CONTENTS.

Rocky Mountains.

‘ . Archibald Getkie 2.0.45

The Discovery of Iron Implements in an ‘Amite Mine i in "North

Maron 5. e ee SORE Pes eta or Frederick W. Simonds... 7

On the Fertilization of Calasniuttis nee: Ce we ks OE DP ELMSE Ns 6's Wienke

Comparative Neurology Se ok ole a er ee ae ee Tht te oe Coepenbere.. O-6 a aay eon

aside n the Colorado tes Br a ata a wha Se Edward Lee Greene... .. 24

The Met

by the young naked Branches... ... Siptatete as oe Re Ure ewe eee

An Address to the Fossil eosin in a Private bases - James S. ie Aa ga

Incomplete Adaptation as illustrated by the Histary ” Sex in

Plantes ae a ee Sig eS bigs Oar ek as CoRSEET Ny PAT Baw oul ee wg 89

A Partial Biography of be Green Liege : SR Eros ee te Sara wet ores ie ie

pata Leak Cte Ant ose Sie es ee ee ee a ea oe) ote es eee

ee’s Tongu id t Gland ted with a Cie. efew es Pui Sleakites. 113

coara ase re gee eRe < DOPE Se ee 119

Observations on ie ‘Suir of the Pac Hie. Apt hive ates hos a ce ft s Jordan & C,H. Gilbert 177

The ae goon ores I—The Anatomy and Development of

A galm: —continued nos §: 630, Vol. x1v.]. . 3. Walter Fewkes.. .. . . 186

The Relation of A eee es 1A, % Goo «es + 195

Glacial Picea | in the Yellowstone Park . FIOTMOR Ee 6 aS ROS

A Collector’s ‘oa es on the Breeding of a few Weiieva Birds . ‘ a Hole CROs PT ka les ie Oe

pees yan wooed Salvia Jesolo vf oe Siege views William Trelease.. .. .» 265

On the Origin of t he Ungulates « «« « « B.D: Coe eee kee

Dendead £

ab the

year 1880., . wine He RARE Cee a ea

Evidences of the Effect of Chemico-Physical iatonaie on the

volution of Branchiopod Crustaceans . eG hou a Carh. Gineters 3 Ves ae

Notes on a few of oT and Injuries j in 1 Birds. www o oe Ru W. Shufeldt, 6.5 4 0 sa B0s

TR Re i igcane «gohan wi 6 A. S. Packard, tee se 85, 372

The Endocranium an ne Susveaeneiion of Ke Bee. . . . George Macloshie.. .. ++. 353

Mya arenaria in San Francisco Bay. ....- = «sone wRobert £,. Ci Starnsss.4> 302

The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks in its Relation to the

merican Grand Bank Cod F ies. erie ler’ H. L. Osborn eb

Archzology of Vermont... . Rae ree reread Ga er eo. H. Perk + 425

arval Habits of Bee-flies.........--4+% Wickes V. Riley . 438

Late Explorations in the Gaboon. . . . . - 6 eee . Hugo Von Koppenfels... +» 447

Pueblo ° Aree Oat ate a gop ul Fe 6 ews SSE

in and Descent of the Human Brain. . . . Sg Sse ec ate pane ie Cem sip 6 SER

he E bird . ne ney a . Samuel ptr Me, cs eee

Bacteria as a Caus scot Dimas te Plame; OSU E Mckee use ok are he DOPTIH we ee ee

ecord of American Carcinology for 1880... ...+++++ +3. S. Kingsley ...+++- a es

Aboriginal Stone-drilling wits KMS ss eee 8 + 530

On the Effects of nile aud Session he Feet ot hinmiaelta. = — CONF 6 an ae a ae

The Great Crested Flycatcher. ... 1.60 +00 0+. + Mrs. Mary Treat..... bor

The Reasoning Faculty of Animale 654.55 6 See a ro a a F. Faves. ss O08

of re in Aesica evieg the year 1880, oo o Otis T. Mason occa 66 w 616

The Man pues wees Se cee MINE: TROBE. Us 8 9s O88

Vavinions na Copepod Crate Mcibec vb cua wets 5 ne . 689

Sco pendrella and its Position in Natu

Te aa apg oes

Moll Pe oe

bod Skat = H+ 9 glenn Hell nn 59 7

Neacs oa sinc Caaee Sn ce pombe. <<. jul anal . Brinton... ++ 719

On the Development of the Stomata of Tradescantia and Indian

Corn,

Pe BOP OOS ee ee e@ os NS cous Sena

by Contents.

An Attempt to Reconcile the Differences between Authorities in

agen to the Maya Calendar and certain dates; also to

Determine the Age of the Manuscri pts ad ites oie ts > Gyrus Thomas. 6s 5. + + 967

The ete hiiabetorea: {IIL.. Ph yeophorde Animal eu re-

lated to Agalma.Ji. 60 ows 5 ge we ese eee « % Walter Fewkes.... + + 772

The Loess in Central Iowa: .. 2.0 2 ese eee ee ees R, Ellsworth Cali... 4. 782

Notes on laa Early Lael Stages of the Fiddler Crab and of

PIOUS ea, 6c a ove a aaie ween ves ee eee, ey A.S. Pa an Be as ot

lease A; "poctiebeubaal PUSHMCHON S <2 i'8) hse Bie 9p cers Harley Barnes... see 789

On the corgi and General Characters of the Peach Tree

h the “ Yellows... . 6.1 ee ee es .W.K. Higley. . « « « ~ 849, 961

On s0- site Chukchi and Namollo i of Eastern sitasia: WT, Dal vie Wipe 36 857

The Length of Life of Butterflies... 1. +++ +2 ee .W.H. Edwards ...... 868

Notes on the Migrations of Birds . Piscetars Mere bts 6 Hees HD. Minot « CW ee ace a

HONS 6 Gok a eh ee wre were a cat bee Vie eect ges! 9 V. At

The Fauna of the Nickajack cave... . ++ ee ee ee ree BD, Cape s. ecberd, ‘or en

Tisisetara . bg See a eames 6 ee ss yl A EAOLIORG oe ee ys

A Sketch of the Progress ‘of Botany i in the United States in 5 1880. cy E. ay. oi oe wh wee oe

Effects of Rever Domestic Animals . 3. D. Caton... . 2. +++ 955

Intelligence in a Snai as pe Roe kes . ~W, H. DA COE Oe

Botanical dies toa he: Leen e eee ee ete ee Fen R James eee es. 978

Eprrors’ Taste

The Un aa States Geological Survey, 39; Lack of Naturalists in large cities, 41 ; Academies

of Sciences, 41; The sii York Times, 42; The Tariff Laws of the United States, 124; Geo-

logical Survey of Pennsylvania, 126; Laws of Nomenclature, 219 ; Government aid for a biologi-

cal survey of the United State, 302; A popes Nae the ae Association si ag van

Associa tion, 379; Description and Iconography in Biology, 548; Winter course of lectures at the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 549; Letter from nae a 550; Insanity and

Responsibility, 641; Concord Summer School of Philosophy, 724; Mr. Barnes’ fs ang

Defin nitions, 791; Mining reports and investments, 791; Rules peal Nomenclature, 883

as a Profession, 987:

Recent Literatu i

The Natu bore Directory for 1880, 42; Shell Heaps in Japan, 43; The Botany of California,

Vol. 11, by Sereno Watson, 44; Balbiani’s Lectures on the eons of Vertebrates, 45; Zittel’s

Hand-book of Palzontology PS McAlpine’s Biological Atlas, 46; Eaton’s Systematic Fern

List, 46; The Z af i Record for ee 47; Jow urdan’s Zoantherian Corals of the Gulf of Mar-

ind gees gta

entral Nervous Syst ay Reptiles oad Batra ians, 50; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 51 ;

Report of the Com Src a of Fish and sont for 1878,

ing Beetles of the United States, 128; Robinson’s Flora of Essex county, Massachusetts, 129 ;

Seance the can of the F iaakile Institute on Analysis of gre sen : ea of sae

guistic Science, 131; Molina’s Dictionary of the Aztec Language, t Books and

3 : Rec

Pamphlets, 131; Zittet’s Hand-book of Palzontology, 221; Gunther’s Ppl to the Study

of Fishes, 222; Bruhl’s Zodtomy for Students, 223; Ingersoll’s Friends

orth Knowi ;

Gennadios on Phylloxera, 224; Wood's Insect’s Abroad, 224; Recent Books and Pamphlets a Hi

Wallace’s Island Life, 305; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 310; Genth and Kerr’s Miners of

North bento, 380; Martin’ s Human Body, 382; Verrill’s Cephalopods of the East Coast of

North America, 383; Minot’s Studies on the Tongues of Reptiles and Birds 383 ; Natural His-

tory of rig es 384; Report of the rece Napa of New Jersey, 384; * logtlawts Notes on

eo . ger ek Recent and Pam 85; Underwood’s Native Ferns, 462; Kent’s

anual of the Infusoria, 463; Recent a and Beatie sia Semper’s Animal Life as

affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence ; Anniversa: ; ‘Be

Memoirs of the Boston So- —

ciety of Natural History, 552; ent Dvelinesant. of the Squid, 553; Second Report of the

U.S. Entomological Commission, 554; Recent Books and Pa mphlets, 555; De Quatrefages’ The

Human Species, 643; The Zodlogical Record for 18

’ ; H porting Journals, 646; Repoit

of the Geo sentir t of Canada for 1878-79, 647; Recent Lithological Notices, Sere hes

Entom Ontario, Canada, 648; a8 — of Indiana, 648; R ks

and Pamphlets, 648; Report of th ommiss: ;

Fi Ivania ;

poorer — pone Laboratory of Johns Hephing University, 727; Hamlin’s ai

eography an logy of Mt. Ktaadn, 728; Darwin’s Power of Movement in Plants, 729; Re-

Contents. Vv

cent Books and dagen 730; Hyatt’s Genesis of the Tertiary species of Planorbis at Stein-

Jenney’s Geology of the Bla ck Hills of Dakota, 887; A Memoir on the Loxolophodon and Uin-

tatherium, 888 ; Hervey’ s Sea Mostes, 890 ; Bailey's Handbook, 890; Book of the Black Bass,

891; No me A Geology and Palzontology, 891; On the Structure

d Development of the Skull in the Batrachia, rats Recent Books and Pamphlets, 892; Ty-

lor’s Anthropology, 990; Knowledge, 995; Recent Books and Pamphlets, 995.

GENERAL Nores

Botany. ce Relg of Elevation to Change of Color in Flowers, 52; Insect-destroying Fungi,

; Bennett’s Clasiaieee of the Cryptogams, 53; Botanical Notes, 54; The Fungi which pro-

jae Mildew on Cotton Goods, 132; Allen’s Characee Americane Paslcbada’ 133; The Pep-

peridge Tree in Maine, 134; Histology of the Pumpkin Stem, 134; Fertilization of Aquil ia,

134 riations

Growth of the Virginia Creeper and Hickory, 227 ; The Compositz, 227; The Sensitiveness Of th

Root-tip of the Seedling, 228 ; Influence of Light on the erat of Seeds, sega tsneal

Notes, 229; A Reformed System of 2 NRE of the produc e Organs

rth American Pl

orth American Fungi, 315; Pinus hihihiane, coats on ape Coast of skéine?s 16; Ben-

s New eee te of the Orchids, 316; Botan ical News, 316; On the Evaporation of

Water from Leaves, 385; _ —_ of peeenen, 388 ; Botanical: Motes » 389; A Botanist’s Trip

to ‘*‘ The Aroostook,”’ 469 ; Apples ; Cohn’s Claseilicisen of the Thal-

lophytes, 473; Botanical Notes, ees The Growth of ak ‘Canton 556; Hardiness of the Eu-

calyptus, 558; Curiosities a Tr ree Gtowsh, 559 Botanical = tes, 560. The Poiso m of Zyga-

denus pica Ss, 651 ; How our Red Clover wey

651; Sets of North demeitivn an pre 652; Retasdeel Notes, ip esate in Minneso

The Study of Algzin the United States, 732; The Literature of Botany, 734; A Hint to ies:

helene 734; Errata, _ Botanical Notes, 7353 baeia's New System pe Plants, 803 ; Influ-

of Severe Winters 0 tion, Bo 'y’s Sli

again discovered in flower on the D Detroit ego 896; Botanical Notes, 897; Dimorphism in

Black Mustard, 997; Motion of the Fruit ot Tilia while in the Air, 998; The Sensitiveness of

Tendrils, 999 ; The Superabundance of fatten in Indian corn, 1000; The Common Names of ou

Plants, 1000; Coreopsis rosea, 1000; Ceratophyllum demersum in Fruit, zoor ; Botanical Notes,

I0ot.

Zoology.—Notes on oe eco of tase: 56; Breeding ace . the European as

Comp tract mito those of the American Oys 7; Change in the Nerv

—— — ASR 58; A New —— - Catonomide, 393 Cellular Tnrtability, 593 Budding

; Zodlogical

Cetra), Sn Habits “ tier English Sparrows i in the United States, 130; a in

at, 140; ous Habit of . cere pide ; Migrations of the Sand-hill Crane, 141; Zod-

he ‘auna of

water rat Organisms, 237; Zoblogical eine 237; Value of House Wre: an In-

sect Dest troyer, 318; Our Social eed 319: Zodlogical Notes, 319; New Texan Unio, 390;

Not , 39; The English Sparrow in Illinois, 392 ; The Red-

winged Starlings, 393; mn a Bird, 394; Zodlogical ‘igo = More about that Cat, 475;

out of Place, 4 Hawk New to the United States, 477; Curious Instance in the Breed-

~~ bree of the Blue bird, 478; Zoblogical Notes, 478: The king cake panaerne sayi) sups on

d habits in dom ted

Cater 563, _* Dog’ s discrimination of Sounds, 563; ; Discoveries sat the pera of peinpgaenge- a

; Brief N

on some Iowa Birds, 653; ; The rer of Smell i in Land Soa te : The Pena of the

Outang, 655; Marine Animals i 6536; The Eye-like Organs of the Skin of Certain

age: — Mason's Microsco: sstkengat aan on the Central i ar Reptiles and Ba- _

ians, 657; The Jelly Fishes of Narragansett bay, 658; Zodlogical Notes, 658; A Shower of

Cyclone ih mrs (736; Mussel and Insect Climbers, 7373 A Woodchuck climbs a Tree, 737;

a, 738; Eu in Indiana, 738 ; ‘Habits of the Yellow-bel-

vi Contents.

lied Woodpecker, fat: oa wee cause of the Longevity of Turtles, 738; The Trichina and other

; The Tail i Ty

Actions of a Hen Turkey, 812; rene of Color in Crabs and Prawns, 812; The Blue Gull, 812 ;

Male Crustacea producing Eg: ; Animal Pests in Gaslaieik Chass: 813; Zoological

gs, 8

Notes, 813; The Resemblances jan ‘Differences of the two Sexes, 899; Morphology of

: Th

of Birds, 1004; Sudden Interest in Japanese Ornithology, 1005; Terns c

Asilus and Libellula, peed ; Specimens of Melantho wanted, 1005 ; Zodlogical Notes, 1

tomology.—Salutat atory, 61; Biological i How. ; Ovipo-

sition in the rortriche; 63; Supplementary Pots on it Food ~ he: Blue-bird, sit eae 1 Hab-

its of Bee-flies (Bombyliidz), 143: Experiments with Pyrethrum: Safe Remedies for Cabbage-

worms and Potato-beetles, 145; Fi Fi > 147 t rin ies of t ice Plant, 148;

Description of a new Species of Cynips, 3 The ellow Fever Fly,’’ ; Ways of Limen-

itis bredowii; 151; H °

ent its introduction, 238; Ce ia Cocoon:

punctured by the oodpecker, 241; Notes on the Elm-tree Leaf-beetle (Galeruca xantho-

elzna), 242; Food Habits of Saperda cretata, 2 ybernation of the Cotton-worm t

ease with which mistakes are ; Pyrethi Seed, 245; The French still looking toward

American Vines, 322; Legislation to control Insects injurious to Vegetation, 322; On some Inter-

actions of yop 323; an Entomological Society, 324; Insect Locomotion, 325 ; Plant-

e0us Insects, 325; on Papilio or, cele ~_ of the

eee Spiders, 396; The Rascal ns in

tal Insect Boxes, 401; Insects Affecting the China Tree, 4or ; Galls on Eucalyptus, 402;

North es gpm 402; pega and Gall Insects, 402 ; The Periodical joe ‘atin;

** Seven ear Lo ; A ne of Oak Coccid mistaken for a Gall, 482; The

“= Weitewecea’ of the "Rice Pant, aes the impregnated Egg i

dw, imorphism in Cynipi 566

ghee. 4 ; Braula ceeca not particularly injurious to the H es Economic

Entomology in d, 568; The cultivation of Pyrethrum and Manufacture of the Powder,

; Trees attractive to Butterflies, 572 ; Hudson Lepid

574; Migra aor ta cis

a ses 748 | ge!

Rice Plant, 751; Canker

Wor Ser abueatphee ne no eS, 751; phase on Hydrophilus triangularis, 814 ; The Cul-

tivation ast 5 Se thrum and Manufacture of the Powder Simran 817; Migration oe Plant Lice

from one Plant to chek 819; The Chinch tah 820; Phyllo

area of France affected by lghgcrrs Sar ;

gist for the Pacific Coast, 821; Dilar

terous — Fauna of rade ae basa

PO ee NON ee ne RS ae ETT ee eve er ner ape Core

ht it

Contents. Vii

velopment in Insects, 1007 ; mares 4 “f AS eae 1008 ; The Permanent Subsection of Ento-

mology at the recent meeting of the A.S., 1008 ; pana Herbivorous Ground-beetle,

zo11; A Disastrous Sheep Parasite, rorr; ; Piyilowers not at the Cape, torr; Resistance of

Grape- -vines to Phylloxera in sandy Soil, 1012 ; Locusts in the Wess, 1013; iecanies of the Claw

.—Matériaux pour P Histoire de l’Homme, 68 ; Anthr opology i in Pennie , 68; a

al thro

tions at Madisonville, Ohio, 72; The Revue d’ Anthro pologie, 73 3 me hte 73; Early M:

atives, 154; Gesture Signs, 155 _— sic te Affairs, 155; Hrorsiaas and Proceec ings of

e New Zealand Institute, 15 ti America, Periodical, 156; Ski

Furrows e Hand, 156; ihnagraphy of the Caucas :P. -ébisiog of the Earth, 156;

German Anthropology, 157; Corrections, 157; Bibli pete Ne ee Anthropology in Missouri,

245; The Study of nguages, 248; A Prehistoric Rock Retreat, 248; Antiquity of Man,

249; ‘The Aztec Dictionary of Father Alo le Molina, 249; The Ind and Oceanic

Races, 250; The Pawn ans, 250; The Western Reserve Society, 250; The Census of

laska, 251; The Davenport Acade owa, a Bi aie ic » hip meth The History

of Religion, 332; iat Anthropolo npg n, 333: Mi

Veins, 333; The American Antiquarian, 333 ; Ga Age in Germany, 334; oe

in Great Britain, 334; Biblio aphy; ‘ ~ meena of Alaska, 403; Lactate Alphabet, 404

The Historical Society of Wisconsin, 405; America and the East, 405; Harvard Library Bulle-

Pe as : 3

Alfredo, 582 ; The Victoria Institute, 582 ; ih of Americanists ; Anthropol-

ogy cae the East Indies, 583; Bibli _ ale: Colaparasive Biology, sande ‘tie British pee

Ciation in 1880, 665; Anthropology i n Berlin, 665; Italian oe

Antiquarian, 666; Politico-social Functions, 666; jiography, Se pebreite ike of

the City of Mexico, is it Genuine or not? 752; Ancient Pueblo a ic 754, French Anthro-

pology, 754; German Anthropology, safe hig tag 755; The Indians of Berks county, Pa.,

silo aie The

822; Anthropological Institute of Gr ard Bochco rie 824

Archzological ert of Ameri 43 825; Zuni and the

Zunians, 826 Indians of Canada, 826; Sicagane i Peddiecst Proces s of th

Bone in Ancient ‘tidiin Crania, 917; A Prehistoric Cup e from Cranium, 9

Anthropology at the American Association, 919; 4 ; _ ropology i in France, 920; Professor Baird’s

R for 1880, 1014; Pea 1org ; Chai

- and Ethno! lo ogy, nges

in Mya and Lunatia since the ener os the. Ne ew England | Sh ell-heaps, rors ; Ancient Jap-

anese Bronze Bells, rors; Works d Shélls in New England Shell-heaps, 1016; Congres et Mis-

sions Ethnographiques, 1016; Italian Adllsnbelaay: 1017.

Geology and Pala@ontology.—The Vertebrata of the Eocene of the Wind River Basin, 745

Professor Kerr on Frost nese 75; Discoveries of Minerals in Western North an 76;

logical News, 73 ; Geology of Southeastern Pennsylvania, 161 ; Alleged changes in the relative

elevation of Land and Sea, me Deets a vewvo of the Permian Demat of the United

States, 162; Geological News, 164; Valley Drift, ; Extinct Palzo-

zoic Fishes from Canada, sea : “The Millsto ne Grit in ‘England and eae 253; A new

Fossil Bird, 253; The Stream-tin Deposits of Blitong, 253; Geological News, 254; Mammalia of

the Lower Eocene Beds, 337% The Fault of the Yankee ae Siiver deposit of | Leadville, Colorado,

338; Filholon cecwceeaty 339 ti

Discovery of the Preglacial Outlet of the —_ es cna Erie into chat of Lake Ontario, 408 ; The

Tron Ores of vsti Utah, 410; Geologi ; The Taconic System in Geology, 494;

= = — Phyllopod Crustacean from the Guatenery clays of Conailee 496 Miocene Dogs, 497;

Ct)

of the ion Loess, ‘585; The Rodentia of the Aiecickss Miocene ene, 586; A New Clidastes from

New Jersey, 587; The International Geological Congress, 588; Gaudry on Stereorhachis, 588 ;

Diller’s Felsives of the Region of Boston, 589; Geological News, 589 ; The ee ee Denti-

tion of a New Creodont, 667; A Laramie Saunian in the Eocene, 669 ; Colors

Maps, 670; Geological News, 67; Mammalia of the Lowest Eocene, 829 ; Geology of the Lake

Po p= ie et ee a

Vili Contents.

Valley Mining District, 831; A Fossil Tertiary Crayfish, 831; ety ea oe 835; Eocene

he ea ; Belodon in New Mexico, g22 ; Geological Notes, 923; A type of Perisso-

ipla ; Notes o h

rT *)

fossil

rmi ~~ formatio n of New met, 1020; New Carboniferous Fossils in Scotland, to21; Stego- a

7 in Meteorites, 1022 ; Geological News, ro24, :

Geography and Travels—The ee of Capello and Ivens in West Central Africa,

978; Col. Prejevalsky, 81; The East Central African Expedition of the Royal Geographical So-

i 65; African i i

—

ir)

- Oo

5 ey ae e Ogowe

and Congo Routes to Stanley Pool, 924; The Great Andes of the Equator, 926; ips

News, 928; Proceedings of the Yiecavaphient Section of the British Association, 1024; Hudso

Bay, 1027. a

Microscopy. Spy cao of ; Hard Rubber are Trough, 83; The Acme ;

Microscopes, 83; The Spen' w Obes, 84: Gutta Percha Cells Pecttthcdias by Means

of Pollen-tubes, 168 ; y soles Mi icroscopical Society of the City of ne ork, 169 ; pintenet

oe se

erals ncer

of Microscopists, 1028 ; Verification of Objectives, 1029; Mounting on Square Stipe, 1029 ; Mi-

croscopic Test for Poison, 1029; Slides of Macias. Algz, 1030.

prielasied News, 84, 170, ey 347, 420, te be fl tiep 759» 842, 932,

Pr 63, 35%, 422, 510, ae 684, 759, 845, 934, 1032.

A fad e

Se , 88, 16; 264, 352, 424, 512, 600, 688, 760, 848, 936, 1036.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vou. xv. — FANUARY, 1881. — No. 1.

THE ANCIENT GLACIERS OF THE ROCKY MOUNT-

AINS. ,

BY ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, F.R.S.!

Lo the many profoundly interesting questions in Ameri-

can Quaternary geology, one of the most important is un-

questionably the determination of the area and movements of the

ice during the glacial period. In the Eastern States much has

now been done towards the elucidation of this problem. The

general southern limits of the great ice sheet, and its course from”

Canada southwards have been more or less definitely fixed;

though much remains to.be done before our knowledge even on

these points can be regarded as more than a mere outline of the

truth. When, however, we try to realize the relations of the ice-

sheet westward of the Mississippi basin, we soon perceive the

meagreness of our information in regard to these Vast western

regions. But it is there that one of the most remarkable parts of

the glacial problem must be solved. The important labors of

Dr. Percival and Profs. Whitney, Irving and Chamberlain, have :

shown that even within the area embraced by the northern ice- |

sheet, there was a tract of about 12,000 square miles in Wiscon- =.

sin that escaped glaciation. Prof. Irving points out that this

tract does not owe its immunity from glacial drift to its being

higher than the surrounding ground ; on the contrary, it is actu-

ally lower than the ice-ridden region in Minnesota to the west of

it. He supposes it to have escaped because it lay between deep

depressions leading out of Lake Superior, by which the great

mass of ice, filling that basin, moved off to the south. If this be

the true explanation, and it bears strong evidence of probability,

_ | Director of the Geological Survey of Scotland.

VOks XV.—-NO, I, I

ed ia

: Je now well known.

the ice-sheet must evidently have become considerably attenuated

’ Missouri with all its tributaries on the right down into Kansas,

2 The Ancient Glaciers of the Rocky Mountains. (January,

in the Wisconsin region, though still retaining momentum suffi-

cient to carry it down the Mississippi valley into Missouri and

Kansas. In Dr. Aughey’s recent interesting volume on Nebraska,

the extension of the ice westward into that State is clearly proved,

and the ice-movement is there shown to have taken a south-

south-east direction, or down the Missouri valley. No doubt the

glacier had thinned away greatly in that region. Its south-western

and western margin, however, remains to be traced up the plains

watered by the Missouri. And the day is probably not far dis-

tant when the work so well done by Mr. Dawson, in British

Columbia, will be prolonged into the Missouri region, and the

precise limits and course of the ice-sheet will be mapped across the

whole breadth of the continent.

Subsequent explorations have amply confirmed the original

observation of Prof. Whitney as to the driftless nature of the sur-

face of the vast interior region lying between the Missouri valley

and the Sierra Nevada. The fact may seem almost incredible _

that the low ground of Eastern North America should have been 4 :

buried under a southward-creeping ice-sheet, from which the _

lofty plateaux of the West remained free. The cause of this dif- :

ference was probably meteorological, as Prof. Dana had pointed

out, the snow-fall over the Rocky mountains and western ranges

having been insufficient to give birth to a general ice-sheet —

descending from those heights into the plains. But the question

remains: what was the probable condition of the West during —

the time when glaciation in the East was at its height? We must

reaches the sea, was then blocked up with ice. The valley of the

was under ice. Any water-drainage from the west would be

allel with the ice and j join the streams, escaping from its melting

end. Iam not aware, however, that any evidence of such arrest

of drainage has yet been met with, though it is a point deserving

of attention.

That the mountain ranges of the West had their glaciers, is

Even at the present time, as Mr. Clarence

1881.| The Ancient Glaciers of the Rocky Mountains. 3

King announced in 1871, there are true glaciers in the Sierra

Nevada, and Dr. Hayden’s Survey has more recently found

others among the Wind River range in the Rocky mountains.

But during glacial times the quantity of snow and ice in some of

these uplands, was enormous, In the Uintah mountains the traces

of vanished glaciers are singularly fresh. Beautiful horse-shoe-

shaped morainal-mounds, occurring far down the valleys, mark

pauses in this final retreat of the ice. These have been well

described by Mr. S. F. Emmons and Mr. Clarence King, whose

narrative I can fully confirm from my own observations. In the

Wasatch mountains, also, as the same observers have shown,

some of the principal valleys were occupied by glaciers. I was

particularly struck by this proof of glaciation in the region of the

Cottonwood cafions. At the mouth of the gorge of the Little

Cottonwood stream, a pile of morainal-heaps lies on the edge of

the highest of the series of ancient terraces of Great Salt lake.

There can be little doubt that at the time of the greatest exten-

sion of this sheet of water, when filling the vast basin named

Lake Bonneville by Mr. Gilbert, it escaped by a northern out-

flow into the Snake river and the Pacific, glaciers crept down the

valleys on its eastern side, and in one case, at least, advanced into

its waters. At this locality the ice descended to within 5000 feet —

of the present sea level. .

But the most startling testimony to the size of the western

glaciers, which I met with in the course of a recent journey

through these regions, was supplied by the valley of the Yellow-

stone river. I entered this valley from Fort Ellis, in Montana, a

little above the first or lowest cafion. One of the earliest objects

to arrest my attention was a prominent rock, like a cottage, in the

middle of the alluvial plain. I found it to bea large block of

granite measuring 18 x 12 x 10 feet, and weighing upwards of ©

one hundred and fifty tons, which with many smaller erratics lay —

upon rudely crescent-shaped mounds. There could not be the

smallest doubt that these were moraine-heaps, nor that the gla-

cier which carried them must have been very much larger than —

any of which I had seen traces among the Uintah or Wasatch

mountains. The broad valley is here full of moraine-stuff. How

much further north the transported material extends, I had no

opportunity of ascertaining. But as it is still in full force at the

5000 foot contour line, it evidently descends to a much lower level .

4 The Ancient Glaciers of the Rocky Mountains. [January,

than among the Uintah and Wasatch mountains, three hundred

and fifty miles further south. Here then was a great glacier ~

moving northwards, while in British Columbia, on a parallel only

about two hundred and fifty miles further north, there was a mas-

sive ice-sheet moving southward. It will be a point of no little

interest to trace these two converging ice streams towards each

other. :

In ascending the Yellowstone valley towards the National

Park, scattered moraine-mounds and abundant transported blocks

continue to denote the course and size of the former glacier. I

was wholly unprepared, however, for the intense glaciation of the

second cafion. This ravine had been cut to a depth of at least

eight hundred or one thousand feet in the schists and other older

crystalline masses of the region. At its lower entrance a few

prominent rocky knobs project from the steep declivity upon the

flat alluvium on the left bank of the river. Great was my aston-

ishment to find these spurs of the mountain-side as perfectly

smooth, polished and striated as those at the margin of any Swiss

or Norwegian glacier. The strize were directed upward over the

ridge, and showed how the ice had been pressed out of the gorge

- over this opposing barrier of rock, The steep sides of the cafion

have been ground smooth and striated in the same way, as far up

as I could see, certainly not less than eight hundred feet. Even

from below the eye could follow the deep parallel scorings along

the ice-worn sheets of gneiss. The glaciation reminded me more

of the valley of the lower Aar glacier, above the Grimsel, than of

any other European piece of ice-work. As the ice-worn surfaces

descend to the modern alluvium of the river, it is clear that there

has not been any large amount of erosion in the cajfion since the

_ glacier left the scene. I think it is equally certain that the cafion

already existed before the glacial period, and that the work of the

ice has been to grind it out deeper and wider.

Above the second cafion the moraine-heaps become more

abundant and tumultuous. Here and there they enclose small

lakes. The tributary valleys too have their moraines and erratics

and must have been filled up with ice. Impressive testimony to a

the magnitude of these ice-masses, is found in that section of the

Yellowstone and its surroundings, between Gardiner’s river and — -

Mount Washburn. The trail from the Mammoth springs by

Blacktail Deer creek, over to the Yellowstone, leads the traveler e

1881.] _ The Ancient Glacters of the Rocky Mountains. 5

across mounds of glacial débris among which huge boulders of

granite and granitoid gneiss are conspicuous. The transported

character of these materials is all the more evident from the fact

that the platform of solid rock on which they rest often consists

of various lavas and other volcanic masses. Some parts of the

route present long smooth slopes dotted with boulders precisely

like some Scottish boulder-clay moors. The granitic blocks are

conspicuous objects even from a distance, owing to their size, a

length of six to eight feet being common among them. These

signs of glaciation can be traced up to and across the water-shed

leading over to the Yellowstone valley. They prove beyond

question that not only was that valley filled up with ice, but that

the glacier plowed over the ridge one thousand feet above the

valley bottom and passed into the country lying to the westward.

No old glacier valley in Europe presents a more characteristic

scene of ice-drift erratics than does that of the Yellowstone for

three miles below Lower falls. The large blocks of granite,

gneiss and other crystalline rocks are scattered about so profusely

that one might cross the ground for some little distance by leap- .

ing from boulder to boulder. The blocks are heaped upon

mounds of moraine-stuff, perched on ice-worn hammocks of |

gneiss, and stream over the horizontal volcanic sheets through

which the ravines have been cut.

As, the determination of the distribution of the erratics gives

an approximate indication of the thickness of the ice, I noted

with the aneroid the positions of blocks of granite, gneiss and

other non-volcanic rocks on the way up to Mount Washburn,

which projects so conspicuously into the valley of the Yellow-

stone. These blocks get fewer in number and smaller in size as’

they are followed upwards ; but I observed one of three feet long

at a height of 8650 feet on the west side of the ridge which rises

southward into Mount Washburn, and another about one foot in

diameter at a height of 8900 feet. From the position in which

these erratics lie, the traveler looks clear over the Yellowstone

valley for many miles to the east and west. The general level of

the valley-bottom above the edge of the cafion, on the north of

Mount Washburn, may be taken at between 6000 and 7000 feet.

South from that eminence it rises to more than 8000 feet. The

general slope is about 2000 feet in fifteen miles, or roughly, about

one hundred and thirty-three feet per mile. The ice, after pass-

6 The Ancient Glaciers of the Rocky Mountains, (January,

ing the barrier of Mount Washburn, cannot have been less than

1650 feet thick (=the height of the three feet boulder on the

crest of the ridge), and probably was at least 1900 feet (= the

height of the highest observed block). That mountain project-

ing as a great barrier in the pathway of the ice served to ridge it

up, and no doubt partly to deflect it. I observed a granite block

south of Dunraven pass, on the south side of the mountain, ata

height of 8600 feet, and moraine-stuff and erratics, at intervals,

down to the very edge of the Grand cajion, and beyond even as

far as the water-shed of the Fire Hole river. Whether Grand

cafion existed in glacial times, I found no evidence to prove; but

I am inclined to believe that it probably existed only in a rudi-

mentary condition, and has been mainly excavated since that

period.

From the evidence here cited, it is clear that the ice of the

Yellowstone valley was more than that.of a mere local or valley

glacier. It was massive enough to fill up the main valley and

override the surrounding hills, crossing minor water-sheds and

spreading into adjacent drainage basins. From elevated points in

the Yellowstone valley, the distant outlines of the Wind River

mountain or their northward prolongation can be seen to the—

south-east, while southward rises the lofty peaks of the Tetons.

That these mountains, though not within the present water-

drainage basin of the Yellowstone, were within the ice-drainage

of the ancient glacier of that valley, is, I think, extremely prob-

able. The abundant blocks of granite and granitoid gneiss lying

within the volcanic area of the Upper Yellowstone, seein to have

been derived from cliffs outside the basin. Of course I had no

opportunity of tracing them to their source. But I could hardly

doubt that it will be found in the central archzan cores of these

distant mountains. Should this view be confirmed, it will supply

an additional proof of the magnitude of these ancient glaciers,

for it will show that the snow fields of the Wind River and Teton

' ranges were so extensive that their ice rivers streamed northward

across the buried water-shed, and poured into the basin of the

Yellowstone. According to Dr, Endlich, the old glaciers on the

west side of the Wind River mountains pushed their way out 2

into the plateau country for several miles, and piled up moraines

there to a height of 800 or goo feet. It is much to be desired by

all who take an interest in glacial geology, that an exploration

Bee wh BED Tae ee Le he pe oe wine

Sista —

ST Se On eats

ris oa 3

2 SS ES ee 2k ee | ee ee

1881.] fron Implements in an Ancient Mine in N. C. 7

should be made of the country lying in the Yellowstone valley

northward into the area of northern glaciation within the British

line. Such a survey will show whether there was any connection

between the massive glaciers of the Rocky mountains and the

great northern ice-sheet ; whether the latter, as it moved down

the valley of the Missouri, was swelled by the accession of ice-

streams from these mountains. The main facts could be gleaned

with comparative ease. -The country, no doubt, is the haunt of

Crows, Blackfeet, Gros Ventres and other Indian tribes who have

recently shown little sympathy with the white man. But this is

a difficulty which patience and tact would overcome. The geo-

logical harvest is ample, and only waits the advent of some bold

and skilled observer.

20:

THE DISCOVERY OF IRON IMPLEMENTS IN AN

ANCIENT MINE IN NORTH CAROLINA.

BY FREDERIC W. SIMONDS.

Be Western North Carolina are found many evidences of prehis-

toric mining operations, such as open cuts, tunnels, shafts and

dumps. The latter are covered with a forest growth of several

hundred years, and in the excavations has accumulated the débris

of centuries.

About ten years ago a new industry was inaugurated in the ©

State, that of mica mining, and strange to say, the best and most

profitable mines have been those located upon the sites of the

“old diggings.” In clearing out the ancient works very few

implements have been found which throw light upon the

original miners. The opinion, now generally held, is, that they

belonged to the Mound-builders, whose mounds are also found,

but sparingly, in the river basins. That this is, for the most part, —

correct, I think has been clearly shown by Prof. Kerr in his Re-

port on the Geology of North Carolina for 1875. He there states

that he learned in a conversation with Col. Whittlesey, and sub-

sequently from numerous publications on the subject of the

mounds of the Northwest, that mica was of common occurrence in

the tumuli of the Mound-builders, among the utensils and orna-

ments which such rude people are in the habit of inhuming with

their dead owners. And upon further inquiry, he ascertained that

cut forms, similar to those found in the mounds were occasionally

8 Iron Implements in an Ancient Mine in N.C. (January,

discovered among the rubbish and refuse heaps about and in the

old pits."

When Prof. Kerr’s attention was first called to these prehistoric

excavations (1867), he was invited to visit some “ old Spanish sil-

ver mines” which had been discovered a few miles south-west of

Bakersville, in Mitchell county, showing that by some means the

inhabitants had associated these works with the early explorers of

our country. It seems probable that tradition may have given

rise to this impression, for in a letter written by the Hon. T. L.

Clingman, who is very familiar with Western Carolina, I find the

following: “The old Cherokee Indians, living in some of the

western counties, used to speak of a tradition coming down in

their tribe, that long ago companies of white men came on mules

from the south, worked during the summer and carried off a

white metal with them.”

The evidence of the former exploration of this region by white

men—Europeans—in search of the precious metals, has not,

until recently, been very strong, although in many instances the

works indicated a considerable skill in mining, and in a few

cases marks have been found as if made by some metallic instru-

ment.

This summer, for the first time, I learned that some iron tools

had been found in an old shaft in Macon county. Upon inquiry,

I found them in the possession of Mr. Albert S. Bryson, a mer-

chant in Franklin, the county seat of Macon. From him and

others I ascertained the facts here stated.

In 1875 the Guyer mica mine was opened on the site of a

“ prehistoric working” on the mountains near Iola creek, north-

_ west of the town. There was a basin-like depression some

eighteen feet in diameter, at the bottom of which was a shaft

apparently about eight feet deep. In carrying on the necessary

mining operations this old shaft was cleaned out and found to be

of considerable depth. In the rubbish which had accumulated

Report of the Geological Survey of N.C., Vol. 1, p. 301, 1875.

For the Finding of Mica ornaments in mounds see Vol. 1, Smithsonian Contribu-_

tions to knowledge. Monograph of Squier and Davis, p. 240; and Foster’s Prehis-

toric Races of the U.S., p. 191.

*Speeches and Writings of Hon. Thomas L. Clingman, p. 130.

8 See Ib., p. 131.

* Since the above was written Prof. Kerr has called my attention to the fact that

an iron crank was discovered some years since in an ancient shaft in Cherokee © :

county, on Valley river, See Rept. of Progress N. C. Geol. Surv., 1869, p. 56.

1881.] lvon Implements in an Ancient Minein N.C. 9

PEATE: I.

Ancient Iron Mining Implements in North Carolina. -

VOL, XV.—NO. I. 2

10 Lron Implements in an Ancient Mine in N. C. [January,

within it, at distances varying from thirty-five to fifty feet below

the surface, were found the iron implements figured in the accom-

panying plate. At the depth of forty feet an adit or tunnel was

found opening on the mountain side, and at the bottom of the

shaft (fifty feet), resting upon quartz, the charred remains of wood.

It is thought that fire was here used for the purpose of breaking

up the quartz; that after the rock was heated, water was poured

upon it causing it to split into fragments. Now as to the imple- ~

ments. They are of wrought iron, and of such shapes and

weights as to be easily carried. That they had been worn out

and thrown away is not improbable. The axe (Fig. 1) is rather

small, and has been considerably distorted by hard usage, as will

be seen in Fig. 2. The eye is quite large, and the head is cracked

completely through (Figs. 2 and 3). There is alsoa rupture near

the blade as if the strain on the handle had been so great as to

almost break away the side. On the blade is a brand (Fig. 1)

which has been so effaced by erosion as to be no longer intelligi-

ble. The shape of this axe and its light weight are in contrast

with those in use—being of an old pattern which is now rarely

met with. The blade and head are each about three and three-

quarter inches in width, while between them the width diminishes

to two and three-quarter inches.

The implements represented in Figs. 4 and 5 are evidently a

pair of gudgeons—parts of a windlass. They are pointed at their

extremities that they may be driven into a wooden roller or axis:

The lower part of the shank is squared so as to prevent its turn-

ing in the wood, while the upper part is cylindrical, forming an

axle for the support of the roller. Into their bifurcated heads

were undoubtedly inserted levers for turning a windlass. As

these irons have a length of but sixteen or seventeen inches, they

could be easily carried from place to place, and the machine of

which they form a part, could be readily extemporized from the j

trunk and branches of a small tree. Fig. 6 is theoretical, showing

their probable use.

A wedge three and three-quarter inches long and one oan :

a-half inches wide, was also found (Fig. 7). Its head was some- |

what battered.

The inference to be drawn from the discovery of these iron rel- 4

ics, is, that some of the “old diggings” are the work of Euro- —

peans, as the use of iron was unknown to the native American —

ee ee Be es Se Oe te ee eS ee

Be demi orig Te re Ge ae ea eda s Ne) ss Rae, =| a feta tee Re

aa ee Ne SD er TRE

1881. ] On the Fertilization of Calamintha nepeta. It

races. Is it not possible that there is a basis of truth in the old

Cherokee tradition? That a party of Spanish explorers—and

perhaps more than one—penetrated Western Carolina in search

of gold, silver and other minerals, and, in some instances, finding

the old mines of the Mound-builders, caused preliminary investi-

gations of their value, does not seem improbable. In Cherokee

county are found “ prospect holes” excavated with far greater

skill than that of savage or barbaric miners.! To what expedition

these Europeans belonged, is a mystery. That of De Soto,

according to the course traced out by Bancroft, passed within a

comparatively short distance of North Carolina—especially the

south-western corner—as it crossed from the head waters of the

Savannah or Chattahouchee to those of the Coosa. From it an

exploring party was sent to the north, which returned disheart-

ened—without the precious gold—reporting the mountains im-

passable.” Could the work have been done by stragglers from

this or other parties, or have there been special expeditions to

this region of which the historian has lost sight? ©

ON THE FERTILIZATION OF CALAMINTHA

NEPETA et

BY WILLIAM TRELEASE.

Deg the past summer my attention was several times

drawn to this little plant, in the vicinity of Washington, by

the large number of insects collected about the flowers, and a

more careful examination revealed the following facts about the

species.

The stem, leaves, calyx and corolla are furnished with a fine

pubescence, which may prevent small and undesirable insects, like

ants, from wandering over the plant, for a coating of this sort

often proves insurmountable to these tiny creatures. In the

throat of the persistent calyx is a whorl of stiff hairs that may

serve as a protection for the young corolla and the essential

organs before they are protruded from the calyx; and after the

* One of the most remarkable of these is a cimbered shaft 100 feet deep on Valley

river. See Rept. of Progress Geol. Survey N. C., 1869, p.

* History of the United States. Bancroft, 13th editior. Vol. 1, pp. 47-48.

12 On the Fertilization of Calamintha nepeta, (January,

corolla has fallen away, the maturing ovary may likewise, per-

haps, be protected against certain enemies.

A well developed fleshy outgrowth of the receptacle secretes an

abundance of nectar which collects about the ovary in the lower

part of the flower.

The lower lip of the corolla, near its base, is sparsely beset

with long, stiffish hairs (Z). Two large purple spots on its middle

Fic. 1.—Old flower of Calamintha

nepeta, seen from the side. Fic. 2.—

dering the guiding groove; m and m’,

the nectar marks; s, the stigma.

lobe and close to the median line (7), and several smaller ones

(mm) at the mouth of the corolla tube, clearly indicate the way to

the nectar concealed within, while a deep guiding groove (g), —

bounded on either hand by ridges of stiff hairs (4’), leads directly

beneath the four anthers (2) that converge in pairs close beneath —

the upper lip of the corolla.

. together, and immature. In this stage the flower is

staminate, only, as regards function. After the unfolding of the —

corolla, the style gradually elongates and its summit passes close —

_ below the outermost pair of anthers, even brushing them in many

1881.] On the Fertilization of Calamintha nepeta. 13

instances ; but very little pollen seems to be carried away by the

still appressed lobes of the stigma. When the latter has become

somewhat exserted (Fig. 1, s) its lobes expand, and are now ready

for fertilization, and as some pollen still remains in the anthers,

the flower is now properly hermaphrodite or perfect. The stigma,

however, retains its freshness for some time, and meanwhile the

remainder of the pollen may have been removed, leaving the

flower pistillate in function.

If, now, an insect in search of nectar is i ceo to the flower,

the purple blotches or nectar marks catch its eye and lead it

directly to the mouth of the corolla, its head or back usually com-

ing in contact with the receptive face of the stigma if this is

already mature. The dense chevaux-de-frise of hairs, however,

prevent it from entering unless it be large enough to effect the

transportation of pollen in return for the food obtained; but if

sufficiently large and strong to pass these, and not too large to

creep into the flower, it enters, finding it far easier to follow the -

guiding groove than to pass over the bristles on either hand.

Pushing ina sufficient distance to obtain the desired food, its back

rubs against the anthers, or what is equally effective, its sides

shaking the filaments, bring down a shower of pollen. Having

exhausted the supply of nectar in the first flower, it flies to

another, then to a third, carrying pollen from one to the other.

Several species of Halictus! and Cadliopsis andreniformis Sm.,

were seen to visit the flowers in this manner.

If, on the other hand, the insect be too large to force its way

into the corolla, it alights on the lower lip, usually clasping the

side of the tube with two or more of its feet, and thus steady-

ing itself, while its head is thrust into the flower as far as possi-

ble, and its tongue is extended to reach the nectar. Though the

modus operandi is different, the result is the same as in the last

case, with an exception which will be mentioned later. The

flowers are visited in this way by the following insects: Hymen-

optera—Afis mellifica L., Bombus virginicus Oliv., B. fervidus

Fab., Xylocopa virginica Drasy (2. and 3), Megachile brevis Say,

M. latimanus Say, Anthidium cognatum Cres., Ammophila vulgaris

Cres., Bembex fasciata Fabr., and Myzine bcincts Fabr. Lepidop-

tera obi philodice God., Pieris rape L., P. protodice B. and L.,

Papilio asterias Drury ?, Sunonia cenia B. and L., Hesperia hobo-

'The Hymenoptera were all kindly identified by Mr. E. T. Cresson,

14 On the Fertilization of Calamintha nepeta. [{January,

mok Warris?, H. tessellata ?, Lycena comynias Uarris?, and

two species of Nyssoniades. Coleoptera—Chauliognathus penn- ”

sylvanicus DeGeer. In addition to these a fly, Mesograpta margi-

nata Say.,) and one of the species of Halictus mentioned above,

were found in considerable numbers collecting pollen from the

anthers of young flowers, in doing which they undoubtedly often

carry the pollen of one flower to the stigma of another,

Of these insects the species most common in this connection

are Apis mellifica, Bombus virginicus and Chauliognathus pennsyl-

vanicus, all of which may be counted by thousands on a bright

sunny day about the first of September in places where the plant |

grows abundantly ; and it is upon them, chiefly, that the fertiliza-

tion of the flowers is dependent. Some of the Lepidoptera,

especially Pieris rape, are very often seen sipping the nectar of

the basil thyme, but from the length of their proboscides they can

easily reach the bottom of the corolla without inserting their

heads into its throat, and I am inclined to believe that their effi-

ciency in the transfer of pollen is not very great. A noctuid

moth, apparently belonging to the genus Prodenia was also very

abundant, but in obtaining the nectar it did not rest upon the

flower like the species enumerated above, but hovered before it,

steadying itself with its fore feet as I have seen Heliothis armigera

do when feeding upon the involucral nectar of Gossypium.

Though I was somewhat surprised to find a noctuid thus engaged

at midday, I find that Harris? records the habit as not uncommon

to certain Agrotids, and it is probably well known to all ento-

mologists.

From what precedes, it may be seen that the nectar of this

Calamintha attracts many insects belonging to a considerable

number of species, and that the majority of these—in individuals

if not in species—readily obtain the sugared fluid, in doing

which they encounter the stigma and anthers of the flower—the

former (if mature) in entering, the latter before leaving it.

The development of the flowers is such that the self-fertiliza-

tion of a given flower appears possible in but two ways: 1. Pol-

len may be taken up by the longer (lower) lobe of the imma-

ture stigma as the latter passes below or between the anthers

during the elongation of the style, and remaining there, and; :

1 Identified by Mr. Edward Burgess.

* Insects Injurious to Vegetation (Flint edition), p. 441.

erent

oe ge aes

‘tan

Sage inten, ere Fre P RE rive Denby

1881. ] On the Fertilization of Calamintha nepeta. 15

retaining its virility till the stigma matures, it may then emit

its tubes and fecundate the ovules. 2. An insect dusted with the

pollen of a flower may revisit the same flower, leaving some of

its burden on the stigma; or it may possibly deposit freshly

gathered pollen on the stigma‘as it leaves the flower, but from the

position of the stigmatic surface this is not likely to happen.

Ordinarily, however, any flower will be fertilized by pollen from

another, though from the irregularity with which insects visit the

flowers of these straggling plants, this is as likely to belong to

the same stock as to a different one.

In closing, it may not be out of place to offer a brief compari-

son of this species with others of the large family of mints

to which it belongs. In this order, nectar is usually secreted—

as in the present instance—by a prominent gland that, closely

adjoining the ovary, is usually more or less prominently four-

lobed, portions of it filling the angles between the lobes of the

Jatter organ. Proterandry, or the maturity of the stamens before

the pistil, is the rule, and is sometimes correlated with motions,

due to the growth of the parts, by which the anthers and stigma

at maturity successively occupy the same place with reference ©

to the other parts of the flower. In some cases strongly marked

proterandry, leading to invariable cross-fertilization, has caused

the origin of forms with smaller flowers in which the anthers are

entirely abortive, so that the species becomes gyno-dioecious.

This is the case, for example, with the related Ca/amintha clino-

podium.’ Buta careful examination of the species under discus-

sion did not reveal a similar peculiarity in this case, though fur-

ther observation, and especially over a more extended territory,

may, perhaps, reveal something of the sort. According to Dr.

Miller, L.c., C. clinopodium is visited for its nectar by two lepidop-

terous insects, Pieris drassice L., and Satyrus hyperanthus L.;

and Calamintha acinus is visited for nectar and pollen by the

hive bee, and for nectar by a bombyliid fly, Systeochus sulfureus.

Mik. From the floral structure of the basil, which is quite com-

mon in parts of our own country, one would expect its most fre- _

quent visitors to be Hymenoptera, and this is supported by what

we know of the visitors of C. nepeta ; and if so, it is probable that

careful examination where numbers of the plants grow in com-

pany will reveal the hive bee as among the more frequent.

‘Dr. H. Miiller, Befruchtung der Blumen, 1873, Ps 325-

16 Comparative Neurology. (January, ; :

COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.

BY S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D.

HAT can we say of the nervous system of Protozoa, but —

that it exists in a diffuse undifferentiated state? If we

speak of a nerve force it implies the existence of a nerve, and

herein we have the mystery explained. I do not believe in a

nerve force after the general acceptation of the term, as a sort of

aura residing in and produced by nerve cells. Let us see how

much a reconstructed view will account for the hitherto unac-

countable. There are certain natural “forces” or vibrations of —

matter, called sound, heat, light, electricity, etc. Expose albu-

men to the influence of any or all of them and determinable

motions are produced in its mass. Protoplasm has a definite

molecular composition which never fails to be susceptible to

these influences. The contractile phenomenon is not a whit more

of a mystery than the beautiful laws of electrodynamics as de-

duced by Ampére from the fundamental experiment of Cérsted:

1. Two currents which are parallel, and in the same direction, at-

tract one another. 1. Two currents parallel but in contrary direc-

tions, repel one another. To demonstrate this, one current should

be fixed and the other movable. In a few words the Amceba is

the medium for the movable current while its pabulum is equiva-

lent to the fixed current which attracts the animal. I do not

mean to lay this down as actually the case, for the causes of 4

Ameebic movements are multiplex, from which, as might be ex-

pected, there would be multiplicity of changes in its sarcode.

But this alone would indicate how sufficiently the laws of phys-

ical forces may some day go to explain the protoplasmic motions.

We see that all matter is mobile. The molecules of the Amoeba

EES eee

eit

Sa Sa a af

are not force proof, and these forces would, from the very homo- a

geneity of the mass, pass in varying directions through the animal

as governed by extrinsic causes. But as soon as differentiation be-

gan, by even as simple a process as an induration of one part of the 4

protoplasm, currents must be deflected from their former courses. ~

Huxley considers Kleinenberg’s fibers of the Hydra as internun-

cial, and hence the primary form of a nerve. In this case we have ~

a contractile muscle with a nerve differentiated from, and con-

tinuous with the muscle. How has this come about ?

Immediately upon the definite location of tissue which is more —

1881.] Comparative Neurology. 17

susceptible to certain external influences, such tissue would

quickly differentiate a portion as the path of least resistance,

which would also be the most direct conductor of motions from

without to the contractile part. Thus the neuro-muscular cells of

Hydra appear. From the general mass proceeds the ectoderm,

and from it is differentiated the nerve-muscle tissue.

The causes of this differentiation may be conceived by regard-

ing the forms assumed by a layer of the sporules of Lycopodium

and sand, when this mixture is subjected to vibrations coarse

enough to affect the layer. The electro-dynamic law which draws

together matter transmitting currents tn one direction would of

itself construct a nerve path to contractile tissue.

A nerve, then, is internuncial only, and the ganglion cell is

histogenetic. Neither have any force-producing power, but are

both the media through which certain molecular vibrations are

most swiftly transmitted.

The primitive sense ts tactile and all senses have proceeded from

ws differentiation For illustrative purposes let us consider energy

as divided into molecular vibrations, from one ethereal pulsation

in an eternity, to an infinite number of vibrations in one second.

In such an undulatory series we may see, as a small division of

it, all forces from sound to gravitation represented. While the

protozoon may be visibly affected by every such undulation, the

homogeneity of its composition prevents any differential re-

sponse; for instance, the tremor of a musical note, heat, light,

electricity, alike produce contractions or expansions (motions) of

its mass. In a higher form of life nerve tissue appears, which

conveys only certain vibrations and rejects all others. Take one

undulation in a second as the capacity of this nerve fiber. Itisa _

tactile nerve. When a nerve fiber conveys more rapid undula-

_ tions differentiation begins. Sixteen to forty thousand per second

begin and end the auditory vibrations. Quicker vibrations to

four hundred and fifty billion per second we may view as heat

appreciation, thence to eight hundred billion from red to violet

light, above this fluorescent undulations, “ chemical energy,”

electricity, to infinity. We may thus mathematically conceive an

1In a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

Boston, August 28th, 1880, published in full in the Journal of Nervous and Mental

Disease for October, 1880, I treated this subject more with reference to the micro-

Scopic anatomy of human nerve systems. Extracts, as above, made from that paper

are such portions as refer more directly to our present subject.

18 Comparative Neurology. [ January,

auditory sense derived from the general tactile or a special touch

sense (like that of the fifth pair of nerves). An optic sense would

arise from this same tactile, and we have seen it thus differentiated

embryologically.

Qualitative differentiation of the nervous organization proceeds

dorsally, with a tendency toward the head end. That portion of

the animal which stands in most direct relation to the changing

molecular movements of the environment develops the highest

sensory and motor nerve-centers and projections.

Repetition of parts of a system, up to a certain point ceases ; and

these parts become commissurally united before another system 1s

perfected.

The sympathetic nervous system, consisting of the intestinal a

and vascular or vaso-motor nerves, develops first. Blending the

results of comparative embryology and anatomy, the yas 4

precedes the creation of other systems.

The second system to appear phylogenetically is the spinal,

equivalent in the Invertebrates to their “cerebral” ganglia.

The third system is the intervertebral, the swellings upon the

posterior roots of the spinal nerves.

The cerebellum is formed from fused hypertrophied intervertebral

ganglia.

Many sensory cranial nerves pass through this organ and by 4

the fusion of these originally separate centers codrdination occurs

necessarily.

Excessive development on the one hand, or want of develop-

ment on the other, places all the ganglionary tubercles and lobes ~

of the encephalon in the third system category. Thus the pr@- —

frontal lobe of the cerebrum, the occipital and temporal lobes, the —

olivary body, the olfactory lobe, the mammillary eminence, the

epiphisis cerebri, the tubercula bigemina, the petrosal and Gassertan q

ganglia were originally intervertebral ganglia, and still maintain —

resemblance to these ganglia in many particulars.

The pre-frontal lobe is the last intervertebral ganglion to develop. :

It grows larger in the scale of intelligence and presses the occi- :

pital (see the brains of monotremes and marsupials) backward,

downward and forward, thus forming the temporal (or what has

been erroneously termed the middle) lobe.

The cerebro-spinal nerves, in some cases, preserve their original

projections from and to muscles, but these nerves may also have —

1881, ] Comparative Neurology. 19

not only a distribution to the viscera, as has the pneumogastric,

but may also project into and from other system-centers. The

lateral columns of the spinal cord, the tegmentum and crura

cerebri in their main mass may thus be regarded as cerebro-

spinal nerves of the highest series, having lower system-centers

for peripheries. The prz-frontal lobes thus exert an inhibitory

control over the highest centers, because such centers are periph-

eries for the nerves of these foremost ganglia.

We accept the motions of protoplasm as evidence of life, and

yet ungrouped elementary atoms are subject to the play of physi-

cal forces, which become kuown as modes of motion :, sound, heat,

light, electricity, etc., through the enanecs# in place of atoms and

molecules.

Inasmuch as sensations have for their ultimate expression

motion in the living organism, cause and effect exchange places

in the recognition that forces are manifest to us as sensation only

in the molecular movements caused by forces. These molecular

movements impress us as sensations which, of necessity, must be

translated into some form or forms of motion.

Sensibility and motility, then, are sequentially convertible

terms, and we find it none the less true in the most complex than

in the simplest forms of life. :

There are certain fundamental considerations which should

stand in axiomatic relation to all biological inquiries.

Ist. Sensibility and motility are merely afferent and efferent

terms to express the effects of force upon matter and matter ups

force,

2d. In life a primary object of motion is for procurement of

food.

3d. Growth depends upon proper nutrition (ingestion).

4th. Multiplication (as fission) proceeds from growth.

. Food is any material, gaseous, liquid or solid, which tends

toward nutrition of the body.

6th. “‘ Development is a process of differentiation by which the

primitively, similar parts of the living body become more and

more unlike one another.” (Von Baer.)

7th. “ Higher sensory organs are special elaborations with one

special function capable of response to stimuli of one special kind.

They are developed from the lower kind of sensory organs, and

oftentimes still possess the essential structure of that lower kind.”

(Gegenbaur.)

20 Comparative Neurology. [ January,

As illustrative of undifferentiated faculties it may be mentioned

that by the Gregarine food is taken in by endosmotic processes

at the surface. Any place in the protoplasm can act as a digestive

cavity by enveloping and absorbing nutritive matter. 3

It is the simpler view, entertained by some (in opposition to.

the delamination precedence theory), that the form which preceded _

the gastrula was a one-layered vesicle which, by invagination, —

produced the endoderm from the ectoderm. While the ectoderm

was undifferentiated, all parts of the cell were assimilative. In_

the gastrula stage the endoderm acquired specific ingestive facul-—

ties. Differentiation of the purely ingestive proceeds thus from —

the intestine, while the ectoderm remained in contact with the

more variable conditions of the environment, and developed the

greatest qualitative sensory and motor organs. The entire ner-_

vous organization, in its earliest condition, answers to that por-

tion which, in Vertebrata, presides over the vermicular motions

of the intestines, and the correlated respiratory and circulatory

structures—the sympathetic nervous system. This, therefore, we

may entitle the First System. As soon as the enteron is created,

by folding in of the ectoderm, qualitative development of this

First System is restricted to such functions as are more clearly

nutritive, as, when the blood vascular system is differentiated from

the mesoderm, the vaso-motor nerves are derived from or added

to the sympathetic, and exactly in the ratio of development of th

viscera so does the First System differentiation proceed.

Pe GT ie ee ae ee RT a aS age ae ag ee

In high forms of Invertebrata, but more pronounced in Verte

brata, the viscera, and consequently the First System of nerv

occupy an inferior position, properly termed ventral, while as

broad rule the upper surface of the animal comes most in conta¢

with varying molecular motions of the outer world. Hence, W

may say that it comes to be a law, that from the dorsal to tt

ventral parts of the animal, ingoing impressions proceed, and, ‘

necessity, progressive development must occur, by superimpt

tion upon the ventral system.

_ The first appearance of a Second System, equivalent to th

spinal cord (segments coalesced) of Vertebrata, is indicated 1

ganglionic enlargements upon the afferent nerves of the Firs

System. |

This is apparent in the oyster, whose anterior ganglia (A) ar

placed upon the fibers leading to the principal ganglion of t

1881. ] Comparative Neurology. 21

body. (Ina typical embryonic, not phylogenetic sense, for the

oyster is a degraded Lamellibranch.)

This appears to be a specialization of the tactile sense, with

reference to its uses anteriorly in food discrimination and inges-

tion, involving ciliary prehension and control of the valves. In

Pecten further quantitative development of a Second System pro-

duces the pedal ganglion (C), also related to the touch sense.

The cilia of Protozoa subserve ingeStive as well as locomotor

purposes, and show the relationship of ingestive and general mo-

tions, and that the locomotor ability is often derived from the

prehensile ingestive. In the free Rotifer this is quite apparent.

As the segments increase the sub-cesophageal ganglia multi-

ply ; the first set of ganglia become relatively ventral and preside

over nutrition, while the second set, relatively dorsal, indicate

progressive differentiation, as control of a pedal extremity or some

special organ related externally. At the same time this dorsal

ganglion is connected always with the ventral system. Fusion of

these segmental ganglia with each other, or with ganglia of other

systems, produce confusing appearances. This fusion of systems

is most clearly seen in Vertebrata.

The vibrating molecules which produce the undifferentiated

impressions upon lower Protozoa may be considered as causing

purely tactile excitation. Just as the waves that dash the primi-

tive animal about differ from the ripples that bring it food, only

in degree, so the differences between impressions must be

regarded, All sensation being related to molecular motions, and

all special sense organs being derived from indifferent primaries. _

Otocysts in their simplest form are connected directly with oe

nerves, as are the pigment granules which eventually develop into

eyes. Prof. Alf. M. Mayer shows that the fibers of the antenna

of the male mosquito vibrate sympathetically to the notes of the —

female mosquito, and that the vibrations of the insect’s antenne

may teach it the direction of sounds (thus allying this sense to —

22 Comparative Neurology. [January, :

the so-called “space sense” of the human labyrinth). Prof —

Mayer also announced that the terminal auditory nerve-fibers

vibrate half as often in a given time as the membrane of the tym- —

panum and the ossicles.

In these instances there is a direct derivation of an auditory —

from the special tactile which, in turn, was evolved from the gen- —

eral tactile sense, and does not seem to be lost, even in man, asa

property of sensory nerves. :

A heat sense system of nerves developed from pigment ter-_

minals, by further elaboration could become ocelli and finally —

eyes.

A special series of nerves for heat appreciation would have —

necessarily a general distribution throughout the body, to viscera as

well as to more external peripheries.

Nervous tissue appears at the same time as muscular, and ©

affords a better path or course of less resistance for the molecu- —

lar vibrations from without. The muscular is a definitely located —

expression of what previously belonged to all parts of the animal,

contractile ability or motility for assimilative purposes.

is assimilative faculty is essentially prehensile, and in the —

word prehension we may grasp the idea of a differentiation of ©

such faculties as respiration, locomotion, deglutition, etc. 2

Carrying the comparison from Protozoa to man, all that man —

does or may hope to do has for its basis the single fundamental, —

though widely differentiated faculty of prehension. :

Jaws and arms are prehensile, clearly. Ribs are ssechecaa in: 4

the sense that they assist in prehension of oxygen (food) for the —

lungs, morphologically and less physically in man, while in —

Ophidia the ribs are locomotory prehensile, direct. ;

Legs are prehensile directly in quadrumana, and in man in car-

rying him over ground in search of food. :

As mentioned, the next step in development of the nervous —

system is when the ingoing general impressions become special- _

ized and a secondary ganglion appears upgn a sensory strand of ©

the primary, which signifies that from among the general impres- ;

sions some one sense, as sight, is being specialized. This is out-

wardly evidenced by formation of ocelli or gee (leech), which ‘

require a special projection. a

By quantitative increase multiple eyes may form (leech) and

these become united into bilateral organs (pyramidal fusion in

crayfish). s

1881.] Comparative Neurology. 23

The likeness between the chain of ganglia in the leech and the

spinal cord of Vertebrata has led many comparative anatomists

astray in homologizing. A nearly similar chain of ganglia obtains

in Vertebrata but situated ventrally from the vertebral column.

This chain is a first system. The head ganglion, only, of the

leech, as in most Invertebrata can be compared toa spinal. In

Insecta and Myriapoda the superimposed secondary becomes

more evident. An “ unpaired system” runs in the median line

between and connected with the paired or primary system, typify-

ing the more definite appearance of the medullary gray and its

commissures below or back of the head.

Todd and Bowman (pages 611 and 614, Vol. 111) use the fol-

lowing words, which indicate an early recognition of the anatomi-

cal fact without their having seen its connection or full import:

“In the bee the cerebral (‘secondary’) ganglion is very large;

from its anterior portion is given off two nerves which pass for-

ward to the base of the antenne and have their origin well

marked by a distinct ganglionic enlargement !”

Todd dwells upon the importance of recognizing this distinct

ganglionary enlargement, and repeats, “ The sensory nerves have

ganglionic enlargements in the bee.”

(This appearance of a third system is rare in Invertebrata,

though the crab and Pterotrachea also may prove to be its pos-

sessors.)

The ganglionic swellings which on the sensory nerves of the

bee distinguished it from most Invertebrata, in vertebrate types

from Cyclostomes upward become more markedly developed.

While both the first and second systems possess recognized

afferent and efferent fibers, before being able to comprehend the

relationships between systems or the process of projection forma-

tion, we must consider whether some fundamental law does not

underlie these series of relations which will better sohaneaicie for

their creation.

The typical segment is an animal whose nerve center lies mid-

way between an afferent and efferent strand, thus: $. A series

of such segments, if ununited, present this appearance :

Ecc er!

These segments could be correlated by a second fiber, which

24 | Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. [ January,

instead of passing between peripheries as in the instance of non-

union, unite the segmental ganglia by making another ganglion —

its motor projection. ‘

Carpenter (“ Principles of Comparative Physiology,” p. 642)

expresses this view: ‘“ When different organs are so far special-

ized as to be confined to distinct portions of the system, and each

part consequently becomes possessed of a different structure and —

is appropriated to a separate function, this repetition of parts in —

the nervous system no longer exists; its individual portions —

assume special and distinct offices, and they are brought into

much closer relationship to one another by means of commis- —

sures or connecting fibers, which form a large part of the nervous

system of the higher animals. It is evident that between the most :

simple and the most complex forms of this system there must be ~

a number of intermediate gradations, each of them having a rela-

tion with the general form of the body, its structure and economy

and the specialization of its distinct functions. This will be found

on careful examination, to be the case; and yet, with the diversity :

of its parts as great as exists in the conformation of other organs

its essential character will be found to be the same throughout.”

Segmental union, thus, is accomplished through efferent nerves —

no longer penetrating to primary organs, but passing to nerve —

centers of other segments, for the purpose of producing coordi

nated movements, and consequently to exert an inhibitory effect ©

thereupon.

[Zo be continued, |

“7°

BOTANIZING ON THE COLORADO DESERT.

BY EDWARD LEE GREENE.

li.

ETWEEN Coyote Wells and the next station lie some, twen

two miles of almost uninterrupted plain. The white cl

the grease bushes, contrary to the rule of desert growths, are

leafy, their abundant foliage is of precisely the same dull whitish —

color as the clay in which they grow. Over this smooth an¢

slightly yielding clay the walking was very easy, and I mad

1881,] Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. 25

good time, for as the objects of interest on this particular day’s

march did not promise to be numerous, I intended to shorten as

much as possible the hours of inevitable suffering from thirst.

During the first half of the day a mirage, like a narrow sheet of

placid water, just far enough away to dazzle and pain one’s eyes,

kept always its allotted distance ahead. By the wayside and over

all the plain, were scattered the shells of a certain fresh water

mollusk of the genus Unio. The nearest stream is the Rio Col-

orado, full a hundred miles distant, and these shells, now more

than half dissolved and crumbling into scaly purple fragments

when you touch them, must have been deposited here at a time

when the Colorado had flooded the whole desert. No flower or >

bird or insect were seen to-day to vary the monotony or break

the silence. At noon I detected the shape of an adobe hut upon

the tremulous horizon away to the left of the stage road, probably

a mere ruin, but nevertheless suggestive of water, since no one

ever built an adobe wall in this wilderness without first having

found water. The first impulse was to turn aside and visit the

spot. But as, through the varying medium of the heated air, the

adobe at one moment seemed near, and the next very far off, so

that I could not guess whether it was one mile away or five, I at

second thought resolved not to waste time in what might prove

a long and worse than fruitless deviation from my proper course.

Before the afternoon was half gone my twenty-two miles journey

was ended. I had reached the station of Indian Wells. The

third day’s travel witnessed another change in the character of

the soil. The ground becomes sandy, and instead of the grease

wood of the alkali flats we have the much more sightly creasote

bush (Larrea mexicana Morie), a bright evergreen with small

foliage somewhat resembling that of the dwarf box, though the

shrub has nothing of the close, compact habit of the box, and its

slender spreading or rather drooping boughs bear yellow blos-

soms among the leaves.

The twigs when bruised exhale a strong odor of creasote, and

they have stimulating properties. The Indians and Mexicans

journeying across these parched wastes, chew them, and even tie

bunches of them to the bits in the mouths of their ponies with

good results in cases of extreme suffering from fatigue or thirst.

This shrub occupies the sandiest parts of the desert, and usually

where it occurs no other species of vegetation is found.

VOL. XV.—NO. 1. 3

‘

26 Botaniz sing on the Colorado Desert. [January, ©

After some eight or ten miles of sand came another change of

soil, and the creasote bushes gave place to the mezquit, a small”

tree of considerable importance in the Southwest. This was the

first mezquit wood I had ever seen; I therefore turned aside from —

the road to walk among the trees, wishing to inspect somewhat”

carefully the characteristics of the species. Very suddenly my

attention was called to certain objects interesting in quite a differ-_

ent way. The noonday silence was broken by a shout, and turn-_

ing toward the quarter whence the voices had seemed to emanate, —

I discovered a dozen naked savages, some standing, others sitting _

under a mezquit tree. After a little experience of travel in West-

ern wilds, one learns not to be always afraid of Indians; yet E

confess on this particular occasion a full inventory of the trav-_

eler’s feelings might have shown some fears. I was alone,

unarmed, and at a rather unsafe distance from any habitation of

civilized men. If the barbarians should, for any purpose, see fit

themselves. They were stalwart fellows, quite different in appear ;

ance from the members of any Western tribe with which I was

familiar ; moreover they had displayed unusual boldness in thei

yelling out and commanding me, as they did by word and ges-_

ture, to leave my own course and come and pay to them m}

respects. But whoever upon finding himself in the power ¢

savages feels any timidity had best conceal it. I, therefore, wi

an air of calmness and confidence marched forward and seated

myself in the sand in the midst of the swarthy group. Fora

while no one spoke. Indeed, their knowledge of the learn

languages was presumably not much more extensive than mi

of the dialect of the Yumas. But the Yumas have inquisitt

eyes, and they studied their visitor in silence. Presently

oldest looking one among them discovered something which evi-

dently interested him. It was a plain heavy ring, rather specially

valuable to me as having been made from a nugget of Australian

gold which a friend from that far off southern coast had give

me. The Indian pointed to this and asked if it was “ord,

Feigning a confidence which I was far from feeling, but judgin

the wisest thing to do under the circumstances, I slipped the t

from my finger and passed it over to him. He placed it upon |

1 Spanish for gold.

ee See eee,

1881. | Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. 27

palm.of his hand and gave it a slight toss in the air, thus testing

to his own satisfaction its weight and genuineness. Each one of

the speechless company went through the same performance, and

then. the ring was handed back to me by the one who had first

received it, greatly to the quieting of my nerves. And now my

botanist’s portfolio had to be examined. It was well filled with

flowers, and boughs and twigs of desert bushes, with which my

interviewers were familiar. They all gathered close about me to

admire my herbs, and then entered into conversation among

themselves, discussing, I dare say, the question of my object in

gathering up these things. They gave me their names for cer-.

tain of the plants and then inquired what I called them. Presently

he who seemed the chief man among them expressed to me his opin-

ion that I was a “ medico,” and I felt that I was safe. Composedly I

now surveyed the persons of these representatives of a tribe that was

_newto me. In appearance they were the least repulsive of all the In-

dians I had ever seen. Every one of the party must have measured

at least six feet in height; and clad only in their breech clothes,

each displayed a development of form and figure well nigh fault-

less. Their faces, too, really bore an expression of mildness and

good humor not commonly. noticeable in aboriginal Americans.

In short, I beheld for the first time a group of rather handsome

Indians. What their business: may have been here in the midst

of the desert, so far from their homes on the ‘fertile banks of the’

Colorado, I cannot guess.

To-day the distance from station to station was thirty-two miles.

Happily for the pedestrian there is a well mid-way between the

stations. This place of refreshing was arrived at within a half

hour after I had concluded my visit at the encampment of Yumas.

It is called New River Well; not because there is any river there

or ever was. There is, however, a broad and shallow channel

where once, since white men began to traverse the region, there

flowed for a few hours a broad and turbid stream. Though the

flood was transient, and no one could tell whence it came, the fact

sufficed to give the place the name of New River. A deep well

has been sunk at this point by the stage company. The water,

though clear and cold, has such a sweet, nauseating and rather

metallic taste that no one drinks of it unless impelled by most

inordinate thirst ; however, it does not seem to be at all unwhole-

some. There is no describing the almost maddening thirst which

28 Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. [ January, a

is excited by a half day’s walk under a scorching sun in this

excessively dry atmosphere ; but from the incredible quantity I 3

drank of this water, so offensive to the palate, I suffered not the @

slightest inconvenience afterwards. a

From New River we pass forth again to a dreary stretch of

sandy waste. Heaps of white bones half buried under sand —

drifts by the wayside, mark the point where years ago a large herd

of beef cattle perished in the attempt to drive them by this road

from the rich grassy valleys of Sonora to the commanding maf-

kets of the Californian coast. The afternoon heat was intense,

and one felt more than willing to pause and rest a while as often

as one found a creasote bush tall enough to give a little shade. : :

Owing to the several delays made during the day, the deep event

ing shadows, as they fell, found me some miles from the station;

but the road being clearly traceable, there was no danger of miss-_ af

ing one’s way, and the walk by starlight, in the cooler air, was_ 3

not unpleasant. As I entered now another belt of low mezquit

wood, the light evening breeze came laden with delightful pet-

fume very much like that of pond lilies. But for the loose, dry,

yielding earth beneath my feet 1 could, in the darkness, have fan- a

cied myself near the margin of some far northern lake in June,

when thousands of those queenly flowers rest on the bosom of pla

cid waters, and breathe “ sabean odors” on the air of night. From —

thoughts of distant lands,and memories of “ days that are no more. ” =

_ I was called back to the present by the significant and just now | E

not unwelcome sound of a bull dog’s bark, announcing the prox: 4 a

imity of my place of shelter for the night, or at least of what fo

outside the door, I descried, by the light of the rising moon, som a

bales of hay near the stable, and, as the night air was mild,*+ ~

asked and readily obtained permission to sleep on a bale of hays q

Here I lay, wakeful for a long hour, watching by the moonlight | 4

the gambols of a wolf from the desert. This frolicsome beast —

amused himself and me by capering and yelping around the 4

chained watch dog, greatly to the annoyance of the latter, who

evidently wished himself free fora good chase or a fair fight. 3

In the early morning search was made for the flowers, whatever

they might be, which had breathed forth such grateful incense 00 —

1881.] Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. 29

the evening air. They were not soon discovered, The parched

earth showed nowhere grass or herb of any sort. One cotton-

wood which the ranchman’s axe had spared, stood fair and

bright in its fresh spring foliage; but the mezquit trees, notwith-

standing the high temperature of these latter days of February,

showed yet no sign of leaf or blossom; the larger of these, how-

ever, seemed burdened with heavy tufts of a dark green parasite

—a species of mistletoe (Phoradendron californicum Nutt). This

mistletoe, upon a close inspection, was found bearing a profusion

of small, greenish and altogether inconspicuous flowers, with

precisely the fragrance of pond lilies; and so the pleasant riddle

of the previous night was solved.

The fourth day’s travel brought nothing new or specially inter-

esting in the line of the botanical; but the larger size of the

mezquit trees, and the more frequent occurrence of them would

have indicated, even if the miles had not been counted, that we

were nearing, gradually, the banks of the Colorado, the eastern

boundary of the desert. And here let us notice more particularly

this characteristic and most important of the native trees of the

far Southwest, the common mezquit (Prosopis juliflora DC.). To

give a general idea of the species, we will compare it with the

honey locust ( Gleditschia triacanthus L.) a tree well known almost’

everywhere east of the Mississippi, and not remotely allied to the

mezquit. The two species, in several points, very strongly resem-

ble each other. The leaves and flowers of both are much alike,

and both have their branches armed with stout, forbidding thorns.

But while the honey locust grows erect and displays a well

shaped head, the massive trunks of the mezquit usually almost

recline upon the ground for about two-thirds of their length; and

there are commonly four or five of these half reclining trunks

growing from one root; so that a good forest of mezquit, which

would really, if cut down, yield a vast amount of wood, looks —

more like a straggling orchard of old and deformed apple trees

than like what would be called a fine piece of timber. The fruit

pods, borne in heavy clusters, are as long as those of the honey

locust, but very narrow’ hardly the fourth of an inch in width,

thin and flat; and instead of the sweet reddish pulp of the locust

pod, the mezquit has its seeds imbedded in an abundance of a

hard, white substarice, very sweet, and which the chemists tell us

is grape sugar ina state of great purity. Horses, horned cattle

™

30 Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. [January,

and swine are very fond of these mezquit beans, as they are

called, and fatten rapidly when fed on them. Moreover, the —

“mezquit meal,” which Indians and Mexicans manufacture by _

drying and grinding these pods and their contents, is perhaps the

most nutritious breadstuff in use among any people, barbarous or a ]

civilized. In these regions where no grass grows, and where the

growing of the cereals is limited to the valleys of rivers that are 4

few and far between, the importance of the mezquit, from an

economic point of view can hardly be overestimated. The wood 3

burns with an intensity of heat that is unfavorable to the nicest 4 7

results in baking, and also destructive to iron; hence the few set q :

lers on mezquit lands who brought stoves along, use any other

wood rather than mezquit to burn in them, but the best of char- _ :

coal is made from it, They assure us that this species of timber —

possesses the singular property of seasoning without undergoing ;

any perceptible shrinkage. Freighters and immigrants pret

over these desert regions, where of course there are no such things —

as wagon shops for hundreds of miles together, being obliged to —

do their own wagon repairing, always replace the broken “poked

or felly with one made from green mezquit, and the new piece |

does not shrink away and become loose and useless as it would

if made of, for example, a stick of unseasoned oak. -

Besides this common and most useful species there is another, +

called the screw mezquit (Prosopis pubescens Benth.), on account |

of its short pods being closely twisted into the shape of a screw.

This is a smaller tree, of no importance except that its pods hav

the same nutritious properties as those of the larger and more

common sort. a

Tete

Having now become familiar with all the principal trees, bushes

and herbs of the great, desolate wilderness, I was not sorry when

I knew myself to be approaching the banks of the Colorado and. 3

the habitations of civilized men. During five days I had never —

therefore a new and rather pleasant species of incident that befell

me when within thirty-five miles of my journey’s end I meta

pedestrian of my own color. It was a fair haired, handsome —

French boy of eighteen or twenty years, who came plodding

along through the heated sands in his stocking feet, and carrying —

over his shoulder a pair of new boots, His brand new suit of ©

1881.] Botanizing on the Colorado Desert. 31

army blue, together with the manifestly unquiet condition of his

nerves, told all too plainly the tale of desertion from the U. S.

Army. His first words when we met were to ask how far it was

to water. I pitied him most sincerely, for I had to answer “ at

least ten miles ;” at which discouraging news he, however, stamped

the sand in such emphatic wrath, and gave vent to such a volume

of French profanity, as quite satisfied me that he was good for

the ten miles even without refreshment. He had taken French

leave of Fort Yuma on the Colorado early in the course of the

previous night, and was now at midday full thirty-five miles out

upon the desert, on his way to San Diego. Not having dared to

appear before the inmates of the one station he had passed, he

was now sorely pressed by thirst and hunger, and also harassed

by the fear of falling into the hands of possible pursuers. When

we parted he begged me not to give any information concerning

him to any military party I might chance to meet upon his track;

and certainly for his youth’s sake, and for the courage displayed

in that bold adventure of a solitary flight across this hundred

miles of desert, I did wish for him a clean escape, fugitive that

he was.

Twenty-four hours later this other adventurer had accomplished

his undertaking; the desert had been crossed, and he sauntered

leisurely and content under the cottonwoods and tall willows

that make up the forests of the lower Colorado valley. It was

only the twenty-second day of February, but the cottonwood

trees were in full leaf and gave delightful shade. The willows,

though they had not yet divested themselves of more than half

their last year’s foliage, were in flower. The yellow catkins were

actually crowding off the leaves which had kept their places and

retained their freshness during the brief frostless winter.

This belt of riverside timber is occupied by the Yuma Indians;

but from the roadside no dwellings of the aborigines were appar-

ent. One saw, however, numerous pathways which had been

cut through the dense thickets leading from the road to the vil-

lages, and the voices of Indian children at their sports came

ringing out from the deep shady distance. On gaining the open

river bank, I saw, near the ferry, four stalwart Yumas, in their

usual picturesque costume of a red and yellow striped breech

cloth, lying fast asleep on the upturned bottom of an abandoned

flat boat. I disturbed not their slumbers. Two Mexicans near

“32 Distinguishing Species of Populus and Fuglans [ January, |

by interested me more; for they, observant of my approach, stood

holding the oars of their rude skiff, eager to earn “dos reales”

by transferring me to the opposite bank. I was not unwilling to

avail myself of their services. Once on the Arizona side of the

river, an hour’s walk would bring me to the thriving little town

of Yuma, and my five days on the desert had well prepared me

to appreciate the comforts of a well kept village hotel and the

society of the civilized.

“rT

THE METHOD OF DISTINGUISHING SPECIES OF _

POPULUS AND JUGLANS BY THE YOUNG 4

NAKED BRANCHES} |

BY PROF. W..J. BEAL.

T is supposed to be the aim of the botanist when he describes —

a plant to name the peculiarities which are the most striking

and constant, especially those which are easily seen with the un-

assisted eye. The writer has often been surprised that the pecu- —

liarities of the pith, bark, leaf scars and buds of our deciduous 4 :

leaved trees and shrubs are not more frequently given in descrip-

tions. | @

For five or six months of each year most of these plants are

destitute of flowers, fruit or leaves. If it is easy or possible to

_ distinguish species by the points above named, it certainly would

often be very convenient. In 1876, Frederick Brendel, of Peoria,

Illinois, said :? “ We have no surer guide than the characters taken

from the arrangement, form and construction of the buds, and in-

many cases from the leaf scars.”

I will now proceed to point out some of the differences between

the species of Populus and of Juglans, as seen when the young

growth is destitute of foliage. I have studied four species of |

Populus and two of Juglans, all natives of Michigan. .

Populus tremuloides—In very slender branches one year old all.

of the pith is green; in larger branches a green layer surrounds

the pith, which is of a whitish color much resembling the wood.

With a short exposure to the air the pith becomes brown.

The bud scales are polished. The transverse diameter of the

1 Read at the Boston meeting of the American Association for the Advancement —

of Science, Aug., 1880.

ee pre eet ee

_ *Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History, No. 1, page 26.

1881.] by the young naked Branches. 33

leaf scar slightly exceeds the vertical diameter. Fig. 1,abc,

illustrates the buds and bud scars of P. tremuloides. The buds

are not viscid. The one lettered a isa Sane of a sihlages of a

FIG. 3.

EXPLANATION OF THE FIGURES.

‘des. a, scar and bud near base of branch,

diam ; 4, natural size near the middle of a rapid ob Bator $s

view re same enlarged three diameters

Fic. 1 ee tremulot

Fic. 2.— Populus grandident ata. a, dilerged front and side view of bud and scar

near the base of a year’s ahs , the same farther up the stem; ¢, enlarged

view near the ecivin of stem,

size figure near the middle of a large poveee/

Fic. 3.— Popul: ral 6

growth ; be, views igs middle ‘of slender growth; @, view near the base o

enlarged three

front and side

34 Distinguishing Species of Populus and Fuglans [January,

stem not far from the base of the growth of last year; the others

are taken from near the middle of the same growth. These illus-

trations and the succeeding ones are all drawn to the same 7

unless otherwise designated.

Populus grandidentata.—In thrifty twigs, one year old, the pith

is yellowish white; the wood greenish white. The pith in twigs

two or three years old is light brown. The buds are slightly

pubescent under a lens and of a grayish-brown color, not viscid,

Near the middle of a branch, the leaf scars are about as broad as

long. Near the base the transverse diameter is the greater. The

internodes of this species in slow or in rapid growth are much

longer than those of P. tremuloides. They are often twice as long

in stems which have made the same amount of growth. Fig. 2,

a bc, illustrates the buds and leaf scars on young stems of P.

grandidentata.

Populus monilifera—tThe pith is light-brown and a cross section

is: usually pentagonal. - In most slender young branches the pith is

green, changing to brown on an exposure of a few minutes to the

air. The shape of the leaf scars is about midway between that of P. —

tremuloides and P. grandidentata, Branches which have made —

slow growth and the base of thrifty branches are often without

~ angles on the surface. Thrifty young branches have from five to —

eight prominent vertical ridges. One of these ridges extends —

below the center of a bud and one runs down from either side of —

the leaf scar. The branches are of a yellowish or greenish-brown :

color. There are a few round or oval white or brown spots on —

thrifty stems a year old. The buds are brown, viscid, not very —

glossy, and are destitute of pubescence, except a little on the

margins of bud scales. The buds are larger but their shape is —

much the same as those of P. tremuloides. On thrifty branches

there are often some buds mixed in with those larger which aré —

short and not fully sidinls eas For illustrations see Fig. 3, -

abca. a

Populus balsamifera—The young branches are brown and pol- a

ished. The lower buds of the season are broad and small, and

the scar below is broad. The lower buds and leaf scars of these a

four species of Populus are much alike in shape. The buds on -

the middle of the thrifty growth of P. da/samifera are quite long,

often seven-eighths of an inch. They are curved and pointed,

and become viscid. .Fig. 4,a 0c de, illustrate buds and leaf scars

of this species.

