to Bangs, from 22 to 25 mm., while

in my specimens it varies from 20 to 2 3 mm.

On the whole, I think the Prince Edward Island specimens

are more similar to M. terrenove than to M. pennsylvanicus,

but that they represent an intermediate stage between the two

species, to which stage the New Brunswick pennsylvanicus skins

show a decided approach. The specimens of M. pennsylvanicus

from New Brunswick, to which I have referred in this com-

parison, came from the northern portion of the province, in the

region of the Tobique River. It would, I think, be premature

to attempt to name the Prince Edward Island form without

having for comparison a series of skins from the coast of New

Brunswick, opposite Prince Edward Island, and also from the

Magdalen Islands, which lie in the Gulf of St. Lawrence,

1 Description of a New Field Mouse from Codroy, Newfoundland, Proc. Biol.

Soc. Washington, vol. ix, pp. 129-132.

No. 402.} MAMMALS OF PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 485

between Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland, about

seventy miles northeast of the former.

The meadow mouse was one of the commonest mammals

of the island, inhabiting sand bars, salt and fresh marshes, and

dike lands, as well as damp, bushy clearings abounding in Jun-

cus. They were most numerous on the Cascumpeque sand bar,

near Alberton, a long, low, sandy island grown up with Ammo-

phila arundinacea, Achillea millefolium, and Arctostaphilos

uva-ursi, and mostly dry, but with a few brackish ponds which

communicated with the sea at very high tides. Here the

ground was simply honeycombed by their runways.

6. Fiber zibethicus. — A common species along the arms of

the sea, which make into the island at many points, and in

fresh ponds, etc.

7. Lepus americanus virginianus (?).— Rabbits were reported

as quite common on the island, but I secured only one. This

agrees quite closely with specimens of americanus (?) from

New Brunswick in the American Museum of Natural History,

New York, but according to Bangs! it is probably virginianus.

Not having seen any specimens of the hare from farther north,

I have been unable to make a satisfactory comparison.

The pelage of my specimen is. changing from the summer

to the winter stage. :

8. Sorex personatus. — A common species, occurring mostly

in or near wooded swamps. My specimens agree with those

from northern Canada, which are larger than those from

Pennsylvania and New Jersey, as pointed out by Miller in his

“ Mammals of Ontario," already mentioned, thus showing per-

haps an approach to the Alaskan form S. streatori.

The average size of twenty-eight adults is: total length,

103; tail, 45; hind foot, 12.

9. Sorex hoyi. — Three specimens of this shrew were all

that I secured. They were trapped in or near swampy woods.

According to measurements of a number of these shrews from

other localities, my specimens are slightly smaller than the

average oyi. The average of my specimens is : total length,

! The Eastern Races of the American Varying Hare, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washing-

fon, vol. xii, pp. 77-82

486 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

86; tail, 30; hind foot, 9. The average of five specimens from

Ontario (see « Mammals of Ontario," Miller) is: total length,

92; tail, 32 ; hind foot, 10. (I do not quote any other measure-

ments here, because they were not made in the flesh and are

consequently not reliable.)

10. Blarina brevicauda.— Only two specimens were secured,

both being taken in a small strip of woods bordering a marshy

pond at Kensington.

Hypothetical List.

While the following species did not come under my own

observation, I obtained records of them from several observers

whom I considered trustworthy.

t. Tamias striatus. Fairly common. The chipmunks had

probably hibernated beforé I reached the island.

Sciuropterus sabrinus. Very rare.

Lynx . Very rare.

Vulpes fulvus. Fairly common.

Ursus americanus. Occurred formerly.

Lutra canadensis. Few.

Putorius vison. Fairly common.

Mustela americana. Very scarce.

curious feature of the mammal life of the island is the

absence of porcupines and skunks, neither of which, according

to reports from several observers, occur on the island, though

both are said to occur on the mainland opposite.

All measurements in this paper are in millimeters.

In conclusion I desire to thank Dr. J. A. Allen and Mr. S. N.

Rhoads for access to the collections of mammals in their care

for comparison.

rer Ae eS}

THE CACTUS BEES; GENUS LITHURGUS.

T. D. A. COCKERELL.

THE common cacti (Opuntia and Echinocactus) of New Mex-

ico and adjacent regions are freely visited by bees, the females

carrying pollen and undoubtedly aiding cross-fertilization. Pro-

fessor Toumey, who doubtless knows more about cacti in a

state of nature than any other man living in this country, has

observed and reported the bee visits, without, however, identi-

fying the bees. He has, however, also observed that most of the

common cacti (Opuntia) about Tucson, Arizona, propagate by

means of falling joints which take root, and not by seed ; and, as

he showed me in his cactus garden last year, certain species

have almost lost the power of producing seed. The cactus side

of the matter will, I trust, be fully elaborated in due time by

Professor Toumey, and I only refer to it now to bring forward

the interesting fact that we have a group of plants which are

in large part independent of sexual reproduction, but which

at the same time possess flowers undoubtedly adapted to bees,

and visited by a series of bees more or less peculiar to them.

The explanation of this will, I think, be given by Professor

Toumey, but in the meanwhile it will be useful to record the

bee visitors. The following are the Lithurgus records for New

Mexico:

(1) Lithurgus echinocacti Ckll., 1898.— Two females at

flowers of Echinocactus wislizenit, one at Mesilla Park (campus

of Agricultural College), August 22 (Ckll.), one at La Cueva,

Organ Mountains, September 4 ( Townsend).

(2) Lithurgus gibbosus Smith, 1853 (n. syn. compressus,

Smith, 2). — Our form has clearer wings than Smith's type.

Las Cruces, at flowers of Opuntia engelmanni, May 26,49,

May 25,19; May 24, 14 ; also observed many other times ;

both sexes, but especially males, also common at flowers st

Chilopsis linearis (Bignoniacez), May 31 and June 5; Mesilla,

487

488 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

June 19, at flowers of Cnicus, 19; West Fork of Gila River,

July 17 (Townsend), 1 9.

(3) Lithurgus apicalis Cresson, 1875. — Santa Fé, June

20, at yellow Opuntia flowers, 2 3 ; August 2, at flowers of

Cleome serrulata (Capparidacez), I 4 ; Santa Fé Cañon, August

II, ; 7700 ft, inside flowers of Opuntia arborescens in wet

weather, males; 7600 ft, at flowers of Cnicus ochrocentrus

(purple-flowered form), females; West Fork of Gila River,

July 16, both sexes (Townsend). The insect formerly re-

ported from the Mesilla Valley as apicalis is gibbosus.

These are not the only bees which habitually visit cacti.

Heriades (Trypetes) gracilior Ckll., and Ashmeadiella opuntie

(Ckll.) visit the flowers of Opuntia in the Organ Mountains in

May ; while Ashmeadiella cactorum (Ckll.) visits Cactus (i.e.

Mammillaria) at Santa Fé in July.! u

NEW MEXICO AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION,

MESILLA PARK, N. M., Feb. 25, 1900.

1 Since the above was written I have found the bee Agapostemon texanus

Cress., 9, visiting flowers of Cereus peana d det. Wooton, and of

sra Sp-, prob. fendleri, Engelm., in the Mesi Valley; it burrows down among

e stamens so as to be quite lost to sight. prda green bee, Augochlora

MUSOR Ckll., was found by Townsend at La Cueva, Organ Mts., visiting

owers of Echinocactus wislizenii.

THE ADVANCE OF BIOLOGY IN 1897.

C. B. DAVENPORT.

Tue delay in issuing the magnificent volume of L’ Année

biologique for 1897 is regrettable; but the labor involved in

bringing the work of the year into a condition where the result

will be quickly accessible is clearly tremendous and the stand-

ard of the editors seems to rise from year to year. As in the

two previous years, I shall briefly sketch some of the results on

which the editors lay most stress.

Cytology. — Important advances were inde especially by

Kossel and his pupils in the chemistry of the more active pro-

teids of the cell, and particularly of the spermatozoón. The

theory that the centrosome is the center of the cell move-

ments in general received support from its relation to the tail

of the spermatozoón and probably (as a series of microsomes)

to the cilia of epithelia. The variations in the constitution of

the spindle, out of continuous and discontinuous fibres, was

made clear. The mechanics of mitosis were further illustrated

by the behavior of artificial mixtures and of machines; further

evidence for the dependence of membrane formation upon the

presence of the nucleus was brought forward. -

The Sexual Products and Fecundation.— The variability of

the process of chromatin reduction was made clear by the

demonstration of the absence of a longitudinal division of the

chromosomes, in one instance, and of the absence of any sort

of reduction in a second (Lee) ; the transformations of chroma-

tin during the growth of the ovum were further studied; the

idea that polar globules are only aborted eggs received support

from Francotte's observation that in polyclads they may be

fertilized and develop into gastrule. Ivanzov interpreted matu-

ration as an extrusion of ferments that might otherwise destroy

the spermatozoón. The conclusion that the centrosome occu-

pies the middle-piece of the spermatozoón gained a general

489

490 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

acceptance. The presence of antherozoid in gymnosperms

was demonstrated.

In the field of fertilization studies, the opinion that the cen-

trosome of the fertilized egg comes exclusively from the sperm

was still dominant, despite the contradiction of Myzostoma ;

but the continuity of the centrosome was still debated.

Parthenogenesis. — A difference in structure between the

parthenogenetic and the sexual egg of Rotifera was affirmed,

and it was asserted that while in the female parthenogenetic

egg of Rotifera only one polar globule is formed, two are per-

manently extruded when the parthenogenetic egg is destined to

produce a male.

Asexual Reproduction.—It has long been recognized that

the organs of an individual produced by budding or fission

develop differently from those of an egg-individual. This dif-

ference can be referred to the dissimilarity of external condi-

tions in the twocases. Thus von Bock showed that in dividing

Cheetogaster the mouth of the new zoóid arises from two lateral

invaginations instead of one ventral one, because the ventral

position of the nerve cord interferes with a median invagina-

tion. Heschler showed that the regenerative capacity of the

earthworm is greatest in the region where autotomy normally

occurs. Bordage extended our knowledge of autotomy in

Orthoptera.

Ontogenesis. — Echoes of the preformation-epigenesis con-

troversy continued. Fischel, working with isolated blastomeres

of ctenophores (Beroé), concludes that they afford a good exam-

ple of preformation. Attempts to influence development by

external means were richly rewarded. Hertwig transformed the

holoblastic egg of the frog into a meroblastic one by condens-

ing the yolk by means of a centrifugal machine. It was shown

that salamander eggs reared in the dark became in certain par-

ticulars abnormal, and that electric rays accelerate the respira-

tion of the eggs of the silkworm and hasten their hatching.

Teratogenesis. — Especially important is the experiment of

Tornier, by which doubly and triply tailed lizards may be pro-

duced by making a triangular incision through the muscles and

into the vertebra. Also if a limb is transsected and a thread

No. 402.] THE ADVANCE OF BIOLOGY IN 1897. 491

be tied so as to divide the free surface of the stump, two

appendages will arise. A lesion of the humerus may provoke

the development of an extra limb.

Regeneration. — It was shown by Miss Peebles that in

Hydra there are slight differences in the regenerative capacity

of the different parts of the body, since the foot regenerates

less well than the lateral parts of the trunk; also that 51,

of a Hydra will regenerate. Morgan enumerated certain laws

of regeneration of the earthworm. The parallelism of regen-

eration and ontogeny was still debated. The truth that the

essence of regeneration is not the restoration of some lost

part, but the reassumption of the specific form, was illustrated

by the regeneration of a jellyfish and a hydroid.

Grafting. — As the results of Born and Jæœst marked re-

spectively the years 1895 and 1896, so those of Crampton on

the pupz of Lepidoptera marked 1897. In Lepidoptera, as in

tadpoles and earthworms, the grafted pieces, even if belonging

to distinct species, exert no mutual effect. In plant grafting,

however, Daniel got a reciprocal effect.

Sex. — No important advance in this subject was made in

1897. Nussbaum, working on rotifers, got in some cases, as

Maupas did, a predominance of females. This was due, Nuss-

baum thinks, to an excess of food rather than a low tempera-

ture, as Maupas concluded.

Polymorphism and Metamorphosis, — The most interesting

result was the rearing of an Amblystoma to the adult stages

with retention of gills, by means of good food and a high

temperature.

Correlation. — False correlation was studied and measured

by Pearson and discussed by Galton. Warren determined

quantitatively the correlation between the various parts of the

human skeleton.

General Morphology and Physiology. — Contributions were

made opposing the old interpretation of the germ layers. The

Science of general physiology was becoming outlined with the

aid of new text-books. The importance of ions in physiology

received new and stronger confirmation; the correlation be-

tween the composition of milk and the rate of infantile develop-

492 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

ment of various species was demonstrated. The important

rôle of water in growth was pointed out. Nencki (following

Tschirsch, '96) showed that the close relation between chloro-

phyl and haemoglobin indicated their phylogenetic development

out of one fundamental substance before animals and plants

diverged. The organic food taken up by plants through their

roots was further studied, and the old theory that plants feed

exclusively on inorganic compounds received many hard blows.

These discoveries, taken with the facts of the fundamental róle

of inorganic salts for animal nutrition, are breaking down the

old distinctions drawn between animal and plant nutrition.

Further valuable studies were made on the formation of albu-

men in plants. Muscle contraction, the electric organs, in-

flammation of wounded plants were newly studied. Dubois

afforded much new data on hibernation. The literature on fer-

ments grew rapidly, but not faster than the importance of the .

subject warrants. The reactions of organisms to light, heat,

gravity, and electricity were further studied (Jennings, Loeb,

and others). Czapek gives an account of the chemical differ-

ences between stimulated and unstimulated plant protoplasm.

Heredity. — Little was done on the important question of

inheritance of the acquired. Whitman showed that in hybrid

pigeons the period of incubation was the same as in the nor-

mally fertilized egg of the female species, and was uninflu-

enced by the fact that the species of the male was shorter

brooded. Early developmental processes, then, are deter-

mined by the cytoplasmic peculiarities of the egg. Other

experiments in hybridization were made.

Variation. — Applications of the quantitative methods of

studying variation to particular problems began to appear.

Brewster showed that those characters which are most variable

in the individuals of a species are especially those in which the

species of a genius differ. Bumpus found the house-sparrow,

introduced into America, more variable than in Europe and

concludes that its greater variability is the result of the partial

withdrawal of natural selection.

Origin of Species. — Noteworthy are the book of Romanes

on Darwinism, and C. L. Morgan and H. F. Osborn's theory of

No. 402.] THE ADVANCE OF BIOLOGY IN 1897. 493

evolution. Many workers pleaded for an explanation of adapta-

tion on the basis of self-adjustment. No real progress was

being made in this field, because the method was bad.

Geographic Distribution. — There was especial activity in

the study of marine and fresh-water plankton and the theory

of bipolarity in the distribution of faunas. Of general works

may be cited Lydekker on mammals in general and Sclater on

marine mammals.

Mental Functions. — The review of the literature in this

department occupies one-fifth of the book. The work is too

voluminous and technical to be summarized here.

General Theories. — Very little. A duel between Hertwig

and Roux over the word * Entwickelungsmechanik." A sug-

gestive work by Pearson on “ The Chances of Death.”

General biology has this year made its greatest advances in

the study of variation, grafting, in general physiological prob-

lems, and in the chemistry of vital phenomena.

ON THE INTERPRETATION OF UNUSUAL EVENTS

IN GEOLOGIC RECORDS ILLUSTRATED

BY RECENT EXAMPLES.

FREDERIC W. SIMONDS.

AN examination of many geologic reports will not fail to

show that the working geologist, as a rule, devotes but little

time to the interpretation of events, though the most valuable

data may be furnished by the very rocks which, as a stratigrapher,

he indicates on his map or describes in his notebook. To

search out relations of rocks stratigraphically is, of course, one

thing ; to picture in the mind the conditions that prevailed at

the time of their deposition is another and a different thing.

But while none will dispute the value of stratigraphic work,

the value of interpretation should not be underestimated, for

by it we gain our clearest insight into the physical conditions

of the past. That it is to a great extent theoretical may

be admitted, yet the results of indirect evidence may approxi-

mate the truth. In this paper it is my purpose to show that

under some conditions, especially when unusual events have

: been recorded, there is not only difficulty in making the

proper interpretation, but even danger that the interpretation

may become misleading — a partial truth being, under some

circumstances, conducive to positive error.

Throughout the various ages of the earth, as n ond by

sedimentary deposits, faunas have succeeded faunas, and floras

have succeeded floras. At times the exuberance of life must

have been great, so numerous are the imbedded remains; but

whether numerous or scarce, they are especially useful to the

working geologist in that they enable him to recognize strata.

As fossils they are figured and described by the paleontologist,

who views them mainly from a biologic standpoint. They also

! Read before Section E, Geology and Geography, American Association for

the Advancement of Science, August 23, 1899.

495

496 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

furnish valuable data in solving problems of descent and ex-

plain to the biologist certain obscure points in the struc-

ture of living forms. But they afford evidence of another

kind, the value of which is determined by the ability of the

observer to make a correct interpretation. They may reveal

much concerning the habits of species, whether terrestrial or

aquatic, and their habitat ; they may give clues to temperature

and other details upon which climate depends; they may indi-

cate, if the species be aquatic, the nature of the water, whether

fresh, salt, or brackish, whether shallow or deep, whether cold

or warm, etc. It is from his knowledge of existing conditions

of life and growth that the observer is able to interpret the

conditions attendant upon certain characteristic growth of the

past : that, for example, bright, clear skies, and pure sea-water,

of not too great depth and free from the chilling influence of

cold currents, are conducive to a profusion of coral growth ;

that alternate exposure to sea and air is satisfactory to mus-

sels and other littoral species ; that clams thrive best in the

sand and mud banks exposed between the tides. Knowledge

of this kind enables the acute observer to gain a certain

amount of %istorical insight, when kindred forms are found in

strata, concerning the conditions that have prevailed upon the

earth in remote times of which there is left no direct record.

It must be admitted, also, that a correct interpretation

involves much evidence other than that afforded by organic

remains. The rocks themselves, irrespective of their fossil

contents, afford most valuable data respecting the conditions

attendant upon their deposition: mud, for instance, indicating

turbulent times, erosion and waste of land surfaces, heavy

rainfalls, swollen rivers, and flooding; foraminiferal ooze

and other fine-grained calcareous matter, deep-sea deposits ;

sand and gravel, beach deposits. Data of this kind are not to

be ignored ; nor are those changes, such as the thickening and

thinning of strata, the passage of limestone beds into shale or:

sandstone, or the reverse, which may indicate that the deposi-

tion had taken place near to or far from land masses. The

information thus derived is to be woven into the record ; it is

essential for a complete interpretation.

No. 402.] EVENTS IN GEOLOGIC RECORDS. 497

As a student of geology I was long ago impressed with the

masterly interpretation of the Brier Hill Coal Seam of Ohio as

presented in the School of Mines Quarterly (April, 1883) by

the late Professor Newberry. The plan, it seemed to me, was

admirable. First, the facts were given ; then, from them, was

translated the history. The statement of facts is a matter

dependent upon observation ; it may be full and minute, or of

a more general nature, according to the care and skill of the

observer. Facts relative to the occurrence of coal in a cer-

tain area may be simply recorded as facts, a plan pursued in

many geologic reports, which is eminently proper from an

economic standpoint, as it enables the practical man to locate

seams, and that is all he desires. But, from the standpoint of

pure science, where knowledge is the object to be attained, and

not wealth, the point of view is different. The facts must be

made to reveal more than the order of succession of strata,

the areas covered, the thickness and kinds of rock composing

the individual layers; they must be interpreted, and this must

be, to a great extent, the work of the imagination, the revivi-

fying of a skeleton by the addition of flesh.

This, the speculative side of geology, if I may so call it, is

particularly attractive to some scholars. It cultivates the same

faculties, employs the same modes of reasoning, so widely used

by the ethnologist, who, from the exhumed remains, ornaments,

utensils, from the shell heaps and rude weapons, learns much

of the habits — the life — of extinct peoples.

Granted, then, that much must be speculative, and purely so,

he is the best interpreter who can bring his imaginary picture

nearest in accord with facts. Ultimately, then, the interpreta-

tion is resolved into a matter of probability, based upon data

furnished by observation, but it is, nevertheless, a creation of

the mind. Herein lies one of the greatest difficulties: con-

ceded that the observations have been carefully and properly

made, extreme caution must be employed in drawing conclu-

sions, lest, by a mental slip, error and not truth be the result.

As I have already intimated, the proper interpretation of

paleontologic evidence, supplemented by the data furnished by

the rocks themselves, gives us a somewhat definite idea of the

498 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

climate and other physical conditions of a past age, acquaints

us with the habits and habitat of species, whether animals or

plants, and elucidates many interesting and intricate points

concerning their growth, development, and distribution ; in

short, it enables us to reanimate and reéstablish that age.

But all of this must be done, directly or indirectly, in accord-

ance with the light of the present time. We have, it is true,

familiarized ourselves with usual events, yet we know that the

unusual does sometimes happen, and if now, why not in the

past ?