1881.] by the young naked Branches. 35

Fic. 6.

EXPLANATION OF THE Ace

Fic. 4 ee balsamifera. a, enlarged view of stem n low

of optic of a very slender stem; @ ¢, views of middle of a ige growth

the ude

a a 2 thrift ty stem,

a. A front hig — view of thrifty growth near the base; 5c,

near the middle; d, similar views of & 2

Fic. 5.— Fug igr

similar view from a thrifty b

’ slender stem near the — e ne 0p.

ws of a stem near the base; 4c, similar views

F ic. 6.— Fuglans cinerea.

near the middle of a bane: es vnihe vices of slender stems,

36 © Distinguishing Species of Populus and Fuglans, etc. [Januaty,

Fuglans nigra,—The pith of this species consists of thin plates

running transversely, leaving open cavities between them. The

pith is of a light-brown color. On a thrifty branch the bud scar

is nearly heart-shaped with vertical and transverse diameters

about equal. A very small bud can be seen in the sinus of the ~

scar. Above this is a larger bud, most of which is also within —

the sinus of the leaf scar. Above these buds is a third one, still

larger. The transverse diameter of the Jeaf scar is about equal.

in length to the distance between the leaf scar and the tip of the —

upper bud. A side view of the leaf scar shows quite a sharp —

depression in the middle. On slender branches the bud scars are

laterally compressed or appear longer: than on stout branches.

Fig. 5, a 4c d, illustrate this species. ;

Fuglans cinerea—The pith is separated in plates. It is of a

dark brown color and in a narrower cavity than that of F migra.

The leaf scar on a thrifty growth is not unlike the shape of a

sheep’s face. The scars left by the woody bundles of the leaf are —

shown in the drawings of all the species above mentioned. To-

wards the lower part of a branch, one bud only appears above :

the leaf scar; farther up on thrifty branches two buds may be

seen. -The scar is without any sinus or depression at the top.

In this species, on the middle of rapid growth, the upper bud is _

from one-fourth to two-thirds of an inch or even more above the —

top of the leaf scar. Along the top of the leaf scar is a trans-

verse or curved ridge or crest resembling velvet or plush. This”

crest is not present in ¥ nigra, but is rarely if ever absent in F ;

cinerea. The bark on a thrifty branch of * nigra when one yeat —

old is about a third thicker than that on branches of %. cinerea of :

the same age and size. After the first year, and sometimes —

sooner, the outer bark of ¥. nigra cracks and rolls up in scrolls, |

while the outer bark of ¥ cinerea shows nothing of the kind. Fig

6, a 4c d, illustrates this species.

The young trees of these two species of Juglans are not easily

distinguished by the leaves. In the axil of the leaf of ¥ cinerea, —

even when quite young, can be seen the velvet ridge. The odors —

of crushed leaves of the two species are different.

Some observations lead me to believe that many ether 1 trees

and shrubs can be equally well distinguished by the young |

naked branches, while in some cases it will be difficult to find

good specific characteristics The drawings for this paper were

made by W. Holdsworth. ,

1881.] An Address to Fossil Bones. 37

AN ADDRESS TO THE FOSSIL BONES IN A PRIVATE

MUSEUM.

BY JAMES S. LIPPINCOTT.

“And you have walked about—how strange a story !”

In days gone by, a million years or so,

When giant saurians were in all their glory

In the dim twilight of the long ago!

When Hadrosaurus reared his height stupendous,

And Aquilunguine Lzlaps leaped tremendous! —

Could ye but speak, what stories you could tell us!

How on the oozy flats you floundered free ;

Elasmosaur and all his scaly fellows

That fished and paddled the Cretaceous sea,

And Mosasaurus, how he showed his tushes

Ages ere Moses boated ’mong the rushes!

That “there were giants in those days” is certain,

Not such as those by Scripture story told,

Nor known to us till science raised the curtain,

Their length and breadth and stature to unfold ;

Monsters of flesh and bone and horny mail,

And jaws and claws and ponderous length of tail.

Oft have we queried, wherefore had ye birth,

And wherefore sent into a world like this

Ages ere perfect man appeared on earth?

As told in chapter first of Genesis,

Of which our Savans have not yet been able

To show how much is fact, how much is fable!

The “ dark idolator of chance” may learn

A lesson pregnant from your gray remains,

See proof of plans, deep-laid, he may not spurn,

_ By Power Creative, through all time the same ;

See glimpses of the slow evolving plan

Developing the monad up to man.

Then hail your advent to the light of day!

A revelation of old time to this,

Along the darkened past a brilliant ray

Lighting an else unfathomable abyss!

And hail to him whose skill your import can make plain,

Can reconstruct the past and make it live again !

An Address to Fossil Bones. [ January,

Rares. 30 Fi STK

My dearest cousin, several times removed,

Since you have called me from the vasty deep

To witness how our race has been improved,

Pray hear my answer ere you go to sleep.

And first I hold that it is not polite,

To call relations by such horrid names

As Hadro-mosa-sauri, which excite

Suspicion of the justness of your claims.

You seem in fact to have ransacked your brains

To find some endless word to suit my bones,

I'll take some little pity on your pains,

And tell you plainly that “my name is Jones!”

And I was born so very long before

Your puny race appeared upon the earth,

That human fancy ne’er may hope to soar

Back to the bygone age which saw my birth.

That to each other we have not been known,

Is owing to your most egregious fault;

For this confounded piece of marly stone,

Has served for ages for my burial vault.

Your ancient Scripture cannot be so old

Or nigh as perfect as this mass of rocks

In which the patient seeker may behold

Foundations of a faith most orthodox.

It is not treating me as I deserve

To end the monad series with a man,

Presumption founded on some extra nerve

Which you possess, does not destroy the plan.

Be warned in time lest overbearing pride

May be the chief occasion of your fall,

Let future beings ’twixt us beth decide,

Which was the master and which was the thrall.

Farewell! my voice is now forever hushed,

No more to be evoked by prose or rhyme;

The hue of health which once my temples flushed

Has changed to that of carbonate of lime!

Farewell! at least until the end of time.

1881. ] Editors’ Table. 39

EDITORS” TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE,

We have received the report of the Secretary of the In-

terior for the year ending June 30, 1880. We find contained in

it a recommendation to the President of the United States in

favor of the Geological Survey as conducted under its present

director, Clarence King. The accompanying summary of the

plan of organization of the survey, impresses us favorably, and

science should reap a rich harvest were its effectiveness assured

by a strong personnel and a proper direction of their work. The |

reports of progress which it is proposed to publish, will, we are

informed, consist of the following twelve volumes: “Geology

and Mining Industry of Leadville, Col.” by S. F. Emmons ;

“ Geology of the Eureka mining district in Nevada,” by Arnold

Hague, geologist-in-charge ; ‘‘ The Copper Rocks of Lake Supe-

rior, and their continuation through Minnesota,” by Prof, Row-

land D. Irving; “‘The Comstock Mines,” by Eliot Lord; “The

Comstock Lode,” by George T. Becker, geologist-in-charge ;

“The mechanical appliances used in mining and milling on the

Comstock Lode,” by W. R. Eckard, chief engineer ; “ The Coal

of the United States,” by Raphael Pumpelly, geologist-in-charge ;

“ The Iron in the United States,” by Raphael Pumpelly ; ‘ The pre-

cious metals,” by Clarence King, director; “ Lesser metals and gen-

eral mineral resources,” by Raphael Pumpelly; “ The Uinkaret Pla-

teau,” by Capt. C. E. Dutton, geologist-in-charge; “Lake Bonne-

ville,” by G. K. Gilbert, geologist-in-charge ; “ The Dinocerata, a

monograph on an extinct order of ungulates,” by Prof. 9. C.

Marsh, palzontologist.

We are naturally impressed, on reading this ee tenieal by the

great predominance of the economic side of geology over the

purely scientific, a tendency already visible in Mr. King’s Report

on the Geology of the Fortieth Parallel. In this work one volume —

was devoted to mining machinery, a subject which we claim to be

foreign to the scope of a scientific geological survey. This ten-

dency is developed to the full in the programme set before us, so

that it really looks more like the prospectus of a mining ©

engineer than a plan for the advancement of geological science.

That the country does not require this kind of work to be done

by the Government, is self evident, since the employment of geo-

logical and mining experts for the services apparently contem- |

40 Editors’ Table. [January,

plated by the reports in question, is matter of every day occur-

rence. The United States geologist, in proposing such a scheme,

has entered upon a sea of difficulties, of which he must but too

soon becomeaware. We maintain that retention as a mining expert

should be regarded as a disqualification for the position of United

States geologist. The tremendous pressure of the mining inter-

ests of the country upon the occupant of that important position

must be too great for any but a man exclusively devoted to purely

scientific interests, to properly resist. The men for the place are

devotees of science like Hayden, or engineer officers like Wheeler;

men who do not know enough of the relations of fees to ‘‘ expert

reports,” or of stock jobbing operations, ever to risk the sacrifice

of their professional independence by alliance with any interest of

the country whatsoever.

Mr. King’s scheme represents a new departure in government

scientific work, and one which we regret. It may indeed be said,

that the titles of his proposed volumes are purely ad captandum,

but from the previous history of this gentleman, we cannot ac-

cept this as a valid explanation. Hayden and Wheeler never

thought it necessary in the past to suppress the claims of pure

science, and they cannot complain that Congress was not liberal

in its appropriations. Congressmen are indeed aware that

the only function of government in the matter is to develop

knowledge for the sake of all interests, and not for the

sake of any particular interest. It is not necessary for the scien-

tific men of the country to change their attitude after the suc-

cesses of the past decade. But Mr. King is essentially a mining

geologist, which may partly explain the various serious scien-

tific blunders to be found in the palzontological and mineralogical

portions of his report on the geology of the fortieth parallel.

That the new United States Geological Survey would run into

this channel, is no more than we anticipated at the time of the

abolition of the old surveys, and formed one of the grounds of

our opposition to the change at that time.

The proposition to extend the United States Survey over the

old States is one that depends for its merit on the manner in

which it is carried into effect. To relieve the several States of

the responsibility of making geological surveys of their own ter-

ritory would be a positive injury to the scientific interests of the

country. The aggregate appropriations made by the States for

this purpose must, in the end, exceed the amount which the

National Government could devote to the same object. The

State Legislatures ought not for a moment tobe allowed to suppose —

that the General Government will relieve them of the necessity of

looking after their own interests. But a United States Survey

should undoubtedly have general supervisory powers over the

entire country. It should collate the results of the State surveys

1881. ] Lditors’ Table. 41

for its reports, and use their maps in making up its own. Its re-

lation to the States should be about that of the Bureau of Educa-

tion to the State school systems.

—— The adverse influence of city life on the development of

young naturalists, and the great lack of active scientific societies

in our larger cities, with the exception of Boston, Philadelphia,

New York, Washington, Salem, Buffalo, Cincinnati, St, Louis and

Davenport, is perhaps a subject worth considering.

The cultivators of natural history imbibe their early love for

nature during their out-of door, early life in the country. Nearly

all our leading naturalists were country-bred boys. So flourish-

ing an organization as the Society of Natural History at Boston,

counts, we believe, only two active leading members born in that

city; the membership is made up largely of those brought up in

more immediate contact with nature. The city naturalists are re-

inforced from the country. The scientific societies in the cities above

mentioned are maintained largely by physicians or college profes-

sors, originally country-bred. If city life were more conducive to

the growth of natural history studies, why do not such cities as

Chicago, Baltimore, Louisville, New Orleans, Charleston, Savan-

nah, Pittsburg, Providence, Worcester, Springfield, Rochester,

Trenton, Indianapolis, and Portland—we select the names much at

random—maintain flourishing societies? The subscription list of

this magazine has always consisted mostly of those living in the

Western and Middle States; it is in the smaller communities,

many of them college towns or villages, that naturalists develop,

though we wish we could say that they thrive there.

In the country native zeal and enthusiasm, the powers of close

and prolonged observation—communing with nature — arise

spontaneously on the farm and at the country-seat; transplanted

into the city, country-bred naturalists can organize and build up_

museums and libraries and publish the results of their studies, but

the original material is drawn from those who live in villages or

the suburbs of the larger cities. Natural history is now extensively,

taught in the public schools of our cities, and much effort is thus

expended to manufacture naturalists, or to induce a respect for sci-

entific studies, but the efforts are too recent to bear immediate fruit.

The exodus for two or three summer months into the country of

families, now so marked a feature of our larger cities, will, we hope,

in the long run bring the children of the present generation into

immediate contact with nature and result in a harvest of natural-

ists, endowed with a simple love of nature and zeal for scientific

pursuits, and the love of truth and knowledge for its own sake,

which will instill a wholesome spirit into our national life.

—— We hope to be able soon to furnish some statistics as to

the organization of scientific bodies in the United States. We

look forward to the time when each State will have its Academy

of Sciences, and it is only a question of enlightened self-interest

vo: 4 ;

42 Recent Literature. [January,

on the part of existing bodies, as to which of them becomes the

Academy of Sciences of the State where it is situated. Of course

such an institution is yet impossible in many of the States, where

science is only represented by amateurs, or not at all; but in a

number of them, real academies could be organized to-day. The

present policy of electing gentlemen to full privileges in scientific

bodies for $5 or $10 a year, must soon terminate the existence of

such bodies as scientific, from natural causes; the property being

thus slowly, but surely, alienated from the uses for which it was

originally designed. The only American societies which are so

constituted as to be self-protective in this respect, so far as we are

at present informed, are the National Academy of Sciences, the

Boston Society of Natural History, and the New York Academy

“of Sciences. The men devoted to original research in Philadel-

phia, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis, are becoming numerous,

and may be expected to follow early in the footsteps of their

more enterprising predecessors.

—— The scientifico-literary critic of our esteemed contemporary

the New York 7zmes, has recently given his readers his views as

to the AMERICAN NATURALIST, some of which are wise and some

otherwise. There is a flavor about some of his remarks

which reminds us of the funeral of a late scientific journal in

another city, at which our critic may have been a mourner. He

gives us a favorable opportunity of making a statement regarding:

the policy of the Naturatist. He observes, “ what it needs is a

catholic management which would print articles even if the theo-

ries presented could not receive the entire assent of the editors,”

etc. As the Naturatist has eight editors, more than any other

scientific journal in the world, of whom five are acknowledged

experts in original scientific research, an article must be very

eccentric in its politics not to meet the approval of some of them. |

As a matter of fact, the Narurauist will always print articles

within its scope, which are accurate as to matter of fact, and in- _

telligent in treatment, no matter what the theories of the authors

may be. .

wh) Soa SOP Seta eae ae tes

Yn ike a

RECENT LITERATURE.

Tue Narturatists’ Directory For 1880,.—We have before us

the last edition of this once useful work. It is difficult to imagine

what possible object the editor had in view in the arrangement 0

the contents. We'cannot see how it can be of the least use to”

any one, as the names are arranged by States, and there is no

alphabetical or subject index. A very considerable portion

of the volume is occupied with advertisements, many of them

1 The Naturalists’ Directory for 1880. Edited by S. E. Cassino. Boston, S. E-

Cassino, Publisher

‘1881 J Recent Literature. 43

totally foreign to subjects connected with science. The time once

was when a Naturalists’ Directory was a great desideratum, and

the first edition of Mr. Cassino’s work was valuable, but since

that time there has been a steady deterioration, and it seems that

at present the work has degenerated into a means of collecting

an annual assessment on all the naturalists of the country for the

personal benefit of Mr. S. E. Cassino. —F. S. K.

Suey Heaps 1n JAPAN.—No doubt many of the readers of the

AMERICAN NaTuRALIsST observed in the issue for last September,

a criticism by Prof. Morse on two recent publications on Japan-

ese archeology. One of these publications, which is by myself,

is entitled “ Notes on Stone Implements from Otaru and Hako-

date, with a few general rémarks on the prehistoric remains of

Japan.” It was published in the transactions of the Asiatic So-

ciety of Japan, in February, 1880. The other publication to which

Prof. Morse desires to call attention, is a handsome volume on

“ Japanese Archeology,” by Henry Von Siebold,a gentlemen

who, whilst residing in this country for over fifteen years, has

for a considerable portion of this time made archzology a spe-

cialty, and accumulated materials and information, as compared

with which the works of all others are but insignificant. The

only other recent publication on Japanese archeology is the

memoir on the “ Shell Heaps of Omori,” by Prof. Morse himself,

a volume full of most valuable material.- The conclusions which

Prof. Morse deduces from his materials are probably not those

which he would have arrived at had his visit to Japan been less

flighty, or had he more thoroughly acquainted himself with the

literature (European and Japanese) of the subjects about which

he wrote. One conclusion to which Prof. Morse has come, 1s,

that the shell heaps he describes are not those of the early Aino

inhabitants of this country, but probably pre-Aino, and those

who venture to put forward opinions which are contrary to his

own, he evidently desires to hew and hack at until they are quite

exterminated. As nearly all the workers at the archeological

materials which are so profusely spread throughout Japan, have

opinions which are opposed to those of Prof. Morse, the task be-

fore him is extensive. In the shell heaps of Omori, Prof. Morse

has found a number of human bones, and amongst these several

fragments of platycnemic tibia. These bones are exhibited in the

museum of the Tokio University. I may remark that although

I and many others have made numerous visits to the Omor! heap

and collected many basket loads of bones, we were not fortunate

enough to find anything which was human. Speaking of the

bones found by Prof. Morse, I remark in my paper referred to,

“Tf such tibiz are characteristic of the Ainos, and I am assure

that such is the case, we have here another indication pointing 1m

the same direction,” namely, that the shell heaps in which these

tibiz are found, are probably of Aino origin. This quotation 45

44 Recent Literature. | January,

the only remark which I made in my paper upon this subject. In

a challenge I am asked by Prof. Morse on what authority I have

stated that the Ainos have platycnemic tibiz, and further Prof.

Morse would have me regarded as the author of such a statement.

Assuming that what T have said places me in the responsible

position which Prof. Morse, by wrongly interpreting my words, is

evidently desirous that I should occupy, I will say, that if Prof.

Morse had acquainted himself with the literature relating to the

Ainos, he would most certainly have avoided remarks upon this

subject, and thus have saved himself from a predicament which,

to say the least, looks extremely awkward.

s an answer to Prof. Morse, let him refer to the well-known

Russische Revue (10 Heft, v1 Yahrgang), edited by Carl Rottger.

He will there find a quantity of valuable information relating to

the Ainos, and amongst the rest something bearing on the point

now under discussion, of which the following is a translation:

“With reference to the anatomy (of the Ainos) it is remarkable

that the humerus as well as the tibia has a very striking form ;

they are marked by an extraordinary flattening ( auserordentliche

abplatung) such as has, up to the present, never been noticed of those

bones in any people at present in existence. On the other hand this

peculiarity of form has been observed in the bones of extinct

people found in caves.” (The italics are mine.) Further remarks

upon Prof. Morse’s attack are, I think, unnecessary. If those

who are interested in this subject will refer to my original

article, it will be seen that much of what Prof. Morse has objected

to, is due either to his misrepresentation of my language, or to

his want of information on some of the subjects he has written

upon; and’I can assure your readers that the whole of his

remarks may be answered as easily as the subject of platycnemic

tibia has been answered.— Fohnu Milne, Imperial College of Engt-

neering, Tokio, Fapan, Oct. 19, 1880

Tue Botany OF CALIFORNIA, Vou. , BY SERENO WATSON.—

This beautiful volume is fully equal in lus of finish, and bo-

tanical interest to its predecessor, which appeared in 1876.

The same externally, it internally presents the large clear type,

and broad margins which distinguished the earlier volume. This

volume begins with the Apetalze, which includes twenty-five

orders. Of these the Polygonaceze and Chenopodiacez are _par-

ticularly interesting on account of the numerous species of Erio-

gonum (52) and Chorizanthe (25) of the former, and of Atriplex

(21) of the latter.. The nineteen species of willows, are arranged

and described by M.S. Bebb. Dr. Engelmann contributes the

article on the oaks, of which there are fourteen species.

he Gymnosperms are placed, as is usual in English and -

American works, before the Monocotyledons, The Gnetacez are

represented in California by two species of Ephedra, viz: &. mée-

vadensis (a shrub two feet high) and £. californica. The Taxa- — 4

1881.] : Recent Literature. 45

cez are separated from the Conifere as a distinct order, including

Torreya, with one species, 7: californica, and Taxus, represented

by Z: érevifolia. The Coniferz, proper, include eleven genera and

thirty-four species. Of the latter, at least, sixteen exceed one hun-

dred feet in height, and no less than eleven of these reach or

exceed the height of two hundred feet. The Abietinez are de-

scribed by Dr. Engelmann, and the arrangement is consequently

the most recent. Instead of the old genus Abies, as we all learned

it in Gray’s Manual, we have Abies, Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, and

Picea. Under Pinus there are fourteen species.

In the Monocotyledons, the Orchidacee are not numerous.

This is, however, not the case with the Liliacez, represented by

thirty-one genera. Many of the genera are rich in species, ¢. £.,

Allium with twenty-three; Brodiza with fourteen; Lilium with

eight ; Fritillaria, eight; Calochortus, twenty-one. Three palms

are described as occurring in the southern part of the State, viz:

Washingtonia filifera, Erythea edulis and E. armata. The sedges

and grasses, the latter by Dr. Thurber, occupy more than one

hundred pages of the volume. Nearly one hundred more pages

are filled with descriptions of the vascular Acrogens (by Prof,

Eaton), and the cellular Acrogens (Musci and Sphagnacee only).

Fifty pages of “additions and corrections,” mostly to Vol. 1, an

excellent index, a glossary, and a “ List of persons who have made

botanical collections in California,” by Prof. Brewer, complete this

volume. The authors (Brewer, Watson and Gray, for Vol. 1, and

Watson, for Vol. 11) are to be congratulated upon the successful

completion of this great work, and the liberal-handed business

men of the Golden State are to be commended for their public

spirit in furnishing the means for its publication after the Legisla-

ture had refused to do so. No other State is now provided with

so excellent a work upon its native plants.—C. £. B.

BALBIANI’s LECTURES ON THE GENERATION OF VERTEBRATES.|—

- This work corresponds in some degree to that of Kolliker on

the development of man and the higher animals, but is confined

rather to the earliest stages of development, and particularly to

the mode of formation of the egg and the male reproductive ele-

ments, subjects now occupying very closely the attention of

observers in the different countries of Europe, while unfortu-

nately our own land does not contain in its population of

50,000,000, so far as we are aware, a single person who is studying

the points regarding early vertebrate development in an original

way. Should there be any one desirous of examining into the

subject, he would find the volume before us, although a little

passé in some points recently worked out by E. Van Beneden,

McLeod, Balfour, and probably several biologists in Germany,

1 Lecons sur la Génération des Vertébris. Par G. BALBIANI. Recueillies par le

F. HENNEGUY, Revues par le Professeur. Avec 150 figures intercalées dans le

texte et 6 planches en chromo-lithographie hors texte. Paris, O. Doin, 1879.

46 Recent Literature, [January,

still as useful and certainly as readable an introduction as he could

desire. Balbiani has contributed additions to our knowledge

of reproduction in the Arthropods and in the Vertebrates, and

considerable new matter, illustrated with six chromo-lithograph

plates, is given in the present volume,

ZITTEL’S HAND-BOOK OF PALH@oNTOLOGY.—We have previously

noticed this valuable hand-book, which is being issued in parts,

the present one being the fourth of Vol.1. This completes the

first division of the present volume, which treats of fossil Pro-

tozoa, Ceelenterata, Echinodermata and Molluscoidea. The pres-

ent part finishes the subject of fossil worms, but is mainly devoted

to the Molluscoidea, namely the Bryozoa and Brachiopoda, which

are placed under the Mollusca. It will thus be seen, that the

classification so far from being modern, borders upon the paleozoic.

Still the matter under each class heading is detailed, accurate ;

the fossils are interpreted by reference to the living forms, of

which a concise description is given, and, as we have before said,

this work of Zittel’s, is on the whole, superior to any that the stu-

dent can obtain. .

McAtpine’s Biotocicat Atras.—The title sufficiently de-

scribes this atlas, the plan of which is pretty good, though often

the figures are clumsy, and more or less misleading. For ex-

ample, the figures of the anatomy of the lobster are coarse, rough,

and convey little idea of the parts as they exist in nature; they

look as though they were copied from rough colored-chalk dia-

grams sketched off-hand on the blackboard. The “ zoéa of the

obster” is a rough figure of some decapod zoéa, but not the

young freshly hatched lobster, which, as the authors should have

known, has a much more advanced form than here represented.

The drawings of the nervous system and eye of the same animal

are abominable. Indeed, we could scarcely recommend the book

for use in our schools and colleges. Something much better

could have been prepared for the same money,

EaTon’s SysTEMATIC Fern List.—Prof. Eaton, of Yale College, |

has recently issued a “Systematic Fern List,” which will prove

useful to our botanists, who wish to know what proportion of our

native ferns they have in their collections. The list includes all the

known ferns of the United States, and gives the geographical

range of every species, and is intended “to serve as a check-list,

and at the same time to show the classification of the genera.”

Of the one hundred and fifty-one species enumerated, one hundred

and forty are true ferns (order Filices), the remaining eleven be-

1 Biological Atlas. A guide to the practical study of plants and animals, adapted

to the requirements of the London Vasco Sciences and Arts Department, and ne

use in schools and colleges, with accompanying text, containing arrangement a

ar OD and terms, glossary and classification. 423 colored figures a

.and A. N. ‘McALPINE. Edinburgh and London, W. | and A. K.

Fanece. 1880. ‘gto, pp- 49.

1881. ]| Recent Literature. 47

longing to the order Ophioglossacee. Of the true ferns, one

hundred and twenty-nine species fall under the sub-order Poly-

podiacez, one under Ceratopteridee, two under Hymenophyl-

lacezee, four under Schizzacez, and three under Osmundacez.

The pamphlet, which contains twelve pages, and bears date of

September, 1880, may be obtained for ten cents by addressing the

author.—C. £. B.

THE ZooLoGIcAL REcorD FOR 1878.\—The fifteenth volume of

this series is a little more bulky than the fourteenth, an evidence

that the cultivators of the science of zodlogy are neither diminish-

ing, nor the number of notices, articles and works contributed b

them to journals and transactions. The editor and his assistants

are the same as in the preceding volume, and we may feel sure

that the omissions and errors inevitable to such work are com-

paratively few. It is a pity that so large a proportion, indeed

almost the entire volume, is taken up with references to descrip-

tions of new genera and species; these seem unfortunately to be

as numerous as ever, and to draw away the attention of zoologists,

from the more pressing and legitimate objects of study.

The space devoted to biological and anatomical zodlogy should,

it seems to us, be much greater than at present, and be made

fully as prominent a topic as purely descriptive work; for this

reason the parts on Ccelenterata and Echinodermata, Mollusca

and Crustacea, with their analyses of discoveries made in the

anatomy and physiology of these animals, is treated with more

care and judgment than some other chapters. It seems to us that

abstracts of articles in such journals as Siebold and Kolliker’s

Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zodlogie, Troschel’s Archiv fur

Naturgeschichte, and the similar French journals of Milne-

Edwards and Lacaze Duthiers, as Well as the Quarterly Fournal of

Microscopical Science, should be fuller, as these periodicals really

contain the best material, 7. ¢., that which contributes most to the

advancement of the science, and is or should be most eagerly read

by students. As the new species get worked up, we may hope that

more room will be found for such abstracts, as these are espe-

cially desirable for American students, who are exposed to the

temptation of forsaking the true objects of zodlogical study, and

betaking themselves to the mechanical, and not particularly intel-_

lectual work of describing new species and genera, and preparing

local faunal lists without reference to future monographical work.

We may add what we have said in notices of previous volumes —

of this series, that no American student of systematic zoology can

afford to be without the Record, particularly those living away

from large libraries.

Jourpan's ZOANTHARIAN CORALS OF THE GULF OF MARSEILLES.

This important and well illustrated memoir, which appears in

1 blogt. - being volume fifteenth of the Record of Zo6- —

i Slirgiras Soh Traited by ne Rye, FL: S,, etc. ‘London; 1880. 8v0.

48 Recent Literature. [January,

the Annales des Sciences Naturelles for 1380, bears particularly

on the histology and embryology of the sea-anemonies and the

coral Balanophyllia, and should be studied in connection with the

brothers Hertwig’s nearly contemporaneous work on the his-

‘tology of the Actiniz, now brought to a close in the Jena Zeit-

schrift.

BasTIAN’s THE BRAIN AS AN ORGAN OF Minp.'—One of the au-

thor’s objects in the preparation of this book was to show that

not the brain alone, but the entire nervous system, is the organ

of the creature’s “mind,” and this is shown by reference to the

lower animals as well’as the vertebrates. He also attacks Ferrier’s

conclusions as to the localization of the different intellectual

powers in the human brain, believing that our knowledge is too

imperfect to decide that. But while these are salient points which

give tone to the book, the author has presented us with a most

useful work upon the nervous systems of animals in general and

the correspondence between the structure of the brain of the

different classes of vertebrates and their mental powers, which is

both novel and useful.

After treating of the nervous system of mollusks, worms and

arthropods (crustacea and insects), the author reviews the data

derived from a study of the nervous system of invertebrates, and

‘claims that in insects the sense of smell is “marvelously keen,”

while that of hearing is ‘developed to a very slight extent.”

Here we may say that Dr. Bastian has not apparently availed himself

of the latest studies on the internal structure of the brain of crus-

tacea and insects by Dietl, Flogel and Krieger, and his own coun-

tryman, Mr. E. T. Newton; nor do we think he treats with suffi-

cient detail or comprehensiveness the intellectual powers of in-

sects. He is evidently more at home in the comparative struc-

ture of the brain of vertebrates, and here his conclusions and

general views appear to us to be well grounded and sound.

s regards the vertebrates, beginning with an account of the

brain of fishes and of Amphibia, he goes on to that of the reptiles

and birds, and with these as a standard of comparison, pauses to

consider the scope of mind in general, of reflex action and un-

conscious cognition, sensation, ideation and perception, and then

discusses consciousness in the lower animals, the nature and origin

of instinct, and of nascent reason, emotion, imagination and voli-

tion. These subjects will be interesting to those biologists who

may be engaged in studying the habits and psychology of animals.

Dr. Bastian regards the whole nervous system as the “ organ”

of mind, the brain being merely its principal component part.

According to his view, instead of supposing that mind and con-

sciousness (in its ordinary acceptation) are co-extensive, mind

should include all unconscious nerve actions as well as those

1 The Brain as an Organ of Mind. By H. Charlton Bastian. With 184 illustra-

tions. New York, 1880. D. Appleton & Co. 12mo,, pp. 708.

1881.] Recent Literature. 49

which are attended by consciousness. These views differ in one

or other respect, he claims, from those of Spencer, Lewes and

Bain, and still more widely on the other hand from the generality

of metaphysicians who habitually regard mind as an entity, and

speak of the “mind” using the brain as its instrum

While the Medusa and organisms only a little "above them

such as mollusks and worms, act unconsciously, the intellectual

processes being but a few degrees more complex than those which

may take place in a sun-dew or other sensitive plant, the author

brings forward reasons for the belief that as the nervous system

increases in complexity from the lowest animals to the fishes, rep-

tiles and birds, so the mental and motor phenomena of which such

organisms are capable, show a similar tendency to increase in

complexity. Consciousness first seems to appear, according to

the author, in insects, Cephalopods, fishes, reptiles and birds.

“These organisms are so high in the scale of organization as to

leave no room for doubt that some of their nerve actions are at-

tended by conscious states, but it is impossible for us definitely

to decide which are and which are not so endowed.”

He ascribes little reason to insects, believing that “while the

instincts of birds are perhaps less elaborate, their adaptive intelli-

gence or reason and the strength and definiteness of their emo-

tions are unquestionably far superior to those presented by the

social insects.” Moreover, the author logically claims that reason,

imagination and volition are “mere higher developments arising

out of previous processes,” such as the automatic actions of the

lower animals,

Bastian then describes the brain of mammals, especially Quad-

rumana, and claims that there is a progression in mental capacity

from the lower mammals to the monkeys and apes: “The de-

velopment of intelligence, emotion and volition, which becomes

so obvious in lower Quadrumana, is, however, recognizable in a

still more striking degree when we come to the so-called man-

like apes, viz., the gibbons, the chimpanzee, the gorilla, and the

orang-outan

The pte half of the book is devoted to the human brain

and human psychology. The chief interest of the book to us is _

the fact so well brought out that the leading features of the mind

of man have their germs in the mental processes of the lower

animals, and that there is, on ene whole, a progressive develop-

ment from invertebrates to m

Finally the author states his belief that “every higher intellec-

tual and moral process—just as much as every lower sensorial

or perceptive process—involves the activity of certain related cell-

and-fibre networks in the cerebral cortex, and is absolutely de-

pendent upon the functional activity of such networks.” He

claims that “consciousness or feeling must be a phenomenon

having a natural origin, or else it must be a hon-naturg; non-

50 Recent Literature. - [January,

material entity.” On the other hand, he is decidedly opposed to

the doctrine of automatism held by some extreme evolutionists,

closing his book with these words: ‘But we certainly should

_ not, on this account, allow ourselves to be mentally paralyzed by

a belief in the existence of a metaphysical gulf between what is

termed the subjective and the objective—the ‘Ego’ and the

‘Non-Ego.’ Yet, even some believers in the philosophy of evo-

lution have thus been led to deny the natural origin of conscious

' states, and have, as a consequence, found themselves forced to

hold a doctrine of thoroughgoing ‘Automatism’—one in which

all notions of free will, duty and moral obligation would seem,

from this theoretical basis, to be alike consigned to a common

grave, together with the underlying powers of self-education and

self-control.”

As to the moral nature, Bastian believes that it originated in

savage life, after society developed, and says nothing as to the

possible existence of the germs in the animals below man.

Mason’s Microscopic STUDIES ON THE CENTRAL NERVOUS

SYSTEM OF REPTILES AND BatracuiAns.1—The author here deals

with the form of the spinal cord, and especially that of its enlarge-

ment; the nuclei of the nerve cells, and variations in their shape,

size, etc., in the same individual: the number of ganglionic bodies

in the spinal cord, and their relations to the roots of the spinal

nerves, and the difference, if any, which may be determined by

sex. After stating the methods of preparation of his sections, Dr.

Mason, as a result of very extended examinations of a large num-

ber of what we can testify to be beautiful sections of the spinal

cord of the frog and different reptiles, concludes as follows:

1. The central canal of the spinal cord of frogs is more nearly

cylindrical in shape than has been generally supposed. The oval

contour is not seen in cross sections below the second pair of

nerves, when the membranes are not removed before hardening.

2. The nuclei of the large nerve-cells are more generally oval

in form than are those of the smaller cells.

. The nerve-cells of the crural enlargement are as abundant as)

those of the brachial enlargement, if not more so. Their nuclei

are larger, as are also the surrounding masses of protoplasm or

cell bodies

4. No difference in structure can be made out in the upper por-

tion of the cord, corresponding with the sexual function in the

male. The long-continued and violent tonic spasms of the an-

terior extremities, must be explained by local hyperamia in-

fluencing the same structure as those which exist in the female.

5. The relation which is generally believed to exist between the

1 Microscopic — on the Central Nervous System of Reptiles pact Batrachians.

The spinal cord o rog, Rana pipiens, Rana halecina. By JOHN J. MASON,

eprinted rom the Journal of Nervous and Mental Disses: Jan. 1880.)

Chicago, 1880. 8vo,

1881.] Recent Literature. 51

so-called motor-cells and the inferior (anterior) roots, can be

demonstrated in the frog more readily than in any other animal.

We shall look with much interest for future contributions by

the author to our knowledge of the histology of the nervous

system of the lower vertebrates, as it is a field greatly neglected

in this country, Dr. Dean’s monograph on the general subject

not having been succeeded by similar works until the present

time; these studies, moreover, have a great interest in connec-

tion with the views of Lewes and Bastian.

T Books AND PAMPHLETS.—The Geology of Hudson county, New Jersey.

o Israel 1c. rae (From the Annals of the New York Acacemy of Sciences,

Vol From the author

the oe of Man and the Origin of Species. By J. W. Dawson. (From the

ie: Review.) From the author

is papers 5 eae ne the American Philosophical Society. By Pliny

mai Chabe LL.D. Fro

e Mica veins a Nort aba By W., C. Kerr, State poole North Caro-

ina m Transactions of the fades Institute Mining Engi , 1880.)

Topography as affected by the rotation of the Earth. By WC. Kerr, State geol-

ogist Neth Carolina. (From Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., J

Notes on the Vertebrata of the Pre-glacial Forest Bed le of the East of Eng-

land. By E. T. igen , F.G.S. (Ext. from tie aed Magazine, Decade 11,

Vol. vi, No. 9, p. 424. "London, 1880.)

Revision of the eet Snails of Palzeozoic Era, with descriptions of new species.

By J. W. Dawson. (From the American Journal of Science, Vol. xx, November,

1880.)

Bulletin of U.S. Geol. and Geog. Surv. Terrs. F. V. Hayden, Vol. v, Nos. 3,

and 4

Claisiheation of the Cryptogams. By Alfred W. Bennet. Reformed System of

erminology in Thallophyta. By Alfred W. Bennett and George jouer (From

the sent Journal of Microscopical Science, 1880.) From the author

velles Recherches sur les Poissons Fossiles, oo par M. hie A.

Ticatée en Sicile. Par M. H. E. Sauvage. From the .

Sur un Reptile trés perfectionné, trouvé dans le terrian permien. Par M. es ee

dry. (From Comptes Rendus de Académie des Sciences, Oct., waa Fro

the author

gue la Neécessité D’Une Zoographie Apropos de la Phytographie de M. A. de Can-

Par Dr. E. L. Trouessart. (Extrait du Journal le Notaralists, fend 31, rer

vaillet, ey ) From the author

The Gold Gravels of North Cumiion their structure and origin. By W. C. Kerr,

State es N.C. (From Transactions of the Amercian Institute of Mining

Engineers.) From the author.

Report of the Committe Mutual Improvement Society of Queenwood College,

1880,

Ueber Geusérs und nebenan entstehende ae Baume. Von Dr. Otto

Kunke. (From Ausland, 1880,) From the :

Sur le Terrain a supérieur de la presqu’ i ae Crozon. Par le Dr. Charles

Rineix (Ext. . Soc, Geol. du Nord, os 8vo, eee 12, 1880. From the

author.

On the Structure of the Orang Outang. By H. C. Chapman, M.D. (Proc. Acad.

Nat. Sci, Phila., 1880,) 8vo, pp, 16, pls. 7. From the author.

The Placenté and Generative gr ing a“ ee By Henry C. Chap-

man, M.D. (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci., 1880.) o, pls. 4. From the author.

Beitrage zur Palzontologie von pietiae a Edited by Dr. Edm. von

Mojsisovics and Dr. M. Neumayr, aSte Prospectus. From the editors.

52 General Notes. [January, |

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

RELATION OF ELEVATION TO CHANGE OF COLOR IN FLOWERS.

—Having seen many speculations on elevation as occasioning a

change in the color of flowers, and Gla aggregata having been

mentioned as an example, I will state that I found, this summer,

at the border of Idaho and Oregon, lat. 47°, on Coplen’s butte, a

hill of considerable elevation, large numbers of specimens grow-

ing near each other, varying from almost scarlet to a nearly clear

white. They seemed equally vigorous, and were so intermingled

that no difference of slope or elevation would account for the

variation. Near Hood river, Oregon, at a much lower elevation,

found only specimens of a deep pink, approaching crimson.—

Jos. W. Marsh, Forest Grove, Oregon.

INSECT-DESTROYING FuNnGI.—Every one has doubtless often seen

in the autumn and early winter, dead flies adhering to the ceiling

and various objects in the room, and which, upon close inspec-

tion, are seen to be swollen, with the abdomen covered witha

white powdery substance. Dissection of fresh specimens of such

flies reveals a great number of short, colorless, branching non-

septate hyphz, whose granular protoplasm contains numerous

oil globules. These hyphe are the vegetative organs of a para-

sitic plant to which the name Lmpusa musce is frequently given, —

and under this name it may be found briefly described in many __

books on fungi. It is now, however, pretty well established that

_ we have here again another instance of a very common mistake

in cryptogamic botany, that is, a description and classification

based upon a knowledge of only one stage of the plant. Cohn

ten years ago suspected this to be the case, but it remained for

Brefeld and Nowakowski to demonstrate it, which they did in

1877. The latest contribution to our knowledge of the group of

plants to which the fly fungus is now referred, is by Giard

(Deux espéces d’Entomophthora nouvelles pour la Flora Fran-

cgaise) in the Bulletin Scientifique du Département du Nord,

The results of these several investigations are that the old gen-

era Empusa and Tarichium are now to be considered as respec-

tively, the asexual and sexual stages of low forms of the order _

Saprolegniacez, and Giard proposes that the two old names be

retained to designate the stages, and that the much more applica-

ble name Entomophthora, proposed by Fresenius, be used to des-

ignate the genus. The fly fungus will accordingly be known aS

Entomophthora musceé Fres.

The life-history of the Entomophthore may be briefly sum-

marized as follows:

1. Empusa stage-—The short colorless branching hyphe ramify

through the tissues of the host, their swollen extremities eventu-

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

‘

1881.] Botany. 53

ally coming to the exterior surface, where by constriction each

gives rise to one or more spheroidal conidia. These conidia

constitute the white powdery substance spoken of above. Con-

idia have been observed to germinate in water, sending out

long thick hyphz. Doubtless they serve in some way to quickly

communicate the parasite from host to host, but the particular

manner of their doing this has not yet been made out.

2. Larichium stage-—In the same host which sustained the

Empusa stage, or possibly in another, the hyphe develop the

sexual organs. These are similar to those found in other Sapro-

legniacez, and give rise to odspores, which have thick and some-

times reticulated walls. The hyphe and ripe odspores occupy

the cavity of the body of the host asa pulverulent mass. The

oospores (the hypnospores of Cohn) are disseminated by the decay

of the body of the host, and after a period of rest reproduce the

parasite again. .

There are doubtless many species of Entomophthora in the

United States, but so far as the writer is aware they have been

but little studied.

Giard describes a species (£. calliphore,) which is found in

France parasitic upon Musca (Calliphora) vomitoria ; and as this

host is one of our common meat flies it is altogether likely that

its enemy is to be found here also. The fungus long ago

described by Leidy (although not named by him) as occurring in

the abdomen of the seventeen-year Cicada, appears from his fig-

ures to be a species of this genus, Peck, in the Thirty-first Report

of the N. Y. State Museum of Natural History, describes what is

probably the Tarichium stage of the same parasite under the new

genus Massospora, and says, “ it apparently belongs to the Con-

iomycetes.” The species he names JZ cicadina. Probably the

‘“muscardine ” of the silk-worm (the so-called Botrytis basstana)

will be found to belong here also.

BENNETT'S CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRYPTOGAMS.—In the recent

meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of

Science, A. W. Bennett proposed a considerable modification of

the classification given by Sachs in the fourth edition of the —

“Lehrbuch.” The following sketch will convey to the student

who is familiar with Sachs’ work, a good idea of the proposed

classification.

I, THALLOPHYTA.

Crass I, PROTOPHYTA.

Sub-class Protomycetes,

Order Schizomycetes.

Under this order Saccharomyces is regarded as an aberrant form.

Sub-class Protophycez.

Orders, Protococcacee, Nostocacee, Oscillatoriee, Rivulariee,

Myxomycetes, 2 low group supplementary to the Protophyta, not exhibiting true sex-

ual conjugation. ~— .

54 General Netes. [ January,

Crass II. Funct.

Sub-class Zygomycetes.

er Mucorinz.

Sub-class Odmycetes.

Orders Persea and Saprolegniacee.

ub-class Carpomycetes.

Orders, Uredinee, Ustilaginee, Maldnnine and Ascomycetes (the last including

the Sub-order Lichen ie

Crass III. Ac

Sub- An Zygophyc

Orders Sostoonisae Hydrodictyee, Confervacee, nee. Ulwaceea, Botrydiea,

d Congugate (the last including the Sub- orders Desmidiee, Diatomacee, Zyg-.

memacee a aad Mesocarpee

ass Odphyceze

Orders Volvocinee, Siphonec, Spheres iipeniacen, Fucacee and Pheo-

Spor

Sub-class Conspiveen

Orders Coleochetee and Floridee.

No change is ores in — se J other than So . it as one of the primary

div he the vegetable kingdom

- MUSCINE.

No hos is proposed in this division.

IV. VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS.

Orders Fivices (including Ophioglossacee) Lycopodiacee and Egutsetacee.

eterosporia.

Orders Rhizocarpee and Selaginellacee.

BotanicaL Nores.—Planchon reports the advent of the Ameri-

can grape mildew (Peronospora viticola) in the vineyards of

France, and Pirotta reports its presence in the Italian vineyards in

the Appennines, omas Meehan has prepared a valuable

paper on forests and forestry for the forthcoming Report of the

State Board of Agriculture of Pennsylvania, the advance sheets 0

which have been received. After a careful personal examination of

the forests of portions of Pennsylvania, Virginia, North Carolina

and Tennessee, he concludes “that there is much more timber in

the country than people generally believe, though at present in

; localities not convenient, as a general thing, to market at paying

prices.” He notes the great rapidity of growth in the trees of the

region examined, as contrasted with their slow growth in Europe,

and maintains that with proper care and culture, good payee a

In t

timber can be grown in from fifteen to twenty years.

Fournal of Botany for November, Henry Trimen has an interest- —

ing article “ On the plant affording Ceara India rubber.” It is a

Brazilian tree (Manihot glaziovii) now grown in Ceylon, and it

_ promises to become a valuable rubber-producing tree. In the

October Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Mr. Le Roy

reports a remarkable case of duration of vitality of the seeds of

an undetermined Cucurbit from Patagonia. Seeds from a speci-

men collected by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition between 1838

1881. ] Botany. 55

and 1842, were planted and successfully germinated the past sum-

mer.—In the same journal W. R. Gerard begins a “List of the:

State and local floras of the United States ;” it gives the name,

date and place of publication of all the important catalogues of

plants ever published in this country. As such a list will be very

useful to botanists, all who can should contribute to its complete-

ness by communicating with the author, at 9g Waverly Place, New

York city. Botanists will be glad to learn that the publication

of Dr. T. F. Allen’s promising work, “ Characee Americane ” has

been resumed. The parts now contain three plates each. “s

manual of the mosses of the United States” is said to be in

The authors hope to publish it sometime during 1881.——

Uhlworm’s “ Botanisches Centralblatt,” which covers much the

same ground as the well known “ Botanischer Jahresbericht,” by

Dr. Just, promises to be more valuable than the latter in one

respect at least, and that is in the greater promptness of its pub-

lication. Anderson, Farlow, Harvey, Lesquereux, Parry and

Rothrock are the American contributors. The papers in the

last number of Pringsheim’s Yahrbiicher fiir wissenschaftliche Bo-

tanik are one by Bretfeld upon the healing of wounds, and the

separation of the leaf from the twig; one by Miller upon the

glands of the Cruciferze; one by Tangl upon the open passages

between the cells in the endosperm of certain seeds (e. g.,

Strychnos nux-vomica, Areca oleracea and Phenix dactylifera);

and one by Bachman upon the corky outgrowths upon leaves.

The October number of the Quarterly Fournal of Muicroscop-

tcal Science contains two botanical articles, viz: Bennett on the

classification of Cryptogams, and Bennett and Murray on a re-

formed system of terminology of the reproductive organs of

Cryptogamia. The latter will be more fully noticed hereafter.

Thomas Meehan has been studying the question of the

cause of the timber line upon high mountains (Proc. A. N.S. of

Philadelphia, Sept., 1880). On Gray’s peak the coniferous trees

near the line of 11,000 feet are thirty to forty feet high, but at

this line they cease as suddenly “as if a wood had been cut half

away by a woodman’s axe.” Beyond the timber line the same

species exist as dwarf, stunted trailing shrubs, often extending »

fifteen hundred feet higher up the mountain side. These stunted

plants appear never to produce seed! Mr. Meehan’s studies in

the mountains of North Carolina and in the White mountains of

New Hampshire, lead him to the conclusion that the stunted plants

are the struggling offspring of trees which at no very remote

period extended much further up the mountain than they do now.

The reason for the disappearance of the large trees he believes to

be due mostly to the disintegration of the rocks and the washing

down of the earth from the higher elevations, thus starving the

larger vegetation, while still affording conditions permitting the

growth of smaller plants.

56 General Notes. | January,

ZOOLOGY. }

NoTEs ON THE LAND-SHELLS OF Dominica.—Mr. Guppy, in the

Annals and Magazine for 1868, has some remarks on the shells

of Dominica, which are partly reproduced by Bland (Am, Your.

Conch., Vol. tv., 1868). My stay in Dominica was too short to

allow of a complete investigation of the conchology of the island,

but was long enough to enable me to ascertain that Guppy’s

_ notes, especially as to the distribution of the shells, are extremely

erroneous, He says, “on the lower slopes near the sea I

found a few Mollusca, chiefly Bulimus exilis, Stenostoma octona,

Succinea approximans and Helicina humilis. Ascending higher,

we find /7/. denticus, H. badia, H. josephine, H. nigrescens, Amphi-

bulina patula, B. laticinetus and Heligina epistilia, Excepting the

last, all these species are found everywhere above 300 or 400 feet

of elevation.” The fact is that while the first-named species

are found on the lower slopes, they are not all which are so found.

Hf. badia and H7. denticus are found abundantly in the gardens in

Roseau, but disappear or occur but very sparingly above 800 feet,

their place being taken by 1. nigrescens and H. josephine, which

I have never detected below 800 feet. My notes are necessarily

imperfect, but through the kindness of my friend, Dr. H. A.

Alford Nicholls, of Roseau, who is making observations and

collecting for me, and by more extended collections which I hope

to make in person this winter, I shall be able to add to them.

I append a list of the species, not as a complete list of the

shells of Dominica, but only of those which I have myself col-

lected.

Helix baudoni Petit.—So closely allied to H. concolor Fer., that

I doubt its claim to specific rank. Not common. Road from

Roseau to Rosalie; 2000 feet. I have not detected it on the

lower slopes.

Helix badia Ferussac.—Abundant on the lower slopes down to

sea level, but occurs very sparingly above 800 feet. All the

specimens I have seen are smaller than those from Guadeloupe or

Martinique.

felix josephine Ferussac._—Quite abundant above 1000 feet.

Last whorl more rounded than in the Guadeloupe specimens.

Flelix denticus Ferussac-—Common on the lower slopes down

to sea level; rare above 800 feet. ;

Flelix nigrescens Wood.—Abundant above 1000 feet.

Bulimus virginalis Pfeiffer—On trees 2000 feet; not common.

Bulimus multifasciatus Lamarck.— On trees 2000 feet ; not

common.

Bulimus exilis Gmelin.—Abundant below 1000 feet; occurs

more sparingly above this height.

1 The departments of Ornithology and Mammalogy are conducted by Dr. ELLIOTT

Cougs, U. S. A., Washington, D. C.

1881] | Zoblogy. 57

Bulimus nichollsii Nob.—Quite common on road from Roseau

to Rosalie; 2000 feet.

Stenogyra octona Chemnitz.—Abundant everywhere.

Tornatellina antillarum Shuttleworth.—Sparingly at about 500

feet.

Succinia approximans Shuttleworth——Not common; 300 feet.

Succinia rubescens Deshayes.—Not common ; 300 feet.

Amphibulina patula Bruguiere—Not common; on bananas at

Laudat ; 2000 feet. Shell rather larger and more corrugated than

the St. Kitts specimens.

Amphibulina tigrina Lesseur.—Rare, 1000 feet on bananas. I

have not seen A. pardilina Guppy, but fancy it may prove this. .

Cyclophorus schrammi Shuttleworth (?).— Quite common at

1500 feet. I can see no difference between this and specimens of

species.

flelicina platycheila Muhlfeldt. Not common; 800 feet.

Flelicina rhodostoma Gray. Not common; 1500 feet.

Flelicina fasciata Lamarck.—Not rare; 800 feet.

fTelicina antillarum Sowerby. Common everywhere, but most

abundant in the lower slopes.

Bland (Ann. Lyceum, Vol. x, 1872) quotes a letter from Dr. W. J.

Branch, of St. Kitts, to the effect that Amphibulina patula is un-

able to contract the entire animal within the shell, but expresses

his doubt as to the truth of this observation. I have frequently

seen the animal completely contracted within the shell in living

specimens, although it is not its usual habit even when alarmed ;

if thrown into alcohol or glycerine, it immediately withdraws the

whole body into the shell.

In giving the altitude at which the different species occur, I

mean, that so far neither Dr. Nicholls nor myself have found

them at any less elevation. Further search in which Dr. Nicholls

is now engaged will undoubtedly extend their range, but I am

quite confident that none of the species will be found to vary ma-

terially from these figures in their distribution as to elevation.—

A.D. Brown, -

BreepinG Hasits OF THE EUROPEAN AS COMPARED WITH THOSE

OF THE AMERICAN OysTER:—Regarding this interesting subject,

we print the following extract from a letter from Capt. Francis.

Winslow, U. S. N., to Prof. W. K. Brooks, of Johns Hopkins Uni- — :

versity.

4 “U.S. S, SARATOGA, GIBRALTAR, June 14, 1880.

“T got hold of some oysters in Cadiz a few days ago, and upon

examining them found them in so favorable a condition that I at-

tempted to fertilize the eggs according to your method, and I

thought you might like to know that the experiment has been

VOL, XV.—NO. I. 5

58 : General Notes. [ January,

completely successful. The young are now eight days old, and

are thriving wonderfully. I labor under a great many inconveni-

ences, and against many obstacles, having only a couple of fruit

jars to hold the animals, and a very poor little microscope, but it

is sufficiently powerful to enable one to trace the course of de-

velopment in a general way, and that I have done.

“ Of course I have a good many other duties, and since our

arrival here I have been trying to find out some things about the

sub-current in the Straits, consequently I could not give the

oysters all the attention I desired, but I have followed them

through each step as nearly as possible, and they have been

exactly as you have figured for the American animal. I have

seen them assume the form of each figure or set of figures! suc-

cessively, and they are now about as your last figures show them.

I shall watch them as closely as possible henceforward, though

the necessity for transferring them to a larger vessel, may prevent

my continuing the observations, and as we sail to-morrow, a gale

of wind may send my young brood afloat again in the briny

ocean. I think my success is due to the uniform temperature of

my room where I have kept the jars. Though I have not

registered it, yet it must be nearly the same at all times, for I am

personally aware that the atmosphere is rarely changed in any

way. The brood is the offspring of two males and two females,

and the whole lot which I examined appeared exactly as did

those we are familiar with. The adults came from the waters of

Cadiz bay, and are natives.

“So far as these results go, they prove that the artificial propa-

gation of the European oyster is practicable to just the same

extent as our own, and I think that it throws grave doubts upon ~

the theory that the embryo is protected within the shell, and that

the impregnation of the ova occurs there and nowhere else.

“Tam quite elated over my success, and thought that probably

it would interest you, and therefore have written. I have made

but one deviation from your method, and that was in the supply-

ing of water. I have given but very little new water, rarely a gill 3

and a halfa day. I am very truly yours, FRANcIs WINSLOW.”

CHANGE IN THE NeERvous SystEM OF BEETLES DURING META-

Mee oes cE a a

mann’s researches on the flesh fly. Michels concludes that the

separate ganglia of the ventral cord of the pupa and imago are —

formed during metamorphosis from the larval stage, not de ov,

*See Prof. W. K. Brook’s, the Development of the Oyster. Studies from the Bio-

logical Laboratory of Johns Hopkins University.—Zds,

1881.] Zoblogy. 59

but that the different ganglia persist from the larval state. The

peripheral nerves also persist or survive from the larva to the

beetle (the species studied was Oryctes nasicornis); besides there

is an increase in the number, or accession of new nerves different

from those in the larva, and peculiar to the beetle.

A punkisubstance, in Leydig's sense, appears to be wanting, as

also the transverse commissures usually uniting the hemispheres

of a ganglion. In place of the latter are extraordinarily numerous

transverse bundles of fibers which, arising from the ganglion cells

of one side, form the peripheral nerves of the other side, and also

a bundle which passing through the interlacing of each half of the

ventral cord, assumes three longitudinal directions. These nerve-

fibers running parallel to the axis pass continuously from one end

of the ventral cord to the other, forming in fact the longitudinal

commissures of the ventral cord. These commissures take their

origin neither out of a central punktsubstance, nor from a periph-

eral ganglion mass, but are mere continuations of longitudinal

nerve-fibers decreasing posteriorly in thickness, and which extend

through the cesophageal ring commissures to the brain.

A New Genus or Catrostomipa&.—Prof. D. S. Jordan, informs

me that the dentition of his genus Chasmis¢es is identical with

that of Catostomus. The two species from Klamath lake, Oregon,

described by me under the names of Chasmustes luxatus and C.

brevirosivis (AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1879, 785), exhibit a different

type of dentition. The pharyngeal bones are very slender and are»

flattened, and their teeth are minute and very numerous, as in

Carpiodes. ‘The genus thus defined will stand in the Catostomine —

ivision, and next the Budalichthyine, and may be called

Liromyzon.—E£. D. Cope.

CeLiutar Irritapiiity.—M. Richet in the Revue Scientifique,

gives the following synopsis of the effects of stimuli on simple

animal and vegetable cells. (1) Oxygen is necessary, and there

is consumption of oxygen during the life of the cellule, (2) The

intensity of movements grows with the temperature, up to 40° Ce

above 40° the movements disappear. (3) Neutral solutions

slightly alkaline are favorable; acid solutions are fatal. (4) All

change of condition is a stimulant to the cell, and consequently

provokes its contraction, (§) But this change of condition must

be abrupt, for, if gradual, it does not provoke reaction. (6) The

reaction from the stimulus is not sudden, but there is a period of

“latent excitement” which diminishes in proportion to the in-

tensity of the excitation. (7) Weak stimulation, powerless when

isolated, becomes effective when frequently repeated at short in-

tervals.

BuppINnc IN Free Mepusa.—The germination of the young

from the walls of the proboscis of Lzzsta oclopunctata Forbes,

seems to me to throw some light ona theoretical question of

60 General Notes. [January,

“alternation of generation” in Willia, raised by Dr. Brooks in

the September number of the Naruratist. Lzzzta octopunctata

produces young by budding from the time she is herself attached

to the parent until she acquires the form as figured by Forbes.

After that time reproduction by gemmation, in the restricted

sense of the word, ceases, and a sexual method takes its place. I

have studied one of these Lizzie in which the eggs had begun to

form while yet buds were attached to the proboscis of the same.

Can we not, therefore, instead of considering that there are two

separate forms of Willia, one of which forms a new generation

asexually, and another which reproduces by the egg, suppose, as

is the case in Lizzia, that in the same individual, after the asexual

method ceases, we have as final products of the somewhat simi-

lar process, the formation of eggs which, after contact with the

sperm, pass through a sexual development?

If there are two forms of Willa ornata, they may be simply

male and female. Was the “second form” of Willia, spoken of

by Dr. Brooks, male or female? Before its sex is known, the

theory of “ alternation of generations,” which he advances, is pre-

mature, and when it has been shown that the “second form” is a

female, it remains to be demonstrated that the asexual “ first

form” does not ultimately develop into the second which lays

eges.— ¥. Walter Fewkes, Cambridge, Dec. 6, 1880.

Zootocicat Nores.—Prof. Ercolani has recently studied the

placenta of cartilaginous fishes, and of mammals, with reference

to classification and anthropogeny. Another Italian, Prof. Ciaccio

as communicated to the Academy of Sciences of Bologna the

results of his examination of the intimate structure of the eyes of

Diptera, and also those of a blind Talpa. Mr. Swinton’s book

on “insect variety” is not favorably reviewed by Nature ; though

it is said to be full of original observations. It is devoted mainly

to the subjects of mimicry, odors, dances, colors, music, and in-

sect variation. A writer in Mature confirms Mr. Ober's state-

ment in his ‘Camps in the Caribbees,” as to the singular habit of

the gnat beetle, Dyzastes hercules, which seizes hold of a branch

of a tree, and whirls around by its wings until the limb is severed.

Mr. Ernst, of Caraccas, says the beetle wants to get at the abund-

ant juice of the young branches. He adds that the Golofa porteri,

an allied insect of the same family, behaves in a similar way, but

chooses of course thinner branches. The Zoologischer Anseiger

for November 1, contains the conclusion of Studer’s notice of |

sexual dimorphism in Echinoderms. The structure of the

poison apparatus of spiders has recently been studied by J.

MacLeod of Belgium. About 7800 species of Heteropterous

Hemiptera had been described up to the year 1879, while up to

1859 about 3000 species of Homopterous Hemiptera had been

catalogued. Mr. Uhler has estimated that there are probably

not less than 10,000 species of North American Hemiptera.

1881.] | Entomology. 61

ENTOMOLOGY .!

[SaLuratory.—Having decided to discontinue the publication

of the AMERICAN ENTOMOLOGIST, we hope to transfer the interest

it represents to the pages of the NaTuRALIsT, and bespeak for it

the support of the subscribers and contributors to the first-named

magazine. We shall not lose sight of the economic bearings of

entomology, and hope to make the NaTuraList a welcome visi-

tor not only to the student of insects, but to him or her whose

principal anxiety is to protect from the injuries of these tiny —

marauders whether flower, fruit, cereal, shade tree or other pro-

duct. As in the columns of the American Entomologist, we shall

here consider and answer such questions as are of public interest,

and we invite correspondence alike from the practical man, the

amateur and the specialist. Separate copies of contributed arti-

cles will be furnished when required. We will also send the

complete volume of the American Entomologist, just brought to a

close, to any one desiring it, upon receipt of the club subscrip-

tion rate, $1.50—C. V. R.]

BiotocicaL Nore on Evupiectrus comstockit Howard. —

room for the development of the larva. In one instance I found

two separate egg-groups on an Aletia larva, and these were, in all

probability, laid by two females of Euplectrus. When only wes

or two eggs are found upon a worm, the presumption 1s that the

1 This department is edited by Pror. C. V. Ritey, Washington, D. C., to whom

communications, books for notice, etc., may be sent.

62 General Notes. [ January,

latter has been able to remove one or more of them, or that they

dropped off from one cause or another. Eggs that have failed to

hatch but that adhere to the worms are sometimes met with.

The Aletia larvz attacked by this parasite are usually less than

one-third grown, but not less than one day old. Exceptionally

they are rather more than one-third grown. The eggs of the

Euplectrus are usually laid on the middle of the back of the

worm, sometimes a little more in front or behind or more towards

the sides, and in one instance I saw them fastened immediately

above one of the middle pair of thoracic legs.

The delicate egg-shell splits longitudinally in the middle of the

back and discloses the white larva of the parasite, which gradually

works the egg shell more and more down the sides of its body

where, for some hours, it remains visible as a black line, but with-

in less than twelve hours it disappears from view beneath the

rapidly growing parasite larva. This last, as soon as it has freed

its head from the egg shell, pierces the skin of its victim and

thereafter remains stationary with its head buried. As soon as it

has fairly begun to feed, the white color changes toa bright bluish-

green, and the segments and spiracles which in the newly hatched

larva were barely visible under high magnifying power, are now

readily seen. The growth of the larva is very rapid, but seems

to vary according to the season, averaging three days in August

and four days in September. When full-grown the larve crowd

each other, and if there are five or more of them on a caterpillar,

they form a semi-globular lump of very striking appearance.

Usually their growth is uniform, and retardation in development

of individuals in the group results in death. When full-grown

they turn yellowish-white and relax their hold.

The worm which up to this time showed no signs of being

affected, except by its sickly yellowish color, and by its very slow

growth, collapses and dies as soon as a single one of the parasitic

larve withdraws, and the same fate overtakes those Euplectrus

larve which are at the time less advanced in their development,

or immature. If one of the parasitic larvae be removed by hand,

both the victimized worm and the remaining parasites quickly

dry up.

The presumption that the Euplectrus larvae may migrate from

one worm to another is unfounded, they always remain stationary

on the worm, which the parent fly has chosen as its victim, and

they never even move from the spot where the egg has been laid

until they are full grown. Every attempt ! made to transplant

a larva from one worm to another invariably resulted in the death

of the parasite.

In preparing for pupation, the larvae manage by a peculiar

-.elongation and sudden contraction of their abdominal joints to

work from the back of the worm to the ventral or attached side —

where they spin fine silken threads, which more fully secure the

1881. ] Entomology. 63

worm, which is now a mere empty skin, to the leaf. As the Eu-

plectrus larve take their places side by side, the caterpillar skin

is fastened its whole length to the leaf if there are five or more of

the parasites, but if there are fewer only one portion of the skin,

usually the anterior end is fastened, the remaining portion either

hanging down or breaking off. This web of the Euplectrus larve

consists of an irregular mesh of yellowish-white silk, recalling

some kinds of mold, and spun to secure the caterpillar skin to the

leaf, in addition to a few other threads to prevent the pupa from

being moved from its place. This web should not properly be

called a cocoon, its character is excellently expressed in Fons-

colombe’s words as quoted by Westwood?: “larva * * *

ad metamorphosin filis aliquot sericis longiusculis crispis inordi-

natis involvitur.”

Protected by the caterpillar skin as by a roof, the Euplectrus

larva changes to the pupa, the color of which is dark honey-

yellow, with the head and abdomen very soon becoming pitchy

black. The duration of the pupa state varies from three to eight

days. ;

The Euplectrus is subject to the attacks of a secondary parasite

of its own family, and its pupa is sometimes destroyed by another

enemy, probably some Carabid beetle.

otton worms infested with the Euplectrus were by no means

rare during the month of September, and the almost complete.

destruction of the worms in the earlier part of October was prin-

cipally due to: this parasite, and to a species of Microgaster

hitherto unmentioned as a parasite on Aletia—&. A. Schwarz,

Washington, D: C.

OVIPOSITION IN THE TorTRICIDA.—The remarks on this subject

by the editor, in the November number of the American ©

Entomologist, suggest that the observations I have made on the

life history of Zortrix fumiferana Clem., may possibly be of in-

erest.

I have been endeavoring for several years to carry this insect —

through all its stages, but have not yet been able to complete all

the links in the chain. It was originally described by Clemens

in 1865, under the above name, but doubtfully referred to the —

genus Tortrix, the type being the more common form of this”

variable species. Robinson seems to have overlooked this insect

among the types of Clemens and re-described one of the reddish-

brown varieties under the name of Jortrix nigridea, .

Some three years ago I was informed that “worms in prodig-

ious numbers were utterly destroying the evergreen forests” in

some parts of this State, and a box of them, enclosed with some

of the twigs, was sent to me, but was not received until after they

had emerged and crawled over and among the twigs till they ~

were denuded past recognition.

Introd. 11, p. 163.

64 General Notes. [ January,

The next year, however, I was able to get them sent to me in

the larva and pupa states and had them emerge in confinement.

Many, however, proved to be parasited and a large number of

specimens of Pimpla conquisitor Say, together with several dipter-

ous parasites and a hair-snake emerged from them. I could not

convince myself that there was any difference in the activity of

the larvez, although nearly half of them finally proved to have —

contained parasites of large size.

The pupe were kept in a glass observing cage, and soon after

their emergence the sexes began to pair, quite irrespective of the

time of day, some early in the morning, others in the middle of

the day, and still others in the evening. It must be remembered

that all my observations were made upon them in confinement,

and that in nature, undér different conditions, the ways of these

insects may be somewhat different.

Having now a considerable number of impregnated females,

they were disposed of so as to oviposit under different conditions.

For one, a branch of fir (Ades balsamea) was supplied, this being

their favorite food plant; others were put in dark boxes, while

others were kept under glass beakers with no food plant.

The one provided with the branch of fir laid her eggs July

5th, about the middle of the forenoon. The manner of oviposit-

ing was as follows: crawling upon the upper side of a leaf with

her head towards the stem, she bent her abdomen down, deposit-

ing an eg¢ a little to one side near the tip, then bending the ab-

domen a little to the other side she deposited another slightly

overlapping the one already laid, then moving forward a bit and

turning the abdomen to the other side another was laid, and so

on till two continuous rows were laid upon the upper side, con-

tinuing to the base of the leaf, the eggs of the same row over-

lapping each other so much that not more than one-third of the

upper side was free, while those of one row overlapped those of

the other row by about a fourth of their width. After having _

finished the rows on one leaf, she went to another and continued

as before, till one hundred and twenty-five were deposited.

The time required for the deposition of an egg was not far

from five seconds, and the female continued her work almost with-

out interruption till all those on one leaf were deposited; then an

interval of a few minutes elapsed before she began on another.

The eggs are flattened, slightly elliptical, 12 mm. long and

I mm. wide, of a bright green color, surface smooth under an or-_

dinary lens.

I carefully watched another female with a lens, while oviposit-

ing on the inside of a thin glass beaker. The abdomen was rais-

ed after the deposit of the egg and bent a little to one side, as

described above, for the purpose of depositing a second egg; only

in this case the eggs were not confined to two rows, but varied in ~

number till as many as six or more rows were laid, forming an

es te ae

1881.] Entomology. 65

irregular patch, apparently without order, sometimes entirely

overlying each other so that it was impossible to make an

exact count, but the mass contained not far from the same num- —

ber as in the other case.

The opening to the ovipositor, immediately after the expulsion

of an egg, opened and closed several times, the external side parts

moving laterally, after which the abdomen was bent down, the

opening distended and an egg excluded. There was no move-

ment of the parts to arrange or place the egg, nor was there any

further manipulation of the egg, on the part of the female, but at

once the abdomen was raised, the usual movements of the open-

ing and closing the orifice took place, when the apex was again

bent down and another egg laid.

The eggs laid on the 5th of July began to show a dark spot

near the free end about the roth, which grew more and more vis-

ible till the 13th, when with the lens the dark spot showed itself

to be the head of the embryo, and the green contents within could

be resolved into the outline of the body doubled up. On the 15th

of July, the young emerged, and a more restless lot of larve I

do not remember to have seen.

These young do not eat the shells of the eggs as some larve

do, but travel away from them as though their lives depended

upon it. Finally some of them settled down in the axils of the

leaves, spinning a few silken threads over and between the leaf

and the stem. For a week they were-quiet and I could not per-

ceive that they had eaten anything since hatching. They had

even lost-the green color of the body and were now dull ochre

yellow, except the head and thoracic plates, which were, as before,

pitchy black,

At this time I transferred them to a living fir tree, but all died

within a day or two, possibly because of the rough handling

necessary to dislodge them. :

we may be permitted to conjecture the rest of their life history,

they possibly spin themselves up in a cocoon in the axils of the

leaf, where they remain during the fall and winter, coming out in

the spring to feed up and pass through their later transformations.

The full-grown larva is 20 mm. in length, somewhat fusiform.

Head of the ordinary form, jet black, as are also the middle joints

of the antenne, the legs and thoracic plate. The remaining joints

of the antennz, palpi, integument between the joints of the legs,

mouth parts, front edge of the thoracic plate, and a narrow long-

itudinal line dividing the plate in two halves, dull light green.

General color of the body above, dark brown, inclining to green-_

ish-yellow between the segments. Tubercles, anal plate and

prolegs, straw-yellow. A lateral yellowish stripe extends from

the head to the last segment, having the st:gmata in the center and

enclosing on the lower side, the lateral folds of the segments, and

in its upper edge, the second row of tubercles from the dorsum.

The anal plate is somewhat roughened and sparsely clothed a

. : ‘

66 General Notes. [January,

with stiff, yellowish hairs. Tubercles also surmounted by yellow-

ish hairs. Underside dull greenish-brown, darker brown on the

segments under the lateral fold—AProf. C. H. Fernald, State Col-

lege, Orono, Maine.

SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE ON THE Foon OF THE BLUE-BIRD.— When

my paper on the food of the blue-bird was prepared for the Sep-

tember and October numbers of the Eztomo/logist, I had no mate-

rial illustrating the food of the species for the months between

July and December, except two stomachs taken in September, the

contents of which were so far exceptional that I excluded them

from the table of the food. Since the publication of that paper

I have studied the food of the blue-bird in August and September,

and find the record for those months so different from that of the |

months preceding that an exact idea of the economical relations

of the species cannot be given without taking it into account.

Twelve specimens were obtained in August at Normal, Ill.—

three early in the month and the others on the 29th and 30th.

The blue-birds were at this time most abundant in meadows and

pastures, and the contents of their stomachs indicate that the

chief business of the month was the pursuit of locusts, crickets

and grasshoppers, moths and caterpillars.

The Orthoptera eaten by these birds amounted to fifty-eight

per cent. of their food, and the Lepidoptera to twenty-seven per

cent. About half of the former were Gryllide (Gryllus and

Nemobius), and the remaining half were equally Locustide and

Acridide (Xiphidium fasctatum and ensifer, Caloptenus femur-

rubrum and bivittatus and Cidipoda sordida).

Half of the Lepidoptera were unrecognizable moths, and the

remainder caterpillars, five per cent. being -Noctuide. Ants

were about one per cent. of the food, Coleoptera only five per

cent. (including three per cent. Harpalidze), Cydnide (Cwnus delia)

one per cent., and spiders six per cent. A few wild cherries and

elder berries were the only fruits taken. The beneficial elements

thus amount to about nine or ten per cent. of the food, and the

injurious elements to about eighty-five per cent.

_ All but one of the ten specimens upon which the account of

the September food is based, were shot at Normal, and all but

two on the twenty-ninth of the month. The chief peculiarity of

the month is the almost total disappearance of Coleoptera , which

_were represented only by a few small Harpalids and a single

minute Atznius. The Lepidotera rise to thirty-seven per cent.

chiefly through the abundance of the larva of Prodenia lineatella

arvey. The Orthoptera make just half the food, the species

differing from those of the preceding month mainly in the

_ greater number of red-legged locusts. Spiders were only two

per cent. of the food, and some unknown wild fruits formed seven

per cent. oe

It will be seen that a striking change in the food of this species

attends the increase of the Orthoptera in numbers and activity,

1881. ] Entomology. 67

which occurs in the late summery and early autumnal months,

these insects being almost entirely substituted for Coleoptera,

Hemiptera and Arachnida. The Coleoptera of the six preceding

months averaged twenty-seven per cent. of the food, while this

order amounts to but three per cent. in August and September.

The Orthoptera of the foregoing months averaged but fourteen

per cent., while those of the two months in question rise to fifty-

- four per cent. As a consequence of this seasonal change, the

most important general averages for the year given in the table on

page 234 of the October Lxtomologist, should be amended as _

follows :

The Coleoptera drop from twenty-five per cent. to twenty,

the Harpalidz lose one per cent, and the Scarabeide two per

cent.; Hemiptera, Arachnida and Myriapoda each also drop one

per cent.; Orthoptera rise from twelve per cent. to twenty-one,

and Lepidoptera from twenty-four per cent. to twenty-six. e

grand total of injurious elements stands, as amended, at fifty-

one per cent., and of beneficial elements at twenty-three. It is

evident from the foregoing, that Orthoptera and smooth cater-

pillars are the favorite food of this bird, and as the first of these

remain abundant until frost, it is not likely that the food of Oc-

tober is much less favorable to the bird than that of Septerhber.

The two specimens taken in the former month were well filled

with winged ants—Pyrof. S. A. Forbes, Nermal, Ill.

[Prof. Forbes is carrying on a-most important work in his sys-

tematic studies on the food habits of birds. He is really making

the first serious and accurate study of the subject attempted in

this country, and the results in the end cannot fail to set at rest

many of the questions constantly raised by the ornithophiles on

the one hand and the fruit and grain growers on the other. The

question is one that interests alike the entomologist, the ornith-

ologist and the husbandman. It will be well to remark that im

the October number of the Exéomologist alluded to in the above

communication, which is supplementary thereto, the totals in his _

table summarizing the observations made, were as follows:

SUMMARY OF THE FOOD OF THE BLUE-BIRD,

4 = | pe SRT ee es Ee ES g : |

clo) eli FI S/S/Pl RB s/s isi sig.

SIE IS (</2/S/S(<)4]0)4/8 a ieg

tants | toe ;

No. of Specimens Examined. to} 2r |} 13} 9 | 10} 9 f a Bi i $s

| Bo

: peeeremer |.

KINDS OF FOOD. “Number of specimens and Ratios in which each Element of | 3

Food was fuund, 2 :

es 7 | eee

2 § | Beneficial Elements, , .46| .28 | ar] .35 |.387} .14 me ee PS

Roe | ot. Ba

os Injurious phe -41,| 60 | .23 | 55 | -26 | .67 ES 9| £4

id | nies

* g 13} 12 [56] .10 | .34| -19 ' é

Includes 8 per cent. fruit, a

68 General Notes. [ January,

ANTHROPOLOGY.?

MATERIAUX POUR L’HIsToIRE DE L) HomMME.—We are in receipt

of Livraisons, three, four and five of this eminent periodical, and

would call attention to the following articles: M. Gaudry has

just published at Paris “ Matériaux pour |’Histoire des temps

quaternaires : second fascicule, F. Savy, 1880, p. 63 a 82. Pl. x

xv.” A short review of this work will be found in Matériaux,

pp. 112-118, in which especial attention is invited to the occur-

rence of Saiga tartarica in the remains of the reindeer period.

On page 127, is an abstract of a paper by H. Fischer in Archiv fiir

Anthropologie wpon the so-called Amazon stones and upon that

fabled people. The author dwells especially upon the researches

of M. Barbosa Rodrigues upon the tributaries of the Amazon, em-

bodied in a work entitled, “ Antiquités des Amazones, arm

instruments en pierre. A stone charm perforated tonpitidiaeliye

called muirakitan, is spoken of as having great potency, resem-

bles closely a series from Porto Rico, described by the editor of

these notes in the Smithsonian Report, 1876, p. 378. fig. 30.

On page 201 is reproduced a paper prepared by J. J. da Silva

Amada, professor in the school of medicine of Lisbon, upon the

ethnogeny of Portugal. This publication was very timely, as it

placed the readers of the Révue ad’ Anthropologie and of Matériaux

in possession of sufficient knowledge concerning the general his-

tory of Portugal to listen intelligently to the papers before the In-

ternational Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric Arche-

ology held this year in Lisbon

A brief sketch of German anthropology begins on p. 220, but

the only part of any importance is a very interesting account of

the Kanikars, by M. Jagor. These people are a diminutive ne-

groid race in Southern India, having crispy hair and living in

huts among the trees, when they are in danger from tigers, wild

boars, or elephants.

M. Piette proposes, p. 233, a new nomenclature, for archiethnolo-

‘gic races. Primarily we have the division into agrentic (hunters)

and georgic (tillers of the soil.) The former is again divided into

the barylithic and the leptolithic; the latter into the neolithic, the

calcentic, and the protosideric. The editor of Matériaux wisel

remarks that the public will decide whether any of these terms

are ee chosen.

_ _* ANTHROPOLOGY IN AustRIA—The Mittheilungen der Anthropo-

logischen. Gescellschaft in Wien, Band x, Nr. 1-7, contains the follow-

ing papers: Bericht tiber die Versammlung osterreichischer An-

thropologen und be ena ah ge am 28 und 29 Juli, 1879,

zu Laibach, by Dr. M. Much; Weitere methodische Studien zur

Kranio-und Kephalometrie, by Prof. Moriz Benedikt; Die Sage

von Orpheus, Orfen des Rhodope-Bulgaren, by Prof. Geitler; Die

1Edited by Prof. Oris T. MAson, Columbian College, Washington, D. C.

1881,] Anthropology. 69

Juda in den Mythen der Balkanvolker, by Prof. Geitler; Neuere

ethnologische Entdeckunken auf der Balkanhalbinsel, by Dr.

Fligier.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN ITALy.—In the second fasciculus of the tenth

volume of “Archivio per |’Antropologia e la Etnologia,” we have

the following original papers: Studii Antropologici sui Lapponi,

by Paolo Mantegazza and Stephen Sommier; Materiali per

l’Etnologia Italiana, Riassunti e commentali, by Dr. E. Raseri;

Appunti sulla Etnologia del Madagascar, by Prof. Arturo Zan-

netti; Il Processo Paroccipitale e la Pars Mastoidea del tempo-

rale dei Mammiferi nell’Uomo, by Dr. Guiseppe Amadei. The

first named paper is illustrated with ten very finely executed

photographic plates. ~

ARCHIV FUR ANTHROPOLOGIE.—The twelfth volume of this

notable Journal closes with the number for August, 1880, The

leading communications bear the following titles: Ueber die

Berechnung des Schadelindex aus Messungen an lebenden Men-_

schen, by Dr. Ludwig Stieda; Die Metallarbeiten von Mykena

und ihre Bedeutung fiir die allgemeine Geschichte der Metallin-

dustrie, by Christian Hostmann, in Celle ; Zur Hohenmessung des

Schadels, by Dr. J. Geldmeister; Bemerkungen iiber die Squama

Ossis occipitis mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung des “ Torus occi-

pitalis,’ by W. Waldeyer, Table 1x, Figs. 1, 2; Der Trochanter

tertius des Menschen nebst Bemerkungen zur Anatomie des Os

femoris, by W. Waldeyer; Ueber Timur’s (Tamerlans) Nabstein

aus Nephrit, by H. Fischer. Under the subject of reviews, we

have some most valuable contributions to anthropological litera-

ture, to wit: Berichte aus der russischer Literatur iber Anthro-

pologie, Ethnographie, und Archaologie fiir das Jahr 1878, by Dr.

Ludwig Stieda, of Dorpat. This is a continuation and the close

of a communication from page 382 of the Archiv. It is exceedingly

valuable, containing thirty-eight pages of closely printed matter,

embracing titles of works in full with brief summaries of their

contents. This paper is followed by a similar one upon Scandi-

navian anthropological literature, by Miss J. Mestorf, including

much longer reviews upon publications in Denmark, Sweden and

Norway, The crowning glory of the number, however, is a cata-

logue of recent anthropological literature, mostly in 1878 and

1879, by H. Miller, covering one hundred and fifty-three closely

printed pages, and in many instances giving brief, pithy digests of

the contents of the work. Such lists are valuable in a double

sense. They enable specialists to find out what is being written

on their favorite theme, but, better still, they give an ensemble of

the Scope and minutize of our science. Said a distinguished

physicist to the editor of these Notes, upon reading over the list

of titles published in the Naruratist, “I really had no concep-

tion before of the rapid strides which this last of the sciences has

been making.”

iar

70 : General Notes. [January,

ANTHROPOLOGY IN Mexico.—The Anales del Museo Nacional de

Mexico, has reached the second part of Vol. 1. This number is

devoted entirely to Mexican Archeology, containing the follow-

ing papers by the three most eminent specialists in the Republic:

1. Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pinturas; articulo por el Sr.

D. Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta. 2. La piedra del Sol, segundo

estudio, por el Sr. D. Alfredo Chavero (continuacion). 3. Codice

Mendozino, Ensayo de descifracion geroglifica, por el Sr. D.

Manuel Orozco y Berra (continuacion).

BRITISH PERIODICAL LITERATURE AND ANTHROPOLOGY.—Ab-

sence from one’s sources of information for a few months

accumulates literary material very rapidly. The three London

periodicals, Mature, The Atheneum,and The Academy, gather up

nearly all that is valuable in British anthropology and we give

below the titles of articles and reviews that have appeared in

these Journals from June 1 to October 1.

Reference to Zhe Atheneum. The Survey of Palestine, June

19. Hittite Notes, by W. St. C. Boscawen, August 14. The

Ethnical Relations of the Typical Man of South Wales, by Mr.

F. W. Rudler, opening address before the Subsection of ‘Anthro-

pology in the British Association, also a review of Prof. Boyd

Dawkins’ address on “ Primeval Man,” and Mr. Francis Galton’s

lecture on ‘‘ Mental Imagery,” coe Ne r 4.

Reference to Mature. A Scottish Crannog, with illustrations,

May 6th and 13th. [“A full report of the Lochlee Crannog is

given in Vol. xu of the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquity

of Scotiand, and in Vol. 1 of the collections of the Ayrshire

and Wigtownshire Archzological Association.” ] Abstract Report

of Prof. Flower’s Lectures on the Comparative Anatomy of Man,

delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons, May 20th, May

27th, June 3d. Cup Stones, Cup-marked Stones, or Cups and

Rings, May 27th, June 3d, June toth, July 8th, Reviews of

Prof. Dawkins “ Early Man in Britain and his place in the Ter-.

tiary Period,” and of Principal J. W. Dawson’s “ Fossil Men and

their Modern Representatives,” May 27th. Review of Col.

Mallery’s Sign Language, June 3d. Review of Prof. Humphrey’s

Rede Lecture on Man, June 3d. Tribute to Dr. Paul Broca, July

29th. Address of F. W. Rudler, V. P. of Department of Anthro-

pology, British Association, on the population of Southern Wales,

September 2

References “to The Academy. South European Folk-Lore,

August 21st. The Earliest Rock-Hewn Monument in Asia

Minor, by A. H. Sayce, August 28th. :

ComMPARATIVE THEOLOGY.—Under this title we include all dis-

cussions concerning the opinions which the different peoples of

our globe have held respecting the first causes of phenomena,

the nature of the soul and the phases of its existence after death,

morality, worship, and sacred records. The latest utterance

1881. ] Anthropology. 71

upon this branch of anthropology is. one of the most charm-

ing books we have ever read, entitled, “ The Origin and Growth

of Religion as illustrated by the Religion of Ancient Egypt. By

P. Le Page Renouf. The Hibbert Lectures for 1879,” published

by Charles Scribner’s Sons. The author prepares us for a proper

comprehension of his theme by seeking to remove “ those preju-

dices which incapacitate us from forming true judgments on

systems alien to our own habits of thought.” The first two lec-

tures are entirely devoted to the treatment of those subsidiary

questions which clear the way for the proper comprehension of

the subject, sucn as the history of the decipherment of the hiero-

glyphics, the religious nature of the texts, Egyptian chronology as

set forth in lists of sovereigns, genealogies and later writers, and

including also prehistoric antiquity, ethnography, language, art,

moral code, caste,and marriage customs. In the third lecture

begins the special treatment of the subject. And the first thing

that strikes us is the fact that for three thousand years we have a

religion unchanged in its salient features. In the temple of each

province, from early times, triads and enneads occur. As each

locality had its own deity, it carae to pass both that one god was

worshiped in different aspects, and different gods were treated

as the same divine person. This reminds us of the fashion among

our own Indians of using the same animal in various tribes under

different names as the head of their respective gentes; but these

sacred animals are not the same in passing from one tribe to

another. This inextricable confusion is simplified in the gods of

the first order by reducing them to two categories: 1. Ra and his

family; 2. Osiris and his family. Ra, the sun-god, is borne

across the sky in a boat, he proceeded from Nu (the sky), the

father of the gods. His adversary is Apap (darkness). Shu (the

air), and Tefnut (the dew) are the children of Ra. Osiris (the

sun), is the eldest of five children of Seb (the earth, also the

goose), and Nut (the heaven mother). He wedded his sister Isis

while in his mother’s womb, and their offspring was the elder

Horus (the Sun). Seb and Nephthys, another wedded pair, are

their brother and sister. Seb slays Osiris, who, being avenged by

Orus his son, reigns in the nether world. he discussion of _

monotheism in this chapter, pp. 92-96, the interpretation of the —

Egyptian word nutar, Power, pp. 96-108, and the Reign of Law, |

aig the title of Maat, are among the best pieces of work in the

ook,

_ The fourth lecture is devoted to the rites of burial, the construc-

tion and ornamentation of their tombs, the Ka or genius, religious

endowments, the material form and substance of the soul, posses-

sion, dreams, oaths, omnipresence of the gods, angels, destiny, and

the divine vicegerency of the king. The religious books of Egypt

are the theme of the fifth lecture. Chief among these is the so-called

“Book of the Dead.” It is indeed no book at all; but a collection

72 General Notes. [ January,

of chapters at first handed down by tradition, but afterwards com-

mitted to writing. They were supposed to be recited by the de-

ceased person himself in the nether world, but were really

said by those present at the funeral, These chapters are in

papyrus rolls, on coffins, mummies, wrappings, statues and

walls. The longest is the papyrus of Turin containing one hun-

dred and sixty-five chapters. The chief subject of each chapter is

the beatification of the dead, including renewed existence on

earth, transformation into every desired shape, the range of the

universe, and identification with Osiris and other gods. The use

of amulets was carried to great excess: the scarabzi so fre-

quently mentioned among ancient relics belong to this class. The

lecture closes with a tribute to the moral doctrines of the Egyp-

tians, in which the author repudiates the connection of the symbol

of life with phallic worship. The religious systems are discussed —

in the last lecture under the title of hymns, Henotheism, Panthe-

ism and Materialism.

The author while exhibiting the most excessive modesty is

among the foremost Egyptologists, and does not fear to call Mr.

Spencer, Mr. McLennan, and the champions of Dr, Thomas

Young to order. One misses throughout the work formal classi-

fications of myths and deities which would be exceedingly helpful

to the student. A few outline drawings of the chief divinities

would also contribute greatly to a comprehension of the text.

ARCHEOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS AT MADISONVILLE, Ou1o.—The

most thorough piece of archeological work with which we are

acquainted at the present time, is the exploration of an ancient

cemetery under the direction of the Literary and Scientific So-

ciety of Madisonville. The reports are prepared chiefly by Mr.

. F. Low, to whom we are indebted for copies. The explora-

tions, begun in 1878, were first undertaken. by Dr. Metz and

others in order to save from loss and destruction the mound

relics of the vicinity. While exploring a mound, a laborer, pros-

pecting in the neighborhood, came upon a skeleton at a depth o

two feet. Subsequent investigation revealed the fact that the

entire plateau is the site of an ancient cemetery, from which have

been exhumed upward of four hundred skeletons, accompanied

by stone implements, pipes, pottery, charred matting and corn,

tools and ornaments of bone, shell and copper. The reports are

numbered 1, 11, 11, and each succeeding one is a more careful

report than the others of just what we desire to know. A de-

tailed account of the whole exploration is in progress, and we

shall not, therefore, speak querulously of the shortcomings of the

present numbers. From the data before us we gather that there

were two horizons of sepulture, the deep, averaging nearly four

feet, and the shallow, averaging eighteen inches. Four-fifths of

the bodies were interred in a horizontal position, not one-

tenth in a sitting posture; and all the children were buried

1881. ] Anthropology. 73

stretched out. As far as indicated, the orientation was as fol-

lows: North, .07; south, .43; east, .22; west, .02; north-east,

.03; south-east, .17; south-west, .02; north-west, .04. This, of

course, is to be considered only as a very rough estimate; but the

great preponderance of cases where the head is towards the south

or the east is very notica

The most remarkable fealtite of the cemetery, however, is the

presence of ashpits in great profusion (over two hundred have

been explored), very few of which contain any human remains.

They are about five or six feet deep, and contain the following

layers: On the top leaf-mold has drifted in, and filled the cavity

occasioned by the settling to a depth of two feet, more or less.

he remaining space is filled with layers of charred wood, ashes

and animal remains, clay, sand, and even corn, both shelled and

on the cob. The bones and implements are not burned, which

refutes the theory that the pits were for cremation. Many beau-

tiful objects have been recovered from these ash-pits, and among

them a bone implement entirely new. Plates 1 and 2 present

lithographs of these bone drawing- -knives or leather-smoothers (?).

THE REVUE D’ANTHROPOLOGIE.—Number three of this standard

review bears on its title page the mournful news of the death of

Dr. Paul Broca, which occurred on the night of July 8th. A full

account of his labors will be given in the next fasciculus. The re-

views are really more entertaining and valuable than the original

contributions, excepting that of M Lagneau; but a list is ap-

pended with the hope that some of our readers may find cause to —

differ :

Notice sur la découverte de squelettes humains dans le lehm de Bollviller (Haut-

Rhin), by M. J. Delbos.

Description des diye tcasir humains-fossiles trouvés dans le lehm de Bollviller, by

Dr. Réné Colligr

tv la place i Panthanpitogie dans les sciences, réponse 4 M. Wyrouboff, by Dr.

all

Note sur la secte des Simos, au sud du Sénégal, by Dr. Berenger-Feraud.

De spt acl — reculées intéressant Vethnologie de Europe centrale, by Dr. —

Gustave Lagne

Monuments seeheeaciqoss du Berry, by Ludovic Martinet.

BIBLIOGRAPHY :

ALIBERT, Dr. L.—Les vestiges de = pars paléolitique aux environs de Mon

tauban. pp. 26, 8vo, trois plan (Extr. du Rec, d. 1. Soc. du Sciences.)

BALrour, F. H.—The Flower-Fairies. Chins Rev., Mar., Apr. .

Brackett, ANNA C.—Indian and Ne egro, Harper's Mag., Sept.

Beane, E. L.—The Gaurian compared with the Roman language. I. J.

Roy, As. Soc., Gr. Br. &c., July.

Cantata EmMILE—L’age de la pierre en Asie, Lyon, 1880. pp. 20, in 8vo,

n¢

CHARNAY, I, D,—The ruins of Central America. WV. 4. Review, Sept.

CLopp, E.—The later stone age in Europe. Modern Rev,, July.

CLoquet, Dr. N.—Etudes sur le jalapeno a l’Exposition universelle de Paris,

1878. Mons, 1880, pp. 64,

Cox, G. W.—The a of pest stories. (Fraser's Mag.) Eclectic, Sept.

VOL. XV.—No,

74. ‘General Notes. [January,

CusHING, J. N.—Grammatical sketch of the Kakhyen language. F. Roy. As. Soc.

Csg &c., July.

D’Acy, M. E., et M. ArceLin—Lettre et réponse: La classification archéologique

appliguée a Veen e quaternaire dans la Revue des questions historiques, p.

605-633, 4c année, 2c livr., Bruxelles, 1880.

Dyer, T. F. ss aa orate moon and its folklore. Gentleman’s Mag., Aug.

cyte T, C.—L’a age du fer Selands et dans la partie orientale du

Danemark : les setter Ring a squcettes traduit par E. Pienvon. Copenhague, -

1880, pp. 60, in 8vo, gravures et planches

Gowse, F, S.—Bulandshar antiquities. Ff. Rey: As. Soc. of Bengal, 1, Iv.

Lecco, W.—Canada and her Indian tribes. Canadian Month., Aug.

ely estab A.—Essai géographique sur les cavernes de la France et de 1’ étranger.

France: Région du sud. Angers, 1880, pp. 76, in 8vo

McCuny, I. F, patos of the Aryan kod Semitic ieneeksen: Bibliotheca Sacra,

os J.—Notes on the Corean language. China Rev., Jan., Feb.

MILLEscAmps, G.—Silex taillés et emmanchés de |’ époque didtavionicune. Paris,

1880, pp. 8, in 8vo

NADAILLAC, M. puccslTivigion dela vie. Paris, 1880. pp. 32, 8vo. (Extr. du Cor-

respon ndant

NEwMaN, F. W. —Notes on the Libyan languages. ¥ Roy. As. Soc. Gr. Br. &¢.,

uly.

Oppert, M.—La Méthode chronologique. Rev. /istorique, July.

Parker, E. H.—Syllabary of the Hakka language or dialect. China Rev., Jan.,

Feb.

PIETTE, ete aia wea des temps anthropiques primitif. Laon, 1880,

n 8vo

Putticny, vre pE—Lecture a la Sorbonne, section d’archéologie. Projet de vul-

garisation aes sciences préhistorique et géologique dans les écoles communales.

880.

RENAULT, Dr. CuH.—lInventaire des découvertes préhistoriques et eae -romaines

faites dans les environs de Cherbourg. Cherbourg, 1880, pp. 30, in

Rice, A, THORNDIKE—Ruined cities of Central America. MW. A, tee, Kus:

. oo U. T. pe—Récherches @’Ethnographie botanique sur la flore des sé-

pultures péruviennes d’Ancon. pp. 20, in 8vo. Bordeaux. (Extrait des actes de

la Société linnéenne.

acetic! is A.—Observations on some Chandel antiquities. FS. Roy. As. Soc. Bengal,

Shoces, hone. oe et traditions diverses. Niort, 1880. pp. 32, in

8vo. (Extr. du Bull. d. 1. Soc. de Statistique des Deux- Sevres.)

TURNER, PRor.—Two nas ae a skull from islands near N. Guinea, Ill. %

Anat. and Physiol.,

ee FLOR iay—Ancienne té de ’homme en Dauphiné et accessoirement en

et en Savoie. Grenoble, 1880. pp. 34, in 8vo.

WALHOUSE, M.—Rag sik in the East. Jndtan Antiguary, June.

Worsaac, J. —La civilisation danoise a l’époque des Vikings, traduit du da-

nois par Pabbé L’Morillot. Copenhague, 1880, pp. 42, in 8vo, gravures.

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY.

THE VERTEBRATA OF THE EOCENE OF THE WIND RIVER Basin.

—The current number of the Bulletin of the U. S. Geological

Survey of the age onto, contains a synopsis of the extinct spe-

cies above referred to. They number forty-five, and of these

twenty-six are new ns science. The species are distributed as

PO ee ee ae ee

1881. ] — Geology and Paleontology. 75

follows: Fishes—C/astes, 1 sp.; Pappichthys, 1 sp. Reptiles—

Lacertilia, 2 sp.; Testudinata, 2 sp.; Crocodilia,1 sp. Mammals

—Chiroptera, 1 sp.; Rodentia, 3 sp.; Teniodonta, 1; Tnsectivora,

2; Creodonta, 9; Mesodonta, 9; Amblypoda (Pantodonta), 2;

(Dinocerata), 1; Perissodactyla, 8; ? Artiodactyla,3. The new

species are distributed as follows, all being AM/ammalia: Chirop-

tera, 1; Tentiodonta 1; Insectivora 2; Creodonta 8; Mesodonta

4; Amblypoda, 1; Perissodactyla 7; ? Artiodactyla 2.

The facies of the fauna is that of the Wasatch rather than that

of the Bridger epoch, but it contains, nevertheless, severai genera

hitherto regarded as characteristic of the Bridger; such are Pap-

pichthys and Paleosyops. The sub-order Dinocerata has not pre-

viously been found associated with Coryphodon. The sole repre-

sentative of this division belongs to a new genus, and is named

Bathyopsis fissidens, by Prof. Cope. The genus is defined as fol-

lows: Dental formula, I. 3; C.1; Prem. 4; M. 3,—in the lower

jaw. First premolar in the series with the incisors and canine,

and followed by a diastema. The entire inferior border of the.

lower jaw expanded downwards into a plate with convex inferior

and forwards.

Pror. KERR ON Frost Drirt.—Prof. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist

of North Carolina, read an interésting paper, February, 1880, before

the American Institute of Mining Engineers, on what he calls

Jrost drift, with especial reference to the gold deposits of his

State. He finds a thick layer, sometimes amounting to a depth

of one hundred feet, covering rocks in various parts of the State,

_. which is evidently derived from their decomposition, and which

has remained nearly in situ. He has observed, however, that the

materials of these strata are frequently sorted, the larger unde~

composed fragments lying near the bottom of the mass, hence ©

it is evident that they have been moved, and without regard

to the direction of the inclination of the surface. He thinks

that this rearrangement has been produced by the alternate

freezing and thawing of the bed. The gold of the placers has, in

this way, gradually found its way to the bed-rock or slate, where

it is now found by the miners. Placer mining has been practiced

for many years in North Carolina, and the methods now in use in

California, were carried there by emigrants from the former

State. :

DiscovERIES OF MINERALS IN WESTERN NorTH CAROLINA.—

76 General Notes. [ January,

During the month of May, 1877, while on a buggy trip from

Statesville to Hickory, I discovered from my buggy a deposit of

drift gravel along the roadside a few miles east of the town of

Hickory, which promised something handsome in the line of quartz

crystals. I started out on the 4th day of the following June

(1877) to trace out the indications offered by that pile of gravel

scattered promiscuously along the roadside. By actual measure-

ment, the belt of drift deposit extending a long distance with a

north-east and south-west trend, was three-quarters of a mile in

breadth. My first diggings were on the lands of Mr. E. Bolch,

and, under my personal supervision, soon reached a pocket of

water-bearing smoky quartz crystals at a depth of two feet under

ground. Here I found my first basal plane on quartz crystals

(smoky and clay-tessellated). Devoting my entire time to field

work in the drift belt of this neighborhood, I examined nearly

fifty different localities found either by myself or by workmen

trained under my personal teaching. The result by the Ist of

January, 1878, was the discovery of thirty-five new localities for

the following list of minerals, together with a determination by

myself of the separate species:

Water-bearing crystals of quartz; Carbon dioxide-bearing crystals of quartz;

Smoky quartz crystals; Amethyst quartz crystals; Quartz crystals enclosing layers

d clay; Quartz crystals enclosing coloring matter of various hues; Quartz

crystals enclosing other crystals; Quartz crystals enclosing small prisms of mica ;

Quartz crystals enclosing pyrites; Quartz crystals enclosing rutile, (The most magnif

icent specimen of which (7xq in.) enclosing three beautiiul rosettes of rutile, I pre-

sented to my friend Mr. Wilcox, of Philadelphia.)

Having seen in the cabinets of my friend Stephenson, of States-

ville, a number of so-called seventh planes on the prisms of quartz

crystals which he obtained in Alexander county, I went diligently

to work for such localities in Catawba county. My search, at

first, was fruitless, but I observed a singular feature in some of

the crystals dug from this first pocket I had discovered in this

county. This feature consisted of a well marked plane parallel

to the lateral axis, or a plane truncating the pyramid at a right

angle to the prism. This I claim is the first American locality for

quartz crystals with basal planes; the locality itself, as also the

observation of the peculiar planes, being my own original discov-

eries. I delayed the publication of my secret through fear of

attracting attention to the locality. This was in June, 1877. 49

July and September following I had discovered fifteen new locali--

ties in the vicinity for water-bearing quartz crystals, obtaining a5

many as 550 specimens. During the same months I obtained

nearly seventy crystals with the basal planes. My work contin-

ued through the months of October and November, when the

-winter caused a suspension of field labors.

In the month of March, 1878, my field explorations were

renewed, and with almost continuous work, extending through

the months of April, May, June, July, August, September and

1881. ] | Geology and Paleontology. 77

October of the same year. I discovered and worked on fifty-six

different new localities yielding the same species before mentioned,

with the addition of

Black Tourmaline; Brown Tourmaline; Green Beryl; Melanite (garnets) in

Muscovite ; Sagenite (meshed rutile); Acicular rutile; Rutile in amethyst. (This

last named species I also claim as having first discovered in this country, if not in

the world.)

The result then of my field work in Catawba county, N. C.,

from the 4th day of June, 1877, to the 1st day of November, was

the discovery of ninety-one new localities for minerals and the

scientific determination of the following list of species obtained

from these localities new to science:

Quartz crystals, drusy; do, reniform; do, botryoidal; do, asteriated; do, acicu-

lar; do, aventurine; do, filiform; do, reticulated; do, water-bearing ; do, carbon

various hues; do, enclosing other crystals; do, enc

sang); do, enclosing pyrites; do, enclosing small prisms of mica; do, enclosit

rutile; do, (amethyst) enclosing acicular rutile; do, (amethyst) enclosing sagenite

rutile.

Many of these were twins, geniculations, double terminals and

in groups—varying in colors from black (of various shades) to

the most pellucid variety, including green, yellow (citrine) smoky,

purple, milky and almost every tint known to chemistry. ar

Crystallographically I have discovered in these new localities

the following list of forms:

Basal planes. Trigonal prisms.

Hexagonal pyramids. Rhombohedrals.

Dihexagonal “ Trapezohedrals.

Trigonal as ao And hemimorphic forms.

The weight of these separate crystals runs from one grain to

one hundred pounds.

There are two very singular groupings among these crystals ;

the one being a number of amethyst crystals grouped upon a

group of milky crystals, the other (resembling Fig. 335, p. 101, in ~

E. S. Dana’s Text Book of Mineralogy, Ed. 1877) being a series

of quartz crystals all in a parallel position on the prism and

pyramid faces of a group of acicular milky quartz crystals.

I believe I have discovered in this belt more than two-thirds of

the forms of quartz known to science. This, however, I will

determine before the year closes. :

On a group of thirteen smoky crystals, having unitedly fifty-

two easily discernible and movable bubbles, and nine different

basal planes, there is one crystal with a.basal plane and a cavity

enclosing a gas, a liquid and a solid—the finest and most inter-

esting specimen of its class which has ever been discovered.

In the months of July and August of 1878 I discovered two

new localities, in Burke county, for basal planes on quartz, three

new localities for sagenite and the golden colored rutile, two new

localities for liquid-bearing crystals, one new locality for corun-

‘

78 General Notes. | January,

dum crystals with a border of fibrolite and enclosed in mica-

ceous schist, one new locality for tourmaline, one new locality for

aqua marine, and in conjunction with Mr. W. E. Hidden, I dis-

covered forty-one different minerals in a few ounces of Brindlet-

town gold sands, being by far the largest and rarest number ever

obtained at one time by an examination of these celebrated sands:

Titanium. Zircon.

Titanite. Thorium.

Menaccanite vel Ilmenite. Graphite.

Rutile. Corundum (white).

Anatase vel Octahedrite. sf (blue).

Octahedrite. - (red).

Ilmenite. 0) (gray).

Brookite. ay (yeliow).

Iron. Feldspar

Limonite. Albite.

Mag. Iron. Actinolite.

Granite. : ourmaline.

neiss. chorl.

Itacolumite. Epidote.

uartz ery,

Garnet. r Tremolite.

Schist Hornblende

Monazite. Soapstone.

Amethyst. Kyanite.

Gold. Cairngorm Stone.

This paper, in conclusion, is merely to place on record the

results of my three years’ field work amongst the minerals of

North Carolina, until I can elaborate them (with engravings) in a

substantial book form.— Yohn T. Humphreys, Greensboro, N.C.

GroLocicaL News.—Prof. Hitchcock is preparing a new geo-

logical map of the United States. Prof. Hall has identified the

Oneonta and Montrose sandstones, and finds them to form a

fresh-water deposit below the Chemung. Prof. Collett has

found a remarkable deposit of extinct Unionidae in Vandenburg

county, la. rof. Leidy has determined a number of species of

Vertebrata from bones found in a cave in Northampton county,

Pa. All of the species are existing excepting two, a Castoroides

and a Peccary. Mojsisovics and Neumayr are publishing an

extensive work, Beitrage zur Palaeontologie von Oesterreich-Un-

garn. The two first monographs have appeared; they are Lug-

mayer on Rhetic Brachiopoda, and Bittner on Early Tertiary

Echinida of the Southern Alps.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS!

THE EXPLORATIONS OF CAPELLO AND IvENS IN WeEsT CENTRAL

Arrica.—In previous numbers of the NaTuRALIST some accounts

have been given of the expedition fitted out early in 1877, by the

Government of Portugal and the Lisbon Geographical Society for

the exploration of western and southern Central Africa, The

party was under the command of Major Serpa Pinto, and starte :

1 Edited by ELtis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

1881.] Geography and Travels. 79

from Benguela on the west coast, proceeding by a southern

route, touching the fifteenth parallel of south latitude, entering the

mountainous region of Dombé, and passing to the east of Quil-

lengues, finally reached Bihé in March, 1878. Here Major

Serpa Pinto left his companions and started on his perilous

journey along the upper waters of the Quando and Zambesi, and

thence southward through the Transvaal and Natal to the east

ast.

Captain B. Capello and Lieutenant R. Ivens left Bihé in May,

pursuing a north-easterly direction, crossing the Quanza, whose

source is the Mussombo lake in S. lat. 13° 30’, E. long. 17°, and

after long marches through an overflowed country, on June 24th

arrived at the Luando, an important tributary of the Quanza. To

the north of this stream are the tribes of the Songos and Quiocos,

while the Ganguellas, a strong powerful race of men who carry

on an active trade with Bihé, occupy the country to the south. At

the distance of two hundred and fifty miles from Bihé the forest

district of Quioco was reached, one of the most interesting of

Central Africa in its hydrographical character. From

. expedition followed the Quango river, Capello taking the east,

and Ivens the west side of the stream. Both found the country

very difficult to penetrate owing to the overflowing of the river, ©

and its many tributaries, the density of the vegetation and the

broken irregular character of the surface. The explorers met

finally at Cassange, and made several excursions east and north

from that point. Proceeding from there to Malange, and turning

north, they followed the eastern slope of the Tala~-Mogongo

range, crossing many streams flowing into the Hamba, an import-

ant affluent of the Quango to the forest country of Hungo.

Marching on they discovered a great number of streams and

countless small lakes. MM. Capello and Ivens believe that

these should take the place of the large lake, Aquilonda, found

on many maps at this point (7° S. 17° E.), and which they state

does not exist. After arriving at a small village called Malundo,

about 7° 30’ S. and 16° 30’ E. they were obliged to retrace their

steps owing to the exhaustion of their stores, illness, and the diffi-

culties of the country. :

To the east of the Quango here is the country of Jaca, one of

the most important of the African interior, which extends as far as

the Congo and was entirely unknown previously. The return was

made to the Portuguese settlement of Duque de Braganza on the

Lucalla, and through a fruitful, healthy country to the Quanza,

the course of which river they followed down to the sea. They

reached Portugal in January last, and this account is taken from

papers read by them before the Lisbon Geographical Society, and

the Geographical Section of the British Association. A beautiful

detailed map in MS. of the country explored was exhibited at the

1 NATURALIST, September, 1879, p. 593-

80 General Notes. [January,

latter. The route is roughly shown in a “ Provisorische Karte,”

published in Petermann's Mittheilungen for September, 1880.

The total length of the land journey thus accomplished was

4214 kilometers.

As to general configuration, the whole region of West Africa

covered by the expedition south of the equator may be described

as consisting of three well-marked areas: 1. A central table-land

_where the richness of the soil and the regularity of the rain-fall

cause a luxurious and varied vegetation; u. A hilly region sur-

rounding the table-land and forming a water-shed dividing the

waters of the Quanza, Cunene, Cubango and other large rivers,

and possessing a less luxuriant but abundant flora, and a variety

of fruits and vegetables; 111. A zone of lowland near the coast

barren and unhealthy from the many swamps. ~-

Between Benguela and Bihé innumerable streams were crossed,

almost all of them having their sources in the elevated central

regions, and reaching the coast by successive rapid descents be-

tween the oth and 17th parallels of latitude. Among the most

remarkable is the Copororo (the left bank of which was followed

by the expedition), the Cunene, and the Cubango (the course of

which, by exception, is towards the south-east). All these rivers

are extremely tortuous and full of rocks, and their currents being

rapid, they seem in general to be little adapted for any kind of

navigation.

_ Another peculiarity of the river systems is the tendency of the.

innumerable affluents on each side to flood their banks, thus ren- —

dering their survey extremely difficult. All take their rise on the

_morthern or southern slopes of*the great central ridge which

traverses the interior in the latitude of Quioco, south of Bihé, and

is prolonged south of Lake Bangweolo under the name of Mu-

chinga, to the plateau of Lobisa. This is the most important

elevation of Central Africa south of the equator, as it forms the

dividing point between the basins of the Congo and the Zambesi,

in conjunction with another elevated ridge called Mossambé, run-

ning north and south, and intersecting it in 12° S. lat.,and 18° E.

long., on which are the sources of innumerable affluents of the

Zambesi and the Congo. |

On account of this intersection taking place near it, the region

of Quioco must be considered as of high interest to the scientific

geographer, and well deserving of the epithet of “Mother of

Waters” in south-west Central Africa. In the space of 1000

square miles around the residence of a chief named Mune

Quibau the expedition discovered, at distances not more than

twenty miles apart, the source of five or six of the most import-

ant rivers of the continent, viz: the Quango, the Kassai, the

Luando, the Chicopa, the Lume, and the Jombo, besides about a

hundred smaller streams, tributaries of the preceding.

The Quango at first flows between the two great mountain

1881.] Geography and Travels. 81

ranges of Tala-Mogongo (on the west) and Moenga (on the

east) forming many cataracts and rapids, and receiving many

affluents, all of which were surveyed. The most import-

lat. Many of the affluents were previously unknown. In

the 7th parallel of south latitude, the mountain, range of Tala-

Mogongo cuts obliquely another system of sierras, named in the

north, Zombo, which extends to the Congo above the Yellala

falls. The extensive region of small lakes before mentioned is

situated on the slopes of this latter mountain range, and the expe-

dition charted various rivers having their origin in the range as

also all the numerous streams of the western slope in the Luamba

region. With regard to the natives—all belonging to the great

Bantu division ot the Ethiopian race—the general observation

may be made that the physical, mental and social development of

the very varied tribes improves in the ratio of the altitude of the

locality. The greater the altitude of his home the more perfect is

the native, and the natives of the coast region are the most

rachitic, the least intelligent and the most unfortunate of all. In

the industrial arts it is also remarkable that the tribes farthest

in the interior, and therefore most remote from European contact,

are the most ingenious, The coast native does not manufacture

a knife for his own use, the inhabitant of the plateau does; the

latter even manufactures hoes, and sells them to the degraded

coast negro, The difference is enormous between the Ganguella

and the Maiaca, the one living at an altitude of 5500 feet, in a

climate of 64° mean temperature, and the other at an altitude of

1600 feet, in a mean temperature of 80°.

The political system is very similar in all the tribes. Each has

a chief who at times transmits his power to his successors in a

collateral line, while at other times a chief is elected by the people.

Polygamy is characteristic of the lowest tribes; fetishism and the

most brutal superstition and slavery everywhere prevail. —

he expedition collected material throughout their journey

towards vocabularies of the many native languages. ing fur-

nished with a very complete outfit of scientific instruments, they

have been able to bring home an extensive series of observations

in magnetism and meteorology as well as in all appertaining to

their special work, the fixing of positions by astronomical and

hypsometrical observations, and the geographical survey of the

regions traversed.

Cot. Preyevatsky.—Further accounts received from Col. Pre-

jevalsky informs us, that in May last he was at Houi-de on the

Hoang-ho. He left Sining on March 20th, and explored: the

Yellow river for one hundred miles or more, but was unable to

proceed further or ascertain the sources of this great river. At

omi, where the river is 8000 feet above the sea-level, it is from

420 to 490 feet wide. Above this place their “progress was fre-

82 General Notes. _ (January,

quently arrested by deep ravines, which seam the banks, and

suddenly disclose their precipitous and dismal depths, the more

unexpectedly as the plain over which one happens to be march-

ing appears to be perfectly level. A river usually flows at the

bottom of these enormous crevasses bordered with trees and

shrubs. Footpaths lead into many of them, but the descent is

most difficult, especially for mules and pack-camels.”

On reaching the mouth of the Churmysh, and reconnoitering

the country for a distance of nearly thirty miles, Prejevalsky “ be-

came convinced of the impossibility of crossing the enormous

mountain-chain extending along the Yellow river.' The summits

of these mountains are lost in clouds, gloomy ravines are encoun-

tered at every verst, and there is not the slightest trace of vege-

tation, therefore no forage for our animals. Pursuing my

investigations further, I saw clearly that our mules could never

go round these mountains, the roads being only accessible for

camels accustomed to the privations of the desert, and it is even

doubtful if camels could accomplish the ascent of the Burkan-

Buddha.” He therefore turned back down the stream to Houi-deé,

forty miles below Gomi, arriving there two months after his de-

parture from Sining.

Five hundred specimens of birds and many fishes and plants

have been collected. “ Blue pheasants were particularly numerous.

This fine bird, only a few specimens of which may be seen in the

Museums of Paris, St. Petersburg, and London is met with fre-

quently at an altitude of 9500 feet. Every day we killed several,

and preserved twenty-six for our collections. Had it not been

for difficulty of transport, we might have collected hundreds. The

second rarity of this country is rhubarb, often found in large

quantities. Old roots of it grow to a colossal size. One of those

I took measured sixteen inches in length, twelve in breadth, and

seven in thickness, and weighed twenty-six pounds.”

MICROSCOPY.!

ADULTERATIONS OF Drucs.—A report. on this subject by C-

Lewis Diehl, in the National Board of Health Bulletin, states that

most of the information that can be gained on the subject is too

vague or general in its character to be satisfactory. It is under-

stood that the falsification of drugs is carried on extensively at

the present time, and it is known that certain drugs are particu-

larly subject to adulteration or falsification, but there is great

difficulty in obtaining particulars that are definite or valuable.

The literature of the subject, except a few papers of general scope,

is mostly included in the standard text books of pharmacy, and

in the Proceedings of the American Pharmaceutical Association,

which have been published annually since 1852. The author dis-

criminates carefully between deteriorations which may take place

1This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

1881. ] Microscopy. 83

by time or by improper exposure to causes of change, and sub-

stitutions which may be made unintentionally or without the

knowledge of the vender, and adulterations which imply inten-

tional debasement for the purposes of deception and gain. The

general conclusion is reached that the drug market is so fairly

honest that persons who really desire to obtain articles of standard

quality, and at a proportionate price, have very little difficulty in

being able to: do, so, and can be suited by respectable dealers

throughout the land, while poor and adulterated articles are pres-

ent, and are very likely to be obtained by ignorant persons or by

those who are indifferent to the character of the dealer, and are

desirous of regulating their purchases by the price rather than

the quality of the goods. Crude drugs can usually be obtained

of good quality, though many are sold, which have deteriorated

by prolonged or careless preservation. Powdered drugs (those

of fair quality can usually be obtained) are liable to the grossest

adulterations, particularly those which are frequently handled

(like spices) by both grocers and druggists. That this practice

still continues is shown by the fact that powders are often sold

at the price of, or at an inadequate advance upon, the crude drug,

notwithstanding the loss incurred in drying and powdering. In-

usions, decoctions, solid.and fluid extracts, and tinctures are all

found to vary in strength and quality from good and indifferent

to positively bad; some manufacturers adhering to the require-

ments of the Pharmacopceia, while others admit inferiorities in

order to save cost and to be able to undersell.

Harp RussBer ZoopHyTE TrouGH.—A new zoophyte trough,

just brought to notice, is so neat, convenient, and free from faults

that it cannot fail to be used with pleasure. Two plates of glass,

somewhat like glass object slides, are separated by a half ring of

soft rubber, and clamped to- =5 3

gether by two plates of hard

rubber, held together by ¥

binding screws, and cut

away to show the objects, as Ts

illustrated in the engraving.

These troughs contain many valuable features ; any thickness

of glass can be used, and it can be easily taken out for cleaning,

and easily replaced if broken, and the thickness of the cell can be

varied indefinitely by using different thicknesses of sheet rubber

between the glasses. The whole contrivance is an adaptation, in

a most attractive and valuable form, of the troughs which have

been used for holding living objects, and for exhibiting crystalliza-

tion, in the projecting microscope. It can be obtained from [r.

Walmsley, manager for R. & J. Beck, 1016 Chestnut Street, Phil-

adelphia.

Tue Acme Microscoprs.—John W. Sidle & Co., of Lancaster,

Pa., have issued a catalogue which gives a fair representation

84 Scientific News. . [ January,

of their new enterprise. Besides the very simple and excellent

Acme microscopes and the accessories belonging to them, much

information is given in regard to microscopical supplies in general.

Tue SPENCER Opjectives.—The partnership heretofore existing ©

between C. A. Spencer & Sons, has been dissolved, and Herbert

R. Spencer announces that he will hereafter furnish lenses marked

H. R. Spencer & Co., made after the same formulas, and of the

same uniform excellence, which have for years past characterized

the lenses made under his supervision, by the old company.

Gutta PercHa Cetits.—These rings for mounting dry objects,

can be obtained from Lloyd H. Smith, of Geneva, N. Y., at from

fifty to eighty cents per hundred. They are such as are used by

Prof. H. L. Smith, and are suitable for diatoms and other thin

objects.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

- — The U. S. Entomological Commission designs preparing for

publication, probably in the appendix of its third report, a bibli-

ography of American (and Canadian) economic entomology.

The bibliography will contain references to papers, articles and

notes in agricultural and popular scientific periodicals, as well as

journals devoted to bee culture, and as complete as possible ref-

erences will be made to entomological notes in those periodicals

which appeared prior to 1850. The titles of notes, articles, re-

ports on works, will be entered under the name of authors, or of

periodicals, especially agricultural reports and papers, with brief

digest of contents given in a line or two, in the same style as in

Mr. Mann’s excellent bibliographical record of Psyche, the organ

of the Cambridge Entomological Club, of Cambridge, Mass.

After due pains are taken sucha record will necessarily be quite

imperfect. The compiler will have to rely much on aid from au-

thors of any and every article or note on economic entomology.

Its completeness will greatly depend on the care with which en-

tomologists may prepare lists of their own articles. Entomolo-

gists are therefore earnestly requested to cooperate by sending

full lists of their papers or notes on any subject connected with

economic entomology (not general or scientific entomology unless

bearing on the applied science) and prepared in the style of that of — :

Psyche, to A. S. Packard, Jr., at Providence, R. I.

— Jacob Boll, of Dallas, Texas, died recently in Western

Texas ata distance from civilization. He was a native of the

Canton of Aargau, Switzerland, and was a pupil of Agassiz

before the latter came to the United States. He was active in

promoting educational reform in his native country, and was an

authority in entomology. During a long residence in Texas he

was an untiring collector, and sent many specimens to Europe- —

His collections. of insects, especially of Lepidoptera, are une-

1881.] Scientific News. 85

qualed for beauty. He wasa good geologist, and contributed

articles to various journals, including the AMERICAN NATURALIST.

For two years previous to his death he was engaged in explora-

tions, for Prof. Cope, in the Permian region of Texas. He dis-

covered numerous remarkable extinct vertebrates, which have

formed the subject of various papers. These number thirty-two

species, and they have thrown great light on the nature of verte-

brate life at that early period. Mr. Boll was a most amiable man,

and his death is a serious loss to science.

— The report of the committee on science teaching in schools,

read by Dr. Youmans before the American Association, arraigns

the unscientific methods by which science is usually mistaught in

schools. He justly claims that science, as a means of training

the faculties i the various ways to which they are severally

_adapted, is not taught in the public schools. It is not made the

tunity not only exist among children, but they are the prime data

of all efficient mental cultivation. In the graded schools, just in

proportion to the perfection of the mechanical arrangements, indi-

viduality disappears; and with individuality goes originality. ©

Science, if rightly pursued, is the most valuable school of self-

instruction. From the beginning men of science have been self-

dependent and self-reliant, because self-taught.

— Mr. Alfred R. Wallace has published, says the Academy, a

new work entitled “Island Life,” which deals with the problems

presented by insular faunas and floras by the aid of the most

recent geological and physical researches. A special feature in

— The third annual book of the Michigan Sportsmen’s Asso-

ciation contains some excellent reading matter. The report on

nomenclature, barring some inaccuracies, is an excellent one, and

most timely, as is Mr. Fred. Mather’s and Mr. J. G. Portman’s

papers on fish propagation and protection, Such associations

and publications as these, will tend greatly to increase the inter-

est of the public in economic zodlogy and all that pertains to it.

— The conch fisheries of the Bahamas, according to the Scien-

tific American, are of considerable importance, many tons being

exported to Italy, France and Germany from Nassau ; in Italy

they are cut into sleeve buttons and brooches, and in France and

Germany they are used in porcelain manufactories. $50,000

worth of conch pearls are annually exported from Nassau.

88 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Jan., 1881.

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Nov. 8.—Prof. Newberry

made a communication on the antimony mines of Southern

Utah.. Prof. D. S. Martin exhibited specimens of wax from the

Carnauba palm of Northern Brazil, and gave an account of its

production, etc.

Nov. 22.—-Miss Adelina Bierck described the volcanic eruption

at Lake Ilopango, San Salvador, and Mr. A. A. Julien gave an

- account of a visit to the great alum cave of Sevier county, Ten-

nessee,

Nov. 29.—Prof. H. A. Ward gave a description of the Island

of Volcano.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society. Nov. 18.— Rev. Owen

Street read a paper on the changes in the physical geography of

the ancient home of man in Central and Western Asia.

"ry

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE—Nov. 6. On

the relationship of the Cephalopoda, by H. von Ihering. The

organ of smell of the land pulmonates, by Dr. D. Sochaczewer.

(Refers to the structure of the feelers, and Moquis Tandon’s opin-

ion that the end or “terminal button” is the seat of the organ of a

smell. He then discusses the nature of the organ of Semper and

of the foot-glands, and thinks that the latter are more properly

organs of smell, as at the base of the excretory duct of the pedal

gland are distinct ciliated sense-cells which are like the ciliated | ‘

sense-cells in the skin of mollusks discovered by Flemming.) On

the cases of the Trichopterous larvae of Santa Catharina, Brazil,

by Fritz Miiller. (Figures and describes a great variety of singu-

lar forms of caddis-fly cases.) Researches on the Dysideidan —

and Phorio-sponges, by W. Marshall. On two early human

embryos, by W. Krause (with excellent figures). The pedal

nerve-system of Paludina vivipara, by H. Simroth.

Tue GEoLocicaL MaGazine— November. Precambrian vol-

canos and glaciers, by H. Hicks. The Mammoth in Siberia, by

H. H. Howorth. :

Dates OF PUBLICATION. OF THE NATURALIST FOR 1879 AND 1880. , :

—1879: January No., January 4th; February, February 4thy

March, February 27th ; April, March 26th; June, May 2oth; July,

June 17th; September, August 22d; November, October ‘25th; — :

December, December 4th. 1880: January, January 2d; February, —

January 31st; March, February 25th; April, March 21st; May.

April 27th; June, May 2ist; July, June 18th; August, July

22d; October, September 21st; November, October 23d; Der?

cember, November 25th.

i poole Tbe

coat oe eee

fe ee

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

VoL. xv. — FEBRUARY, 1881.— No. 2.

INCOMPLETE ADAPTATION AS ILLUSTRATED BY

p THE HISTORY OF SEX IN PLANTS!

BY LESTER F. WARD, A.M.

: ines doctrine of abrupt changes or cataclysms in nature has a

remarkable survival in the still prevalent belief in perfect

adaptation. As it was formerly held that organisms were: pur-

posely made for their conditions and exactly adjusted to them, so

now, since the law of self-adjustment has become current, it is

supposed that the organism and the environment have in all cases

reached a condition of complete correspondence. It is in virtue

of this assumption that the law of cross-fertilization of plants has

been called in question, and an eminent botanist once remarked

to me that the slight difference between the results of Darwin's

experiments under cross and under self-fertilization, amounting

on an average to one-fifth of the whole, was sufficient to invali-

date that law.

Nothing seems so difficult for the human mind to grasp as

change through minute variations indefinitely continued. Even

those who admit that this is nature’s method, fail to realize it in

concrete examples,

€ may suppose that a given character not possessed by a

given species would, as a matter of fact, be an advantage to such

species if it could acquire it. We may further suppose that for

any reason the species commences to vary in the direction of

acquiring that character. The benefit will be proportional to the

degree of completeness with which the character is attained.

1 Read before the Biological Section of the American Association for the Advance-

ment of Science, at Boston, August 27, 1880.

VOL, XV.—NO, II,

90 Incomplete Adaptation as illustrated [| February,

Under the law of natural selection, the perfection of the character

will ultimately be reached, but a very long period, to say the

least, must elapse during which it is still incomplete.

Again, the conditions surrounding a species are constantly

changing, usually slowly, but sometimes rapidly or suddenly. In

this way the usefulness of certain characters is frequently de-

stroyed, but the species cannot lose the character; it persists and

gradually becomes atrophied or transformed into a different one.

Such changes in organisms are very slow, and vast periods are

passed through before they are completed.

Now, considering the changes going on at all times in the

conditions under which species exist, it may often happen that

the ‘period during which adaptation is incomplete from both

these causes, is greater than that during which it is complete.

Indeed, as a matter of fact, the adaptation is never absolutely —

complete, the organism being always, as it were, behind its envi-

ronment, as the tides are behind the moon. .

If this be true, we ought to expect constantly to find examples

of incomplete adaptation. A character which required to be

complete before it could be advantageous could never be acquired

by natural selection. All such characters as are acquired must

be advantageous in proportion as they are complete.

Naturalists must therefore learn to regard a large proportion of

the characters which they find to exist, as partial or uncompleted

characters, useful to the species in proportion as they are devel-

oped, but capable of greater adaptation.

There are, moreover, two general classes of characters with

respect to their usefulness and advantageousness to the species.

Those of one of these classes are only useful to a certain limited

degree, beyond which they may be injurious, and which only ap-

ply to particular species in their relations to definite existing con-

ditions. Such characters may be called sfecial.

The other class, which may be distinguished as general, apply

to all organisms, and are less limited in their degrees of possible

development.

Passing over the class of special characters, I propose to illus-

trate the principles above stated, by an example in the class of

general characters taken from the vegetable kingdom.

The distinction of sex is a condition advantageous to all plants,

and one in the process of attaining which a large number of grada-

1881. ] by the Flistery of Sex in Plants. gt

tions are to be found. The purely asexual state exists only in the

lowest Protophytes, as in Saccharomyces, the Phycochromacee,

and other unicellular forms. The simple phenomenon of conju-

gation or copulation seen in the Zygomycete and diatoms, forms

the earliest step towards sexual differentiation, which is followed

by the various intermediate steps represented by the pairing of

active cells in Volvox, the formation of odspores in the Conferve

and Fucacez, and of carpospores in the Fungi.

In the Characez we first find the well marked distinction of

antheridia and carpogonia, the former furnishing in Nitella the

active spermatozodids which differ immensely from the cells with

which they combine. This latter feature continues to character-

ize all the higher Cryptogams, though in nearly all cases the

organs of both sexes are borne on the same plant. The transition

from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams is effected by a primary

differentiation of the spores, which in most Cryptogams are the

independent asexual bodies that produce the sexually differentiated

prothallium. This prothallium loses its independence and be-

comes the albumen of the seed; the male spores are converted

into pollen grains and the antheridia into the fertilizing pollen-

tubes; the female spores are transformed into embryo-sacs con-

taining corpuscles within which are the ultimate germ-cells.

In a certain sense this transition, instead of marking an ad-

vance in the process of sexual separation, constitutes a step back-

ward, since the prothallia of Cryptogams, considered as distinct

individuals, are respectively male and female, while the stamens

and pistils of the Cycadacee and Conifer, the earliest Phaeno-

gams developed, though quite distinct in themselves, are both

borne on the same plant. But the prothallium marks the highest _

development reached or possible to the Cryptogam. The Phzeno-

gam must begin from a point lower down, and in turn evolve sex-

ually differentiated forms. The distinction of macrospores and

microspores found only in the Rhizocarpee and Ligulate, and

which, as already stated, initiated the transition from the Crypto-

gams to the Phenogams, took place in the same individual, both

kinds of spores often occurring in the same sporangium, as in

Salvinia. This, when the two kinds of spores at length came to

represent the two sexual organs of the Cycad or the Conifer,

necessarily reunited the sexes once more in the same plant, and

the process of separation, so well completed-in the higher Crypto-

92 Lnucomplete Adaptation as wlustrated [February,

gams, was required to be begun anew on the higher Phzenogamic

plane of development.

From this point, however, the history of this process is of the

highest interest. In the Cycadaceze complete dicecism was

reached before any of the few now existing forms were de-

veloped, and all present living species are male and female. In

the Coniferz, different families have attained to different degrees

of diclinism. The Taxinez, which many facts show to have been

among the earliest forms developed, are dicecious, while the great

pine and fir tribes, as well as most cedars, are still monoecious.

Both these great orders have come down to us from the Carbo-

niferous epoch, and indicate, along with the remnant which we

possess of the then luxuriant cryptogamic flora, the kind of vege-

tation which prevailed in those remote ages. The flowers even

of the highest forms were uniformly inconspicuous and odorless.

The only possible substitute for sexual separation was the distri-

bution of pollen by the winds. Forms so high in development, it

would seem, could not continue to exist through self-fertilization

alone, and hence, under the operation of natural selection, more

or less complete sexual separation early took place.

The transition from the Gymnos perm to the Angiosperm is

veiled in great obscurity. Certain considerations point to the

gradual transformation of the Cycadacez into the Monocotyle

through: the Palmacez or some allied family, on the one hand,

and to that of the Coniferae into the Dicotyle through the Gne-

tacee and Casuarinee, on the other. However this may be, the

earliest known fossil species of Angiosperms, dating back to the

early Trias, consist of poplars, beech, oak, chestnut, sycamore, and

other unisexual and dicecious trees, all of which want the showy

flowers characteristic of the present flora of the globe.

In view of the fact that this early flora was to so great an ex-

tent diclinous, it becomes an important question why so large a

proportion of the present flora is hermaphrodite. We find that

many of the plants of the most recent geological development

possess the means of self-fertilization within the same flower and

no obvious means of crossing individuals. Upon closer observa-

tion, however, we perceive that many of these apparently perfect

flowers possess arrangements of a more or less anomalous kind,

which, inexplicable on any other theory, are all explainable as

contrivances for the prevention of self-fertilization. The com-

1881. ] by the History of Sex in Plants. 93

pleteness with which this object is accomplished is of all degrees,

from Epilobium with its style merely turned to one side, to Iris

with its short extrorse anthers hidden away under the broad

styles stigmatic on the inaccessible side; from mere heterostyly

to complete dichogamy.

I-need not review the conclusive reasoning by which all these

morphological modifications are accounted for as the results of the

long continued agency of insects. It is important only to point

out that this influence has been powerful enough to reverse the

entire course of sexual differentiation, which, as we have seen, has

been in all lower forms constantly in the direction of a more and

more complete separation of the sexes. It may be said that this

proves too much, since progress in that advantageous direction

once gained would not be likely to be lost. The sufficient reply

to this is that, independently of the natural tendency to revert to

the normal or monosexual state, when the separative influences

are withdrawn, the reserve power of possible self-fertilization

when for any cause cross-fertilization fails,as it clearly often may, —

is a positive advantage, and one which, under the proper circum-

stances, natural selection will insure.

The most significant fact which paleontology reveals is that of

the simultaneous appearance of an insect fauna and a hermaphro-

dite flora. When the insects came upon the scene they found

only a diclinous flora with usually apetalous flowers destitute of

both fragrance and color. The succeeding strata immediately

commence to exhibit plants of the rose, mallow, magnolia, pulse,

and crowfoot families with showy petals, often fragrant, and pro- —

vided with special nectaries for the secretion of honey. Most of

these had already made their appearance in the chalk formation,

while during the Tertiary the still more perfectly organized

Gamopetalz were developed. The agency of insects in the fertil-

ization of plants and even in the transformation of flowers to

adapt them to their uses is no longer questioned by any at all

familiar with the facts, but wide differences of opinion exist with

regard to the degree of this influence, and also to the meaning of

particular facts. Much of this confusion is due to the prevalence

of the notion to which attention was called at the outset, that all

adaptation must be regarded as completed at the present time.

This assumption of a statical condition in nature now, while ad-

mitting the necessity of a dynamical condition in the past, is

94 Incomplete Adaptation as illustrated [ February,

wholly gratuitous and belongs, as already remarked, to the same

class of ideas as that by which all changes were once explained

as the results of great and sudden catastrophes. It is due to the

kind of reasoning which denies change to everything which can

not be seen to move—a kind of reasoning which leads the savage

to deny that the great trees have ever been other than they are,’

while admitting growth in the herb and the sapling. In point of

fact we find nearly all possible degrees of adaptation to the agency

of insects. The mere existence of colored flowers must be re-

garded as an initial step in this direction, and the greater part

of all flowering plants exhibit in a more or less marked manner

this evidence of the influence which insects have exerted upon

them. But it is evident that an ordinary hermaphrodite flower,

however showy or fragrant, if devoid of special appliances for

preventing self- and securing cross-fertilization, represents a very .

rudimentary and imperfect state of correlation to the insect world.

This condition, which is now the predominant one, must therefore

be regarded as constituting the first step of a long progressive

series of morphological changes in the same direction, all tending

to complete the degree of adaptation to insect life. The various

specializations which a few species have already undergone mark

so many additional steps taken by such species toward the same

end and afford a faint idea of what the whole flora of the globe

might become in the remote future, if wholly uninfluenced by

man.

In the great majority of plants, self-fertilization is doubtless still

the rule, and cross-fertilization the exception, but this occasional |

crossing, even though very rare, suffices to maintain the vigor of

the stock, Such plants will appear to thrive as well when self-

fertilized as when cross-fertilized, and this would probably be the

case if the experiment were repeated a great number of times, for

it is not once or a score of times, or a hundred times even, that

count in these processes of nature, but vast periods and innumera-

ble repetitions, each with its minute differential to add to or

subtract from the general sum, When these facts are properly

understood, therefore, the partial or total failure of all human

experiments on cross-fertilization becomes nothing more than

naturalists ought to expect. The really surprising fact in such

1See an address by Maj. J. W. Powell, delivered before the American Geograph-

ical Society, at Chickering Hall, New York, Dec, 29th, 1876.

1881.] | by the Ftstory of Sex in Plants. 95

experiments is that some of them actually do show a clear differ-

ence in favor of cross-fertilization, It may be compared to the

attempt of astronomers to obtain the parallax of a fixed star.

The result is in the highest degree satisfactory if it is certain that

any positive angle is measured. And, as in the astronomical

parallax, the greatest exactness is required to measure the vast-

ness of space and its contents, so in the biological parallax

equally great precision is needed to measure the vastness of time

and its effects.

Independently of insect agency, however, the vegetable king-

dom furnishes many facts which prove the unstable state in

which the sexual relations are still found to exist.

In many cases it is difficult to determine whether the move-

ment is at the present time towards a greater or a less degree of

separation. In a former paper read before this Association’ I

endeavored to bring forward the evidence to prove that certain

species of Lauraceze, and notably the genera Sassafras and Lin-

dera, had already passed through three different stages, of which

traces are still left in the form of “rudiments” or obsolete organs.

In this case the movement has obviously been towards more

complete sexual separation. In the majority of other common

cases, such as Smilax, Ilex, Rumex, Rhus, Chamelirium, &c.,

where the rudiments of both stamens and pistils remain, though

one or the other set is functionless and the plants are really

dicecious, the direction of development seems also to be towards

sexual distinctness, and it may well be doubted whether the |

flowers of the oak, the alder, or the willow were ever hermaphro-

dite. Still, progress toward hermaphrodism may also be going

on in some species where insect fertilization is found a sufficient

substitute for the distinction of sex.

Upon the whole, however, it must be concluded that the special

effect of the appearance of insects in the Mesozoic or Secondary

age of geology was to render the evolution of new hermaphrodite

forms possible, which vastly enriched the world’s flora, since prior

to that time only diclinous species could survive, and that this

great army of plants, having been thus brought into existence in

this imperfect condition, have since been gradually throwing off

their encumbrance, and at different rates moving orvam toward

sexual independence.

* Published in the Scientific American Supplement of Sept. 20, 1879, p. 3089.

96 A Partial Biography of the Green Lizard. [¥February,

A PARTIAL BIOGRAPHY OF THE GREEN LIZARD.

BY SARAH P. MONKS.

HE green lizard (Anolis principalis) of the Southern United

States is sometimes called the American chameleon, but it is

not related to the chameleon of the Old World.

Its changeable coat, however, gives it a popular right to the

name. Two specimens of Anolis that I have kept for months in

a wire-cloth cage, have shown some interesting habits.

The female came from South Carolina in November, 1879, in

good condition, but with the greater part of the tail wanting.

She was placed in a small cage and supplied with flies, but refused

to eat. During the winter the cage stood among house plants, in

a room heated by a furnace, and although she was lively and ran

around a good deal, she ignored the flies. Thus she remained

without food and water (except an occasional drop that fell by

accident when the plants were watered) for four or five months.

But when the warm spring days came, she greedily devoured

the flies, and when water was sprinkled in the cage, she eagerly

lapped it up with her tongue. It is said that the Old World

chameleons drink in the same manner. She would not notice

water that was in a small jar in the cage, although very thirsty.

Sometimes when I approach the cage she lifts her head and

opens her mouth. I do not know whether she is conscious of

asking for water, but I soon recognized this as an indication of

thirst. In April anew tail began to show itself, looking like a

small black wart, and since then it has grown nearly an inch. At

first it was distinct and looked like a graft on the other portion,

but now, after several moultings, it is continuous, although it can

be easily distinguished from the rest; the scales are smaller, it

always remains darker than the rest of the body.

About the middle of May another and larger specimen, a male,

came from South Carolina, and I put them ina large box in which

were twigs and a stick of wood. After the larger one had dined,

their antics on seeifg one another were exceedingly amusing.

First, one would raise itself to the full extent of its front legs,

and bow its head and the fore part of its body in a regular and

dignified manner. It worked as though there was a hinge joint

at the shoulders, Then the other would repeat the gesture. The

male, when bowing, erected a small nuchal crest, and after sev-

eral bows, held its head still and stiff and distended a dew-lap.

1881.] A Fartial Biography of the Green Lizard, 97

This expansion, of which ordinarily there is no trace, is not

inflated, but is a flattened disc about an inch in diameter. It is

orange-red in reflected, and crimson in transmitted light. At this

time the lizard is a beautiful sight, the body being green above

and white below, and the vivid dew-lap edged with white.

I have seen them bowing several times, but they scamper off

on finding themselves watched; and even in the midst of their

ceremonious courtship, if a fly comes near they dart after it like

a flash of green light.

There is a difference in the change of color in the two speci-

mens, and the same cause does not affect them alike. The

female, in the day time, is generally dark-brown, or drab, speckled

with white, and has a lighter dorsal line. Sometimes, however,

she is grayish. When very dark, even the under side is brown,

but when lighter colored the under side is gray, or white, But

at night she becomes some shade of green, rarely a pale-green.

Once or twice during July I have seen her green in the day time.

On the other hand the male is generally pale-green. Their

colors are different shades of green, yellow and brown. When

changing, the coming color does not suffuse the entire body at

once, but first appears on the legs and sides of the head and the

body, the dorsal line and tail often remaining darker long after

the other parts are light-colored.

When they are green, yellow, or drab above, they are white »

below ; when dark-brown, a lighter shade of the same color below; _

and sometimes I have seen them a uniform dark brown. Occa- —

sionally, the light-green color remains on the eye-lids and a few

scattered scales of the body, after the other portions have become

brown. They do not always grade regularly from brown, through

yellow, to green, but sometimes change from dark-brown to pale-

green and white, without showing yellowish. The bronze (yel-

low) is the rarest color, and is very seldom assumed by the female.

They change from one color to another in from two to eight

minutes, and one changed from green to light-brown, then back

to green again, in five minutes.

I see no reason, as yet, for this changing of color, for it comes

regardless of the object on which they are placed, or amount of

light and darkness. They become green or light-brown when placed

in sun-light, but also assume the same colors in the darkest room.

When disturbed, they sometimes get darker, and at other times do

98 A Partial Biography of the Green Lizard. [February, .

not change. Nor do they always appear conscious of a disturb-

ance when a change of color occurs, since I have turned the cage

towards artificial light, and found the lizard sleeping and of a green

color. In less than two minutes it was dark-brown, and still ap-

* parently sleeping. Another time a light held near the cage did

not cause one to open its eyes, but in less than thirty seconds a

brownish tint had taken the place of the green.

My observations on color-changes have been contradictory and

unsatisfactory. The lizards enjoy the sun-light-and remain bask-

ing for hours motionless, except for their rolling eyes, which no-

tice everything. They go to sleep as soon as it becomes dark,

and are not easily disturbed. They also go to bed when a storm

brings darkness, and wake again when the sun appears, although

not exposed to its direct rays. They are sensitive to degrees of

light, but how direct sun-light and darkness can affect their skins

and produce the same color-change is a puzzle.

They have several ways of sleeping. Sometimes they lie close

up under a bit of loose bark (this is generally on cool nights, or

when left out of doors later than usual); at others, they curl ina

sigmoid shape in a corner behind a small jar; and at others

they stretch out straight and stiff along a limb or among the

twigs. And their sleeping habits are the most interesting of any

I have noticed. When they are in a crevice, or hole, they take

any shape that is convenient, but when on sticks and twigs, they ar-

_tange themselves so as to imitate the general form of the branches.

In the cage there are some irregular twigs and a small horizon-

tal stick. When on the horizontal piece the lizard stretches itself

out straight, with its forelegs pressed closely to the body, and the

hind legs and tail so straight along the branch that the bend of the

knee shows as a dimple. When sleeping among the twigs it is —

arranged, head downwards, on the largest, with its forelegs close

to the body, but the hind legs spread out at different angles.

Often one leg will be straight and the other bent, at other times

both have the same bend, but always resembling the branching 4

of twigs. They so closely imitate this when they are dark-brown, _

that often, at first, before I learned their tricks, I would search for

them all over their cage, fearing they had escaped. y a

The lizards are fond of flies, often snapping up eight or mine, —

one after the other, as quickly as they can swallow them. I saw

one once with two flies in its mouth preparing to catch another. :

1881.] A Partial Biography of the Green Lizard. 99

I never saw them protrude the tongue to catch them. Sometimes,

with slightly open mouth, one will creep cautiously towards a fly

and seize it with a quick snap, at others they will jump twice their

length and catch it. They feed at night if near a bright light.

I tried to feed mine with rose bugs (Macrodactylus subspinosus

Fab.), of which our supply this year has been much greater than

the demand, but they refused to have any thing to do with the

spiny creatures. After catching a fly they generally move it

around in their mouths, seeming to crush and moisten it before

swallowing.

In shedding their skins they differ from snakes and such sala-

manders as I have seen exuviate. The skin splits along the back,

and the upper sides of the legs, and comes off in large fragments.

It is loose on the legs and tail first; the lizard seizes a bit in his

mouth and pulls it. off his feet like an inverted glove; then he

eats it. Pieces that he scrapes off against the branches, he does

not trouble himself to collect as food. It seems a difficult matter

to remove the old skin from around the jaws and eyes; I have

seen them rub and scratch a good deal and still wear tatters of

their old garments around the head for several days after the rest

of the body was polished off. I saw one once kick many times

at an annoying piece on its head with its hind foot in much the

same way a cow will try to scratch her head. He would curve

. the body and give a vigorous scratch or two, then quickly turn

the other side and use the other foot.

When the tail has been broken off and renewed, it skins inde-

pendent of the rest of the body.

I do not know if there is a regular time for changing side: but

suppose it depends on the general health and the growth of the

animal. One of mine changed twice in seventeen days, and the

other only four times in five months.

I have found three eggs in the cage at different times, but they

soon shriveled up and amounted to nothing.

My specimens occasionally get in the corners and dig at the

wires trying to scratch their way out, but generally they seem

contented, enjoy basking in the sunshine, and watch me closely

with their quick brilliant eyes as though they knew I furnished

them with food. Fuly, r88o.

100 A New Leaf Cutting Ant. [February,

A NEW LEAF CUTTING ANT.

BY G. K. MORRIS.

SLAND Heights is the name given to a camp meeting ground

and summer resort on the New Jersey coast, near the ancient

village of Toms river, and situated on Barnegat bay. For many

years the greater portion of the island was neglected by man.

It is but two years since the woodman’s axe sounded the signal

of approaching change. It is now a pleasant summer town.

This summer, early in July, I took up my abode there for the

term of my vacation. My first observation was, that the place

was an Eden for ants. In an unimproved block two hundred feet

square, there are nearly forty species, representing several genera.

Of course most of them are well known; but nineteen of them

were strangers to me and such authorities as I was able to con-

sult. These have been sent to Dr. Forel for determination.

One of the number, the most curious and interesting of all, is

a leaf cutter, said to be new to science both by Dr. McCook and

Mrs. Treat. The worker is a fraction over an eighth of an inch in

length. “The male and female are nearly of a size, and but little

larger than the workers. In color, as seen in mass in alcohol,

they are light brown. The head is dark, and a dark band runs

down to the point of the abdomen, which on the under side is

lighter. The head is rugose, and the entire surface of the body

is rough and hard. On the thorax and the metathorax there are

short spines. The node is like a rough irregular bead with the

thick end next to the abdomen. The mandibles are toothed and

seem striated on the outer surface.

When first observed these ants were marching in line, each one

laden with a piece of the fine needle-like leaf of pine seedlings.

They did not carry their loads as other ants do, but on their

heads, resting between two ridges that extend from the base of

the antenne to the top of the head: Some of them carried

pieces longer than themselves, in which cases the needle lay along

the back, one end being held in the mandibles. Tracing them to

the seedling, which was nearly a rod from their formicary, meas-

ured by their path, I found them engaged in cutting. It took

but a moment for one of them to sever a leaf. Some pieces lay

on the ground as if the cutter had been delegated to that work,

but as I watched, each cutter carried down the piece he had cut

and bore it to the nest. |

1881.] A New Leaf Cutting Ant. IOI

In the line marching towards the nest, was one carrying a small

white stone, and others carrying the striated droppings found

under bushes on which worms are feeding. The only other leaf

carried by them, so far as I have observed, is the leaf of cow

wheat (Melampyrum americanum), a plant which abounds in the

woods. Of this plant they collect the flower as well as the leaf.

On the 17th of August I dug out a formicary of the leaf cutter

in the presence of Mrs. Treat, who, having heard of my observa-

tions, came on to see for herself. Our discoveries were startling.

Instead of small cells we found what, in comparison to the size of

the ants, may be called caverns. Unfortunately these were

crushed by the spade, so that their size and shape could not be

accurately determined.

In the cells were masses of spongy material of a leather color,

and full of irregularly formed cells or pockets in which were some

callow ants and many mature ones. Two of these large cavities

were found containing this strange material. It was evident that

the ants manufactured the leaf cuttings into a soft nest for their

young. There were a few males and females, and one ant without

wings much larger than any others in the formicary.

The spongy material broke down with handling, but showed its

vegetable origin under the glass. Indeed, a few of the particles

found in the first cell, near the surface of the ground, had not

entirely lost their green color. Our impression was, that the leaf

matter was partially masticated and then webbed together.

On September 8th I selected for examination a nest in a more

retired locality, and from which the trees had just been removed.

Immediately under the turf, not more than three inches below the

surface, ‘was the first cell. It was about the size of a large coffee

_ cup and not far from the shape of one. The sides were smooth, —

compact and firm, though made in the clean white sand. They

were lined with fine yellow sand which had been brought up from

a depth of about two and a-half feet. This seemed as if held

loosely together by a web-like substance and constituted a thick

soft curtain against the walls. On the floor lay a mass of the

porous, spongy substance found in the first nest. A few ants

were found here differing in size and color; one was nearly red,

another brown with dark band, and others grayish. The latter

were callow. :

Adjoining this was a small cell one and a-half inches in diame-

102 A New Leaf Cutting Ant. [ February,

ter, containing very little of the substance described above. In

the loose material on the floor of this cell were found living

forms of minute size, and unknown to me.

Five inches distant was a’still smaller cell, in which closely

stowed away, were ants, apparently prisoners. The approach to

their dungeon had been plugged for the whole distance with the

yellow sand, so that it could be traced like a yellow streak in

white candy.

Three inches below the level of the cells last described was

another three and a-half inches deep, two and a-half wide by

three and a-half long. In form it resembled a coffee cup flat-

tened slightly. I was fortunate enough to approach this one so

carefully as not to disturb its interior arrangement. Having made

a pit by the side of it, I carefully cut away the loose sand with a

large knife until one side was removed, and the wonderful archi-

tecture within was before my eyes. I ceased work in utter aston-

ishment. My excitement was intense, and my delight inde-

scribable.

The floor was covered with small smooth pebbles. The bulged

side of the cup was protected by a curtain of yellow sand fully

a-half inch thick in the middle and tapering to nothing at top and

bottom. The white sand in which all this wonderful work had

been done, was packed and smoothed and almost glazed until it

had become so firm that no jarring would shake a particle from its

place.

But what most filled me with wonder was the resemblance of

the interior to a bee hive. Suspended from a tough root at the

top of the cell, and nearly filling the entire space, was what

resembled a honey-comb in all save regularity of form. There

were several.masses of it hanging side by side as ina hive. In

place of regular cells, however, were irregular pockets, in which

the young are reared.

I cannot tell the reluctance with which I removed this comb,

nor my regret at the impossibility of preserving it just as it hung.

However, it is preserved, though not in. form as found, and is

before me as I write. It has been seen by Dr. McCook, who has

made a study of the leaf cutting ant of Texas. In his opinion

the ant I have described is an Atta. He came to the heights and

investigated a formicary, but was unfortunate in that the day was

stormy. He succeeded, however, in verifying my observations.

1881.] Comparative Neurology. 103

COMPARATIVE NEUROLOGY.

BY S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D.

[ Continued. |

T this stage the so-called afferent commissure alone is estab-

lished, but the same law of unification of segments in the

construction of an individual from its component colonial mem-

bers will also confer upon it an efferent commissural system.

While this is intended to represent the visceral nervous system

of Invertebrata, the same rule will apply in the union of vertebral

ganglia segments in higher forms, beginning in such Invertebrata

as possess more than one secondary system ganglia (some

Arthropoda).

Ganglionary fusions occur in parasitic insects and other forms,

but this is secondary and does not interfere with the general

application. By omitting the afferent part of the fibers that form

the commissures, the segmental union may be expressed thus,

and confusion avoided :

Pe ee

O—O0—O0—O0—O0

pe ee

These may be schematically expressed in diagrams which show

the higher ganglionic series to be commissurally connected with

the lower. Each higher segment presiding over a lower system

series and the commissures between forming apparently, direct

projection systems.

This scheme would explain why the splanchnics have no inhibi-

tory control over the intestines (Ludwig and Haffter), such control

really pertaining to higher projections (Ott).

Perfect 3d System.

Imperfect 3d System. Restiform Columns.

Spinal Segments,

Splanchnics, etc.

Vaso Motors.

Intestinal.

104 Comparative Neurology. [F ebruary,

Each spinal ganglion segment presiding over a similar series

would be thus represented:

While each and every ganglion preserves its primary projection

functions, the commissures interrelate the systems and are them-

selves projection fibers. _

The third system in this. diagram is incomplete in not being

commissurally connected, hence it is but.a ganglionic (interverte-

bral) swelling upon the secondary spinal afferent nerves, and

attains its complete functional character within the cranium only.

In Trigla adriatica the brain and dorsum of the cord are marked

by a double chain of well-developed tubercles on the secondary nerves

just as they enter the cord. These ganglionic enlargements are exact

reproductions of the cerebellar and cerebral enlargements, en chate-

laine. hese intervertebral ganglia constitute the third system, the

difference between the spinal ganglia and those above being that

the latter are commissurally united to one another, and in higher

Vertebrata fused longitudinally.

The vermis of the cerebellum is probably a mere commissure

compounded of different segmental heights, for the transverse

striations are pronounced in birds and some reptiles.

According to Owen, the cerebellum (vermis) retains its embry-

onic form of a simple commissural bridge or fold in the parasitic

suctorial Cyclostomes and sturgeon, and in the almost finless

Lepidosiren, while the cerebellum (still vermis, because centrally

placed) is highly developed in the sharks. In the saw fish it even

rests upon the “ cerebrum.”

The first well-marked posterior ganglionary mass which in

higher Vertebrata becomes a portion of the cerebellum, is the

vagus tubercle, placed posterior to and below the “cerebellum” -

of the fox shark. It might be safe to assume that subsequently

1881, ] Comparative Neurology. 105

this tubercle (third system ganglion) forms the flocculus or pneu-

mogastric lobule of the cerebellum.

The Gasserian ganglion (unmistakably an intervertebral), where

non-existent, must form a portion of the cerebellum.

The cerebellum then appears to be he med from fused hyper-

trophied intervertebral ganglia.

Stilling regarded the law of isolated conduction as inapplicable

to the cerebellar lobes, owing to the very great commissural

(fused) union which occurs there. Thus a coordinating function

between cranial nerves on the one hand (the cerebellum acting as

connected intervertebral ganglia for many cranial nerve fibers),

and the general spinal system on the other, must follow in such

Vertebrata as are governed mainly by cerebellar supervision,

while in higher forms it is brought directly into relation with the

cerebrum itself.

Above this the cephalic intervertebral ganglia developed in

some animals, atrophic or rudimentary in others, appears to be

the posterior and anterior tubercula bigemina, epiphisis cerebri,

eminentia mammnillaria, olfactory lobes, cerebrum, which latter is

itself composed of several lobes or ganglia, some of which, as

the anterior, are undeveloped in most Vertebrata and even in

many mammals.

The posterior bigeminal lobe appears to be a third system

ganglion related to special tactile sense (see Spitzka, N. Y. Medt-

cal Record, March 13, 1880), while the optic lobes (anterior

bigeminal) are third systems for the optic nerves. The primitive

optic fibers were related to the gray matter above the chiasma,

and even in man retain some primary thalamic connections.

The epiphisis cerebri (pineal gland), bilobed in the foetus and

_ devoid of sabulous matter in forms below man, attains quite a_

large size in some animals (Méleagris gallapavo, p: 260 “ Huxley’s

Vertebrates ”). It may with the mammillary eminence indicate a

sense between sight and olfaction.

The mammillary eminences can be third systems, their posi-

tions and cinereal envelope weighing nothing against the -

for the Teliost cerebrum itself drops to a comparably d

Structure and inferior position.

These eminences are very large in monotremes, marsupials and

the horse. They stand related to the fornix, which in turn is

connected to the olfactory =

VOL, KXY.~—NO. 11,

106 Comparative Neurology. [ February,

The olfactory lobe (another third system ganglion) appears to

have been derived from a place lying in front of the mammillary

eminences, according to Luys’ sections, but Meynert is doubtless

more correct in attaching the olfactory primitively to the optic

thalamus.

The olfactory lobes, of more importance in some vertebrates

than the cerebrum, in man became strangled, so to speak, by the

preponderance of higher third systems.

(“ The olfactory lobe bore such important relations to the life

history of early vertebrates that we are not surprised to find the

cerebral hemispheres developing at first as mere appendages of the

olfactory lobes.”—Spitzka, ‘ Architecture and Mechanism of the

Brain,” p. 37.)

The lobes of the cerebrum are related to the corpus striatum,

which seems to bea part of the medullary gray second system,

though formed after the hypophysis cerebri had become atrophic

as the end of the spinal cord.

The hypophysis ended in the sella turcica and the corpus stri-

atum (caudate nucleus), and subsequently lenticular nucleus

developed in the scale of intelligence (Meynert).

In Teliost fishes the optic lobe (third system) occupies the

place of the cerebrum of mammals in point of mass development,

and the inference is natural that this optic lobe contains the

highest centers related to the psychic life of this division of ver-

tebrates. The cerebrum proper being an undeveloped tubercle in

front of the mammillary eminence with the infundibulum between

them (Todd, p. 619, Vol. 111).

In Amphioxus we have the culmination of the secondary —

ganglionic type with the foreshadowing, seemingly, of the tertiary,

in the black pigmentary formation in the dorsal portion of the

notochord. This vertebrate, so far from being anomalous, ex-

plains by its rudimentary organization what appears later in the

Cyclostomi or above. Its second pair of nerves runs from the

dorsal segmental nerves to the head-end ganglion, thence to the

ventral segmental nerves, typifying the medulla oblongata control

over lower centers, without the intervention of a cerebellar or any

other third system.

The optic ganglion (secondary) of the crab ( Carcinus muenas)

topographically precedes the antennal, from which may be inferred

that the posterior bigeminal (tertiary) is related, as ear claims,

to the special tactile (fifth pair) sense.

1881 .| Comparative Neurology. 107

The slight development of the superior ganglia in Brachiopoda

is correlated with higher sensory organs, and Gegenbaur, p. 310,

notices that the nerves for the arms are probably given off from

the ventral ganglia, a condition which I suspect is more common

than usually thought to be the case, due to the want of differen-

tiation between alimentary and locomotor parts, so far at least as

central innervation is concerned. “In the Mollusca the visceral

ganglia are not only of importance, as forming a part of the gen-

eral nervous system, but they may also fuse with the cerebral

ganglia, owing to the gradual shortening of their commissures.

New and primitively peripherally placed parts are thereby added

on to the central organs, and it becomes a matter of doubt whether

or no these ganglia, which formerly belonged to the visceral ner-

vous system should still be regarded as belonging to it.” —Gegen-

baur, p. 344.

The development of the nervous system appears to have pro-

ceeded as follows

PRIMARY.

Intestinal—Circulatory and visceral, cardiac.

SECONDARY.

Respiratory—Special tactile locomotory, auditory, optic, or

optic and next auditory.

Antennal special tactile from which auditory in some ; (olfactory

not certain in Invertebrata, possibly in Cephalopoda. Jn Verte-

brata originate highest secondary and tertiary).

The progression of faculties intermingle and a branch sense

appears often to develop indifferently from one or other trunk, as

while respiratory may give rise to the tactile for locomotion, and

audition follows upon this, the antennal for gustatory purposes

May originate the auditory, while locomotor tagtile may be

developed separately.

NERVOUS ORGANIZATION OF INVERTEBRATA.

1. Protozoa—Not perceptibly differentiated.

2. Celenterates—Rudimentary primary.

3. Vermes. Secondary appears and becomes highly

4. Echinodermata. developed. Often fused with primary.

Secondary well developed. In Insecta

5. Arthropoda. the primary quantitatively developed.

Tertiary pronounced in bee,

108 Comparative Neurology. (February,

6. Brachiopoda —Degraded secondary.

Resemble Vermes.

7, Mollusca. Secondary feeble in Lamellibranchiata.

Secondary well formed in Gastropoda.

Secondary well defined (extending by

commissures dorsally (?) Copelata).

8. Tunicata. First appearance of extended secondary

in Invertebrata.

L Anterior ganglia vesicularly developed.

Gegenbaur (p. 501) justifies this view of the central nervous

system of Vertebrata being homologous with the superior central

ganglia of Invertebrata “in an exceedingly high state of develop-

ment.”

The dorsal position of the central nervous system can be well

made out in Tunicata. It proceeds from ectodermal differen-

tiation.

An anterior larger mass divides into three consecutive (sec-

- ondary) lobes, produced by unequal thickening of the walls of the

central tube.

The anterior mass is in connection with the origin of the visual

organs in Ascidiz, Salpze and Copelata.

A median dorsal nerve cord appears in ascidian larvae, which

prolongation Gegenbaur, p. 396, regards as noteworthy as being

the only dorsal prolongation in Invertebrata, and thus a medullary

secondary central system appears stretching the length of the

animal.

Notwithstanding the feeble development of the cerebral ganglia

in Mollusca, the homology of these ganglia with the cerebral

ganglia of Vermes and of Arthropoda has been clearly made out.

There exist in Arthropoda and Mollusca cerebral (secondary)

ganglia connected with nerves of special sense and visceral (pri-

mary) ganglia innervating, in Mollusca, the heart, branchial appa-

ratus and generative organs, comparable to the “ stomato gastric

nervous system” of Arthropoda. — )

The ventral chain of ganglia, so obvious in Crustacea and In-

secta, partakes of primary -or secondary characteristics, or both,

depending upon the position of the metamera and the degree of

development they have undergone. With concrescence of the

anterior metamera into a more or less extended cephalothorax,

the anterior ganglionic masses are fused, as in Stomapoda, where

1881.] Comparative Neurology. 109

a portion of this ventral chain innervates the anterior buccal and

and prehensile feet, while the six smaller ganglia of the abdomen

still correspond to the segments and have more apparent primary

than secondary significance. In Arachnida, where nerves are

given off to the enteron from both the cerebral and ventral

ganglia, an appearance is presented of the vertebrate pneumo-

gastric projection.

Recent embryological observations, as set forth by Balfour

(“ Comparative Embryology,” Vol. 1, 1880) from monographs of

Kowalevsky, Kleinenberg, Fol, Lankester and others, distinctly

show that where the nervous system has been made out at all, as

a rule it proceeds from epiblastic thickening and differentiation.

The First System arises from intestinal innervation, the ganglion

of which affords, in Invertebrata, locomotor nervous control. The

respiratory, digestive, and excretory functions, as in larva of.

dragon fly and fish Cobitis, being performed, not only by the

same sets of nerves, but the same organs (vide Darwin’s “ Origin

of Species,” p. 170). We have seen locomotion to proceed as an’

accidental accompaniment of respiration (Branchipus), and the

sub-cesophageal ganglion innervating the second pair of antennz

in Nauplius.

The vaso-motor division of the first system is added when the

mesoblast appears and the vascular is differentiated. The con-

centration of the fibers and ganglia of this system in certain areas,

as the solar plexus, renders any attempt at systematic classifica-

tion of strands, etc., futile, but by studying the arrangement of

the sympathetic system backward from the pre-vertebral ganglia,

the warrant for the scheme I have adopted is more apparent. The

pre-vertebral are united by longitudinal commissures, precisely |

as in the ventral chain of ganglia in Arthropoda; often as in the

cervical region these ganglia coalesce to form larger nerve cen-

ters, precisely as in cephalo-thoracic formation from metamera, or

as in the leech; one ganglion may in the adult represent three of

the embryonic mimestal ganglia.

No matter how exalted the function or position pertaining toa

ganglion iz any system, it does not lose its identity as a simple

center from which afferent and efferent fibers proceed. The pra-

vertebral chain presides directly as centers over the immediate

vascular area with which it lies in contact, with its more or less

obscure peripheral projections, while the commissural system

110 Comparative Neurology. [ February,

binding it to the visceral plexuses lengthen and broaden out into

such great fasciculi as the splanchnic and cardiac nerves.

Second System Ganglia—By quantitative caudal development

of the cerebral ganglia homologies of Invertebrata, as supra-

cesophageal, optic, auditory, pedal, or tactile, commissurally con-

nected by afferent fibers posteriorly (columns of Goll and Burdach),

and by efferent fibers anteriorly (columns of Tirck and anterior

fundamental tract), a view is obtained of the primitive spinal cord

segments ununited. Spitzka records that the planes of junction

of the original segments may be still made out by the poorness

in cellular elements of such areas under microscopic examination,

while the centers of the spinal ganglia are determinable by their

richness in these elements. Longitudinal fusion and consequent

shortening of this chain forms the central tubular gray of the

spinal cord.

The “ medullary white” of Flechsig first appears in the columns

of Burdach, in the foetus of 25 cm. Spitzka says it also appears

in the processus cerebello ad cerebrum. This is reasonable, for

the processus cerebello ad cerebrum is a continuation of the col-

umns of Goll and Burdach, as will appear later in this CESCHpiee

The second system ganglia consist of:

All the coalesced segments which form the spinal cord.

The medulla oblongata gray.

The gray masses in the pons Varolii.

The optic thalami and soft commissure.

The tuber cinereum.

The (doubtful) olfactory ganglion of Luys.

The caudate and lenticular nuclei of the corpora striata.

The hypophisis cerebri being the atrophied end of the cord,

needs no numerical consideration.

Third System Ganglha.—Turning again to the Amphioxus, we

find that the second system ganglia, or spinal cord, give off affer-

ent and efferent nerves dorsally and ventrally, without interverte-

bral ganglia, cerebellum, or anything resembling a cerebrum, The

“second pair” of nerves of the head end, instead of passing ven-

trally and dorsally, as do those of the lower segments, run back-

ward or caudally; those which run from the tail to the head

APY Vo

along the dorsum, are afferent, while those projected backward

along the ventral portion of the body, are efferent.

These sets of nerves resemble strikingly in many particulars,

Pa SE RPE TP Me oieeeap sare Oe ne oe ee a

1881. ] Comparative Neurology. III

the pneumogastric nerves and the lateral columns of the spinal

cord of higher Vertebrata. Confer ganglionic swellings upon all

_ these afferent spinal nerves of the Amphioxus, proportioning their

sizes to the nerve bundle sizes, and an appearance is presented

like that which obtains in Zrigla adriatica, a series of dorsal

(intervertebral) ganglia from tail to head forming intervertebral

ganglia, cerebellum, optic lobe (so-called cerebrum), and the

higher series differ from the lower only in point of mass.

The crura cerebri and tegmental fibers thus become efferent

and afferent nerves from the higher homologues of the central

tubular gray; the corpora striata and optic thalamus, and these

fibers with part of the restiform column project at different levels

trom and to the spinal gray as peripheries along the antero and

postero-lateral columns of the cord. But this does not comprise

all of the projection series from these parts for the cerebro-spinal

nerves have their primary projections as well.

Morphology of the Third System Lobes—The position of the

cerebellum and its recognizable phylogenetic changes may be

easily traced through the Vertebrata generally, but the lobes

Superior to it undergo a variety of distortions and changes of posi-

tion, for the solution of which we must resort to schematic views.

Given, a series of tubercles which shall from behind forward

represent the lobes of the brain, as follows:

Posterior pair of tubercula quadrigemina.

Anterior pair of tubercula quadrigemina.

. Epiphisis cerebri.

Mammillary eminence.

Olfactory lobe.

Cerebrum.

onl

Oy f woh

The gray secondary of each being united by commissures, the

afferent and efferent. The first of these commissures it will be

most convenient to follow through the developmental gyrations

as apparently connecting the under surface of each lobe, but in

reality connecting the secondary segments pertaining to each, as

optic thalamus, tuber cinereum, olfactory ganglion and corpus

striatum.

112 Comparative Neurology. [February,

I is connected to 2 and 3 by the upper end of the brachium

conjunctivum, 3 to 4 by prolonged habenule, 4 to 5 by fornix, 5

to 6 by hippocampal fibers, tractus Lancisi and gyrus fornicatus

(the latter principally). In the case of a fish with optic lobe (2)

developed covering the other tubercles, the course of the com-

missures and relative mass appearance would be thus :

Bird, as pigeon, with cerebrum developed covering I to 5, the

optic lobe being pressed to one side.

The following appears to be the arrangement of the brain of

the fox shark, with lobes equally developed. I think the main

mass must be the optic thalamus with the quadrigeminal bodies

fused on its surface (this latter feature ‘not represented here).

#98

This form appears in the mammal with equally large eee

lobe and cerebrum.

Evolution of the afferent longitudinal commissures, fissure of Syt-

vius and temporal lobe-—This condition is presented by an uncon-

voluted brain such as the beaver’s, which is but faintly fissured,

1881.] Zhe Bee's Tongue, and Glands connected with it. 113

An illustration of the gradual appearance of the Sylvian fissure

with the hippocampal formation, is attempted below :

The last cut represents the Sylvian fissure formed as in man,

with the accompanying fascicular distortions :

The growth of the frontal lobe in proportion to the intelligence

of the primate individual, augments this creation of temporal.

Many of the longitudinal sulci of the quadrumana fold over and

under with this advancement of the occipital into temporal, and

the parieto-occipital fissure on the median face of the cerebral

hemisphere is doubtless created directly by this bend, and the

calcarine may also owe its origin to this change. A variety of

causes combine, however, in fissure formation, aside from those

mentioned.

——10:

THE BEE’S TONGUE, AND GLANDS CONNECTED

WITH

BY JUSTIN SPAULDING.

TS present paper is the outcome of an interest in the subject

awakened by an article, by Mr. J. D. Hyatt, on the sting of

the honey bee, in the American Quarterly Microscopical Fournal

for October, 1878, followed by one on the structure of the tongue

by the same, July, 1879. Both bear i impress of careful and pains-

taking interpretation of facts, and a genius in manipulation that

is truly marvelous, Mr. Chamber's article, prior to Mr. Hyatt’s

114 The Bee's Tongue, and Glands connected with it, |February,

and which he criticises, I have not seen, and am indebted to Mr.

Hyatt for what knowledge I possess of it. His article on the bee’s

sting, reading so like a fairy tale, incited me to attempt to demon-

strate for myself if it was indeed the marvelous little structure

‘described, and I can add my testimony (which he certainly does

not need) to the literal accuracy of description, drawing and, as I

believe, of his interpretation of the bee’s manner of working it.

That the bee can sting, every boy of ordinary enterprise can tes-

tify from personal experience, but Mr. Hyatt has spread before us

the whole villainous apparatus, and initiates us into every motion,

so that if one could be philosophical (under the circumstances a

hard thing to do, even deacons are said to forget themselves and

indulge in a mild form of profanity) the various stages of agony

could be explained in learned terms, up to and including the final

jab of the two blades, that leaves the victim to retire, swell up,

and figure out his net gain from the operation. But to pass to

the other end of the bee, which directly concerns us in this

article.

My own observation, so far as the ligula is concerned, agrees

with Prof. Cook’s (see Natura.ist; April, 1880), and I think he

has given the true solution when he says it consists of a sheath

slit below, within which is the grooved rod, and projecting from the

edges of the latter to the edges of the sheath, is a thin membrane,

forming, as will be easily understood, when the rod is extended

or thrown down, an enclosed sack, open only at the top. For the

benefit of those who may still doubt as to this structure, I have

drawn, under the camera, a very fine cross section of the ligula,

kindly loaned me for the purpose by my friend, Mr. David Fol-

som. He has succeeded in cutting it from a specimen with the

rod thrown out of the sheath (see Fig. 5).

In going over the work of Mr. Hyatt, while examining a

mounted specimen of mouth parts, my friend, Mr. F. B. Doten,

pointed out, in the mentum, a small spiral tube that gave me a

clue, which followed up, has resulted, as I believe, in a slight

addition to our knowledge of the parts. I am unable to find any

mention of the glandular structure, a description of which follows.

The drawing, No. 1, showing the head, is somewhat diagramatic ;

structures that might confuse being neglected. The specimen

here represented was taken while fresh, pressed flat, dried under

pressure, bleached in turpentine and mounted in damar.

It shows the structure as represented, from the tip of the ligula

1881.] The Bee’s Tongue, and Glands connected with it, — 115

pia SETEREBUUSESOUSL

Toll

Ltr

> a:

ee:

He. Lp ina c. a, point where as tube enlarges; z, mentum; 57,

sub-mentum; /, mandibles; 4, opening into mouth; ‘ entrance of ducts from head ; ie

a,j finciion of ducts from thorax ; g, glands in thorax. foc ee

116 The Bee's Tongue, and Glands connected with it, [ February,

to the opening in the mouth at 4. Beyond that I had to resort to

dissection, not extremely difficult with a sharp scalpel, a steady

hand and patience. It is best performed on alcoholic specimens,

and the magnified drawing, under camera, of the gland from the

thorax (see Fig. 3), it will be understood is somewhat shrunken

on that account.

Running the scalpel from the base of one mandible back across

close to the neck and forward to the other mandible, turn forward

and pin, remove the brain and salivary glands; cut the cesophagus

as far forward as possible, turn it back, and if all has been done

carefully, one sees coming from the thorax the spiral ducts of two

glands, which will be found, on following back, lying one on each

Fic, 2,—Fragment of glands of head much magnified.

side of the cesophagus, in the space between the muscles of the

wings. I have given one of these, Fig. 3, magnified thirty-five

diameters, as drawn under the camera. It could be but little

more than outlined, as it was a dense mass of coiled and twisted

glands, the true structure of which is shown (Fig. 4) still more

magnified.

At the base, the duct enlarges, as is seen, into quite a reservoir.

The ducts unite within the neck, or- just as they enter the head,

and following the floor of the latter, are joined by a pair coming

in right and left (Fig. 1, c). Following up one of these side.

glands, we find it dividing into three main branches, ultimately

terminating in glands, the structure of which is shown in Fig. 2

much enlarged. It will be seen that the glands from the thorax

bear a striking resemblance to the Malpighian tubules of insects, 4

ia a aE pe Peele a

Se te aa ae tl ee ee Reis? Pie, Seay we Sala se Se =

1881.| The Bee's Tongue, and Glands connected with tt. 117

while those from the head are larger, different in shape, and

composed of much smaller cells. Keeping to the floor of the

head, the main duct passes on to the sub-mentum. Here on

joining the spiral tube coming from the ligula, it passes by an

opening common to both into the mouth at 4, Fig. 1. Below

the opening the spiral tube dips into the mentum, and is imbed-

ded in its muscles.

Fic. 3.—One of the glands of the thorax, magnified thirty diameters.

At a (Fig. 1) it seems to terminate, judging from a side view,

but a series of cross sections shows it to gradually widen from @

(Fig. 1) to near the’ base of the ligula, where it terminates in a

chamber that leads above into the sack, and below by a valvular —

opening into the groove in the rod. This trumpet-shaped part

from (a) to the chamber at the base of the ligula, is collapsed, the

upper half of the tube being pressed down into the lower half.