That an unusual event in the paleontologic record, judging

entirely from present events, might be a source of consider-

able difficulty, or of positive error in interpretation, cannot be

doubted. Let me illustrate : Some years ago, as the result of

a heavy storm, fish in large numbers were thrown ashore in cer-

tain localities bordering on the Bay of Fundy. Let us suppose

this to be a region of rapid sedimentation and that their

remains were quickly entombed. Had this event taken place

in another age, and had the sediment afterwards been elevated

and lithified, then would these remains have afforded suitable

material for interpretation. But what should the translation

indicate? An unusual abundance of fish — conditions favora-

ble to the growth and development of this form of life which

had been suddenly interrupted? If that, the whole truth

would not be told. By an unusual event, vzz., a heavy storm,

fish remains that under ordinary circumstances would have

been distributed over a wide area are accumulated within a

small area, and, further, remains that under normal conditions

would have ranged through a considerable space vertically, are

limited to a single layer or a few layers of the deposit. Under

such conditions the abundance of fish is apparent rather than

real. Other interpretations might be made ; that, for instance,

owing to an epidemic, fish perished in large numbers ; or, again,

that a sudden and great decrease in temperature caused the

marked fatality.

It will be seen that while each of the above interpretations

appears adequate to account for the phenomenon, none have

given the complete truth, though in all the occurrence of an

No. 402.] EVENTS IN GEOLOGIC RECORDS. 499

unusual event has been recognized. The action of the heavy

storm is the truth sought but not brought out.

It is fortunate that as the result of an unusual occurrence

witnessed by Dr. Joseph Le Conte a rational explanation can

be made of the conditions under which insects may be col-

lected in vast numbers within the confines of a single stratum.

As ordinarily interpreted, the contents of such a bed would indi-

cate that this particular form of life existed in greater abun-

dance at the time of its deposition than either before or after ;

whereas, as shown by Dr. Le Conte, the abundance of insect

remains may be due to concentration —a perfectly natural

result though brought about by unusual conditions. He says:

*On Lake Superior, at Eagle Harbor, in the summer of

1844, we saw the white sands of the beach blackened with the

bodies of insects of many species, but mostly beetles, cast

ashore. As many species were here collected in a few days,

by Dr. J. L. Le Conte, as could have been collected in as many

months in any other place. The insects seem to have flown

over the surface of the lake; to have been beaten down by

winds and drowned, and then slowly carried. shoreward and

accumulated in this harbor, and finally cast ashore by winds

and waves. A small river emptying into the harbor carried

also many beetles and ants. Doubtless,” he continues, “at

Oeningen, in Miocene times, there was an extensive lake sur-

rounded by dense forests, through. which ran a small river

emptying into the lake ; and the insects drowned in its waters,

and the leaves strewed by the winds on its surface, were cast

ashore by its waves." 1

Again, at the mouth of the Mackenzie River a vast quantity

of driftwood is accumulating at the present time, which Sir

Charles Lyell long ago predicted would, at some distant period,

form a great deposit of coal. Now this accumulation of vege-

table matter is that having its origin in a much warmer and

well-wooded region. By the flooding of a great stream it is

conveyed to its final resting place, which is a locality both

climatically and biologically different —a region of low temper-

ature and scant vegetation. Let us suppose that the buried

1 Elements of Geology, Fourth Edition, p. 534.

500 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

accumulation has become coal. An interpretation that the

contained tree-trunks represented the vegetable life of that

region would be, in the highest degree, erroneous. The lowly

terrestrial plants of the vicinity may have entirely disappeared,

or their remains, commingled with those of a forest vegetation,

may attract little or no attention. Granted, however, that the

alluvial barriers may be discovered, that the true character of

the deposit may be determined, still there is an unusual event

to be translated, namely, the enormous distance the vegeta-

ble matter has been transported. To recognize this may be

extremely difficult, if not impossible. During the lapse of time,

elevation and folding may have taken place; denudation and

erosion may have completely altered the topography of so vast

an area of country ; parts of the great river basin may have

become so widely separated that their continuity would scarcely

be suspected. This is not an exaggerated statement ; on the

contrary, it lies strictly within the limits of possibility. If so,

then is the danger of misinterpretation clearly shown.

The flooding of streams, it is said, is often quite destructive

of fish life ; the copious sediment contained in the water being

an undoubted cause of suffocation. During the recent flood in

Texas I saw fish so overcome that they were easily taken by

hand. When the waters receded their dead bodies were re-

ported as occurring along the river banks and on the bars.

Under such conditions it does not seem improbable that parts

of the skeleton, and especially the scales, such as those of the

ganoid type, should be borne seaward, and finally deposited in

salt water, commingled with marine forms. Had a similar

circumstance occurred in other than recent time, and had the

remains of marine and fresh-water forms been preserved in

the same stratum, then a fine discrimination between animals

greatly alike in appearance, and, possibly, not presenting char-

acters admitting of direct relations with the present, becomes

necessary on the part of the observer would he make a correct

interpretation. And, moreover, this hypothetical statement

will serve to emphasize the fact that a knowledge of biology is

of prime importance to him who would undertake the inter-

pretation of such a record.

NO. 402.] EVENTS IN GEOLOGIC RECORDS. 501

Cases might be multiplied, but the point I wish to make is

apparent: an interpretation of the history recorded in strata is

an absolute necessity if we are to picture the past. Recorded

facts must be made to reveal unrecorded events. It is only

from the conclusions drawn that we can give the picture life;

if they be wrong, the picture becomes distorted, perchance a

monstrosity. Unusual events now happen, hence our right to

believe that they have happened in the past. They are at times

shrouded in deep obscurity — hidden, it may be, in a mass of

intricate details. Often they are confined to a single locality,

but they may affect an unusually large area. However this

may be, the greatest care is necessary lest we pass them by

unnoticed, and the greatest caution, should they be discov-

ered, lest we misinterpret them. Human speculation does not

always admit of proof, but when based upon facts, as it should

be in geologic interpretation, it may at least approximate the

truth.

UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS, AUSTIN, TEXAS.

SYNOPSES OF NORTH-AMERICAN

INVERTEBRATES.

X. THE OxyrHYNCHOUS AND OXYSTOMATOUS CRABS OF

NORTH AMERICA.

MARY J. RATHBUN.

Tue Oxyrhyncha include the large family of Maiidz, or

* spider crabs," so called on account of their slenderlegs. The

body is usually narrow in front, sometimes suborbicular, but

always with a beak or rostrum, as in the common “ spiders”

(Libinia) of the Atlantic coast. The Maiidz are all provided

with numbers of hairs, either hook-shaped or straight, varying

in form and arrangement in the different genera and species.

In order to conceal themselves from enemies these crabs cover

their backs with algze and sedentary animals, as sponges, tuni-

cates, and bryozoans, which are held fast by the hairs and live

and grow until their host is unrecognizable. This is notably

so in Oregomia gracilis. Some species, as those of Collodes,

are covered with slimy adherent mud.

The Parthenopidz, the second and smaller division of the

Oxyrhyncha, are easily distinguished by their broad, triangular

carapace, very long, usually trigonal chelipeds, and short, deli-

cate walking legs. They often resemble fragments of stone

with sharp angles, or with eroded or nodular surfaces.

The Oxystomata comprise several families widely different

in their general appearance. Of the Calappide the best known

are the species of Calappa, ** box crabs,” or **shamefaced crabs,"

from the chelipeds which are large and of unusual shape, with

cockscomb-like crests on the upper margin of the hands, and

Which in flexion are pressed tightly against the inferior surface

of the carapace like a shield. This arrangement is said to pro-

tect from attack any morsels of food they may be devouring.

503

504 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

The Calappa lives usually on sandy shores, into which it is in

the habit of burrowing.

Of the Matutidz, which are sparsely represented in North

America, the species of Hepatus are large and strikingly

colored. They differ from Calappa in the smaller claws and

in the narrower posterior portion of the shell. Hepatus ephelt-

ticus is known on the Gulf coast as ** Dolly Varden.”

The Leucosiide are generally distinguished by their globular

carapace, long claws, and comparatively small walking feet.

The largest and most conspicuous North-American species are

the Persephona punctata, or “speckled spider,” of the Atlantic

and Gulf coasts, and ARazda/Ea ornata of the Pacific coast.

The Dorippidz are marked by the reduction of the last two

pairs of feet, which are raised on the dorsal surface of the

carapace. The first two pairs of walking legs are long, ena-

bling the crab to run fast.

In the key which follows, the same terms are used to indicate

distribution as in No. VII of these synopses; and, as in that

number, many of the definitions have been taken from the

works of Drs. Stebbing and Alcock.

TRIBE OXYRHYNCHA, OR MAIOIDEA.

Carapace narrowed anteriorly and rostrate, with the hepatic regions

small, the branchial large. Epistome generally large. Buccal frame

quadrate, with anterior margin straight. Nine pairs of branchiz, with the

efferent channels opening at the sides of the endostome. The afferent

channels open behind the pterygostomian regions, in front of the bases of

the chelipeds. First antenne longitudinally folded. Third maxillipeds

with the fifth joint articulated at the apex or at the front inner angle of the

fourth. The genital organs of the male are inserted at the bases of the

last pair of trunk legs.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THE TRIBE OXYRHYNCHA.

A. Basal joint of antennz well developed. Chelipeds not a great deal

longer than the other legs. . ;. Mari; Leach

A’, Basal joint of antenna very shall, and deabedded between the front

and the floor of the orbit. Chelipeds a great deal longer and more

massive than the other legs :

PARTHENOPID;E Milne-Edwards, White

No. 402.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 505

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY MAIID&.

A. Basal joint of antennz extremely slender throughout its length and

usually long. Eyes without orbits and not concealed.

B. Carapace elongate, narrowed in front. External maxillipeds

somewhat pediform, with the palp large and coarse, and the

merus often narrower than the ischium. Basal joint of antenna

usually subcylindrical.

C. Rostrum extremely long. Dactyli of ambulatory legs longer

than the propodi.

D. Carapace smooth, even aere Antenne concealed

beneath the rostrum . .. Stenorynchus

D’. Carapace uneven above. jme ree flagellum ex-

posed . Metoporhaphis

C. Rostrum short. Dactyli d EA ica shorter than the

ropodi.. ss Podochela

5. Carapace usually lobtlanpaler Eo faaxitfipeds with the

merus at least as broad as the ischium, and the palp small.

Basal joint of antenne flattened or concave ventrally.

C. Rostrum simple, or with two short spines or lobes.

D. No postocular spine or tooth.

E. Chelipeds not much elongated, palms inflated. Ros-

trum emarginate ZEpinus

E’. Chelipeds much DURER with pams ‘long and

; slender. Rostrum simple . c. Erileptus

D’. A postocular spine or tooth.

E. Eyes long andslender . . . > Arachnopsis

E'. Eyes not long and slender.

F. Inner crest of basal antennal joint very promi-

nent and projecting downward at right angles

to the outer crest.