118 The Bee's Tongue, and Glands connected with it. (February, a

Thus we have a passage from the tip of the ligula through

the groove in the rod, and the spiral tube in the mentum to

py, the opening in front of the pharynx,

VA above the labium and between the man-

1 dibles. This opening is transverse, and

seems to have lips, and from its appear-

ance we should expect it to close like a

valve, if suction was applied below.

Meeting this tube from the ligula, and

discharging its contents through the

same opening into the mouth, is the spi-

thorax.

The questions are at once thrust upon

us, whence comes this structure? and of

what use is it to the bee? If I was wise

the article would end here, but our incli-

Fic. 4.—Fragment of glands to speculation, is always strong in the

of thorax much magnified. absence of facts to curb it. It seems but

natural from the size, position and outlet of the glands, connected

as they are with an inlet for the nectar of flowers, to conclude

that they are organs that furnish the animal secretion that changes

nectar into honey, and I would venture the suggestion that

they may be the spinning

glands of the larve modi-

fied. If this is true, 1

should expect to find

them either in an active

or aborted condition in

“nearly all Hymenoptera.

Another question raised,

is, in what way is nectar

Bundred and seventy diamet

ral duct from the glands of the head and ~

nation to explain everything by resorting

carried from the flower to —

J & the mouth? This must —

.—Cross section of _— magnified one be, from the nature of the :

case, largely a matter of —

speculation. Prof. Cook, in his article, says: “The tongue iS —

also retracted and extended rythmically while the bee is sip-

ping.” May not this motion be due to a pumping action of the —

1881. | Fitstory of the Buffalo. 119

grooved rod of the ligula, that enlarges and diminishes the size

of the sack lying behind it? It would seem that the bee has

perfect control of this rod, that it is remarkably elastic, and

capable of much extension and contraction. The rod and sack

thus acting as a suction and force pump, as will be easily under-

stood by one familiar with the parts.

Of course I cannot say that the bee makes this use of it, but

I do say it should, and if it does not, it is pure stupidity on its

part. And if some one demonstrates that I am all wrong now,

evolution, at no distant day, will set me right, for there will be

born a bee, less conservative, that will dare defy old usages, and

take a new departure ; that bee, trust me, will make use of this cun-

ningly-devised apparatus, and produce honey cheaper than any

competitor, excepting the glucose man, and I hope and trust may

worry even him.

:0:

HISTORY OF THE BUFFALO.

BY CAPT. WM. E. DOYLE.

fies early adventurers to the new world gave quaint and often-

times exaggerated descriptions of the novelties they encoun-

tered, and the “ monarch of the plains” met with a due share of

notice at their hands, as will be seen from the subjoined extracts

from their narratives.

The first account we have of the buffalo is given by the explorer

Guzman, who saw herds of them in Cinaloa, New Spain (Mexico),

in 1532.

In 1539 Father Marco de Nica, in his expedition in search of

the famed kingdom of Cibola, says that in the kingdom of

Ahacus (now in New Mexico) “‘ they showed me a hide halfe as

big againe as the hide of a great oxe, and told me that it was the

skin of a beast which has but one horne upon his forehead, and

that this horne bendeth towards his breast, and that out of the

same goeth a point right forward, wherein he hath so great

strength, that it will break anything how strong soever it may be,

if he runhe against it, and that there are great store of these

beasts in that countery. The colour of the hide is of the colour

of a great goat skinne, and the haire is a finger thick.”

While De Sota was remaining at the town of Chiaha (now

Rome, Ga.) in 1540, he detached Villabos and Silvera—two fear-

120 Fiistory of the Buffalo. [ February,

less soldiers—to explore the mountains to the north for gold.

They returned July oth, having found no gold, but mines of a

highly colored copper used by the natives, who also gave them

a hide which they supposed once covered a tremendous animal

partaking of the qualities of the ox and the sheep, and much

used by the natives, “ which because the countrie was cold were

very profitable, and served for coverlets because they were very

soft and wooled like sheep. Not farre from thence towards the

north were many oxen.” Subsequently when at Pacaha—west of

the Mississippi—De Sota sent thirty horsemen northward to

explore the country. At a poor town at which they stopped,

they were informed that the country above was very cold and

there were such store of oxen that they could keep no maize for

them, but that the Indians lived upon their flesh.

Alvar Nunez Cabeza, the treasurer of the ill-fated Narvaez

expedition, wandering from Florida to Mexico with his three

companions—1528 to 1532—-saw immense herds of buffalo, and

from his account of them in his Neufragios received the appendix

to his name “ de vaca” (of the cattle). In speaking of the section

west of the Mississippi, he says: ‘In that country there were

grey and black cows, with long hair, no bigger than those of

Barbary, and their flesh coarser than Spanish beef.”

In 1540, Coronado, in his celebrated expedition, first heard of

buffalo at Cibola (Zuni), and says that the people: “travel eight

days’ journey, into certain plains lying towards the North sea. In

this country are certain skins well dressed, and they dress them

and paint them where they kill their oxen, for so they say them-

selves.” He also saw an Indian there from another province who ~

had a buffalo painted on his breast, and his chronicler, Castaneda,

speaking of the hides, says they are “ covered with a frizzled hair

resembling wool.” After the expedition left Cicuic (Pecos) he

says: “ All that way and the plains are as full of crooked backed

oxen as the Mountain Serena in Spain is of sheep, but there is no

people but such as keep those cattle.”

Gomara gives the following description of the buffalo as seen

by Coronado and his army: “Those oxen are of the bigness =

and color of our bulls, but their horns are not as great. They —

have a great bunch upon their fore shoulders, and more hair upon 4

their fore part than on their hinder part, and it is like wool. They

have great tufts of hair hanging down their foreheads, and it —

1881. ] LTistory of the Buffalo. 123

seemeth they have beards,. because of the great store of hair

hanging down at their chins and throats. The males have very

long tails, and a great knob or flock at the end, so that in some

respects they resemble the lion and in some others the camel.

They push with their horns, they run, they overtake and kill a

horse when they are in their rage and anger. Finally it isa

fierce beast of countenance and form of body. The horses fled

from them, either because of their deformed shape or else because

they had never seen them before. Their masters have no other

riches or substance; of them they eat, they drink, they apparel,

they shoe themselves; and of their hides they make many things,

as houses, shoes, apparel and ropes; of their bones they make

bodkins ; of their siaews and hair, thread; of their horns, maws

and bladders, vessels ; of their dung, fire; and of their calf skins,

budgets wherein they draw and keep water. To be short they

make so many things of them as they have need of, or as may

suffice them in the use of this life.”

In 1585 Espejo, returning from his exploration of Northern

New Spain, says that he traveled down a river “called Rio

de las Vacas (that is to say the River of Oxen, now the Pecos, in

Texas) in respect of the great multitude of oxen or kine that fed

upon the banks thereof, by the which they travelled for the space

of 120 leagues—still meeting with store of the said cattell.”

Sir Humphrey Gilbert, whose voyages commenced in 1583,

says there are in Newfoundland, “ buttolfes, or a beast, it seemeth

by the tract and foot very large in maner of an oxe,” and ina

work published by Hakluyt in London (158g), it is stated that in

the island of Newfoundland were foynd “ mightie beastes like to

camels in greatnesse and their feete were cloven. I did see them

farre off, notable to discerne them perfectly, but their steps shewed

that their feete were cloven and bigger than the feete of camels.

I suppose them to be a kind of Buffes, which I read to bee in the

countreys adjacent, and very many in the forine land.”

Anether author, Purehas, sin that as early as 1613 the adven-

turers in Virginia discovered a “slow kinde of cattel as bigge as

kine, which were good meate.”’

A work published at Amsterdam in 1637, by Thomas Morton,

called “ New English Canaan,” contains the following: ‘ The

Indians have also made description of great heards of well grown

beasts, that live ates the parts of this lake (Erocoise) such as

VOL. XV.—NO. II. 9

122 Liistory of the Buffalo. [ February,

the christian world (until this discovery) hath not bin made

acquainted with. These beasts are of the bigness of a cowe,

their flesh being very good foode, their hide good leather ; their

fleeces very useful, being a kind of woole, as fine almost as the

woole of the beaver, and the salvages do make garments thereof.

It is tenne yeares since first the relation of these things came to

_the eares of the English.”

Joliet and Marquette, descending the Mississippi in 1673, saw

immense herds of buffalo, and the latter thus discourses of them:

“We call them wild cattle, because they are like our domestic

cattle, they are not longer, but almost as big again, and more

corpulent; our men having killed one, three of us had consider-

erable trouble in moving it. The head is very large, the forehead

flat and a foot and a-half broad between the horns, which are

exactly like our cattle, except that they are black and much

larger. Under the neck there is a kind of large crop hanging

‘down, and on the back a pretty high hump. The whole head, the —

neck, and part of the shoulders, are covered with a great mane like ~

a horses; it is at least a foot boiig which renders them hideous, ©

and illine over their eyes prevents their seeing before them. The

rest of the body is covered with a coarse curly hair like the wool

of our sheep, but much stronger and thicker. It falls in summer, —

and the skin is then as soft as velvet. At this time the Indians —

employ the skins to make beautiful robes, which they paint of —

. various colors.” 4

The first engraving of the buffalo appeared in the first edition

of Father Hennepin’s travels. ;

Jontel in 1685 saw buffale at Bay St. Bernards, and the same e

year La Salle’s party found them on a river in Texas which they

named La Vaca, from that circumstance Charlevoix in one part of

his works calls them “Illinois cattle.” In 1756 some of those —

who settled in the Abbeville district of South Carolina found

buffalo there, and in 1774 Bernard Roman speaks of them as a_

“benefit of nature conferred on Florida.” In 1769 Daniel Boone

at the west foot of the Alleghany mountains. Boone remark

to his companion: “ Job of Uz had not larger droves of cattl

than we.” Father Venezas does not include the buffalo among

the animals of California, neither Harmon nor Mackenzie speale

1881. ] fiistory of the Buffalo. 123

of them as being in New Caledonia, and Du Pratz says they did

not exist in Lower Louisiana.

In the last century the trade in buffalo wool became brisk, and |

numerous factories were established for its manufacture into cloth.

The buffalo roamed in small herds all over the country before

the advent of the white man, but only on the plains were those

immense herds, so often described, ever seen. The prairie was its

favorite resort. The railroads and settlements have, however,

broken these herds into small bodies, and the unrestrained slaugh- .

ter of buffalo in the past few years has so reduced their numbers

that their extinction is a question of a very short time.

Buffalo make good tractable work cattle when caught young,

and the Bos Brules frequently use them as such.

White buffalo have frequently been seen and killed. All the

Indian tribes regard them as “ big medicine” but they have dif-

ferent superstitions regarding them. For instance, Catlin, the

painter, while among the Mandans in 1832, saw a white buffalo

robe erected on a pole in their village as a sacrifice to the great

spirit. It had been purchased from the Blackfeet, who killed the

buffalo, for eight horses and a quantity of goods. On the other

hand the Comanches believe it very dangerous to see a white buf-

falo. In 1869 I saw a young Comanche, who had seen a white

buffalo, return to his camp almost dead with fear. He was taken

into his tent, the medicine men were sent for, and they smoked

him and kept up incantations over him day and night for a week,

When he came out he believed that he had a very narrow escape

from death. In 1869 a white buffalo was killed by a white man —

on the north fork of the Red river, I. T., and the hide presented

to Gen. Grierson. He desired to have it dressed to preserve it,

but failed to get any Indian to undertake the task for a long time.

At last he prevailed on a Comanche chief named “ Horseback ”

to have the operation performed. “Horseback” selected one

of his squaws, had the .“ medicine men” of his band go through

various ceremonies over her to preserve her life, and then

placed her in a teepee some distance from his camp, where

the hide was taken to her by a soldier and brought away by him ~

when dressed. No other Indian would look at the hide, much

less touch it. Her food was left for her at some distance from

her teepee, and when the robe was dressed, “ medicine” cere-

monies were held over her before she was allowed to rejoin the

124 Editors Table. [ February,

camp, I twitted ‘“‘ Horseback” about the fear of the robe, calling

his attention to the fact that no harm befell any of the white men

who handled the robe, but he answered that such might be the

case, but what was ‘bad medicine” for a Comanche might be

“good medicine” for a white man, and vice versa. He proposed

to take no risks in the matter.

A white buffalo (stuffed) was on exhibition at the Centennial

Exposition, the property of R. M. Wright, of Kansas, and it is a

pity that it was not secured by the Smithsonian or some other

institution for preservation.

:0:

EDITORS’ TABLE,

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

The tariff laws of the United States are in some respects

a direct tax on intellectual progress, and although it is not un-

likely that this result is entirely due to oversight on the part of

the framers of those laws, the consequences are none the less in- ©

jurious. Some of our contemporaries doubtless remember the

difficulties experienced by Alvan Clark & Sons, of Cambridge, in

procuring unwrought optical glass, for use in building the tele-

scopes for which their house is so highly esteemed. The high

tariff on these rough discs operated as a prohibition to the man-

ufacture of the optical instruments to which they are necessary.

This result was probably not anticipated by our legislators. After

prolonged negotiations, special dispensations from the Treasury

Department have permitted the discs to pass free if for schools,

colleges or academies, otherwise a duty of 10 p. c. is exacted.

The law with regard to “specimens of Natural History,”

that is, those relating to botany, zodlogy, paleontology, geology

and mineralogy, imposes a heavy duty on them when they are

intended for sale, or are not designed for exhibition in a pablit

institution, As the greater number of specimens of this kind are

obtained by persons who depend on their sale for reimbursement,

it is evident that students in this country must pay the tax, or go

without them. The actual result is, that students and institutions

being mostly poor, do not purchase, and sellers must pocket the

loss. So well known has this: become, that such objects nearly

all now go to Europe, to the impoverishment of science here, and

r881.] Editors Table. 125

the great enlargement of the facilities for study abroad. In spite

of considerable self-praise, the poverty of most of our museums

is marked, and in proportion to our population and resources, |

their number is probably smaller than in any other civilized

nation.

Precisely why congressmen should wish to tax bottled frogs and

snakes we cannot clearly understand. It is true that these animals

have a market value as food for man, but our government does

not tax foreign meat or bread-stuffs. Nor has any one of our

legislators announced his intention of fencing ina tract to be used

as pasture for boas and anacondas, for it is generally believed that

the breeding of these animals, though profitable, is not practica-

ble in this country, owing to the antipathy to them of certain

American citizens of foreign birth. Nor is there any fear of a dan-

gerous foreign competition with their natural production here ; for

although we were once informed by a Virginian mountaineer,

that both “ the Bowling constrictor, and the Africanstrictor” were

found in his neighborhood, we afterwards learned that he had

been led into errof by confiding too implicitly in the representa-

tions of a traveling showman.

We may, however, be wrong in all this, for we have lately been

taught by our rulers that a live hippopotamoid is merchandise.

A specimen of the small hippopotamus-like Chewropsis liberiensis,

having been imported from West Africa by Mr. Forepaugh for

the instruction of American citizens, it became necessary to

restrain this pandering to a corrupt taste, by imposing the duty

ad valorem. It was hoped by the officers of the United States,

that the beast had been obtained on the east coast of Africa, so

that they might be enabled to levy 30 p., c. duty. But Mr. Fore-

and our cutlery in Australia and Sheffield, our fossils are assum-

ing a front rank in the markets of the old world, once the sole

producers. And from still another stand-point, if some unwise

legislator does not remove the duty all too soon, we shall undoubt-

edly have a greater home production of fossils in all that relates

to knowledge of the laws of nature than any nation on the globe,

126 Editors Table. [F ebruary,

not excepting the Indian and the negro. And we shall ultimately

have the proud satisfaction of engraving on the tomb of science

in this country, “ De mortuis nil nist bonum.”

The Governor of Pennsylvania refers to the Geological

Survey of the State, in his late message to the Legislature, in the

following language :

“The Second Geological Survey of the State is progressing as

fast as the appropriations wiil permit. This is a work which, i

not well done, should not be done at all. It must possess the

utmost scientific accuracy. Its treatment of soils and minerals,

their location and distribution, must be the result of painstaking

work, done on the ground. Its surveys and alignments must

show the actual facts, and be made from actual measurements.

This is precisely the way in which this great and important work

is being done. It is in the hands of a board who understand fully

the value of the duty in hand, under the superintendence, as State

Geologist, of J. Peter Lesley, Esq., whose attainments and qualifi-

cations are unquestioned. So far forty-four reports of this work

have been published, and sixteen reports are in preparation.

These reports have justly attracted the highest attention every-

where. Forty-two counties have been surveyed in full, eighteen

in part, and seven not at all. These seven are Columbia, Luzerne,

Lackawanna, Pike, Schuylkill, Berks, and Carbon. They embrace

the anthracite coal region of the State, and have been reserved,

that the work upon them may be made continuous and exhaus-

tive. Ina scientific and commercial point of view the surveys to

be done in them will possess the highest value. It will be expe-

dient to make the appropriations to continue this work in accord-

ance with the views of the board controlling the Second Geological

urvey.”

The recommendations of the Governor as thus expressed, are

doubtless seconded by every friend of intellectual and material

progress in the Commonwealth. The Geological Survey of Penn-

sylvania has added, and will add important contributions to the

knowledge of the laws of nature as exhibited in all the aspects of

creation. Such are the chemical conditions of the primitive

world; the forces which have distorted its crust; and the expe-

riences and progress of ever present life, vegetable and animal,

under these laws. It is of great importance to the educational in-

terests of the country that the State governments should place

before their people statements of the history of the regions which

they represent. Such histories express in their highest aspect,

the laws of life; and to the importance of a knowledge of these,

no one can be insensible. The economic side of a geological sur-

vey is, however, more generally appreciated, for it is evident that

an inventory of her possessions is most desirable for a State to

possess. It is especially so to a State like Pennsylvania, where 50

large a part of the population is directly or indirectly dependent

on the contents of the rock strata for their livelihood.

1881.] | Recent Literature, 127

RECENT LITERATURE.

REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF FISH AND FISHERIES FOR

1878.\—This bulky volume is a valuable contribution to applied

zoology, a subject in which the United States is, happily, nearly

if not quite on a par with France or Germany, if not excelling

those countries. The times are now ripe for the people of this

country to receive from scientific men the fruits of the application

of the scientific knowledge which has been stored up in museums

and libraries ; and fortunately this process, as seen by the work

of the U. S. Fish Commission, in the end aids in the true develop-

ment of science. From “ skin and bone” zodlogy, preserved fish,

trays of labeled fish-bones and “species work,” to the study

of the habits of fishes, their distribution in geographical exten-

sion and in vertical range, their relations to one another,

and to the world of invertebrate animals on which they rely for

subsistence, their embryology, their relations to the physics of

the sea—these are questions of abstruse and philosophic import,

as well as of purely practical, economic moment. Thus in fish-

breeding as in star-gazing or gas-making, the solution of the

deepest problems of science go hand in hand with the commonest,

most trivial operations and needs of our everyday life. And

human life has now become so composite and differentiated, our

population is growing so dense, and the means of living for the

masses so much more precarious, that what is now wasted must

eventually be converted into wealth, and the practical application

of science must be brought to bear in the solution of these eco-

nomic problems. bene

The report before us is a due commingling of purely scientific

research with practical essays on fish-breeding and fisheries. The

discovery of new food-fishes; the best and speediest means of

propagating and restocking our coast and inland waters, the

mechanical contrivances, nets and apparatus for hatching,'and

similar subjects, with voluminous extracts from, and translations

of, European articles, are presented in this as in former volumes.

With such practical matter is combined some excellent work in»

pure zodlogy, viz.: a report on the marine Isopoda of New

England and adjacent waters, by Oscar Harger, with thirteen

well executed plates; and a report on the Pycnogonida of New

England and adjacent waters, by Edmund B. Wilson, with seven

plates. These papers will be noticed elsewhere in this journal.

Professor Baird concludes his report with the suggestion that

as a possible result of the application of steam to fish-hatching

apparatus, we may be able to so multiply the number of our cod,

mackerel, herring and halibut, “as to obviate the necessity in the

1 United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part v1. Report of the Com-

missioner for 1878. A. Inquiry into the Decrease of Food-fishes. B. The Propa-

nee ig Food-fishes in the waters of the United States. Washington, 1880. 8vo,

Ppp- is ;

128 Recent Literature. [ February,

future of asking a: participation in the inshore fisheries of the

British provinces, and thus enable us to dispense with fishery

treaties or fishery relations of any kind with the British or other

governments.”

Horn’s Synopsis OF THE BuRYING BEETLES OF THE UNITED

Strates.\—Although this essay is modestly called a “ Synopsis,”

it is much more than that, as the characters of the family and its

sub-divisions, of every species and genfus, are given with suffi-

cient fullness, and moreover the common species which were

described years ago are re-described. This is an excellent feature,

because in synopses of different groups of insects it is usually the |

case that the species already described are mentioned only by

name, and to the beginner it is difficult to learn what are really

the common species briefly and imperfectly described in the often

inaccessible works of Linnaeus, Fabricius, Olivier, Dejean and

others. Another excellent feature of the essay is that the author

has himself given excellent figures in outline of all known genera

with few exceptions), nearly all of which have been drawn by

himself from nature.

Dr Horn has made some changes in the limits of the group,

and all the foreign genera have been included in the study an

mentioned in the generic tables, though not described. The

family is an interesting one, as it includes the true burying

beetles, and also a good proportion of the cave beetle of Europe

and America. It is interesting to trace,as Dr. Horn has done,

the relationship of our Ade/ops:of the Mammoth Cave to the

out-of-door forms, and to see, a point not however noticed by

the author, that Adelops simply differs from its out-of-door al-

lies of the genus Ptomaphagus in the small eyes, and longer,

slenderer antenne, and other slight characters, so as to lead our

author to say that Adelops “is closely allied to Ptomaphagus

and I am in doubt whether it should be retained as distinct.’

We should reason from this that Ade/ops hirtus was originally de- . 4

rived from some out-of-door species of Ptomaphagus which h

got into the cave and been modified by its cave-life into its pres- 4

ent form. The main results of a cave life are the impairment OF —

actual loss of the eyes, and to compensate for this the elongation

of the antennez, which probably renders the sense of touch, and

possibly of smell, moreacute. This also adds another to the cases 2

which almost demonstrate that all the cave animals have origi-

nated from out-of-door forms.

In conclusion we may express the hope that the recent labors

of Drs. LeConte and Horn, may enable them ere many years to

prepare a compact manual of our United States Coleoptera, a con- —

summation most devoutly to be wished. With fair compendiums

1 Synopsis of the Silphidz of the United States with reference to the genera of 3 |

other countries. By Geo. H. Horn,M.D. From the transactions of the American

Entomological Society. Philadelphia, 1880. 8°, pp. 219-320. 3 plates.

1881.] Recent Literature. 129

of our native bees, wasps, flies, beetles, butterflies and moths, bugs

and grasshoppers and Neuroptera, an immense impetus would

be given to the study of entomology As it is, we fear that the

twentieth century will be far advanced before these desirable

works will be published.

RosInson’s FLora oF Essex county, MAssAcHusEtts.\—Essex

county enjoys the distinction of being at an early date one of the

botanical centers of the United States, as it was the home of Dr.

Manasseh Cutler, Dr. George Osgood, Dr. Andrew Nichols, Dr.

Charles Pickering and, more particularly, of William Oakes, to

whose memory the genus Qakesza has recently been dedicated by

Mr. Sereno Watson. The names also of Rev. John L. Russell

and Mr. Geo. D. Phippen, Mr. S. B. Buttick,and of others, should

be mentioned ; while Mr. C. M. Tracy, in his Flora of Lynn,

was the first to publish a list of Essex county plants. These and

other facts are related by our author in the historical introduc-

tion to his Flora. It appears that originally almost the only ex-

tended collection of dried Essex county plants were those of the

late Mr. Oakes, but the list before us is based upon the herbarium

recently collected by Mr. Robinson, and nearly all of which is re-

presented in that of the Peabody Academy of Science, at Salem.

‘he notes under the specific names are quite full and interesting

as regards the flowering plants; the enumeration of mosses and

thallophytes, in which the author was assisted by other botanists,

is less complete. We would like to have seen a more detailed

biblioyrapy, z. é., the titles given in full, with complete references

to articles by the earlier botanists, of which the titles and dates

are not always given; only the name, without the date, of the

magazines or transactions containing them. But this is a minor

blemish. The undertaking has been well carried out, the volume

is a handsome one, and it will be a vade mecum to the herbalist of

eastern New England.

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE FRANKLIN INSTITUTE ON

_ ANALYSES OF INKs.—A committee of the Franklin Institute was

appointed by a vote of that body at its November meeting, for

the purpose of examining into the truth of certain statements

made and the value of certain tests proposed for the detection of

ironininks. The object of the appointment was stated to be that

during the interval of time which should elapse between now and

the legal remedy of the expert abuse in court, an extra judicial

court might criticise all statements professing to be scientific and

the fear of reversal before their peers might be an additional se-

curity for the value of expert statements.

he committee resolves ‘that inasmuch as the methods for the

“detection of iron in inks and for the identification of inks are

“described in numerous and well-known works on. chemistry ;

“and inasmuch as the chemical expert testimony in the Whittaker

‘The Flora of Essex county, Massachusetts, JoHN Rosinson, Salem. Essex

Institute, 1880. 8° pp. 200,

130 Recent Literature, [ February,

“will case contains nothing new of scientific interest, your com-

“mittee beg to be relieved of further consideration of the subject,

“ Resolved, That we call the attention of the Franklin Institute to

“the numerous objections to which expert investigations are

“open, when undertaken as at present by parties securing the ser-

“vices and interested in the decision of the court, and we earn-

“estly recommend that the Franklin Institute takes such action

“that the change from the present plan may become a subject of

“legal enactment.” The signers of this remarkable production

are Dr. W. H. Greene, Dr. Geo. A. Koenig, Dr. Wm: H. Wahl,

Mr. Moody, Mr. Pemberton, Sr., and Dr. Isaac Norris.

The humorous points of this report cannot be better appreciated

than by comparing it with the statements of some of those experts

whose testimony the committee was to examine. Compare the

first “inasmuch” with this by the ex-President of the Franklin

Institute, Prof. R. E. Rogers: “I don’t recall in any of our

Dr. Rogers.—“<It has been entirely

as the chemical expert testimony in the | overlooked by the writers of the text

Whittaker Will case contains nothing | books that these reagents’ (7. ¢., , potas-

new of scientific interest—.” si i

| 420).

| — There may be writing which contains

, ironthat * * tested for iron by the method

which has been adopted will fail to show

the presence of iron” : a

—The “fire test’’ devised by Dr. Rogers 1

for determining iron in inks and pro-

| nounced the “most rigorous” (p. 6438-9):

| +. Fohnson.— Professor, is the fire

test stated in the books?” “No, sir.”

“Then it is a result from your own origi-

nal experimenting ?”” “Yes, sir’ (p. 6470).

—Mr. Fohnson.—* But they do see that

there is a blue, the result of the mixture?”

Dr. Rogers.—* Of what ?”

Mr. Fohnson.—* Of the sulphuric acid

and ferrocyanide of potassium.”’

Dr. Rogers.--“ No, they do not. I

don’t think such a thing has been ob-

served generally.”’

Mr, F—« When you put them in one

bottle, how can you avoid it ?”

r. Rogers.—“ They are not put in one

bottle.” Se

Mr. F—* Suppose they are.” :

Dr. R—*T have never known them —

to be put in one bottle, except instances

in which I have done it” (p. 6497).

eee Bae oe ees cea

ey ee ee :

ip Ane ate Ng Sam Me aed ear sao

1881. ] Recent Literature. 131

It will sufficiently appear from the above that either the dis-

tinguished representatives of chemistry in the University of Penn-

sylvania and the Jefferson College are mistaken or else great

chemical discoveries have been the result of the Whittaker will

trial. The advice of the committee does not seem to be apropos

to anything; as its reason for not undertaking the duty assigned to-

it, viz.: that the duty would not be profitable, seems to be gratui-

tous. The whole pe state is a very good illustration of “ how not

to do it.”—Fersifor Frazer

OUTLINES OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE. 1_In what has appeared of

the second volume of his “outline of linguistic science,’ the

celebrated aathiad linguist has given to the world a series of

short, but lucid sketches of the languages of Eastern Siberia, not be-

longing to the Ural-Altaic family; of Ale-ut, Eskimo and also of

the whole Malay-Polynesian family scattered over the whole

Pacific ocean. The languages of Western and Southern Africa

was disposed of in the first volume, and in one of the next num-

bers the author will reach the American languages.

Morina’s Dictionary oF THE AzTEC LancuaGeE.’*—This work

is a most praiseworthy republication of the second edition of

Molina (1571), the only copious dictionary which exists on the

Aztec ies To students, who were almost discouraged by

the high price of the original, this republication is now offered at

a moderate figure (50 marks in Leipzig, unbound) and will enable

them to study the sonorous Aztec tongue from the best authority

in existence. The volume contains over 50,000 terms.

ECENT BooKs AND nginlas di —Sur l’uniformité d ie

dans tous les pays ce qui regarde les Terrains les Eta (

rong Rendu _Sistogaphigne du Congrés Prades de Gaseaian: 1878.)

r M, Stéphanesco. 8vo, 1880. From the author

Sous Copper Deposits a Carroll rp aad By Persifor Frazer. 8vo,

pp. 8. Maps 1, 1880. From the

Extraits de Géologique pour les Bes 1877 et ue? sf Ext. des Ann. des Mines,

ras Par MM. Delesse et de Lapparent. 8vo, pp. 242. Paris, 1880. From the

authors.

The Food of Fishes. Sag es No. 3, Ill. = Lab. Nat. Hist., November,

ee By S. A. Forbes. oO, pp. From the author

Annual Report of the thins of te Interior on ee operations of a department

for ‘hes year ending June 30, 1880. 8vo, pp. 81. From the departme

Drug Adulterations. By S. V. Clevenger. (From ae Druggist = December,

pion. pp- 7. From the author.

Cerebral Anatomy a. by Comparative Anatomy Studies by S. V. Clevenger,

(From sie Chic: Pa Med. Journ. and Examiner for November, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 9-

From the author.

Erster Naclines zum Katalog der herpetologischen a des Basler Museums.

Von F. Miller. 8vo, pp. 49, pl. 1. 1880. From the author

1 Dr. Friedr. ane Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft. Vol. U, No. I*, 2a.

Wien. 1880. a A. Flélder, publisher.

? Vocabulari a lengua Mexicana, compuesto por el P. Fr. Alonso de Molina

licado ve ee os Julio Platzmann. Edicion facso’milaria. Leipzig, B. G

‘eubner. 4°. Parte 1. Castell,-Mexic. 121 double pages. Parte 11. Mexic.-

eo ae. double pages, of two columns each.

132 General Notes. [ February, —

Expedition Geoldégica porla Provincia de Toledo en 1877, por D. de Cortazar.

Madrid. 8vo, pp. 7. Maps1. From the author.

Memioria acerca de la Exposicion Universal de Filadelfia en 1876, por D. de

Cortazar, Madrid. 8vo, pp. 420, 1 map. From the author,

United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report for 1878. 8vo, pp.

988, plates 36. Washington, 1880. From the commissioner.

Observations Générales sur la Famille des Scincoidiens por M. Bocourt. (Ext. de

la Zool. de Mex., 3e partie.) Folio. pp. 7, pls. 2. From the author.

A structural Feature, hitherto unknown among Echinodermata, found in Deep

Sea Ophiuraus. By Theodore Lyman. (From Anniv. Mem. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.)

4to, pp. 12, pls. 2. Boston, 1880. From the author.

Beitrige zur Paldontologie von Osterreich-Ungarn und den Angrenzenden Gebie-

ten. Herausgegeben von E. v. Mojsisovics und M. Neumayr. 4to, pp. 71, pls. 8.

From the editors.

Illustrations of Nests and Eggs of Birds of the United States, with text. By

Thomas G. Gentry. 4to, pls. 3 and 4. Philadelphia, 1880~’81. From the author. —

* cry"

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

Tue FUNGI WHICH PRODUCE MILDEW on Corron Goops.—lIna

recent English work upon “ Sizing and Mildew in Cotton Goods,”

by G. E. Davis, Charles Dreyfus and Philip Holland, the follow-

ing fungi are enumerated as found growing on cotton goods and

in analogous situations, viz: Stachybotrys lobulata, Stachybotrys

atra, Penicillium sitophilum, Myxotrichum deflexum, Polyactis fas-

cicularis, Sporocybe alternata, Rhopalomyces pallidus, Papulaspora

sepedonioides, Acremonium alternatum, Ascophora mucedo, Penicil-—

lium chartarum, Penicillium crustaceum, Aspergillus glaucus, As-

pergillus roseus, Periconia glaucocephala, Cladosporium herbarum,

Chetomium chartarum, Ascotricha chartarum, Orbicula cyclospora,

Ailographum maculare, Diplodia cowdellii, Spheropsis sp., Asco-

bolus saccharinus, Typhula gyrans, Arcyria ochroleuca, Perisporium

vulgare. Of these the authors say, “the above have all been

found on decaying vegetable fibers, the most common being

Cladosporium herbarum, Penicillium crustaceum, and Sporocybe,

with two species of Aspergillus. The fungus giving a reddish

hue to stale rice paste is known as Papulaspora sepedonioides,

whilst Diplodia cowdellii is the cause of black spots on damp cot-

We have noticed others in our experiments, notably Macro-

sportum cheivanthi, Rhinotrichum lanosum, Myxotrichum char-

tarum, Mucor phycomyces and Mucor mucedo, but we hesitate in

placing these species as being nominally found in cotton goods.”

Further on the authors say, “ The colored stain which first

attracts the eye when examining a specimen of mildewed cloth, is

due possibly to the mycelium, or it may arise from the fructifica-

tion of a fungus; or, again, organic colors produced by the de-

composition of a nitrogenous substance, or carbo-hydrate in the

matrix may be the cause of it. When nitrogenous substances

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessry, Ames, Lowa.

1881. ] Botany. 133

are present in a pabulum, though in small quantity only, the mil-

dew usually commences to be visible to the naked eye as minute

yellow spots. These, as we have just said, may be caused by the

growth of the mycelium, which in providing nourishment for

itselfand for the subsequent fructification of the fungus, brings

about a decomposition of the nitrogenous materials, and gives

rise to crenic and other organic acids. Ata more advanced stage,

humic and ulmic acids are produced, the fiber of the cloth becom-

ing at the same time perceptibly more tender. It has been said

that mildew may exist on the sizing only of a fabric. Weare in-

clined to doubt this, for in our experience the mycelial threads

have never been confined to the surface size alone, but could

always be traced ramifying amongst the cotton filaments. If the

size alone of a cloth were smitten with mildew, the cloth itself

would not be tendered, unless the acids we have mentioned were

a sufficient cause, which is not so. We believe it impossible for

mildew to be present in such amount as to be clearly visible to

the eye without a penetration of the mycelium to the textile sub-

stratum, and should expect a suitable magnification and illumina-

tion of the object to reveal the fact.”

s to the colors of mildews, according to the authors, yellow

patches on cloth are mostly due to the presence of crenic acid,

although very rarely they proceed directly from the fungus,

Penicillium sitophilum ; green mildew is nearly always due to the

fructification of Penicillium crustaceum ; and dark-green or green-

ish-gray mildew is owing to the fructification of a Penicillium or

Aspergillus, or to the mycelium of a species of the Dematiei.

Brown mildew may be due to the presence of apocrenic acid, or

of one or more of many fungi. Red patches appear to be due to

fungi; those mentioned by the authors being a species of Epicoc-

cum, Aspergillus roseus, and Papulaspora sepedontoides.

ALLEN’s CHARACE® AMERICAN® Exsiccat#.—We have had

the pleasure of examining Part 1 of this important distribution of

curious and little known plants. It includes three species of

Nitella, and seven species and varieties of Chara. The specimens

are of generous size, and are in excellent condition for study.

The more interesting species are (Vitella intermedia, a new one,

described by Nordstedt; JV. megacarpa, a new species now first

described as such by Allen; Chara sejuncta A, Br., C. gymnopus

A. Br, var. Mishauxii A. Br., a gigantic species, and C. hydropitys

A. Br., var. sepientrionalis. The variety last named is described by

Nordstedt, and is the same plant which Dr. Halsted described as _

a new species under the name of C. Roddinsii in the Proceedings

of the Boston Society of Natural History, xx; 1879. Vétella

megacarpa Allen, is the same as J. ztricata Ag., in Halsted’s

paper; it is of very large size, and compared with the diminutive

NV. tenuissima is a giant indeed. 2.

The publication of sets of specimens like these cannot fail to

134 General Notes. [ February,

stimulate a search for these interesting plants by American bot-

anists, and it is to be hoped that during the coming season all

collectors who can do so will render what service they can by

gathering abundant specimens and forwarding them to Dr. Allen,

at 10 East 36th street, New York. There are few localities in

which half a dozen or more species cannot be found. We are in-

formed that the author has already material for forty or fifty spe-

cies or clearly marked varieties, and is confident that the number

will eventually reach seventy- five—C. E. B.

Tue PEpperIpDGE Tree IN Maine.—Our attention has been

called by Professor G. H. Stone of ‘Kent’s Hill, Maine, to the

fact that the pepperidge or tupelo (Nyssa multiflora) is a native

of Maine, although neither Gray nor Wood so state in their

manuals, It is given as one of the trees of the State in the

“Portland Catalogue of Maine Plants, 1867,” and according to

Dr. Goodale, was found at Winthrop and Waterville, by the late

Dr. Holmes. Professor Stone sends specimens from Kent’s Hill,

Kennebec county. The importance of this note lies in the fact

that Vasey, in his “ Catalogue of the Forest Trees of the United

States,” gives its range as “from Massachusetts to Illinois, and

Southward,” while Sargent, in his preliminary “ Catalogue of the

Forest Trees of North America,” gives it as from “ West Milton,

Vermont, South to Florida; West to Michigan, Missouri and

Arkansas.”—C. E. B.

HISTOLOGY OF THE PuMPKIN StEM.—Professor J. C. Arthur has

been studying the stem of the pumpkin, and in an article in the

oe Gazette sums up the tissues as follows :

“ ieeHs System ; Fibro-vascular System :

pide

Stomata

Hairs : Sieve-tubes

Fundamental System : Phloem parenchyma.

Interfascicular parenchyma. Xylem

Hypodemia. Vessels.

Cortical wood. Annular.

Cortical parenchyma, iral.

Collenchyma. Reticulated.

Scalariform.

Pitted.

Wood parenchyma.

Professor Arthur directs attention to the value of the pumpkin-

stem for use in the instruction of classes in the Botanical Labora-

tory, furnishing, as it does, so many examples of the tissues of

the higher plants. We can also testify to its value, having used

it for many years for the purpose recommended. We always

secure every autumn several feet of stems, which we cut up and

preserve in jars of alcohol, for future use in the laboratory.

FERTILIZATION OF AQUILEGIA.—The species of Aquilegia to:

which I referred, and on“which Mr. Trelease comments, have

nectaries of 40 millimetres long; while 21 is the longest bees- |

1881.] Botany. 135

tongue as he believes. But the species I noted have curved nec-

taries, which it would probably try the patience of a busy bee to

course, even if the tongue were long enough. Moreover if my

observations are worth any thing, Aquilegias hereabouts are

cross-fertilized by pollen-hunting insects. It may be that honey

bearers cross-fertilize them sometimes, for one man cannot see

everything ; but I have never seen a case. If this be the fact, as

I believe it to be, the arrangement of the nectarium in the case is

superfluous.— Zhomas Mechan.

THe Epriror of this department has in preparation for the

NATURALIST a sketch of the Progress of Botany in the United

States in the year 1880, and solicits copies of papers and other

publications made during the year, together with such other

information as will make the account as full and accurate as

possible.

BoranicaL Nores.—A good many years ago DeBary suggested

the animal nature of the slime moulds (Myxomycetes), and was

very severely criticised for doing so, the naturalists of that da

feeling bound to maintain the old dogma of the absolute distinct-

ness of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Now, however, any

one at all familiar with the Monera and the slime moulds cannot

fail to see the remarkable similarity between the organisms which,

on the one hand, are called animals, and on the other, plants.

This has led W. Saville Kent, in his recently published work on

“Infusoria,” to take strong ground in favor of regarding them

as animals. M. C. Cooke, in Grevillea for December, rather im-

patiently takes the learned author to task for his boldness. After

all, what is the use of quarreling over a matter like this? The

position of the slime moulds in the great kingdom of life, is the

same whether we draw our imaginary bisecting line on this or

that side of them. The temper of the discussion of the fore-

going question is much like that which (on one side at least),

characterizes the articles on the several theories as to the nature

of Lichens. A good illustration of this occurs in the same num-

ber of Grevillea, in a. letter from Dr. Minks, the propounder of

the new doctrine of the intra-hyphal origin of the gonidia of

lichens. Dr. Minks attempts to set right Mr. Phillips’ somewhat

defective translation of the former’s paper on Microgonidia in

Revue Mycologique, and, it must be confessed, scarcely betters the

matter. At some future time a summary of Dr. Minks’ doctrine

will be given in these pages. Charles B. Plowright, in Grevillea,

describes the method of spore diffusion in a species of morel

(Morchella gigas). Specimens gathered and laid upon boards in

a room, were observed in the slanting rays of the setting sun to

be surrounded by a cloud three or four inches deep on all sides.

This proved to be due to the myriads of ascospores which were

elastically escaping from the asci. In the December Your-

nal of Botany, there appears an interesting account of George

130 General Notes. { February,

Murray’s experiments undertaken to determine the method of the

diffusion of the conidia of the potato disease (Peronospora infes-

tans). Microscopic slides coated with glycerine were exposed on

the lee side of an infested potato field, and carefully examined at

intervals of from ten to twelve hours, z. ¢., at gq A. M. and 7 P.M

No conidia were caught during the night, but upon the twenty-

eight square inches of surface exposed during the day, there were

caught in the first day 15 conidia; in the second, 17; in the third,

27; in the fourth, 4; in the fifth,9. Considering the small amount

of surface exposed by the slides, and the fact that only about two

per cent. of the potato plants in the field were diseased, the num-

ber of conidia caught is very large-—— Henry M. Douglas, of

South Richland, N. Y., has undertaken to translate the successive

numbers of the Botanische Zeitung, as they appear. ueen &

Co., of Philadelphia, have prepared a series of twenty-four slides

of microscopical specimens illustrating many points in the histol-

ogy of the higher plants. They are neatly mounted and will be

useful to many teachers and students. The American Monthlp

Microscopical Fournat has, during the past year, contained many

valuable botanical articles; among these may be mentioned sev-

eral Notes on Fresh-water Algz, Double-staining of Vegetable

Tissues, The Salmon Disease and its Cause, besides many upon

Diatoms. The microscope is now indispensable to the botanist,

and it is encouraging to find that microscopical journals are begin-

ning to make themselves useful to him also. Science has now a

botanical department. W. P. Schimper’s herbarium (of mosses)

has been purchased by the Kew Herbarium. In Nos, 46—50.

of Botanische Zeitung, Goebel publishes an interesting paper on the

Morphology and Physiology of Leaves, accompanied by a plate

with many figures. In No. 50 of the same journal Strasbur-

ger’s paper on cells with several nuclei, and some points in the

embryogeny of Lupinus, promises to be of considerable value.

nounced, Of the first volume (Fungi), the first part is now ready.

ZOOLOGY.

DESCRIPTION OF A HERMAPHRODITIC PHYLLOPOD CRUSTACEAN

(EuBRANCHIPUS).—The single specimen of Eubranchipus vernalis

here described was found in January, 1880, in a small, isolated

pool, near Maspeth, L. I, living in company with a great number

of a pale, transparent race of Audranchipus vernalis Verrill. The

hermaphrodite belonged to form A, as already pointed out in 4

paper read before the American Association for the Advancement -

of Science, in August, 1880. |

Owing to my often taking it out for closer inspection, it died

after having been kept in the aquariam for three days.

Genital Organs——The female side consisted exteriorly of two.

. new and thoroughly revised edition of Rabenhorst’s -

- Cryptogamic Flora of Germany, Austria and Switzerland is an- —

1881.] Zoology. 137

closed protuberances, a larger, less pointed one, opposite the cir-

rus, corresponding with the valvule, and a smaller one a little

above the middle of the sac where the muscle mis inserted. The

internal female organs were but poorly represented, consisting

of a somewhat triangular “ oviduct,” with its two elongate ter-

mini closed and suspended by three principal muscles. The latter

: = ae t*

F] j-~-. Ob

Fic. 1.—Hermaphroditic form of Zbranchipus vernalis V. The first three pest-

siulieviont lsegments, A, heart; 24, ostium of heart; 2, intestine; a oe ffs on

dilated part of test.; 23, contr. part or vas. def.; “, "ad dilat. part or sem. ves. ; a,

duct ejac, ; g, pandalbe and access. app.; ¢, cirrus; III, 3d pestabd nel IV, ” qth

post-abd. segt.; ov, ovarial twisted string; od, oviduct, ovum-egg; c.g. cement-

glands ; m! m? m3, muscles of the oviduct.

anastomosed with the generally intricate mass of muscles. (The

latter is omitted in Fig. 1.) Muscle m!, of Fig. 1, was inserted

near the larger, outer protuberance broadly spreading over the

anterior terminus of the oviduct, the muscle (7°) below the

posterior terminus of the oviduct, and sa (m*) was inserted

in the second smaller, outer protuberan

This outer pr otuberance was cobewntly ‘contracting and expand-

ing itself, the area of the motion was exteriorly confined to this

small protuberance only. The rhythmic contraction of the three

Principal fascicles revolved the “ oviduct” : about one-fifth of

its shorter diameter, in a semi-lateral directio

There was no dissepiment between the sore and female sac,

and the interior uterine second sac was entirely absent in the

female half. :

The ovarial string passed up from the post-abdomen behind the

VOL. XV.—No, II, x0

138 General Notes. [February,

detached “ oviduct” and thence up to near the last left branchiped.

The portion of the ovarial string passing through the genital seg-

ments was slightly moved backward and forwards, apparently by

some hyaline fibers of the intricate mass of muscles connectec

with the “ oviduct.”

A single elongate white ovum (ovum) could be observed in the

ovarial string in the fourth pest-abdominal segment, near the third,

during the entire time of observation.

The cement-glands were’ irregularly distributed in clusters

around the posterior and middle part of the oviduct, the larger of

them being between the latter and the male organs. The glands

were all of a dark-brown color, which did not change during the

time of observation, and were slowly moved to and fro by the

network of muscles. The exterior of the female side was com-

paratively not as largely expanded as usual in normal individuals.

The internal male organs were of their normal course, shape

and position; the exterior of the same pre-

sented, owing tothe pointed lateral protuberance,

the peculiar figure indicated by drawing Fig. 2,

dorsal view. The male side was voluminously

swollen out anteriorly.

The female clasper (Fig. 3 @) was normal

and of the form of those of the red Eubran-

Bias ee De sented the form of those of the normal red form,

“if Genital ale Cextecton) d was in its entire length very finely corru-

of hermaphroditic Eu. gated; the tips of both, the longer and shorter

branchipus. 7, right branch of the clasper were less corrugated than

sea R Te ioe: pest: in the normal individuals. The tentacles on

smem right side only and normal. Cirrus’ normal,

neither dentate nor perforate,

Note.—I suspect the lateral protuberance on either side of the

genital segment to be the exterior rudiments of a second evagina-

tion, corresponding with cirrus oF

Sonnet e valvule, the antimeres or duplicates

£ of each exterior member, the female

sac being in this case but a closed

large protuberance.

This imperfect hermaphrodite may

be compared with a male and female

individual of Eubranchipus grown to-

gether side by side, the limbs, etc., 19

general consolidated, the male and

female outer claspers, cirrus and val-

___ vule, being preserved (the latter.also

Fic. 3.—Head of hermaphroditic partly degenerated) along the median

Eubranchipus. ; u ;

: connate line, leaving the antimeres

_ of the latter two external organs rudimentary in the shape of 4

protuberance or little knob on the lateral line.

chipus; the male clasper (Fig. 3 4) also pre-

1881.] Zoology. 139

The order in which the organs of reproduction and their auxil-

iaries make their appearance in Branchiopodide, is as follows: 1.

Genital glands ; 2. External genitals (Spangenberg’s paper, p. 42),

and 3. Auxiliary organs (claspers)—C. /. Gissler, Ph.D.

HABITS OF THE ENGLISH SPARROWS IN THE UNITED STATES.—

The severe handling which that little immigrant, the English

sparrow (Passer domesticus), has of late received on all sides in the

United States, and especially from our men of science, has some- .

even his enemies acknowledge he is more to be feared than de-

spised, and as he has also not been without his advocates, I have

hitherto refrained from interfering, and have remained a silent

looker on.

nished. It was clearly a provision on the part of the bird against

the cold of our severe winters. The gardener, who looked at it

in the same light, informed me that he had to clean out this rub-

bish from the houses every spring at nesting time, and that it was

not their nests, which are altogether different. This is exceed-

ingly interesting as pointing to the capacity for self-improvement

in the species. I have failed to find any description of such a

habit in the English sparrow, and it would seem to have been ac-

quired since its advent to our shores; though it would be import-

ant to know whether it adopts this precaution against the cold in

the more northern countries of Europe.

short time before the above-mentioned occurrence, one of

those birds, in the same grounds, was noticed as being sick.

Several of the othér sparrows waited most assiduously upon it

with affectionate care,and kept it supplied with food which they

continually brought it. During the night a “cold snap” set in,

and the next morning the sick bird was seen, perched on a rail-

ing, its companions hovering over it with evident anxiety, and

bringing it food which they tried to make it eat. On going up to

the bird, it was found to be dead and frozen stiff. This incident

exhibits the species in a very different light from that in which it

is usually represented by its American biographers. ee

ut now comes the other side of the picture. In the following

140 General Notes. [ February,

April, at the blossoming of the peach, which this year was un-

usually early, I saw,one morning, two English sparrows busily _at

work on a peach-tree in my yard, and, on going nearer, perceived

they were nipping off the blossoms with terrible rapidity. The

ground was already strewn with scores of the crimson flowers, and

I have no doubt that, unless interrupted, the tree, which is of a

fair size, would have been utterly stripped—to the last bud, with-

in less than half an hour. Close watching failed to discover the

object of the birds, whether they were in search of insect or vege- ©

table food, or whether their action was an exhibition of mere

wantonness or destructiveness, which latter conclusion it would be

difficult to receive. On the following morning another of the spe-

cies was found similarly employed on a neighboring peach-tree,

which was being just as rapidly denuded .of its blossoms. The

flowers were nipped off by the bird’s beak, at the peduncle, a

short distance below the receptacle, as neatly and swiftly as

though done with a pair of scissors. This opened to my gaze

such a horrible vista as to the destructiveness of the bird, that I

turned away aghast at the spectacle. At this rate a few pairs of

this sparrow would destroy the crop of an entire peach orchard in

the course of two or three days. It cannot be, however, that this

is a general habit of the bird, as our peach crop this season was

the most abundant which we have had for years; fine peaches

being retailed here, early in the season, at as low as three cents

per quart.

Considering the destruction wrought by insect pests in our

Southern States, I have thought this sparrow would prove of

great benefit to that region, saving millions of dollars in the

cotton, corn, vegetable and tobacco crops. The climate would

also seem to be more suitable for it, particularly during the win-

ter—Henry Gillman, Detroit, Michigan. .

INTELLIGENCE IN A Cat.—The chief of our pets is “Shorty,” 4

castrated cat now fourteen years old. Of course he has led a

very quiet, dignified life, always at home, and never addicted

to roof music at nights. He isa dear old fellow—neat and tidy

in his habits, and taking the presence of any kind of filth as

a matter of deep disgust and offence. In his middle age—

avoirdupois sixteen pounds—he was a “mighty hunter.” His

greatest recorded feat being the killing of nine rats in one pleas-

ant afternoon. It is an abomination in his ears to have them

pierced by the “discordant noises” of a cat fight. One day,

years ago, two younger felines engaged in an animated dis-

cussion with claws and teeth, filling the air with yells and flying

fur. “Shorty” heard it, and ran in a succession of flying leaps t©

the spot. He bounded in between the two “bad boys,” separating

them in an instant. There he stood for a brief space, eyeing first

one and then the other, with his right paw elevated, and grow

ing fiercely. The youngsters drew down their arched backs, the

1881.] Zovlogy. 141

bristling tails collapsed, and they left the spot, each in a different

direction, at the command of the peace maker. He once “ brought

up” a motherless kitten. At first, he was highly indignant at

the presence of the little one, but finally took charge of it most

kindly and tenderly, allowing it to suck his rudimentary teats.

He afterwards weaned it, and then hunted for it, precisely as a

“mother kitty” would have done! rty” seems always

sensible of the fact, if any of the family are ill or feeling blue

or discouraged ; in such cases he springs into one’s lap and purrs

his loudest, ooking his sympathy most unmistakably, as much

as to say, “Don’t feel badly—don’t be discouraged!” On one

occasion a lady of the family while suffering from a severe attack

of toothache, burst into tears. “Shorty,” who was regarding her

intently, sprung upon her lap, and placing a paw on each side of

her neck, looked into her face, giving utterance to frequent and

piteous mews. That his friend was suffering grievously, he knew

as well as anybody, and he manifested his sympathy and regret

in quite as decided a manner. Many anecdotes of the old fellow

are treasured up in the legends of the family, but the above are

probably as characteristic as any. He is now in “the sere and

yellow leaf,” being afflicted with “ rheumatics”’ when the weather

is heavy, and having lost his under tushes, but we cherish him for

the good he has done, and for the kindly sympathy he has always

manifested for his friends —Chas. Aldrich, Webster city, Towa, 1880,

Curious Hasir oF a Dracon-Fry.—One day this summer

when I was looking at some tadpoles in a dish of water, I was

struck in the face by a jet of water. On searching for the cause,

I found that the larva of a dragon-fly (A=schna) was my assailant.

When disturbed it sent out a fine stream of water from the

branchial apparatus in the caudal end of its body to the distance

of two or three feet, and not content with one volley, it would

wheel and discharge, like a small gun, at all points of the com-

pass. I put it in a tumbler of water, and it lowered the front of

the body, and shot the water-far over the edge of the glass. I

cannot say it ever took deliberate aim, but I know I got sprinkled

many times when I inadvertently touched the glass.

Prof. Packard, in writing of the larval dragon-fly, says, “ By a

syringe like apparatus lodged in the end of the body, it discharges

a stream of water for a distance of two or three inches behind it,

thus propelling the insect forward. The apparatus combines the

functions of locomotion and respiration.” (Guide to the Study of

Insects, p. 6or. /

If all Eschne have the same habits as the one I caught, we

must add that the apparatus is also a means of defence— Sarah

P. Monks.

MIGRATIONS OF THE Sanp-Hitt Crane.—I had to-day a fine

Opportunity to watch the migrations of the sand-hill crane, and

observe their method of managing their flight under adverse cir-

142 General Notes. February,

cumstances, that is with a strong wind in the rear. They were

flying at great height, and during two hours several hundred

passed over, going towards the south-west, the wind at the time

being nearly due north and blowing quite hard. They would

proceed in the ordinary manner for a short time, and then when

the wind apparently became too strong for them, would wheel

round and face it, and allow themselves to be carried along by it

in the same way that a fish sometimes lets himself be carried

down a rapid current, tail foremost, by simply putting forth just

strength enough to keep his head up stream. When the wind

slackened they would again wheel and pursue their way to repeat

the same manceuvre a little further on. This might seem to bea

very slow mode of traveling, but after watching a number of

flocks I concluded that their rate of translation could not be

much less than that of an ordinary railway train —F. £. L. Bent.

ZooLocicaL Nores.—The last report for 1878 of Prof, Baird, as

Fish Commissioner, contains an elaborate descriptive essay on

the Pycnogonida of New England and adjacent waters, by Mr.

E. B. Wilson. These spider-like forms, formerly placed with

the Crustacea, are now generally acknowledged either to form

should be merged with the genuine Rhizopods; however this

may be, a new (Monopodium kowalevskyi} has been discov-

ered at Naples by K. Mereschkowsky. It has no nucleus, the

point of distinction between Monera and Rhizopoda. As re-

gards the importance of /oraminifera to the doctrine of descent,

Professor Moebius, contrary to Carpenter’s opinion that owing to

their unusual tendency to variation they were not of much value

to the evolution theory, believes that as confirmatory of Darwin's

theory of descent, they possess a value neither greater nor less

than that of all other classes of animals. As the last contribu-

tion to the question as to the origin of the radial symmetry of the

Ccelenterates, Prof. John Young has argued from the order

of development of the septa and tentacles, that the radiate form

of Ccelenterates arises from the shortening ‘and crowding together

of the successive septa either side of a line of bilateral symmetry,

by which an apparent radiation around the mouth is produced.

——Among recent ornithological publications is Dr. Coues’ Third

Installment of American Ornithological Bibliography. It forms

over five hundred pages of the Bulletin of the U.S. Geological

Survey of the Territories, v, No. 4. This, with the two other

parts, “represent a nearly complete bibliography of nngitholngy

so far as America is concerned.” The annual report of Capt.

1881. | Entomology. 143

M. Wheeler, Corps of Engineers, for 1879, contains an ornitho-

logical report on observations and collections made in portions of

California, Nevada and Oregon, by Assistant H. W. Henshaw.

Mr. Henshaw is now in Oregon and Washington Territory, tak-

ing the census of the Indian reservations in that region, but will

doubtless find opportunities for ornithological studies in that in-

teresting section. Under the heading ‘“Infusoria as parasites,”

Mr. W. S. Kent, in the Populon Science Review, enumerates ten

species of Flagellata and fifteen species of Ciliata which are genu-

ine parasites in the viscera of birds, frogs, &c., ducks and geese,

house-fly, the blood of Indian rats, a nematode worm, the com-

mon cockroach, a myriopod (Julus), a water beetle, earthworm, a

marine planarian of several fresh water snails, besides Dr. Salis-

bury’s Asthmatos ciliaris, which he regards as an active agent in

the wong gaserge of one form of hay asthma or hay fever. n

recent paper in Kosmos, Fritz Miller describes a Brazilian ay

( Rileiccona. Deen J with two forms of females.

ENTOMOLOGY .'

Larva Hapits oF BEE-FLIEs (BoMBYLUD#&).—In the last num-

ber of the American Entomologist, we gave from advance sheets of

the Second Report of the United States Entomological rhein

sion an account of the larval habits of Systcechus and Triodite

showing that they prey on locust eggs, and drawing the following

conclusions:

The discovery of the “parasitism” of these bee-flies upon

locust-eggs at once

suggests a comparison

with the similar diver-

sity of parasitic habits

among the Meloidz as

given in our first re-

port, some of them in-

festing bee-cells, while

others, as the true

blister-beetles (Lyttini), on

eed on locust eggs.

now united by the best. 7 z. aa thiabdible : é, left maxilla ; hr prothoracic spira-

authorities with the cle; g, anal spiracle (after Rile

Bombyliidz, of which family as a whole Osten Sacken has said,

they are “perhaps the most characteristic and one of the most

abundantly represented families of Diptera in the western region,

including California.” The abundance of blister-beetles is also

well known to characterize this region, and we have shown how

_ abundance i is connected with the abundance of locusts, It is

is department is edited by Pror. C. V. ae Washington, D. C., to whom

phen tate books for notice, ior sihoatd be sen

144 General Notes. [ February,

of interest, therefore, to find that the bee-flies bear a similar rela-

tionship of parasitism to the latter, and that the characterization

of the fauna in these two groups is really dependent upon the

presence of or locusts as well as kee - rich representation of

e burrowing Hymenop

EReviedin what had sate “published as to the lar-

val habits of the true Bombyliids, we concluded that

while there was strong presumptive evidence that

they preyed on bee larve, there was yet no proof,

and that the locust-egg-feeding habit we recorded,

weakened the presumption. Since the publication

lius,’ by T. A. Chapman, M.D., in the Extomolo-

gists’ Monthly Magazine for February, 1878 (Vol.

/_ ices —Sys- ae p. 196. Mr. Chapman gives abundant pros

wchus oreas; Of the parasitism of the European, 4. major

pur (after Ri ae labialis. He records some obasevitics

oF on the oviposition of Bombylius, the small white egg

being thrown with a short jerk against the earth.near where the

food of its future larva presumably occurred. This would also imply

that, as in the case of the blister-beetles, the newly hatched larva

must seek its food, and strengthens our suspicion that it will be

found to be much more active than the mature larva. Mr. Chapman

very fully describes the

mature larva and the pu-

pa, and his descriptions

show that in all essen-

tial points the larva of

Bombylius accords with

those of Triodites and

j [the 1st thoracic] and is

retractile; it is very

Fic. 3.—Systechus oreas ; ep antenna, side — a center iS Oc-

view, to left; do. top view, to right cupi Sat by a prominent

wedge-shaped portion, the point of the wedge being downwards,

and immediately in front of the mouth. ae beneath

this are two black, very sharp, setiform jaws (?); on each side is a

papillary eminence (antenna?) of three joints set in a circle of

softer tegument, and immediately below project downward on

each side two large palpi (labrum ?) looking like jaws, but having

a vertical, not a lateral mobility, on the anterior face of each of

these there is a palpus of some length, apparently unjointed, set

in acircle.” It will thus be seen that he homologizes the parts

1881.] Entomology. 145

much as we have done, except that he refers the two lower pal-

pigerous pieces, with a question, to the labrum (misprint for

abium ?) which they cannot possibly be; they are evidently the

maxilla. The upper lateral pieces bearing the antennz are much

less conspicuous, judging from the description, in Bombylius than

in Systcechus. The pupa of Bombylius, from Dr. Chapman's

excellent description, differs in the greater prominence and some-

what different arrangement of the cephalic spines, the anterior

_ pair being stouter and more bent forward than in either of the

genera we have treated of. Dr. Chapman speaks of these spines

forcibly reminding him of the tusks of a walrus and of their

admirable adaptation to tearing down the clay stopping and dig-

ging through as “ with mattock and shovel ” the long burrows of

the bee upon which it preys. The dorsal and anal spines are also

much more prominent than in our locust-egg parasites. The

pupa of Systoechus and Triodites, not being under the necessity

of such strenuous digging, have a less formidable armature; other-

wise there is strict structural correspondence with Bombylius.—

C.V. Riley.

EXPERIMENTS WITH PyRETHRUM: SAFE REMEDIES FOR CABBAGE

Pyrethrum were made, at our request, by Prof. A. J. Cook, of the

Michigan Agricultural College, at Lansing. They are interesting

as confirming all that we have hitherto said in recommendation of

this powder for the imported cabbage worm, no safe and satis-

factory remedy for which had been discovered before we recom-

mended this powder and showed that it could be economically

used when simply mixed with water. Its value, used in this way,

for the Colorado potato-beetle as a substitute for the more dan-

gerous arsenical compounds will at once be appreciated.—C. V. R.

Sept. 27, 1880.—I placed ten cabbage caterpillars ( Pieris rape

Schrank), in each of two small wooden boxes which were covered

recover. A large number of the caterpillars on the cabbage

plants were sprinkled or dusted with the Pyrethrum, the pro-

portion the same as given above. In one hour the plants

ee examined and in every case the caterpillars were found

ead,

The same experiments as those detailed above were tried with

the potato-beetle (Doryphora 1o-lincata), Those in the boxes

_were all down in fifteen minutes, both beetles and larve; nor did

they recover. I watched those on the vines for twenty minutes,

when several had fallen tothe ground. These were some distance

146 General Notes. [ February,

from my home, and I could not watch them longer. Whether

all dropped or not I am not able to say, nor whether all or any

recovered.

Wednesday, Sept. 29, 1880.—In the following experiments the

cabbages were simply dusted or sprinkled with no effort to secure

actual contact of the liquid or powder with the larve. The ex-

periments were tried under my direction by a very trusty and

careful assistant, Mr. Will. R. Hubbert, with the following re-

ts:

1st Experiment—By use of a common sprinkler, nine cabbages

were treated with the liquid mixture, composed of one table-

spoonful of Pyrethrum (7 grammes) toa gallon of water. In

one and one-half hours after the application, a Zas¢y examination

discovered thirteen dead larve and three live ones.

2d Experiment—Ten cabbages were treated the same as above,

except that two applications of the liquid were made; nineteen

dead larvz and one live one were found.

_ 3a Experiment.—Twenty-six cabbages were treated with a

liquid mixture of one tablespoonful of the powder to two gallons

of water. One application was made with Whitman’s Fountain

ump. Eleven dead and four live larvze were found.

gth Experiment—The same as experiment 3, on thirteen cab-

bages, except that two applications of the liquid were made.

There were five dead caterpillars and two alive.

5th Experiment—Twenty cabbages were dusted with a powder

compound of one part of Pyrethrum to forty of flour; five dead

larve and one live one were found. :

th Experiment——-Twenty cabbages were treated the same as

No. 5, except that the mixture was in the proportion of I to 20;

three dead and three live caterpillars were found.

e examinations in all the above cases were made one and

one-half hours after the application of the liquid. The examina-

tion was too hasty to be thorough.

The next day all were again examined with great care, so that

very few, if any larve were omitted in the count.

No. 1. 9 Cabbages, 17 dead, 39 stupefied, 3 alive.

se wi 10 oe 42 “ce 30 ee I ee

“e 35 26 “ec ES 4 re) “ 58 “ec

ee 4. I 3 “cc 25 ee 3 “ I “ec

“s a 20 “ I 8 “ec =! “ 9 ‘ec

‘“ 6 20 “ce 9 “ re] “cc I “ec

Friday, Oct. 1, 1880. Experiment 1—Treated twelve cabbages:

used one gallon water and % spoonful of Pyrethrum. Carefu

examination revealed eleven dead and eleven alive.

Experiment 2,—Twelve cabbages: used one gallon water to A

spoonful (2 grammes) of the powder. Eleven dead and four alive.

Experiment 3.—Twenty-six cabbages: used Pyrethrum and flour

1 to 40. Three dead, five alive and one stupefied.

1881. } Entomology. 147

Experiment 4—Twelve cabbages: one gallon water to one

spoonful of the powder. Result, thirteen dead, four alive and

four stupefied.

The above experiments show conclusively that this powder is

fatal to the caterpillars, and that too in very dilute liquid mixtures,

as Only s}y of a lb. to the gallon of water was used in Exp. 2 of

Oct. Ist, and eleven larve were killed, We have only to sprinkle

it on to the plants, though it may be necessary to make more than

one application to insure complete success. The success was

better with the liquid than with the flour mixture, and can be ap-

plied with greater speed and econom

A twig of alder (Alnus serrulata), covered beneath with wooly

Aphides (Fviosoma tessellatum Fitch), was dipped into the liquid

mixture of #5 lb. to a gallon of water. The next morning all the

lice had fallen to the ground, never to rise again.

Flies and mosquitoes in a room where the powdered Pyrethrum

had been blown in not very large quantities, less than y}y of a Ib.

to a room twelve feet square, were felled to the floor, where nearly

all remained till morning; though the application was made the

night before. If not swept up some of the flies would recover.

The flies commence to fall in ten minutes.

Squash bugs ( Coreus tristis), were kept in the clear powder, ina

close tin box, for three days, and were still alive. I also sprinkled

and dusted these insects on the vine, and could see no signs of

success in killing them. :

E Foop oF Fisurs.—We have received an interesting con-

tribution, with the above title, by Prof. S. A. Forbes, from Bulletin

No. 3, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, November,

1880. The author gives the results of a large series of examina-

tions of the stomachs of darters, perches, bass and sunfishes. He

also separately considers the food of the young fishes as distin-

guished from that of the adult, His investigations have led to

some interesting general conclusions, among which we commend

the following as applying to studies in other departments of

these depend. He must likewise study the species with which it

comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions affect-

148 - General Notes. [ February,

ing their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one

who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but

overlooks one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these

sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the whole com-

plicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal

and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element,

* * * ¥* “T cannot too strongly emphasize the fact frequently

illustrated, I venture to hope, by the papers of this series—that a

comprehensive survey of our entire natural history is absolutely

essential to a good working knowledge of those parts of it which

chiefly attract popular attention—that is, its edible fishes, its in-

jurious and beneficial insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a

survey, however, should not stop with a study of the dead forms

of nature, ending in mere lists and descriptions. To have an

applicable value, it must treat the life of the region as an organic

unit, must study it 2” action, and direct principal attention to the

laws of its activity.”

Prof. Forbes believes, from results so far obtained, that it will

prove to be a rule “ that a fish makes scarcely more than a mechan-

ical selection from the articles of food accessible to it, taking

almost indifferently whatever edible things the water contains

which its habitual range and its peculiar alimentary apparatus

enable it to appropriate, and eating of these in about the ratio of

their relative abundance and the ease with which they can be ap-

propriated at any time and place. If this is so, knowing the

structure of a fish and the contents of a body of water, we shall

be able to tell, @ priori, what the fish will eat if placed

therein.”

Insect ENEMIES OF THE Rice Prant.—In the October number

of the American Entomologist (Vol. 1, p. 253), we published an

interesting communication from Mr. John Screven, of Savannah,

Ga., addressed to Dr. J. L. LeConte, regarding insects injurious

to the rice plant. We then referred the Scarabzid larva (or

“‘orub”) which feeds upon the roots provisionally to the genus

Ligyrus, being led to this conclusion by the circumstance that a

species of this genus (L. rugiceps Lec.) attacks, in a similar way,

the roots of sugar cane in the south, and that another species ( L.

relictus Say,) which is common farther north, has been observed

feeding on the roots of wild rice in the marshes bordering Lake

Erie. Meanwhile Mr. Screven kindly sent us specimens of the

perfect insect, which proves to be a closely related form, Chalepus

trachypygus Burm. This beetle occurs through the whole extent

of the Southern States, and is very common along the edges of

the swamps, in the pine barrens and in similar moist grassy places,

feeding both in the larva and imago states on the roots of

grasses.

Of the second species attacking the roots of rice, the “ maggot”

of Mr. Screven (see Am. Ent. i. p, 262-3), no perfect insects

1881. ] Entomology. 149

have been received yet, but renewed examination of the larva .

seems to confirm our opinion previously expressed (I. c. p. 253),

viz: that it is a Cerambycid allied to Oberea. If so, the species

in question is possibly Spadlacopsis suffusa Newm., which is by far

less rare in the Southeast than is generally supposed. The per-

fect insect occurs in large numbers, in June and July, in very wet

grassy places, its larva doubtless boring in the stems or roots of

grasses which are more or less covered with water. The beetle,

owever, is very liable to be overlooked even by an experienced

collector, as when approached it “ plays possum” and is then

almost undistinguishable from a piece of dry grass.

The “ water weevil”? mentioned by Mr. Screven as injurious

to rice we conjecture to be a species of Centrinus (perhaps C.

concinnus Lec.?) or of an allied genus of the Barini group, as

several species thereof occur in great numbers in wet, grassy

places in the South, and as the larve of this group are known to

live in the roots or stems of plants.

In this connection we would finally call attention to the re-

ported recent appearance of a formidable insect enemy to the rice

plant in the East Indies. Mr. Wood Mason, deputy superintend-

ent of the India Museum has identified it as belonging to the

genus Cecidomyia, which genus “has never before been found in

India,” and proposes the name of C. oryzae, for the species, which

threatens to become very destructive to the rice crop.

Description oF A New Species oF Cynips.—Cynips g. Riley,

n. sp.—The galls of this species have been accurately figured in

the American Entomologist, Vol. 11, p. 153, by Prof. Riley, who

received them from North Bend, Ohio. In the only specimen

containing a single larva to a confluent mass of galls an inch or more in length and

near d

healthy bark like the unaffected parts of the branch. Internally they are of a dense

- cork-like substance, which is inseparable fron: the enclosed larval cells. oe

Gallfly. Head black, smooth and shining. Antenne short, antennal joints

150 . General Notes. [February,

thirteen; Ist joint, short, thick, truncate, 2d, short, oval; in color both are of a

dark amber; 3d joint equal to the two preceding taken tae, See color yellowish-

i usky ye ish-bro bla

yellowish with black tips. Zhorax small. esothorax aay abruptly above the

narrow th, shining, black and grooveless, but under a one-eighth

nifier presents ‘a minutely crackled surface, with a few scattered white hairs.

Scutellum smooth, rounded and ee, from 38 ane portion of the mesothorax

a broad, shallow | and highly polished groo Wings small, hyaline, veins

duck mown, heavy; the subc ae a rm. its stie length, anaglet: large, w ae

define radial area long eto open egs dark shining brown, with pa

valtowish joints. Addomen Getpedinations: smooth, black, polished; in dry aeett

mens truncate by the insheathing ve oh last three segments ‘within the others

Length, .11. Length of wings,

Described from 12 ieeiniede all females, in my collection.—

H. F. Bassett, Waterbury, Conn.

Tue “YeELLow Fever F y.’—In the last number of Psyche

(September, 1880), Dr. H. A. Hagen gives some references to a

fly belonging to the genus Sczara, which has been dubbed the

“ Yellow Fever Fly,” bisadecatets judging from the context of

the article, because it has n observed to swarm more par-

ticularly during yellow fever spies: The larve of this genus

of flies are well known to feed upon the humus in soils and other

decaying vegetable matter, and it is more than probable that the

conditions which favor the development of the yellow fever also

favor the development of these flies. We certainly cannot con-

ceive any other ps between the insect and the disease.

Based upon a list of swarms of Diptera by Prof. Weyenburg in

swarms sufficiently dense to appear, at a short distance, like

The following unpublished letter received by us, with speci-

mens, from Mr. S. S. Rathvon, of Lancaster, Pa., nearly twelve

years since (March 22, 1869), also refers to flies of this genus: as

recorded in the American Entomologist (1, p. 186):

“T enclose a quill containing some Dipterous insects, which .

received a few days ago from a friend in Bethlehem, Pa. e says

they came out of the cracks between the floor boards, in July, in

one of the upper rooms of a new addition built to their seminary,

in millions. He counted five thousand on a single window, partly

flying and partly running up the panes of glass. What seemed

remarkable to him was that not one was seen in any other part of

the house. Whilst living the wings were iridescent, but after

death they lose this color. Pips the end of August, last year,

I had a partition fence painted on my premises, when the whole

surface became covered with millions of little flies, with iridescent

wings, very similar to these, and perhaps the same species.

confess that I know nothing about their name or history, although

I have often noticed them adhering to newly painted buildings

during spring and summer. What are they ?”

18381. ] Anthropology. 15

Ways oF LIMENITIS BREDOW!I.—Mrs. A. E. Bush sends from

San Jose, Cal., the following account of the flight and habits of

this beautiful butterfly :

hey are warriors and seem to have a good deal of character.

They alighted on the white or black oaks high above, and with the

appearance of being on the alert, waited till a large yellow Papilio

came in sight, when it was chased away, and Limenitis returne

to his perch awaiting for the next fray. A smaller butterfly

routed the Limenitis, however. They were shy of light colors.

When I had on a light-colored dress I could not get near one,

but with a brown dress they would alight on it, and about my

feet. Throwing small pebbles, chips or rocks at them seemed to

enrage them, and they would follow anything thrown at them

back to the ground. A Grapta, on the contrary, was attracted by

a white hat, and hovered around my head like a bee above the

flowers, and would alight on the hat and on my hand,

HABITS OF XYLOTRECHUS CONVERGENS.— The larva of this

Longicorn beetle infests what we call thorn apple or red haw;

comes to maturity in one year, and the imago makes its appear-

ance about the 15th of June. I have taken it as late as July Ist.

It kills the tree in one year after the egg is laid in the crevices of

the bark. As soon as hatched the larva enters the wood, and

hardly travels six inches. I am the only one here who has taken

it so far; I have taken twenty out of a piece of wood three feet

long.—. ¥ Myers, Ft. Madison, Ia., in letter to Dr. F. L. Le-

Conte,

An Aguatic Spuinx Larva.—In the same number of Psyche

above referred to, is an interesting communication by Baron von

Reitzenstein, of New Orleans, La., describing a sphinx larva be-

longing to the genus Philampelus, which he found feeding on the

floating Nymphza in the centre of a draining canal, the whole

body, with exception of the thoracic segments, being submerged

under water. The larve are described as swimming with great

facility from one patch of plants to another.

ANTHROPOLOGY.?

Earty Man In Britrain.—The latest utterance upon this sub-

ject is from the pen of the distinguished cave hunter, Prof. W.

Boyd Dawkins, entitled, “ Early Man in Britain, and his place in

the Tertiary Period,” published in London by Macmillan & Co.

The subject is treated in the three-fold point of view of the geolo-

gist, the prehistoric archzologist, and the historian. Beginning

with the earliest’ period during which man is alleged to have

made his appearance, the author passes downward through time,

or, what is equivalent, upward through the geological record to

the prehistoric iron age. The Tertiary period is divided into six

1 Edited by Prof. Oris T. MAson, Columbian College, Washington, D, C.

152 General Notes. [February,

parts (p.9): 1. Eocene (living orders and families present) ;

Miocene (living genera); 111. SoMa (living species); Iv. iis is-

tocene (living species abun man appears) ;. V. er historic

(man abundant, domestic sence, cultivated fruits); vi. Historic

(historic records).

Britain in the Eocene is described Beer and geographic-

ally, and after examining carefully the fauna and the flora, Mr.

awkins concludes that man has no ere in such an sates Cree

of animals. Nevertheless, the lowest member of the Primates

was represented in the upper Eocene of Europe, and throughout

the whole of that period in America.

The Miocene is divided likewise into upper, middle and lower,

and the distribution of land and water, plants and animals, as well

as the changes of climate and sea level discussed in the light of

recent research, Was man in Europe in the Miocene age? l

the conditions necessary to the primeval garden of Eden were

satisfied. The flints of Thenay and the notched rib of Pouance

are allowed their due weight, and yet Prof. Dawkins decides

upon the whole, that the data are insufficient to establish man’s’

contemporaneity with the Dinothere and other members of the

Miocene fauna.

The Pliocene age is next passed in review, with the same sys-

tematic treatment. Europe is no longer joined with America, and

profound changes take place in the geology, climate, fauna and

flora of the former. The author, however, rejects the skull of Olmo,

the cut bones of Tuscany, and other evidences of Pliocene man.

He says, “Of twenty-one fossil mammalia in the Pliocene of.

Tuscany, only the hippopotamus is now living on earth. It is im-

probable that man should have been present in such a fauna.

9 hey belong to one stage of evolution and man to another and

later.

E Prof. Dawkins finds his earliest man in the Plistocene. The

chapters upon the fauna of this age and the two races: the Drift

men and the Cave men, are, to our thinking, the best in the book.

In eee to Mr, Evans, the author holds that tnese two

series are entirely distinct states of culture, of which the Cave men

are the newer and the higher. Weare without a clue to the eth-

nology of the River-drift man, but the many points of connection

between the Cave men and the Eskimos can be explained only on

the hypothesis that they belong to the same race.

Then follows the civilization of the Prehistoric period, covering

all the events which took place between the Pleistocene age an

the beginning of history. No break of continuity is allowed, but

the Tertiary period is looked upon as extending down to the

present day. The Prehistoric period is divided into three ages,

the Neolithic, the Bronze, and the Iron age. In the former men |

were divided into tribal communities, engaged in agriculture,

herding and fishing. Spinning, weaving, mining, boat-building,

1881.| Anthropology. 153

traffic by land and by water had begun to flourish. The dead

were entombed under such conditions as to give an insight into

the religious convictions of the people. On page 293 is the preg-

nant sentence, that each palafitte hut was inhabited by one family,

and the whole settlement was not a community with common store

houses, like a Mexican pueblo, This Neolithic culture is derived

from Asia, and, after summing up the evidence, Mr. Dawkins re-

gards the people as of the Iberian stock. They were succeeded

by the Celts, who were, par-excellence, the Bronze age race. The

various questions which have sprung out of the remains, as the

origin of bronze, tin mines, the duration, culture, and religion of

the Bronze age are elaborately worked up in chapters x and x1.

The following and closing chapters treat of the Iron age, and the

overlap of history, under which last head the influences of Egyp-

tian, Assyrian, Phoenician, Etruscan, and Greek civilization upon

that of Western Europe are briefly discussed.

It is to be regretted that our limited space will not permit us to

enter more elaborately into the merits of this work, nor to speak

of its defects any further than to draw attention to oversights, and

a lack of consistency here and there in the proof-reading of an

otherwise very handsome volume. If Mr. Dawkins has not

already thought of the matter, we would call attention to the

similarity of the flames from the head of the Dol-ar-Marchnant

(page 305) to the speaking girdles and other like signs for voice

and emotion in the works of Stephens and Hable.

THe AnrHRopocoaicaL Society oF Paris—The Bulletins of

this world-renowned society from January to April of the past

year, have reached us through the Smithsonian Institution. In

addition to the lists of officers and members, proceedings and

correspondence, the following papers are given in full or in

abstracts : ;

Sur la signification de la croix dit svastika et d'autres

emblémes de méme_ nature, by Girard de Rialle; Sur les

Lapons, by M. Mantegazza; Sur les Migrations en Egypte, by

Emilie Soldi; Sur les Boschimans et les Hottentots, by

Feraud; Inventaire des Monuments Mégalithiques de France :

Report of a sub-Committee, composed of MM. Henry Martin,

Daubrée, G. De Mortillet, Paul Broca, Cartailhac, Chantre, Leguay,

Pomel, Salmon, du Sommerard, de Berthélemy, Fabsan, Trutat,

and Viollet le Duc. [This is a detailed enumeration by depart-

_ ments of all the dolmens, menhirs, aleignments, cromlechs, cup

stones, and other archeological localities throughout France];

Crane Australien Brachycephalique, by M. Cauvin; Méthode

trigonometrique: le goniométre d’inclinaison et l’orthogone, by

Dr. aul Broca; Sur un questionnaire anthropométrique a rem-

plir dans les ecoles du departement de Loir-et-Cher, by M. Jacques

Bertillon ; Le developpement du cerveau chez les enfants du pre-

mier age, by M. J. Parrot ; Sur le goniométre flexible, by M. Paul

VOL, XV.—No, 11,

154 General Notes. | February,

Broca; Sur la traduction des inscriptions cambodgiennes, by M.

Harmand; Sur l’utilité de rédiger des instructions linguistiques,

by M. Vinson; Sur un Manuscrit de M. Régis Gery, by M. G. de

Mortillet ; Sur les Esthoniens, by M. Arthur Chervin; Sur l’eth-

nologie de la Nouvelle Guinée, by M. Mantegazza; Sur la vision

de la serie des nombres, by M. d’Abbadie; Sur le buste d’une

jeune fille zoulon, by M. Paul Broca; Sur une anomalie regressive

de la crosse de l’aorte chez une jeune fille zoulon, by M. Paul

Broca; Le cerveau de l’assassin Prévost, by M. Paul Broca;

Sur la monographie de la femme de la Cochinchine, by M.

Mondiére; Sur les resultats d’une mission en Australie, by

M. Cauvin; Sur les comptes de l’exposition des Sciences anthro-

pologiques, by M. Issaurat; De différent instruments d’anthro-

pométrie, by M. Paul Topinard; De l’influence du mariage sur la

tendance au suicide, by M. Jacques Bertillon; Sur la génération

au point de vue chronologique, by M. Réné de Semallé: Sur le

voyage de M. Panagiotis Patagos en Asie Centrale, by M, Ch.-E.

de Ujfalvy ; Sur l’usure spontanée des dents au point de vue eth-

nique, by M. E. Magitot; Sur les Sépultures doubles de Thuizy

(Marne), by M. Edouard Fourdrignier.

Fossit. MEN AND THEIR MopERN REPRESENTATIVES.—Under

the foregoing title, Principal J. W. Dawson has published, through

Dawson Brothers, of Montreal, an ‘‘ Attempt to illustrate the

characters and condition of prehistoric men in Europe, by those

of the American Races.” In this volume we have really two

books, upon entirely different subjects. What we may call book

first is a parallel between the ancient town of Hochelaga, discov-

ered by Cartier in 1534, and occupying the site of modern Mon-

treal, and the ancient stone people of Europe. The author’s

opportunities for following up a line of investigation initiated by

Sir John Lubbock have been exceptionally good and he has not

failed to use them, supplementing the data of Hochelaga with

facts collected among our present red Indians. In the course of

the argument the author throws out some pregnant suggestions;

‘as, for example, the impossibility of maintaining the definite

nomenclature of archzdlogy popular ten years ago; the similar-

ity of the oldest populations of Europe, the river drift and the

cave men, to American aborigines; the identity of Schoolcraft —

Allegans with the Mound-builders; the anteriority of polished

stone to rude stone folk; the spoke-like burial in the mounds as

an imitation of lying in a teepec with the feet to the fire ; the com-

munal characters of the Swiss palafittes ; the totemic significance

of the engravings on bone in the European caves, &c. The por-

tions of the volume designated here as the second book, are an

argument to prove that all the events indicated by the discoveries

of archzologists, in river-drifts, in caves, and in lake deposits,

occurred in a few thousands of years, Without trying to follow

Dr. Dawson in his discussion, it is but fair to say that his profound

1881. ] Anthropology. 155

knowledge of paleontology has enabled him to present the

brachy-chronic view of archeology more forcibly than Mr.

Southall or any other recent writer who has made the at-

tempt.

GESTURE Sicns.—Col. Garrick Mallery has issued, for collabo-

rators only, a limited number of a quarto pamphlet of 329 pages,

entitled, “A Collection of Gesture Signs and Signals of the

North American Indians, with some comparisons. Washington,

Government Printing Office, 1880.”". The work will not be pub-

lished permanently in its present shape; but the descriptions are ~

presented for the verification of observations, verbal corrections,

and to secure accurate classification and comparison. Every con-

tributor is thus enabled to revise his own work, as the volume is

divided and arranged according to a scheme of linguistic families

and subordinate languages or tribes. The author has taken the

liberty to use his own judgment as to the admission or rejection

of authorities, drawing a hard and fast line against all loose gen-

eralizers and vague talkers about what they have not examined in

person over and over again. The amount of patient, critical dis-

cernment necessary to render such a work really valuable can be

appreciated only by a careful study of Colonel Mallery’s prefatory

remarks, pp. 1-7, in which the principles which have guided him

are clearly set forth.

Report on Inpian AFFAIRS.—Strange as it may seem, scholars

seldom consult the report of the Commissioner on Indian Affairs

for information concerning the Indians. In preparing his colossal

work on the Native Races of the Pacific States, Mr. H. H. Ban-

We find reason to qualify our statement, also, in the report of

Commissioner Hayt, for 1879. On page 118, Agent B. M.

Thomas gives a list of all the inhabited Pueblos.in New Mexico

and Arizona, with their population, and an altogether too short

sketch of their government. It is to be hoped that those who

have the best possible opportunities of studying our aborigines

will make better use of their time in the future.

TRANSACTIONS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE NEw ZEALAND InstI-

TUTE— Vol. x1 of this valuable series for 1879, issued May, 1880,

is not devoid of interest to the anthropologist, as the accompany-

ing list of papers will show:

Notes on Port Nicholson and the natives in 1839. By Major Charles Heaphy.

On the ignorance of the ancient New Zealander of the use of projectile weapons.

By Coleman Phillips.

Contributions towards a better knowledge of the Maori race. By W. Colenso.

otes on an ancient manufactory of stone implements at the mouth of the Otokai

creek, Brighton, Otago. By Prof. Julius von Haast.

otes on the color-sense of the Maori. By James W. Stack.

156 | General Notes. [ February

Remarks on Mr. Mackenzie Cameron’s theory respecting the Kahui Tepua. By

James W. Stack.

Pronouns and other barat fossil words pecombae with phere and non-Aryan

languages of Hindostan and Bondens = ae urnbull Thomson

Maori connection. J. Turnbull Thom

ASIATIC CULTURE IN Asiana: at No. 6, Vol. 1x of the Cana-

dian Naturalist, Prof. John Campbell, of Montreal, attempts to

cassians, on the border of Europe and Asia, Koriens, the

Japanese and other peninsular people of Asia, the Aleutians Kadi-

agmuts, Dakotas, Iroquois, Cherokee-Choctaws, Muyscas, Peru-

vians, and Chilenos of America, The author sets out from the

labors of Hyde Clarke, “to whom,” it is said, “ belongs the most

of the discovery which bids fair to revolutionize the science of

ethnology.” The paper ida exhibits a vast amount of patient

research ; but, after all, we fail to see in many of the words

eomah of resemblance eS aire identity.

A New PeriopicaL.—On the 3d of July, 1880, the first num-

ber of a periodical with the title of Sczence was issued in New

York, under the editoral charge of Mr. John Michels. Several

valuable anthropological papers have appeared in its columns:

Fragmentary notes on the Eskimo of Cumberland sound, by

Ludwig Kumlien; Reports of Ethnological papers at the Ameri-

can Association, and notes scattered here and there ona variety

of subjects. On page 205 is given Major Powell’s vice-presiden-

tial address on the Wyandotte government before the American

Association.

SkIn Furrows OF THE Hanp.—New anatomical characters are

being brought constantly within the anthropological area.

a few months ago the relative length of the ring-finger and the

fore-finger was added to the list of marks for observers. Mr.

Henry Faulds of Tsukipi Hospital, Tokio, Japan, has commenced

in Nature, of October 28th, a series of papers on the ethnological

value of careful observations relating to the finger marks on an-

cient pottery, to those of criminals, and of the anthropoid apes.

ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE Caucasus.—One of the neatest pieces of

ethnographic work which it has been our good fortune to —

is a paper in No. 1x of Petermann’s Mitthetlungen, on the above-

mentioned subject, prepared by N. v. Seidlitz. The article is

- made up chiefly of tables of statistics upon the almost hopelessly

mixed Indo-European, Caucasic and Mongolian peoples of this

region. A colored map eH the tribal distribution will .be

found at the end of the n

PoPuULATION OF THE fone recline Supplement of

Petermann's Mittheilungen: contains Behm Wagner's “ Die

Bevélkerung der Erde, vi.” Although the ‘gee part of this

pamphlet of x—132 pages belongs to the statisticians, the

ethnologist will find enough material for comparative study to

make it worth his while to give it his attention.

1881. ] Anthropology. 157

GERMAN ANTHROPOLOGY.—The stenographic report of the

eleventh annual meeting of the German Society of Anthropology,

Ethnology and Prehistory i in Berlin, August 5 to II, is a quate

pamphlet of 160 pages. Unfortunately, there is no index, ex

cepting a catalogue of names unaccompanied with the titles of

papers.

CorRECTIONS.—Our regret at making mistakes is only equaled

by our happiness in making amends. In the list of papers read

before the Washington Anthropological Society (page 81 3) please

insert “The old Roman Senate: a study in the comparative his-

tory of assemblies,” by J. Howard Gore. The notes on Japanese

eo nology (page 902) were sent by some unknown friend, and

t by Professor E. S. Morse. In speaking of Dr. Yarrow’s

- Ceoruary Customs ” (page 904), credit was not given him for

distinguishing between inhumation within the cabin, wigwam or

house, and simple abandonment of a lodge containing a dead

body. The closing chapter on mourning, feasts, food, dances,

songs, games, etc., connected with burial, was omitted from the

reference to the contents of the volume.

ne Sees got

Acosta, J. Dbp—The natural and moral history of the Indies. Reprinted from the

rat dey pihiee oy Edward Grimshaw, 1604, and edited with notes and an in-

spiidinctions n by Cl. R. Markham, I, 8vo, 295 pp., I chart. London, Hackluyt

oc., 1880,

ApaM, L., and C. Lec oe de la lengua de los Indios Baures de la Provincia

de los Moxos. Confor ~ Manuscrito original del P. Antonio Magio. Paris,

Maisonneuve; London, » Nu

ADLER, CurTIUS F,, and G. T eae gene ty Se zu Olympia. Iv. Uebersicht

Berlin, Ernst Wasmuth. (7%e iscua aphii4 1880. Reviewed by Julius

Schubri ing.)

ALLEN, GrRant—Aésthetic evolution in man. Mind, x

ANCELON—Sur les habitations lacustres connues sous c nom de briyuetages de la

Seille. Paris, 1880, 8vo. (From Bull, Soc. F faak, op.)

ARVIENS, P.—Maleisch-Hollandsch-Atjehsche Woordenlijst. Amsterdam, de Bussy.

AVERY, J.—Influence of the aboriginal tribes upon the Aryan speech of India. Ort-

+ entaland Biblical F, 1.

Bacon, A. T.—The ruins of the Colorado valley, Ill. Zippincott’s Mag., Nov

BAILLARGER * ee ee Dice. Encycl. d. sc. Méd., Paris, 1879) Is.,

Beck, L.—Das Meteoreisen in technischer und culturgeschichtlicher Beziehung.

Arch. f. Anthrop., ra XII, 293-314

BeLtew, H. W.—The Races of Afghanistan: being a brief account of the princi-

pal nations inhabiting that country. Calcutta, Tacker, Spink & Co. (Re-

viewed in The Atheneum, Aug. 7.) .

BENEDIKT, Mor ss 9 methodische Studien zur Kranio- und Kephalometrie.

Views, 1880, 8vo. (From Mitth. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, 1880. IX,

348-371.)

BELTRAME, G.—Cau atte ine da cui fu sempre dominata de |’Africa, espe-

cialmente la ate cen : Condizione intelletuale e morale dei Negri. és

R. Istituto Veneto, v, Ser 5 No. 9.

Birp, IsaABELLA L.—Unbeaten Tracks in Japan. 2 vols., with map and illustrations.

Lo ndon, John Murray, 1880.

158 General Notes. [ February,

ig Weis Rar eee physique de l’enfant depuis la naissance jusqu’ au

vrage. Union Med., Paris, 1880. 3s., XXIX, 385; 433; 441

BiAie , C. J.—On ibe occurrence of exostoses within the external andiiscy canal in

prebiatorte man. Am. F. Otol., N. Y., 1880, 11, 81-91.

Bosc ee —Dictionnaire Général de l’Archéologié et des Antiquites chez les divers

Paris.

Broca, Pavi—Instruction antaie pour les Resign anthropologiques a faire

sur les v ed. Paris, 1879, G. Mas I pp., 4 pl., 8vo

Biaihioe earige or, ; Village Religions Life in iene. ri eee ss

Burmese Village, Life in a—(Spectator.) Living Age, Oct

CARTAILHAC, EMILE—L’age de la pierre en Asie. Lyon, 1880,

CHANTRE, E.—Notes anthropologiques; de l’origine bitlenlabe Se . métallurgie.

Lyon, 1880, 4to

sight a minke piek for the study of mrcreneny: Med. Times and Gaz.,

CosTA,; . F. DE—Glacial Manin America. Pop. Sc. Month.,

CREAGH, J.—Armenians, Koords and Turks, 2 vols., 8vo. sec Tinsley, 1880.

Cust, R. N.—Linguistic and Orientai Essays, written from the year 1846 to 1878.

London.

coger tn L.—Conférence sur les Zoulous et leur territoire. Briissel, 1879. 8vo,

= J B.—The Decrease of the North American Indians. Kansas City Rev.,

paacene, JAMES, and JAMES pes pratt ae Cave Temples of ae reir “—

published by order of H. M.’s Secretary of State for India . Hi

Co., London. (Reviewed in Zhe Atheneum, Sept. 25; 1880 ; The o paris

Oct. 30, 1880.)

Ficker, A.—Die Reste keltischer oa ares se in cay Cea ( Statist. Monats-

schr., 1880, Heft 3; Petermann’s Mittheil., 1880.)

acen. H.—Ueber prahistorische RB bat a Arch. f. Anthrop., 1880, X11,

273-292, ap. ,

—— W. H.—The American Races. Srit. M. F., Lond., 1880, 1, 549; 5773

616

Folk-songs, Venetian. Cornhill Mag., Oct

GAFFAREL, P.—Les peu 0 africains, le Niger et les peuplades de la Sénégambie.

Rev. Politique, 21 Febr., 1880.

GALTON, F.—Mental iiagies (Forinightly.) Pop. Sc. Month., Nov. Living

Age, Oct

GARDNER, w. H.—A Kore of mythological crows, Pop. Sc. Month., Nov

_GRANJUX—L’hygiéne de la iy enfance chez les négres de la Céte des exctaves.

Gaz. Obst., Paris, preg 1-84,

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v, No. xv, 58.

HAR_Ley, C, a ee Aryas et leur Premiére Patrie. Rev. Linguistique, July.

HARMAND, J.—Le Laos et les populations sauvages de I’Indo-Chine. (Zour du

Monde, 1880, XXXIX, No, 1006-1009, p. 241-320

Hoi Es, N. —Geo — aig a Distribution of the Human Race, 77.

St. Louis Acad. S¢.,

Hoern et, A. F. Rupotr-—A Comparative Grammar of the Gaudian Languages,

with special sitereaie to the Eastern Hindi. Triibner. (Reviewed in 7he

‘Academy, June 19th.

oun Henry H.—History of the Mongols from the ninth to ee <a

entury. Part II. bee so-called Tartars of Russia and Central Asia. Div

ecu 1and 11. Longmans & Co. (Reviewed in The Ath enn, ‘Gad 1880 ,

JACKSON, dicess canes amele and the Missions in the North Pacific coast. tix N.

York, Dodd, 1880.

1881.59 , Anthropology. 159

Katns-JACKSON—Our Ancient Monuments and the land around them. With an

introduction re Sir John Lubbock. London, rig ag Stock. (Reyiewed in The

déhencus ug 7, 1880, This volume relates o the scheme so long fostered

Sir John Lubbock of protecting the ancient ‘inh atnats by legislation.)

eats F.—Die Ethnographie der “ Parise sali des sciences anthropolo-

arate Mitth. d. Anthrop. Gesselsch, in Wien, 1880, 1X, Ausserord. Beil.

Risers ES -Anthropology. F. of Bi es Philosophy, July.

Karner, P. L.—Kiinstliche Hédhlen in Niederésterreich. AZitth. d. sa Ges-

ellsch. in Wien. 1880, IX, aus ¥ pl.

KEANE, — .—Albania and the Albanians, with a classification. dialire: July

KEssLer, F.—Etudes préhistoriques. L’homme tertiaire. Belfort, 1880, 8vo.

KNEELAND, S., Dk.—Traces of the Mediterranean Nations. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat.

SLE. NK, TE, j

KNIGHTON, W.—Demoniacal Possessions in India. Mineteenth Century, Oct.

Lacneau, G.—France: Anthropologie. Dict. encycl. d. sc. Méd., Paris, 1879, 4s.,

Iv, 558; 45, V, I

LANKESTER, E, Ray—Degeneration. A chapter in er ply Nature Series.

Macmillan & ree 1880, (Reviewed in Va‘ure, June 17.)

LanMAN, C. R.—Recent publications in the field of cae Antiquities. Am. F.

‘ of oe Oct

LEccE, JAMES—The Sa a Books of China. The Texts of Confucianism. Part I.

Oxford, Charenton Press, (Reviewed in Zhe Atheneum, Sept. 18, 1880.)

LENORMANT, F.—Les ice de l’Histoire d’aprés la Bible et les Traditions des

Peu uples paethie ne: Paris, Maisonneuve & Cie. (Reviewed in The Athe-

neum, July 31, 1880.)

Lepsius, R.—Nubische Grammatik mit einer ——s iiber die Vélker und

Sprachen Africas. Berlin, Besser, 1880, 8vo

LEssONs, o and L. MARTINET—Les Pol encthens, deur ee leurs migrations,

leur angage. Tomer. Clermont (Oise), 1880. 8vo.

pee He —Antiquity of Man in America geologically Sack Science,

LorTet et E. CHAN pie satn angen: paléontologiques dans le bassin du Rhéne; peri-

ode tertiaire; recherches sur'les Mastodontes et les faunes mammalogiques ee

les accompagnent. L perry ‘18 to.

LuquiEns, J—The Avesta and the Sine Myth. New Englander, Sept.

Macet, G.—Culte de Sinto. Philos. Positive Rev., Sept—Oct.

McApams, W.—Ancient Agricultural Implements of Stone: . Science, Sé ept.

spo eit J. F.— Relations of the Aryan and Semiticlanguages. ib/iotheca Suivi,

Memoirs de la Société Academique raioes te sciences et arts du departement

de l’Oise. Beauvais, 1880, 8vo

MEYER, H.—Origin of the Sirancan Language. Deutsche Rundschau, Aug.

MILLER, O. D aaa or Sumerian ? case and Biblical F., 1.

MITCHELL, ARTHUR.—The Past in the Present: What is Civilization? Edinburgh,

uglas. (Reviewed i in The Ab. prpetcio Aug, 28, 1880.)

MULLER, F. Max.—The — Books of the East. Vol. 1. The Lapeer Ox-

ford, Clarendon Press. (Reviewed in Zhe Atheneum, Aug. 14, 1880. F

eview of wibeccnent volumes, see ature, July 1.)

nijcotae! Coit mpte Rendu de la Commission Impérigle Archéologique pour I’ Année

1877. (St. Petersburg.) Mykenai, eine Kritische Unters ime. der Schlie-

mannschen Alterthiimer unter Vergleichung Russischer Funde Von Ernst

oe ee (St. Petersburg.) (Reviewed in Zhe Ab heneum, Aug. 21,

1880.

Nixon, J.—Among the Boers; London, Remington, 1880, 8vo.

160 General Notes. [ February,

anger Book of Common Prayer. Published in the syllabic —- invented

by the ee ug the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.

Oppert, GusTAv.—On the Classification of Languages: a contribution to Compar

tive —. Londen and Madras, Triibner. (Reviewed in Zhe Acasony,

—

Dicey; W.—The time that has elapsed since the era of the Cave-men of Devon-

shire. Scient. Man., Oct. 7.

PERKINS, G. H.—Relation of Vermont archeology to that of the adjacent States.

Science, Oct.

Petermann’s age chet lungen. Each number of race wot Plea epic several

pages of geographical bibliography. he ioned, especially those

Asia, Africa, Polynesia and Am iva, aye fe contain cicaedingts

valuable ep upon the aborigines of the regions explored.

PETRIE . FLINDERS.—Stonehenge: Plans, Description and Theories. Lon-

don, i Beas eaves wed in es neum, Sept. 18, 1880.)

PIETREMENT, C. A.—Les Chevaux de l’Avesta et le Myth de Tistrya. Rev. Lin-

PowWELL, J. W.—The Wyandottes. _ Sept. 11.

PREYER, Se in the Human Infant. Pop. Sc. Month., Sept.

PRIMAVERA, G.—Ersendo l’uomo carnivoro di sua natura, poteva egli col tempo

= arsi onnivoro aaaelnese Pe finua aia punto? Morgagni, Napoli, 1879;

X, 569, 666.

coe us, E.—Studies of primitive peoples. Jnternat. Rev., N. Y., 1880, N. S., VIII,

457-471.

REED, Sik EDWARD J.—Japan: its oe ig case and Religions, with the Nar-

rative of a vies in athe London, John rray, 1880. 2 vols, With maps

and illustrations. (Reviewed in bap oa ee ou 28, 1880.)

REHATSEK, E.—Oriental Folk Lore. Calcutta Rev., April.

ENARD, LEON.—Des variations ethniques du maxillaire inférieur. Paris, 1880,

, 4to. o. 81.

RHODE, J.—Los Pusbles del Rio Negro. Bol. Inst. Argent. Geogr., 1880, No. 3,

Pp. 151-157. .

RIDDEL, A.—A Grammar of the Chinyanja Language as spoken at Lake Nyassa,

with Chin.-English and Eng.-Chinyanja Vocabulary. Edinburgh, Maclaren,

80. 16mo, 150 pp.

Russia, the ethnography of. Orient. Church Mag., Sep

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Christiana. -I. London and Christiana. (Revi iewed in The. Atheneum,

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SEIDL aes _ —Ethnographie des Ry ae and Statiotical Tables.

Petermann’s S Mittheit.. Bd. 26, 1880, 1x, 340

SIBREE, Tas —The Great African Island: Chants on Madagas car. Withm

and umrasioua. London, Triibner & Co. (Reviewed in The Academy, Ave.

Sidra; Mrs. E. A.—The Language of the Iroquois. Science, Sept. 11

Soxo.orF, N. D.—K ere ean polovo yaaa jentschinkrestjanok one

aan a or Oo ujez ga: ay uberty in female peasants in Russia.)

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SPENCER, edistny —The parts of ju institutions, I.—Preliminary.

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1881. ] Geology and Paleentology. 161

SUAREZ, F. G—Estudio historico sobre los Cafiaris, antiguos habitantes de la Pro-

vincia del Azuay en la Republica del Ecuador. Quito, 1878. 4to, 57 pp., 5

tables,

THoms, WILLIAM J.—Exceptional longevity: its limits and frequency. A letter to

Professor Owens. London, 1880, 8vo. Is.

TirEca.—Levée de Milice de 1879; recherches relatives a la taille, au périmétre

thoracique et au poids du corps. Rapport. Arch. Méd. belges, Bruxelles, 1880,

30.

UJFALVY DE Mezé Kévesp, Cu.-E. pE.—Expédition scientifique francaise en Rus-

sie, en Sibérie T. 111. Les Bachkirs. Paris, 1880, gr. 8vo.

Viking’s Ship, A: (Architect.) Van NMostrand’s Mag., Oct.

Von Hé.iperR, H.—Ueber die in Deutschland vorkommenden von Herrn Virchow

en Friesen zugesprochenen niederen Schiadelformen. Arch. Anthrep., 1880,

XI, 315-358.

WHEELER, J. T.—Peasant life in Bengal. (Macmillan’s) Eclectic Mag., Oct.

WHITNEY, W. D.—A Sanskrit Grammar, including both the Classical Language

and the older dialects of Veda and Brahmana. Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel;

London, Triibner & Co. (The Atheneum, July 3, 1880; The Academy, June

26, July 3.)

Wyrousorr, G.—A’ propos d’Anthropologie. Philos. Positive Rev., Sept.—Oct.

ZABAROWSKI, —.—Tertiary Man. Kansas City Rev., Oct.

GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY.

GEOLOGY OF SOUTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA.—In a previous num-

ber of this magazine, we have noted the salient points of Prof,

Frazer's report on the geology of York county, Pa. We have

now before us his complete report on that of Lancaster county,

and understand that that relating to Chester county is in course

of preparation. The maps of York and Lancaster counties ac-

company the volumes, and that of Chester has already been pre-

pared. Extensive additions to and corrections of the existing

areas of the Lancaster Limestone, previously represented as dis-

tinct. (3.) The discrimination of several tracts of the Eozoic

within the territory of the Chickis quartzite. (4.) The discovery

of a trap dyke twenty miles in length, traversing the Eozoic and

Siluro-Cambrian beds from N. E. to S. W. (5.) The correct

determinations of the trap dykes of the Jura-Trias region.

The report on mining industries and resources is very full,

occupying nearly half the volume. The report on the Gap nickel

mine of Bart township will attract attention. This industry, built

up by the energy and perseverance of Joseph Wharton, of Phila-

delphia, has assumed large proportions, the production of nickel

being in excess of the consumption in the United States, leaving

162 General Netes. [ February, |

a surplus for export. Prof. Frazer shows that the metal is found

chiefly as Millerite, encrusting massés of hornblende, which lie in

the Eozoic gneiss.

A number of excellent engravings illustrate Prof. Frazer's re-

port. Of the accompanying sections that exposed on the east

bank of the Susquehanna river is the most extensive and instruc-

tive. As published, it represents an extensive anticlinal near the

mouth of Tocquan creek, which is an important key to the rela-

tions of the rocks to the north and south of it. We would have

been glad to have seen on this chart several other explanations of

rock structure which appeared on the section as originally pre-

pared by Prof. Frazer, but which were unfortunately omitted in

publication. Many of the observed dips have also been erased,

and figures soiabag into the air substituted by the direction of

the survey. 1e merits of this change are not obvious, since it

renders incomprehensible what was previously clear to the eye.

ALLEGED CHANGES IN THE RELATIVE ELEVATION OF LAND AND

Sra.—The view that the north-eastern coast of North America is

slowly rising, and Professor Shaler’s estimate of the rate as being

probably over a foot a century, and perhaps as much as three feet,

has been negatived by Mr. Henry Mitchell, according to the Amer-

ican Fournal of Science and Arts, who states in the Coast Survey

Report for 1877, that the rocks upon our coast, long notorious as

dangerous to navigation, have not risen since they were first dis-

covered; while the salt marshes are still as in the time of the

early explorers at ordinary high-water level, He claims that no

tilt in either direction has taken place in the Gulf of Maine. But

east of long. 64° 13’, ‘and Latest in Newfoundland, great

changes present themselves in the comparison of charts, the

depths appearing to be at some ante less and at other points

greater now than formerly.”

CATALOGUE OF VERTEBRATA OF THE PERMIAN FORMATION OF THE

UNITED STATES

PISCES.

CROSSOPTERYGIA.

EcTOSTEORHACHIS es. tie: ei No. 32, 1880, p. 19.

1. £. nitidus Cope; Tex

DIPNOI.

siege Agass.

C. fossatus Cope; Proc. = Phil. Soc. 1877, Ps 54. Eastern Illinois.

: c gurleianus Cope; 1. + Pp. 55. Eastern Illinoi

4. C. periprion Cope ; Proe. ‘Amer. Phil. Soc. 1878, p 527. Texas.

: rrectus Cope ;

6. C. dialophus Cope; 1. c. p. 528. Tex

usillus Cope; Proc. ‘Amer. Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 191. Eastern Illinois.

Prvoxsb0s prune: Proceed. Amer. Philos. Soc, 1877, p. 192.

8. ii Cope; Proc. Acad. Philada. 1876, p. 410. Eastern Ili nois.

9- P. Lane by Cane: Proc. Amer. Phil, Soc, 1877, p. 54. Eastern Illinois.

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 163

SELACHII.

os Miins

eed sbi Cope; Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 191. Eastern Illinois.

a ast ieosed ee ale S. lingueformis Cope; |. ¢. p. 53, not of older authors.

Eastern Illinois.

ee Ag ortiona Cope ; pen

pivisnes A

P35 DEF saaditons Newb. Eastern Illinois.

14. exas,

ORTHACANTHUS Aga —

15. O. gracilis Newberry. Eastern Illinois.

16. VO. ybalviiriats Cope; l. c. p. 192. Eastern Illinois,

BATRACHIA.

STEGOCEPHALI.

age Owen, Cope (emend.) Amer. Natur. 1880, p. 60,

Eryops Cope ; c. Amer. rr Soc. pth 188,

17. megacphaie Cope; 1.

TRIMERORHACHIS Cope; Proc. ‘Ane, Phil, Soc. 1878, Dp $a42

18. 7. insignis Cope; }.c. Texas

ope; l.c. p. 52

P. fer yerores Cope; Le Tex

Paxtvi vs Cope; Bull. U. a Geol. Surv Terr. 1881 (80).

ee Cor he Cope Tex

st beteatreee tee Americas Naturalist, 1880, p. 510.

gordo ei roceed. Acad. Phila. 1876, p. 405.

7bson sa ; Proc, Amer. Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 185. Eastern Illinois.

a C. heteroctitu Cope; eee Acad. Philada., 1376, p- 405. Eastern Illinois ;

Tex

REPTILIA. ;

THEROMORPHA Cope; American Naturalist, 1878, p. 829.

PELYCOSAURIA Cope; I. c.

Diplocaulide.

ee Cope; Proc. | Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 187.

. D. salamandroides Cope; 1. c. Eastern Illinois.

Clepsydropida.

PARIOTICHUS Cope; Proc. Amer. ee Soc. 1878, p- 508.

2 Pes Loe ee

ordinatus ioe : “Le. Tex

Auch aceite s Cope; Proc. Amer. Phil, Soc. 1877, p. 192.

27. A. vellicatus Cope; 1. c. Eastern Illinois.

eo Press sot Proc. Acad. Philada. 1876, p. 4

28. C. collettii Cope; 1. c. p. 407. Eastern Illinois.

29. C. vinslovii ; c. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 62. Eastern Illinois.

30.. C. pedunculatus Cope; 1. c. 3. Eastern I]linoi

BC. serie op oc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1878, p 39 Texas.

DIMETRO Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1878, p.

32, 2D: i i Co e; ic... Teras.

33. D. rectiformis Cope; |. c. p. 514. Tex

34. D. biradicatus Cope; Bull. PP c Geol. oa. Terrs. 1880 (81).

35- —— Cope; l. c. p. 515.

36. ruciger a ope ; Amer. Neue. “1878, p. 830. Texas.

THEROPL ey Co Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1878, p. 519.

37. TZ. retroversa “Gobes ; c. Texas.

38. 7. uniformis Cope; 1.c. Texas.

164 - General Notes. _[February,

39. TZ. triangulata Cope; 1. c. p. 520.

40. 7. obtusidens sti 2S Pal. Bull. No. 92 ake ps4. Fexas.

METARMOSAURUS Cope; Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1878, p- 516.

41. M.

EMBOLOPHORUsS Cope; lL. c. p. 518.

. friti nett on; Lc, Texas.

LysoropHus Cope; Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1877, p. 187.

43. L. tricarinatus Cope; 1. c. Eastern Illinois.

Bolosauride.

a Cope; Proc. pangs Pode Soc, 1878, p. 506.

. B. striatus Cope; 1s

Diadectide ee Pal. Bull. No. 32, 1880, p. &.

DIADECTES Cope; Proc. Am Fhil. — 1878, p . 505.

3 2s poems Cope; 1 Cc

D, phaseolinus aay Pal. B 1: No: 32, 1880, p. 9. Texas.

Euripoces ope ; Me ee: Phil Soc. 1878, p . 516.

47. £.a

s Cop as

48. £. itiecates ape! i ek

49. ris Cope; Pal. Bull, No. ae ners P 10. Texas.

Hinuooectes Cone: Bull. rs ae 32,

Z “ee

art

SI. rs tsaact Cope; he p. = pre

SYNOPSIS.

PISCES 15

“oOo

Di prot

Selachit seeescetus

BATRACHIA

Stegocephali

Ganocephala 5

Eimbolomera.sececececs: 2

REPTILIA 28

Theromorpha . 28

Pelycosauria 28

“I “SCO rH

Total number of species

—E. D. Cope.

GrotocicaL News.—Professor Gaudry has recently obtained

from the Permian of Igornay in Central France, the bones of a

Theromorphous reptile of Etmene res size. He re egards it as

an ally of the carnivorous forms w have been discovered in

Texas, Russia, etc. and names it ‘Svirearhackis ‘ominans,

Professor Cope describes in the current number of Hayden's

Bulletin a new carnivorous saurian from the Permian of Texas,

in which the roots of some of the teeth are so deeply grooved as

to be almost double. He names it Dimetrodon biradicatus—

1881.] Geography and Travels. 165

from east to west, flows through a wide band of diluvium, which

is bordered on each side by other formations. These are, to the

east, miocene and eocene ; west of this, granite and gneiss. To the

south there are extensive areas of silurian and cretaceous. The

map is a handsome piece of engraving, but is on a small scale.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS."

Tue East Centra AFRICAN EXPEDITION OF THE Roya GEo-

GRAPHICAL Society.—At the meeting. of the Royal Geographical

Society, held November 8, 1880, Mr. Joseph Thomson, the leader

of this expedition, read an account of his explorations including

many previous details not previously known.

The lofty plateau extending round the northern and eastern

sides of Lake Nyassa and reaching half way to Tanganyika rises

from 6000 to gooo feet, and is so cut up by denudation as to

appear like a series of mountains. ‘“ It consists to the north and

and by no means picturesque. Pass from these to the volcanic

rocks, and we observe at once a marked change. We have sharp

Jagged peaks, precipitous rocky sides, notched and cut in the most

irregular and striking fashion, as becomes mountains formed of

such diverse materials as compact lava beds and loose tuffs and

agglomerates. Add to these features huge yawning gorges and

great precipices where vegetation in vain attempts to grow, an

some notion of this plateau may be formed.”

On this high tract of land were found most miserable and

degraded types of the Negro race. “These people have dark,

sooty skins, prognathous jaws and thick lips, with small heads

and shrunk-up withered bodies which speak of an existence of

the most miserable character. They go, as a rule, perfectly

naked, and live in conical huts seven feet high and five or six feet

in diameter, crawling in and out through a hole.” ‘“‘ It was found

almost impossible to communicate with them, as they seemed to

be entirely devoid of any abstract ideas, and appeared to be com-

pletely shut off from all knowledge and communication with the

outside world.” “ Mr. Thomson,” remarks the Academy, “ seems

to have formed the idea that these tribes are in their present con-

dition from having remained absolutely isolated; but others may

incline to the opinion that it is a case of gradual degeneration.”

€ commercial importance of this portion of Central Africa is

* Edited by E.tis H. YaRNALL, Philadelphia.

166 General Notes. [ February,

not great. ‘“ Nowhere,” says Thomson, “have I seen a single

metal in a form which a white man would for a moment look at

as a profitable or phar speculation. There is, no doubt, a

considerable abundance of iron in many parts, but very little

more than sufficient to _supply the simple wants of the natives.

Coal I saw none, and my researches would lead me to believe that

such a thing does not exist over the wide area embraced by our

route.” “The chief characteristic of this part of the country was

its utter barrenness and the absence of anything worth trading

for

The expedition marched for six days along the Lukuga, the

outlet of Lake Tanganyika and which pursued its tumultuous

course ina W. N. W. direction “ through one of the most charming

valleys I have ever seen in Africa; beautifully wooded hills rising

on each side from to 2000 feet above the level of the lake,

while forest clumps and open glades diversified the scenery along

the river’s banks, where antelopes and buffaloes grazed in abun-

dance.” The refusal of his men to go further prevented Mr.

Thomson’s following the river to its junction with the Congo.

While there is much beauty and picturesqueness in the scenery,

along the shores of Tanganyika one is on the whole, disappointed

in its monotony. There was the same unvarying tint of green,

the same unbroken hill-ranges which would have been inexpressi-

bly dreary but for the frequent appearance of a jutting cape or

small island. The chief feature in the scenery was the immense

boulders and blocks which everywhere lined the shore.”

nthe return to the coast, e Hikwa was visited. “ We

saw it from an altitude of about 8000 feet above the sea, its sur-

face lying more than half that height beneath us, and the moun-

tains rose in such perfect precipices all round, that it seemed as if

we could throw a stone into it. One of its peculiarities i is, that it

has no visible outlet—a fact which admits of little doubt. From

my own personal knowledge I can say that none exists either

north, south or west, while Elton and Cotterill, in passing near

its eastern side, found no stream flowing from that direction.”

Of the one hundred and fifty men who started on this remark-

able and most successful journey all but one reached the coast

again, arriving in the best of health and condition after traversing

no less than 2830 miles, of which 1300 were over entirely new

ground,

AFRICAN ExPLoraTIon.— Dr. Emil Holub proposes to make a

journey through Africa from the south to the north, starting from

the borders of the British colonies and visiting first the Zambesi

and the Marutse-Malunda country. Then crossing the watershed

between the Zambesi and Congo he will explore the region

around the sources of the latter river, after which he hopes to

reach the utterly unexplored region north of the Congo and make

his way through Darfur into Egypt. Dr. Holub anticipates ac-

1881.] Geography and Travels. 167

complishing this extraordinary journey in the space of three years,

at the cost of rather more than $25,000. The French explorer,

M. Savorgnan de Brazza, is again pursuing his explorations on

the Ogowé, and at last accounts (July 14th) had started for the

Congo after establishing a station at the junction of the Passa and

Ogowe. His former companion, Dr. Ballay, is about to rejoin

him, and the French section of the International Association sends

out with him M. Mizon, who will establish a new station on the

Ogowé. M. de Brazza had engaged 750 men for this latter ex-

pedition, who will ascend the Ogowé as far as the Alima, taking

with them, in canoes, the sections of a steam launch. Major

von Mechow, who was sent out by the German Government

eighteen months since to explore in Angola, left Malange on the

12th of June last, and arrived on the banks of Quango on the

1gth of July, at a point below the great water falls, and consider-

ably beyond the limits of Messrs. Ivens and Capello’s explora-

tions. Although the expedition was everywhere well received

observations taken. Two other Germans, Messrs. Pogge and

Wissman, have also gone to Angola, in order to penetrate into

the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo, whom Dr. Pogge visited in

1875. Dr. Oscar Lenz, who was despatched by the same

society in the latter part of 1879, has succeeded in reaching

Timbuktu. He started from Tangier on December 22, 1879, in

company of Hadj Ali, nephew of the celebrated Abd-el-Kader,

and was disguised as a Turkish doctor of Constantinople. He

met with a friendly reception at Timbuktu. He arrived at

Medina, Senegal, on November 2, 1880. Of the three Europeans

who have formerly visited Timbuktu, Major Lang (1826) was

murdered; M. René Caillié two years later brought the first

accounts of it to Europe, and Dr. Barth, in 1853-4, spent some

months there.

168 | General Notes. [ February,

MICROSCOPY.!

FERTILIZATION BY MEANS OF PoLLeN-TuBEs.—Mr. J. Kruttsch-

nitt, of New Orleans, has been engaged for some years in the study

of the pollen of flowers, the formation and history of the pollen-

tube and its relation to the theory that each ovule is fertilized by

a tube which descends from the stigma, reaches the ovule and en-

ters its structure through the micropyle. His conclusion that this

theory is radically erroneous, and that the functions of the pollen-

tubes need re-examination, derives its force from the fact that,

being an experienced, cautious and thoroughly capable observer,

he has enjoyed exceptional opportunities for the study of the sub-

ject in plants most suitable for the purpose, and that the uniform

result of his numerous experiments has been contradictory to the

accepted theory. During the past few years he has examined

thousands of cases, and has confirmed his observations in some

500 instances by mounted specimens, which show with great clear-

ness the facts as they existed at the time of cutting the sections.

Yet he has seen no pollen-tubes in contact with the ovules, nor

anywhere near them, though examined during the times when

fertilization must be taking place, if at all. On the contrary, the

pollen-tube is always lost sight of near the stigma. The length

of the style is such in many flowers that the pollen-tube would

have a long way to travel to reach the ovule, and the arrangement

of tissue is often such that nature would seem to have placed the

greatest difficulties possible in the way of fertilization, instead of

taking such a direct and certain way as would reasonably be ex-

pected. Mr. Kruttschnitt, therefore, concludes that it is next to

impossible for fertilization to take place by the pollen-tube coming

into actual contact with the ovules, and that, in fact, the whole

ovary is impregnated with the substance of the pollen. He seems

pollen-tubes. All these features are exquisitely shown in a spe-

cial box of preparations just contributed to the Postal Club.

- As to the general proof of the new theory, it must be admitted

that the evidence is mostly negative, and that negative is at best

a poor off-set for positive proof. That one man, however capable

and thorough, has not seen a thing is overbalanced a thousand

times by the fact that another capable and candid observer has

seen it. The first may have taken the chances however small,

which missed seeing that which did exist, the second could not

really have seen that which did not exist. Still further observa-

tions, therefore, extending over a greater length of time, will be

required to shake belief in a theory which has been so long re-

arded as a fact, and which rests upon the most positive and

universally believed statements of fact. On the other hand it

1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

1881. ] Microscopy. 169

must be admitted that so capable an observer, with unlimited op-

portunities for favorable observation, would be extremely likely to

see the pollen-tubes at or near the ovules, if they really were

accustomed to reach that locality; also, that there might be dan-

ger of mistaking other structures for pollen-tubes at a distance

from the stigma, that the difficulties to be encountered by the

pollen-tube in reaching the ovule would be very great in many

cases, and that it would be almost a miracle if all the seeds of

some plants having a vast number of ovules should be fructified

individually by separate grains of pollen. It should also be re-

that proof of such a theory as that of the fructification of the

ovule directly by the pollen may seem stronger than it is, a great

number of statements to that effect resting (possible) on a much

more limited number of really independent statements. The

early observations, too, which established the accepted theory,

must have been made with lenses of inferior defining power and

without the advantages of staining, which would now render error

much more improbable. Furthermore pollen-tubes may in some

instances have really been seen in contact with the ovules, and a

general theory have been drawn from the fact, when their presence

there was exceptional and not normal, or at least not general.

The proof of the old theory is therefore not so positive as it

seems; and the theory must be to some extent an assum

tion founded upon facts whose significance is not beyond dis-

ce.

Though analogy is often an unsafe argument, the doctrine of

fertilization of the whole ovary by the pollen is well illustrated, to

say the least, by the ferns and others among the lower plants

which produce fertile spores indefinitely as the result of a single

earlier fructification. On the whole, while far more proof will be

required to convince the world of the correctness of the new

theory, still the very interesting and able studies of Mr. Krutt-

schnitts seem sufficiently conclusive to call for a reconsideration of

the old theory, or at least, for a revision of the proofs upon which

it rests.

AMERICAN MicroscopicaL Society OF THE City oF New York.

—Owing to a misapprehension which appears to have been re-

cently encouraged by interested parties, friends of the American

Microscopical Society of the City of New York—the oldest in-

corporated Microscopical Society in the United States—are noti-

fied that the name of the Society has not been changed, its meet-

wngs discontinued, or its large and valuable collection broken up and

scattered. At the recent annual election the following officers

were elected for the year 1880: President, John B. Rich, M. D.;

secretary, O. G. Mason, Bellevue Hospital.

VOL, XV.—No, 11, 12

170 Scientific News. [ February,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— The National Academy of Sciences held a meeting, Novem-

ber 16th-19th, for the reading of papers by its members at New

York. From the annual report of the president, Prof. W. B.

Rogers, we take the following statement, showing the practical

nature of the work already performed by the members for the

Government, and who are elected solely from the excellence of

their original contributions to pure science.

The National Academy of Sciences was established by Act of

Congress in March, 1863, with power to frame its own constitu-

tion, select its own members, and provide in other respects for its

continuance and successful operation.

The object of the Academy is to advance science, pure and ap-

plied, by original researches; to invite the attention and aid of

the Government to scientific inquiries of especial public import-

ance, to be directed by the Academy; and especially to investi-

gate, examine, experiment, and report on any subject of science

or art whenever called upon by any department of the Govern-

ment ;

The Academy contains at present about one hundred mem-

bers, representing within their ranks nearly every department of

knowledge, whose services, in accordance with the charter of the

Academy, are always at the disposal of the Government.

The Academy by its charter is made in a sense the scientific

adviser of the National Government, and has, therefore, been fre-

quently called upon by the departments for suggestions or re-

searches on scientific questions bearing upon the public in-

terest.

The Report gives a summary of what the Academy has done

since its foundation in aiding the Government by its scientific

advice and cooperation. The special investigations thus under-

taken amount in number to thirty-one, on such subjects as the

magnetic deviations in iron ships, the national currency, the ex-

pansion of steam, the prevention of counterfeiting, the improve-

ment of Greytown harbor, Nicaragua, the distinguishing of calf’s

hair goods from woolen goods, silk culture in the United States,

the measurement of the velocity of light, the preparation of a

magnetic chart of the United States, and similar subjects, together

with reports on weights, measures and coinage,

As the Report states: “ A consideration of the value of these

labors, and of the prompt zeal with which the Academy has

always responded to the calls of the Government, should incline

the National Legislature to continue the wise policy of making

ample provision for the scientific work undertaken by the Acad-

emy at the request or with the sanction of the Government. Re-

searches of the nature of some of those here enumerated, require

1881. ] Scientific News. 171

costly instruments and the cooperation of many persons, it may

be for a prolonged period, and, of course, cannot be brought to

the most satisfactory results without an expenditure of money

corresponding to the nature and duration of the work.

“It is much to be regretted that the Academy is not provided

with the means of publishing its scientific and other productions,

Since its establishment, upward of five hundred papers, many of

them possessing great scientific value, have been contributed by

its members and by others who have been invited to take part in

its sessions. Some of these, it is true, have reached the circle of

scientific readers through other channels of publication, but it

cannot be doubted that the interests of science, as well as the

dignity of the Academy, would be promoted by the annual pub-

lication of a volume of its scientific memoirs and other proceed-

ings under its own direction and authority.

““As a recognized counselor of the Government, frequently

called upon for important scientific service, it is thought that the

Academy may reasonably hope that provision will be made by

the Government for such publication,”

— Asa result of the explorations of the United States Fish

Commission within the past ten years, 1000 additions to the

Maine invertebrate fauna of New England have been made; many

of them, however, have been independently discovered by Prof.

Verrill, who also has had charge of these explorations undertaken

by the Commission. Moreover, the Commission has discovered

award of the first honorary prize by the Emperor of Germany to

Prof. Baird, who is regarded in Europe, in the words of the

president of the German Fischerei Verein, as the first fish cul-

turist in the world.

— The steamer Blake, Commander J. R. Bartlett, U. SN;

Assistant Coast and Geodetic Survey, under instructions from

. P. Patterson, superintendent of that survey, lately read a paper

on a dredging trip of three or four weeks off the coast between

George’s bank and the latitude of Savannah. The lines dredged

Over, approved by the superintendent, were those selected by

172 Scientific News. [ February,

Prof. A, Agassiz, who accompanied the Blake, having special

charge of the results of the dredgings, all of which proved to be

eminently satisfactory to him, many new forms and facts being

obtained, In effecting the dredgings, over a line off Charles-

ton, S. C., nearly normal to the coast, across the Gulf stream,

Commander Bartlett found the depths much less than expected.

This induced him, although the trip was one primarily for dredg-

ing, to extend the work of sounding, and he accordingly ran a

line of soundings nearly along the warmest band of the Gulf

stream, commonly called the axis of the stream, for a distance

of 150 miles, from lat. 32m. to lat. 33m. 30s. north, on which _

he obtained depths varying from 233 to 450 fathoms, ‘where it

was supposed that the depths -would range from 600 to 1000

fathoms. At the north-east end of this line, in about lat.

33° 30’ north, the depth suddenly increased, in a distance of 15

miles, from 457 to 1386 fathoms. These depths obtained by

Commander Bartlett, appeared to indicate that a submarine table

land may extend from the coasts of North and South Carolina

across to the Northern Bahamas.

— Lieutenant-Commander Sigsbee’s gravitating trap for collect-

ing organisms at different depths, was described by Prof. Agassiz,

at the last meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, who

also reviewed the more important results determined by its use.

It was found that to the depth of 50 fathoms the same organisms

were taken as at the surface. The next 50 fathoms contained the

same types, but the genera was less numerous. They counted 17

genera of pelagic organisms upon the immediate surface in one

of these investigations, but only 5 of them were brought up when

the trap was let down to a depth of 100 fathoms. Prof. Agassiz

concluded with a high compliment to the ingenuity of Commander

Sigsbee, whose invention had surmounted so many of the difficul-

ties connected with the study of submarine biology.

He believed that the bodies of pelagic organisms brought up

from great depths were the carcasses of animals that had perished

of age or accident upon the surface, and had slowly settled to the

bottom to furnish food for its living hosts, It required from three

to four days for a dead tunicate to sink to the depth of 1000

fathoms.

— Many sheep and lambs have recently been worried on sheep

farms in the neighborhood of Dundee, Scotland. An unusual

method of sheep worrying was recently perpetrated on the farm

of Pickstone, tenanted by Mr. Campbell. One morning a lamb

was heard bleating in one of the fields on the farm, and, as no

lamb could be seen on a casual inspection, a more careful search

was made, when it was found that the bleating proceeded from

a lamb that was buried in the land, the only part left exposed

being the head. It was at once evident that this had been the

1881.] Scientific News. ea ok

work of a dog. The lamb was taken out, and was, strange to say,

little the worse of its burial. A diligent watch was instituted,

with the result that the depredator—a collie dog——was captured

in the act of burying another lamb, which was also alive.

— The new building at South Kensington for the British Mu-

seum was finished last June, and the geological, botanical and

mineralogical specimens have been removed from the old build-

i The zoological collections, which are equal in bulk to the

other three collectively, have yet to be removed, as the necessary

funds for this purpose have not yet been appropriated. Professor

wen, the veteran Superintendent of the Natural History Collec-

tion, still actively directs the labors of his assistants. A bio-

graphical notice of Professor Owen and an excellent portrait by

Jeens appeared in Nature. He has lately designed an index mu-

seum in the new building, intended “to show the type characters

of the principal groups of organized beings,” thus epitomizing

nearly the entire museum.

— The members of the expedition which, under the auspices

of the Archeological Institute of America, is to investigate

the ruins of the city of Assos, in Asia Minor, will sail this

week in the steamship Germanic, of the White Star Line. The

party comprises Joseph Thatcher Clarke, of Boston, who will act

as the leader; Francis Henry Bacon, of this city; Maxwell Wrig-

ley, of Brooklyn, and two or three other gentlemen who are inter-

ested in archeological research. Through the Department of

State, the Turkish Government has offered the members of the

expedition every assistance in its power. Assos is on the south-

ern coast of Mysia, opposite the island of Lesbos, and contains

among other things the ruins of a Doric temple, a theatre, and

massive fortification walls.

— The following calculation as to the total number of existing

botanical species, has been recently made by Dr. Miller, of Geneva.

We have at present in our books about 130,000 species, and if we

suppose that 30,000 (in round numbers), belong to countries like

Europe and North America, where there are hardly any species,

but some cryptogams to be discovered, the remainder, or 100,000,

representing exotic plants, more or less tropical and southern, we

may double the latter for new species, giving 200,000 for these

less known regions, and altogether 230,000 for the whole globe,

with the exception of countries still quite unknown botanically.

Adding only 20,000 species for the latter, we reach a minimum

sum of 250,000 species of plants.

Dr. B. W. Richardson, in a paper read before the Sanitary

Institute (Exeter, September 20, 1880), seems to approach the

position of Professor Jager. He writes: ‘‘ Go into the wards of a

174 Scientific News. [ February,

lunatic asylum, and notice among the most troubled there the

odor of the gases and the vapors they emit by the skin and the

breath. That odor is from their internal atmosphere, their ner-

vous ethereal emanation. They are mad up to suicide or murder,

or any criminal folly. Can it be otherwise? They have secreted

the madness; they are filled with it; it exhales from them.

Catch it, condense it, imbibe it, and in like manner it would mad-

den any one.” Is not this the teaching of Jager and Dunstmaier,

. to suit the audience and the occasion P— Fournal of

Scien

— M. E. Yung (Comptes Rendus, August 30, 1880) has studied

the development of the eggs of Loligo vulgaris and Sepia offict-

nalis exposed to light of different colors. The development is

hastened by violet and blue light; retarded by green and red.

Yellow light behaves like white light. Larvz of Czona intestinalis

also grew most rapidly in the violet light. Development under

the red and green lights, though retarded, was effected in per-

fection.

— Besides issuing the beginning of what will be a most valu-

able series of monographs on the Mediterranean fauna studied at

Dr. Dohrn’s Zodlogical Station, a provisional priced catalogue of

the microscopical preparations issued by the Station at Naples,

has been published. It includes four different preparations of

Protozoa, 33 of Covlenitepata. 49 of Echinodermata, 33 of Vermes,

57 of Arthropoda, 54 of Mollusca, and 193 of Vertebrata. These

will be as valuable as any ever sold. The price is from one to

ten francs.

— As the result of Dr. O. Finsch’s voyage of ten months in the

Pacific Ocean he has sent to Europe about thirty boxes of collec-

tions, the materials embracing 70 mammals, 180 birds, 800 rep-

tiles, 1200 fishes, 15,000 mollusks, 800 crustacea, 400 spiders,

1400 insects, together with 50 skulls and 55 casts of faces, repre-

senting the people of twenty different islands, besides 1500 ethno-

graphical objects.

— A Young Men’s EONS for Home Study has been formed

in Boston for the encouragement of systematic study and reading

at home. The course in Natural Science, of which department

Mr. S. H. Scudder is the head, embraces Botany, three courses in

Zoology and two courses in Geolo ogy. The reading is designed

to be accompanied by the study of specimens,

— We learn that the Rev. W. H. Dallinger, of Liverpool, the

distmiruished microscopist, has accepted the appointment of

Governor and Professor of Biology at Wesley College, Sheffield.

This institution. may be congratulated on the acquisition it has

made

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 175

— The death of Mr. Frank Buckland, is announced in the

papers of Dec. 18th. Mr. Buckland was the son of Dean Buck-

land, the distinguished geologist. He was well known as a pleas-

ing writer on popular natural history, and as a fish culturist.

— A large and valuable collection of Rhode Island plants has

been presented by Mr. James L. Bennett, of Providence, to the

already increasing Herbarium of Brown University, of which Mr,

W. W. Bailey has recently been appointed the curator,

— Prof. Thomas Rymer Jories, F.R.S., died in December; he

was born in 1810; held the chair of comparative anatomy in

King’s College, London, and was the author of “ The General

Outline of the Animal Kingdom.”

— Dr. E. Sequin, well-known as a leading American physician,

philanthropist and physiologist, died in New York in October.

He was born in France in 1812, and showed brilliant talents

while a student in Paris.

— It is reported in the daily papers that a manuscript journal

of Gilbert White, of Selborne, has been discovered. It is said

_to be of considerable length.

_ — Dr. Lauder Lindsay, who wrote on the subject of intelligence

in the lower animals, and who was an authority on British lichens,

died in December last.

— Prof. Ernst Hampe, a distinguished German bryologist, died

recently at Helmatedt, aged 85 years.

“0;

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Dec. 20.—Professor C. H.

Hitchcock read a paper on the ancient volcanoes of New England,

and Dr. R. P. Stevens exhibited some rare silver ores and carbo-

niferous fossils from Arizona.

Boston Society or Natura History, Dec. 15.--Notes onthe

geology of Mt. Desert were read by Mr. Wm. M. Davis, and that

' of the adjoining Frenchmen’s Bay was discussed by Mr. W. O

Crosby. Mr. JS. Kingsley spoke of some points in the anatomy

of Holothurians. Dr. Edward Palmer showed some objects of

ethnological interest from caves in Mexico.

176 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Feb., 1881.

APPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, Dec. 10.—Mr. H. Murdock read

a paper on Mt. Cardigan, including accounts of several ascents.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, Dec. 23.—Mr. Thomas

Davidson read a paper on the recent excavations and discoveries

at Athens and Olympia.

Mripp.esex InsTITUTE.—At an adjourned meeting of the Md-

dlesex Scientific Field Club, held on the 8th of December, 1880,

the name of the club was changed to that of Middlesex Institute,

by which name it will hereafter be known.

Boston Soctety oF NATuRAL History, Jan. 5, 1881.—Dr. M.

E. Wadsworth discussed the appropriation of the name “‘ Lauren-

tian” by the Canadian Geological Survey. The President gave

further details of the structure of the carboniferous millipedes, to

show that they should be classed as a distinct suborder of Myria-

pods. Mr. F. W. Putnam exhibited some supposed Palaeolithic

implements from Massachusetts, and spoke of their discovery and

character. Mr. J. S. Kingsley presented a collection of Crustacea

and remarked on some of its rare or curious species.

secsemcarsees 6

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

GEOLOGICAL MaGAzinE.—December. Notes on the occurrence

of Stone Implements in the coast latitude south of Madras, by R.

R. Foote. Analysis of Moa egg-shell, by A. Liversidge. Classi- .

fication of the Pliocene and Pleistocene beds, by C. Reid. The

Mammoth in Siberia, by H. H. Howorth. The writer maintains

that in former times when the mammoth abounded in Northern

Siberia, the climate of this region, extending from the Ural

mountains to Behring straits, Siberia, was much milder and like

that of Lithuania at present “where the bison still survives, and

where so many of the other contemporaries of the mammo

still live.”)

ANNALS AND MAGAZINE OF Natura History, November.—On

Carter.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, January, 1881.—The Albany

Granite, New Hampshire, and its contact phenomena, by G. W.

Hawes.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vot. xv. — JTARCH, 1881. — No. 3.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON OF THE PACIFIC.

BY DAVID S. JORDAN AND CHAS, H. GILBERT.

wane the most of the present year, the writers have been

engaged in the study of the fishes of the Pacific coast of the

United States, in the interest of the U. S. Fish Commission and the

U.S. Census Bureau. The following pages contain the principal

facts ascertained concerning the salmon of the Pacific coast. It

is condensed from our report to the U. S. Census Bureau, by

permission of Professor Goode, assistant in charge of fishery

investigations.

There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters

of the North Pacific. We have at present no evidence of the ex-

istence of any more on either the American or the Asiatic side.

These species may be called the quinnat or king salmon, the

blue-back salmon or red-fish, the silver salmon, the dog salmon,

and the hump-back’ salmon or Oncorhynchus chouicha, nerka,

kisutch, keta and gorbuscha, All these species are now known

to occur in the waters of Kamtschatka as well as in those of

Alaska and Oregon.

As vernacular names of definite application, the following are

on record:

@. Quinnat—Chouicha, king salmon, e’quinna, saw-kwey, Chin-

nook salmon, Columbia River salmon, Sacramento salmon.

tyee salmon, Monterey salmon, deep-water salmon, spring

salmon, ek-ul-ba (“ekewan”) (fall run),

6. Blue-back—krasnaya ryba, Alaska red-fish, Idaho red-fish,

sukkegh, Frazer’s river salmon, rascal, oo-chooy-ha,

¢, Silver. salmon—kisutch, winter salmon, hoopid, skowitz,

slp Seige ryba, o-o-wun.

VOL, XV.—

178 Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. [ March,

d. Dog salmon—kayko, lekai, ktlawhy, qualoch, fall salmon,

o-le-a-rah. The males of a// the species in the fall are

usually known as dog salmon, or fall salmon.

e. Hump-back—gorbuscha, haddo, hone, holia, lost salmon,

Puget Sound salmon, dog salmon (of Alaska).

Of these species, the blue-back predominates in Frazer's river,

the silver salmon in Puget sound, the quinnat in the Columbia

and the Sacramento, and the silver salmon in most of the small

streams along the coast. All the species have been seen by us in

the Columbia and in Frazer’s river; all but the blue-back in the

Sacramento, and all but the blue-back in waters tributary to

Puget sound. Only the quinnat has been noticed south of San

Francisco, and its range has been traced as far as Ventura river,

which is the southernmost stream in California which is not

muddy and alkaline at its mouth.

Of these species, the quinnat and blue-back salmon habitually

“run” in the spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of

running in the rivers is as follows: nerka, chouicha, kisutch, gor-

buscha, keta.

The economic value of the spring running salmon is far greater

than that of the other species, because they can be captured in

numbers when at their best, while the others are usually taken

only after deterioration.

The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied.

Quinnat and silver salmon of every size are taken with the seine

at almost any season in Puget sound. The quinnat takes the

hook freely in Monterey bay, both near the shore and at a dis-

tance of six or eight miles out. We have reason to believe that

these two species do not necessarily seek great depths, but prob-

ably remain not very far from the mouth of the rivers in which

they were spawned.

The blue-back and the dog salmon probably seek deeper

water, as the former is seldom or never taken with the seine in

the ocean, and the latter is known to enter the Straits of Fuca at

the spawning season.

The great majority of the quinnat salmon and nearly all the

blue-back salmon enter the rivers in the spring. The run of both

begins generally the last of March; it lasts, with various modifi-

cations and interruptions, until the actual spawning season in

November ; the time of running and the proportionate amount of

1881.] Observations on the Salmon of the Pactfie: 179

each of the subordinate runs, varying with each different river.

In general, the runs are slack in the summer and increase with

the first high water of autumn. By the last of August only

straggling blue-backs can be found in the lower course of any

stream, but both in the Columbia and the Sacramento the quinnat

runs in considerable numbers till October at least. In the Sacra-

mento the run is greatest in the fall, and more run in the summer

than in spring. In the Sacramento and the smaller rivers south-

ward, there is a winter run, beginning in December.

The spring salmon ascend only those rivers which are fed by

the melting snows from the mountains, and which have sufficient

volume to send their waters well out to sea. Such rivers are the

Sacramento, Rogue, Klamath, Columbia and Frazer's rivers.

Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults (sup-

posed to be at least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no

more developed than at the same time in others of the same spe-

cies which will not enter the rivers until fall. It would appear that

the contact with cold fresh water, when in the ocean, in some way

caused them to turn toward it and to “run,” before there is any

special influence to that end exerted by the development of the

organs of generation. ‘ .

High water on any of these rivers in the spring is always fol-

lowed by an increased run of salmon. The canners think, and

this is probably true, that salmon which would not have run till

later, are brought up by the contact with the cold. water. The:

cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not understood. We

may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another way of

expressing our ignorance. In general, it seems to be true that

in those rivers and during those years when the spring run is

greatest, the fall run is least to be depended on. '

As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these

two species (quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn,

and in the fall these young specimens are very numerous. We

have thus far failed to notice any gradations in size or appearance

of these young fish by which their ages could be ascertained. It

is, however, probable that some of both sexes reproduce at the age _

of one year. In Frazer’s river, in the fall, quinnat male grilse of

every size, from eight inches upwards, were running, the milt

fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and

dark colors of the older males. Females less than eighteen

180 Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. [ March,

inches in length were rare. All, large and small, then in the river,

of either sex, had the ovaries or milt well developed.

Little blue-backs of every size down to six inches are also found

_in the Upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of generation

fully developed. Nineteen-twentieths of these young fish are

males, and some of them have the hooked jaws and red color of

the old males.

The average weight of the quinnat in the Columbia, in the spring,

is twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento about sixteen. Indi-

viduals weighing from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found

in both rivers, and some as high as eighty pounds are reported.

It is questioned whether these large fishes are: (a.) Those which,

of the same age, have grown more rapidly ; (4.) Those which are

older but have, for some reason, failed to spawn; or (c.) Those

which have survived one or more spawning seasons. All of these

origins may be possible in individual cases; we are, however, of

the opinion that the majority of these large fish are those which

have hitherto run in the fall and so may have survived the spawn-

ing season previous.

Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring, continue their

ascent until death or the spawning season overtakes them, Prob-

ably none of them ever return to the ocean, and a large propor-

tion fail to spawn. They are known to ascend the Sacramento as

far as the base of Mount Shasta, or to its extreme head-waters,

about four hundred miles. In the Columbia they are known to

ascend as far as the Bitter Root mountains, and as far as the

Spokan falls, and their extreme limit is not known. This is a

distance of six to eight hundred miles.

At these great distances, when the fish have reached the spawn-

ing grounds, besides the usual changes of the breeding season,

their bodies are covered with bruises on which patches of white

fungus develop. The fins become mutilated, their eyes are often

injured or destroyed; parasitic worms gather in their gills, they

become extremely emaciated, their flesh becomes white from the

loss of the oil, and as soon as the spawning act is accomplished,

and sometimes before, all of them die. The ascent of the Cas-

cades and the Dalles probably causes the injury or death of a

great many salmon.

When the salmon enter the river they refuse bait, and their

stomachs are always found empty and contracted. In the rivers

1881. ] Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. 181

they do not feed, and when they reach the spawning grounds

their stomachs, pyloric cceca and all, are said to be no larger than

one’s finger. They will sometimes take the fly, or a hook baited

with salmon roe, in the clear waters of the upper tributaries, but

there is no other evidence known to us that they feed when

there. Only the quinnat and blue-back (then called red-fish) have

been found in the fall at any great distance from the sea.

The spawning season is probably about the same for all the

species. It varies for all in different rivers and in different parts

of the same river, and doubtless extends from July to December.

The manner of spawning is probably similar for all the species,

but we have no data for any except the quinnat. In this species

the fish pair off, the male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad

shallow “nest” in the gravelly bed of the stream, in rapid water, —

at a depth of one to four feet; the female deposits her eggs in

it and after the exclusion of the milt they cover them with stones

and gravel. They then float down the stream tail foremost. A

great majority of them die. In the head-waters of the large

streams all die, unquestionably. In the small streams, and near

the sea, an unknown percentage probably survive. The young

hatch in about sixty days,and most of them return to the ocean

during the high water of the spring.

The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or

not according to the species, and with the mouth about equally

symmetrical in both sexes.

As the spawning season approaches the female loses her silvery

color, becomes more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink

into the skin, and the flesh changes from salmon red and becomes

variously paler, from the loss of the oil; the degree of paleness

varying much with individuals and with inhabitants of different

rivers,

In the lower Satramento the flesh of the quinnat in either spring

or fall is rarely pale. In the Columbia, a few with pale flesh are

sometimes taken in spring, and a good many in the fall. In Frazer’s

river the fall run of the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning

purposes, because so many are white meated. In the spring very

few are white meated, but the number increases towards fall,

when there is every variation, some having red streaks running

through them, others being red toward the head and pale toward

the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be distinguished exter-

182 Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. [ March,

nally, and the color is dependent neither on age nor sex. There

is said to be no difference in the taste, but there is no market for

canned salmon not of the conventional orange color.

As the season advances, the differences between the males and

the females become more and more marked, and keep pace with

the development of the milt, as is shown by dissection.

The males have: (a.) The premaxillaries and the tip of the

lower jaw more and more prolonged, both of them becoming

finally strongly and often extravagantly hooked, so that either

they shut by the side of each other like shears, or else the mouth

cannot be closed. (4.) The front teeth become very long and

canine-like, their growth proceeding very rapidly, until they are

often half aninch long. (c.) The teeth on the vomer and tongue

often disappear. (d.) The body grows more compressed and

deeper at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is formed;

this is more developed in O. gorbuscha, but is found in all. (¢.)

The scales disappear, especially on the back, by the growth of

spongy skin. (/) The color changes from silvery to various

shades of black and red or blotchy, according to the species.

The blue-back turns rosy red, the dog salmon a dull, blotchy red,

and the quinnat generally blackish.

These distorted males are commonly considered worthless,

rejected by the canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the

Indians. These changes are due solely to influences connected

with the growth of the testes. They are not in any way due to

the action of fresh water. They take place at about the same time

in the adult males of all species, whether in the ocean or in the

rivers. At the time of the spring runs, all are symmetrical. In

the fall, all males of whatever species are more or less distorted.

Among the dog salmon, which run only in the fall, the males are

hook-jawed and red-blotched when they first enter the Straits of

Fuca from the outside. The hump-back, taken in salt water

about Seattle, shows the same peculiarities. The male is slab-

sided, hook-billed and distorted, and is rejected by the canners.

No hook-jawed females of any species have been seen.

It is not positively known that any hook-jawed male survives

the reproductive act. Ifany do, their jaws must resume the nor-

mal form.

On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing:

they always head towards the current, and this “ playing’ may be

1881. ] Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. 183

simply due to facing the flood tide. Afterwards they enter the

deepest parts of the stream and swim straight up, with few inter-

ruptions, Their rate of travel on the Sacramento is estimated by

Stone at about two miles per day; on the Columbia at about

three miles per day.

As already stated, the economic value of any species depends

in great part on its being a “spring salmon.” It is not generally

possible to capture salmon of any species in large numbers until

they have entered the rivers, and the spring salmon enter the

rivers long before the growth of the organs of reproduction has

reduced the richness of the flesh. The fall salmon cannot be

taken in quantity until their flesh has deteriorated; hence the

“dog salmon” is practically almost worthless, except to the

Indians, and the hump-back salmon is little better. The silver

salmon, with the same breeding habits as the dog salmon, is more

valuable, as it is found in Puget sound fora considerable time

before the fall rains cause the fall runs, and it may be taken in

large numbers with seines before the season for entering the

rivers. The quinnat salmon, from its great size and abundance is

more valuable than all other fishes on our Pacific coast together.

The blue-back, similar in flesh but much smaller and less abun-

' dant, is worth much more than the combined value of the three

remaining species.

The fall salmon of all species, but especially the dog salmon,

ascend streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem

to be in great anxiety to find fresh water and many of them work

their way up little brooks only a few inches deep, where they

soon perish miserably, floundering about on the stones, Every

stream, of whatever kind, has more or less of these fall salmon.

It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some

special instinct which leads them to return to spawn in the same

spawning grounds where they were originally hatched. We fail

to find any evidence of this in the case of the Pacific coast sal-

mon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems more prob-

able that the young salmon, hatched in any river, mostly remain

in the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty or forty miles of its

mouth. These, in their movements about in the ocean, may come

into contact with the cold waters of their parent rivers, or perhaps

of any other river, at a considerable distance from the shore. In

the case of the quinnat and the blue-back, their “instinct ” leads

184 Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. { March,

them to ascend these fresh waters, and in a majority of cases these

waters will be those in which the fishes in question were originally

spawned. Later in the season the growth of the reproductive

organs leads them to approach the shore and to search for fresh

waters, and still the chances are that they may find the original

stream. But undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to

ascend, streams in which no salmon was ever hatched.

It is said of the Russian river and other California rivers, that

their mouths in the time of low water in summer, generally

become entirely closed by sand bars, and that the salmon in their

eagerness to ascend them, frequently fling themselves entirely out

of water on the beach. But this does not prove that the salmon

are guided by a marvelous geographical instinct which leads them

to their parent river. The waters of Russian river soak through

these sand bars and the salmon “ instinct,” we think, leads them

mérely to search for fresh waters.

This matter is much in need of further investigation; at pres-

ent, however, we find no reason to believe that the salmon enter

the Rogue river simply because they were spawned there, or

that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas river is any the more

likely on that account to return to the Clackamas than to go up

the Cowlitz or the Deschittes.

“ At the hatchery on Rogue river, the fish are stripped, marked

and set free, and every year since the hatchery has been in opera-

tion some of the marked fish have been re-caught. The young

fry are also marked, but none of them have been re-caught.”

This year the run of silver salmon in Frazer's river was very

light, while on Puget sound the run was said by the Indians to be

greater than ever known before. Both these cases may be due to

the same cause, the dry summer, low water and consequent fail-

ure of the salmon to find the rivers. The run in the sound is

much more irregular than in the large rivers. One year they

will abound in one bay and its tributary stream and hardly be

seen in another, while the next year the condition will be reversed.

At Cape Flattery the run of silver salmon for the present year

was very small, which fact was generally attributed by the Indians

to the birth of twins at Neah bay.

In regard to the diminution of the number of salmon on the

coast. In Puget’s sound, Frazer’s river and the smaller streams,

there appears to be little or no evidence of this. In the Columbia,

1881. ] Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. . 185

river the evidence appears somewhat conflicting ; the catch during

the present year (1880) has been considerably greater than ever

before (nearly 540,000 cases of 48 lbs. each having been packed),

although the fishing for three or four years has been very exten-

sive. On the other hand, the high water of the present spring has

undoubtedly caused many fish to become spring salmon which

would otherwise have run in the fall. Moreover, it is urged that

a few years ago when the number caught was about half as great

as now, the amount of netting used was perhaps one-eighth as

much. With a comparatively small outfit the canners caught

half the fish, now with nets much larger and more numerous,

they catch them all, scarcely any escaping during the fishing sea-

son (April 1 to August 1), Whether an actual reduction in the

number of fish running can be proven or not, there can be no

question that the present rate of destruction of the salmon will

deplete the river before many years. A considerable number of

quinnat salmon run in August and September, and some strag-

glers even later; these now are all which keep up the supply of

fish in the river. The non-molestation of this fall run, therefore,

does something to atone for the almost total destruction of the

spring run.

This, however, is insufficient. A well ordered salmon hatchery

is the only means by which the destruction of the salmon in the

river can be prevented. This hatchery should be under the con-

trol of Oregon and Washington, and should be supported by a

tax levied on the canned fish. It should be placed on a stream

where the quinnat salmon actually come to spawn.

It has been questioned whether the present hatchery on the

Clackamas river actually receives the quinnat salmon in any num-

ers. It is asserted, in fact, that the eggs of the silver salmon and

dog salmon, with scattering quinnat, are hatched there. We have

no exact information as to the truth of these reports, but the

matter should be taken into serious consideration.

On the Sacramento there is no doubt of the reduction of the

number of salmon; this is doubtless mainly attributable to over-

fishing, but in part it may be due to the destruction of spawning

beds by mining operations and other causes. :

As to the superiority of the Columbia river salmon; there ts

no doubt that the quinnat salmon average larger and fatter in the

Columbia than in the Sacramento and in Puget sound, The dif-

VOL. XV.—No. 111. ee

186 The Siphonophores. [ March,

ference in the canned fish is, however, probably hardly appreciable.

The canned salmon from the Columbia, however, bring a better

price in the market than those from elsewhere. The canners

there generally have had a high regard for the reputation of the

river, and have avoided canning fall fish or species other than

the quinnat. In the Frazer’s river the blue-back is largely canned,

and its flesh being a little more watery and perhaps paler, is

graded below the quinnat. On Puget sound, various species are

canned; in fact, everything with red flesh. The best canners on

the Sacramento apparently take equal care with their product

with those of the Columbia, but they depend largely on the some-

what inferior fall run. There are, however, sometimes salmon

canned in San Francisco, which have been in the city markets,

and for some reason remaining unsold, have been sent to the

canners; such salmon are unfit for food, and canning them should

be prohibited.

The fact that the hump-back salmon runs only on alternate

years in Puget sound (1875, 1877, 1870, etc.) is well attested and

at present unexplained. Stray individuals only are taken in other

years. This species has a distinct “run,” in the United States,

only in Puget sound, although individuals (called “lost salmon”)

are occasionally taken in the Columbia and in the Sacramento.

——:0:——.

THE SIPHONOPHORES.

Il.—THE ANATOMY AND DEVELOPMENT OF AGALMA (CONTINUED).

BY J. WALTER FEWKES.

S gee key to the zoological affinities of Aga/ma, the adult struc-

ture of which has been given in a previous article is to be

found in its embryology or the development from the egg. To

that subject I propose to devote the present article, as it is impos-

sible in the case of this jelly fish, to discuss its morphological

relationship from the study of anatomy alone.

In this discussion I shall consider, in the first place, the develop-

ment of the Aga/ma from the egg, and in the second, the growth of

new buds along the axis to form those new parts, the adult forms

of which have already been described in some detail. The former

division includes the consideration of the changes in form which

the colony as a whole passes through in the growth from an egg to

an adult like Fig. 1; the latter, the development of each of the

different members of the community, or their growth from buds

formed on an axis already well developed.

1 NATURALIST, 1880, p. 617.

1881. ] Lhe Siphonophores. 187

I. DEVELOPMENT OF THE EGG.

The new Aga/ma always begins its growth from an egg. I

know of no case where any other method of origin than from an

egg takes place among Siphonophores. Alexander Agassiz

describes in Agalmopsis cara a reproduction by a bud from the

stem, and says that this bud has a well-developed float before it

separates from the stem or axis. In Agalmopsis picta, a species

closely allied to Agalmopsis cara, no such budding of a new col-

ony takes place. In the excellent volume already quoted, enti-

tled “Seaside Studies in Natural History,” it is suggested! that

those organs which I have called “tasters,” drop off and develop

into new colonies. I consider this supposition improbable as far as

any known genus of tubular jelly fishes is concerned. In the genus

Agalma, as before stated, reproduction is always from the egg.

I was fortunate enough to find in the glass vessel in which the

first Aga/ma captured by me was confined, that the water was filled

with minute transparent spheres, no larger than the head of a pin.

They floated about in the liquid, and were not limited to any

definite depth, but when the contents of the glass became quiet,

all rose to the surface, and thickly crowded together, covered it

like so many small oil-globules. When they had collected in this

way, I was able by means of a watch crystal to skim them off, and

transfer all into a more convenient receptacle for study.

These little oil-globule-like spheres were originally cast into the

water from the female sexual bells, and are eggs, from each one of

which grows a new Agalma. The female bells are found in grape-

like cluster just below the feeding polyps, and appear to take the

form of individuals, which have apportioned to themselves the

single function of reproduction of new Aga/mata. They have no

stomach nor mouths, but draw their nourishment from the cavity

of the axis into which it has been poured by those individuals of

the colony, which do all the eating for the Aga/ma, Each bell

contains a single egg, and after that egg has been cast, the bell

withers up, or is absorbed into the stem, or sometimes before the

€gg escapes, breaks loose from its connection with the axis, and

drops into the water with the contained egg. The last process

takes place bya rupture of the pedicle by which the female bell is

hung upon the axis of the Agalma,

1 The authors state that they have never seen these “ closed Hydre” drop off, but

they suggest that it ‘* seems natural to suppose that they do separate from the parent

Stock”? to found new communities.—Sva-Side Studies, p. 80.

188 The Siphonophores. [ March,

The eggs cast into the water are then impregnated by sperm

from the male bells. Previously to this event the egg is of course

incapable of development, and it is an interesting fact that the

male bells of one colony cannot fertilize the eggs from the same.

I need not remind the reader how widespread this law is in the

plant world. Twosexes are joined in the same Aga/ma colony, but

self-fertilization is not possible. The egg cannot be impregnated

by the male element from the same Aga/ma as that from which it

arises, but is cast into the water, and there fertilized by the males

from another Aga/ma. Artificial impregnation of the egg often

fails because this principle has not been recognized and followed.

Although there are very many known examples, where an animal

has the power of casting eggs capable of development before the

adult form is reached, nowhere do we find this principle in nature

better illustrated than in Aga/ma. Even before the Aga/ma has

doffed features called embryonic, from the fact that they are

limited to the young, and are not present in the adult, the jelly

fish lays eggs, which, strangely enough develop into other

Agalmata, and eventually into the true adult form, which their

parent had not attained to when they were cast. The egg float-

ing in the water after the escape from the female bell is trans-

parent, and has a cell contents, but with no differentiation in

any part except the existence near one pole of a more trans-

parent space containing a dot. These structures are called the

germinative vesicle, and the germinative dot respectively...

The first changes which I have observed in the egg after

impregnation, or contact with the male element, is the formation

in the germinative vesicle of a number of radiating lines, which

give to it an indistinct likeness to a wheel with radial spokes and

a central hub, which is represented by the contained dot. At the

same time there separates from this region of the egg two small

spherical bodies similar to those cells which in the eggs of some

other animals have been given the name of direction cells. The

radiated appearance in the germinative vesicle, is what is known

as segmentation, and is very peculiar in Aga/ma.

The next important change in the development of the egg after

the segmentation above described has taken place, is the disap-

1Of the obscure method of segmentation among Physophoridz much remains yet

unknown. The account which I have given of the peculiar radial structure in the

erminative vesicle may be of something else than segmentation. See P. E. Muller,

Naturhistorisk Tidsskrift, 3 R. 7 B, 1871.

1881.] The Siphonophores. 189

pearance of the germinative vesicle altogether, leaving the egg

perfectly homogeneous, and covered with short vibratile hairs or

cilia, by the motion of which it is driven through the water. In-

termediate changes, too technical to speak of in this account,

occur, but I have omitted to mention them. Now opens a long

chapter of the developmental history, which includes stage after

stage, each different from its predecessor, following one another

in rapid succession, all looking, although sometimes indistinctly,

to the formation of a new Agalma. Of these stages in growth

there are three which are characteristic and so distinct, that I

have deemed them worthy of special names. They are of great _

importance in a study of the systematic position of Aga/ma, and

are as follows::

1. Primitive larva or primitive medusa (Lizzia stage).

2. Athorybia stage. ;

3. Young resembling closely the adult, but still retaining embry-

onic structures, z.e., embryonic tentacles, covering scales, &c.

Between the primitive larva, the Athorybia stage and the

adult Agalma, there is very little likeness. The third stage,

however, has in most particulars a very close resemblance to

the adult as figured in my sketch, Fig. 1, and differs from it only

in size and in certain minor details. It is indeed very difficult to

decide when the adult form of Agalma is really reached, for it

begins to lay eggs when in an immature condition, as far as adult

characters are concerned.

The first change in the egg, after the peculiar process called

Segmentation which I have already described, is the formation of

a stage in which the germinative dot and vesicle disappear. A

knowledge of this fact may be of use to one

studying the process of development, for

unless these structures in the egg of Agal-

ma do disappear, the egg will not pass into

following stages. Haeckel erroneously

States that the germinative dot and vesicle

does not disappear in genera closely allied

and perhaps identical with Agalma.

The next stage is the planula with the

whole surface covered with cilia, which is

followed by one in which is formed at one

pole an elevation composed of two layers, which also becomes

very thickly pigmented. The most superficial of these layers !s

Fic. 7.—Egg of Agalma

with apical elevation.

190 The Siphonophores. [ March,

formed before the more profound. The former is called ecto-

derm; the latter, endoderm, and between them is a third which

eventually becomes very thick, forming the great mass of a hel-

met-like structure of gelatinous character, which gives the char-

acteristic shape to the primitive larva. This enlarged layer

corresponds with that which forms the mass of the bell of an

ordinary free medusa.

All these layers are formed at one site’ of the egg, and gradu-

ally, as their elevation above the surface of the ovum continues,

their edges grow down towards the equator of the egg. The

limit of this growth is the opposite pole at the other end of a

diameter opposite that from which they originated. In subsequent

growth the yolk sac itself, in the genus Aga/ma, is transformed

into a feeding polyp of peculiar kind. According to Haeckel this

transformation does not occur in genera closely allied to that

which I have considered. The modified yolk-sac may be detected

in later stages of the growth of an Agalma by a peculiar network

of bright crimson pigment spots covering one side of the poly-

pite into which it is changed.

A continued elevation of the layers, at the sale of the egg, has

left below the deeper a small cavity. ' This cavity is bounded by

endoderm on the upper side and by the undifferentiated contents

of the egg-sac on the other. The middle layer, which I have

said lies between ectoderm and endoderm, increases very rapidly,

and the ectoderm keeps pace with this enlargement, yet in an

inverse ratio becomes relatively thinner and thinner, until it is

reduced to a simple epithelium layer, in which condition it is found

in the adult of all the bells, and nectocalyces of the adult Aga/ma.

At the same time that the middle layer is thus enormously in-

creasing in size, the endoderm, which lines the primitive cavity has

pushed out into this growing layer and its cavity has elongated

into a tube, which at one end opens into what remains of the

primitive cavity, and at the other seems to end blindly in the

gelatinous substance of the apical enlargement of the embryo.

The gelatinous middle layer now thickens so much that it has

formed a helmet-like body, the rim of which extends down along

the sides of the larva in the form of a free ring separated on all

sides except at the apex of the larva from the larva itself.

It may be well, before we go farther, to point out that in this

larva, which is the so called primitive larva, we can recognize all the

1881.] The Siphonophores. IgI

organs of the jelly fish, called Lizzia, one species of which, L. octo-

punctata, is found in the waters of our bays. The helmet-shaped

organ of the larva of ;

Agalma will be seen to

represent the bell of

the Lizzia,and the egg

from which it has de-

veloped the proboscis. S ow

The central tube of pS. “fe el/s

the helmet of the \\ SS

young Aga/ma is the

exact reproduction of

the early condition of

four tubes in the bell

through which the nourishment of the Lizzia circulates, and

which are called chymiferous vessels. Tentacles or structures

corresponding with these thread-like organs, which arise from the

margin of the bell of a Lizzia, do not in fact exist depending from

the rim of the helmet-like cap of the primitive larva.

The primitive larva or Lizzia stage of the young Aga/ma is well

formed at the end of the fourth day after the eggs have left the

female bells. Its change into the following or Athorybia stage is

very rapid, and in outward appearance very radical. Before con-

sidering the details of these changes let me give names to the

different parts of the primitive medusa, or Lizzia stage, in order to

simplify references in the following pages.

The helmet-shaped bell, fitting over the egg from which it was

formed, bears very many resemblances to a covering scale, and

under that name it has generally been described. To avoid con-

fusion, I suggest for it the name of primitive covering scale, the

meaning of which designation is, I think, self-evident. The tube-

like cavity in its center may be known as the primitive tube and

the cavity in the eggs itself, from which this tube is differentiated,

as the primitive cavity. That part of the larva which corresponds

to the proboscis is designated the primitive proboscis.

Fic. 8.—Primitive larva of Aga/ma.

The Lizzia stage of the young Agalma is followed by a second, _

which from its resemblance to a genus of Siphonophores, called

Athorybia, I have called after Claus, the Athorybia larva, or

Athorybia stage of Aga/ma. About the same time that the primi-

tive medusa stage is reached, there appears as a bud from the

primitive tube a small structure, which later develops into a float.

192 The Siphonophores. [ March,

This body is not the end of the primitive tube enlarged, but is a

true bud from it, and as such should be considered in all our

studies of its homology.

2. ATHORYBIA STAGE OF THE YOUNG AGALMA.

As the primitive medusa grows older, the primitive covering

scale is lost, either by absorption or by a rupture of the connection

with the growing larva, and new buds take its place, forming a

circlet of covering scales just under the float. These covering

scales are different from those of an adult Aga/ma, and have their

edges very finely serrated. They are in fact very similar in their

structure to the covering scales of the genus Athorybia, and on

— account the name of Athorybia stage, seems not inappropriate

to apply to this condition of the growing

Aga/ma.

Another peculiarity of this stage is the

character of the tentacles, and the knobs

which hang as pendants from them. The

tentacular knobs of the Athorybia stage

| | never develop into an adult knob like

| » Fig. 4. They are embryonic and are con-

‘ hi fined to the young larva, more especially

“yy to: that stage known as the Athorybia

larva. On account of their restriction to

larval conditions it may be well to speak of

them as the larval knobs. They are club-

shaped, oe pee peculiar cells at the distal end there arise

structures which resemble stiff hairs. (Fig. 9.)

a a

oe cas orto

SF ||

Fic. 9. mpeg larva of

3. LARVA WHICH RESEMBLES THE ADULT.

(PHYSOPHORA STAGE.)

The Athorybia larva has no swimming bells and no elongated

axis or stem, but immediately after that stage is reached an axis

begins to form at the same time that buds, producing swimming-

bells, make an appearance. A circlet of covering scales of very

different outline and destitute of serrated edges, replace those

which characterize the Athorybia larva. A new tentacle, with

tentacular pendants like the adult, also make an appearance, so

that we have a stage in which both kind of pendants, embryonic

and adult, are to be seen. I have called this stage of the young

Agalma the Physophora stage, because at the very end of the

1881. ] The Siphonophores. 193

stem its cavity is enlarged, and on that enlargement hangs a circle

of covering scales not unlike what exist in the genus of Siphono-

phores, called Physophora. The larva is now in a condition struc-

turally not very distant from the adult. In minor details there

are, as has been already pointed out, certain differences, but from

this stage on the growth into the adult is direct and without the

formation of provisional organs of any kind.

A description of the development from the bud of each kind of

characteristic structure found on the stem of the Aga/ma, would

take me into details too special for this paper. It is sufficient for

our argument as to the nature of the Aga/ma, to state that each

and every structure along the stem originates as a simple bud,

which can at first hardly be distinguished one from the other,

39- ——_s

Fic. 10.—Lissta octopunctata (young).

whether they form float, swimming-bell, feeding polyp or cover-

ing scale, In their earlier stages they are all alike. The details

of the changes by which now a swimming-bell and now a float is

formed are not necessary for my argument, and I will not con-_

sider them in this place. :

I have already, in my former sketch of the anatomy of Aga/ma,

made the comparison of the Siphonophore to a little medusa,

called Lizzia, found in our waters. That comparison at which

McCrady hinted long ago is supported by the embryology which

I have just given.

In the primitive medusa, as has been shown, we find a jelly-_

fish with parts identical with those of a Lizzia. All the organs

194 The Siphonophores. [ March,

are duplicated in one and the other. What are the changes of

form which in subsequent growth so alter the external form as to

produce in the one case a Lizzia, such as I figure (Fig. 10), and in

the other an Agalma ?

In the figure of Lzzzta octopunctata Forbes (grata Alex. Agassiz),

a species common in Massachusetts bay, several buds can be seen

through the bell, forming on what is known as the proboscis. If

these buds are closely examined, it will be found that they are

young Lizzie in different stages of growth, and if the proboscis of

the largest of these buds be minutely studied, on it will be found

buds of still a third generation, grandchildren of the original jelly

fish. All these buds whether products of the first or second budding

process, eventually break away from the place from which they

first formed as buds, and swim away as jelly fishes, the form of

which is not unlike the parent from which they sprung. Even be-

fore that separation takes place, the impatient young may be seen

opening and shutting their bells, and swinging on their fragile

stems trying to break themselves loose.

Suppose now that the proboscis of the Lizzia from which the

buds formed was very much elongated into a tube. This tube

then we liken to the axis of an Aga/ma, and if buds were formed

along its whole length, as can be very easily imagined, the like-

ness would be even more striking. To be sure all the different

buds in the Agal/ma are not of the same form or outline.

Neither are they alike in the Lizzia. Some are very fully grown

while others are in incipient stages of growth. This variety in

shape could not then be an objection to the comparison which I

have urged.

Each bud which forms along the stem of an Agalma is called

by some naturalists an individual, from the fact that in early

stages they resemble each other so closely, and when fully

grown oftentimes certain of them bear such a close likeness to

forms of Medusz, which lead an independent life. I do not

consider every bud an individual, but think that in some cases

the position on the stem or other causes has so modified them

that two or even more buds, as in the case of polypite, and cover-

ing scale together make one true individual. A zodid, as defined

by zodlogists, does not seem to be a fitting term to apply to these

structures found along the axis of an Aga/ma, unless the term be

given the broadest extension. In such a case the distinction be-

1881.] The Relation of Apiculture to Sctence. 195

tween a zooid and an individual does not seem very great.

Through those jelly fishes called the Trachynemide, as Circe,

there seems to be a close relationship between the hydroid Me-

dusa, Lizzia, and the common Aurelia, Cyanea and other Dis-

cophore. As therefore I cannot but designate a Pelagia, also a

Discophore, as an individual, I must look upon a Circe as the

same, and since Lizzia and Circe are closely related, their free Me-

dus are likewise morphological individuals. If this is true, and

our theory of the likeness between Aga/ma and Lizzia not fanciful,

js it proper to call the members of the former colony zooids, or

shall we regard them true individuals ?

The solution of this problem as to the exact nature of the mem-

bers of an Aga/ma colony is most difficult, and, as so many before

me, I must leave this speculative part of my subject with the trite

remark, that in this animal we have a condition of life where the

difference between organ and individual is reduced to a minimum,

It is without doubt true that much of the controversy which has

been indulged in, as to the exact nature of the different compo-

nents of the Aga/ma, may reduce itself to a quarrel about terms.

may

THE RELATION OF APICULTURE TO SCIENCE}?

BY A. J. COOK.

I ONCE heard a well known professor and scientist, than whom

there is no better student of American agriculture, remark,

that the art of agriculture was founded almost wholly upon em-

piricism ; and that all it had to thank science for, was that the

latter explained what had already been determined by the empiric

method. Whether this be true or not, the reverse is most cer-

tainly true of practical entomology. Economic entomology rests

almost wholly upon science. So, too, apiculture, as practiced

to-day, owes its very existence to science. Fear deters most

people from bee-keeping, unless a desire to study bees, and to

know more of the nature and habits of these marvels of nature,

impels to that close association with bees, which practical apicul-

ture demands.

For this reason, there is no class of men engaged in manual labor

pursuits which possesses the intelligence and enthusiasm which

characterize apiarists, or which practices so much that is really sci-

1 Read before the Entomological Section uf the A. A. Acot fe

196 The Relation of Apiculture to Science. [March,

entific. The successful apiarist of to-day must be able to inspect

every part of his hives; must be constantly familiar with the

precise condition of every colony of his bees ; must be possessed

of quick and accurate powers of observation. Thus we understand

why science has gleaned so much from practical apiculture.

The nature of the several bees in each colony, as to sex, func-

tion and longevity, is now well known to every intelligent apiarist.

The peculiar characteristics of queen, drones, and workers, and

the peculiar duties of workers of different ages, are matters of

daily observation.

The queen is seen to lay three or four eggs per minute, and the

apiarist, by adding comb with empty cells, proves that she may

lay as many as 4000 eggs per day. Aristotle was correct, then, in

calling the queen the mother, and Virgil wrong in pronouncing

her to be the king. Her hatred of rivals is easily shown by the

certain combat, fatal to one of them, when two queens are placed

together. This enmity induces swarming, as bees rarely suffer a

plurality of queens in the same hive. In swarming the queen

never leads, yet the special place of clustering is usually deter-

mined hy the queen. Unless the queen accompanies the swarm,

the latter will always return to the hive.

By clipping one wing of a virgin queen, so that flight will ever

after be impossible, the bee-keeper quickly proves the correctness

of the great Huber’s discovery, that queens always mate on the

wing. The same experiment proves the correctness of Dzierzon’s

more wonderful discovery, that drone bees are a result of agamic

reproduction. No queen whose wing is clipped while yet a virgin,

so far as I have observed, and I have tried the experiment many

times, will ever lay eggs that will produce other than drone bees.