G. Postocular tooth pointing forwar d.

ostocular tooth UN close to the

eye . Dasygyius

u. Postocular tooth not fitting close to

eye nachoides

G'. Paini tooth Aoin uident

Collodes

F’. Inner crest of basal antennal joint, when present,

not projecting downward at right angles to

the outer crest.

G. Rostrum simple . . . . . Anasimus

G'. Rostrum bifid.

H. Spine of basal antennal joint not

advanced to the line of the front.

506 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

Hepatic region approximating the

eye, its anterior margin transverse

Batrachonotus

H'. Spine of basal antennal joint advanced

to the line of the front or nearly so.

Hepatic region distant from the

eye, its anterior margin oblique

Euprognatha

Cc’. Rostrum composed of two long spines : . Oregonia

A’, Basal joint of antennz not extremely slender, often very | bindd Eyes

with orbits, or capable of concealment.

B. Basal joint of antenne truncate-triangular. Eyes without true

orbits; eyestalks very short, either concealed beneath a supra-

ocular spine or sunk in the sides of a huge beak-like rostrum.

C. Antenne concealed beneath the rostrum.

D. Rostrum formed of two long contiguous horns

Sphenocarcinus

D’. Rostrum not formed of two long contiguous horns.

E. Eyes immovable . . UE VT, MOOR

E. Eyes movable . . . Epialtus

C. Antenne not concealed incid the rostrum.

D. Entire lateral portion of carapace y acer Carapace

smooth or nearly so . . Mimulus

D’. Carapace with two large job c or teeth on each side.

Carapace tuberculate . . . Pugettia

B’. Basal joint of antenna broad, usually either bciliivay produced ,

outward or, often, with one or two distal spines. Eyes with

its.

C. Orbits with a large, blunt, cupped postocular process into

which the eye is retractile, mat) is not completely concealed.

Eyestalks short.

D. No preocular spine

E. Meral joints of ambulatory legs flattened.

F. Carapace nearly as broad as long; suríace

uneven . Chioncecetes

F*. Carapace ide Igi ine bros; surface

smooth Pelia

E'. Meral joints of SDNY jan subcyliodricil ü

IX. A preocular spine.

E. Ambulatory legs armed with spines . . . Nibilia

E'. Ambulatory legs not armed with spines.

F. Basaljoint of antenna deeply concave; second

and third joints flattened, with thin, broad,

lateral expansions. . . Scyra

No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 507

F’. Basal joint of antenna not deeply concave;

second and third joints not broadly expanded.

G. Rostral horns long and slender . Chorilia

G'. Rostral horns not long and slender.

H. Basal antennal joint narrowing dis-

tall | wv e Rhodia

H’. Basal detail” joint not narrowing

ist Loxorhynchus

Č. Orbits complete, often tubular, cole piltély Alosctellag the

retracted eye.

D. Meral joints of ambulatory legs with very broad laminate

expansions . . Hemus

D’. Meral joints of dbuigiber leg ‘without aciients ex-

pansions.

E. Fingers spoon-shaped at tips.

F. Carapace suboblong or suboval. Orbits di-

rected forward. First movable joint of

antennz broadly expanded. Legs unarmed

Pitho

Æ. Carapace subtriangular. Orbits directed ob-

liquely forward. First movable joint of

antenne not broadly Pme Legs spi-

uw. wis . Mithrax

nous

E'. Fingers acute at tips.

F. Orbits tubular, directed outward. Carapace

subtriangular or oblong.

G. Carapace with lateral pone

Stenocionops

G'. Carapace without pim spines

Macroceeloma

F’. Orbits not tubular, directed obliquely forward.

Carapace orbicular.

G. Basal joint of antennz with two spines on

the inferior margin of the orbit

Coelocerus

G’. Basal joint of antennz without spines on

the inferior margin of the orbit

: Libinia

THE SPECIES OF MAIID&.

Genus Stenorynchus Lamarck . S. sagittarius (Fabricius), M(CH)SG

Genus Metoporhaphis Stimpson. . . M. calcarata (Say), M(CH)SG

Genus Podochela Stimpson.

508 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

Key to Species.

A. Rostrum acute or spiniform.

B. Rostrum long-pointed, terminating in a slender spine

P. gracilipes Stimpson, M( CH ).SG

B'. Rostrum short-pointed, not terminating in a spine.

C. A large postorbital tooth near the eye

P. lamelligera (Stimpson), G

C'. A small postorbital tubercle, remote from the eye

P. hemphillii (Lockington), D

A’. Rostrum not acute, but rounded.

B. Pterygostomian region with a laminate crest. Basal antennal

joint with lateral crests laminate P. réised Stimpson, M( CH)G

B’. Pterygostomian region with a tubercle. Basal antennal joint with

lateral crests smooth and rounded P. hyfoglypha (Stimpson), G

S 2 Fic. 2. — Euprognatha

Fic. 1. — Podochela riisei. rastellifera.

Genus /Epinus Rathbun . . A. iore apos Ris Milne-Edwards), G

Genus Erileptus Rathbun . . . E. spinosus Rathbun, D

Genus Arachnopsis Stimpson . . . . . A. filipes Stimpson, G

Genus Dasygyius Rathbun . . . . D. diro dees (Lockington), D

Genus Inachoides Milne-Edwards Lucas . Z. magdalenensis Rathbun, D

Genus Collodes Stimpson.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace with median spines

C. depressus A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH )SG

A’. Carapace without median spines.

B. Interantennular spine advanced as far as the rostrum

C. semen E G

B. Interantennular spine not advanced as far as the ro

C. dul ciii M

Genus Anasimus A. Milne-Edwards.

No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 509

Key to Spectes.

A. Ambulatory legs more than twice the length of the carapace

A. latus Rathbun, SG

A’. Ambulatory legs less than twice the length of the carapace

A. rostratus Rathbun, D

Genus Batrachonotus Stimpson. . . B. fragosus Stimpson, M( CH)G

Genus Euprognatha Stimpson . . . . &. m Stimpson, MS

Genus Oregonia Dana O. gracilis Dana, AP

Genus Sphenocarcinus A. Milne- pieds

S. corrosus A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH)

Genus Mocosoa Stimpson. . . . . . M. crebripunctata Stimpson, G

Genus Epialtus Milne-Edwards.

Key to Species.

A. First tooth of the antero-lateral margin large and prominent

B. No postocular tooth . . E. bituberculatus Sfline Edwards, D

Fic. 3. — Epialtus productus.

B’. A postocular tooth . . KE. productus oa APD

A’. First tooth of the ditto labial margin small, not promine

E. nuttallii iind D

Genus Mimulus Stimpson . . . . . . M. foliatus Stimpson, APD

Genus Pugettia Dana.

Key to Species.

A. Postorbital projection a triangular tooth.

B. Hepatic expansion very broad . . . P. gracilis Dana, APD 1

B’. Hepatic expansion narrow, transverse . . P. richii Dana, AD

1 San Luis Obispo, California (Lockington).

510 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

A’. Postorbital projection an obtuse lobe . . . . P. dalli Rathbun, D

Genus Chioncecetes Krgyer.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace tuberculous ; branchial reiss flattened

C. opilio (O. Fabricius), WA

A’, Carapace spinous ; branchial regions dilated

C. tanneri Rathbun,! APD

Genus Pelia Bell.

Key to Species.

A. Hands in male with margins tapering to the fingers, which have their

edges meeting throughout . . P. pacifica A. Milne-Edwards, D

Fic. 4. — Chioneecetes tanneri.

A’, Hands in male with margins subparallel; fingers gaping at base

P. mutica (Gibbes), MSG

Genus Hyas Leach.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace subtriangular ; VERUR region not dilated laterally. Basal

antennal joint subtriangular . H. araneus (Linneus), V

A’. Carapace lyrate; hepatic region dilated laterally. Basal antennal

joint with sides nearly parallel.

B. Posterior angle of hepatic projection rounded. Basal antennal

joint without a large tubercle at the antero-external angle i

H. coarctatus Leach, NMA

B'. Posterior angle of hepatic projection subacute. Basal antennal

joint with a large tubercle at the antero-external angle

H. lyratus Dana, AP

Genus Nibilia A. Milne-Edwards

AV. erinacea A. Milne-Edwards, M( CH )C

Genus Seyra Dama... — . . . S. acutifrons Dana, APD

Genus Chorilia Dana. . . . . . . . . . C. Zengipes Dana, APD

* Only in exceptional has thi ies been found above the 100-fathom line.

No. 402.] MORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 511

Genus Rhodia Bell . . . . . CO parvifrons (Randall), D

c Hire camptacantha Stimpson

Genus Loxorhynchus Stimpson.

Key to Spectes.

A. Hepatic region with two large spines . . Z. grandis Stimpson, PD

A’. Hepatic region with one large spine . . ZL. crispatus Stimpson, D

Genus Hemus A. Milne-Edwards . JH. créstulipes A. Milne-Edwards, G

Genus Pitho Bell.

Key to Spectes.

A. Carapace smooth, pubescent . . . P. anisodon (von Martens), G

Fic. 5. — Hyas lyratus.

A’. Carapace tuberculous. . . . |. «P. lherminieri (Schramm), S

Genus Mithrax Latreille.! i]

Key to Species.

4. Carapace with dorsal sulci on the branchial regions

M. forceps (A. Milne-Edwards), M( CH)S

A’. Carapace without dorsal sulci on the branchial regions.

B. Divisions of rostrum tuberculiform.

C. Tubercles of the carapace faintly indicated

M. hispidus (Herbst), S

C. Tubercles of the carapace well marked

AM. pleuracanthus Stimpson, M( CH ).5G

1 M. denticulatus Bell, M. tuberculatus Stimpson, and Teleophrys cristulipes

Stimpson are recorded from California by Miers, but this is very likely an error,

as Miers used “ Californi ia” and * Lower California” interchangeably.

512 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

B’. Divisions of rostrum long and sharp M. acuticornis Stimpson, G

Genus Stenocionops Leach.

Key to Species.

4. Carapace with strong median n

S. spinosissimus (Saussure), M( CH)

A’, Carapace without a d median spines.

B. Carapace smooth . ce w 0. o. 39. fercaius COW

Fic. 7. — Pitho anisodon.

B’. Carapace tuberculous S. furcatus celatus (A. Milne-Edwards), G

Genus Macrocœloma Miers.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace ith d l spi besides th il hial d posterior spines.

B. Rostrum strongly defiexed M. septemspinosum (Stimpson), SG

No. 402.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 513

B’. Rostrum almost horizontal . . M. camptocerum (Stimpson), G

A’. Carapace without dorsal spines except the epibranchial and posterior

spines . - M. [ani (Latreille), M( CH)G

Genus Ccelocerus k Milne Edwards M . C.grandis Rathbun, G

Genus Libinia Leach.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace with lateral margin evenly rounded behind the rostrum.