It is also true that if a queen is forced to virginity for three or

four weeks, she will always remain a virgin.

Upon the queen’s return from her mating flight, we may ob-

serve the evidence of success, as she always if successful bears

away a portion of the drone’s reproductive organs, which remain

attached to the queen for some hours.

It was a theory of the late Samuel Wagner, that the placing of

unimpregnated eggs in the larger cells of the drone comb, and

the impregnated ones, in the smaller worker cells, was simply auto-

matic. The pressure from the smaller cell upon the queen’s

abdomen, forced the sperm cells from the spermatheca, as the

1881.] The Relation of Apiculture to Science. 197

eggs passed by. As there would be no such pressure from the

larger drone cells, the spermatozoa would not be extruded from

the spermatheca. Practical bee-keepers have shown this to be

untrue.

Queens have been seen to lay eggs in the still larger queen

cells, which eggs are always impregnated. The queen often lays

in worker cells, where the walls are but just commenced, and

where there is no compression; yet such eggs are always im-

pregnated. That the bringing of the sperm cells into connection

with the germ cells, or the withholding of them, as the eggs are

to produce females or males, is a matter of volition with the

queen, is sustained by the muscular character of the spermatheca.

It is a curious fact, that young queens, when they first commence

to lay, often put several drone eggs into worker cells, though

after the first day or two, they generally deposit only impregnated

eggs for the first season. It seems probable, that the muscles of

the seminal sack of the queen do not act efficiently till somewhat

in practice.

An anomalous physiological fact is illustrated in the flight

of the queen when swarming takes place. Though she may

not have used her wings since her marriage flight, possibly for

two or more years, yet the muscles are by no means atrophied,

as shown by her rapid flight, often for several miles, en route to

her future home.

The reason why a few impregnated eggs develop into queens,

while thousands of the same produce worker bees, appears to be

wholly due to quality and quantity of food. They receive much

more and much richer food. The enlarged cell is necessary to a

full sized queen, but not to a queen. The exceptional position of

queen cells is simply for convenience, as it is not important. |

Direct observation, as also her removal from the hive, shows

that the only function of the queen is to lay eggs.

I have known a queen to lay with no abatement of fertility for

five years, though often in one or two years she ceases to

be prolific, either from her own impotency, or from a depletion of ©

the spermatheca, in which case only drone bees are produced.

Usually the worker bees arrange to supercede the queen before

she becomes an exclusive drone producer.

Common observation proves that the drones are males, that

they are great eaters, and that they have no function in the

198 The Relation of Apiculture to Science. [ March,

economy of the hive, except the sexual function. As already ex-

plained, the drone loses a portion of his reproductive organs, in

mating, which act is attended with immediate death.

Though doubt is sometimes expressed as to the origin of

drones by parthenogenesis, there is no such doubt among intelli-

gent apiarists. If the wing of the virgin queen is clipped, or the

entrance to the hive so contracted that she cannot fly, or again, if

she is reared when there are no drones, she will be, not sterile,

but from her eggs will come only drones. Often these will be in

the small cells, when the drones will be no larger than the

workers. The eggs from fertile worker bees, and also from old

queens, with depleted spermathecas, will likewise produce only

drones. In,appearance and structure these drones are every way

normal. I have no doubt but that they are functionally perfect.

There is an interesting fact connected with the appearance and

disappearance of drones, whose explanation seems to call for an

intelligence above instinct. As the colonies become very popu-

lous in spring, the worker bees build drone comb, and rarely even

tear down and replace worker with drone cells, and the queen

lays the unimpregnated eggs in such cells, preparatory to rearing

queens, and to swarming. If we remove a queen none but drone

comb will be built. Now suppose a colony is strong and pre-

paring to swarm, and suddenly, from lack of bloom, continuous

rains or great drought, the secretion of nectar suddenly stops.

Honey gathering of course ceases, brood rearing is discontinued,

and, not infrequently, the bees kill all the drones, and even drag

the larve and pupz from the cells. As soon as the honey

harvest is hopelessly cut short by the autumn frosts, the worker

bees commence at once to bite and worry the drones, till the

latter are driven forth to die. But if the colony be queenless, or

if the queen has become superannuated, the drones will be per-

mitted to remain in the hive all winter. The fate of the drones

hangs on the prosperity of the colony. With rapid increase of

bees and honey they are safe; adversity in these respects, unless

caused by loss or impotency of the queen, betokens their speedy

extinction.

Drones are tolerated in a strange colony, which is not gener-

ally true of either the queen or workers.

The longevity of drone bees, as we have seen, is largely de-

pendent upon circumstances, There is good reason to believe

that they may live through the entire season,

1881.] The Relation of Apiculture to Science. 199

The worker bees are imperfectly developed females, which from

receiving less and different food, while larve, are immature in

their sexual development. A worker larva, less than three days

from hatching, will, if given more and richer food, develop into a

queen. If an apiarist allows a colony to go queenless for a long

time, fertile workers are almost sure to appear, from whose eggs,

however, none but drones are produced. Some apiarists suppose

that such workers receive, perhaps by accident, a richer and more

abundant pabulum. I have wondered if this might not verify

Lamarck’s idea of evolution. The bee desires eggs, and the

deeply felt want induces the extra ovarian development.

The worker bees are shorter than the drones and queen, and

less robust than are the drones. Their wings are small but

strong, and move very rapidly in flight. When the bees are

angry the rapidity is still more marked, and there is a correspond-

ing increase of pitch to the hum.

The workers, as the name implies, do all the work of the hive,

hence a reason for their better developed mandibles, with which

they cut comb, remove cappings and dig pollen from the cells;

their longer tongues and maxilla, with which they extract nectar

from deep tubular flowers, and the deep baskets on their posterior

tibiz and basal tarsi, which are wanting in the queen and drones,

in which they carry pollen and propolis to their hives. As they

protect the hives from intrusion, they need and possess a better

developed sting than that of the queen, which is only used in

dispatching rivals.

By the introduction of Italian bees, which differ greatly in

color from the German or black bees, bee-keepers have learned

that the old bees, for the most part gather the honey pollen and

propolis while the young bees remain within the hive and se¢rete

the wax, build the comb, feed the brood and cap the brood cells,

though the old bees will do the work of the young ones if for

any reason the natural equilibrium of the colony is destroyed.

That bees possess and use the sense of smell, is obvious to the

apiarist. If he unite two colonies, they often engage in fierce

combat, which only terminates when one of the parties is van-

quished. By smoking, sprinkling with an essence, or otherwise

giving to both the colonies the same scent previous to the union,

perfect peace and harmony is secured. The same fact leads

to somewhat similar precautionary measures in introducing

queens,

200 The Relation of Apiculture to Science. [ March,

In going to any place, bees seem to be guided by direction

rather than sight. Thus if we move a hive, but for one or two

feet, the bees will, for days, descend to the old position, and then

turn abruptly to the hive. I have been led to notice a strange

exception to this; by placing honey on a porch of one of two

houses that are exactly alike, but about five rods apart, many

bees were misled and swarmed about the porch on which there

was no honey. The experiment was several times repeated.

Experience shows that bees will winter quite as well with pure

honey or sugar syrup for food, as though they had pollen with it.

They may be kept healthy at least for a time, in confinement, in

summer, on a pure hydro-carbonaceous diet, and will secrete wax

and make comb, with the usual activity. But pollen is a seve gua

non to brood rearing. Probably it is also necessary for the old

bees, at times of great activity. Bees also need water. Unless

very active, this want seems to be met by the water of the honey ;

but in shipping bees they are now generally fed with candy or crys-

talized sugar, and unless water is added, they perish ina few days.

Nectar, as gathered from the flowers, contains much more water

than does the honey. The bees leave the nectar, which is often

nearly as thin as water, some time before capping, until the neces-

sary evaporation has transpired. Bee-keepers call this the curing

process. Some nectar is so thick that it is capped very soon,

though frequently it remains for days, and rarely is it of such a

nature that it does not thicken, and the bees refuse to cap it at all.

Such nectar, usually from bark lice, etc., is unwholesome, and

unfit food, even for the bees. If thin nectar is extracted, bee-

keepers evaporate the moisture from it by artificial heat, as it does

not preserve its quality unless rid of the superfluous water.

One of the most terrible disasters that can befall the apiarist is

to become the victim of foul-brood. In this terrible disease a

fungus attacks the brood, which causes it to become putrid and

disgusting. It is very contagious. The disease is common in

Europe, and has brought ruin and discouragement to apiarists in

several of our own States. Spraying with salicylic acid has been

found an efficient cure.

The enemies of bees is certainly a matter of interest to all

scientists, and especially to zodlogists. Among mammals, shrews

and mice are often quite destructive to bees. The king bird,

Tyrannus carolinensis, captures worker bees, although it is

1S81,]-; The Relation of Apiculture to Science. 201

partial to drones. Toads and frogs seem to lap up bees with no

inconsiderable relish, and often work quite successfully to deplete

the hives. 2

Bees have many and formidable foes among insects. In the

order Hymenoptera, a species of Xylocopa, probably X. wzcans,

has been observed to kill bees in North Carolina. The cow killer,

Mutilla coccinea, destroys bees in the States from central Illinois

to Texas. It has been reported several times that ants are at

times a serious foe to the honey bee. It is stated that they not

only worry the bees by invading the hive, but that they sometimes _

kill both the queen and workers.

The only lepidopterous insect which annoys American apiarists

is the bee-moth, Galleria cereana. And even this is no dread to

the intelligent apiarist. It is found that strong colonies of bees,

and no other pay, and especially if Italians, will always defend

themselves against this enemy. It is only weak or queenless

colonies that succumb to this foe.

Among Diptera, Boméylius mexicanus, is reported to enter the

hives, in Texas, without resistance and lays its eggs, where the

prospective larvee will be nourished and cared for, without labor

on the part of the mother fly. The family Asilidz affords the most

serious dipterous pests to the apiarist. Of these there are at least

three species of Asilus, two of Mallophora, two of Promachus, two

of Laphria, and two of Erax, that catch and kill bees. These preda-

cious flies work the most serious mischief South, but are not

exempt from blame even as far North as Ontario. A parasitic fly

of the family Tachinidz is destructive to bees in several of the

States.

In importing bees, the bee louse, Braula coeca, has been intro-

duced from Europe ; but so far it promises to do little harm in

our country,

Amongst Heteroptera, Phymata erosa is a dreaded foe of the

honey bee. From its close mimicry of the flowers of many com-

posite plants, in which it is wont to hide, it finds it easy to grasp

the bees with its unique anterior legs, when it soon sucks out their

life juices. Mantis corolina kills bees from Central Illinois to the

Gulf.

Many of the Libellulide, chief among which is Avar juntus,

are so fierce in their onslaught on bees, that they have been

termed bee-hawks. These marauders depredate in all become of

our country,

202 The Relation of Apiculture to Science. [ March,

I need not speak, at this time, of the value of bees in fertilizing ~

flowers, as that has been ably discussed by our botanical friends.

That bees ever injure buckwheat or other plants, by seeking

nectar from their bloom, as is sometimes claimed, is known to be

erroneous by all present. That they are equally harmless to

grapes and other soft-skinned fruits is not so generally granted.

Personally, I have never seen a case, though I have several times

gone quite a distance to see them at the request of positive indi-

viduals. In each case, the bees were found never to attack sound

fruit, but only to sip from. such as had burst, or been torn by

other insects or by birds. While I am not positive that bees are

never guilty of such wrong-doing, I do feel certain that such

actions if ever true, is quite exceptional. I have lived in Califor-

nia in the midst of apiaries and vineyards, and I have yet to see

the first case of such depravity among bees.

he two great improvements in apiculture since the Langstroth |

hive, and scientific knowledge gave the apiarist such perfect con-

trol over his bees, are the extractor and comb fouhdation, both

of which are recent inventions. In both cases the thought came

from Germans, but perfection in carrying it out is due to Yankee

genius. :

The honey extractor works on the principle of centrifugal force,

and by its use honey may be thrown from the combs before it is

capped over, or afterward if the cappings be first removed with a

knife. By this practice the comb is used over and over again,

and as a result, at least twice as much honey can be secured.

Experiment proves that it takes at least twenty pounds of honey

to secure one of comb, besides the time of secretion is lost, as

bees are usually quiet when employed in secreting the wax-scales.

Extracting is often very necessary to furnish room for the

queen, so that she may lay eggs. In times of great honey secre-

tion, the workers so fill the cells with honey that the queen finds

no place for her eggs, so brood-rearing ceases, and as the workers

live only for a few weeks in the active season, depletion of the

hive is rapid and sometimes is carried to a fatal extent.

When bees cease gathering, from lack of nectar secretion the

queen stops laying, and all brood-rearing ceases. Nothing is

found to pay the apiarist so well as to feed sparingly, whenever

there is a cessation from gathering honey, and so keep his colonies

strong. The extracted honey furnishes a cheap and excellent

food for this purpose.

1881. ] Glacial Phenomena tn the Yellowstone Park. 203

Comb foundation is made from pure bees-wax and is a perfect

copy of honey comb, as just commenced by the bees, except that

it is much thicker. When given to the bees, they at once accept

it, thin it to the usual thickness of natural comb, and use the

parings to complete the cells. This saves the time and work

of wax secretion and comb building, and secures straight combs,

and exclusive worker cells.

:0!

GLACIAL PHENOMENA IN THE YELLOWSTONE

BY WM. H. HOLMES.

| common with very many of the more elevated districts of

_4 the Rocky mountains, the Park district presents a variety of

glacial phenomena. In exploring the deep valleys of the higher

ranges, the geologist is never surprised at encountering on all hands

partially rounded masses of transparent rock. These are pretty

sure to be found on most of the old flood plains of the streams

and often high up the sides of the valleys. They are frequently

the only remaining records of ancient glaciers which have filled

. the valleys at different stages of their erosion. The glacia-

tion of rocks 7” situ, in the narrow. gorges, also bears testimony

to the former existence of glaciers. Loose boulders are doubt-

less, in many cases, carried from their original beds by the force

torrents, and not infrequently reach places very far distant from

their original station by a gradual creeping or sliding movement

—the result of undermining or yielding of the soil beneath. It

is, therefore, far from safe to conclude that wherever erratic rocks

are found, glaciers have formerly existed, especially in cases where —

these rocks may have had their origin in surrounding highlands,

or even quite distant mountains of very considerable elevation.

In a region like this, however, there is every reason to suppose

that glaciers once existed on a very extensive scale. The park,

with the great continental water-shed that surrounds it, forms one

of the grandest masses of highland in the United States.

In early quaternary times, as now—if there have been no

important changes of level in the meantime—the general level of

the park district exceeded eight thousand feet, and the broad areas

1 Extracted from the unpublished Report of the U.S. Geol. Survey of the Terri-

tories. Exploration of 1878.

204 Glacial Phenomena in the Yellowstone Park. | March,

of mountainous country on the west, north and east, represent a

former general elevation of twelve thousand feet or more.

Glaciers exist now in the neighboring Wind River and Teton

mountains at elevations much below twelve thousand feet, and in

the midst of glacial times descended in immense sheets to four

thousand and five thousand feet. It would, therefore, be a matter

of surprise if traces of glaciers were not found here, not only in

the high valleys, but upon the surfaces of the broad plateaus of

the park. There is, however, a singular absence of well defined

glacial moraines. The tens of thousands of granite boulders that

occur on both sides of the Yellowstone valley, from Cinnabar

mountain to the north base of Amethyst mountain, generally lie

upon the smooth surface of the flood planes of the river, or upon

low ridges of alluvial drift. The significance of this fact may be

that the transporting glaciers existed in the earlier stages of the

erosion of the valley, and that the morainal ridges have been

destroyed by the river as it oscillated from side to side in the suc-

ceeding stages of its descent from the plateau level to its present

bed. These great boulders would, in such a case, be the more

durable masses of the moraines stranded on the various flood

planes for want of water power to transport them.

When we come to search for the source of the granite, we are

led to observe an interesting fact. The only bodies of granite

rock within the limits of this valley are found either on the no

side or on the bottom at no considerable elevation above the

river. But the erratic masses occur to a great extent on the

south side of the valley and at all elevations. In the vicinity of

Mt. Evarts they reach the upper surface of the plateau more than

two thousand feet above the river bed. It is evident that these

masses of granite were transported to their present resting places

either before the valley existed or that the ice streams were SO

deep as to fill, the valley to the brim and thus carry and strand

them. Still it is a question whether in the latter case these

boulders would ever reach their positions on the south side—sup-

posing the glaciers to follow the course of the valley—as they

would have to accomplish the feat of crossing the whole width of

the glacier as a boat would cross a ferry. This could really only

occur in case there should be such an increase in the masses ©

ice descending from the highlands to the north, as to completely

fill the valley, sweep across its course and overspread the broa

1881. ]} Glacial Phenomena in the Yellowstoue Park. .205

table-land to the south. This table-land I have named the Park

plateau ; it is wholly volcanic, and is separated from the base of

the granite highlands on the north, by the valley of the Yellow-

stone proper, and by the East fork, its geologic as well as topo-

graphic continuation. It extends, with but few interruptions, one

hundred miles to the south. We are here led to inquire whether

or not there are evidences of former glaciers on this plateau.

Such evidences do exist, but they are certainly not such as we

might expect. Instead of well-defined moraines, an area dotted

by erratic boulders and broad expanses of polished surfaces as in

the Wind River and Teton mountains, we find only a few rocks

other than those that may have been derived from the plateau

itself. It should be remarked, however, in this connection, that

the soft rhyolites which form the greater part of the plateau,

would not retain glacial ne for any considerable length of

time.

An occasional small block of granite indeed is found, and some-

times at unexpected levels, as on the slopes of the Washburn

mountains many hundreds of feet above the general level of the

plateau. A very few have been observed beyond Mt. Washburn,

on the south side. The most remarkable example of these is a

boulder resting upon the brink of the grand cafion, about a mile

and a half below the great falls and nearly eighteen miles from

the northern border of the plateau.

On a stormy day in December I undertook to meander the

grand cafion from the falls to the base of Mt. Washburn, and

during a storm of rain and sleet took shelter under the overhang-

ing edge of a great rock in the dense timber. Considerably to

my surprise I discovered it to be a very compact coarsely crystal-

line feldspathic granite. In shape it is. somewhat rectangular, the

edges for the most part sharp and unworn, the result of spawling

by the heat of forest fires. In cubical dimensions it will probably

exceed two thousand feet. It is within a stone’s throw of the

brink of the cafion and rests upon a sheet or a series of sheets of

rhyolite, not less than one thousand feet in thickness, as may

easily be determined by an examination of the section exposed in

the cafion walls below.

In seeking the possible source of this rock we naturally turn to

the south, towards the sources of the Yellowstone. The plateau

along the river’s course and around the lake is totally volcanic.

206 © Glacial Phenomena in the Yellowstone Park. — [March,

The great ranges to the east and south of the lake are not known to

contain a single exposure of crystalline rock. That there are no

such formations in the whole drainage of the Upper Yellowstone is

established by the fact of the almost total absence of granite

pebbles on the ‘shores of the lake or in the bed of the river. The

home of this wanderer must be sought elsewhere. To the north,

beyond the valley of the third cafion and the East fork, lies the

granite highland previously mentioned. To the north-west, be-

yond the valley of Gardiner river, at the southern end of the

Gallatin mountains, is another exposure of granite at an elevation

sufficient to have given origin to it. The distance in either case

is upwards of twenty miles. From the great falls the river de-

scends in a northerly direction until it strikes the base of the

granite highland;. here it unites with the East fork and turns to

the west along the south base of that highland, following the line

of the great displacement until it passes the granite gateway of

the second cafion (see accompanying map). To reach its present

position from the northern locality, the boulder must cross the

course of the great valley of the East fork and the third cafion

and ascend the river, as it now exists, a distance of twenty miles,

- avoiding on its way, by a circuitous route, the intervening Wash-

burn range and the opposing mass of Amethyst mountain. If

from the Gallatin mountains, it must first have crossed the valley

of the upper Gardiner river and afterwards a considerable spur of

the Washburn mountains—a journey of twenty miles south-east.

Notwithstanding the fact that this pathway would, with anything

like the present topography, seem to present fewer obstacles to

the advance of a glacier than that from the north, I cannot regard

it as at all probable that this was its course. The mass of the

Gallatin mountains is not great, Glaciers originating in its short

abrupt valleys would have no great longitudinal extent, and would

probably advance no farther than the deepest part of the valley

that lies along their immediate base.

The great ranges to the north are of sufficient extent to give

birth to ice rivers of the grandest proportions. The present dis-

tribution of the erratic fragments of granite tends to strengthen

the impression that they had their origin in the north. If this

be admitted, it becomes at once clear that the erosion of the

grand cafion has been accomplished since the close of the glacial

period, or at least that a second erosion has taken place if a cafion

did exist prior to the glacial epoch.

1881. ] Glacial Phenomena in the Yellowstone Park. 207

That a very profound erosion had taken place along the course

of the cafion at a very early date is proved by the fact that during

the rhyolitic period as well as the basaltic and andesitic, there

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: Glacial Phenomena of the Yellowstone Park.

were cafions almost as deep as the present one, into which the

coulées cascaded. At one spot near the northern base of Mt.

Washburn the section of a fossil river is exposed, more than

208 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. [March,

half way down the cafion wall, the bed of which has been cast in

andesitic lava, and the volume of whose water discharge is re-

corded in pumice stone.

These events probably belong, however, to miocene and pliocene

times, and the topography of this region in those periods—the

course of the rivers and the configuration of the country must

for the most part remain unknown.

Topographic changes of quarternary times are, however, much

more easily traced. The mass of glacial ice necessary to carry

the great boulder described above to its present resting place

would change the whole drainage of the park. The waters of

the Upper Yellowstone and of the numerous tributaries of the

lake would be forced across the low continental divide to the

south and become tributary to Snake river‘and the Pacific, or

otherwise to some of the western branches of the Missouri.

-0;

A COLLECTOR’S NOTES ON THE BREEDING OF A

FEW WESTERN BIRDS.

BY E. HOLTERHOFF, JR.

HE bird fauna of the country lying east. of the Mississippi

river, has been for years exhaustively studied and written about

by the resident naturalists scattered over its entire surface ; but

the great expanse of territory lying west of that river has been

comparatively little studied, and offers for the naturalist the

greatest attractions. Especially is this the case in those terri-

tories, where, until the past few years, the military posts of the

Government, and a few trading posts, constituted the sole settle-

ments of the white man. Now, however, the advent of a resolute

mining population has opened out much new country which will

steadily continue to develop, and as population pours in, there

will come some eager and able to investigate and make known its

treasures of natural history.

It was with great satisfaction that I found myself in Southern

California, in the spring of the present year, and at the commence-

ment of the breeding season of its birds. And although I was

called away by the first of April, and unable to study any but the

earliest in breeding, yet a month later I was able to continue my

studies and collections in the vicinity of Tucson, A. T., and in a

1881.] Votes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. 209

still better field. And although not in the field as much as I

could have desired, the results of my collections amply repaid

me, and intimated how much more could be developed by con-

tinuous and extended search.

The hawks are very numerous in the vicinity of Los Angeles,

Cal., and are represented by many species, the most common of

which is the western red-tail hawk (Buteo montanus). This

large and beautiful hawk is very little different from its eastern

congener, the B, borealis, being slightly larger and with some dif-

ferences in markings. Its nests and eggs are scarcely distinguish-

able from those of the eastern species: the nest in situation, how-

ever, is more accessible and less concealed, owing to the scant and

low growth of timber. This consists of sycamore, cottonwood,

and oak trees of several varieties, and does not offer the protec-

tion of our eastern and northern forests. Another western

variety of an eastern species, the western red-shouldered hawk

( Buteo elegans), is quite common, and several nests were observed,

one in a willow tree not twenty feet from the ground, was quite

thickly lined with pappus from the willow, which was likewise

scattered about the nest generally. The eggs, three in number,

were similar to those of the Eastern species, being of a dusky

white ground color, marked with large red blotches. The brown

hawk (Buteo insignatus), is not rare, although not seen so often

as either of the former, owing to its frequenting quiet secluded —

places. A pair of these birds took possession of an old last year’s

nest which I had examined once and found old and deserted, and,

after slightly repairing the inside, and lining it with green mistle-

toe, proceeded to lay their eggs. Riding by the nest shortly after,

I observed the bird sitting on it and secured both bird and eggs;

the latter, three in number, of a faint greenish white tinge, and

marked with a few large, dark red blotches around the larger end.

Out of the many other varieties of hawks, some of whith I could

not determine, I did not succeed in finding any breeding, except-

ing the little sparrow hawk ( 7innunculus sparverius ), which is

everywhere abundant, and whose eggs are familiar all over the’

country.

Among the owls, the great horned owl (Budo virginianus Vat.

pacificus ), is quite common and I found several nests rather late,

and all with young birds in. The barn owl (Si pratincola),

together with the long-eared owl (Otus wilsonianus), 1 found

210 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. { March,

in great numbers on the northern slopes of the foot hills, where °

in the dark shades of the thick growth of live oak, they found an

abode well suited to them. The long-eared owl nested in great

numbers in the oak trees, building a clumsy nest of coarse sticks

and twigs lined with grasses, and laid from four to six dirty white

eggs. The barn owl, while it remained in these thickets during

the day, resorted more commonly to the bottom lands to breed,

where in the hollow trunks and branches of the sycamores, it

found its favorite resting places. Its eggs, also of a dirty white

color, are not much larger than those of the long-eared owl,

although the bird is considerably larger. The little burrowing

owl (Athene cunicularia) is very abundant, inhabiting the deserted

holes of the California ground squirrel, with which, as with the

prairie dog, it seems to live in harmony. They had not yet com-

menced breeding when I left the vicinity of Los Angeles, or at

least I found no eggs in the several burrows which I dug up.

The mottled owl (Scops asio) breeds here, as a friend of mine

found a set of four eggs, and captured the bird on the nest, but

the bird keeps close in the hollow trees and can scarcely be scared

from its retreat or nest, and thus escapes observation. Later, in

Arizona, I observed several times a very small owl which I was

unable to identify or procure a specimen of.

One of the earliest birds to nest in the vicinity of Los Angeles,

was the white-rumped Shrike (Collyrio excubitoroides). It is

quite abundant, and owing to the brightness of its plumage, and

the absence of many of the migratory birds which had not yet re-

turned from the South, is very noticeable. I found quite a

number of nests of this bird, all placed in low trees or bushes,

and compactly built of small sticks and grasses, and lined thickly

with the pappus from the Baccharis, a species of Composite. The

eggs are very similar to those of other shrikes and are well known.

Another early breeder is the California jay ( Cyanocitta californica).

This bird is also numerous and with all the traits of the blue jay,

is not near as handsome a bird. It builds its nest in a thick tree

or bush, and while it resembles that of the blue jay, it never has

mud in its construction. The eggs, varying in number from four

to five, are very handsome, being of a rich emerald green color.

and marked with numerous dark brown spots, thicker around

the larger end. . The California sickle-bill (Harporhynchus redivt-

vus), a thrush whose liquid melody of song may favorably com-

1881.] Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. 211

pare with that of the mocking-bird, is a resident by no means

' rare in Southern California. It is, however, very shy and plunges

abruptly into the nearest bushes on being approached or disturbed.

It nests, after the fashion of all its family, in low trees or bushes,

near the ground, and preferably in a thicket ‘or secluded place.

The only nest with eggs that I found was at Cotton, Cal., a short

time after leaving Los Angeles. It was situated in a low elder

tree, and was composed of coarse twigs and grasses, and lined

with fine rootlets; resembling the nests of others of the Harpo-

rhynchus family, it was not so large as any of them. The three

eggs, which constituted the complement, were well incubated.

They were of a light pea-green color, marked quite thickly at the

larger end with dark brown spots of a considerable size, and were

rather elongated. Some weeks later, on the Colorado desert, at

a station called Flowing Wells, I found a nest and two eggs of

the LeConte’s thrush (Harporhynchus lecontei), a variety of the

1. redivivus, according to Dr. Coues. It is a smaller and lighter

colored bird than H. redivivus, and its nest and eggs are consider-

ably different. The nest was placed in a palo verde tree and was

a very bulky affair, measuring externally nine inches in depth and

six in width; the hollow of the nest was fully three inches in

depth. It was so awkwardly situated that much of the base of —

the nest had evidently been filled in to’ firmly support the struc-

ture. The two eggs were somewhat smaller than those of 1.

redivivus, lighter in color and marked all over with finer reddish

spots, thicker at the larger end.

Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus is the long name given by

scientists to a very odd little creeper wren which is peculiar to

the south-western States and Territories. The cactus wren, so

called from its habit of nesting in the cactus whenever available,

is stationary in its habitat, keeping together in little flocks during

the winter and separating early in the spring into pairs. They

are very early breeders, numerous dates in February being given

for the finding of nests and eggs. It was the tenth of April, how-

ever, before I succeeded in finding a nest with eggs, but shortly

after I found nests containing large young ones. Their nests are

worthy of notice, for they have no resemblance to the nests of

any other birds in our fauna. They are shaped somewhat like a

retort, afid are laid on. the branches or between the forks of a cactus.

The body of the nest is rounded, a as large as a man’s head,

212 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. [March,

and composed entirely of grasses well interwoven and lined

thickly with feathers. The entrance is by a long funnel-shaped

passage on one side and at the top of the nest, and varying in

length from six to ten inches. The lining of feathers is very

thick and is comprised of feathers of many birds. Dr. Heerman,

an old time ornithologist, has said that he would often tear open

the nest of a cactus wren to ascertain what birds were in the

vicinity. The number of eggs in a full complement is almost in-

variably five; occasional nests with three or four well-incubated

eggs constituting the only exceptions. The eggs are of a pale

salmon color, marked so thickly and evenly with darker salmon

color as to give a very rich cast to the whole egg. While the

bird commonly seeks the cactus to build its nest in, sometimes

when this is scarce, it will build in a mesquite or other tree, and

in this case almost always at a considerable height—ten to twenty

feet. I am told that this bird raises a brood as late as August,

and if it does, as I have no reason to doubt, it then breeds con-

tinuously during a period of six months. In that time one paif

could raise five or six broods, but it is not likely that they make

a new nest as soon as one brood is fully fledged.

A very common bird from the mountains to the coast, in Cali-

fornia, is the brown towhee (Pifilo fuscus). These plainly colored

finches, although pre-eminently ground birds, nest in low bushes

or scrub trees, contrary to the habits of the family. A nest,

found shortly before leaving Los Angeles, was placed between

the forks of a prickly pear cactus, and contained four eggs of a

light blue color, marked with lines and dots around the. larger

end, resembling the eggs of some blackbirds. The nest was

composed of grasses and fibers from the bark of the cactus, and

lined with horsehair. There are two other species of the same

genus and somewhat resembling this bird, which I afterwards

found breeding in Arizona, the Abert’s finch (Pipilo aberti) and

the canon finch (Pipilo mesoleucus). They also are tree or bus

builders, and there is a similarity between the nests and eggs of

all three. The Abert’s finch built a somewhat larger and not as

neat a nest as the others, composed entirely of grasses and lined

with a few horsehairs. The eggs, larger than either of the others,

were of a light blue color, marked with numerous black lines and

spots in a ring around the larger end, and also with a number ©

bright red spots. The canon finch, nesting in the same situations,

1881.] Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. 213

built a smaller and neater nest, composed of fibers from the dead

cactus and a few fine grasses, and lined with the soft fibers. The

eggs, three in number, like those of the Abert’s finch, were of a

light blue color and marked more universally and thickly with

dark spots, thicker at the larger end.

The little house finch (Carpodacus frontalis) is everywhere

abundant throughout Southern California.and Arizona. I found

its nests in all sorts of places and at all times. The eggs are very

similar to those of our Eastern purple finch. The Western lark

(Sturnella neglecta), although everywhere abundant, escaped my

notice in nesting until just as I was leaving- California, when I

found a nest and six nearly incubated eggs. There is no percepti-

ble difference between the eggs and those of S. magua. The

black flycatcher (Sayornis nigricans), a bird much resembling our

pewee in its habits and mode of nesting, is not rare in California.

They seem to be in pairs all the year round, and may raise a very

early brood. The only nest I found was at Cabazon, Cal., and

was plastered to the side of a house after the fashion of the barn

swallow. It was composed of mud and lined with grasses, and

contained four pure white eggs of delicate texture. At this same

place, in some willow trees growing alongside a little stream, I

found several nests of the Arkansas finch ( Chrysomitris psaltria),

all with young birds except one, which contained four bluish-

white eggs. The nest and eggs are very similar to our C. fristis.

After leaving Los Angeles, I proceeded by stages along the

route of the Southern Pacific railroad, and with a short time to

spare at different stations, found some nice things before reaching _

Tucson, A. T. At Colton, Cal., I first found the nest of that

diminutive little bird, the least bush titmouse (Psaltriparus mint-

mus). An inhabitant of the Pacific coast country, it does not

penetrate east of the mountains, but west of them is abundant the

whole length of the coast. A small and plainly colored little

bird, its habits confine it to the bushes, and it is not easily seen or

distinguished. The first nest I found was suspended from the

branches of a greasewood bush, and I at once recognized it, but

thought it deserted, it looked so old. Tearing it open, however,

I found it contained six small pure white eggs, partly incubated.

Regretting my haste in spoiling the nest, I pursued my hunt, and

was shortly rewarded by finding another nest suspended from the

branches of an elder bush. I frightened the bird from the nest

214 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. (March,

and succeeded in shooting it for positive identification. The

beautiful little structure was shaped like a purse, and the con-

tracted rim was worn around two or three little shoots of the

limb, the nest hanging free. It was about six inches in length

and was composed of mosses, shreds of vegetable fiber, inner

strips of bark and lichens, all woven into a thick, strong felt, and

the bottom on which the eggs lay was softened with willow down

and feathers. The entrance to this remarkable structure was a

small hole, not an inch in diameter, placed at the very top, and

concealed by some leaves of the bush skillfully woven over it.

The eggs, six in number in each nest, were unlike those of the

rest of the family in being pure spotless white, without gloss.

They were very delicate and not over a-half an inch in length.

Another minute little bird, but of another family, is the black-

headed gnat-catcher (Polioptila melanura). 1 first saw this gnat-

catcher, to recognize it, at Indio, on the Colorado desert. There

were a great many gnat-catchers around Los Angeles, but I did

not notice them closely or shoot any, taking them all to be the

blue-gray species. At Indio, however, in the clumps of mesquite.

trees, which first appear here, I saw numbers of these little birds

and then recognized them as the black-headed species. There is

a species of mistletoe which grows thickly in nearly every mes-

quite tree, and in it, after close search and watching, a pair of the

birds. I found their nest woven to the branches in the heart of

the parasitic plant. It was a delicate little structure, composed of

various vegetable fibers, a down from some plant and fine strips

of bark, compactly matted together and lined with the same

downy material. The nests were not as handsome as those of |

the blue-gray gnat-catcher, but were very neat and elegant. The

first nest found contained three young birds and one egg, but

further search discovered another nest with four eggs in, slightly

incubated. The eggs, about the size of those of the blue-gray —

species, were of a lighter color and more thickly marked with

black and reddish spots. Later, in Arizona, I noticed the remain-

ing species of gnat-catcher peculiar to our fauna, the Arizona OF

lead-colored gnat-catcher (Polioptila plumbea). It was too late at

the time to find either eggs or young ones in the nest, as all that

I saw were in little families—the parents and young brood.

At Indio I likewise first noticed a bird which became more

common and familiar in Arizona, viz., the black-crested fly-catchet

1881.] Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. 215

(Phenopepla nitens). All along the line of railroad through the

Colorado desert, where the mesquite grows at all—and this is at

intervals only—I saw little flocks of these birds sitting on the

tops of the trees, and ever and anon darting through the air in

pursuit of insects. During my hunt for the gnat-catcher’s nest

I started one of these birds from a thick clump of mistletoe, and

on close examination discovered its nest in it. Climbing the

thorny mesquite with manyia scratch, I at length succeeded in

getting a footing where I could look in the mistletoe and examine

the nest, It contained two eggs, and was of a very pe¢uliar con-

struction for a nest built in a tree, and looked more like the nests

of such birds as build in a hole in a tree, as the ash-throated fly-

catcher. It was small and composed of small twigs, grasses,

vegetable fibers and down, loosely matted together, and with a

small cavity pressed out in it. It was in the heart of the mistle-

toe and was not fastened to its branches, but laid on them and

kept secure by the thick growth of the plant. The two eggs,

considerably advanced in incubation, were very peculiar—of a

slate-colored body ground, they were thickly marked all over

with black spots, forming a dark ring around the center of the

egg, which gradually shaded off at the larger end. They some-

what resemble the eggs of the cedar bird. The bird itself I did

‘not recognize until I had shot and examined it. A peculiarity in

its plumage, noticeable in flight, is the white color of the inner

webs of the primaries; this, looking from beneath the bird while

on the wing, gives a transparent look to half of the wings. Two

eggs seem to be a small number for a full set, but they were

nearly incubated and the cavity of the nest did not look as if it

could contain more, so it may be the full number. Although I

saw numbers of these birds at Tucson, yet it was later and I

found no more nests.

The Arkansas fly-catcher /7yrannus verticalis)—the Western

bee-bird—is everywhere common, At Tucson I first found the

nest and eggs, which cannot be distinguished from those of our

f. carolinensis. The long-tailed chat (Jcteria longicauda) is fully

as common as our yellow-breasted chat, and is, in fact, too much

like it to form a distinct species. Its nests, and eggs too, are

identical with the yellow-breasted species. The little yellow

warbler (D. @stiva) is abundant ; and I was surprised to observe

several pairs of redbirds ( Cardinalis virginianus) around Tucson,

216 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. [March,

and to find the nest of one pair. This seems to me an extreme

western limit for the bird. The little Bell’s vireo (Vireo delli)

enlivened the solitude of the chaparral with its warble, short and

sweet. I found numbers of its little pensile nests, like those of

the warbling vireo ( Vireo gilvus), and all within a few feet of the

ground. The set of eggs, three in number, are very like those

of V. gi/vus, but smaller and more pointed. Among the troupials,

the hooded troupial (/cterus cucullatus ) and the Bullock’s troupial

(Icterus bullockit) are the most common around Tucson, and the

only ones whose nests I found. The hooded troupial builds a pen-

sile nest composed entirely of grasses, and lined at the bottom

with a few bunches of down. It is not unlike the nest of our

orchard troupial. The eggs, three in number in every nest I found,

are unlike those of the other troupials I have seen, but are marked

with light and dark brown spots, chiefly around the larger end,

and are of a bluish-white body color. The nests were all very

thin, but firmly woven. A nest of the Bullock’s troupial which I

found a few miles out of Tucson, is a very beautiful and unique

structure. It is composed entirely of different colored twine and

yarn, horsehair and bits of paper, and so well and thickly is the

horsehair woven in, that the nest is very stiff and substantial, and

scarcely compressible. A bit of newspaper woven in the bottom

of the nest, bears the words, “special attention,’ and is very

- appropriate. This nest contained five eggs, evidently a large set.

They were of the size and shape of those of the Baltimore bird,

but of a smoke color and thickly marked all over with lines and

blotches, the lines forming a thick net-work around the larger

end. The Carolina dove (Zenaidura carolinensis) is very numet-

ous; and the white-winged dove (Melopelia leucoptera) was not

uncommon, although not so abundant as back in the mountains

where it breeds. I had the good fortune to find a nest of the lit-

tle ground dove (Chamepelia passerina). J had seen several of

these beautiful little doves, but did not know where to look for

their nests, and only discovered this one by accident. It was

situated between the horizontal forks of a limb about twenty feet

from the ground, and consisted merely of a slight platform of

grasses laid on the forks. It contained two small white egss

pointed at either end and marked inside with the lateral trans-

parent lines peculiar to the eggs of the dove family when fresh.

This situation of the nest was contrary to my preconceived ideas

1881.] - Motes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. 217

of it; the little dove, while nowhere common, is found throughout

our southern borders. The short-legged pewee ( Contopus richard-

Sonit) does not seem to be rare throughout this southern country,

but I only succeeded in finding one nest. It was saddled toa

horizontal limb after the fashion of our wood pewee, and was

composed of small twigs and grasses fastened together and to the

limb with saliva, and was lined with finer grasses. The three

eggs, well advanced in incubation, were of the size and shape of

those of the wood pewee, and were of the same body color, but

marked with some very large and some small reddish-brown

blotches, chiefly around the middle of the egg. I also founda

set of four eggs of another fly-catcher, the ash-throated fly-catcher

(Myiarchus mexicanus), the same day that I found the nest of

the short-legged pewee. It was ina hole in a willow tree, and

consisted merely of a bunch of matted hair and wool. The eggs

are so like those of the great crested fly-catcher as to be almost

indistinguishable. On another hunt shortly before leaving Tuc-

son, I found nests and eggs of two more thrushes peculiar to this

border fauna, viz: the crissal thrush ( Harporhynchus crissalts )

and the curve-billed thrush (A. curvirostris). The former nest

was situated in a low oak tree, a few feet from the ground, and

was not large for the size of the bird. It was composed of coarse

and small sticks, and was lined with fibers ; the eggs, two in num-

ber and well incubated, were of the size and color of the robin’s

egg. The curve-billed thrush had nested in a tall cactus, and its

nest was much larger and deeper than that of the 1. crissalis ;

the cavity, in fact, was nearly four inches deep. The three eggs,

about the size of the former, were of a light-green color, marked

all over with fine red spots. Several other nests found the same

day, but empty, were likewise in the cactus. A set of two eggs

of the Western night-hawk ( Chordeiles henryi), found somewhat

later, did not differ materiaily from the eggs of the C. popetue,

and were laid on the bare ground beneath a bush. The birds are

everywhere abundant.

I will now describe the nest and eggs of another minute spe-

cies of the titmouse family, the verdin or yellow-headed titmouse -

(Paroides flaviceps). 1 first observed the nests of these little birds

on the Colorado desert, where, out of many I examined, only one

was occupied, and that by fully fledged young. At Tucson, how-

ever, I succeeded in finding two nests of the second laying, with

VOL, XV.—wNo. IIT, 16

218 Notes on the Breeding of a few Western Birds. [Matrch,

respectively three and four eggs in. Their nests are wonderful

pieces of bird architecture, being often half the size of a man’s

head, and the builder scarce larger than a humming bird! They

were each built at the end of a horizontal limb, and firmly woven

around it; composed of thorny twigs well interwoven with

grasses, vegetable fibers and mosses, and the interior compactly

lined with down and feathers, not only on the bottom but all

around the inner circumference of the nest. The entrances to

these unique structures were at first invisible to me, so small and

well concealed were they; placed at the top or on one side, they

were either immediately under the supporting limb or the fabric

of the nest above the hole was pulled down so as to conceal its

presence. The little birds are very shy, and seldom show them-

selves except when they have young. The eggs in both nests

were well incubated and I am convinced were all the birds were

going to lay in that, their second nest. Five constitutes the

full number in the first set, as proved by the five young birds I

found on the desert. The nests, although generally situated

within a few feet of the ground, were sometimes placed as high as

twenty feet, and some, too, were placed between the forks of a

cactus. The eggs are of a light-green color, varying in intensity

in different specimens, and were marked with numerous fleckings

of a golden-brown, more numerous around the larger end ; they

were of a scant half inch in length, and rather pointed.

Another bird peculiar to this fauna is the chapparal cock or

road-runner (Geococcyx californianus). This bird is wide-spread

throughout the southern borders of our country, and its eggs are

not rare in collections; but as to their number and the situation .

of the nest, there are contrary assertions. I have heard it said

that two constituted the full set, and that one was laid some time

before the other, after the occasional manner of the cuckoo ; also

that the nest was laid on the ground in the midst of a clump of

cactus. I have seen a good many nests and heard from collectors

in the localities of many more, and while occasionally placed in

the cactus and rarely on the ground, the majority of the nests

were in thick bushes; and in one case, as witnessed by myself,

the nest was built on a thick horizontal mesquite limb, fully

twelve feet from the ground, The nest, too, instead of being rude

-and imperfect, was rather neatly built of coarse sticks, and with

the considerable cavity lined with grasses. The eggs in this nest

1881. | Editors’ Table. 219

—pure white and about the size of a pigeon’s egg—were five in

number; two were considerably advanced in incubation, one was.

pipped and two were infertile. In another nest, found by a friend

and authentic, were seven eggs, none so far incubated as to ren-

der blowing them difficult, and some infertile. I scarce know

what inference to draw from these instances of a large number of

eggs, but do not think the bird would raise so large a brood.

Also the presence of infertile eggs in these nests where there

were large numbers of eggs, “seems to contradict the idea that

they raise such a large brood. But why did they lay so many

eggs? Perhaps some observer has explained, but I have never

seen the explanation.

:0:

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

Nomenclature is an essential part of language. Owing

to the sense limitations under which we exist, objects must have

names, So also must general concepts derived from objects have

names, The one essential of naming is, of course, that distinct

things shall have distinct names; and the second essential is, that

each object or concept shall have but one name. These necessities

become more and more urgent, as the number of known ob-

jects becomes greater. In order that each object and concept shall

have but one name, cultivators of the natural sciences have deter-

mined to use that name which was first proposed with such a defi-

nition as shall enable them to ascertain the application intended by

its author. All subsequent names are thus necessarily rejected as

waste, to be forgotten as soon as possible. Moreover, names

created for objects or concepts which are not defined, are rejected,

as not being really proposed; for a name which is not applied to

a stated object or concept, is quite as little nomenclature as an

object or concept without a name. A name is, in fact, a short _

substitute for a definition, and where no definition’ exists, there

can be no name. Thus the rule of priority has become the modus

operandi of nomenclature, and its only possible law.

Besides this practical necessity, an ethical element enters the

question. The good opinion of the world is as much property

as money and real estate. In fact, ¢¢ zs money and real estate.

1Tt is evident that definitions must often, in the early — ig a subject, be im-

been But even a bad definition conforms to the necessary ru

220 Editors’ Table. [ March,

‘It is just that every man should be valued at his true worth,

and should have the opportunity of securing a just valuation at

the hands of his cotemporaries. Mental products are prime ele-

ments in this valuation; so are labors undergone, and sacrifices

submitted to. Intellectual products are unquestionably property,

and he who attempts to pass off the results of other men’s labors as

his own, is as much a thief as he who picks a pocket, or burglari-

ously enters a house. Now when nomenclature represents original

ideas, the two conditions of equity and convenience are fulfilled.

From this we draw the conclusion, that it is well for producers of

ideas to create nomenclature, and that non-producers should

avoid it.

The habit of giving credit to others for their ideas is a concom-

tained by the mutual pressure of iriterests; and knowledge of

each other’s work is readily obtained through easy intercommu-

nication. Right is a natural element which develops under

agitation, and perishes by neglect. All interests contribute to it.

No one desires to be thought to plagiarize ; but where credit for

the ideas of others is not given, plagiarism may be suspected.

Hence in some cases, pride, if not benevolence, will prompt to

justice. It is indeed true that the same ideas occur independ-

ently to different men in different places. But it will always be

difficult in these days of wide and ready distribution, for the

later producer to know or show how much he may not have been

influenced by his predecessor in the field.

The comparative isolation of some of the centers of scientific

production in the United States, and the small number of persons so

occupied in many of these localities, renders us especially liable to

the faults implied in the above remarks, and this in spite of the fact

that, for our population, -we hold as a nation, a very respectable

position in the world of scientific work and thought. Whether it be

from the lack of international competition on this continent or not,

national pride does not yet seem to be sufficient to induce many

Americans to credit their countrymen with their productions, but

will attach them too often to foreign names, or will reproduce them,

as though absolutely new. A striking instance of this regardless-

ness occurs to us in the quadruple nomenclature of the geologt

cal formations of the center of this continent. After Dr. Hayden,

supplemented by Mr. King, had named and classified the geolog'-

cal horizons of the West, Major Powell, in order to have “a new

slate,” proceeds to ignore the greater part of this work, and names

an extensive series of them over again. Soon after, Mr, King, assum-

ing the rdle of a palaogeographer, names the great inland lakes

which successively occupied tracts of our continent. Of course

the sediments of these lakes had already received names, which

are of necessity applicable to the bodies of water which deposited

1881. ] Recent Literature. 221

them. Such use is universal in Europe, and the proposition of

the new nomenclature by Mr. King, is scarcely more defensible

than the proceedings of Powell. But the conclusion was

not yet reached. Professor Marsh coolly putting aside all this

work of his predecessors, re-names the entire series from the

period of the beginning of vertebrate life to the present time.

He selects names from characteristic genera of fossils, in itself a

good basis of nomenclature, but, in this case, utterly uncalled for.

We may soon look back on this stage of our scientific develop-

ment as presenting some characteristics of the beginning of the

century in Europe. The necessities of progress will doubtless

early correct any tendency to neglect or ignore just claims

wherever found.

:0:

RECENT LITERATURE.

ZITTELL’s HAND-BOOK OF PAaLa&onroLocy.'—While the recent

death of Professor Schimper was a great loss to science, it must also

prove a serious blow to Professor Zittell, who was aided by the

learned fossil botanist in the preparation of the botanical portion

of his Paleontology. The part before us is much thinner than

the first, and although no intimation is given by the publishers, we ©

suppose that this is the last part which will appear from the pen

of Professor Schimper, and that some one else will carry on the

botanical part of the work.

This second part completes the ferns and Rhizocarpee, and

contains the account of the Calamariez, Lycopodiacee, and the

Phanerogamee, including the Cycadeacez, the part completing

the account of this first order of Cycads. It will thus be seen

that the author before his death had elaborated the larger tree-

like Cryptogams of the coal period, so that this part is of special

interest and value to students, and especially teachers. The ac-

count of Calamites and its allies is preceded by a general account

of the living Equisetacez, and figures with which may be advan-

tageously compared those illustrating the restoration of Cala-

mites; so that we obtain a tolerably clear notion of the ap- »

pearance of these gigantic fossil horsetails of the coal period.

Under the head of Calamocladus, the branches and whorled leaves

of the Calamites, originally described under the name of Astero-

phyllites, are figured and described. Antennularia is next de-

scribed; then Asterophyllum as restricted by Schimper, and other

forms, as well as details of fructification which are doubtfully re-

garded as parts of different species of Calamites, but allowed to

Stand under various generic names.

The giant club-mosses, Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, etc., are then

: itwi W. Px. SCHIMPER, heraus-

Seth Ss elearey et Sar a sou: Mit 49 original-holz-

‘schnitten, Miinchen und Leipzig, 1880. 8vo, pp. 153-232.

222 Recent Literature. { March,

treated in the same comparative and suggestive way, with excel-

lent figures, showing the restoration of these forms from Zittel’s

work, “ Aus der Urzeit,”. together with figures of allied forms, and

drawings illustrating their histology. The table on page 209, giving

a comparative sketch of the morphological and anatomical char-

acteristics of Sigillaria, Lepidodendron, Isoétes and the Cycadee,

summarizes these points in a graphic manner.

It should be borne in mind that this work is the result of ex-

tensive personal research by the authors in collecting materials

expressly for the results here given, and is not merely a compila-

tion; thus the treatise is fresh, authentic, and therefore indis-

pensable to those only familiar with the general popular works of

Nicholson, and the older works of Owen, Pictet, and the palzeon-

tological portions of Lyell, Dana and other geological authors.

GUNTHER’s INTRODUCTION TO THE Stupy oF FisHEs.—No living

man has so large an acquaintance with the species of recent fishes

as Dr. Ginther, and his works on Ichthyology are a sine qua nom

of every zodlogist’s library. The author of these is not more

distinguished for his wide learning in this and other fields, than

for his conscientiousness in certain points of nomenclature.

While sustaining the law of priority in specific and generic names,

he has always done so with the condition that those names should

represent something in order to become available. For momina

nuda he has had no respect, and he has been one of the most

stalwart of those who have doubtless prevented the natural

sciences from being buried beneath a load of nomenclatorial rub-

bish. The naturalists of the future will scarcely know the debt they

owe to those who have taken this logical position, and will hard-

ly credit the assertion that there was once a period in the history

of their science when persons sought to be esteemed scientific,

by the mere creation and proposal of names. Dr. Giinther and

his co-workers have had to take care, that the popular recognition

usually accorded to name-makers, shall not affect the virtue of the

true scientist; and that the coin of their science shall consist of

golden ideas, and not of empty words.

The portion of this work devoted to the anatomy of fishes

covers Ig2 pages, and is very full and well illustrated. It forms

the best manual of the subject in existence. A short chapter on

the geological distribution of fishes follows, which is of little

value. The section treating of the geographical and hypsomet-

rical distribution is extensive and valuable. Here will be found

an account of the deep-sea fishes, etc., a most interesting subject,

to which Dr. Ginther has contributed more than all other ichthy-

ologists combined. The systematic portion occupies the re-

mainder of the book. Here can be found extensive reference t?

1 An Introduction to the Study of Fishes, by Albert Giinther, Keeper of the Zodlog-

logical Department of the British Museum. 8vo, Edinburgh, Adam and Charles

Black. 1880. pp. 720. .

1881.] Recent Literature. 223

most of the leading genera of fishes, with diagnoses of the fami-

lies and higher divisions as understood by Dr. Giinther, with

many good illustrations. While this part of the work will always

e most valuable to the student, it remains to point out two

radical defects. In the first place, the systematic classification is

error of the learned author’s own creation. We allude to his

subclass of Paleichthyes, which is a triumph of systematic gaw-

cherie. The second deficiency of which we complain, is the won-

derful ignorance of North American Ichthyology displayed in the

ook. It is scarcely necessary to enter into detailed criticism

of this part of the subject. We summarize by saying that the

book has no value whatever as representing North American

Ichthyology, and can only be read by the student here, as a sys-

tematic text-book, with reference to exotic species and genera. ?

BRUHL’s ZooTomy For StupENTS.'—We have often wanted some

work giving sketches, with each part identified, of the anatomy of

common types, especially of vertebrates. It will be difficult for the

student to find in any single book, not excepting Owen’s anatomy

of the vertebrate animal, good, detailed figures of the common

salamanders, lizards, birds or mammals. We therefore subscribed

to Briihl’s Zodtomy,and have found the parts as issued so useful for

the purpose stated, that we unhesitatingly recommend it to teach-

ers as the cheapest and fullest atlas of comparative anatomy with

which we are acquainted. Twenty parts have been published, of

which five have appeared during the past year. They comprise

among other illustrations the osteology and visceral anatomy of the

fowl and other birds, different fishes, reptiles and the osteology and

brains of the apes, the latter given with sufficient fullness. The

five parts issued lately illustrate the osteology of the Lepidosiren, —

Protopterus, Ceratodus, Chimzera, Callorhynchus, Rana pipiens,

and of different turtles, the details being abundant, and evidently

well drawn from nature. Very few of the figures are copied from

other authors, and appear to be reliable, though we have not

compared them with original preparations. The author is Pro-

fessor of Zodtomy in the University of Vienna. Further informa-

tion is given in the title below. ,

INGERSOLL’s Frienps WortH KnowinG.—Boys and girls are, in

this little book, treated to glimpses of snails, birds, wild mice, an

then taken out to the plains and shown by word and pictures the

* Zodtomi: ; ii ‘h Autopsien, skizzert von Cart B.

Bruni. Tllustint devch Zecivendenateln, mit abe 4000, von Verlassermeis

nach der natur gezeichneten und sammtlich von ihm mit dem diamant in Stein rad

pe Figuren, Atlas in 50 Lieferungen zu 4 Tafeln. Wien, 1879, 8vo. Alfred Holder,

ew York, B. ;

_ ° Friends Work hone Glinipecs of American Natural History. By ERNEST

INGERSOLL. Illustrated. New York, 1881, 12mo, pp. 258.

224 Recent Literature. [ March,

haunts and habits of the buffalo. Such pleasant reading as this,

illustrated as the text is by uniformly attractive wood-cuts, most of

them of much artistic excellence, is just what is wanted for

young people. Particularly adapted to this end are the chapters

entitled, “In a snailery,” ‘‘ Wild mice,” “Our winter birds,” and

“ First comers.” “ An ornithological lecture ” will, we think, hold

closely the attention of young readers and is written in the au-

thor’s happiest vein. The effect of the book will be not only to

interest the reader in the story so pleasantly told, but when next

summer he meets with snails, frightens the wild mouse from its

nest, or hears the notes of the thrush or song-sparrow, or sees the

yellow birds gather about the thistle, he will not only recall the

ornithological lecture he or she has read, but desire to learn for

himself or herself more about the beautiful, attractive forms en-

livening the woodlands and meadows, or peopling the shrubbery

or orchards near the house.

ravages. The tenth chapter points out the great danger to Greece

from importation of infected vines and the insufficiency of the

existing laws on the subject. There is nothing new in the book,

it being compiled from the writings of Planchon, Lichtenstein and

Riley; the latter’s figures, which have already done good service

abroad, being rather poorly reproduced. It is the first work on

the subject in modern Greek that has come to our notice.

Woop’s Insects Aproap2—The title of this book is somewhat

misleading in a work published here, as many of the insects

figured and described are common American species. This is €X-

plained by the fact that the book first made its appearance in 1874,

in London, and treats of insects which are exotic from that stand-

point. It is, however, an interesting book, and the author, through

having access to the collections of the British Museum,- has been

enabled to present figures of many of the rare and curious treas-

ures there preserved. The work is so pleasing in appearance and

so entertaining withal that we regret to feel obliged to mention

the presence of many typographical errors and to put our readers

on their guard against placing too much confidence in some of

the statements contained in the text.

Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Orange Insects. By Wm. H. Ashmead. 8vo,

pp. 78, pls. 4. Jacksonville, 1880. From the author.

Notice of recent additions to the marine invertebrata of the northeastern coast of

elo ee aa

1 The Destructive Phylloxera. By P. GENNADIOS. Athens, Greece, 1879. i

2 Insects Abroad. A companion volume to “Insects at Home.” Being a popula!

account of foreign insects, their structure, habits and transformations. By the Rev-

-G. Woop, M.A., F.RS., etc. New York, George Routledge & Sons. 8v0, PP-

xit, 780, with 520 figures.

1881.] Recent Literature. 225

America, with descriptions of new genera and species and critical remarks on others.

Part 11. Mollusca, with notes on Annelids, Echinodermata, etc., collected by the U.

S. Fish Ptenay amo Part UI, a of Mollusca recently a added to a fauna

of Southern New England. By A. E. Verrill. Washington, D. C. (From the

Sroscehace of the U.S. National Museum, ul. Printed Dec., 1880, ‘and Jan., 1881.)

8vo, pp. 335-410.

Descriptions of new ee of Crinoids from the Kaskaskia group of the Sub-car-

boniferous, pp. 7, pl.

Notes on some new or little known North American Limnzide, pp. 8.—

On the Geographical pate) adi s eg — Mollusks of North Amer-

ica, er the probable cause of their variation, pp.

Some notes on American Land oe pp- z —

Remarks on the Trenton Limestone of Kentucky, pp. 17, p

Descriptions of oieslaeas from the Upper oh ae t Pulaski i

Kentucky, pp. 7, pl.

emarks on the genus Pterotucrinus, Lyon and Casseday, pp. 6, pl. ey

Descriptions of new Crinoids from the rere ee oup of the Lower

and the he ‘Sab. carboniferous of Kentucky, pp. 9, pl. By hk G. Wetherby, “tall

ext. from Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist., 0). iin the author.

Description a five op’ a of may ae fossils, and remarks upon an undeter-

mined form Yocr. r, pp. 4, pl. 1. (Ext. from Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist

1881.) From a cia.

James Smithson and his pane By Wm. J. Rhees. (Smith. Misc. Coll.) pp.

159. From the institution

Early discoveries of the ‘Hawaiian islands, By Henry A. Peirce and Chas. Wol-

cott Brooks. 8vo, pp. 8. San Francisco, 1880. :

Ein geologischer Pahl Se ack Ri Mexico und Arizona, Von Dr. Oscar

Loew. pp. 42-51. From the author

eile wart Sluiteri gen. ny sp. n., eine neue archaische Molluskenform aus dem

Eism Von Dr. A. A, W. Hubrecht. (Sep.—Abd. aus dem “ Zool. Anzeiger,”

1880, “No. 70 .) From the author

Discoveries of Minerals in Western North Carolina. By John T. Humphreys.

(Read before Buffalo Rat of Nat. Sci., June 11, 1880.) pp. 4. From the author.

Chesapeake Zodlogical Laboratory. Report of the third year. Advanced sheets:

ntribution a VEtude srssicn e des Némertines. (Assoc. Franc. pour

48, pl. 1

Avance, des Sci. ) PE : ae

Note sur une nou péce VE b he hypotréme, le Cephaloptera Roche-

Note sur 1 a pont e du Pleurodéle de Waltl observée a la Ménagerie des Reptiles

du Muséum @ Histoire naturelle, pp. 18. (Ext. du Bull. de la Soc. Phil. de Paris,

1880.) —

Sur la disposition des vertébres cervicales chez les Chéloniens, pp. 4

Sur le développement des spinules dans les écailles du Gobius niger (Lins), pp 4.

Sur la ponte des Amblystomes au Muséum d’ Histoire naturelle, pp. 3.—

Sur Voeuf d’un poisson du groupe des meng ee — Broussonnet.

4to, pp. 2, All by M. Leon Vaillant. From the author

Catalogue des Mammiféres Vivants et Fossiles. Par Dr. E.-L. Piseweeats (Ext.

Bull, Soc, @’ Etudes Scientif. d’ Angers, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 4

Revision du eee Ecureuil (Sciurus). By Dr. E.-L. Teves: (Ext. Le Nat-

Rb ofy Od, -) pp. 10. From the author. ee

The sara , histol and emb of Limulus - yphem 5S.

Packard, ae (An oie. + Boston 2 et i 4to, pp. 45, pls. 7, 1880. From the

Die Fossile Flora der Polarlinder. Von Dr. Oswald Heer, Beitrige zur Mio-

cenen Flora von Nord-Canada. 4to, pp. 17, pl. 3. Zurich, 1880. From t

220) 5 Recent Literature. { March,

Untersuchung iiber Fossile Hélzer aus der arctischen Zone. Von C. Schreeter.

4to, pp. 38, pls. 3. From the author

Fifteenth Annual Report of the i apes Museum and Laboratory, pp. 55. New

Zealand, 1880. From the museu

An Introduction to the Study of Biches, By A. C. L. G. Gunther. 8vo, pp. 720.

Edinburgh, 1880.

First Annual a of the ali States Geological Survey. By Clarence King,

Director. pp. 62,1 map. Was ington, 1 ke rom the surve

he Devonian i sects of Nod runsw By Samuel H. Scudder. 4to, pp. 41,

1 pl. Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History. Published

by the Society, Boston, 1880. From the or.

Die Milben als Parasiten der Sinsiedene ins ehenets sae! ‘ip uboeis Von

Dr. G, Haller. 8vo. pp. 89. Fr uthor

Zur Kenntnis der Tyroglyphen und Verwandten. Von es phil G. Haller. (Aus

dem eet Bande der Zeits. f. wissensch. Zoologie.) 8vo, pp. 41, 3 plates. From

the au

Beri ane ber die von Herrn Dr. Blankenhorn in Karlsruhe veranstaltete Samm-

lung aller an der Rebe lebenden mikroskopischen Thiere. Von Dr. G. Haller. (Aus ,

den Annalen der Oenologie. viit Band 1880,) 8vo, pp. 10. From the author

Application du sulfure de carbone au traitement des vines phylloxérées. 4°.

Année. Rapport sur les travaux de l’année 1879 et sur a résultats obtenus.. Par

M. A. F. Marion. Paris 1880. 4to, pp. 118. From the author

Prontuario lpg ricee co. Por Mariono de la Paz oR Madrid, 1879. 8vo,

pp. 61, 2 plates. From the author ;

Glances at Foréstry in nies in 1660 and 1880, the Rev. J. C. Brown,

LL.D. (Reprinted from the Journ. of rhs and ee Stun padoat ‘Oct. and

Dec., 1879, and March, 1880). 8vo, pp. 2

Biologie der Kafer Europas. Eine Ushersicht der Se sn Literatur gegeben

in einem alphabetischen Personen—und systematischen Sach-Register nebst einem

Larven-Cataloge. — Mathias Ripattadiat: “Lin uz a. d. Donau, 1880: aes pp:

295. From the auth

Ueber die von den Trichopterenlarve der Province Santa Catharina ReeiGiy

Gehause. Von Dr. Fritz Miiller. Aus dem Portugiesischen iibersetzt._ von Dr. Her-

mann Sage Aus nat xxxv Bande der Zeitschrift f. wissensch. Zoo logis; 8v0,

pp. 41, 2 plates. From Dr. REM Miiller

Pa ions torrentium. Eine Miicke mit swiegestaltigen Weibchen. Von Dr.

Fritz Miiller. (Aus Kosmos, 1886.) 8vo, pp. 6. From Dr, Hermann Miiller

On some new and little known species ie Tineidss, By Thomas, Lord Walsing:

pla (From Proc. Zool. Soc., 1880, No. v1.) 8vo, pp. 17, 2 plates, From the

"Pergphorie of California and Oregon. BY. suena, Lord Walsingham. Lon-

don, 1880. 8vo, pp. 66, 3 plates. From the

easiption of the Uc aie stages of eae claudia Cramer. By W. H.

Edwards. (From Can. Ent., Vol, xtt, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 5. From the author

iption of a new sage of - caaapenag® tee Sa H. Edwards. (From Can.

Ent., Vol. x11, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 6. From the

cies of Tineina. By V. T. Cha — “From Journ. Cincinnati Soc.

Nat. “Hist. Tae: ., 1881.) 8vo, pp. 8, From thea

Entomologische Notizen, Vou Dr. G. Haller. (hes den Mittheil. d. Schweizer.

Ber Ges., Band v1, No. 1.) 8vo, pp. 11. From the author

e Imbauba und ihre Beschiitzer. Von Dr, Fritz Maller. eas Kosmos, IV

Ja chee Heft 8, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 7. From Dr. Hermann Miille

Die Variabilitat der Alpenblumen. Von Dr. Hermann Maen (Aus Kosmos,

Iv Jahrgang, Heft 6, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 15. From the author.

1881. } Botany. ° 227

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

VARIATIONS IN THE GROWTH OF VIRGINIA CREEPER AND HICK-

ory.—It is well known that no two plants ever grow exactly

alike, though these variations are often very slight. Two in-

stances have come under my observation which have interested

me very much, though they may be familiar enough to botanists,

The first relates to our beautiful indigenous climbing shrub, the

Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis quinquefolia), several of which I

have transplanted from the neighboring forest to the grounds

about my residence. Some of these specimens are very free

growers, climbing a dozen feet during a season, having joints

three to four or five inches long, and large widely expanded

leaves; the tendrils in these are very long and similar to those of

the wild grape. Others have very different habits of growth; the

joints are quite short, not more than one to two inches long,

and the growth of the whole plant is very slow as compared with

the first-mentioned variety. The tendrils, too, are very short.

In some instances the stems send out aerial roots which burrow

into the bark of the supporting tree, after the manner of the Poi- _

son Ivy (Rhus toxicodendron). The long-jointed free-grower never

sends out these aerial roots, but depends for its support upon its

tendrils which soon become dry and hard, and as tough as little

wires, :

The other instance refers to our common shellbark hickory

(Carya alba), In the spring some of the trees may be seen with

bursting buds and even expanding leaves while the buds of other

trees standing close at hand are dormant and remain so for many

days. In autumn these differences are also quite as marked; the

leaves on some of the trees ripen and shrivel up even some days

before any frosts, turning to a dark gray or slate color. Upon

other trees the leaves continue green until the first frosts; they

then turn yellow, with something of the same beautiful tints of

the hard maple, and remain so until the heavier frosts completely

dissipate their golden glories —Chas. Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa.

THE Composirm—Dr. Gray, in his last ‘Contributions to

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

228 e General Notes. [March,

ambiguum, The genus Aplopappus is greatly extended, including

the old genera Prionopsis, Eriocarpum, Pyrrocoma, Homopappus,

Sideranthus, Isopappus, Stenotus, Ericameria and Macronema.

The five species of Aphanostephus and the seventeen species of

Townsendia are briefly characterized, and a systematic synopsis

is given in each case. In discussing the genus Erigeron the

author says: “It can be limited only by taking into account a

combination of characters, and insisting here upon one, and there

upon another.” _ Aster graminifolius, of Gray’s Manual, is hereafter

to be known as Evigeron hyssopifolius. Erigeron vernum is likewise

changed to E. nudicaulis. The genus Aster is accepted in the

wide extent assigned it by Bentham and Hooker in the Genera

Plantarum. The revision of this genus is not yet completed, but

enough has been done to indicate that there will be but little

change made in it as we have known it in Dr. Gray’s works here-

tofore. The remainder of the order is still to be revised.

THE SENSITIVENESS OF THE Root-TIP OF THE SEEDLING.—We

believe that there is no structure in plants more wonderful, as far

as its functions are concerned, than the tip of the radicle. If the

tip be lightly pressed or burnt or cut, it transmits an influence to

the upper adjoining part, causing it to bend away from the affected

side; and what is still more surprising, the tip can distinguish

between a slightly harder and a softer object by which it is simul-

taneously pressed on opposite sides. If, however, the radicle is

pressed by a similar object a little above the tip, the pressed part

does not transmit any influence to the more distant parts, but

_bends abruptly towards the object. If the tip perceives the air to

be moister on one side than the other, it likewise transmits an

influence to the upper adjoining part, which bends toward the

source of moisture. When the tip is excited by light, the adjoin-

ing part bends from the light; but when excited by gravitation,

the same part bends towards the center of gravity Darwin's

“ The Power of Movement in Plants.”

INFLUENCE OF LIGHT ON THE RESPIRATION OF SEEDS.—Planchon

read a paper before the Paris Academy of Sciences, at its meeting

on Nov. 22d, detailing experiments upon this subject. The

experiments were made on the castor-oil plant and the bean

(Phaseolus). As in previous experiments, a good deal more oxy-

gen was observed in light than in darkness. The castor-oil seeds

exhale slightly more CO, in darkness than in light, but the opp

site was the case with the seed of the bean, In darkness the

ratio of CO, to O was for the bean at least one-third superior to

that for the castor-oil plant, but prolongation of the experiment

tends to bring the relation equal to unity, whatever the original

value. For a given quantity of oxygen absorbed, the seed placed

in darkness exhales more CO, than that kept in light. While im

light there is always less CO, exhaled than oxygen absorbed, the

1881.] Botany. 229

contrary occurs in darkness. These Sap explain the transforma-

tion of legumin into asparagin.—/Vat

BotranicaL Notes.—In recent pea of Nuovo Giornale Bo-

tanico Italiano, Caldesi has been publishing a catalogue of the

plants of Fenza and vicinity. It is fully annotated and contains

many references and synonyms. There are many names in the

list which are familiar to even local botanists in this country, as

witness the following: spa cornutt, Calystegia sepjum, Scrophu-

laria nodosa, Veronica ana V. officinalis, Brunella vulgaris,

Typha lati ifolia, qj oe ‘Funcus effusus, F. bufonius, Eleo-

charts palustris, Phragmites communis, Poa pratensis, P. compressa,

Liquisetum arvense, E. palustre, Adiantum capillus-veneris, Preris

aquilina, Polypodium vulgare, etc. Among the weeds are the fol-

owing familiar names: Panicum crus-galli, P. sanguinale, P.

klabrum, Setaria glauca, S. viridis, Urtica dioica, Amaranius

retrofiexus, Chenopodium album, Verbascum thapsus, etc. Many

plants which with us are cultivated for their flowers, or for other

purposes, find a place in this catalogue as wild or naturalized

species, ¢. ¢., Euphorbia cyparissias, Iris germanica, Colchicum

autumnale, Hyacinthus orientalis, Ornithogalum umbellatum, A

new species of Orobanche (0. pelargonii ), is described ; it is par-

asitic upon Pelargonium inguinans. -The glumaceous plants are

very unequally divided between the sedges and grasses, there _

being but twenty-one of the former, while of the latter there are

no less than ninety-eight. A new Alga is described and figured

in the November number of the same journal by Borzi. It is re-

garded as the type of a new genus; Hauckia, related to Cosmocla-

ium. The cells, which are two and two, are in the ends or sides

of hyaline erect or curved stalks. Each cell by fission produces

‘two daughter cells, and the latter develop hyaline stalks, thus

' giving rise to a repeatedly bifurcating mass. Macro and micro-

zoospores are also produced by the successive division of certain

cells into two, four and eight parts, each provided with two

vibrating cilia. No conjugation has: been observed; on the con-

trary, both forms of zodspores were seen to germinate. The

species is named Hauckia insularts. According to a corre- _

spondent of the Gardener's Monthly, Caladium esculentum has

escaped from cultivation in some portions of Texas, and run

E. W. G

same journal J. Schenck records his observations upon seventeen

chestnut trees in Wabash county, Ill, which were planted many —

ea ago by the early settlers. Where the trees are in groups

two or more they have invariably been fruitful, but whenever

hey are isolated they as a rule: produce nothing but empty burs,

indicating that the flowers need to be cross-fertilized from iree to

tree, In recently excavating a dock at Bombay, India, a forest

bed was found composed of 382 trees, of which no less ‘than 223

230 | General Notes. [March,

were in a standing posture. The largest tree was forty-six feet

long and four feet and a half in circumference. The trees were

generally found in a dark loamy soil composed of the disintegrated

underlying rocks at a depth varying from low-water mar

sixteen feet below low water. It is encouraging to notice the

improved facilities for botanical study and teaching in our col-

leges. At Michigan Agricultural College, a building 46 by 66

feet, and two-stories in height was erected in 1879, for the depart-

ment of botany. The large lecture-room, 44 by 48 feet, is provided

with tables for laboratory uses also. A large room on the second

floor is designed for the herbarium and cabinet. At the Iowa

' Agricultural College new and more commodious rooms were pro-

vided for the botanical department by the erection of North Hall,

in 1880. A large lecture-room is supplemented by a laboratory

adjacent to it. The latter is constructed with north and east win-

dows for microscopic work. A third room of ample size is set

apart for the herbarium and cabinet. Ten new species of Carices

are described in the recently published second volume of the

“Botany of California,’ by Wm. Boott, who contributed the

article on Carex. . E. Jones in an article on the wild fruits.

of Utah, in Case’s Botanical Index, mentions fourteen species;

among these is a curious wild peach which grows in the sand and

on lavabeds. A wild gooseberry, Rides divaricatum, var. wriguum,

and a raspberry, Rubus leucodermis, would probably be hardy 10

the Eastern States; their fruits are described as delicious.

ZOOLOGY.

DRepGINGs IN THE Bay or Brscay.—The following are some of

the more important results to which M. A. Milne Edwards directs

attention. The Crustacez were, he says, extremely interesting ;

not one of the specimens dredged is also littoral in habitat, and it

seems as though there were two faunz placed one above the

other, and not mixing. He forms a new genus, Scyramathia to con-

tain Amathia carpenteri and Scyra umbonata; a crab with phos-

phorescent eyes was found at various depths between 700 m. an

1300 m. (Geryon tridens); this has been already seen in the

Norwegian seas. unida tenuimana, with large and phosphores-

cent eyes was not rare. Gunathophausia sea, which has only as

yet been collected by the Challenger (off the Azores and neaf

Brazil) was also met with.

Most of the Mollusca belong to the deep-sea fauna of the

North Atlantic and of the Arctic seas, Among the Mediterranean

forms, there were some which as yet have only been found in the

fossil state. The similarity of the deep-sea fauna at different lat-

tudes is very strikingly shown by this collection. Pteropoda were

taken from all depths; indications of Heteropoda were not absent.

A short list of the more important Mollusca obtained is given

M. Milne Edwards in a foot note,

1881. ] Zoblogy. 231

Chzetopod worms were abundant at all the stations ; a species of

the remarkable Chztoderma was also taken; two or three genera

of Gephyrea were met with, and several of the forms had a resem-

blance to the Arctic species.

A new species of Edwardsia (or Hyanthus), a beautiful red

Adamsia, a large Bunodes, and a new species of Flabellum repre-

sent the most striking Zoantharia; the Alcyonaria are reported to

be very remarkable, and among them was a specimen of the rare

Umbellularia,

Jefircysi. Two new and remarkable Spatangoids make up the

chief Echinid gains. The Asterida were all interesting and rare,

but above all we have to note the capture of Bristnga coronata,

which was taken at several stations. Among the Ophiurids,

which were abundant, there was found one which, not described,

is said to be probably the representative of an absolutely new

. type. There are some new and fine species of Holothurioida,

Among the Crinoids we find only two examples of an Antedon,

allied to A. sarsii of the Northern seas. Hyalonema, Holtenia,

Farrea, &c., were among the siliceous sponges.

Large specimens of Orditolites tenuissima and a magnificent

series of arenaceous forms are to be noted among the Foraminifera.

_In some cases the dredge descended to 3000 metres, and in ad-

dition to the zodlogical collections, there have been made obser-

vations of very considerable importance on the hydrographical

relations of the sea-bottom of this region.

FAUNA OF THE LuRAY AND NEWMARKET CAVES, VIRGINIA—

Last June I visited these caves in order to compare their fauna

with that of Weyer’s cave, situated farther south in the Shenan-

doah valley, which I had examined in 1874, with excellent

results, having found between fifteen and twenty species of Arthro-

pods, where no life had before been known to exist, ~

Newmarket cave, situated about three miles south of New-

market, was’ first visited, and a hasty examination revealed the

following forms:

Spircstrephon copet Pack. Several specimens prove to be exactly

like those from Weyer’s cave; individuals from the two caves (as

well as from Luray cave) only differing from those of Mammoth

cave, Ky., in having shorter hairs.

Linyphia, Webs of a small spider, probably Z. weyert Emer-

ton, wete common on the stalactites, but the spiders themselves

long, narrow mite also occurred,

it was blind, and quite different from Mammoth cave specimens

of Chthonius packardi Hagen.,

232 General Notes. { March,

Among insects a single cricket ( Ceuthophilus maculatus Harris)

occurred not far from the entrance, and a beetle with eyes (Cryp-

tophagus sp. indet.) which had probably been carried in by the

men at work on the stairways and walks; also two small flies,

while the true cavern fly which we have found in caves in Ken-

tucky, Indiana and Utah was common; we refer to Blepharoptera

defessa Ostensacken. Of Thysanura, two species occurred; a

pale whitish-red Smythurus, with pale reddish eyes, and faded

whitish specimens of Zomocerus plumbeus (Linn.) of the same

color and appearance as those collected by us in the, Carter

- caves, Kentucky. The body was nearly white, the antennz darker,

the eyes black.

e Luray caves, in Luray valley, were less populous in the

‘parts fitted up for visitors, owing undoubtedly to the recent walks

and stairways built by the proprietors. Spiders were numerous,

however, all belonging to one species, Linyphia weyert Emerton;

they differed only from the type specimens in having rather

smaller eyes. Spirostrephon copei was less common than in the

Newmarket cave. The fauna of these caves was essentially like

that of Weyer’s cave. The writer would add that he is collect- —

ing materials and intends soon to publish a monographic account

of the cavé fauna of the United States, in the reports of the Ken-

tucky Geological Survey, under whose auspices most of the

material has been collected ; and would be grateful for the loan of

specimens.—A. S. Packard, Fr.

A Rare Fisu 1n Itttnois.—A specimen of Chologaster in the

collection of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History,

was obtained by Mr. F. S. Earle, of Cobden, Illinois, in August,

1878, from a spring at the foot of a bluff, in Western Union

county, in the southern part of Illinois. .

The description of Chologaster cornutus Agassiz, was based on

three specimens from South Carolina, and that of C. agassisu

Putnam, on one from Tennessee ;—these four specimens being

apparently all that were known at the time of the publication of

Mr. F. W. Putnam’s synopsis of Heteropygii, in 1871.

The Illinois specimen differs materially from the others, but as

it is intermediate in several particulars between the two described

species, and as specific descriptions drawn from so small a num-

ber of individuals must have a very uncertain value, I will give

an account of this specimen prepared by comparison with the

descriptions of Putnam’s synopsis, without attempting to decide

whether it belongs to a new species or whether it unites the two

previously proposed. Head in body, without tail, 3% times; the

eye is above and well behind maxillaries and is contained about

six times in head; the pectoral fin reaches half way to the dorsal;

the color is precisely as in cornutus, except that the middle stripe,

dark on the head, is decidedly paler than the ground color on the

hody, the change being abrupt at the opercular margin. The

1881.] Lodlogy. 233

caudal fin is dark-brown, with several rows of white specks or

blotches running across the rays. The anterior part of the dor-

sal is similar in color, but paler. Total length a trifle over an inch.

A scale from the region mentioned by Mr. Putnam, is similar to

that of Agassizii, but shows five or six concentric lines and three

radiating furrows.

This specimen thus agrees with C. cornutus in position of eye

and plan of markings; with C. agassizit in length of pectorals and

structure of scales; is intermediate in length of head, and agrees

with neither in the color of the caudal and dorsal fins jee the tint

of the middle band.—S. A. Fevbee: Normal, Ill., Fan. 3

Tue Japanese Lap-poc.—This species of Canid@ was ae

terized in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for 1879

(July), under the name of Dysodus pravus, and the diagnosis was

based on four skulls and one skeleton. In the Naruratist, for

1870, p. 655, appeared notes on three living specimens examined

by the writer in San Francisco, which confirmed the characters:

previously ascribed to the genus and species. Subsequently I

ad the opportunity of examining eight additional specimens in

San Francisco, of which three were born there, and two certainly

and others are i. ae epPancse born. The characters of these

are as follow

No. 1. Btricae: . molars 3; first premolar a minute cusp; two years old; Japan-

No, 2. Promo: ars 3; first and second superior minute.

No. 3. Premolars 4; first and second superior minute cusps ; first inferior do.; nine

-4a 1 0. 3

No. 6. Premolars 3; an old dog from

No, 7. Premolars 3; young + Sect of! No.

No. 8. One-half poodle; p aia cig z; molars - four and a half years old.

From the above it can be seen that the absence of the first in-

ferior premolar is constant, as is also, | may add, the absence of

the last inferior true molar. In only three specimens was the

first superior premolar present, and then as a cusp-like rudiment;

and these are young dogs American born. The tooth is doubt-

less shed before maturity. F inally, even the poodle mixture did

not restore the two lost inferior molars; and two superior molars

are also missing, as in the typical Dysodus pravus. In all, the

ground where o opportunities for sight are te "As house yee

they are cleanly, and intelligent in certain directions. They do

VOL. XV.—NO. III. 17

234 : General Notes. [March,

not learn tricks easily, but seem to understand the disposition and

wishes of their master very’readily. They are often very viva-

cious and energetic, and not at all indisposed to use their canine

and flesh teeth on persons whom they do not especially regard.

—E£. D. Cope.

Tue Eprpemic AmonG Marine Fisues.—In the year 1878 the

pages of Forest and Stream, as also the Proceedings of the Na-

tional Museum, contained notices of a remarkable mortality

among the fishes and marine animals of the Gulf of Mexico, the

quantity of fish perishing being something truly enormous. This

year the same phenomenon is repeated and the Florida papers

contain many notices on the subject |

It is considered a matter of so much importance that the Na-

tional Board of Health has detailed Doctor Ginteras to visit the

region and make a thorough investigation in regard to it.

Among the various communications that have reached the

Smithsonian Institution, I inclose one of the most detailed, from

an extremely intelligent observer, a resident on the west coast of

Florida. At present the cause of the evil is unknown, but a care-

must be a source of injury, to the public health. :

It is desirable that any observations of facts connected with this

phenomenon should be published.

SPENCER F. Barro, Comsiissioner.

Statement of Mrs. Charles Hoy, of Little Manatee: “The fish

began dying here about the first of November. About 8 o'clock

on the evening of October 28, or thereabout, I was sitting on MY

front gallery, the air being perfectly still, and the bay calm, when

eard a heavy splashing of the water in the direction of Gads-

den point. This continued for a few minutes, and was immedi-

ately followed by a roaring sound, such as might be made by the

wheels of a side-wheel steamer near at hand, though the noise

seemed to be séveral miles away. This continued for about 4

heavy blow from the north-west. These continued for a long

time, gradually becoming lighter until I went to bed. In three

days the fish began to come up the river dead and dying.

caught several mullet that were standing upright in the water

sick, and each had three black spots on the back, which gradually

faded away. I opened the fish, and could see nothing the matter

with them. The flesh was natural and firm, and the gills were

normal.

1881. ] Zoology. 235

“In regard to oysters I have had a rather rough experience, and

can with certainty say that they are poisonous. <A few days after

the fish began dying, I had a quart of fine oysters for dinner. I

had a lady visitor on that day, but she did not like oysters, and

ate none. My daughter and I ate heartily of them, and after

dinner I took my gun and went out to a pond to shoot some

ducks. I took a colored woman (my cook) along, and before I had

gotten half way I began to feel weak, and a mist came before my

eyes. I kept on, however, to the pond, and when I reached it,

I was so blind I could not see the ducks, although the water was

covered with them. With the assistance of the colored woman, I

got home, when I found my daughter similarly affected, and un-

able to walk. Neither Mrs. Simms, the visitor, nor my cook were

affected, which makes me know it was the oysters. The sickness

and loss of vision gradually left us after drinking a cup of strong

coffee... I am confident the death of the fish is caused by the dis-

charge of poisonous gases from the bottom of the sea.”—Forest

and Stream.

CarRAcas (Venezuela), November 12, 1880.

Tue Lac Insect.—In addition to Mr. J. M. Stillman’s article on

“The origin of the Lac,” (Amer. Nart., Nov. 1880, p. 782-787), I

may be allowed to say that H. L. Carter published a rather full

life-history of the Lac insect in the Annals and Magazine of Nat-

ural History, 1861. There exists also a special work, by J. E.

O’Conor, under the title “ Lac; production, manufacture and

trade,” a revised edition of which was printed in Calcutta in

1876, 8vo, pp. 83. It contains Carter’s article in the appendix. Both

confirm of course Mr. Stillman’s observation that the lac is a

secretion of the insect, and O’Conor mentions thirty-five trees on

which it has been found. The best fac is said to be found on

the Butea frondosa, Ficus religiosa and Schleichera trijuga.

I think Messrs. Triibner & Co., 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill, London,

can furnish O’Conor’s book, which is one of the official publica-

tions of the Indian government. In the number for September,

1880 (page 669) of the American NATURALIST, my article on the

fertilization of Cobe@a pendulifiora (published in Nature, June 17,

1880), is mentioned ; but with the curious addition, that it ‘ con-

firms Bonnier’s statement that the nectar is of no direct use to the

plant.” Now Bonnier, as is well known, holds just: the opposite

opinion, whilst I certainly gave the case of the Cobea as a relevant

proof against the view he has lately tried to defend in the botani-

cal part of the Axnales des Sciences Naturelles—A. Ernst.

Deep-wATER FAUNA OF THE Swiss Lakes.—Dr. Asper gives a

brief account of his investigations into the fauna of eleven of the,

Swiss lakes,

That of the Lake of Zurich would appear to be very rich. The

Mollusca are represented by various genera,.and those delicate

Cyclads, the Pisidia, are always present. The larve of Diptera were

236 : General Notes. [ March,

also numerous. Living in small tubes formed from the slime, they

are either colorless or of an intense yellow or red color; they

chiefly belong to the genera Chironomus and Tanypus. Acarida

were nowhere completely absent. Vermes were richly represented,

and chiefly by species of Lumbriculus and Scenuris. Of the latter

Hydra. Inthe Lake of Luzerne seventy specimens of what ap-

pears to be Asellus forelit were taken at one dredging. Here,

again, Lumbriculids and Dipterous larvz were very abundant.

In the Lake of Sils (Engadine), to omit many points of interest in |

other lakes, the Hydroids appear to be especially remarkable. A

new species is described and figured by the author under the

name of Hydra rhetica. Of a bright red color, and often as much

as 1% cm. in size, it gives indications of forming buds which re-

main permanently attached to it, and so give rise to a colony.

The male and female individuals can be easily distinguished.

The fauna of this lake was very rich in individuals, though com-

paratively poor in species — Four. R. Microscopic Society.