B. Median spines six . . : . . L. dubia Milne-Edwards, MSG

B’. Median spines nine . ner ^ md Leach, VSG

A’. Carapace distended at ae hepalie regions Z. spinimana Rathbun, G

Fic. 8. — Mithrax acuticornis.

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY PARTHENOPID.

A. Carapace not laterally expanded.

B. Carapace tuberculate.

C. Carapace triangular, convex. Pterygostomian and subhepatic

regions not deeply excavated to form passages to the effer-

ent branchial apertures . Lambrus

C'. Carapace sabriouboliigl. Ment. Pierygostomian and

subhepatic regions excavated, this excavation forming,

when the chelipeds are retracted, passages to the efferent

branchial apertures . . AE NAT atylambrus

B'. Carapace smooth . . . Solenolambrus

A’. Carapace more or less tapssded. to "Dus a vadit i in which the ambu-

latory legs are concealed.

B. Carapace greatly expanded, both laterally and posteriorly

Cryptopodia

B'. Carapace expanded laterally, but not posteriorly . Heterocrypta

514 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

THE SPECIES OF PARTHENOPID&.!

Genus Lambrus Leach.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace subtriangular, with lateral angles.

B. Protuberances of the carapace Ta subacute

L. pourtalesii Stimpson, MS

B'. Protuberances of the carapace ,tuberculiform, broadly rounded at

n fraterculus Stimpson, M(CH)G

1 +

Libinia ema

FIG. 10.

A’, Carapace posteriorly rounded, without lateral angles

. agonus Stimpson, G

Genus Platylambrus Stimpson . P. serratus (Milne-Edwards), M( CH YG

Genus Solenolambrus Stimpson.

Key to Species.

A. Gastric and cardiac regions with angular ridges

S. decemspinosus Rathbun, G

A’, Gastric and cardiac regions without angular ridges

S. tenellus Stimpson, G

Genus Cryptopodia Milne-Edwards.

1 California is given by Owen as the type locality of Lezolamórus punctatissimus

As it has not since been recorded north of Lower California, which was known

* California" in 1839, it is inferred that the species does not occur in the

United States.

No. 402.] MWORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 515

Key to Species.

A. Posterior margin of carapace d aues or nearly so. Cardiac region

faintly indicated . : . C. concava Stimpson, G

A’. Posterior margin of carapace sinuous. Cardiac region protuberant

C. occidentalis Dana, PD

Genus Heterocrypta Stimpson . . . . H. granulata (Gibbes), SGM

TRIBE OXYSTOMATA OR LEUCOSOIDEA.

Carapace with the antero-lateral margins arcuate or orbiculate ; some-

times subglobose or more or less oblong, with subparallel margins. Epi-

stome much reduced. Buccal frame more or less triangular, produced and

narrowed forward, with the margins anteriorly convergent. Six to nine

Fic. 11. — Lambrus pourtalesii.

pairs of branchiz. Efferent channels opening at the middle of the endo-

stome, which is produced forwards. The afferent channels open either

behind the pterygostomian regions and in front of the chelipeds, or at the

antero-lateral angles of the palate. First antenna folded longitudinally or

obliquely. The genital organs of the male are exserted, either from the

bases of the fifth pair of legs, or from the surface of the sternal plastron.

KEY TO THE FAMILIES OF THE TRIBE OXYSTOMATA.

4. Legs normal in size and position.

B. goes not closing the buccal cavern; their palp always ex-

pos . CALAPPIDJE Milne-Edwards, de Haan, White

B. Maxillipeds. desig the buccal cavern; the palp hidden.

C. Afferent branchial openings in front of the bases of the

chelipeds . . Matutip# M'Leay

C'. Afferent branchial PRENS on either side of the endostome

Leucosup Leach

5 16 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

A’, Last two pairs of legs much reduced in size, and having a peculiar

position in the dorsal plane of the body

DorIPPIDÆ Milne-Edwards, White

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY CALAPPIDÆ.

A. Antero-lateral margin continuous with the postero-lateral.

B. Carapace broadest in its posterior half . . . . . . Calappa

B’. Carapace broadest in its anterior half. . . . .Acanthocarpus

A’. Antero- and postero-lateral margins meeting at an angle armed with a

sour De a s- y Fave

THE SPECIES OF CALAPPIDÆ.

Genus Calappa Fabricius.

Key to Species.

A. Teeth of the posterior margin of the carapace broad and shallow

C. flammea (Herbst), MSG

A’. Median pair of teeth of the posterior margin long and slender

C. sulcata Rathbun, M(CH)G

Fic. 12. — Calappa sulcata.

Genus Acanthocarpus Stimpson. . A. alexandri Stimpson, MG

Genus Platymera Milne-Edwards . P. piudichandis Milne-Edwards, PD

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY MATUTID&.

4. Carapace much broader than long ; front not produced ; surface evenly

convex . Hepatus

A’, Carapace nbasty as «Toii as (badi Jhon. considerably produced sur-

face very uneven, nodulose . . Osachila

No.4o2.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 517

THE SPECIES OF MATUTID.

Genus Hepatus Latreille.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace marked with large patches of color, margined by darker

lines. Length of penultimate segment of abdomen of male two-

thirds its proximal width . . . H. epheliticus (Linneus), MSG

A’. Carapace marked with transverse lines of small, dark spots. Length

of penultimate segment of abdomen of male three-fourths its proxi-

mal wid cig X39 ee e a ae H. princeps (Herbst), S

Genus Osachila Smpsan IUS CO... «4 0 NIMES Sümpson, G

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY LEUCOSIID.

A. Merus of external maxillipeds more than half the length of the ischium

measured along the inner border. Fingers stout, gradually narrow-

ing from base to tip.

B. Little or no space between the edge of the floor of the orbit and

the free edge of the buccal cavern.

C. Intestinal region without a spine. Merus of external maxilli-

peds nearly as e as the ischium measured along the

inner border . . xo. PHA

C'. Intestinal region with : a Res spine. Meu of external maxil- .

lipeds much shorter than the ischium measured along the

inner border . . Persephona

5. A considerable space bein thie eii of the lower wall of the

orbit and the free edge of the buccal cavern.

C. Carapace almost circular and globular . . . . Randallia

C^. Carapace polygonal; surface very uneven . . - Lithadia

A’. Merus of external maxillipeds half or less than half the length of the

ischium measured along the inner border. Fingers slender, almost

of the same diameter from base to near tip.

B. Fingers moving in a vertical plane. Pterygostomian channels

oil

projecting considerably beyond the orbits . . . Iliacantha

B'. Fingers moving in a horizontal plane. Pam channels

not projecting beyond the orbits . . Myropsis

THE SPECIES OF LEUCOSIID.

Genus Philyra Leach o o i.. . Z fitum de Haan, P

Genus Persephona Leach. . . . P. dpi (Linnzus), M(CH )SG

Genus Randallia Stimpson . . . . ornata (Randall), PD

Genus Lithadia Bell.

518 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. | [Vor. XXXIV.

Key to Species.

A. A narrow bridge between two cavities connects the cardiac and

branchial regions. . . L. pontifera Stimpson, M( CH)

A’. No bridge connects the inus idi branchial regions.

Fic. 14. R dallia ornata

B. A transverse ridge between the large branchial protuberance and

the lateral margin . L. cariosa Stimpson, 47(CH)G

B’. A small circular ciugiberance beiden the large branchial protu-

berance and the lateral margin . JZ. cadaverosa Stimpson, G

Genus Iliacantha Stimpson . . . . J: subglobosa Stimpson, M( CH)G

Genus Myropsis Stimpson . . . . . M. guinguespinosa Stimpson, G

KEY TO THE GENERA OF THE FAMILY DORIPPID;E.

A. The external coer ech leave all the anterior part of the buccal

cavern uncovered M CX as eee

A’, The external madio cover ‘the buccal « cavern . . Cyclodorippe

Fic. 15. — Ethusa mascarone.

THE SPECIES OF DORIPPID&.

Genus Ethusa Roux.

Key to Species.

A. Eyestalks Pint extending laterally beyond the postorbital spine

E. mascarone americana (A. Milne-Edwards), M (CH )G

A’, Eyestalks short, directed forward.

No. 402.] WORTH-AMERICAN INVERTEBRATES. 519

B. uet of second and third pairs of ~ broad, flattened

E. microphthalma Smith, M

B'. Dactyli of second and third pairs of legs slender, not flattened

E. tenuipes Rathbun, G

Genus Cyclodorippe A. Milne-Edwards.

Key to Species.

A. Carapace convex. No hepatic tooth C. nitida A. Milne-Edwards,’D

A’. Carapace flattened. A hepatic tooth. . . C. plana (sf. nov.), G

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

The following citations are additional to those given in Synopsis No. MIL

'8& MILNE-EDWARDS, H. Histoire naturelle des crustacés. ^ Vol. i

chap. iii, pp. 266—362, and Atlas.

'87 MiLNE-Epwarps, H. Histoire naturelle des crustacés. Vol. ii,

pp. 96-162, and Atlas.

38 KRØYER, HENRIK. Conspectus Crustaceorum Gronlandiz. Natur-

historisk Tidsskrift. Series 1, vol. ii, pp. 24

'89 RANDALL, J. W. Catalogue of the Crustacea Brought by Thomas

Nuttall and J. K. Townsend from the West Coast of North America

and the Sandwich bus etc. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadel-

fia. Vol. viii, pp. 106-14

44 DE Kay, James E. Ponidey a New York, or the New York Fauna.

Pt. vi, Crustacea.

'52 Dana, James D. Crustacea of the United States Exploring Expedi-

tion. Vol. i, pp. 75-142, 389-398, and Atlas

'96 GIBBES, L. R. Monograph of the Genus Cryptopodia. Proc. Elliott

Soc. Nat. Hist. Pp. 32-38. June 11, 1856.

‘70 STREETS, T. HALE. Notice of some Crustacea of the Genus Libinia,

with descriptions of four new species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philadelphia. Vol. xxii, pp. 104-107.

"71 Stimpson, W. Preliminary Report on the Crustacea Dredged in the

Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida, by L. F. de Pourtalés, Assist.

U. S. Coast Survey. Pt. i, Brachyura. Bul. Mus. Comp. Zoól.

Vol. ii, pp. 109-160.

"71 Stimpson, WILLIAM. Notes on North American Crustacea in the

: Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. III. Asn. Lyc. Nat.

Hist. New York. Vol. x, pp. 92-136.

1 Type, No. 14,256, U. S. Nat. Mus., southern California; W. H. Dall.

520

THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

LockINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific Coast,

with descriptions of some new species. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci.

Vol. vii, pp. 28-36. Feb. 7, 1876.

LOCKINGTON, W. N. Remarks on the Crustacea of the Pacific Coast

of North America, including a catalogue of the species in the

museum of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco.

Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci. Vol. vii, pp. 63 bis-78. July 17, 1876.

Miers, E. J. On the Classification of the Maioid Crustacea or Oxy-

rhyncha, with a synopsis of the families, subfamilies, and genera.

Journ. Linn. Soc. London. Vol. xiv, pp. 634—673, Pls. XII, XIII.

SMITH, SIDNEY I. Preliminary Report on the Brachyura and Ano-

mura Dredged in Deep Water off the South Coast of New England

by the United States Fish Commission in 1880, 1881, and 1882.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. vi, pp. 1-57, Pls. I-VI.

RATHBUN, Mary J. Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family Periceride

in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xv,

No. gol, pp. 231-277, Pls. XXVIII-XL.

RATHBUN, Mary J. Catalogue of the Crabs of the Family Maiide

in the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvi,

No. 927, pp. 63-103, Pls. III-VIII.

RATHBUN, Mary J. Descriptions of New Genera and Species of

Crabs from the West Coast of North America and the Sandwich

Islands. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvi, No. 933, pp- 223-260.

RATHBUN, Mary J. Notes on the Crabs of the Family Inachide in

the U. S. National Museum. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. Vol. xvii,

No. 984, pp. 43-75.

RATHBUN, MARY J. Synopsis of the American Species of Ethusa,

with description of a new species. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington.

Vol. xi, pp. 109-112.

CALMAN, W. T. On a Collection of Crustacea from Puget Sound.

Ann. New York Acad. Sci. Vol. xi, No. 13, pp. 259-284.

REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

The Races of Man. — A new treatise upon anthropology, by Dr.

Joseph Deniker, of the Natural History Museum, Paris, has been

published by the Scribners in * The Contemporary Science Series."

It is a very compact little volume of six hundred pages, containing

many carefully selected illustrations for the elucidation of the text

and numerous bibliographic notes. Comparison with somewhat simi-

lar compendiums shows how rapidly anthropology has developed since

the publication of Oscar Peschel's Races of Man and Fr. Muller's

Allgemeine Ethnographie a quarter of a century ago. Deniker has

treated his subject more fully than the philosophic Brinton in Races

and Peoples; he has given less space to palethnography than has

Professor Keane in Man, Past and Present.

Dr. Deniker is inclined to adopt the classification of the anthropo-

logic sciences advocated by Professor Brinton. We commend his

views concerning ethnology to the attention of those who fear that

this growing young science will seek to absorb all cognate fields of

research, ‘This latter science should concern itself with human

societies under all their aspects; but as history, political economy,

etc., have already taken possession of the study of civilized peoples,

there only remain for it the peoples without a history, or those who

have not been adequately treated by historians. However, there is

a convergence of characters in mankind, and we find even to-day

the trace of savagery in the most civilized peoples. Ethnical facts

Must not, then, be considered separately. We must compare them

either among different peoples, or, down the course of the ages, in

the same people, without concerning ourselves with the degree of

actual civilization attained.”

Three chapters are devoted to “ Somatic Characters," dealing suc-

cessively with the * distinctive characters of man and apes," “ dis-

tinctive morphological characters of human races,” “ physiological

characters,” and “ psychological and pathological characters.” The

principal physical criteria of race— head-form, pigmentation, stature,

and hair — receive special attention, and a number of new statistical

521

522 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

tables are furnished in the appendixes to the volume. The hair is

given particular prominence in the classification of races according

to morphological characters. Confidence is expressed in the ability

of Europeans to colonize the Tropics, though little evidence is

adduced in support of the opinion. For the first time, we believe,

in a general work attention is directed to the nervous susceptibility

of savages, which some students of primitive culture regard as an

important factor in the development of religion.

* Ethnic Characters," including language, the arts, religion, the

family, and social life, are treated in four chapters that seem all too

brief to the serious student. Indeed, the entire volume reminds the

reader of Tony Weller's comment upon brevity in letter writing.

Half the book is devoted to Races and Peoples. Dr. Deniker

modifies somewhat his classification of the races of mankind in gen-

eral, published in 1889, and now divides the species into twenty-nine

races, which in turn are separated into seventeen groups, by taking

into account other characters than somatic alone. The ancient in-

habitants of Europe are passed over with but brief mention; the

Aryan question is dismissed as unanswerable and no longer of any

consequence in anthropology. His well-known scheme of classifica-

tion of the present races of Europe into six primary and four second-

ary races is given in briefer form than in previously published papers

of the Anthropological Society of Paris. The few paragraphs upon

the archeology of Asia show that the subject is becoming better

known and sheds light upon the ancient history of Europe. The

complete account of the migrations of Asiatic tribes within historic

times cannot yet be written. So also we can only discern in a gen-

eral way the elements furnished by the eleven races into which the

peoples of the continent are divided.

Dr. Deniker accepts quaternary man in North America as estab-

lished by the discoveries at Trenton, Little Falls, Minnesota, etc.

The mounds of North America are ascribed to the Indians. The

modern tribes are considered by ethnographic provinces rather than

by groups based upon somatic characters or ethnic traits.

_ The author is certainly correct in his belief “that even profes-

sional anthropologists will be able to consult" this work * profit-

ably.” While ethnic maps would have added much to the value of

the book, and though there are statements of fact and deductions

susceptible to criticism, yet it presents a masterly summary of an

extensive and intricate subject. FRANK RUSSÉLL.

No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 523

ZOOLOGY.

The White-Fish of Lake Chapala. — In 1879 the writer secured

a single specimen of the famous “ Pescado Blanco,” a delicious

food fish found in Lake Chapala, in Mexico. This was described

under the name of Chirostoma estor. It is an atherinoid fish (Sil-

versides or Pesce-rey), translucent and delicate in substance and

about a foot in length. Last winter Mr. J. O. Snyder and the

writer visited this lake and obtained a very large collection of the

“ Pescado Blanco." On critically examining it we were surprised

to find that the material contained six distinct species, similar in

color and appearance but differing in technical characters, and not

one of them identical with the original Chirostoma estor. Two of

these six species have been lately described by Dr. G. A. Boulenger

from specimens taken by Mr. A. C. Buller, ede the names of

Chirostoma lucius and Chirostoma sphyrena (Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

1900, pp. 54, 55). These names have priority over those printed

but not yet published by Jordan and Snyder. par

Evermann on Species and Subspecies. — In Science for March

23, Dr. B. W. Evermann gives a very sane and accurate account of

the formation of species and subspecies, using two species of darters

in Lake Maxinkuckee as illustrations. He closes with these words:

“ We sometimes hear the remark that * systematists often go too far

and describe as new species or subspecies forms which differ but

slightly from known forms, that they give specific or subspecific

value to differences which are due merely to slight differences in en-

vironment. This misses the whole point. What produces species

and subspecies except slight differences in environment with greater

or less geographical isolation? And when we see these differences

why should we refuse to admit their existence or their meaning ? "

DSI

Smith on the Fishes of Woods Holl. — In Science for December

15, Dr. H. M. Smith adds a number of tropical species to the list of

fishes known from Woods Holl, raising the number of species to

240, the largest recorded from any Atlantic locality north of Key

West. The species not hitherto recorded from north of Carolina

are the following : Murena retifera, Apogon maculatus, Epinephelus

adscensionis, Garrupa nigrita, Mycteroperca bonace, Mycteroperca inter-

524 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [VoL. XXXIV.

stitialis (?), Eupomaceutrus leucostictus, Teuthis hepatus, Teuthis ceruleus,

Teuthis bahianus, Lactophrys triqueter, Chilomycterus antillarum,

Scorpena plumieri, and Scorpena grandicornis. All of these are evi-

dently species borne northward in the Gulf Stream. DSL

Eigenmann on Blind Vertebrates. — In Science for March 30, Dr.

Carl H. Eigenmann publishes his address as President of the Indiana

Academy of Sciences on * Degeneration of the Eyes of the Cold-

Blooded Vertebrates of the North-American Caves." In this he

discusses in detail the eye degeneration of the cave salamanders

and cave blind-fishes. He concludes that “degeneration has not

proceeded in the reverse order of development. Rather the older

normal stages of ontogenetic development have been modified into

the more recent phyletic stages through which the eye has passed.

The adult degenerate eye is not an arrested ontogenetic stage of

development but a new adaptation, and there is an attempt in

ontogeny to reach the degenerate adult condition in the most direct

way possible." DSI

Microbdella biannulata. — Under this name J. Percy Moore’

describes a remarkable leech of the family Glossiphonidæ, recently

discovered by him in the mountain region of North Carolina,

attached to the body of the salamander Desmognathus fusca.

Leeches of the family named have somites ordinarily composed each

of three rings about equal in width. In Microbdella, however, a

typical somite is biannulate dorsally, uniannulate ventrally. The

two rings into which the somite is divided on the dorsal surface are

not of equal width, the anterior one being much broader and corre-

sponding evidently with the first and second rings of a typical

somite of Glossiphonia. The segmental sense organs of the dorsal

surface are situated in the posterior half of the broad anterior ring.

The single broad ring of which the somite is composed on the ven-

tral surface is clearly equivalent to all three rings of a somite of

Glossiphonia.

Moore’s discovery shows the correctness of two general conclu-

sions recently announced by W. E. Castle? as a result of studies

made chiefly on Glossiphonia :

i. The sensory ring of the leech somite is the middle, not the

anterior ring of the somite, as has been generally assumed hitherto.

1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sct. Phila., April, 1

2 Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., i ag 1900.

No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 525

A biannulate condition of the leech somite has probably pre-

ceded phylogenetically the triannulate condition ; still earlier the

somite was probably uniannulate, as in the chetopods. The simple

uniannulate somite became biannulate by the separation of a narrow

posterior ring from the rest of the somite ; the triannulate condition

was reached by the separation of a narrow ring at the anterior end

of the somite, the sensilla remaining on the middle ring.

These conclusions have been reached quite independently by

Moore, who presents incontrovertible evidence in their support. He

further expresses the opinion that the shorter somites commonly

found at either end of the body of a leech are not, as they are

usually regarded, “abbreviated” somites once multiannulate, but

rather represent “stages of development arrested or in progress ”

from the uniannulate to the multiannulate condition.

The number of somites in the body of Microbdella is probably

the same as in Glossiphonia (Clepsine) and Herpobdella (Nephelis),

though Moore finds some evidence, not to his mind conclusive, of the

existence of an additional somite at the anterior end of the body.

Locomotion of Solenomya. — Solenomya and its relatives show

three methods of locomotion which have been studied by G. A.

Drew. The first is well represented in Yoldia. This clam pos-

sesses a spatula-like foot split into two plates at its distal end.