Tue Poison AppaRATUS OF SPIDERS.—M. Jules MacLeod has

recently published in the Belgian Archives de Biologie, the

results of his studies on this subject. He finds that each of the

venomous glands of spiders is formed of a pyriform sac, the walls

of which, provided with a muscular layer, are lined within with

an epithelium, the cavity of which serves as a reservoir of the

poisonous fluid. From the anterior part of this sac proceeds a

canal which opens at the end of the cheliceres, or jaws. The wall

of this canal contains the same parts as the wall of the sac, but

the muscular layer is there, however, either much less developed

or absent. The secretory cells are cylindrical, arranged in a sin-

gle layer. These cells present a different aspect according to

their state of repose or activity; they pass from the state of ordi-

nary cylindrical cells (repose?) to that of cup-shaped cells (activ-

ity?) by a series of states of passage. In certain species there

are only cup-shaped cells (Tegenaria), of which the cup, muc

elongated, plays the role of excretory canal.

This last form approaches the typical unicellular glands; con-

sequently the glands whose cells presents this disposition are,

properly speaking, compound glands (Tegenaria).

Deep DRrEDGINGS IN THE LAKE OF TiBERIAS.—The invertebrata

obtained by M. Lortet in these dredgings include ten species of

Mollusca, of which three.are new to science. These are named

by M. Locard, Unio lorteti, U. pietri, U. maris galilei. The other

species are Unio terminalis and tigridis, Cyrena fluminalts, Neritina

jordani, Melania tuberculata, Melanopsis premorsa and costata. The

three latter shells give the fauna a marine appearance ; and it is to

be considered as a transition fauna between salt and fresh water,

the lake having probably been originally salt, and subsequently

altered by the passage of the Jordan waters through it. Near

1881.] Zoilogy. 237

the shore were found a small shrimp, and the crab, Te/phusa

fluviatilis, A very fine volcanic mud from the greatest depths

contained diatoms, foraminifera, &c. No alga was brought up.

The Unio shells at the depth of 250 metres were curiously soft-

ened and resembled in condition the fossils of some of the Tertiary

strata of the middle of France; this is probably chiefly due to

pressure.

FrEsSH-WATER Microscopic OrGAnisMs.—Prof. Maggi has pub-

lished a catalogue of the Rotifera of Volconia, containing fourteen

genera and eighteen species. He also gives a list of the fresh-

water Rhizopoda of Lombardy, and has come to the conclusion

that Amphizonella flava is not identical with Pseudochlamys patella,

but that it is a developmental stage of some unknown form. .

has investigated the plastids found in ciliated Infusoria, and especi-

ally those which are found in the nuclei of the Oxytricha. When

these organisms are treated with a two per cent. solution of bi-

chromate of potash, dark granulations are to be observed in the

parenchyma of the body, and a black reticulum is also to be made

out in the nuclei.

ZooLocicaL Norres—The classification of the order of Dis-

of the group pass. It will be seen from this that Haeckel does

not regard the Trachynemidz or the Lucernariz as forming sub-

orders of the Discophora, but independent orders. The discovery

of a large number of new forms has led him to propose this new

classification of the order. Some points in the structure of the

herring are discussed by Professor Moebius.in the reports of the

commission for the scientific exploration of the German seas, com-

prising figures illustrating the external and igternal anatomy of this

fish, and its crustaceous food, as well as the appearance of the

fish at different ages; and a comparison of the herring with the

spratt. He also gives a figure of a young flounder, and notes on

the food of fishes and their mode of reproduction, An elab-

orate work by Dr. R. Latzel, favorably noticed in Mature, on the

Myriopods of Austria, is being issued in parts at Vienna; the

first part comprises the Chilopoda; we notice that the author

adopks Mr. Ryder’s new order Symphyla for the synthetic form

Scolopendrella. Professor Huxley lately read a paper before the

Zoological Society of London, on the application of the laws of

evolution to the arrangement of the vertebrates and more partic-

ularly of the mammalia. In a paper read by M. Viallanes,

before the French Academy, on the sensitive nerve-termination

in the skin of some insects, especially the larve of the common

238 General Notes. | March,

fly (Musca) and Eristalis, he finds under the hypodermis an ex-

tremely rich plexus of ganglionic cells, connected on one hand

with the chief nerve-centers, and on the other with sensitive term-

inal nerve-branches. In a paper read at the same meeting by

M. Jourdain, on sensorial Bo sett of the internal antenna of

crustaceans, he states that while these have undoubtedly the

characters of an or gan of sense, they cannot be those of smell.

r. W. H. Ballou, in the Chicago Meld, gives an account of the »

fisheries of eels in the Oswego river, New York, and a good ac-

count of the habits of the fish. Mr. B. B. Redding of the

California Fish Commission, recently read an article on the prop-

agation of fishes before the ‘Academy of Sciences of that State.

He dwelt especially on the enormous fertility of fishes as an in-

dication that the sources of supply of human food were only

beginning to be appreciated, and that the limit of human popula-

tion as set down by the Malthusians is as remote as it ever was.

ocourt of the Commission Scientifique de la Mexique,

has recently investigated the structure of the scales of the Scincoid

and other lizards with fish-like scales. He finds the former to be

perforated ue ean which divide the scales into numerous

areas. The similar scales of TZvrettoscincus, Gymnophthalmus

and allies fren tropical America. are homogeneous in structure.

ENTOMOLOGY.!

OTES ON THE GRAPE PHYLLOXERA AND ON LAWS TO PREVENT

ITS INTRODUCTION.—I have received the following letter from a

well-known grape grower of St. Louis, Mo., who is largely en-

gaged in the exportation to France and other countries of Ameri-

can grape-vine cuttings, and as it touches a question of deep gen-

eral, even international, interest, I will make it the text for brief

Comnnent:

* On page 3.0f your American Entomologist, you urge

the grape- growers of California not yet afflicted with Phylloxera

to exercise ‘the utmost vigilance to prevent the introduction into

their own localities of infested vines or cuttings. This last word,

to me at least is unsatisfactory. Why should you support that

erroneous prejudice? Is it not true that in winter, when cuttings

are made and shipped, it is impossible to find a live Phylloxera on

them, or any eggs of this insect? The winter-egg, if it exists at

all, does not exist on one year old wood, certainly not here nor

in Southern France. Ask Aimé Champin ; ask Leenhardt, Robin,

Planchon, oe they all looked for it in vain just as you did your-

self. But while Spain, Italy, Hungary work to get the

rohibitiog of the importation of cuttings repealed, as necessary

. to their salvation and free from any danger of importing the de-

structive insect, such a word from you may frustrate their bai

deavors. Isipor Bus.”

1 This department is edited d by Pror. C. V. seeeesk Bee. ee D. C., to whom

communications, books for notice, etc., should be s

1881. ] Entomology. 239

The ravages of what has now come to be more generally called

the Phylloxera, though the term should always be qualified, since

there are many other species besides that which attacks the grape-

vine, have attracted so much attention in foreign countries and

caused so much fear in those countries not yet invaded by it, that

the most stringent laws have been enacted to prevent such inva-

sion. Some of these laws are injurious and unnecessary in so far

as they prohibit the importation of all living plants, and at Cape

Town, more particularly, they have been carried out with such

zeal, that a cargo of potatoes arriving from New Zealand was

recently destroyed for fear that the pest might be imported

therein. A great deal of controversy has grown out of this

stringent’ legislation, and Dr. Maxime Cornu has lately sub-

mitted a report, in which, while confessing that Phylloxera

vastatrix is confined to the grape-vine and can flourish on no

other plant, he yet recommends the following of the example set

by Algeria, which is to forbid the introduction of all vegetable

products whatever except those absolutely required for consump-

tion.

I have been too busily engaged during the last few years with

other injurious insects to give very much attention to the grape

Phylloxera in this country; yet I have made continuous observa-

tions which confirm all that I have in past years written on

the subject, and from which I do not hesitate to declare that it is

240 General Notes. [March,

experiments which I made in 1875 (recorded in the Transaction

of the St. Louis Academy of Science, October, 1875), and which

were the first recorded of their kind, show that the eggs from

the winged females are most often laid in or on the ground near

the base of the vine, and that they are so delicate as to require

specially favorable conditions of moisture and temperature to en-

able them to hatch. I do not hesitate to express my conviction

that when deposited on anything else than the lower, tomentose

surface of the living leaf of the grape vine, where they can receive

moisture by endosmosis, or in the crevices or frregularities of

earth, that receives from dew or other sources a-due amount of

moisture, they will infallibly perish. But even supposing that

these eggs could hatch, and the resulting female should lay the

impregnated egg upon any other living plant, and that this egg

should in due time give birth to the stem-mother, she would in-

' evitably perish without issue for want of appropriate food; while

to suppose that all these operations could go on upon any other

product or substance than living plants, or upon the dry parts of

plants, is to exhibit crass ignorance of the peculiar conditions

necessary to the perpetuation of the species at these particular

stages. With the utmost care in endeavoring to supply the

natural conditions, I have failed nine times in ten to obtain the

sexual individuals, and still more frequently to get the impreg-

nated egg, and such has been the experience of others in Europe.

The danger ofsintroducing this insect upon anything else than

the grape vine, where a voyage has to be made in the tropics, 1s

et more remote, as even supposing the “winter egg” could be

produced it would prematurely hatch on the voyage.

The only way, therefore, in which Phylloxera can be conveyed

from one country to another widely separated therefrom, is upon

grape vines, and here we come to the question raised by

h. My recommendation to use certain resisting American

vines as stocks on which to graft the more susceptible European

vine has resulted in an immense traffic between this country and

Europe in American cuttings, and nurserymen engaged in this

state, and while later researches, here by myself and abroad by

others, have confirmed my previous experience in this country,

published five years ago, as to the rarity of the “winter egg” on

the canes above ground, and the more recent observations would

seem to indicate that wherever it is thus found above ground it 1s

produced rather from the gall-inhabiting type than from the more

dangerous root-inhabiting type, yet the fact that this “ winter egg

does occur upon almost any part of the plant above ground, and

more particularly under the loose bark of the two-year-old cane,

1881.] Entomology. 241

renders it quite possible that the insect raay be carried upon cut-

tings in this “ winter egg’ state, and fully justifies the prohibition

of the introduction of such, as well as of rooted plants, from any

country where the insect is known to occur. Indeed, considering

the rarity of shipment of rooted vines, I strongly believe that the

insect was originally introduced into Europe from America in the

“winter egg” state upon cuttings. I would say, therefore, to

those countries desirous of defending themselves from this scourge,

that all danger is removed when vines and all parts of vines from

infested countries are kept out. With such prohibition, all re-

quirements are met and all legislation that goes beyond this must

necessarily be hurtful to general industry; while the prohibition

of traffic in American vines in countries where the grape Phyllox-

era is known to already occur can have no useful end and may be

detrimental.

That the rarity with which the impregnated egg is found

above ground greatly reduces the chances of Phylloxera introduc- .

tion by cuttings is true, but in a country desiring protection from

such a scourge, the remotest chance should not ‘be risked. Mr.

Bush is wrong in supposing that this egg may not occur on one

year cane. I have found it upon such, and it may even occur

upon the dried leaf where, in all probability, it is destined to

perish.

’ While, therefore, I believe that the laws cannot be too stringent

in preventing the introduction and use of grape vines in any living

condition into a non-infected from an infected country, it is equally

true that there is no danger in the mere passage through such a

country of such vines or cuttings. These are necessarily boxed,

and can only be safely and properly shipped during the cold or

non-growing season, when the egg is dormant, so that there is a

practical impossibility in the introduction of the insect by the

meére passage, whether of vines or cuttings.—C. V. Riley.

CECROPIA COCOONS PUNCTURED BY THE Harry WoODPECKER.—

One of the most interesting as well as difficult problems in ento-

mology, is the relation which the cocoon sustains to the pupa,

and the various ways in which the cocoon offers protection to the

pupa or future imago. In particular is this true of the Lepidop-

tera. That cocoons to an extent equalize rapid changes of tem-

perature and prevent the loss of moisture by the pupa, is beyond

a doubt. But that they offer protection against other natural

destructive agencies, such as mice and birds, is, in the case of the _

atter, to a certain extent untrue. There is at least one bird, the

hairy woodpecker (Picus villosus Linn.), from whose beak the

staunch cocoon of the Cecropia offer no protection whatever. —

In the early part of the winter of 1879-80, I noticed one of

these birds clinging toa twig, pecking away at the parchment-like

covering of a cocoon attached thereto, in a manner that amused

me very much, and I was hugely enjoying its (as I supposed) vain

242 General Notes. [ March,

attempts to penetrate it. But when it hopped to an adjoining

limb, shook itself and performed in a manner which years of

observation had taught me was not indicative of a hungry bird, I

began to think its powers had been vastly underestimated.

the aid of a ladder the cocoon was obtained and found not only .

to have been punctured, but all the soft and liquid parts extracted.

As there were others attached to the same tree which upon exam-

ination proved to be uninjured, I was led to believe the bird had

found a weak part.

. After a few days these were examined.and another found to be

punctured, this time fairly upon the crown and apparently in the

strongest part. I now saw what had before escaped my notice,

viz: that by the situation of the first cocoon it was accessible to

the bird only from below, which accounted for the puncture being

near its base, close to the twig. A short time afterward, on pass-

ing another tree, out from among the branches flew the little

murderer, and, as usual, a punctured cocoon was found, the punc-

ture yet wet with the juices of the pupa, showing that I had sur-

prised the bird while at breakfast.)

Afterward an examination of over twenty cocoons, found in a

small grove of Negundo aceroides, showed only two uninjured.

That the birds were not in quest of parasites is at once evident,

as a parasitized larva of one of these moths reaches only the first

stages of the pupa state, as the many cocoons I have examined

contained only the dried skins, in nearly all cases, of larvae appa-

rently having expired immediately after having constructed their

cocoons, leaving at this season nothing containing any liquid

matter whatever, and nothing to afford nourishment for birds.

A year has gone by, and at this date (January) the little

destroyers are at work, and I can easily distinguish the dry rat-

tling sound, the death knell of the beautiful moth, the larva of

which seems to be as destructive to vegetation as the imago 1s

innocent. So far as I have been able to observe, the birds do not

attack these cocoons (a number of which accompany this paper)

until winter, when other insect food is not so easily obtainable. In

fact, this seems to be a source of subsistence stored up for this

season of the year, always fresh and, to all appearances, at all

times available.—F. AZ, Webster, Waterman, Ills.

1 This cocoon was opened nearly two months afterwards at the Bloomington meet-

ing of the Illinois State Nat. Hist. Society, and the pupa found to be still alive.

1881. ] Entomology. | 243

woolen remnants. He stated that they had appeared in great

numbers the previous summer on the large elm shade tree near

the house, and that the tree, at the end of the summer, looked as if

its leaves were nearly gone, but he did not examine the leaves ;

_ “and now,” said he, “the pests have taken possession of the

house.” I pointed out to him that though to the popular eye they

did look like squash beetles ( Diabrotica vittata Fabr.), they were a

different affair; but that they would do no injury to the house

other than by being an annoyance, as next spring they would

doubtless, if allowed to, get out of their dwelling and into the

the trees again. |

I have followed up the career of this Galeruca as well as I

could. Upon this particular farm, which had three elms on it, the

history is briefly this: They appeared about the first of May,

1877, suddenly and in great numbers. They hibernated in the

garret three winters, getting out of the house in May following

each winter. In trying to get out of the house in May, 1880,

they swarmed on the inside of the windows, and large numbers ,

were destroyed by brushing them into a pan of scalding water.

Their depredations on the three trees were through four sum-

mers. The leaves would be eaten off, and a new sickly crop

follow early in the fall. My friend is afraid that the trees cannot

recover. He did not observe the “worms.”’ The beetles have ©

not been found in the house this last fall or present winter, and

they were not so numerous on the trees last summer.

In May, 1879, one of our students at New Brunswick, N. J.,

brought me several specimens of G. xanthomelena, which he

caught on the curtains of the parlor windows. They were trying

to get out of the house, having hibernated there. The house is

in the city and has elm shade trees. The same youth directed

my attention to the fact that these insects were in quantities in

the gymnasium loft of Rutgers’ College Grammar School, and

there they had hibernated two winters. The shade trees are elms.

hey have been three years in New Brunswick. The first time

they appeared suddenly and in quantity, and their depredations

set'the citizens to work scraping and cleaning the bark. The

second year they came in less numbers, and still less the third

year,

These observations simply cover the following points: 1. Their

first appearance is sudden and in numbers. 2. Either the imago

or larve or both are voracious leaf eaters of the elm. 3. The

imago hibernates; and 4, it has a penchant for the protection of —

buildings. 5. Judging from the freshness of all the specimens |

have seen, I should think the beetles were but just evolved from

their pupae when they seek their winter quarters. If this be so,

their life cycle is a rapid one, the egg in May and the imago in

early autumn. But this must be determined by actual experi-

ment.

244 General Notes. [ March,

I have queried whether their great numbers at the first observed

appearance may not be due to the almost entire absence of natural

enemies, and their subsequent decrease to the presence of the

same.— Samuel Lockwood, Freehold, N.

[The devedoseeht is far more rapid than our correspondent

supposes. There are at least three generations at Washington,

and doubtless more than one in New Jersey.—Ep. ]

Foop Hasits oF SAPERDA CRETATA.—In your recent valuable

article on the food-plants of Cerambycide I notice that no mention

is made of Saperda cretata. is beautiful species, an account

of which I published in the Western Stock Fournal and Farmer

(Dec. No., 1880), has been been taken from the branches of apple

trees and specimens of both the insect and its work sent me by

Mr. C. G. Patten, of Charles City, I

The eggs are evidently laid in pairs, half an inch or more apart

along the branch, the larvae of each pair upon hatching, working

in opposite directions around the branch, at first just beneath the

bark, but afterward (probably after the ‘first year), entering the

hard wood.—Herbert Osborn, Ames, Lowa

space OF THE COTTON Wors Mor : EASE WITH WHICH

MISTAKES ARE MADE.—Mr. I. A. Wimbish, of Cuero, DeWitt Co.,

Texas, writes as follows:

the ih of December rah beets 6a? F., wind ae SE), whilst flying around the fo

my ste For some weeks habeas the

sianeperati chad varied from 22° to 48°, th He?

vailing wns s having been N. and N.E. Su

low degree of temperature is unusual in our toca

ity, and hatha dee ccurs more than once during an

entire winter

Bes shown of this moth, * bor time, I regard

very ae evidence of the uth of the hiber-

a :

Fic. 1.—Aletia suey is, that there will be no further danger during the

remain nder c S 3 : ce

Before closing this note ill tal k that I have heats a resident

of this county since 1851, fe have planted skis eight crops of c Of this

number, I have aces raised 2

crop, until Be present year,

which was not more or less in-

jured by the ances: the dam-

i r

Fic. 2.—Leucania uUnipunc ed

female gbesenieh natural renee ,eye; ¢, srtion of until frost, Nov. hye — er

female antenna; d, do. male (after Riley). ond ines vow e w

The specimen sent by Mr. Wimbish was so badly ‘rubbed and

1881. |

broken that it would have been

Anthropology.

245

past recognition by any one not

thoroughly familiar with the cotton-worm moth, and the other

species so apt to be mistaken for

it. Yet correct determination

s most essential in all such

questions and by the ovipositor

alone we recognized the speci-

men as that of the common

army-worm (Leucania unipunc-

ta). For the benefit of the

general reader, and especially

of our Southern friends, who

are most deeply interested in the

Aletia is a simple, slightly ex-

tensile, cylindrical tube, while

that of the Leucania, as shown

in Fig. 3, is a compressed, nar-

row, blade-like, horny process,

Fic. , end o

abdomen denuded and showing ovipositor

.—Army-worm moth; @

at rest; 6, same with ovipositor fully ex-

tended; e, f, retractile subjoints; 2, eggs

—all enlarged; g, eggs, natural size (after

easily recognizable when all

other characters of the species are obliterated. We may say, ex

passant, that on account of the general similarity of color and

the frequency with which it occurs in the Southern States during

winter time, this Leucania is the most liable to be mistaken for

the Aletia.

upon application —C. V. Riley.

ANTHROPOLOGY.*

ANTHROPOLOGY IN Missour1.i—The Academy of Science of St.

Louis published two important additions to anthropology during

the past year: “Contributions to the archeology of Missouri, by

the Archzological Section of the St. Louis Academy of Science.

Part 1, Pottery, by W. B. Potter and E. Evers. Naturalists

Bureau, Salem, Mass., 1880, 30 pp., 24 lith. pl., 5 maps, 4to;” and

1 Edited by Prof, Or1s T. Mason, Columbian College, Washington, D. C.

ode

246 General Notes. { March,

two papers in Vol. iv, No. 1, of Transactions, entitled, “ The Geo-

logical and Geographical Distribution of the Human Race,” by

the Hon. Nathaniel Holmes, and “ Zoque, the language spoken at

Santa Maria de Chemalapa, and at San Miguel and Terra Blanca,

in the State of Chiapas, a by Antonio de Coruna y Col-

ludo, translated by J. A. D

The mem ory of “leascnt aa passed with our friends during

the meeting of the American Association in 1878, and of the

valuable collections which they have made at great expense, is re-

awakened by the appearance of these two volumes, The paper

of Judge Holmes is in the nature of a lecture upon the origin and

‘early migrations of our race. Starting out with Mr. Wallace’s

six zoological provinces; Palzearctic, Oriental, Australian, African,

Nearctic, and Neotropical, it is assumed, “ that man’s distribution

over the earth must have pursued an analogous course, under the

threefold operation of evolution, migration over continuous areas,

and extinction in some areas.””’ The author considers it scientific-

ally demonstrated that man existed in Europe in the Miocene

period. After passing in review the Canstadt, Cromagnon and

Furfooz races of western Europe, Judge Holmes turns aside to ~

combat Professor Dawkins’ theories concerning the post-tertiary

origin’ of man and the identity of the Eskimo with the cave-

dwellers of Dordogne.

s to our own country, it is held that the earliest existence of

our race, was in the Pliocene of the Pacific coast, and that they

progressed to the Atlantic border when the land communication

was established across the continent, Theisubject of bands of color

coordinated with other anes characteristics, of the pristine home

and the migrations of men, the causes of racial differences, the

peopling of America, and “of plurality of origins are thoughtfully

considered.

The Zoques were once a powerful nation, extending from Te-

huantepec through Tabasco and Chiapas i into Oaxaca, now num-

bering from 2500 to 3000. At present they are confined to a small

district and two mean villages,Santa Maria de Chemalapa and

San Miguel. Their language belongs to the Maya-Quiche, most

nearly related to the Tzendal-Maya. Three pages of vocabulary

accompany the paper on the Zoques.

The work of Professor Potter and Dr. Evers is destined to become .

a classic upon the archeology of Southwestern. Missouri. We

have in their monograph a neat quarto resembling very much in

outward appearance the Smithsonian separate Contributions to

Knowledge, and containing: 1. A paper on the archeological

remains in south-western Missouri, by Professor W. B. pier?

which is a model of brevity and precision (pages 5-19); 2

paper on the ancient pottery of south-eastern Missouri, by Dr.

Edward Evers, which is exceedingly cautious as to its theories

(pages 21-30); 3. At the — of the text are five maps to illus-

1881.] Anthropology. 247

trate Professor Potter’s paper, and twenty-four lithographic plates

containing one hundred and forty-nine figures drawn to a scale

by Dr. G. Hambach, to illustrate Dr. Evers’ paper. Excepting a

few faults of proof-reading, the press-work and dlustrations are all

that could be desired.

One must study this volume with a good map of Missouri be-

fore him. The geology of the south-eastern corner of the State

is well described, especially the ridges bounded by bayous upon

which the remains are located. Two ridges are included within

the present survey: the “Sandy Wood Settlement,” near the

town of Diehlstadt, in Scott county; and the “ New Madrid and

Sikeston Ridge,” in New Madrid county. The latter ridge fur-

nishes four settlements besides several scattering mound sites.

The especial characteristics of these village sites are an earth wall

and ditch enclosing a given area, an oblong principal mound,

around which is an elliptical clear space, innumerable lodge-

hollows filling the remainder of the enclosure beyond the clear

space, and, finally, here and there, burial mounds, from which

_ hundreds of skeletons and many thousands of specimens have

_ been exhumed. .

It is very difficult to abridge Professor Potter’s terse descrip-

tion, and we regret the want of space to give even his summary

(pages 17-19). age

In Dr. Evers’ portion of the volume will be found descriptions

of the materials, shapes, coloring and decorations of the pottery.

The material is a dark, grayish clay, mixed with sand and shells,

and sun-dried. (On the last point, see Professor Putnam’s excellent

review of this work in the Sc. Am. Supplement, Jan 1, 1881, 4161-

4163.) The color is generally black, and, in some specimens,

moulded in the clay. The decorations are red, white and black,

not burned in.

In shape the vessels are classed as long-necked ; short-necked ;

wide-mouthed, shallow dishes, with or without handles; gourd-

shaped ; animal-shaped; and those exhibiting the human form.

A few forms are suggestive of Peruvian, Central American, Pueblo,

cliff dwelling, and even Asiatic pottery; but Dr. Evers as well as

Professor Putnam have evidently learned caution through a large

experience. The greatest variety in supporting the vessels is

exhibited in Dr. Hambach’s drawings.

The ornamentations are either moulded in the vessel, luted on

the surface, incised, or painted on the outer surface (very rarely on

the inside). The author makes an observation with reference to the

design of these varied forms of embellishment which strikes us

very favorably indeed. It might be called “the law of the least

marvelous,” He contends that ancient implements must not be

referred to any function more important or significant than a cor-

responding one of the present day. A

In conclusion, the NaTuRALIsT extends its congratulations to

248 General Notes. { March,

thé St. Louis Academy of Science upon the prosecution of an

investigation so thorough that it will never need to be repeated.

THE Stupy oF Inp1an LancuaGes.—Major J. W. Powell has just

issued a second edition of “ Introduction tothe Study of Indian Lan-

guages, with phrases and sentences to be collected. Washington,

1880.” Although purporting to relate to language alone, the

work covers ,the whole ground of anthropological research,

Chapter 1 is a discussion of the alphabet, together with the best

method of transliterating an Indian language. Chapter 1 is

headed Hints and Explanations, and is a preparation for the lists of

phrases and sentences to be collected in the schedules. ‘These

are divided into thirty-two sections, treating of persons, parts of

the body, dress and ornaments, dwellings, implements and utensils,

food, colors, numerals, measures, divisions of time, standards of

value, animals, plants, geographic terms, geographic names, the

firmament and meteorologic phenomena, kinship, social organiza-

tion, government, religion, mortuary customs, medicine, amuse-

ments, new words, accidence, pronouns and transitive verbs,

possession, intransitive verbs and the other parts of speech

c od

studying materials collected, the rank of Indian languages. Chap-

ter 111 is a collection of schedules containing a great variety of

questiohs in order to bring out the truth with reference to each

of the subjects named above.

In the back of the volume is a set of kinship charts which

embrace both consanguinity and affinity for nine generations,

including that of ego, four above ego, and four below ego.

Instead of using the old-fashioned circles for the individuals

in the group, found in Mr. Morgan’s tables and elsewhere, the tri-

angulat characters used by the Indians themselves to denote man

and woman are worked up with a series of colors so as to present

to the eye at a single view, ali the facts desired.

The alphabet presents a few innovations, which are usually

very undesirable, but which in this case are on the whole an

improvement, since they substitute a plain letter, which may be

found in any printing office, for characters and logographs diffi-

cult to reproduce.

A Pre-nistoric Rock Retreat—In January, 1876, the late

S. S. Haldeman, Professor of comparative philology at the Uni-

versity of Philadelphia, discovered on his farm near Chickies,

Pa., upon the eastern bank of the Susquehanna river, a rock

retreat of the prehistoric age, which yielded him, when he ex-

plored it with the spade, a large number of stone implements,

and proved to be a locality where the occupation of arrow-

making had been followed for a long lapse of time. This re-

several printed communications by Professor Haldeman, the last

of which was the one read before the American Philosophical

1881. ] Anthropology. 249

Society of Philadelphia, Pa., June 21, 1878, and printed since in

the Transactions, Vol. xv, page 351-368, with fifteen lithographic

plates; one of these represents the rock recess with the railroad

track running in front of it. The text accompanying the plates

contains a statement concerning the probable age of the relics;

thirty inches of black mold accumulated by decaying vegetation

would seem to indicate to the author a time roughly estimated at

two thousand years. The objects found are described under the

following headings: Knives, chisels, scrapers, borers, arrow-.

‘heads, spear-heads, hoes and diggers, sinkers, hammer-stones,

tomahawks of honor, pipes, cores and chips, pebbles, shells,

bones, pottery; the latter showing a large number of different

patterns. The professor’s remark (page 354), that the name “ celts",

given to the stone chisels, should be restricted to the people who

bear this name, is not quite to the point, for this term, in Greek,

#éAr7s, stands in no connection whatever with the national name

of the Celts; but is related to the Latin verb ce/are, to chisel out,

to engrave; and to the substantives : ce/atura, the art of chiseling

and that of making relievos; c@/amen, a basso or mezzo-relievo ;

celum, the artist’s chisel.

stone and the bronze age in Europe, and explains their intermix-

ture and “ overlap ” in the earlier lake habitations of Switzerland

and elsewhere. The portion of the r germane to our notes

closes with an endeavor to recall the historical deluge as a force

in the production of those physical changes which separate the

deposits containing the remains of palzocosmic man from those

of later date. The paper appears in full in the Kansas City Re-

wew, for January and February. :

_ Tue Azrec Dictionary oF FATHER AOLNzO DE Motina is a most

important help for the study of the Aztec or Mexican language,

and since it gives the ancient, uncorrupted forms of this sonorous

tongue from a time dating but little after the conquest, it is high-

VOL, XV.—NO. II. I ‘

250 General Notes. [ March,

ly appreciated by all Mexicologists. The number of Aztec terms

contained in each of the two parts, Spanish-Aztec and Aztec-

Spanish, cannot fall much shor of thirty thousand. The great

scarcity of both editions (1565 and 1575) has raised its price

rather high, but through Platzmann’s recent re-publication of the

second edition linguists are now enabled to acquire this “

saurus ” at a very moderate figure. The new edition reproduces

the work in fac-simile and bears the following title : “ Vocabu-

lario de la Lengua Mexicana, compuesto por el P. Fr. Alonso

de Molina, Publicado de nuevo por Julio Platzmann, Leip--

zig, B. G. Teubner, 1880, Quarto.” The volume is dedicated to

the memory of the Empress Catharine II., of Russia, the first sov-

ereign who encouraged linguistic researches within the limits of

her vast domains in Europe and Northern Asia.

Tue Inpo-CuinEsE AND Oceanic Races.—Mr. A. H. Keene, of

whose work the Naturatist has frequently made mention, com-

mences in the number of ature for Dec. 30, a series of papers

on the Indo-Chinese and Oceanic Races—types and affinities.

The following scheme will be followed in the discussion :

A. DARK TYPES.

I. Necritos: Aetas; Andamanese; Samangs; Kalangs; Karons.

entral branch—Papfians proper.

II. PaptAns: {we Western pea -Papfians, West (Al

Eas —Sub-Paptians, East (Melanesians.

III. AUSTRAL: poses comme tS:

B. CAUCASIAN TYPE (Fair and Brown).

IV. CONTINENTAL BRANCH: Khmér or Cambojan Gro

V. OcEANIC BRANCH: Indonesian and Sawaiori or Kenia Folynesian Groups.

C. MONGOLIAN TYPE (Yellow and Olive Brown).

VI. CoNTINENTAL BRANCH: Indo-Chinese Group.

VII. OcEANIC BRANCH: Malayan Groups.

Tue Pawnee Inprans.—Mr. John B. Dunbar, of Deposit, New

York, contributes to the November number of the Magazine of

American History a paper of twenty-four pages upon the Pawnee

Indians, describing their trade, food, feasts, hunting, war and

medicine. The list of food plants and the discussion of the prac-

tice of medicine are especially good. It has been asserted in very

high quarters that the Indian of this continent had primarily no

knowledge of the medicinal properties of herbs aside from incan-

tation. It might be well for Mr. Dunbar to give this question @

little attention, Sooner or later some scholar or group of scholars

will publish an encyclopaedia of our Indian tribes, and for this

work such monographs, as the one under consideration are a

necessary preparation,

THE WESTERN RESERVE Society.—From our esteemed corres-

pondent, Col. Charles Whittlesey, we have received a tract en

titled “The Universal Indian Problem,” and No. 50 of the pam-

1881. ] Geology and Palecntology. 251

phlets of the Western Reserve & No, Ohio Hist. Soc., containing

the Indian narrative of Judge Hugh Welch, and Wyandotte mis-

sions in 1806 and 1857, both edited by Mr. C. C. Baldwin. The for-

mer is a letter to General Garfield onthe subject of Indian education,

which takes a rather gloomy view of the subject. Of the latter,

as well as of all the publications of this society, we take great

pleasure in saying that the permanent records of an association

can be valuable in the highest degree without being in the least

costly or pretentious.

THE Census oF ALASKA.—The Mew York Herald for January

Io and II, gives a detailed account of the exploration of the

Alaskan peninsula for the purpose of enumerating the population,

and of studying the habits of the natives. No one better fitted for

this service could have been found than Mr. Petroff, who adds to

his thorough knowledge of the Russian and English, a practical

acquaintance with ethnology, acquired while assisting Mr. Ban-

croft in the preparation of his great work on-the native races of

the Pacific States. Mr. Petroff will prepare an elaborate paper

on Alaska for the next census and will contribute a memoir to

the volumes of the Ethnological Bureau.

THe Davenport Acapemy, Iowa.— The Davenport Daily

Gazette for January 6, 1881, contains the record of the annual

meeting of this thriving society. The retiring president, Mr.

Pratt, devoted the annual address to the discussion of the mound-

builders. Mr. J. Duncan Putnam was elected president for the

ensuing year, and Dr. C. C. Parry, corresponding secretary.

Notice is given that the printing of volume 11 will be resumed

at once.

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY

APPARENT GLACIAL Deposits 1N VALLEY Drirr.—While col-

lecting facts regarding the question whether there was in Maine

a re-advance of the glacier subsequent to the deposition of the

sedimentary Champlain clays and valley drift, the writer observed

certain large boulders lying on or in the valley drift which

seemed too large to have been deposited by any of the ordinary

forces of valley transportation. Sometimes numbers of boulders

were found in pell-mell masses quite morainal in appearance, and

I was for a time inclined to regard them as glacial. The smaller

stones and boulders might readily be supposed to have been car-

ried down in spring by floating blocks of ice, but the largest of

them staggered me, until one day I found a boulder weighing not

far from one hundred tons lying on the undisturbed silt of the

present flood plain of the Piscataquis river. Its history was as

follows: Ever since the first settlement of the country that rock

had stood right in mid-channel, a constant object of apprehension

and vituperation to the lumbermen, for many were the “jams” of

logs which it had caused, some of them of large size. But nothing

252 General Netes. [ March,

moved it perceptibly until a few years ago, when, during a mid-

winter flood, a great ice gorge formed against it and a very high

dam soon extended to a considerable distance on each side of the

river. When, at last, the ice rushed downwards with irresistible

force it wrenched the offending rock from its bed in the till,

pushed it up a steep bank twelve feet high, and left it two hun-

dred feet back from the river, together with large piles of stones

and boulders. The flood platn, being frozen, suffered but little

erosion. Many similar facts have since been observed. Evident-

ly if blocks of granite ten or more feet in diameter can be tossed

about like this, then in the case of narrowish valleys subject to

floods and ice gorges, the presence in the valley drift of erratics

and masses resembling moraines is to be received with great cau-

tion as a proof of glacial conditions, unless the deposits are very

abundant and continuous, or are supplemented by striz or other

positive indications. So also the development of the aasar or

kames seems to show the frequency and great transportive power

of ice gorges in the channels of the glacial rivers. During the

decadence of the great glacier, transportation of this kind would

probably be active all along the line of the terminal moraine,

more particularly in the valleys of those streams whose head-

waters were in the region covered by the ice, such, for instance,

as the valleys of the Delaware, Susquehanna and Allegheny. At

least they deserve careful investigation for such deposits.—George

ff, Stone, Kent's Fill, Maine.

Extincr PaLazozoic FisHes FRoM CaNADA.—Ata recent meeting

of the Natural History Society of Montreal, Mr. Whiteaves read a

paper on “Some new and remarkable fossil fishes from the De-

vonian rocks of the northern side of the Baie des Chaleurs.” He

commenced by remarking that until last year a long strip of the

northern side of the bay had been mapped as belonging to the

conglomerates of the Bonaventure formation, which form the

base of the Carboniferous system. Last year, however, Mr. R.

W. Ells, of the Geological survey, discovered a fine specimen of

a fossil fish belonging to the genus Prerichthys, of Agassiz, in

Escuminac bay,a discovery which led to a careful re-examination

of the locality by Messrs. R. W. Ells, T. C. Weston, and A. H.

Foord. From the researches of these gentlemen, we now know

that at this point Devonian rocks crop out from under the Bona-

venture conglomerates, and further, that these Devonian rocks

hold a rich and extremely interesting series of fossil plants and

fishes. The vegetable organisms will be described by Principal

Dawson at some future time, but the fossil fishes, of which many

specimens were exhibited at the meeting, were showg to belong

to the following genera and species:—1. Prerichthys. A fine species,

supposed to be new, which has been described in the August

number of the American Fournal of Science as Pterichthys cana-

densis. 2. Diplacanthus ; a cluster of fin rays only, of a small

1881. ] Geology and Paleontology. 253

form, possibly referable to this genus. 3. Cheirolepis. A beauti-

fully preserved fossil fish, about a foot in length, which cannot

oD ,

sp. 6, Portion of the vertebral column of the above species o

Tristichoporus shewing the neural and hemal spines and the

processes which support the rays of the tail, also the two ischiatic

bones with the metatarsals attached, which must have formed the

bases of two enormously developed ventral fins.

Tue MILtsTone Grit IN ENGLAND AND PENNSYLVANIA.—In the

February number of the Amer. ¥ourn. Science, Mr. Chance, of

the Geological Survey of Pennsylvania, calls attention to the

remarkable parallelism between the stratification of the Millstone

grit in Pennsylvania and England. He gives the following com-

parative sectional tables from the reports of the two countries:

Yorkshire. Pennsylvania.

Rough rock. Homewood sandstone.

Shales (sporadic coals). Mercer coal group.

Second grit. Conoquenessing Upper sandstone.

Shales (coal). , Quakertown coal,

Third grit. 3 Conoquenessing Lower sandstone,

Shales (coal). Sharon coal.

‘Kinder Scout”’ grit. Sharon or Ohio Conglomerate.

Over large areas this nomenclature is applicable to all vertical

sections in both Yorkshire and Western Pennsylvania. The top

and bottom sandstones are especially durable and constant, and

form “key rocks” in both countries, for the determination of

other horizons.

pard of Philadelphia.

Tne Stream-Tin Deposits oF Brrronc.—Dr. Martin of Leyden

has determined the age of the Stream-tin deposits of Blitong (or

Biliton), by means of an extensive series of Mod/usca obtained from

it. They number sixty-one species, of which only two are cer-

tainly new to science. The remainder are all recent species, €x-

cepting a Cerithium, which has hitherto been only known from

254 General Notes. [ March,

the strata of Mount Sela in Java. Prionastrea tesserifera Ehrbg.

exists at present only in the Red sea, but the remaining species

are found in the sea of Blitong. The strata are determined to be

posttertiary.

GroLocicaL News.—Professor Marsh shows that the neural

cavity of the sacrum in Hypsirhophus (Stegosaurus) ungulatus is

ten times the size of the brain case of the skull of the same ani-

mal, In the Acts of the Tuscan Academy of Sciences for

November, 1880, M. De Stefani publishes a systematic table of

the geological formations of the Apuan Alps. The principal

formations are the Eocene, the Lias and the Trias. The fol-

lowing statistics of the output of crude fertilizers from the beds

of Beaufort and Charleston, South Carolina, is furnished by Mr.

E, Willis: 1875, 122,790 tons; 1876, 132,626 tons; 1877, 163,220. -

tons; 1878, 210,328 tons; 1879, 199,566 tons; 1880, 190,763

tons; 1881 to Feb. Ist, 173,168 tons. The United States Geo-

logical Survey of the Territories under Dr. Hayden, in closing its

work, has just issued three geological maps of the adjacent parts

of Wyoming, Utah, Idaho and They represent the

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.'

Franz-JosEF Lanp RevisitED.—The Arctic explorer, Mr. B.

Leigh Smith, sailed inthe steam yacht Azra from Peterhead, Scot-

land, on the 19th of June, 1880, on a voyage of discovery. e

condense from reports in the London Zimes and //lustrated Lon-

don News the following account of his very successful trip.

he Fira is a steam vessel of three hundred and fifty tons

gross, measuring one hundred and _ thirty-five feet in length by

twenty-five feet of beam and carried a crew of twenty-five all told.

The island of Jan Mayen was reached about June 29th, and was

found almost encircled with ice. Sailing along the edge of the

main pack they endeavored to reach the east coast of Greenland,

near Cape Bismarck, the farthest point reached by the Germans.

On the 2d and 3d of July, they got among the bladder-nosed

seals and shot over three hundred of these animals. ey

worked in towards the west until the oth in 75° 4o’ latitude; but

the weather was foggy, and all the time the ice was getting closer

and heavier, some of the floes met with being very large. On the

gth nothing could be seen from the crow’s nest but ice closely

packed, and the idea of going further west had to be given up.

It was very discouraging to have to work their way back again;

but it had to be done. They reached the open sea again on

the 11th.

They steered northward again on the 13th, and on the 16th

1 Edited by Ettis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

1881.] Geography and Travels. 255

they came upon block ice in 75° 50’ latitude and about 5° east

longitude, and had to go eastwards towards Cloven Point—a

well-known landmark to the north-west of Spitzbergen. Passing

that point they anchored to a floe of land ice off Welcome Point

on the 18th. The intention at this point was to steer north; but

after more battling with the ice they had again to bout ship and

make the best of their way to the open sea. It is mentioned as

an unusual circumstance that the islands known as the Norways

and Fair Haven were closed with ice. They anchored at the

head of Smeerenburg Bay and took in water on the 2oth; and,

having sailed at once, were taken in a strong gale and had to seek

shelter in Magdalen Bay. They lay there three days. The gale

over, they sailed southward, and cleared the South Cape of Spitz-

bergen at midnight on the 30th of July, and next day came upon

loose floating ice, which, as they advanced, got much closer; and

about 9g Pp. M., when within twenty-four miles of Hope Island, they

had to takea south-westerly course to get clear of the ice. They

reached a point 76° latitude and 25° longitude, and wanted to work

northward after rounding the ice towards Wiches or King Charles

Land, but finding this impossible, they took a north-easterly

course with the idea of getting to Franz-Josef Land. They reached

the pack ice on the 6th of August in 77° 14’ lat., and the course

had again to be changed, Thence they continued in a north-

easterly course, leaving the ice to the west, until the 8th, when

they reached 79° 4/ lat. and 45° 38’ east long., and met with ice’

again. From this point they took a northerly course, and en-

countered very misty weather. On August 10 they reached 79° 40’

lat. and about 46° 50’ east long.—the farthest north point yet

reached in this direction. Nothing could be seen but ice in very

large and heavy floes, although it was expected that land would

have been in sight. They returned in the afternoon with the in-

tention of making for Franz-Joseph Land, and after getting clear

on the,11th were caught in a strong gale and driven south as far as

78° 17’ lat., and 46° 19! east long. From this point they steamed

right up, and on the 14th, at 8 a. mM. they sighted the land. In

the afternoon they anchored to a land floe, attached to an island

off the mainland—some one and a half miles long. Here they

found large numbers of walruses, and that evening the party shot

no fewer than seventeen of them. :

_ Next day they had to shift on account of the drifting of the

ice, and in the afternoon anchored to a floe some two miles long

at a distance of ten miles from the jand. . Far “inland” they found

an enormous tree with branches and roots apparently complete

as it had been torn out of the ground. It is a common thing to

find driftwood in these regions, but an entire tree is a rare sight.

It is likely that the tree was a Siberian larch, and that it had been

washed down by some of the Siberian rivers. On the 16th they

came upon another island, on which they landed, and erected a

‘

256 General Notes, | [ March,

staff on a cairn, in the center of which they left a record. On

these islands a number of curious specimens were found. The

last Dutch expedition sighted land westward of this, and called

it Barents Hook. This point was also seen by Mr. Smith, and

the Eira was steered towards the land. They passed the point

close to the land in foggy weather. Early one morning they

landed on the island some twenty miles from the easternmost

point, and found luxuriant vegetation. While off this island they

sounded and found the average depth to be from fifteen to twenty

fathoms about a mile off the coast.

Very large icebergs were seen quite unlike those met with in

Baffin’s Bay. The Franz-Josef Land iceberg is a vast mass from

one hundred and fifty feet to two hundred and fifty feet high and

of great extent, with a perfectly level top. Breaking off from

the glaciers which line the coast, these do not float southwards,

and the direction of their drift is one of the problems which are

waiting for solution.

e new country was forbidding enough. It was covered with

a glacier extending down to the sea. Even the off-lying islands

had their caps, and the land was only visible at long intervals, in

black precipitous masses, rising up between the icy expanses; yet

animal life was abundant. Two right whales were seen; there

were great numbers of walrus and seals, and the ivory gulls were

breeding on one of the islands.

At noon on the 18th they discovered a new harbor, which they

had no hesitation in naming Eira Harbor, after their vessel. It is

formed by two islands, and affords good anchorage of from five

to seven fathoms. It is well sheltered from all sides. It lies in

80° 5’ 25’’ north latitude, and about 48° 50’ east longitude.

Here the lofty cliffs formed a vast amphitheater, and below

there was a flat plain where many hyperborean plants were grow-

ing. But the surrounding scenery was wild and desolate in the

extreme. Nearly the whole coast was occupied by glacier after

glacier rolling down to the sea, with black headlands abruptly

rising through the ice at long intervals, The great size of the

icebergs and the extent of glacier are indications that F ranz-Josef

Land is of vast extent.

This harbor was made a rendezvous, from which, the next few

days, numerous trips were made up the numerous fjords which

pierce the mainland to the north and north-west. From the point

named by the Dutch, Barents Hook, they traced the land west-

ward some 110 miles, and from the extreme north-west point

reached sighted land 40 miles further to the north-west. ‘They

found that this land was divided from the newly-discovered islands _

by a sound, which seems to be an extension of Markham’s Sound.

Lying in this hitherto unexplored tract of sea they discovered

seven small islands, each measuring four to five miles long, and

four larger islands—these latter being in the vicinity of Eira Harbor

1881.] - Geography and Travels. 257

—the largest from eighteen to twenty miles long, and the smallest

from six to seven miles long. They are all covered with glaciers

and snowfields, with bluff, black headlands on the southern ex-

posures, whereon was vegetation. A large quantity of Arctic

flowers and other specimens was collected and brought home. On

one of the islands close to the harbor were hills 1200 feet above

the level of the sea, but large tracts of flats were seen stretching

from the foot of the hills.

The final trip from Eira Harbor was made on August 24, and

it was on that day that they reached the most northerly point yet

attained in that direction—8o0° 20’ north latitude, and about 40°

east longitude. From that point they could see land to the north-

west, some 40 miles off, and it was supposed that this was but a

continuance of the same coast line. This they intended to follow

up, but they had again to give up the attempt in consequence of

the ice driving along the shore and carrying the ship along with

it. Mr. Leigh Smith’s opinion is that, whether this land extends

in a continuous line north-west or forms the outline of separate

abandoned vessel, but found nothing except a “can” on Wilczek

Island. They found fast ice between Hall Island and Salm Island,

and also between the latter island and Lamont Island, so that

there was no means of getting out to the east or north-east, and

as the ice was coming down they resolved to try to cut across by

Spitzbergen to Wiches Land, or, as otherwise called, King Charles

Land. In this endeavor their common enemy, the ice, confronted

them and compelled them to alter their course. They sailed close

to the edge of the ice as far as 7514° north and 4614° east before

they could get west. They reached Hope Island on September

10, and again endeavored to work northwards up the east coast of

Spitzbergen, but on the 11th the weather became very rough, and

for three days the ship was tossed about in strong gales. They

encountered numerous small icebergs. Seeing that nothing could

be done in this direction—a pack of ice being discernible in the

distance—they took a westerly course until they sighted the

258 General Notes. {[ March,

South Cape, and then steamed up Storfjord and anchored on the

17th near Genevra Bay. From a hill here they could see the sea

to the eastward was clear of block ice, although icebergs could be

seen floating about. From this point Wiches Land could be

distinctly seen. Hinlopen Straits also seemed to be free of ice.

On the 2oth they anchored at the entrance of Walter Thymen’s

Straits—where they took in ballast—which were also clear of ice.

On the 22d they were off Wales Point, and from there they sailed

with a fair wind to Hammerfest, in Norway, which they reached

on the 25th of September.

Careful observations were taken of the temperature and other

meteorological tests made. The dredgings secured some very in-

teresting specimens which have been preserved, and a large num-

ber of photographs of the places visited were obtained.

Mr. Leigh Smith’s voyage is the most successful and important

summer voyage that has ever been made in the Arctic Regions.

MICROSCOPY.!

Patuotocy oF Acute De.irium.— Dr. Theodore Deecke,

Pathologist to the New York State Lunatic Asylum at Utica,

publishes in the As. Fourn. of Insanity,a paper on some changes

in the ganglion cells of the gray cortex of the brain in acute de-

lirium. and their relation to those in acute insanity and in demen-

tia. He disputes the opinion of some authors that the phenomena

of delirium, as well as acute insanity itself, are merely functional,

and, while associated with grave disturbances of nutrition, an

perhaps material alterations in the vascular system, are not con-

nected with any visible alterations in the structure of the nervous

elements themselves. The first change noticed in the ganglion

cells of the gray cortex of the brain, is the appearance over the

body of the cell of a loose, granular covering, of a fatty nature,

which must be attributed to a defective focal combustion or oxida-

tion, brought about by an_insufficient supply, to the tissues in-

volved, of arterial or oxygenated blood. These conditions occur

so frequently in cases of acute delirium, and acute insanity, that

there can be no doubt of their pathological character. In more

advanced stages of the affection, the structure of the cells becomes

involved, and finally almost entirely destroyed, as described at

length in the paper itself. The author’s method of studying the

objects in situ, with as little change as possible from their con-

dition in life, is thus described: ‘“ The best results are obtained

from the immediate examination of the fresh brain tissue. With

a sharp knife, kept wet with water, to which a small quantity of

glycerine has been added, or even directly in this liquid, micro-

scopic sections can be made sufficiently thin and transparent to

ermit the use of all the higher magnifying powers applicable in

histological investigations. The liquid in which the sections are

1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

1881.] . Microscopy. 259

mounted is diluted glycerine; and no pressure is allowed to act

upon the specimens other than that which the thin cover-glass

exerts when of the embedding fluid so much is removed by blot-

ting paper that it just fills out the empty space between the slide

and the cover. Thus the margin only of the specimen comes

in contact with the fluid, while its surfaces are spread out smooth-

ly on the glass surfaces. In such preparations the vascular ar-

rangement, the distribution of the nuclei of the neuroglia, and the

ganglion cells and nerve fibers in their natural appearance and

position, are brought to view with great distinctness. The

processes of the pyramidal cells, which extend toward the periph-

ery of the convolutions, may be followed up to three and four

times the diameter of the field of vision of a one-fifth objective.

The condition and position of the nuclei and nucleoli of the cells

can be clearly pointed out, as also the roots at the base of the

cells, and their origin. All this, however, will not visibly be al-

tered when the fresh sections are soaked for staining in a carmine

solution, to which a little glycerine has been added. They im-

bibe a small amount only of the coloring material, yet some de-

tails of structure may become thus more distinctly outlined. I

have, therefore, most frequently in successive sections employe

alternately both methods.”

Fine Ruwines.—In speaking of the modern microscopic rulings

on glass, which have been regarded with so great and deserved

an interest by all physicists, one cannot be too careful to dis-

criminate fully between those that are known to be ruled and

those whose ruling has been attempted but not yet demon- _

monstrated. It is self-evident that in attempting to rule lines

5,000,000 to the inch a band may be produced which does not

consist of lines of that degree of fineness. There is no difficulty

in arranging a machine to draw lines, theoretically, of any re-

quired degree of.closeness. The register of a ruling engine can be

So arranged and sub-divided as to indicate a spacing at the ruling

point of one ten-millionth of an inch as easily almost as of one-

tenth of an inch. But it may well be doubted whether such fine

motion is actually imparted to the diamond point, or could be

recorded upon the surface of the glass. It is becoming common

to hear the higher bands of Mr. Fasoldt, claiming up to ten mil-

lion lines to the inch, spoken of as actually ruled and only wait-

ing an objective to reveal them. Such an error, made inadver-

tently by persons who would avoid it by a little reflection, as

made in the last number of one of the most popular microscopical

journals, gives a lasting as well as erroneous impression to non-

scientific persons. Mr. Fasoldt’s rulings are certainly remarkable

and the lower bands are ruled with great SUCCESS ; but how ar

up the scale they continue to be ruled as distinct lines is certainly

at this time an undecided question.

260 . Scientific News. [ March,

Ye Microscope OF YE OLDEN TimE.—Under this title Professor

E. F. Moody delivered an interesting lecture' before the Micro-

- scopical Society of Camden, which has just been published in

pamphlet form by the society. Incited by an engraving and

description of. John Marshall’s, new double microscope in the

Lexicon Technicum, published in 1704, which presents many of

the features of the instruments and their methods of arrangement

and use at the present day, he reviews the history of the micro-

scope and its discoveries in England during the last of the 17th

and the early part of the 18th century, chiefly by means of

extracts from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.

The author is greatly impressed with the keenness of observation,

scientific skill and rare deductive power which is displayed in the

microscopical studies of those early days, and he gives them in

the quaint and thoughtful words of their original publication.

After the death of Lewenhoeck, and the acquisition by the Royal

Society of his valuable legacy, consisting of a cabinet containing

his microscopes and their accompanying objects, this brilliant age

of microscopy came to an end, and the Transactions show noth-

ing of corresponding interest until the sudden advent of the age

of Wollaston near the end of the 18th century.

ABNORMAL EntTozoa In Man.—Rev. Samuel Lockwood's paper

on this subject, read before the New Jersey State Microscopical

Society, is full of curious facts in regard to the rather unfamiliar

and somewhat unprepossessing theme. It is published in full in

the January number of the American Fournal of Microscopy.

ExcHANGES.—Parties desire to correspond with persons who

can furnish new material containing Polyctstina ; also Podure of

spring-tails of various species. Address the Editor of this De

partment of the NATURALIST.

racanemast ©

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— The first number of Papilio, organ of the New York Ento-

mological Club and devoted. exclusively to Lepidoptera has made

its appearance, and avery neat and pleasing one it is. It will be

issued about the fifteenth of each month, the subscription price

being $2 perannum. The publication committee are Messrs. A.

R. Grote, Henry Edwards and T. L. Mead; subscriptions and

communications should be addressed to Mr. Henry Edwards, 185

East 116th street, New York City. We hope that the journal

will give stimulus to our knowledge of the metamorphoses*o

the Lepidoptera, which has been somewhat neglected ; the paper of

Mr. Coquillet on the early stages of some moths is, we hope, an

earnest of what may follow. A number of new species of moths

are described by Messrs. Grote, Neumoegen and Edwards ; and

the number is illustrated by a colored plate of Edwardsia brilhans

Neumoegen. pao

1881. | Scientific News. 261

— One of the most industrious of European entomologists,

and one whose works have excited a decided influence on the

progress of American entomology, died December 30. We refer

to M. Achille Guenée, whose general works on Lepidoptera con-

tained descriptions of numerous North American Noctuide,

Phalenide and Pyralide. In 1872 we visited the veteran ento-

mologist at his residence in Chateaudun. During the Franco-

Prussian war he took refuge in Geneva, where he worked at his

favorite science. His works are thorough, reliable and com-

prehensive, and have been of incalculable value to American

students. He was a lawyer by profession, was an officer of the

French Academy, and received honors from various scientific

societies,

— Zeitschrift fur Instrumentenkunde, Organ fiir Mittheilungen

aus dem gesammten Gebiete der wissenschaftlichen Technik is a

new journal, devoted to a new subject, that of instruments used in

physical and biological science. The list of editors is headed by

Prof. E. Abbe of Jena, and undoubtedly represents a strong

editorial corps; the vedacteur or immediate editor is Dr. Georg

Schwirkus. The journal occupies a new and important field, and

will be of value to microscopists, as it contains a number of ar-

ticles on microscopical and accessory instruments. It is of large

octavo size, published at Berlin, by Julius Springer, the agents in

this country being B. Westermann & Co. Price $4.50 a year by

mail from Berlin.

— A full grown chicken was brought to the market of Shelby-

ville, Tenn., which was found to possess three legs. A post mor-

tem examination, made by Dr. Fite, revealed the fact that the

internal economy was even more queer than the extra leg. The

craw, heart and lungs were natural, but the intestine, about mid-

way of its length, subdivided into four distinct canals; these finally

became reunited into one, and this, just before emerging from the

*body, divided into two distinct vents. The chicken was found

also to have two distinct livers one on each side. The monstros-

ity is a fat and healthy looking’ subject.

— M. Humblot has lately sent to the Paris Museum of Natural

History a fine collection of the mammalia and birds of Madagas-

car. They afford interesting illustrations of the modifications of

which species are capable. M. Humblot has also sent home

some live animals, whose habits are scarcely known. Among .

these are two Aye-Ayes (a mammal very singular in its organi-

zation, and of extreme rarity). Two species of Hapalemur were also

Sent (alive). They differ more from the makis than was previous-

ly believed. . :

— The Vienna Academy of Science proposes as the subject for

the Baumgartner prize of 1000 florins, the microscopic investiga-

tion of the wood of living and fossil plants, in order to ascertain:

262 Scientific News. {| March,

whether it is possible to determine with biped from the exami-

nation of the microscopic sections, what the genus and species of

the plants may have been from which Sc se taken,

— Mr. Angelo Heilprin was recently elected to the position of

professor of invertebrate palzontology in the Academy of Natu-

ral Sciences of Philadelphia. Henry Carvil Lewis was elected to

the chair of geology and mineralogy in the same institution. Mr.

W. B. Scott has been made assistant professor of geology in the

College of New Jersey.

— Etienne Mulsant, the veteran entomologist of Lyons,

France, died Nov. 4th, 1880, at the age of 83. For half a cen-

tury he has been one of the most active and voluminous of Euro-

pean entomologists, having published numerous volumes and

memoirs chiefly upon French beetles.

— We have received the First Annual Report of the Museum

of the Ohio Wesleyan University. Valuable collections of fossils

and shells have been received, and the Museum appears to have

been well remembered by its friends. Prof. E. T. Nelson is the

curator.

— Nests and Eggs of the Birds of the United States, with text.

By Thomas B, Gentry. Illustrated by elegantly colored lithe-

graphic plates, is announced by J. A. Wagenseller, Philadelphia.

The work is not to exceed twenty-five monthly parts, at $1.00 a

part.

— The Botanical Collector’s Handbook, by W. W. Bailey, In-

structor in Botany and Curator of the Herbarium in Brown Uni-

versity, is ready for the press and will be published this spring

by Mr. George A. Bates, Salem, Mass. The price will be $1.50.

— The Ninth Annual Report of the Curators of the Museum

of Wesleyan University for 1880 shows that unusual interest is

being manifested in the perfection of the collections. Prof-W.D

Rice is the Curator; Henry sborn, Assistant Curator.

— It has been recently shown by Dr. Fatio that natural-his-

tory collection (dry preparations) may be rapidly, easily, and

without danger, freed from their various parasites by simpl

spraying of anhydrous sulphurus acid in their receivers.

— The skeleton of a finner whale from the Pacific ocean has

just reached the Permanent Exhibition of Philadelphia, for Pro-

fessor Cope. Its weight is over 12,000 pounds. Sixteen boxes

of fossils arrived from Paris at the same time.

— The Belgian Entomological Society recently celebrated its

twenty-fifth anniversary. Baron de Selys-Longchamps, the first

President, to whom the Society owes so much of its success, was

unanimously elected Honorary President.

We have received a list of plants growing without cultiva-

tion in Malden and Medford, Mass., with some contributions to 4

'1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 263

Flora of Middlesex county. Published by the Middlesex Insti-

— Professor E. T. Cox, formerly director of the Geological

Survey of Indiana, is engaged in examinations of the antimony

mines in Sonora.

— Dr. C. Parona, of Pavia, has recently published an essay on

the Acinetz in general, and described a new Italian form.

— The triennial meeting of the American Institute of Mining

Engineers was held in Philadelphia, Feb. 15, 1881.

4 8 5

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society oF Natura-History, Jan. 19.—The meeting

was devoted to archeological topics. Dr. C. C. Abbott, of Tren-

ton, N. J., discussed the evidences of palzolithic man in the val-

ley of the Delaware. Professor Henry W. Haynes compared the

argillite implements found by Mr. Abbott with those of the pale-

olithic age in Europe. The Rev. G. Fred. Wright considered

the age of the Delaware gravels. Remarks on these subjects

were made by Mr. F. W. Putnam and others.

Feb. 2.—Mr. William Trelease spoke of the fertilization of

Salvia splendens by birds. Mr. F. C. Bowditch remarked on the

economy of the beehive. Mr. F. W. Putnam exhibited an Indian

relic from the peat ; and Mr. Lucien Carr spoke of the raising of

corn by the Indians east of the Mississippi.

Troy Screntiric Association, Jan. 17, 1881—Mr. Wm. E.

ean read a paper on the intellectual development of the United

tates.

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Jan. 3.—Mr. Thomas Bland

read a paper on the relations of the flora and fauna of Santa

Cruz, West Indies.

Jan. 10.—Dr. George M. Beard lectured on trance, or so-called

hypnotism or somnambulism, its nature symptoms and varieties,

with especial reference to mesmeric trance. His experiments

were conducted on a class of human objects that have been under

Dr. Beard’s training, and with especial reference to the errors of

Prominent European observers.

. Appacacuian Mountain Cuus, Jan. 12.—President Cross de-

livered the annual address on the subject of barometric measure-

ment of heights; and Professor J. R. Edmands read a paper on

schemes for Appalachian maps. )

Mipptesex Insrirure, Jan. §—Frank S. Collins read a paper

on “ Darwinism.” Twelve new names were added to the list of

members. The first publication of Ze /ustitute was issued in the

form of a catalogue of the plants of Malden, Medford and vicin-

ity, with blank pages for notes preparatory to the final compilation

of a complete catalogue of the counties’ flora.

264 Selected Articles in Scientifie Serials, (March, 1881.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOcIETY, Jan. 11.—Commander J. R.

Bartlett, U.S.N., read a paper on the recent investigations of the

Gulf Stream by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer Blake.

Jan. 25.—Gen. G. W. Callum read a paper on the Land of

Egypt.

:0:

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND ARTS,—February. Notes

on Alaska and the vicinity of Behring strait, by W. H. Dall.

Relation of Devonian insects to later and existing types, b :

Scudder. Date of the Glacial era in Eastern North America, by

G. F. Wright. A new genus and species of air-breathing mol-

lusk from the coal measures of Ohio, by R. P. Whitfield. . Prin-

cipal characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs, by O. C. Marsh,

ANNALS AND MaGazine oF Natura History.— December,

1880. Note on Prerygodermatites macdonaldii, the type of a new

order of Vermes, by G. E. Dobson. ' On the minute structure of

the recent Heteropora neozelanica and on the relations of the

genus Heteropora to Monticulipora, by H. A. Nicholson. On

the northern species of Buccinum, by J. G. Jeffreys. On the

organization and development of the Gordii, second note by A.

Villot,

GroLocicaL MaGazinE—January. On the ornithosaurians from

the Upper Greensand of Cambridge, by H. G. Seeley.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MicRoscopicAL Science—January.

he germination and histology of the seedling of Welwitschia

mirabilis. by F. O. Bower. On the head-cavities and associated

nerves of Elasmobranchs, by A. M. Marshall. Contributions to

the minute anatomy of the nasal mucous membrane, by E. Klein.

Histological Notes, by E. Klein, On the intra-cellular digestion

and endoderm of Limnocodium, by E. R. Lankester. (Shows

that in the Coelenterates, as previously shown by Metschnikoff,

the endodermal cell take in natural food materials. In the fresh

water medusa Lankester has studied the amoeboid endodermal cells

during life and seen them take in natural food materials, such as

Protococcus and Euglena-like forms. He cites the observation of

Parke, who saw a diatom completely embedded in the protoplasm

of a cell of Hydra, also of Metschnikoff, who has described the

inception of solid food particles by the cells lining the alimentary

canal of certain Planarians.) On the microscopic numeration of

the blood corpuscles and the estimation of their haemoglobin, by

Mrs. E. Hart. Preliminary account of the development of the

lampreys, by W. B. Scott. On some appearances of the red blood-

corpuscles of man and other vertebrata, by G. F. Dowdeswell.

Medusz and Hydroid polyps living in fresh water, by G. J. Ro-

manes.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

VoL. xv. — APRIL, 1881. — No. 4.

THE FERTILIZATION OF SALVIA SPLENDENS BY

BIRDS}

BY WILLIAM TRELEASE,

N the fall of 1878, while studying the structure of various

flowers, as correlated with the mode of their fertilization, I

examined Salvia splendens Sellow,? a Brazilian species very com-

monly cultivated for its large scarlet flowers. From the structure

as then made out, I was partially convinced that I was not dealing

with an entomophilous flower; but it was not until two years

later that I had an opportunity to look into the matter any fur-

ther, and I then became certain that the species was one of the

more closely adapted ornithophilous plants.

The flowers, arranged in a compound raceme, are placed hori-

zontally or nearly so. Nectar, secreted by a large, lobed disk (7), as

usual in the Labiata, accumulates in the basal part of the corolla, |

and offers a considerable amount of tempting food to nectar-lov-

ing creatures, and this, advertised by the brilliant scarlet of the

calyx and corolla, clearly proclaims the flowers to be acophions,

or adapted to fertilization by animals of some kind.

The corolla is tubular, though somewhat laterally compressed,

and reaches a length of not far from two inches. It possesses

the bilabiate character which has given a name to the natural a oe

1 Read before the Boston Society of Natural History, Feb. 2, 1881.

? Professor F. Hildebrand, in his paper on the fertilization of Salvias by insects

(Pringsheim’s Jahrb. wiss. Bot., 1865, Iv, p. 459, and Pl. 33, figs. $ and 9), describes

and figures the floral structure of a species to which he gives this name, but which

is quite different from that on which my observations were made, which, it may be

added, has been found to agree with authentic specimens of x s. splendens i in the Gray

Herbarium.

VOL, XV.—NO. IV. 19

266 The Fertilization of Salvia splendens by Birds. (April,

order to which it belongs, and, as is generally the case with labiate

flowers, the lower lip is split into three lobes, a median and

two lateral, which in this case are of nearly equal size. Here,

however, the lower lip—usually well developed and affording a

convenient landing place for insects—is small and of little or no

use for this purpose.

The style is exserted to a considerable distance, and the in-

‘cluded portion ts held quite firmly in a longitudinal fold of the

upper part of the corolla tube. The forked stigma (s/) is thus

maintained in the median plane of the flower.

The stamens are two in number, and of the general form found

in this genus. Their filaments are adherent to the corolla to

within a short distance of its mouth, where they become free, and

run obliquely upward and forward, terminating side by side, close

beneath the base of the upper lip. The connective which in

many flowers forms an inconspicuous band between the anther .

cells, is here prolonged, in each stamen, into a slender longitudi-

nally-placed rod nearly an inch in length. Each connective (c) is

attached at its middle by a hinge joint to the end of its filament,

thus forming an oblique lever with equal arms, which lies with

its anterior end @ in contact with, or barely protruding from the

tip of the arched upper lip of the corolla, while its posterior end a’

nearly reaches the floor of the tube. If this were constructed as

the stamens of related plants are, it should bear an anther cell at

each end; but in reality only a single fertile cell—the anterior—

is developed, the posterior cell being abortive. Moreover, the

connectives of the two stamens are coherent for a short distance

‘back of their insertion, so that the two form, in reality, a single

- forked lever.

When a flower first opens, the stigma is immature, its lobes

being closely appressed, as shown in the upper part of Fig. 2,

but the anthers are already dehiscent. In other words the species

is proterandrous. Later, when some or all of the pollen has been

removed, the stigmatic lobes expand, as shown in the lower part

of Fig. 2, and expose the now receptive surfaces, and the

style curves down into the position shown by the dotted line

of Fig. 1. From my observations, I should say that the life of a

given flower may be divided into three periods; in the first, the

anthers only being mature, it is staminate in function; in the

second, some pollen remaining in the anthers, while the stigmas

1881.] The Fertilization of Salvia splendens by Birds. 267

become receptive, it is functionally hermaphrodite or perfect ; and

in the third, the pollen having been entirely removed, while the

“IX

Fic. 1.—Young flower of Salvia splendens, seen from the side. The position of

the c connective and acti is shown by dotted lines, as riniag the po: npn assumed by

the style in older flowers. FI. 2. ce Bay the upper from a ne cnpanted

flower, sie tavern Ra a flower which has been open es some time. -—-The

nectar gland and oxey Fic. 4.—A flower visited by a humming bird ; Fig igs. I and

Fig and 3, enlarged four diameters; @, indicates the fertile anther

cells; a’ , the Saree elle; 342, tne Sepgateis at the point aorta it is hinged to the

filamen nt; ~ hee ectar gland; 0, the ova

ants for access to the nectar; s, the tagaes st, the

stigma, f vegetal retains its siete it is pistillate only so

far as function is concerned.

It appears at once that there is little likelihood of pollen reach-

ing the stigma without some sort of assistance, and the proter-

andry decreases the chances for a given flower to be fertilized by

its own pollen when such assistance is rendered, though from the

apparent incompleteness of the sss this may occur in

some instances.

Many species of Salvia are perfectly adapted to profit by the

visits of bees, usually “humble bees, which, in entering the flower

for nectar, encounter and elevate the posterior end of the connec-

tives with their heads, thus bringing the polliniferous anterior

end upon their backs and dusting them with pollen, which will

be brushed off, in part, by the stigma of the next older flower

visited. When the insect leaves the flower, the stamens, return- —

ing to their former position through the elasticity of the parts, are

ready to make their bow to the next comer. Iwo facts, how- —

ever, argue pee the adaptation of the present species to bees :

268 The Fertilization of Salvia splendens by Birds. { April,

1: The narrow and elongated tubular form of the corolla quite

effectually excludes those which are large enough to set the lever

in motion; 2. If such an insect, for instance a hive bee or small

humble bee, should force its way into the tube, by the time its

~ head had reached and elevated the sterile end of the lever, the

tip of its abdomen would have passed the lowering polliniferous

end, so that no pollen would reach the insect, and the object of

the motion would be defeated. Bees might, to be sure, visit the

flowers solely for their pollen, and I have no doubt that they

occasionally, do so, in which case they,must often render some

service in their fertilization, as is the case in so many flowers

visited for pollen alone. Bees being excluded for the reasons

above given, we turn to Lepidoptera, which sometimes visit

the flowers, their long and slender proboscides enabling them to

reach the nectar with little exertion; but it remains to be shown

that these organs are sufficiently large or rigid to set the stamens

in motion. Even if it should be shown that the large nocturnal

moths do move the levers, which I am far from believing to be

the case, the brilliant scarlet color is one ill adapted to render-

ing the flowers conspicuous in the twilight or night, and, so far

as I know, one which is never possessed by flowers especially de-

pendent upon these insects for their fertilization; beside which, we

do not find that close constriction of the mouth or anterior part

of the corolla bespeaking adaptation to the Lepidoptera. It ap-

pears, then, that when these insects visit the flowers of our sage,

they may be of some use in transferring pollen, since their heads

may encounter stigma and anthers, but they do this without ren-

dering the motility of the latter of any value.

The only alternative, then, is birds, which, to be of the highest

use in this connection, must be found in the native habitat of the

plant, must visit flowers frequently for nectar, small insects at-

tracted by the latter, or for both, and finally, must have slender

and elongated beaks capable of insertion into the tubular flowers.

All of these conditions are fulfilled by many of the humming

birds, which reach their greatest number in both species and in-

dividuals in Equatorial America. The color ef this Salvia is one

of the most attractive to humming birds, and a glance at Figure 4

will show that one of those with an elongated beak cannot fail to

operate the lever in the most perfect manner; its extensible

tongue, however, rendering it by no means necessary for its beak

to equal the corolla in length.

1881.] Origin of the Foot Structures of the Ungulates. 269

In a brief note published in the Botanische Zettung for 1870, p.

275, Fritz Miiller states that in Brazil the scarlet Salvias are fre-

quently visited by birds, and although no species are named,

there is little reason to doubt that the one under consideration

was among those observed. Our single species of Trochilus, the

ruby throat, possesses a beak rather short -for the most efficient

working of the staminal lever, yet from the statements of friends

and from personal observation I can vouch for its frequently ren-

dered service, and the greater part of the capsules of this plant

which mature in our borders are to be credited to this active little

creature.

Although this paper is confined to a single species of Salvia, it

by no means follows that others may not offer examples of equal

or even of greater adaptation’ to birds, and several such might be

mentioned. The conclusion seems, on the whole, warranted, that

several tropical American Salvias are as perfectly adapted to profit

by the visits of birds as many other species of the genus are to

profit by the visits of bees.

:0:

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE FOOT STRUCTURES OF

THE UNGULATES. |

BY E. D. COPE.

Te following considerations have been suggested by a study

of the primitive types of the odd and even-toed ungulates. I

first, in 1874, recorded the opinion that the Mammalia with a

reduced number of digits were derived from pentadactyle planti-

grade types! The ungulate order which fulfills this requirement

is the Amblypoda,-and from them, I doubt not, both the Perisso-

dactyla and Artiodactyla have arisen, although not from any of

the genera now known. Both of these great orders display a

regular diminution in the number of the digits ; in the former, by

reduction and extinction on both sides of the third digit; in the

latter, by reduction and extinction on each side of the third and

fourth digits. Mr. John A. Ryder” has pointed out that reduction

in digits is probably directly related to strains and impacts. He

reminds us that the anterior digits are reduced in Mammatia of un-

usual scansorial or fossorial powers ; while in forms which display

1Journal Academy Philadelphia, March, 1874: :

? AMERICAN NATURALIST, October, 1877-

270 Origin of the Foot Structures of the Ungulates. [,April,

powers of running, the reduction is seen first in the posterior feet,

which propel the body much more than the fore feet, This view

is well illustrated in the Perissodactyle families, the masonry of

which have the digital formula 4—3.

No reason has ever been suggested, so far as I am aware, in

explanation of the fact that one series of ungulates has retained

two digits, and the other only one; that is, why there should

have been two kinds of digital reduction instead of one kind.

In seeking for an explanation, we will remember that the tarsus in

the odd or single-toed line, is bound together by fixed articula-

FIG, 2.

Fic Right posterior foot of a = geass ait es from New Mexico, one

ss oa size. From Report Expl. W. . M. Wheeler, Iv. TL L

Right posterior ve of yaya mega Cope, from Colorado, one-

half: macaeel size. From Report U, S. Geol. Surv. Ter V. Hayden, 1v, Pl. CXXX.

tions, while in the cloven footed line it is interrupted by the hinge

between the first (astragalus), and second rows of bones. The

hinge-joint being more liable to luxation than the fixed articula-

tion, requires a wider basis of support, such as would be furnished

by two divergent digits, rather than by a single central one.

In the early types, where the median digits are slender, the

mechanical advantage in favor of the bidigital over the unidigital

arrangement is much more obvious than in modern genera. Late

in time, the horse developed the middle digit to such a width as

to form almost as good a support as the bidigital structure. In

1881.] , Origin of the Foot Structures of the Ungulates. 271

the Eocene genera, the slender median digit could not have sus-~

tained the weight on a hinge, without great risk of dislocation.

This explanation it can be said, applies only to the posterior foot.

The posterior foot has, however, led the way in the evolution of

Ungulata, and the fore foot may have followed in accordance

with the law of antero-posterior symmetry in growth. A curi-

ously malformed deer from Mendocino county, Cal., throws some

Fic. 4.

Fic, 3.

Fic, 3.—Right posterior foot of Protohippus sejt

one-half natural size. From Repor S. Geol.

uctus Cope, from Colorado, about

Surv. Terrs. F. V. Hayd :

ight posterior foot of Poébrotherium labiatum Cope, from Colorado,

Fie. 4.-—Righ

three-fifths nat. size. From Hayden’s Report, Iv, Pl. Cxv.

light on this subject. It has apparently a single functional digit

on each foot. Examination shows that the posterior foot is

_ bidigital, but that the phalanges are fused; while the anterior

foot is perissodactyle, all the digits but the third being rudimen-

272° Origin of the Foot Structures of the Ungulates. (April,

tal! Similar evidence is furnished by the genus Lurytherium of

the French Eocene. Its posterior foot is modified artiodactyle,

‘while the anterior is modified perissodactyle. We may assume

from these facts, that the posterior foot is more subject to the

influences which tend to produce the bidigital structure than is

the anterior limb.

I suspect that the production of a ginglymus in the middle

of the tarsus, has been due to the use of the posterior limb in

soft swampy ground. In the absence of this condition, as in a life

on harder ground than swamp, no ginglymus would be formed.

The action of an ungulate in walking through deep mud is very

‘ suggestive. The posterior foot is bent on the leg,

and the antero-posterior strain of the weight or

propulsive force, is transverse to its long axis. In

progression on dry land, the impact is in the

direction of the length or axis of the foot. The

obvious effect of a cross strain is to produce

by degrees greatér and greater mobility of some

articulation. The one which has yielded is that

between the two tarsal rows. Another effect of

walking in swampy ground is to spread the

digits apart. As the first digit of both feet is

always of reduced size, there are practically but

four digits to be considered. The weight falling

nearly medially on these, would tend to spread

them equally, two on each side. Thus the same

cause may have been effective in producing both

deg ernipssieg the artiodactyle structures. The perissodactyle

radius of Poésro- structure, so soon as the lateral digits are much

ro pathy: ot onler reduced, ceases to be favorable for progression

three-fifths nat size. in soft ground, owing to the liability of the lateral

ae Bl cx. digits to injury, in following the principal one

into the asec material, filled with sticks and

other hard deébris:

The lowest. existing forms of the Artiodactyla, the Omuivora,

are universally swamp lovers and livers. So we are told are the

lower existing Perissodactyla, the tapirs and rhinoceroses. The

higher types of both orders are dwellers on plains and in forests.

We do not know the habits of the Eocene Perissodactyla, but I

doubt their having inhabited muddy ground to the same extent as

1881.] Invertebrate Paleontology in the U.S. for 1880. 273

the hogs and hippopotami, the lowest of the Artiodactyla, Now in

progression on dry land, any preéxistent inequality in the length of

the digits would tend to become exaggerated. Such an inequality

exists in the Asmélypoda, the third digit being a little the longer.

In rapid movement on hard ground the longest toe receives the

gfeatest part of fhe impact, even if its excess of length is but lit-

tle. The harder the ground the larger the proportion of impact

it will receive.

The fact that the Perissodactyla did not develop the solidungu-

late or equine foot, until a late geological period, or in other words,

that the orders so long retained the digital formula 4—3, would

indicate that it did not adopt a habitat which required great speed

as a condition of safety, so early as the Artrodactyla. ;

be ma cana, 9%

PROGRESS OF INVERTEBRATE PALAZONTOLOGY IN

THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1880.

BY DR. C. A, WHITE.

fade palzontological work of 1880: has been done mainly by

the same persons whose works were noticed in the NATURAL-

Ist’s review for 1879. None have died during the past year, and at

least one new worker has appeared in the ranks of American

palaontologists. With one important exception the channels for

the publication of the results of paleontological work remains the

Same as last year. Palaeontology has suffered a serious loss in the

closing of the important channel of publication which was for so

many years afforded by the Government Survey under the direction

of Dr. Hayden. At present, therefore, no great works of well illus-

trated invertebrate palzontology are in progress, except those of

New York, Ohio and Wisconsin, but more especially that of the

first-named State. :

Dr. Charles Barrois, of Lille, France, published in the Revue

Scientifique (Paris), for September, 1880, a review of Volume v,

Part 11, Paleontology of New York, by Professor James Hall; and

a translation of the same was published in the January, 188t,

number of the American ¥ournal of Science. In that review Dr.

Barrois gives, besides a summary of the contents of the volume,

Some interesting discussion of the relation of the Devonian Gas-

274 Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology in [ April,

teropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of the New York rocks

with those of Europe.

Dr. J. W. Dawson, in the November, 1880, number of the

American Fournal of Science, published a “ Revision of the Land

Snails of the Palzozoic Era. with Descriptions of New Species ;”

" pages 403-415, with numerous wood-cuts. In this paper Dr.

Dawson describes the following species, the second and last being

new forms: Pupa vetusta Dawson, with the variety ¢enuistriata

Dawson, Pupa bigsbyi Dawson, P..vermillionensis Bradley, Zonites

(Conulus) priscus Carpenter, Dazsonella meeki Bradley, Strophites

grandeva Dawson, The descriptions are accompanied with in-

teresting discussions of the relations of these shells with living

forms.

In the January, 1880, number of the American Fournal of Sci-

ence, page 50, Professor W. B. Dwight has given an account of his

discoveries of fossils in the Wappinger valley, or Barnegat lime-

stone of Duchess county, N. Y., which is a continuation of the

subject as treated by him in the May, 1879, number of the same

journal. In this article he has enumerated many well-known

forms belonging to the Trenton and Calciferous epochs, and pro-_

posed the name Discina conica for a new form which he refers to

the age of the Trenton limestone; and which, in the June, 1880,

_ number of the Fournal, he describes and figures under the name

of Orbiculoidea conica, Professor Dwight has also a brief article on

the same subject in the’ January, 1881, number of the same jour-

nal, in which he claims for the lower series of those rocks

the existence of ‘a wealth of Cephalopodic life of a character

and abundance hitherto unknown in the United States in any

formation to which it is likely to belong, z. ¢., below the Trenton

and Black River strata.” He proposes to publish full details of

his discoveries, with further results.

Mr. S. W. Ford has a note in the February, 1880, number of

the American Fournal of Science, on the Aéops trilineatus of Em-

mons, in which he claims that the species figured by Emmons in

his Taconic System, p. 20, and in the Agricultural Report of New

York, Vol. 1, p. 64, is not Zrarthrus beckiit, as supposed by Hall

and Walcott, but that it belongs to the genus Conocoryphe.

Professor James Hail is still prosecuting his great work on the

Paleontology of New York. Part 1, of Vol. v, has been issued

since my summary of last year’s palzeontological work was writ-

sii eat ti aii Ti an lig

1881. ] the United States for the year 188o. 275

ten, and Dr, Barrois’ review of the same has already been no-

ticed.

It is expected that Part 1, of Vol. v, will soon be issued, and Vol.

v1 is also well in progress, thirty-nine of the plates being already

engraved. During the past year Professor Hall has published,

under the title “Corals and Bryozoans of the Lower Helderberg

group,” a pamphlet of thirty-eight pages, referring to twenty-two

of the plates of Vol. v1, which volume is to be especially rich in

those forms. He informs me that he has in preparation a supple-

‘ment to Vol. v, Part 11, for which there are already sixteen plates

engraved. He also published, in the December, 1880, number of

Science, a “Note on the relations of the Oneonta and Montrose

sandstones of Vanuxem, and their relation to the sandstones of

the Catskill mountains,” which, although mainly geological, is

still of considerable palzontological interest. Professor Hall states

that the Oneonta sandstone is not a part of the Chemung group,

as has been supposed, but that it constitutes a separate series of |

strata, the true position of which is between the Hamilton and

Chemung groups, and expresses the opinion that those strata were

deposited under “estuary and fresh-water conditions.” He regards

those shells which characterize these strata, and which were

described by Vanuxem as Cypricardites cattskillensis and C.

angusta as belonging to the genus Anodonta.

Professor A. Hyatt has nearly completed his illustrated memoir

on the Ammonites of the Lower Lias, which is to be published

_ by the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Cambridge, Mass.

Dr. G. Hambach has an interesting “Contribution to the Anat-

omy of the Genus Pentremites, with Description of New Spe-

cies,” in Vol. 1v, Transactions St. Louis Academy Science, pp.

145-160, with two lithograph plates. He has in hand a mono-

graph of all the known American and European forms of the

Blastoidez.

The appointment of Mr. Angelo Heilprin as Professor of In-

vertebrate Paleontology at the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia is a gratifying indication of progressive spirit in

that well-known institution. In Vol. m1, of the Proceedings of

the U, S. National Museum, is to appear an article from his pen

entitled, “On some New Species of Eocene Mollusca from the

Southern United States,” embracing pages 149-152, and accom-

panied with one plate of illustrations. -He has also prepared an

276 Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology in [ April,

article for publication in the Proceedings of the Academy “On

some new Lower Eocene Mollusca from Clark county, Alabama,

with some points as to the stratigraphical position of the beds con-

taining them.” Professor Heilprin has also completed the prepara-

tion of a “ Revision of the Eocene Mollusca of the Eastern and

Southern United States,” which, when published, will constitute

a much needed addition to our palzontological literature.

Mr. S. A. Miller has continued his publications in the Journal

of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History during the past year.

He began a series of articles, mainly historical, in the October,

1879, number of the Journal, entitled “ North American Mesozoic

and Cenozoic Geology and Palzontology,” which he has contin-

ued in each subsequent number to that of January, 1881. He in-

forms me that it will be completed in the next April number, and

that the whole series will embrace upwards of three hundred

pages. In the January, 1880, number, Mr, Miller has three.

palzontological articles, entitled respectively, “Silurian Ichnolites,

with definitions of new genera and species ;” “Descriptions of

two new species from the Niagara group and five from the Keo- —

kuk group;” and Note upon the habits of some fossil Annelids ;

the two first mentioned being illustrated. In the first named of

these three articles he proposes six new generic names for as

many different kinds of tracks which he has found upon the Lower

Silurian slaty shales near Cincinnati. The July and October,

1880, number, and the January, 1881, number of the Journal, each

contains an illustrated paleontological article from his pen, en-

titled respectively, “‘ Description of four new species of Silurian fos-

sils;” “ Description of four new species and one variety of Silurian

fossils ;” and “ Description of five new species of Silurian fossils,

and remarks upon an undetermined form.” Mr. Miller has also_

completed the MS. of catalogue of the North American Mesozoic

and Cenozoic fossils, upon the same general plan of his catalogue

of Palzozoic fossils published a few years ago, whish he hopes

soon to publish,

Professor A. S. Packard, Jr., in the July, 1880, number of the

AMERICAN NATURALIST, has an instructive illustrated article on

“The structure of the aye of Trilobites.” In concluding this article

Professor Packard says, “I now feel authorized in claiming that the

Trilobite’s eye was organized on the same plan as that of the

Limulus, and thus when we add the close resemblance in the

-1881.] the United States for the year 1880. | 277

_larval forms, in the general anatomy of the body-segments, and

the fact demonstrated by Mr. Walcott that the Trilobites had

jointed, round limbs (and probably membranous ones), we are led:

to believe that the two groups of Merostomata and Trilobites are

sub-divisions or orders of one and the same sub-class of Crustacea

for which we have previously proposed the term Pa/@ocarida.”

In his memoir on the Anatomy and Embryology of Limulus, he

also makes direct structural comparisons of the eyes of Trilobites

and Limulus.

Mr, Samuel H. Scudder has published in the Bulletin of the

Harvard College Library two installments of his Bibliography of

Fossil Insects, and a third installment will soon be out. He ha

also completed a memoir on the Devonian Insects of New Bruns-

wick for the Boston Society of Natural History, the general con-

clusions of which have appeared in the form of an article in the

American Fournal of Science for February. Besides these works

he has in hand a paper on the geology and palzontology of Floris-

sante, Colorado; and another on the structure and affinities of

Euphorberia M. & W.

Advance sheets of two posthumous articles by the late Wm.