The animal drives this foot into the mud, with the distal flaps held

together. "These are then expanded and serve as an anchor so that

the contraction of the longitudinal muscles of the foot draws the

animal through the mud to the place where the foot is anchored.

There is no reason to suppose that these mollusks creep about on

the expanded foot as snails do. The second method of locomotion,

that of leaping, is seen in Solenomya, and especially in Yoldia.

When the animal rests sidewise on a smooth surface, the foot is

protruded and turned under the lower valve. If the foot is then

suddenly contracted, the shell may be thrown end for end some

inches. The third method of locomotion is that of swimming.

This is accomplished by the vigorous ejection of water from the

mantle cavity. The mantle lobes are united except at their anterior

and posterior ends. By the separation of the valves, through the

action of the elastic ligament, the mantle chamber is filled with water.

The anterior opening is then closed by the foot, and by a vigorous

2 Drew, G. A. Locomotion in Solenomya and its Relatives, Anat. Anz., Bd.

xvii, pp. 257—266, 1900.

526 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

contraction of the mantle musculature the water is expelled through

the posterior opening, thus driving the body of the animal forwards.

By a succession of such jets the animal may swim some feet before

settling. P.

Ear Bonés.— The ear bones of vertebrates have undergone a

careful comparative examination at the hands of J. S. Kingsley.’

In urodeles and ccecilians, where no tympanum exists, a stapes,

which develops independently of the otic capsule, is the only ele-

ment present. In the anura the space between the otic capsule and

the tympanum is spanned by three elements, the stapes, the pseudo-

perculum, and the extracolumella, which collectively constitute the

so-called columella of this group. It is important to observe that

the intermediate piece, the pseudoperculum, is developed from the

posterior wall of the tympanic cavity. In lizards the chain of ear

bones consists of only two, the stapes and the extracolumella. Of

the three ear bones in the pig the malleus is composed of three

parts, a manubrium corresponding to the extracolumella of lower

forms, a body representing the articulare, and a membrane bone

forming at least a part of the processus gracilis. The stapes of the

pig is homologous with the stapes of lower vertebrates. The incus

which unites malleus and stapes cannot correspond to the pseu-

doperculum of lower vertebrates, because it develops from the ante-

rior instead of the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity. As this

position is that occupied by the quadrate, the incus is believed to be

homologous with this bone. It will thus be seen that while the dis-

tal and proximal ends of the chain of ear bones in mammals and in

lower vertebrates are homologous, the intermediate members are not,

being the posterior pseudoperculum in amphibia and the anterior

incus (quadrate) in mammals. P.

Otocysts of the Heteropods. — Ilyin? has experimented upon

Carinaria and Pterotrachea with the view of determining the physio-

logical value of the otocysts in these mollusks. The otocysts are

apparently stimulated not as auditory organs but as tactile organs.

When both organs are removed, the animal is unable to keep itself

correctly oriented and swims in circles. The presence or absence

1 Kingsley, J. S. The Ossicula Auditus, Tufts College Studies, No. 6. (Scien-

tific Series.) pe

2 Ilyin, P. Das Gehörbläschen als 29 Ago pao bei den Pterotra-

cheidz, sro r Phys., Bd. xiii, pp. 691-694, 1900.

No. 402.] REVIEWS OF RECENT LITERATURE. 527

of the eyes does not alter this reaction, so that orientation is not

accomplished in these forms by the eye, as in many other animals.

The loss of one otocyst does not affect the animal's movements, the

remaining one being sufficient to keep it normally oriented. P.

Capillaries and Sinusoids. — C. S. Minot! draws attention to the

fact that in the vertebrates blood vessels are connected not only by

capillaries but also by irregular, minute spaces, for which he proposes

the name “ Sinusoids." The walls of a sinusoid, like those of a capil-

lary, are formed from a single layer of endothelial cells, but the

capillary wall has the form of a tubule, while that of the sinusoid

follows the irregular surfaces of the tissue spaces in which it lies;

capillaries are tubules, but sinusoids are irregular, branching systems

of spaces. Sinusoids form the main blood channels in the pro-

nephros, mesonephros, liver, heart, supra-renal capsules, parathyroid

glands, carotid glands (probably), and coccygeal glands. P.

Villi of the Mammalian Intestine. — The development of the

villi in the intestine of man and of the pig has been investigated by

J. M. Berry." The inner surface in young embryos is at first smooth,

but afterwards becomes thrown up into longitudinal folds, such as

are found permanently in many of the lower vertebrates. These

folds increase in size and then break up into rows of villi. After

the first villi become fully developed, new ones are added to the

intestinal surface, so that fully developed villi and forming villi may

be found side by side, the number of the villi thus increasing with

increase of age. DE.

Notes. — Dr. Kishinouye has described (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.,

Vol. XXII, p. 125) a new species of stalked jellyfish, Ha/iclystus stej-

negeri. This genus has thus far been represented by three Atlantic

species. The new form comes from the Commander Islands in the

Pacific.

The distome genus Clinostomum, founded in 1856 by Leidy,

has been brought forward again by Braun (Zool. Anz., Bd. XXII,

! Minot, C. S. On a hitherto unrecognized Form of Blood Circulation without

Capillaries in the Organs of Vertebrates, Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. xxix,

pP. OPES d 1900.

rry, J. M. On the Development of the Villi of the Human Intestine,

Anat. Anz., Bd. xvii, pp. 242-249, 1900.

528 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

pp. 484-488, 489-493), who finds in it a natural group, clearly and

sufficiently characterized by the anterior end and the genital and ex-

cretory systems to be distinguished from all other distomes. He gives

a résumé of the known species and adds six new. Almost simul-

taneously with this has appeared an excellent description of an

American species by W. G. MacCallum (Journ. of Morph., Vol. XV,

pp. 697—710, 1 plate).

The structure and biology of Oxyuris curvula have been studied

by H. Ehlers (Arch. f. Naturges., 1899; 26 pp., 2 plates). He con-

firms the previous opinion that the variably long tail of the female is

a mark of advancing age and not a specific character, and finds that,

contrary to the ordinarily received view, this species is of pathologic

importance. Experimentation showed that direct infection is possi-

ble, if not general, and that the period of development covers about

three months.

Towards the analysis of the old group of distomes Stossich has

recently contributed a study on the dismemberment of the genus

Brachycelium Duj. (oZ. Soc. Adr. Sci. Nat., Trieste, Vol. XIX, pp.

7-10), and a second paper on the partition of the genus Echinosto-

mum Duj. (75., pp. 11-16).

In some biological observations on Galeodes and Buthus, E.

Lönnberg (Ofv. Kgl. Vet-Akad. Forh., 1899, No. 10, pp. 277-284)

records that the poison of the latter was not strong enough to kill

the former, and that the belief in the self-destruction of the scor-

pion when surrounded by fire rests on erroneous observation. In

Galeodes it is the mechanical power of the jaws only that renders it

dangerous, and this is not sufficient to pierce the human skin.

Another paper on the fishes of the Caucasus, based on Dr.

Radde's collections, is published in German and Russian by Dr. S.

Kamensky, assistant in zoólogy in Charcow. Numerous new species

of Barbus (Barbel) are described and figured.

The fourth part of Boulenger's admirable report on the fishes of

the Congo is now published. It includes Cleopaide, Mormyridz,

etc., and the descriptions are accompanied by excellent plates.

NEWS.

THE German Society of Naturforscher und Artze meets this year at

Aachen from the 17th to the 21st of September.

Mr. Dean C. Worcester has resigned his position as assistant pro-

fessor of zodlogy in Michigan University, to accept his appointment

as member of the new Philippine Commission.

Dr. Th. M. Fries, professor of botany in the University of Upsala,

has retired.

The British Association for the Advancement of Science meets

this year at Bradford, beginning September 5, under the presidency

of Sir William Turner.

An International Congress of General Botany is to be held in

Paris from the rst to the roth of next October. The Congress

will be under the auspices of the government in connection with

the Exposition.

The Biological Laboratory of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and

Sciences at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, announces the eleventh

season of summer instruction in natural history.

Professor C. B. Davenport will have for his staff: Professor H. S.

Pratt, comparative anatomy ; Professor C. P. Sigerfoos, embryology ;

S. R. Williams, zoólogy ; Gertrude C. Davenport and W. L. Tower,

microscopic methods ; Dr. D. S. Johnson, cryptogamic botany ; Dr.

H. C. Cowles, phanerogamic botany ; W. C. Coker, botany; Pro-

fessor N. S. Davis, bacteriology; Dr. H. A. Kelly, nature study ;

W. H. C. Pynchon, photography. The laboratory will be open from

July 2 to August 25. Correspondence should be addressed to Pro-

fessor Franklin Hooper, 5o2 Fulton Street, Brooklyn, or to Professor

C. B. Davenport, University of Chicago.

The Ohio State University announces a course of study for the

summer of 1900 at its Lake Laboratory, at Sandusky, Lake Erie.

Four courses are offered in zoology and three courses in botany.

The staff consists of Professor H. Osborn, zodlogy and entomol-

ogy; Assistant Professor Jas. S. Hine, entomology; F. L. Landacre,

zodlogy ; Professor W. A. Kellerman, botany; Assistant Professor

529

530 THE AMERICAN NATURALIST. [Vor. XXXIV.

J. H. Schaffner, botany. The school will open on July 2 and will

continue for eight weeks. Correspondence should be addressed to

Professor Herbert Osborn, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio.

The Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl announces a

special course in nature study designed to meet the needs of teachers.

The course will commence on July 5 and extend over a period of six

weeks. The courses of instruction in botany will include crypto-

gamic botany by Dr. Davis and Mr. Moore, plant physiology by

Dr. R. H. True, plant cytology and micro-technique by Dr. Davis.

Correspondence should be addressed to Professor C. O. Whitman,

University of Chicago, or to Professor Ulric Dahlgren, Princeton

University. |

We are indebted to the May issue of the Review of Reviews for

the following announcements:

Mr. Albert L. Arey announces the eleventh season of his natural-

science camp for boys at Canandaigua, N. Y. Instruction is given

in the subjects of biology, entomology, taxidermy, and photography.

The Rhode Island Summer School for Nature Study will hold its

second session on July 5-20, at Kingston, R. I. Tuition is free to

teachers in the schools of Rhode Island.

Beloit College, Wisconsin, will hold a summer school on Madeline

Island, Lake Superior, from July 26 to August 3

A school of applied agriculture and de ont m be established

near New York City, to open in September for study and practical

training. Students will have the use of the laboratories and the

extensive collection of plants in the museum, the conservatories, and

upon the grounds of the New York Botanical Garden. The work

will be under the direction of Mr. George T. Powell.

Appointments: Dr. Antonio Baldacci, docent for botany in the

University of Bologna. — Dr. Alexander Balint, docent for zoólogy

in the University of Klausenburg. — Dr. C. R. Bardeen, professor of

anatomy in the University of California. — Dr. Llewellys Barker, of

Johns Hopkins, professor of anatomy and neurology in the Univer-

sity of Chicago. — Dr. A. N. Berlese, professor of botany in the

University of Sassari, Sardinia. — Dr. Albrecht Bethe, docent for

physiology in the University of Strassburg. — Dr. H. Bóckh, pro-

fessor of mineralogy and paleontology in the Akademie in Schemnitz,

Hungary.— Dr. Hermann Braus, professor extraordinary of anat

omy in the University of Würzburg. — Dr. O. Brefeld, professor of

No. 402.] ` NEWS. 531

botany in the University of Breslau. — Dr. Willy Bruhns, professor

extraordinary of mineralogy and petrography in the University of

Strassburg. — Dr. O. Burger of Gottingen, professor of zodlogy in

the University of Santiago, and director of the zodlogical section of

the National Museum. — Dr. W. E. Castle, instructor in zoólogy in

Harvard University. — Howard Emlyn Davies, assistant in bacteri-

ology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Gustav Fritsch, honorary

professor of physiology in the University of Berlin. — Dr. Fünfstück,

professor of botany in the Stuttgart Polytechnical School. — Mr.

A. W. Grabau, instructor in geology in the Rensselaer Polytechnic

Institute at Troy, N. Y. — Frederick O. Grover, professor of botany

in Oberlin College. — W. F. E. Gurley, associate curator of paleon-

tology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. J. B. Hatcher, of Prince-

ton, curator of vertebrate paleontology in the Carnegie Museum at

Pittsburg. — Dr. E. von Hibler, docent for anatomy in the University

of Innsbruck. — W. H. Hobbs, professor of mineralogy and petrog-

raphy in the University of Wisconsin. — Dr. E. O. Jordan, associate

professor of bacteriology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. F. R.

Kjellmann, professor of botany in the University of Upsala. —

Eduard Lampe, conservator of the Natural History Museum at

Wiesbaden. — Dr. Frank R. Lillie, of Vassar College, assistant pro-

fessor of zoólogy in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Jacques Loeb,

professor of physiology in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Karl

Mez, professor extraordinary of botany in the University of Halle.

— Dr. Luigi Montemartini, docent for botany in the University of

Pavia.— Dr. A. Osann, professor extraordinary of geology in the

University of Basel. — Dr. F. Sandor, docent for mineralogy in the

University at Agram, Austria, — Dr. von Schmidt, docent for his-

tology and embryology in the University of Jena. — Dr. Max Semper,

docent for paleontology in the technical school at Aachen. — Dr.

Angelo Senna, docent for zoólogy and comparative anatomy in the

Institute for Superior Studies at Florence. — G. Severin, the entomolo-

gist, conservator of the Natural History Museum in Brussels. — Dr.

Wilson R. Smith, instructor in botany in McMaster University,

Toronto. — Dr. Hans Solereder professor extraordinary of botany

in the University of Munich. — Dr. Stahr, docent for anatomy in

the University at Breslau. — Dr. A. Steuer, docent for geology in

thé Darmstadt Technical School. — Dr. Alexander Tornquist, pro-

fessor extraordinary of geology and paleontology in the University of

Strassburg. — John E. Webb, assistant in physiography and biology

in the University of Chicago. — Stuart Weller, instructor in geology

532 . THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.

in the University of Chicago. — Dr. Gregg Wilson, tutor in zoology

in Heriott-Watt College, Edinburgh. — Mr. J. B. Woodworth, of Har-

vard, assistant on the New York Geological Survey. — H. Woods,

tutor in paleozoólogy in the University of Cambridge.

Deaths: Émile Blanchard, zoólogist, at Paris.— Mr. Andrew

Bolter, entomologist, in Chicago, March 18, aged 8o. — John Brooks

Bridgman, student of Hymenoptera, at Norwich, England, October

6, aged 63. — W. E. Brooks, ornithologist, at Mount Forest, Ontario,

aged 70. — Giovanni Canestrini, professor of zoology and compara-

tive anatomy in the University of Padua, February 14. — Edouard

Coucke, student of Coleoptera, in Brussels. — Frank Hamilton Cush-

ing, ethnologist, well known for his studies of the Zuhi Indians,

April 10, aged 43. — Francois Decaux, entomologist, in Neuilly. —

George Dowker, botanist and geologist, at Ramsgate, England, Sep-

tember 23, aged 71. — Dr. A. Ernst, formerly director of the National

Museum at Caracas, Venezuela. — Richard Fereday, student of.

lepidoptera, at Christchurch, New Zealand, August 3o, aged 79. —

Hans Bruno Geinitz, the geologist and paleontologist, at Dresden,

January 28, aged 86.— Walter Gótze, botanist, in German East

Africa. — Baron J. C. L. d'Hamonville, ornithologist, near Manon-

ville, France, November 17, aged 69. — F. L. Harvey, professor of

natural history in Maine State College and botanist and entomologist

to the Maine Experiment Station, by suicide, March 6, aged 50. —

Baron Oskar von Loewis, of Menar, at Kudling, Livonia, an ornitholo-

gist, Aug. 6, 1899, aged 61. — A. F. Marion, professor of zoólogy in the

Faculty of Sciences at Marseilles, January 23, aged 53.— P. Matheron,

paleontologist, in Marseilles, Dec. 31, 1899, aged 93. — M. Alphonse

Milne-Edwards, the eminent French zoólogist, April 21, aged 64. —

Professor St. George Mivart, the well-known zoólogist, in London,

April 1, aged 73. — Dr. R. Nasse, geologist, in Berlin, December 2;

aged 62. — Dr. Wilhelm von Nathusius, well known for his studies

of the shell of birds’ eggs in Halle, December 25, aged 78. — Dr.

Manuel Paulino d'Oliveira, professor of zoólogy at Coimbra, Portu-

gal, August 25. — Dr. Karl Maria Paul, of the Austrian Geological

Survey, in Vienna, February 1o. — Dr. Lucien Quélet, mycologist,

in Herimoncourt, France. — Mr. George P. Sennet, ornithologist,

at Youngstown, Ohio, March 18, aged 59. — Dr. Karl Sommer,

student of Lepidoptera in Oberlóssnitz, Germany, November 18.—

Dr. Wilhelm Zenker, astrophysicist, but earlier a student of arthro-

pods, in Berlin, October 21, aged 7o. — Dr. Giovanni Zoja, professor

of anatomy in Padua.

NOTE ON CESTODE NOMENCLATURE.

In many of the cestodes there occurs at the beginning of the

germ duct an organ, chiefly muscular in structure, which engages

the germ cells on their release from the germarium and forwards

them into the germ duct. From its characteristic movements in the

discharge of this function the organ was well named “ Schluck-

apparat" by Pintner, who made the first extended study of its occur-

rence and structure. Its presence has been generally recognized by

investigators on cestode structure since then, and the term used by

Pintner has been widely employed even in French and English

papers. The evident disadvantages of such terms as are unpro-

nounceable and unintelligible to students unfamiliar with the Ger-

man and are furthermore incapable of inflection, serve as my excuse

for calling attention to a term in use in the laboratory here to desig-

nate this structure, namely, odcaft. Formed on the analogy of

Leuckart’s generally accepted term “odtype” for a neighboring

structure in the reproductive apparatus and conveying the appro-

priate idea suggested by Pintner, the term **oócapt " has proved in

use both convenient and precise. As it is to be used in papers now

being published by some of my students, this explanation is also

necessary in order to prevent possible confusion or misunderstanding

regarding its origin and meaning.

Henry B. WARD.

THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA.

533

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Contributions to the Physiology of the California Hagfish Zo/istotrema stru

I. The Anatomy and Physiology of the Caudal Heart. Amer. Journ. of Pis.

Vol. iii, No. 8. — KERR, J. G. The External Features in the Development of

Lepidosiren paradoxa Fritz. Phil. Trans. l. cxcii, pp. 299-330, 5 plates. —

MILLEPAUGH, Utowanæ. Plants collected in ud rto

Rico, etc. The Antillean Cruise of the Yacht Ut Part I, Catalogue of the

Species. Field C. Series, Vol. ii, No. 1, 110 pp.— G

S., Jr. Seven New Rats collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott in Siam. Proc. Biol

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x uum & HC Catalogue of a Collection of Birds fen adagascar.

E Mus. Vol. xxii, pp. 235-248. — OBERHOLSER, H. C. Notes on

Birds collected, l by = W. L. Abbott in Cent U.S. Nat. Mus

Vol. sori — VAUGHAN, T. W. A New il Species of Caryo-

phyllia fm Cali ornia, and a New Genus and Species my Turbinolid Coral from

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(Wo. gor was mailed May 31.)

534

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VoL. XXXIV, NO. 403” JULY, 1900

THE

AMERICAN

NATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE

CONTENTS

: PAGE

I. Notes on a Species of Pelomyxa . . Professor H. V. WILSON 535

II. A Remarkable Axolotl from North Dakota š Professor H. L. OSBORN 551

III. The Female of Eciton Sumichrasti Norton, with Some Notes

on the Habits of Texan Ecitons . . Professor W. M. WHEELER 563

IV. On the Linnæan Genera Myrmecophaga and Didelphis . J. A. G. REHN 575

V. Karpinsky's Genus Helicoprion. A Review . . Dr. C. R. EASTMAN 579

VI. Synopses of North-American Invertebrates. XI. The Cato-

metopous or Grapsoid Crabs of North America MARY J. RATHBUN 583

VII. Reviews of Recent — Anthropology, = and his Ancestor, Notes 593

— Zoólogy, A Zoo d-Pacific, The Distribution 594

of the Opilionide, , The Management and Diseases of the Dog, Studies

on Hirudinea, The Resources of is Sea, * Les Oiseaux," Heliotropism

of Cypridopsis, Notes — Botany, An Experimental Botany, Prant's 605

Lehrbuch, * Lessons in Botany," ice Paleobotany, Cretaceous Plants, 608

Fossil Cycads, The Yale Collection of Cycads, Fossils of the Nor-

wegian North Polar Expedition, Rothamsted Experiments, Plants in

Calcareous Tufa, Fossil Flora of the Cascade Range, iat of the Coal

Layers of La Ternera — Paleontology, Notes on Fossil Fi 612

VIII. News 613

IX. Publications Received : m

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CHARLES E. BEECHER, Pu.D., Yale University, New Haven.

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LEONHARD STEJNEGER, Smithsonian Institution, Washington.

W. TRELEASE, S.D., Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis.

HENRY B. WARD, PH.D., University of Nebraska, Lincoln. .