M. Gabb, edited by Geo: W. Tryon, Jr., have lately been issued

by the Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. They are entitled respec-

tively, “ Descriptions of Caribbean Miocene Fossils, and “ De-.

Scriptions of New Species of Fossils from the Pliocene clay beds

between Limon and Moen, Costa Rica, together with notes on

previously known species from there and elsewhere in the Carib-

bean area.” They comprise together pp. 337-380, and plates

44-47, inclusive, of the Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad. (2). Vol.

vill. In the latter paper Mr. Gabb has proposed the new generic

name of Parkeria for a group of gastropods (not Parkeria Car-

penter and Brady, a genus of Foraminifera).

Lieut. A. W. Vogdes published in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.

Philad. for 1880, p. 176,:“ Description of a new Crustacean, Caly-

mene rostrata, from the Upper Silurian of Georgia, with remarks

upon Calyméne clintont.” Four wood-cuts.

Messrs. Wachsmuth and Springer have in press the second

part of their Revision of the Palzocrinoidea, and also a supple-

ment to the first part. It is the intention of the authors to com-

plete this important work as soon as practicable. .

Mr. C. D. Walcott has been long absent upon distant field”

278 Progress of Invertebrate Paleontology in [ April,

duties, but he is known to have, in an advanced state of progress, |

some important investigations concerning the structure of Trilo-

bites.

Professor A. G. Wetherby has continued his publications in the

Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist. during the past year. In the January,

1880, number, he has an illustrated article entitled, ‘‘ Descriptions

of new Crinoids from the Cincinnati group of the Lower Silurian

and the Subcarboniferous of Kentucky.” Also in the July, 1880,

number, “ Remarks on the Trenton limestone of Kentucky, with

descriptions of new Fossils from that formation and tlie Kaskas-

kia (Chester) group, Subcarboniferous ;” likewise illustrated. In

the last-named article Professor Wetherby proposes the new

genus Hybocystites. The January, 1881, number of the same

journal contains another illustrated article from his pen, entitled

“ Description of Crinoids from the Upper Carboniferous of Pulaski

county, Kentucky.” Besides these published articles, Professor

Wetherby has two or three others in a forward state of progress.

In the June, 1880, number of the American Fournal of Science,

Professor R. P. Whitfield has an article “On the occurrence of

true Lingula in the Trenton limestones,” illustrated by two wood-

cuts. His remarks are based upon a new species from Minnesota,

which he calls Z. e/deri, In the Annual Report of the Wisconsin

Geological Survey for 1880, pp. 44-71, he has published “ De-

scriptions of new species of Fossils from the Paleozoic formations

of Wisconsin.” He herein proposes a new generic designation for

a group of corals which he states to be in all respects compound

Cystophyllia, under the name of Cystostylus.

Professor H. S. Williams has an interesting article in the

December, 1880, number of the Avmerican Yournal of Science,

entitled “ Abstract of some palzontological studies of the Life

History of Spirifer /evis Hall,” upon a subject which may be

properly designated synthetic paleontology. In this article

Professor Williams traces a series of forms of Spirifer, which

are known in different formations by different specific names,

through the strata of all the formations, from the Niagara to

the Chemung, inclusive, and says of these groups of shells:

“ There is nothing of a specific character evolved in this series

of forms which did not appear in the first forms; but there is

every evidence for the belief that the species has lived through

this long geological time without losing its character, and that all

1881. ] the United States for the year 1880. 279

that has resulted from great time and change of conditions has

been the fixing ante race-groups of the eatin variable charac-

ters of the species.”

Professor N. H. Winchell, in his Eighth her Report of the

Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota for 1880,

describes ten species of brachiopods from the Trenton and Hud-

son River formations of that State.

The following articles and notes have been published during the

year 1880 by the writer of this article: “Descriptions of new

species of Carboniferous Invertebrate Fossils” (illustrated) ;

“Note on Exdothyra ornata ;” “Note on Criocardium and Eth-

mocardium ;” “ Descriptions of new Invertebrate Fossils from

Kansas and Texas” (illustrated); all in Vol. 11 Proceedings of

the U. S. National Museum. In the first of these the genus

Lecythiocrinus (not Lecythocrinus Miller nor Zittel) is proposed, and

in the second the sub-genus Ev¢hmocardium,. Also in Vol. 111 of

Proc. U. S. National Museum, “ Note on the occurrence of Pro-

ductus giganteus in California” (illustrated) ; “ Note on Acrothele;”

“ Description of a new Cretaceous Pinna from New Mexico;

“Note on Stricklandinia salteri and S. davidsoni in Georgia ;”

“ Description of a very large fossil Gasteropod from the State of

Puebla, Mexico” (illustrated) ; ““ Descriptions of new Invertebrate

Fossils from the Mesozoic rocks of Arkansas, Wyoming, Colo-

rado and Utah.” In the July, 1880, number of the American

Fournal of Science, he has an article “On the Antiquity of cer-

tain subordinate types of fresh-water and land Mollusca,” in which

itis shown that numerous types which characterize the living

molluscan fauna of North America, had their origin at least as

early as the earliest Eocene and later Cretaceous epochs.

The Contributions to Invertebrate Palzontology, Nos. 2-8,

which in the Narura.ist’s summary for 1879, were announced as

in press, have been published as a single extract from the Twelfth

Annual Report of the U.S. Geol. Survey of the Territories, and

embrace, besides 171 pages of text, thirty-two plates instead of

twenty-eight, as then announced.

Besides the foregoing, which are already published, the writer

of this article has in press a brief palzontological report to Capt.

Geo. M. Wheeler, on some Carboniferous fossils from Northern

New Mexico, with two quarto plates of illustrations; and also a

report to Professor John Collett, State Geologist of Indiana,

accompanied by eleven octavo plates of dlusieor

280 Evolution of Branchiopod Crustaceans. [ April,

EVIDENCES OF THE EFFECT OF CHEMICO-PHYSI-

CAL INFLUENCES IN THE EVOLUTION OF

BRANCHIOPOD CRUSTACEANS.

BY CARL F. GISSLER, PH.D.

URING the winter months Eudbranchipus vernalis Verrill,!

occurs near Maspeth, L. I, in immense numbers, in large

communicating ponds containing clear, yellowish, fresh water.

In January 1880 I found in a small and entirely isolated pool,

less than a hundred paces from the above-mentioned place, a

number of perfectly colorless, smaller, but sexually mature indi-

viduals of these branchiopod Crustaceans. The bottom of the

pool is a white and very soft clay, and the water itself is of a

milky color, I collected a number and observed the following

differences : ,

A. Very few individuals of both sexes bearing, with the excep-

tion of the transparent body and the red furca of the post-abdomen,

the same characters as Eubranchipus.

B. A great number of colorless individuals from fifteen to

twenty-two mm. in length. These differ from the larger, red

Eubranchipus, in the following particulars. Cephalic scute large

and convex; basal joint of male clasper cylindrical; claspers

crossing each other, short, tip of second joint with a blunt minute

tooth; second joint more or less conical, tapering. A more full

account I will soon give in Professor A. S. Packard’s monograph

on Phyllopod Crustaceans of the sexual organs, copulation and

the biology of these colorless individuals,

C. A single specimen of male Chirocephalus.

D. A hermaphrodite. Sexual organs separate, both male and

female claspers present?

E. A single male individual with a minute tooth on the second

joint of its right clasper; tooth wanting on the left. Left clasper

in normal position, right clasper twisted around, thus apparently

preventing the animal from using it in copulation. The tooth is

probably a substitute for the distorted hook, and assumes its func-

1« Observations on phyllopod Crustacea of the family of Branchipidz, with de-

scriptions of some new genera and species.”” By A: E. Verrill, professor of zodl-

og I

“ enna this hermaphroditic form in AMERICAN NATURALIST, February, 1881,

pages 136 to 139.

1881.] Evolution of Branchiopod Crustaceans. 281

tion, This exemplifies Dr. Dohrn’s theory! of the consecutive-

ness of functions whose bearings concern one and the same

organ, brought about by evolution. I refer to papers by Profes-

sor Cope in the American Natura.ist, “ A review of the mod-

ern doctrine of evolution,” etc. !

Professor Moritz Wagner's migration theory,? as well as Dr.

Charles Darwin’s selection theory,? may be employed to explain

the occurrence of the above-mentioned sets A, 2, and probably

also C,

First I must mention that, on keeping a number of Eubranchi-

pus, male and female (the latter with ovaries filled and oviducts

empty), together with a number of sets A and B, males and

females (female in the same condition), during five days, I could

never observe a single case of crossing; on the contrary, the two

(red and white) avoided each other and only copulated among

themselves. Now, as to set A,I consider them to be the first

generation of Eubranchipus, brought along with mud into the

little clay pool, by water birds, from the neighboring larger ponds.*

The transparency of their bodies was produced by the chemico-

physical influence’ of the little clay pool, and not by “ mimicry.”

~ As the pool is an isolated one, there was no chance for the absorb-

ing or obliterating influences of crossing with the original red

Eubranchipus ; consequently the offspring of this new, colorless

race, influenced by different factors, were liable to submit to still

further evolutionary transformations which I believe have been

réalized in set B: The animal gradually degenerated into a much

smaller one with the above-mentioned characters. The factor that

produced it was a conservative one, favoring the preservation of

“Der Ursprung der Wirbelthiere und das Princip des Functionswechsels,’

Genealogische Skizzen yon Dr. Anton Dohrn. 1875.

2«« Die Datwin’sche Theorie und das Migrationsgesetz der Organismen.” Von

Dr. Moritz Wagner. 1868. The refutation of Wagner’s law of migration was

attempted by my former tutor,.Professor Dr. Aug. Weismann (“ Ueber den Einfluss

der Isolirung auf die Artbildung,” sae : sities Y a saenelaeiae’ a — s

paper he combined his theory with D a

siderably deviate from each other as regards the sori i mechanical cause.

also Kosmos, tv, April, 1880: « Ueber die Entstehung der Arten durch menisci

Von Moritz Wagner.

"On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” 1859. _

*J. A. Ryder in Amer, Nat., XII, page 703.

® See also papers by W. J. Schmankewitsch in Zeéé. foe qwiss. rats ig ee and

1877.

VOL, XV.— NO, IV. 20

282 Evolution of Branchiopod Crustaceans. [April,

this new species.’ The factor that produced the individual Z was a

compelling mechanical cause originating in a pathological condi-

tion. According to Dr, Darwin, the mechanical cause enters into

activity with the appearance of “favorably varying ” individuals

whose morphological deviations are either inherited or adapted.

As to C, the genus Chirocephalus, I have reason to suspect in the

lobed and prolonged frontal tentacles only a product caused by

either chemico-physical or a sudden change in climatological

influences. The successive appearance of Chirocephalus and

Streptocephalus in one and the same pond near Woodbury, N. Y Big

rather strengthens my assumption.

The hermaphroditic form D shows characters closely relating

it to set A. From the study of comparative anatomy it follows

that hermaphroditism, 2 ¢, the coéxistence of both male and

female sexual organs in one individual, is the primitive condition

of sexual differentiation, which may in time be followed by a

complete separation of the sexes. Hermaphroditism and _par-

thenogenesis can be regarded as cases of atavism—as a reoccur-

rence of former, primitive conditions. Further progress in differ-

entiation of the sexual conditions, Haeckel ascribes to “ division

of labor” (Arbeitstheilung). The bilateralism in this hermaphro- —

dite indicates close relationship and codrdination between the

sexual organs and auxilliary copulation organs. According to

Dr. Chas. S. Minot’s theory,’ it is possible that a male genoblast

was formed by the splitting of a neutral cell on one side, anda

female genoblast in the same manner on the other side of the

post-abdomen at an early larval stage, and that then, as the animal

became gradually more developed, the second pair of antennz

(not hitherto sexually distinguishable) transformed themselves

symmetrically in accordance with the bilateral position of the

genital glands and their exits. Unfortunately we are absolutely

ignorant of the conditions which cause an animal, when capable

of making genoblasts, to produce either male, female or her-

maphrodite.

1 Professor Huxley’s ** The Cr efiahi: Zs 1 a ay morphological sense, 4

species is simply an assemblage of individuals which agree with one another and a :

fer es the rest of the living world in the sum of their Sieklcgte characters.”

A, Ryder, op citat

3 It j is not impossible that branchiopod Crustaceans are liable to produce seasonal

dimorphic individuals, a parallel to cases observed in Lepidoptera, according to Pro-

fessor Sam. H. Scudder, Professor A. Weismann and others

4 Professor Ernst Haeckel’s “ Anthropogenie,”’ pages 308, 681, etc.

5 AMER. NAT., XIV, Feb., 1880,

1881.] Ona few of the Diseases and Injuries in Birds. 283

NOTES ON A FEW OF THE DISEASES AND Se were

IN BIRDS.

BY R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D., U.S. A.

v is merely the object of this brief essay to call attention to

the fact that has on so many occasions been so vividly pre-

sented to me, during the course of my dissections of bodies of

birds and the preparation of their skeletons, of really how com-

paratively few of them there are that can boast of being perfectly

free and exempt from any form of disease or the sequela of dis-

ease ; and not to make any attempt to classify or write any ex-

tended description of those diseases and injuries to which birds

_ are subject. One among the first cases that was brought to my

notice occurred some fifteen years ago, while on a collecting tour

in the State of Connecticut, at a period before I could lay barely

any claim to the knowledge of disease or make any use of what I

observed. In passing through the woods on that occasion I

picked up from the ground a nearly full grown female Molothrus

pecoris, that could barely hop along atid was totally unable to fly.

She was extremely emaciated and ill-nourished. My curiosity

as to the cause of her disability was soon satisfied when I began

to part the feathers to search for some injury that perhaps she

had sustained. My first anticipations were quickly dispelled, for

instead of any injury, I discovered the integument in various

localities, particularly the wings and breast, raised up in rather a

tent-like manner, in some eighteen or twenty places. Each o

these little pockets was occupied by a yellowish-white larva as

large as an ordinary white garden bean. These I easily removed,

one by one, with a piece of straw, and carried my bird, apparently

now much relieved, to the nearest water, some little distance,

where she drank as if she had never beheld that fluid before.

My surprise now was not very great when, upon releasing her, I

found that she could fly some little distance, and undoubtedly

subsequently entirely recovered. As I have never seen a similar

case, I am to this day ignorant of the habits or even the name of

the parasite.

Another remarkable, although common, case of parasite oc-

curs in Spheotyto, our burrowing owl of the plains. The best

example of this I saw in one of these birds two or three years

ago. This specimen, too, I could actually pick up from the en-

284 On a few of the Diseases and Injuries in Birds. [April,

trance of the prairie-dog burrow, where he sat, scarcely caring,

apparently, whether he lived or died. Upon removing, when in

my study, the skin of this owl, Iwas nota little astonished to

find many of the organs absolutely displaced by “ wads” as large,

- in some instances, as an almond, of a long hair-like worm, of a

pale yellow color, the longest being about 6 c.c. in length. Col-

lections of them in ‘the orbits forced the eyes outwards in this

case, and a large roll of them occupied the upper third of the

tracheo-cesophageal interspace, completely wedging the two tubes

apart.

Subsequently when the skinless cadaver was thrown aside upon

my table, these parasites reared for half their lengths and waved

to and fro, lending to the body an appearance as if some kind of

a pale colored moss was growing from it.

Exostoses not unfrequently occur, either on the shafts of some

of the long bones, or upon the surfaces of the flat ones. I have

before me a very pretty specimen where one of these bony out-

growths occupies the angle of the carina in the sternum of a

specimen of Eremophila alpesiris. It is nearly as large as a pea,

and has a lobulated appearance, jutting forwards.

Aneurismal tumors are sometimes to be seen; the sacs have the

appearance of having existed for some space of time—in a few

instances.

Muscular atrophy, as far as my observations go, is of rather

rare occurrence, although I have seen one good example in the

muscles of the lower extremities of a specimen of Sturnella’

magna, There was no apparent cause for it upon fost mortem.

The bird was very loath to take wing, and was killed on the

ground, where his locomotion seemed good.

The results of injuries and gun-shot wounds present many

examples of interest, and objects for study, if anything, still more

engaging. A few days ago I secured a female specimen of Ci-

cus cyaneus var. hudsonius, the horny integuments of whose feet

were the sites of many warty excrescences, having the color and

general appearances of the parts they occupied. These bodies

ranged in size from a duck shot to a small hazel nut. My diag-

nosis was materially assisted in this case by finding a cactus thorn

protruding a little beyond the surface of one or two of the warts,

and this foreign body formed the nucleus of all of them.

They were undoubtedly driven forcibly into the feet of this

1881.] The Brain of the Locust. 285

bird, when it seized small mammals among the cactus beds,

where they usually burrow for protection. One of the best

unions, after gun-shot fracture, I ever had the pleasure of exam-

ining (the specimen is now in the Army Medical Museum),

occurred, in the upper third of the humerus, in a specimen of

Mergus serrator, that I secured several months ago. Taking into

consideration the fact that this bird is a vigorous diver, and one

of no mean powers of flight, the result, if we may so call it, was

an excellent one—there being scarcely any deformity—and the

member was as serviceable as ever.

I have seen and possess specimens of many other interesting

cases, but their description would extend this paper far beyond

the limits. The best examples, and those perhaps worthy-at least

of a mention, consist of a case of non-union in the palatines of

Anas boschus, a depressed fracture in the cranium of Corvus

americanus, gunshot injuries resulting in recovery of the brain

in Spheotyto and others.

:0:

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST!

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR,

N order to appreciate the habits, migratory, reproductive, &c.,

of the locust, and to learn something of its general intelligence

as an insect and as compared with other insects, it is necessary

for us to study with a good deal of care, the organ of the locust’s

mind, t.e., its nervous system, comprising its nervous centers and

the nerves arising from them.

The Nervous System in General—The nervous system of the

locust consists of a series of nerve centers or ganglia, connected

by nervous cords called commissures. There are ten of these gan-

glia in the locust, z ¢, two in the head, the first and largest of

which is called the “ drain ;” three ganglia in the thorax, and five

in the hind-body or abdomed: The brain is situated in the upper

part of the head, resting upon the gullet or cesophagus, whence

its true name suprawsophageal ganglion. (Plate 1, Fig. 1.) The

succeeding nerve-center is situated in the lower part of the head,

1 Adapted for the NATURALIST from the Second Report of the U, S. Entomologi-

cal Commission, 1880. We are indebted to the Commission for permission to have

an edition of five plates struck off from the lithographic stones at the — of the

publishers,

286 The Brain of the Locust. [ April,

behind the mouth and under the cesophagus, hence it is called

the subwsophageal ganglion, (Plate 1, Fig. 5.) The brain really

is a double ganglion, being composed of two hemispheres, each

hemisphere being a single ganglion or nerve-center ; all the suc-

ceeding ganglia are also double ganglia; but for convenience

we will call the “brain,” and each: of the succeeding nerve-

centers a ganglion. Each side of the brain contracts, and then

swells out into a rounded portion next to the eye, called the

optic ganglion, (Pl. 1, Fig. 1.) From this optic ganglion the

optic fibers proceed to the facets of the eye. The optic gan-

glion connects with the Lrain by the large optic nerve. There

are, then, two offic nerves, besides three slender nerves (ocel-

lar nerves) sent to each of the three oce//i or simple eyes ; more-

over, a nerve is sent to each of the antennz, and are hence called

the antennal nerves. The relations of the brain to the head, and

to the succeeding ganglion, and the origins of the nerves distrib-

uted to the eyes, antennz and ocelli, as well as of the nerves

sent to the jaws, etc., are clearly seen in the figures on Plate 1.

On the other hand the mouth parts, z. ¢., the jaws (mandibles)

and accessory jaws (first and second mcitibe. the latter called the

fabium or under lip) are each supplied by a pair of nerves, called

respectively the mandibular, maxillary and labial nerves. These

three pairs of nerves arise from the subcesophageal =

(See. Pi 1; Fig. 2: 2)

The Brain of Insects as distinguished from the Brain of Verte-

brates —The “ brain,” or supracesophageal ganglion is, as we shall

see, a much more complicated organ than any of the succeeding

ganglia, having important parts which are wanting in all the

others, hence it is par excellence nearer to our idea of a brain than

any of the other nervous centers. It should be remembered,

however, that the word, “brain” is applied to this compound

ganglion simply by courtesy and as a matter of convenience, as

it does not correspond to the brain of a vertebrate animal, the

brain of the horse or man being composed of several distinct

pairs of ganglia. Moreover, the brain and nervous cord of the

fish or man are fundamentally different, or not homologous with

those of the lower or invertebrate animals, though the nervous

system of the insects and Crustacea present greater analogies to

that of the vertebrates than any other of the lower animals, with

the exception, perhaps, of the cuttlefish. The nervous cord of

U.S. Entomotogical Commission. Plate L

A Meisel ith. Boston.

E Burgess del

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

1881. ] The Brain of the Locust. 287

the insect consists of a chain of ganglia connected by nerves or

commissures, while the spinal cord of the fish or man is essen-

tially ““a double and fused series of nerve-centers.’ Moreover,

. if the vertebrate cord is cut through, a section shows that it con-

sists of two kinds of substances or tissues, called the “ gray” and

“white” substance. The gray matter is situated in the center,

and consists largely of nerve or so-called “ ganglion cells,” while

the external white matter of the brain or cord is composed of a

mass of nerve fibers. Now, in the nervous system of insects

there is nothing to compare with these substances, but the ganglia,

on the contrary, as we shall see farther on, consist primarily of

an external layer of ganglion cells, whose fibers pass in to form a

central fibrous mass or net-work, the meshes of which are filled

with a fine granulated nerve substance, the nature of which is

not clearly understood. Moreover, the entire brain of an insect

is white, as are all the ganglia.

A ganglion in its simplest form isa little rounded mass, or

nodule, of ganglion cells, with fibers leading from them: such

cells are represented by Fig. 3a—3e, on Plate 11. Now when the

fibers lead in from the sensitive hairs on the crest of the insect,

or from the antennz, or the eyes or ears, and end in separate

masses or lobes, which are modified ganglia, such ganglia are

regarded as ‘‘ sensory ganglia,” and the nerves leading in from

them are called ingoing or “afferent nerves,” while the ganglia

which give rise to the outgoing or “efferent” nerves, 7. e., those

going to the muscles of the wings, legs, &c., are called “ motor

ganglia.”

It should be borne in mind as the result of recent studies by

several observers, as Leydig, Flogel, Dietl and Newton, that the

subcesophageal ganglion, or “ brain,” of the insect is much more

complex than any other ganglion, consisting more exclusively both

of sensory as well as motor ganglia and their nerves. But it should

also be understood that the subcesophageal ganglion also receives

nerves of special sense, situated possibly on the palpi, and possibly

on the tongue, at least the latter is the case with the bee; hence,

this ganglion is probably complex, consisting of sensory and motor

ganglia. The third thoracic ganglion is also, without doubt, a

complex one, as in the locusts the auditory nerves pass into it

from the ears, which are situated at the base of the abdomen.

But in the green grasshoppers, such as the katydids | and their

288 The Brain of the Locust. [April,

allies, whose ears are situated in their fore legs, the first thoracic

ganglion is a complex one. In the cockroach and in the Lefts

(Chrysopila), a common fly, the caudal appendages bear what are

probably olfactory organs, and as these parts are undoubtedly

supplied from the last abdominal ganglion, this is probably com-

posed of sensory and motor ganglia; so that we have in the

ganglionated cord of insects a series of brains, as it were, run-

ning from head to tail, and thus in a still stronger sense than in

vertebrates the entire nervous system, and not the brain alone, is

the organ of the wznd, or psychological endowments, of the

insect.

We will now proceed to examine the brain of the adult Ca/op-

tenus spretus, and compare it with that of other insects; then

study its development in the embryo, and finally examine the

changes it undergoes in the larva and pupal stages before attain-

ing the fully developed structure of the adult locust.

Histological Elements of the Brain —The brain is histologically

or structurally divided into two kinds of tissue or cellular ele-

ments.

1. An outer, slightly darker, usually pale-grayish white portion

is made up of “cortical cells,” or “ ganglion cells.” (PI. 11., Fig.

Sak te) :

This outer loose cellular envelope of the brain consists of large

. and small ganglion cells. Where the tissue consists of small

ganglion cells, it is naturally from the denser arrangement of the

smaller cells, which are packed closer together, rather darker than

in those regions where the tissue consists of the more loosely

disposed, large ganglion cells.

A. The large ganglion cells (Pl. 11., Fig. 3,3 2,3 4,363%

¢) are oval, and send off usually a shiale nerve fiber; they have

a thin fibrous cell wall, and the contents are finely granular. The

nucleus is very large, often one-half the diameter of the entire

cell, and is composed of large round refractive granules, usually

concealing the nucleolus (the granules are much larger and fewer

in number and the nucleolus is less distinct than in the brain of

Limulus, the king crab). These large ganglion cells are most

abundant and largest on each side of the upper furrow, and in

front of the “ central body,” also at the bottom of the lower fur- _

row, and along the exterior of the optic and antennal lobes, and

along the commissural lobes.

18381.] The Brain of the Locust. 289

B. The small ganglion cells apparently differ chiefly in size from

the large ones, and are most numerous in the front swelling of

each hemisphere; they surround and fill the calices of the mush-

room bodies, and they extend along each optic nerve and form a

large proportion of each optic ganglion, especially the layer next

to the retina of the eye, though they are replaced by large gan-

glion.cells at the junction of the fibrous part of the optic nerve

with the dilated granular portion. The brain is surrounded more

or less completely by the connective tissue cells belonging to the

_ mesoderm or middle germ layer, and which are sometimes liable

to be confounded with the ganglion cells, as they stain the same

tint with carmine. It should be borne in mind that the nervous

system, ganglia and nerves, originate from the tegumental or ex-

odermal layer.

1. The medullary or inner part of the brain consists of matter

which remains whiteor unstainedafter the preparation has remained

thoroughly exposed to the action of the carmine. It consists of

minute granules and interlacing fibers. The latter often forms a

fine irregular net-work inclosing masses of finely granulated nerve

matter.

In the antennal and commissural lobes is a third kind of mat-

ter, in addition to the granular and fibrous substances, which

forms irregularly rounded masses, cream-colored in picro-carmine

preparations, and which stain dark with osmic acid. This is

called by Dietl “ sarksubstanz,’ and is described by Newton as

_ “a peculiar arrangement of nervous matter, which appgars some-

times as fine fibrillae, with an axial arrangement, sometimes as a

very fine net-work of different thicknesses, and sometimes as thin

lamellz, or altogether homogeneous.”

It is to be noticed that this central unstained portion contains

few, if any, ganglion cells, and it is most probable that the fibers

of which it is composed originate from the cortical ganglion cells.

At one or two points at Fig. 3, Pl. 1, I have seen the fibers pass-

ing in from ganglion cells towards the middle of the brain. In

the horseshoe crab (Limulus), owing to the simple structure of

the brain, it is evident that the optic and ocellar nerves and pos-

terior commissures originate from the large ganglion cells which

in this animal are situated in or near the center of the brain. In

the last abdominal ganglion also the fibers arising from the pe-

ripheral ganglion cells can very plainly be seen passing in towards

290 The Brain of the Locust. [ April,

the center of the ganglion and mingling with the fibers forming

it. Hence, in all probability the fibrous mass of the central part

of the brain mostly originates from the peripheral or cortical gan-

glion cells.

To briefly describe the brain of the locust, it isa modified gan-

glion, but structurally entirely different from and far more com-

plicated than the other ganglia of the nervous system. It

possesses a “central body,” and in each hemisphere a “ mush-

room body,” optic lobe, and optic ganglion, and olfactory lobe,

with their connecting and commissural nerve fibers, not found in

the other ganglia. Inthe succeeding ganglia the lobes are, in

general, motor; the fibers composing the cesophageal commis-

sures, and which arise from the cesophageal commissural lobes,

extend not only to the subcesophageal ganglion, but pass along

through the succeeding ganglia to the last pair of abdominal

nerve centers.) Since, then, there is a direct continuity in the

fibers forming the two main longitudinal commissures of the

nervous cord, and which originate in the brain, it seems to follow

that the movements of the body are in large part directed or co-

_Ordinated by the brain? Still, however, a second brain, so to

1 We have seen that the two great longitudinal commissures pass directly from the

the brain into and then pass backward from the subcesophageal ganglion, but beyond

that point we have not traced their course, as it is generally supposed that they extend

pmpanpayr: to the last abdominal ganglia, This has indeed been shown to. be

y Michels, in his admirable treatise on the nervous system of a beetle

pa: in Siebold and Kdlliker’s Zeitschrift fiir wissen. Zoologie, Band 34, Heft.

4, 1880. Michels states that each commissure is formed of three parallel bundles

of elementary nerve fibers, which pass continuously from one end of the ventral or

ervous cord to the other. ‘‘ The commissures take their origin neither out of a cen-

ei sep (or paanieigen tens nor from the peripheral ganglion cells of the

several ganglia, but are es tions of the longitudinal fibers which decrease

ane in thickness, and roe anteriorly through the commissures forming the

cesophageal ring to the brain,’

2 The following extract from Newton’s paper shows, however, that the infra or

subcesophageal ganglion, according to Faivre, has the power of codrdinating the

movements of the body;. still it seems to us that the brain may be primarily con-

cerned in the exercise of this power, as the nerves from the subcesophageal ganglion

ee only the mouth ee “ The physiological experiments of Faivre, in 1857

nn. J. Sci. Nat., Tom. viii. p. 245), upon the brain of Dytiscus in relation to loco-

cine are of very ssn interest, showing, as they appear to do, that the

power of codrdinating the movements of the body is lodged in the infracesophageal

ganglion. And such being the case, both the upper and lower pairs of ganglia

ought to be regarded as forming sp of the insect’s brain.” Quart. Jour. Micr.

Sc., 1879, p. 342.

_1881.] The Brain of the Locust. 291

speak, is found in the third thoracic ganglion of the locust, which

receives the auditory nerves from the ears situated in the base of

the abdomen; or in the first thoracic ganglion of the green grass-

hoppers (katydids, &c.), whose ears are in their fore legs; while

even the last abdominal ganglion in the cockroach and mole

cricket is, so to speak, a secondary brain, since it receives sensory

nerves from the caudal stylets which are provided with sense

organs.

Description of the sections of the Brain3—We will now describe

the sections upon which the subsequent account of the brain is

founded. The sections, unless otherwise stated, are frontal, 7. ¢.,

cut transversely across the face from before backwards ; in cutting

thus through the head, twelve sections were made before the

front part of the brain was touched, the thirteenth grazing the front

of the brain. Section fourteen passed through the anterior part

of both cadices, but did not touch the stalk of the mushroom body

(these terms will be explained farther on). It passed through the

central region of each hemisphere, including the front part of the

trabecule or base of the stalk of the mushroom body. The sec-

tion passed through the commissural lobes, the lower third being _

composed of the ganglion cells, but the substance of the com-

missure itself is filled with the ball-like masses of ‘“ marksubstanz.”

The commissures to the subcesophageal ganglion were not

touched, and do not appear in the section, since they arise from:

the back of the brain.

In section 15 no additional organs are exposed. In section 16

(Pl. u, F ig. 1) the trabecule are seen, when magnified 225 diame-

ters, to be composed of ascending fibers, which form the base or

origin of the double stalk of the mushroom body. (

Section 17 (Pl. 11, F ig. 2) is the most important of all the sec-

tions, as the entire mushroom body and the central body are cut

through, together with the antennal lobes, and the commissural

lobes, and also the origin of the optic nerves.

In section 18 (Pl. u, Fig. 4) the double nature of the stalk of

the mushroom body is seen; the optic lobes are now well marked,

and the razor grazed the back of the commissural lobes, as well

as the inner side of the optic ganglion. The section passed behind

the trabeculz and the base of the stalk and through the back of

* We are indebted to Mr. Norman N. Mason, of Providence, R. I., for cutting and

Mounting the sections used in making the observations here recorded.

292 The Brain of the Locust. [April,

the central body. The calices are each seen to be so furrowed and

uneven as to appear in the section as two separate portions, Two

important nerves (Pl. 11, Fig. 4, f. @. 2.) are seen to arise from the

commissural lobes, and to pass upwards, ending on each side of

the upper furrow, near the origin of what we think are possibly

the ocellar nerves (a. c. 2. ?).

Section rg (Pl. 111, Fig. 1) passed through the back of the brain

(compare Fig. 4, of the same plate, which represents a vertical or

longitudinal section of the brain), through the cesophageal com-

missures, and the back edge of the calices, while the antennal

lobes and a part of the optic lobes are well seen in the section. A

transverse commissural nerve (¢¢ z) connects the two antennal

lobes, and the commissural nerves are seen to cross at the bottom

of the furrow.

Section 20 (Pl. 11, Fig. 2), which passes through the extreme

back of the brain, shows in this plane four transverse bundles of

nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres, 7. ¢., the inferior

(inf. n.), two median (m. n.) and a superior nerve (sup. .). In

this section the relations of the optic ganglion and eye to the

brain are clearly seen, the optic ganglion being situated in the

' posterior region of the brain. It will also be seen that the two

hemispheres are at this point only connected anteriorly.

In sections 22, 23 and 24 the brain nearly disappeared, and

only the optic ganglia were cut through by the microtome, affording

instructive sections of the three lenticular masses of white un-

stained granulo-fibrous substance surrounded by ganglion cells.

Internal Topography of the Brain—Disregarding the envelope

of cortical ganglionic cells, though they are evidently of primary

importance in the physiology of the insect’s brain, we will now

describe the internal topography of the brain. It consists pri-

marily of an irregular net-work of nerve-fibers, inclosing masses

of granulated nerve matter. This mass is divided into a number

of separate areas or lobes, of which the “central body” (corpus

centrale of Flogel and Newton) is single and situated between or

in the median line of the two hemispheres. There is also a primi-

tive superior and inferior central region, better shown, however, in

the brain of the embryo and larval locust than in the adult. Be-

sides these areas are the rounded masses or “lobes,” 7. ¢., the

optic, antennal, or olfactory and commissural lobes; the optic

nerves arising from the optic lobes, the antennal nerves from the

S. Entomological Commission

Plate Il

ie.

, CPP

dpe

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

A Meisel ith.Boston

1881. ] The Brain of the Locust. 203

antennal lobes, and the commissures surrounding the cesophagus

and connecting the brain with the subcesophageal ganglion, and

which arise from the commissural lobes. Finally a “ mushroom

body” is situated in the upper and central part of each hemi-

The Central Body—tThis is the only single or unpaired organ

in the brain. It is best seen in section 17°(Pl. u, Fig. 2), which

also passes through the optic and antennal lobes and the trabeculz

and mushroom bodies. This singular organ is apparently present

in all winged insects, though differing somewhat in structure in ~

different insects. It is,as seen in Pl. u, Fig. 2, situated in the

same plane as the peduncle and in the same plane as the center

of the entire mushroom body, and rests upon the inner sides of

the trabeculae. Section 16 does not pass through it, though the

next section, which is ;}y inch thick, passes through its middle.

Section 18 (Fig. 4) passes through its back, while the next section

does not include any part of it; hence its antero-posterior diame-

ter is slightly over 45 of an inch. It is about twice as broad as

high, and thus is a small body, though from the universality of

its occurrence in winged insects, it may be one of considerable

importance.

It is surrounded by a dense net-work of fibers containing a few

small ganglionic cells, the fibers in front continuous with those

near the bottom of the frontal median furrow and connecting the

two optic lobes, Posteriorly the fibers apparently are not con-

tinuous with those of the trabeculae; hence the central body

appears to be quite isolated from the rest of the brain. Its sub-

stance, when magnified 400 diameters, appears to be a white

granular matter like the adjoining parts of the brain, It is divided

into two parts, the superior and inferior, the former part constitu-

ting the larger part of the body. The inferior portion is separated

by fibers from the superior; it contains numerous nucleated

spherical cells situated either irregularly or perhaps primarily (see

Pl. rv, Fig. 3, of the pupa) in two rows when fewer in number

than in the adult. The superior and larger division of the cen-

tral body contains two series of what we may call waicellular bod- _

ies, sixteen in a series. The lower series are spherical or slightly

elongated, and rest in the fibrous partition or septum, forming the

floor of the superior division of the central body. The upper

row of bodies are cylindrical, and about three or four times as

294 The Brain of the Lecust. [April,

long as thick. They are separated by thin fibrous septa. PI. rv,

Fig. 2, represents the central body enlarged 225 diameters. When

we examine the central body in an earlier stage, z. ¢., the sec-

ond pupal (PI. 1v, Fig. 3), we see that the body is covered above

by a stratum of nucleated ganglion cells continuous with those

next to the bottom of the upper furrow; and that the fibrous

septum between the upper and lower division also contains small

cells. These cells disappear in the adult, and evidently give rise

to the fibers which take their place. It will also be seen that the

“ unicellular bodies” are shorter, more cell-like than in the adult;

hence they seem to be modified ganglion cells, which have at

an early date lost their nucleus and nucleolus. My observations

on the central body of the locust agree in the main with those of

Newton (compare his Fig. 9). His drawings are not especially

clear and definite, but the differences appear to be unimportant.

There are perhaps two (16 instead of “12 or 14”) more cellular |

bodies in the locust than in the cockroach. Unfortunately my

sections of the brain of the cockroach do not show the central

body. Dietl states that the central body is a “ median commis-

sural system.” This description we would accept in a modified

sense. We have shown that the unicellular bodies and the cells

beneath them were once. like the ganglion cells, but that they

have lost their nuclei and nucleoli; hence the functions of the

central body must be unlike that of an ordinary commissural lobe.

Flogel states that the number of “sections,” or what I call uni-

cellular bodies, is eight; we have counted sixteen. Both Flogel

and Newton appear to regard these bodies as simply’spaces oF

sections between fibrous partitions ; but it would appear that these

sections are really modified cells, and that the fibrous septa are

possibly the cell-walls, somewhat modified.

The Mushroom Bodies—These curious organs have attracted

a good deal of attention from writers on the brain of insects.

Dujardin, in 1850, first drew attention to them. His memoir we

have not at hand to refer to, but as stated by Newton'—

“ Dujardin pointed out that in some insects there were to 3 be

seen upon the upper part of the brain certain convoluted portions

which he compared to the convolutions of the mammalian brain,

and, inasmuch as they seemed to be more developed in those

insects which are remarkable for their intelligence, such as ants,

1Qn the Brain of the Cockroach. By E. T. Newton. Quart. Journ. Microscopi-

cal Science, July, 1879, pp. 341, 342.

1881.] The Brain of the Locust. 295

bees, wasps, &c., he seemed to think the intelligence of insects

stood in direct relationship to the development of these bodies.

The form of these structures is described by the same author as

being, when fully developed, as in the bee, like a pair of disks

upon each side, each disk being folded together and bent down-

wards before and behind, its border being thickened and the inner

portion radiated. By very careful dissection he found these bodies

to be connected on each side with a short pedicle, which bifur-

cates below to end in two tubercles. One of these tubercles is

directed towards the middle line, and approaches but does not

touch the corresponding process of the opposite side. The second

tubercle is directed forwards, and is in close relation to the front

wall of the head, being only covered by the pia mater (neurilem-

m These convoluted bodies and the stalks upon which they

are mounted are compared by Dujardin to certain kinds of mush-

rooms, and this idea has been retained by more recent writers on

the subject.”

The form of the mushroom body is much more complicated in

the bee or ant than in insects of other orders. In the cockroach

and in other Orthoptera, notably the locust, the four divisions of

the calices are united into two; while the structure of the calyx

in the cockroach is quite different from that of the locust. Mr.

Newton, is his description, notwithstanding Dujardin’s statement,

appears to practically limit the term “ mushroom body” to the

cap or calyx on the end of the stalk. In the following descrip-

tion we apply the term “ mushroom body ”’ to the entire structure,

including the base or trabecula, the double stalk, and the cap or

calyx.

So far as we have been able to observe, the double stalk of the

mushroom body rests on a rounded mass of granulo-fibrous

nerve matter; this rounded mass or base of the column is called

the ¢rabecula (P\. 11., Fig. 2, tvad.). The two trabeculz (one in

each hemisphere) are much more widely separated (in my sections)

than in the cockroach or in those insects studied by Flogel; the

space between them being filled by a loose cellular mass contain-

ing small nucleated cells. The thickness of each trabecula is

greater than that of the double stalk, Section 14 passes through ~

the outer or anterior edge of the trabecula, and also through the

calices at some distance from the edge. Section 18 (Fig. 4) does

not include it, though showing well the mushroom body, with the

exception of the base of the double stalk. It follows that the

thickness of the trabecula is about 535 of an inch.

The substance of the trabecula is seen to be minutely fibrous

296 The Brain of the Locust. [ April,

under a power of 725 diameters, with masses of granules among

the fibers which are much finer than in the optic or antennal lobes.

At the point passed through by section 17 the trabecule appear

to have no connection with the stalk, but the latter appear to stop

abruptly just before reaching it, the envelope of ganglionic cells

and fibers surrounding the trabecule being interposed between

the base of the stalk and the trabecula. (This does not preclude

the fact that the stalk does not arise from the trabecula, though

there are no signs of it in this section; for it clearly appears to

thus arise in the drawings and descriptions of Dietl, Flogel, and

Newton.)

The structure of the trabeculz in the locust, judging from our

sections, appears to be more complex than would be inferred from

the observations of the other anatomists just mentioned. Section

17 (Pl. 11, Fig. 2, trad.) passes through the middle of each of

these bodies, and it then appears that there are four bundles of

nerve-fibers passing out of each body. A bundle of transverse

nerve-fibers (Fig. 2, 4c. 2. and Fig. 3) passes along under the

central body, directly through the middle of the trabeculz, and

anastomoses with the fibrous envelope of each trabecula. In front

of this transverse intra-trabecular nerve is a small short ascending

bundle of fibers (Fig. 3 a. ¢. 2.) which passes next to the pedicel,

but does not apparently form a part of it, but anastomoses with

the fibers on each side of the central body. Below, the fibers

pass downward and outward to apparently connect with the

fibrous envelope of the trabecula. Another short bundle passes

out from the trabecula obliquely towards the central body and

anastomoses with the fibrous envelope of the central body.

Below, but in the same plane, is another transverse bundle of

fibers (Fig. 3,2. ¢. #.), which is slightly curved and on the left side

its fibers are distinctly seen to enter the trabecula. This lower in-

trabecular nerve, as we may call it, connects with three vertical

short nerves arising from near the edge of the lower furrow between

the hemispheres of the brain. Of these, the central one (centr. 2.)

is in the median line of the brain, and the lateral ones (/a¢. 7.) are

on each side. There would thus seem to be a direct double nerv-

ous communication between the two trabeculae, and with the-

fibers surrounding the central body, and hence with the rest of

the brain. This seems to be opposed to the statement of Newton

that the trabeculz, and the mushroom bodies in general, have no

iS. Entomological Commission

Plate [Il.

“

ALLY

Ad)

ECAALLEAL IS 5

THE BRAIN OF THE LOCUST.

1881.] The Brain of the Locust. 297

nervous connection with the rest of the brain. This section also

clearly indicates the origin of the optic nerve, which passes behind

the stalk of the mushroom body, and also the relation of the fibers

of the stalk to the calices, as they appear to penetrate far into the

interior of the body of each calyx.

The Double Stalk (cauliculus and peduncle ).—These names are

applied to the larger and smaller divisions of the stalk of the

“mushroom body.” They are represented in the eighteenth sec-

tion (Fig. 4) where the outer part of the stalk (cawliculus) sup-

ports the outer calyx, and the inner slenderer column of fibers

supports or ends in the inner division of the calyx. These two

bundles of fibers are somewhat curved, but as they do not appear

in sections 16 and 19, must be less than séo of an inch thick.

Their fibers are seen to penetrate deeply into the base of the

calices, and thus to directly communicate with the fine granular

substance of the calices.

Lhe Calices.—The cups of the mushroom bodies in the locust

differ decidedly in form from those of the cockroach, and this

part of the mushroom body is more variable in form in the differ-

ent orders of insects than any of the other parts of the brain. It

is nearly obsolete, or, as Flogel states, ‘‘ not more than rudiment-

ary” in hemipterous insects (notably Syromastes), and is less

completely developed in many smaller moths, beetles, and flies,

as well as Neuroptera (_4schna), according to Flogel, than in the

larger moths, in the Orthoptera, and especially in the Hymenop-

tera, where it is well developed. We have been unable to find it as

yet in the brain of myriopods or of the spider. In the locust each

body is more or less rounded and rudely saucer-like rather than

cup-like, with the rim very thick; the hollow of the cup, if it be

hollow, is small in proportion to the thickness of the saucer-like

cup. The diameter of a calyx is about sic. The anterior edge

reaches to the front edge of each hemisphere of the brain, but

does not extend to the back part of the brain. The relations ina

vertical, z. ¢., longitudinal section of the mushroom body to the

rest of the brain are seen in Pl. 1, Fig. 8a. It thus appears

that the double stalk is situated near the center of the brain, and

that the cup projects far forward, but posteriorly does not extend

behind the antennal lobes or the commissures. In section 18

(Fig. 4) the calices are seen to be double, the outer (a. ca/. ) attached

to the cauliculus (caw.) and the inner arising from the peduncle.

VOL, XV.—NoO, IV. ar

298 . The Brain of the Locust. [ April,

Fig. 8 a gives an idea of two calices and their mode of attachment

to the stalk. The peduncle (if we interpret that division of the stalk.

aright)-sub-divides, sending a thick bundle of fibers to each calyx,

ending abruptly in the hollow of the calyx. The substance of the

calices is finely granular, with some coarse granules, and appar-

ently short scattered irregular fibers. The structure of the calices

of the locust appears to be more homogeneous than that of the

cockroach, judging by our sections of the latter. Owing to differ-

ent treatment by reagents the dark masses described by Newton

as existing in the cockroach were not so clearly shown in my

sections (roo inch thick) as in those made by Mr. Newton. The

substance of the calices when examined under a power of 725.

diameters is much the same both in the cockroach and the locust,

the dark bodies not appearing in either. The form of the calices

is very different in the cockroach, the calices being truly cup-like,

the disk being deeply folded, and the edges of each cup being

thin compared with those of the locust.

The Optic Lobes—As seen in section 19 (PI. 11, Fig. 1 of. 4)

these bodies are larger than the antennal lobes, and consist of nu-

merous irregular small bundles of fibers besides those composing

the optic nerve, the interspaces being filled with fine granular

nerve substance. The optic nerve is much larger at the outer

edge of the lobe before passing into the optic ganglion, the fibers

still being immersed in the finely granular nervous substance.

The Optic Ganglion —This is situated at the back of the brain,

and is a large rounded mass of white fine granular nervous mat-

ter, enveloped in very numerous but small ganglion cells, which

stain dark red by carmine, the granular matter remaining un-

stained by the picrocarmine. The granular or white portion is

subdivided into three rudely lens-shaped masses (see Pl. v, Fig. 1)

the one nearest the eye being much the largest.

The Antennal or Olfactory Lobes.—Section 19. (Pl. u1., Fig. 1,

ant,l.). These are smaller than the optic lobes, though in section

19 they appear larger. They give rise to the antennal nerve, and

as the locust carries its ears at the base of the abdomen, the audi-

tory nérves entering the third thoracic ganglion, reasoning by

exclusion the antenne in Orthoptera must be organs of smell,

and the lobes and nerves to the antennz are consequently olfac-

tory. This is the opinion of some recent writers, notably Hauser.

' Physiologische und histiologische Untersuchungen tiber das Geruchsorgan der

Insekten. Siebold und Kélliker’s Zeitschrift fiir Wissen. Zoologie, Bd. 34, Heft. 3-

1881.] The Brain of the Locust. 299

The lobes are, as described by the other observers, filled with

ball-like yellowish masses, which stain dark by osmic acid, much

as in the commissural lobes. Nerve fibers are seen in section 19

to pass from one antennal lobe to the other in the rear of the cen-

tral body and of the trabeculae, while other nerve fibers are seen

to pass into the optic lobes and the commissural lobes. This

system. of intra-lobal nerves demonstrates that there is a nervous

intercommunication between these cerebral lobes and the gan-

glionic chain of the entire body.

The Commissural Lobes.—From these large bodies proceed the

two great longitudinal commissural nerves, forming the connect-

ing threads of the nervous cord, and which extend from the brain

to the last abdominal ganglion, passing through the intermediate

nerve centers. The lobes are filled with ball-like masses, of the

same general appearance as in the antennal lobes, but more dis-

tinct and numerous.

Comparison of the Brain of the Locust with that of other insects.

—Newton rightly regards the cockroach’s brain as a generalized

form of brain, which may serve as a standard of comparison.

The cockroach is geologically one of the oldest of insects; its

external and internal structure is on a generalized plan, and the

brain conforms to this order of things. Our knowledge of the

cockroach’s brain is derived from the photographs and account

of Flogel, and Newton’s excellent descriptions and figures, sup-

plemented by two sets of sections made for us by Mr. Mason, but

which unfortunately, are quite defective as regards the trabecule

and stalk of the mushroom body. The shape of the calices of

the cockroach, as already stated, is very different from that of

these bodies in the locust, and indeed from any other insect yet

examined, the cup being very deep and the sides thin; but the

intimate structure seems nearly the same in the two insects.

In the cockroach the antennal and commissural lobes are of

much looser texture, with large and numerous ball-like masses

(ballensubstanz); these are, when magnified 400 diameters, not

only larger, but more distinct from the rest of the nervous matter

of the lobe than in the locust. When magnified, as mentioned,

the ball-like masses appear to be simple masses of finely granular

nervous matter, with darker granules, mtich like the rest of the

granular portions of the brain, but with coarser granular masses

than in the substance of the optic lobes. These ball-like masses _

300 The Brain of the Locust. [April,

are surrounded by a lose net-work of anastomosing nerve fibers

continuous with those of the antennal nerve, and with scattered

nucleated cells, which become very numerous in the antennal

nerve. The nerve fibers are stained reddish by the picrocarmine,

Turning now to other orthopterous insects, Flogel mentions

Acrydium, but states that he had no serviceable preparations, and

after describing the brain of Forficula, the ear-wig, says: “ As I

observe in Acrydium, the cells and fibers in this animal are espe-

cially large, and these objects invite further investigation.”

Flogel’s photograph and description of the brain of Forficula, a

representative of an aberrant family of Orthoptera, and Dietl’s

beautiful figures and descriptions of the brain of the molecricket

(Gryllotalpa vulgaris) and the cricket (Acheta campestris), show

that the orthopterous brain, judging from these representative

forms, is constructed on a common type, the most variable part

being the calices of the mushroom body.

From these facts we should judge that, on the whole, the locusts

were as highly endowed intellectually as any other insects, with

the exception of the ants, bees, or wasps, 2. ¢. , the social species ;

for in these forms the insect brain reaches its highest development,

as we might expect from the wonderful instincts and power of

reasoning exhibited by these social species; while in a number

of insects the brain is less developed than in the locust. It would

thus appear that, as in the vertebrates, there are different grades

of brain-development, considerable extremes existing in the same

sub-class of insects, as for example, in the same sub-class of

mammals.

The brain of the bee and ant, as shown by Dujardin and

demonstrated by Dietl and Flégel, is constructed on a higher,

more complicated type than in the other winged insects, owing to

the much greater complexity of the folds of the calices or folded

disk-like bodies capping the double stalk of this organ.

[ To be concluded. |

1881.] | The Brain of the Locust. ‘ 301

LETTERING OF THE FIGURES ON PLATES I—V.

centr, b., central body.

trab,, trabecula.

cau., cauliculus

psg., posterior ee aae ganglion.

lat, n., eae

. centr. n., cen aie nerve

ped., peduncle, obl, tr. n., peerarte trabecular nerve.

0. cad., outer calyx, or cup. gy i ascending trabecular nerve.

z. cal., inner calyx.

op. 1, optic lobe.

op. n., optic ner

ant, fs antennal ‘viii

ant. n., antennal nerve.

m. n., two median cents nerves.

sup. n., Superior commissural nerve.

in,. n., inferior commissural nerve.

tr, tiaehided

up. d., upper cerebral lobe of embryo.

@. com. l., esophageal commissural lobe. | dow. /., lower age lobe of embryo.

@. com, n., cesophageal commissural | gang. c., ganglion cell

nerve, gran., granules of “a central nervous

@. ¢., esophageal commissural nerve, matter,

lor. ., nerve to labrum. @s., oesophagus.

4. g. ¢., large ganglion cells, zn¢,, integument.

$. g. ¢., small ganglion cells. o. ., ocellar nerve; oc., ocellus.

opt. gang., optic ganglion, 2. c., ventral nervous cord

Sg. ., sympathetic nerve. rE nucleolus.

4, m., transverse nerve , labrum.

u. intr. n., wpper Gaiondvats ches nerve. we ear

/, intr. n., lower intratrabecular nerve. = lab

dn., nerve to labium. eine

Jg., frontal ganglion.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Fic. 1.—Front view of the brain of Caloptenus femur-rubrum.

Fic, 2.—Side view of the sa

Fic. 3.—Side view of the fick: showing the relation of the brain to the mouth (m)

_ and cesophagus (@) and walls of the head

Fig. 4 —The brain as seen from above, and the three ocelli.

Fic. 5.—The subcesophageal ganglion seen from above. Drawn by E. Burgess.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE II.

Fic. 1.—Frontal section 16, through the front of the brain of adult Caloptenus spre-

sus; X% ¥% inch objective, A. eye-pi

Fic. 2. eines 17, showing the central es (centr. 6.) and mushroom body, optic

and antennal lobes, and commissural lobes; BA.

Fic. 3.—Enlarged view of the trabecula and its acces of the mushroom body, its

calices and stalk, and the origin of the optic nerves; X } A., 225 diameters.

Fic. 4.—Section 18, passing through the back of the central body, shewing the dou-

ble nature of the stalk of the mushroom body, and passing through the back of

the commissural lobes and behind the trabecula and the base of the stalk; X

4 A. Are oc, n. ? the origins of the ocellar nerves? :

Fic. 5.—Vertical (longitudinal) section through ore of the hemispheres, showing

the origin of the commissural and antennal nerves and the optic lobe

Fic, 6.—Longitudinal section through the brain and subcesophageal pepe: (X 50

diameters), showing the tw o portions of the calyx, the antennal lobe, and in the

subcesophageal ganglion the three lobes giving off respectively the mandibular,

maxillary, and labial nerves,

302 - Editors Table. [April,

Fic. . Tina a section through the optic ganglion and the eye; X 50 diam-

Fic. # mene gitudinal section through the brain, ae the calyx, antennal lobes,

and commissural lobes; 50 diameters.

Fic. 8 a.—Enlarged view of Fig. 8 (xX % B.), hea the relations ina longitu-

dinal section of the calyx to the stalk, although the direct connection of the

stalk with the calyx is not seen in this section.

DESCRIPTION OF PLATE III.

Fic. 1.—Section 19 (X 4 A), passing through the back of the brain, showing the

posterior edge of the calices and antennal lobes and cesophageal commissural

nerves and optic nerve. /¢r., small trachez.

Fic. 2.—Section 20, passing through the back of the brain, showing the relation of

the optic nerve to the optic ganglion and eye; the cornea, cones, rods and retina

of the eye are shown; %A. sup. n., superior, m. n., median, and inf.

inferior commissural nerves connecting the hemisphere

Fic, 3.—Enlarged view of upper part of the stalk and SS, and the ganglion cells.

surrounding and filling the latter; x 225 diameters. 3 a, 4, c,d, different

ganglion cells seen from different directions, 3 ¢ showing the large enc filled

with coarse uh eae but showing no nucleolus ; one, however, is seen in Fig.

3.5. mcl.; X 725 diameters.

Fic, 4.—Longitudinal section of the brain and subcesophageal ganglion, aiapten

50 diameters, showing the relations between the two, and of the origin of the ceso-

phageal commissure from the upper side of each ganglion, ¢. ¢., from the back

of the brain and the upper side of the sebiicesboiatia ganglion

Fic. 5.—Enlarged view (x % B) of the subcesophageal ganglion of Fig. G, FLX; show

ing the origin of the commissure to the first thoracic ganglion, and on the under

side the three lobes (mandibular, spent and labial), whence the nerves are

sent to the pager -appendages. mand. /., mandibular lobe; max. ¢., maxillary,

and max. /’,, 2d maxillary or Iabial lobe; com., commissure to siboieaphagedk

ganglion.

:0:

ENITORS* TABLE,

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

The day is probably not distant when government aid for

the protection of agriculturists against injurious plants and ani-

mals will be demanded as urgently as for geological, coast and

land surveys. Let us glance briefly at the reasons why such aid

becomes imperative. Until within three years no special atten-

tion had been given by Congress to these subjects; what little

had been done by the botanist and entomologist connected with

the Department of Agriculture being, from causes beyond their

control, too slight to be worthy of mention. What had been done

by the Government was much less than the efforts of several States,

notably New York, Missouri and Illinois; these States having

188 1.] Editors’ Table. 303

appropriated sums amounting from $15,000 to $30,000 for the -

investigation of injurious insects, with results of the greatest and

most obvious importance.

Until the formation in 1877 of the U. S. Entomological Com-

mission, not a dollar was ever appropriated by the General Gov-

ernment for the investigation by experts of injurious insects, nor

for the study of the rust, smut, mildew and other injurious fungi

by which millions of dollars are lost to agriculture. Abou

year after the establishment of the commission, Professor Riley,

the chief of the commission, was appointed Entomologist to the

‘ Department of Agriculture, and during the short time he held

the position, by his personal efforts obtained from Congress a

special appropriation of $5090 to place his Division upon a more

practical basis, and also another appropriation of $5000 for the

investigation ofthe cotton worm. The readiness with which these .

appropriations were granted, shows that Congress appreciates

capable effort in applied entomology. The first-mentioned appro-

priation has since been made annually to the Department, while

others have also been made for continuing the cotton worm inves-

tigation under the direction of the U. S. Entomological Com-

mission. These appropriations were the immediate result of the.

labors and example of this Commission and not of the Agricul-

tural Department itself.

men attracted the attention of Congress, and Professor Baird was

appointed a Commissioner to investigate the causes. The first

appropriation was $5000, we believe; the one last year ungrudg-

ingly voted by Congress was about $140,000 in the aggregate.

It is needless to state that the practical results of these investiga-

tions have been immediate and many-fold the amounts appro-

priated, and the benefits conferred on American biology enor-

mous. It should be said that the value of our fisheries by the

census of 1870 was only $11,096,522, though the estimate is only

approximative and imperfect,

Turning to our geological surveys ; within the last twenty-five

years sums aggregating several millions of dollars, in some years

Over $200,000 per annum, have been wisely appropriated by Con-

gress for the surveys of the public domain. Owing to the fostering

spirit shown by Government, American geology stands preem!-

nent, and ranks as high as in the governments of Europe; and

yet compared with the agricultural products of: the country, the

mineral products of the United States are inconsiderable. By the

census of 1870 the mineral products of this country amounted to

$152,598, 994. This amount is only approximative, as it was

304 Editors’ Table. | [April,

impossible to obtain exact returns. But it will be seen that for

the interests involved, the Government has been liberal in its

appropriations for géological investigations, and it will be the best

economy to be still more liberal than in the past.

How much has the General Government expended for our

national agriculture, whose products amounted, in 1870, to

$2,447,538,658, the returns being in the nature of things far

more reliable and exact than in the other departments enumerated?

We would answer emphatically that beyond laying out the agri-

cultural grounds and erecting the Department building at Wash-

ington, distributing seeds (the larger share of which were of the

commonest kinds of flowers and vegetables obtained at bargains

of seedsmen), the amounts voted by the Government in this direc-

tion have not, in the opinion of agricultural experts, or of others

well qualified to judge, been at all commensurate with what ought

or should have been voted. We do not deny that considerable

ood has been accomplished by the Agricultural Department,

common-sense agriculture.

We would ask if the time is not coming for a practical biologi-

cal survey of the United States commensurate with the immense

interests involved, and on a scale analogous to the geological and

coast surveys and the signal bureau? At least cannot a slight

beginning be made in this direction?

The average annual loss to the nation from the attacks of

injurious plants and insects and other animals, amounts a

moderate calculation to $300,000,000. A large proportion of this

loss or waste could, by human means, be saved and added to the

national capital. Within a period of four years a few of the

Western States suffered a-loss of $200,000,000, by the attacks of

the Rocky mountain locust. -The State of Illinois lost in one

year (1864) $73,000,000 by the chinch bug; the annual average

loss to the cotton crop is estimated at not less than $15,000

or $20,090,000. uch figures and estimates could be multiplied.

With a proper reorganization or enlargement of the Agricul-

tural Department, under the direction of a commissioner of intel-

ligence and scientific attainments, these scientific investigations

might be begun and carried on, or if this department is hopelessly

fated to go on as in the past, the work might be superintended

by the Smithsonian Institution, if not carried on under the Interior

Department. However this may be, there is urgent need of intel-

ligent extended botanical and entomological investigations. In

1881. | Recent Literature. 305

time, appropriations for such work would not be needed: the Gov-

€rn nent need only to foster such investigations, give them a start,

and when the work is well advanced, leave it to State and indi-

vidual action. We leave to another occasion the needs of an in-

vestigation of disease-germs, plant-fungi, in connection with rust,

smut and mildew, and of cattle diseases, and would say a word in

reference to applied entomology. This work cannot be done

by one or several entomologists confined the year around to the

Agricultural Department at Washington, where there are no

extensive ficld or garden crops and forests. There might be

uals for the diffusion of a genuine knowledge of insects, of

The Academy of Natural Sciences of this city, has filled

two more of the chairs, which it created four years ago, with

competent professors. The two courses of lectures, on inverte-

brate paleontology, and mineralogy and stratigraphic geology,

are an important acquisition to the educational facilities of the

city, and will also serve to strengthen the scientific back-bone

of the Academy. The institution is to be congratulated on

having made such an important advance, and in having given

Such merited recognition to Messrs. Heilprin and Lewis.

‘0:

RECENT LITERATURE.

Watrace's Istanp Lirr.t—After the publication of his work

a “The Geographical Distribution of Animals,” Mr.

allace devoted four years’ additional thought and research in

*T land Life or the Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and Floras, pigs

a non and attempted solution of the Problem of Geologic:! Climates.

FFRED Russet WALLACE. New York, Harper & Brothers, 1881. 8vo, pp. 522-

306 Recent Literature. [April,

the same direction, with the result before us, a book rather more

popular in its treatment of the general subject, and a little narrower

in scope in those chapters confined to a discussion of the causes

governing the peopling of the larger oceanic and continental

islands. The result is a most interesting work, and one which

will serve to maintain, if not greatly advance the general interest

felt by naturalists in the general and attractive subject of the

philosophy or explanation of the causes of the present geographi-

cal distribution of plants and animals.

The author attempts to explain the present distribution of life

by reference to a complex of causes grouped as biological and

physical. The biological causes are (1) the constant tendency of

organisms to. increase in numbers and to spread out, disperse and

migrate ; and (2) “those laws of evolution and extinction, which

determine the manner in which groups of organisms arise and

. grow, reach their maximum, and then dwindle away, often break-

ing up into separate portions which long survive in very remote

regions.” The physical causes are (1) “ geographical changes

which at one time isolate a whole fauna and flora, at another time

lead to their dispersal and intermixture with adjacent faunas and

floras ;” and (2) the changes of climate which have occurred in

writers on this subject.

Three chapters are devoted to the influence of the glacial epoch

1881.] Recent Literature. 307

on the climate of the globe,-and to the question of past glacial

epochs and their causes. Mr, Wallace while adopting generally

Mr. Croll’s views as to the causes of the glacial epoch, limits and

modifies his views by pointing out the very different effects on

climate of water in the liquid and solid state, and that without

high land there can be no permanent snow and ice. e con-

cludes that the “alternate phases of precession, causing the winter

of each hemisphere to be in aphelion and perihelion each 10,500

years, would produce a complete change of climate only where a

country was partially snow-clad; while, whenever a large area be-

came almost w/ol/y buried in snow and ice, as was certainly the

and adopts Sir William Thompson’s conclusion “ that the crust of

the earth cannot have been solidified much longer than 100,-

000, years ;” and Professor Haughton’s estimate that the time

to be required to produce the maximum thickness of the stratified

rocks of the globe (177,200 feet) at the present rate of denudation -

and deposition is only 28,000,000 years. Now these are only

Suesses, but yet are useful, as indicating the order of magnitude

of the time required. Mr, Wallace therefore claims that “ so far

as the time required for the formation of the known stratified

rocks, the hundred million years allowed by physicists is not only

ample, but will permit of even more than an equal perio anterior

to the lowest Cambrian rocks, as demanded by Mr. Darwin.”

“In the tenth edition of the Principles of Geology, Sir Charles

Lyell, taking the amount of change in the species of mollusca as

a guide, estimated the time elapsed since the commencement of

the Miocene as one-third that of the whole Tertiary epoch, and

the latter at one-fourth that of geological time since the Cambrian

Period. Professor Dana, on the other hand, estimates the Ter-

tary as only one-fifteenth of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic com-

308 Recent Literature. [April,

of denudation and deposition (twenty-eight million years) is nearly

midway between these, and it is, at all events, satisfactory that the

various measures result in figures of the same order of magnitude,

which is all one can expect in so difficult and exceedingly specu-

lative a subject.

“ The only value of such estimates is to define our notions of

Mr. Wallace not only discards some of the exaggerated hypothe-

ses of well-nigh limitless geological periods, but also the far-fetched

ideas of intercontinental bridges and temporary islands, which so

excellent a biologist as Professor Huxley is fond of invoking even

up to the present year, and of the hypothetical Lemuria of Haeckel,

and has fully adopted the well-grounded view of the permanence of

the present continents and ocean basins. To American geologists

Le .

the origin of the North American continent from the Laurentian

the European-Asiatic continent there may have been a slight

interchange of forms. Simultaneous with the growth of the

1381. ] Recent Literature. 309

American continent (considering North and South America for

our purpose as one) the Europeo-Asiatic, African and Australian

continents developed, with their characteristic assemblages of

plants and animals.

have been accustomed to teach for several years past, and

have briefly stated the doctrine in our “ Zodlogy”? that the differ-

flor not necessarily people America, but the flora n

found in Norther Arctic Europe probably originated

over both Europe and Amer The American opossum

were not necessarily travelers from Australia by way of Eu-

rope, but more probably originated from the Mesozoic lands of

North America. The American continent had its own marsu-

pials, its own tapirs, its own Felidae, Canidae, horses, camels

and monkeys, which independently evolved on American soil,

course, when we come to the glacial period, when the continents

of America and Asia approached each other, there were possibly

interchanges of species, and extensive migrations from north to

South, with wide-spread extinctions, which renders the distribution

1879.

odlogy for High Schools and Colleges. By A. S. Packard, Jr. New York,

: y then be

sions, | First, a tropical, temperate, and arctic or circumpolar fauna or realm; and,

‘ appears, then, that each continent has had from the first its distinct <a

ment 4 thus opposing continents, such as South America and Africa, have funda-

Ibid Paani faunze, because they have had a separate geological history.

» p. 4.

310 Recent Literature. [ April,

of life in the northern hemisphere in the Quaternary so waite

from that of the Tertiary.

The only European naturalist, so far as we are aware, who has in-

sisted on the independent origin of the different continental floras

and faunas is Professor Carl. Vogt, in a recent article published

in Westermann’s Monatshefte, where he vigorously discusses the

different types have arisen from a single individual, are in the

wrong; that different continents may have simultaneously pro-

duced representatives or similar species; and that we should not

accept a single center of creation for all faunas.

Naturalists are again indebted to Mr. Wallace for an original

work in a field which he has gleaned so successfully, bringing

back to the storehouse of science a sheaf of genuine facts abound-

wo with ripe inductions and containing but little cha

NT ne AND PAMPHLETS.—I Diaspri della Toscana e I Loro Fossili. Me-

moria a aed Dot = Baie Pantastell ee —— dei Lincei, 1879-80.) 40,

ee sg I piste. Rome, 1880. From the aut

i Strati a Congerie e le Marne ee atte ‘Miocenice ee Dintorni di Ancona.

(mate Accad. dei Lincei, 1878-79.) pp. 26, 3 plates. Rom 1879.

Balenottera Fossile delle oo presso Tana ( Reale Accad. dei Lincei,

1878-79.) pp. 8. Rome, 1

Breccia by Paes della ape di Santa Teresa nel lato orientale del Golfo di

— f. G. Capellini. 4to, pp. 26, 3 plates. Bologna, 1879. From the

See on oe oe ra ee Joseph tae M.D. (Ext. from Journ.

Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phila. Il.) 4to, pp 1881.

Parasites fe the *erinitae es. on vin ie Tet M. D. (From Journ. Acad. Nat.

Sci., Vol viIl.) pp. 25, 2 plates. 188r. m the author.

De escripcion de la Ciudad fon "Candalaara por Mariano Barcena. 8vo, pp. 123+

Mexico, 1880. From the a

Naturforskeren Peter wiaaie Lund. Af J. Reinhardt. 8vo, pp. 64, Copen-

hagen, 1880. From the author.

Revisio Piscium Cubensium por Don Felipe Baer. (Anal. de la Soc. Esp. de

Hist. fines -» Tomo IX, 1880.) 8vo, pp. 19, 5 p =e From the author

Is ee or, The Ori rs ~ — y Wm. Denton. a pp: 193-

Wellesley. Mass., 1881. From thea

New and little Race Reptiles and ec in the Museum Collections. Ps Sam~

uel Garman. (From Bull. Museum Comp. Zool., Vol. vii, No. 3.) pp. 8 1881.

From Alexander Aehiets

Bulletin of the United States Geological and Geographical Survey of the Territo-

ries, Vol. v1, No. 1. 8vo 02. Washington, Feb. 26th, 1881. From the Survey.

A partial ienick of the bree Liked. By Sarah P. Monks. (From the Am.

Nat., Feb., 1881.) Age the authoress,

-Archzeopteryx Kragpiet an intermediate form between Birds and Reptiles. By

Carl bi pp- 22,1 pl. From the translator.

Geologic fase, of Canada. Report of Progress for 1878-1879. By A. R. C.

Selwyn, director. pp. 380, plates and maps. Montreal, 1880, From the director.

Corals and Bryozoa of the Neozoic Period in New Zealand, By J. E, Tenison~

Wood. (From Pilanntahas of New PR Pt. Iv.) pp. XVI, 34, 4 plates. Wel-

lington, 1880. From the author

On a Post-tertiary Fauna fr ie Stream-tin deposits of Blitong en ie?

Dr. K. Martin. (From “Notes from the Leyden Museum, Vol. 111.) 8vo, pp- %

Noy. 1880, From the author,

1881. ] Botany. 31

Methods = judging of the Wholesomeness of Drinking Water. eh Reuben

Haines. (From Journ. Franklin Inst., Feb., 1881. pp. 17. From the author.

eda of the Ags es oa Society oe Habe Science, from Oct. I, 1879,

to July 1, 1880. 4to, pp. 2 Fro

Description of two new species gt Saas et resi! a ringens and Mycto-

phum crenulare, from Santa Barbara channel, Californ p. 8.—

a of seven new species of Sebastoid pine ue the Coast of Califor-

nia. pp.

Description of a new Seopa O acarse: aurora) from Monterey, ssaae aa

with notes on a related sp

otis tis of a new aia (Platysomutichitiys stomias) from the coast oF Cal-

ifornia, pp. 2.—

a? Deicr shan of a new species of Paralepis (Paralepis coruscans), from the Straits of

Juan de Pa pp: 3.

ia. pp. 5-

United States Nat. Mus. S e860.) From the author peut

Note on a new Flat-fish ral fe soni islepis) Perce in the markets of San Fran-

cisco, By W. N Lense, (From S. Nat. Mus., 1880.) 1 page. From

the author f

Not aie tten paper of Dr, Ayres and its hearing on the pee eae ce)

the Cyprinoid Fishes of the San Francisco markets, By D. S. Jordan. pp. 2. From

the

peel ion oe a new et of Icterus from the West Indies. Sic Geo. N, Law-

rence. fac Prot. U.S - Mus., 1880.) pp. 1. From bait

Report on the Marine ears fe of oe England and a se aie bg os 0

Harger. prvi the Rep. U. S. Com. of Fish and aneies ns 1878.) pp. 62, pla

Etude des Mammiféres Fossiles de Saint-Gérand le Puy (Allier). Par M. H, Fil-

hol. Pt. 1, 1879, Pt. 11, 1880, From the author

Observations sur le Genie Proailurus, Par M. H. Filhol. 4to, pp. 46, plates 5.

From the author,

Pueblo repo By F. W. Putnam, (From Amer. Art Review, Feb., 1881.) 4to,

Pp- 4, I plate. From the author

eS 4 the preparatory stages of Papilio lgeaes 4 ape By W. H. Ed-

wards. (Ext. Can. Ent. , Jan., 1881.) pp. 9-14. From the a

Proc ee of the Poupitceate Society of Natural Ses. from Oct. 1, 1879,

to July 1. 1880, pp- I-21. From the society.

re der Schweizerischen Entomologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. vi, heft

nro chaffhausen, 1880.

als nascs to the Anatomy of the milk-weed Butterfly, Danais archippus er: ):

By Edward Burgess (From the Anniversary Me moirs of the Boston Society of Na

ural History, Boston, 1880.) 4to, pp. 16, pl. 1, 11. From the author.

_First Annual Report of the Board of State Vitcattral Commissioners ise si

nia). Containing the First Report of the Committee on the Phylloxera, Vine

and the Diseases of the Vine. With p a “A. t to J. pp. 1-82. San Fran-

cisco, 1881, ;

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

A Resouces SYSTEM OF eer one OF THE REPRODUCTIVE

Orcas or THE THALLPonYTA—At the Swansea meeting of ct and 2

British Association in August, 1880, Professor a; 2 ve nett a oo.

* Edited by Pror. C. E, ‘Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

S12 General Notes. ; [ April,

George Murray, presented a paper bearing the title given above.

The following summary is furnished to the NAruRALIsT, by the

authors of the paper:

ductive cells which are produced without any previous act of im-

are pointed out, and it is proposed to restore the term spore to

what has been in the main hitherto its ordinary signification, viz.:

any cell produced by ordinary processes of vegetation and not by a

union of sexual elements, which becomes detached for the purpose

of direct vegetative reproduction, The spore may be the result

of ordinary cell-division or of free cell formation. In certain

cases (zoospores) its first stage is that of a naked mass of pro-

toplasm ; in rare instances it is multicellular, breaking up into a

number of cells (polyspores, composed of merispores, or breaking

up into sporidia). Throughout thallophytes the term is used in

the form of one of numerous compounds expressive of the special

character of the organ in the class in question. Thus, in the

Protophyta and Mucorini we have chlamydospores; in the

Myxomycetes, sporangiospores; in the Peronosporez, conidio-

spores; in the Saprolegniee, Odphycez, and some Zygophycee,

zoospores ; in the Uredinez, teleutospores, zcidiospores, uredo-

spores, and sporidia ; in the Basidiomycetes, basidiospores ; in the

Ascomycetes (including Lichenes), conidiospores, stylospores, as-

cospores, polyspores, and merispores; in the Hydrodictyea, mega-

spores; in the Desmidice, auxospores; in the Volvocinez and

Mesocarpee, parthenospores; in the Siphonez and Botrydice,

hypnospores ; in the CEdogoniacez, androspores; in the Floridee,

tetraspores and octospores. The cell in which the spores are

formed is in all cases a sporangium

In the terminology of the male fecundating organs very little

change is necessary. The cell or more complicated structure in

which the male element is formed is uniformly termed an anther-

idium, the ciliated fecundating bodies, antherzoids (in preference

to “‘spermatozoids.”) In the Florideze and Lichenes, the fecunda-

ting bodies are destitute of vibratile cilia; in the former case they

are still usually termed “ antherozoids,” in the latter “ spermatia,”

and their receptacles ‘‘spermogonia.” In order to mark the dif-

ference in structure from true antherozoids, it is proposed to

designate these motionless bod:es in both cases pollinoids; the

erm “spermogonium” is altogether unnecessary, the organ

being a true antheridium.

A satisfactory terminology of the female reproductive organs

presents greater difficulties. The limits placed to the use of the

term spore and its compounds require the abandonment of

“odspore ” for the fertilized odsphere in its encysted stage anterior

1881.] Botany. 313

searches. For the unfertilized female protoplasmic mass, it is

proposed to retain the term odsphere, and to-establish from it a

corresponding series of terms. ending in sphere. The entire

female organ before fertilization, whether unicellular or multicellu-

lar, is designated by a set of terms ending in gonium,

nthe Zygomycetes and Zygophycez, the conjugated zygos-

pheres, or contents of the zygogonia, constitute a zygosperm; in

the Oomycetes and Oophycez the fertilized odsphere, or contents

of the odgonium, is an oosperm; in the Carpophycee the fertilized

perm. In this last class the process is complicated, being effected

result of impregnation is the production of a mass of tissue known

as the cystocarp (or “ sporocarp’’), within which are produced the

1S proposed to substitute the term Jructification for “ receptacle”

Modes of Fertilization in Cryptogams.

ZYGOSPERME®, Zygogonia, containing Zygospheres, rroducing after fertilization

osperm,

_ Male Organ. Female Organ.

OosPERMER, Antheridium, containing An- | Oogonium, containing Oosphere,

therozoids or Pollinoids. producing after fertilization an

Car an perm. ae

POSPERME, Antheridium, containing An- Carpogonium, containing Carpo

therozoids or Pollinoids. sphere, producing after fertili-

Cor ae zation a Carposperm.

ies ils Antheridium, containing An- — Archegonium, containing Arche-

. therozoids, sphere, producing after fertili-

zation an Archesperm.

Reproductive Organs of Thallophytes.

: Non-sexual,

Chlamydospore.

Sporangium.

PRotopuyra,

VOL, XV.—wo, ry, on

314 General Notes, [ April,

Female. Non-sexual,

MYXOMYCETES. Zoéspore.

Sporangiospore.

MUCORINI, Zygogonium. Chlamydospore.

Zygosphere. Sporangiospore.

Zygosperm,

PERONOSPORE. [ Odgonium. Sporangit

} Odsphere. Conidios spore.

) Odsperm. Zoéspor ,

SAPROLEGNIEA. { Zoéspore.

UREDINEA. ( Teleutospore.

"Sena

Carpogonium, Uredospore.

Carposphere. Sporidium.

Carposperin,

USTILAGINER. + Teleutospore,

Sporidium.

BASIDIOMYCETES. iene

Sterigm

Basidim.

ASCOMYCETES, “Tichoeeulacs, ra a he

including LICHENES Stylosp

nicest

Polyspor'

vias

ZYGOPHYCEA, Zygogonium, éspore

Zygosphere. cance (Hydrodictyex).

Zodzy gosphere. Auxospore (Diatomacez).

Zygosperm, Sr aos is, Sage Botrydiew.

Hypnosperm Hypnospore

(Hydrodictyex,’ farhumecgabs (Mesocarpe).

(one cex),

OoPHYCE. Odgon Zoésp

Odxphere. Pa ihensephie (Volvocinex).

sperm Androspore (Cédogoniacez).

4 Conceptacle, Hypnospore (Siphonez).

: Hypsvepens

CARPOPHYCE&, eect Zodsporangium.

Carposphere, Tetraspore.

Carposperm. Octospore.

Trichogonium, Carpospore,

cage

Cystoc

Curtiss’ “ NortH American Piants.”—As is well known to

many readers of the Naruratist, Mr, A. H. Curtiss, of Jackson-

ville, Florida, has for several years been engaged in issuing an-

nual fascicles of the more interesting North American plants, par- :

ticularly of the southern species. Fascicle No. 1v has just ap-

served specimens. In turning over the numbers meek is scarcely

an inferior specimen to be found, and not one poor

e species are distributed quite evenly dacuus the pha-

nerogamia, and: there are, besides, a few vascular cryptogams.

1881. ] . Botany. 315

Many of the species are peculiar to South Florida, and will be

valuable acquisitions to many herbaria. Quite a number of

Texan species are represented by specimens collected by Mr. J.

Reverchon. Among the species which will be interesting to

many northern botanists may be mentioned Vitis sicyoides Benth.

and Hook., a curious member of the Cissus sub-genus, and not at

all grape-like in appearance; Acer saccharinum Wang. var Flori-

danum Chap., with its petite leaves and fruits ; Strumpfia maritima

acq., which has twigs and foliage with a decidedly coniferous

look; Garberia fruticosa Gray; JZimusops Stebert A. DC.; Fac-

guinia armillaris Jacq.; Thrinax Garberi Chap.; Monanthochloé

ittoralis En g.

Tue Function oF LIcHEN Gonrpta.—George Murray, in the

Fournal of the Linnean Society, for October, attempts to apply the

results of Pringsheim’s recent researches on chlorophyll to the

life of the lichen. The new view as to the function of chlorophyll

the autonomous lichen, and to support the well-known views of

Schwendener.”

‘Ge > i

Phacidiaceze II; renomycetes 35; Hymenomycetes JI; am

2 y *

of imperfect forms (probably of some Ascomycetes) IT. bes a

316 General Notes. [April,

specimens are in generous quantity for each species, and in most

cases are put up loosely in envelopes pasted to the pages, thus

making them doubly valuable for microscopical study.

Pinus BANKSIANA LAMB., ON THE SEA Coast oF MAINE —Mr. C. -

G. Atkins, of Bucksport, Me., reports finding trees of this species

in Orland, Hancock county, Me., and also in Washington county,

near Harrington. The same tree was reported to him as growing

on Cape Rosier, Schoodic point, and Beal’s island. This pine has

hitherto been catalogued as confined to “the northern borders”

of Maine.

In this connection it may be well to point out that Professor

Babcock in his “Flora of Chicago and Vicinity” (Zhe Lens,

1872), records this species as being “abundant for several miles

along the L. S. & M.S. R.R.,” near the city; a locality not noted

in our books and catalogues.

- Bentuam’s New C1iassiFicATION OF THE Orcuips.—At the

meeting of the Linnean Society, Jan. 20, 1881, Bentham presented

an important paper embodying the results of his detailed exami-

nation of all the genera proposed or established. He re-arranges

them under five tribes and twenty-seven sub-tribes, as follows:

Tribe 1. EPIDENDREA, Tribe 11. VANDEZ.

Sub-tribe 1. Pleurothallez. Sub-tribe 1. Eulophiez.

Ug 2. Microstylez. ba, 2. Cymbidiex.

Gs 3. Lipariez. “s 3. Cyrtopodiex.

ne 4. Dendrobiezx. - 4. Stanhopiez.

“ 5. Eriex. . zs 5. Maxillariez

is 6. Bletiez. bc 6. Oncidiez

‘ “ 7. Coelogynez. se 7. Sarcanthez,

on 8. Stenoglossez.. es 8. Notyilez.

es 9. Leliex.

Tribe 11. NEOTTIEA. Tribe Iv. OPHRYPEA.

Sub tribe 1, Vanillez. Sub-tribe 1. Serapiadez.

- 2. Corymbiez “ 2. Habenariex.

ge) 3. Spiranthee. , 66 3. Disez.

a” 4. Diuridez. 6 4. Coryciez.

* 5. Arethuseze. -

ves 6. Limodorez.,

Tribe v. CyPRIPEDIEZ.

BoranicaL News.—Mr. D. L. James has published in the

Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History (January,

1881), a valuable paper entitled “ Notices of the Floras of Cin-

cinnati, published from 1815 to 1879,” in which he enumerates

and comments upon the published lists, four in number. r.

Killebrew, the Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of Ten-

nessee, has recently issued from his office a pamphlet of 164

pages on “ Meadows and Pastures.” The general treatment of

the subject is much like that followed in Flint’s “ Grasses an

Forage Plants,” but it is much simplified so as to be more easily

read by those who are not botanists. It is a valuable little work,

and although not written for botanists, will prove interesting to

a88i] Botany. 317

them also. Dr. Vines:in the January Fournal of Botany pub-

lishes a “‘ History of the Scorpioid Cyme.’ The term has been:

used in two senses, resulting in considerable confusion; in the

one sense it is made to include the helicoid cyme, while. in the

other the scorpioid and helicoid cymes are distinct. The latter

which appears to be the best usage is, in the books used in this

country, followed in Gray’s Botanical Text Book, #th edition ;

Bessey’s Botany for High Schools and Colleges; Prantl’s Text

Book of Botany; McNab’s Botany and Sach’s Text Book of

Botany. The erroneous usage is followed in Wood's Class Book

of Botany; Wood's Botanist and Florist ; Thome’s Structural

and Physiological Botany ; Youman’s Second Book of Botany ;

and the old edition of Gray’s Botanical Text Book. In Dr

Vines’ paper by an: unfortunate printer’s blunder, Figs. 1 and 2

are transposed.——An important work on the Morphology of the

Floridez by Agardh, has recently been published in Leipsic.

Dr. Kuntze has been studying the “Gulf Weed” (Sargassum bac-

cYferum ), and finds that there are several species, instead of but one,

as has commonly been supposed. His results are given in his

recently published treatise, Revision von Sargassum und das so-

of Indiana m

Professor Hilgard upon the grounds of the University of California

it seems evident,” to quote the words of the report, “that there

the three more hardy kinds of Cinchona (C. succirubra, C. offi-

fectly hardy” upon the University grounds. “The Plants of |

the Summit of Mt. Marcy® is the title of an interesting pamphlet

by C. H. Peck, the State Botanist of New York, reprinted from

the Seventh Report of the Adirondack Survey. Upon the open

Summit 137 species were found, distributed as follows; alge, 1;

fungi, 7; lichens, 31; hepaticae, 10; mosses, 32; lycopods, 3;

Symnosperms, 3; angiosperms, 50.——Thomas Meehan has re-

cently reprinted in the Gardener's Monthly, and in pamphlet

form, his paper on the Objects of Sex, and of Odor in Flowers,

read before the A. A. A. S. at Saratoga, 1879]. G. Baker's

ynopsis of the Aloinea and Yuccoidez,” fills ninety-three

pages of the October and December numbers of the Yournal off

the Linnean Society. It contains full descriptions of all the spe- :

318 General Notes. [ April,

cies. Dr. E. L. Sturtevant of South Framingham, Mass., has

undertaken an investigation involving the ratios between the

weight of fruits and their contained seeds; the number of per-

fect, shriveled and abortive seeds, etc. He has printed blanks

which he asks observers in different parts of the country to fill

and forward to him. Uhlworm's Botantsches Centralblatt for

1881, fullfMsustains its high character. The promptness of its

notices of botanical publications and papers is a source of wonder

as well as of profit to its readers. Botanists will be glad to

learn that Centuries v and vi, of Ravenel’s “ Fungi Americani”

are now nearly ready for distribution.

ZOOLOGY.

VALUE OF THE House WrEN AS AN Insect DestTRoveR.—Or-

nithologists and entomologists are always most properly and

sensibly urging upon people the duty and necessity of protecting

the birds. In fact, when any destructive insect appears in over-

whelming numbers, the good offices of our feathered friends would

seem to be almost our sole dependence for protection from their

ravages. And yet our laws and usages are singularly defective,

regarded simply from a selfish point of view—leaving humanity

entirely out of the question. But the matter is constantly forcing

itself upon public attention, and gradually we shall make laws

which ought to have been upon our statute books from the

foundation of the Government, In the meantime let us all, who

have this subject at heart, keep on ‘‘ preaching” until this glorious

end is achieved. The observations I have been able to make

during a residence of several years on a farm have convinced me

that the common house wren is really one of our most valuable

birds, not, perhaps, for what they have done, but from the posst-

bilities wrapped up in their diminutive bodies. ‘They are quite as

social as the purple martin or the bluebird, and greatly surpass

both of these in the rapidity with which they increase. I began

several years ago to provide them with nesting-places in the vicin-

ity of my buildings. Sometimes I fastened the skull of a horse

or ox, or a small box, in a tree-top. But latterly I have made it

a practice every spring to obtain thitty or forty cigar boxes for

this purpose. If the box is long and large, I put a partition across

the middle and make a hole through into each apartment. It it

very seldom that these boxes are not occupied by one of these

little families. In most instances two broods are annually reared

in each nesting-place. ne of my boxes last season turned out

single day! Like all young, rapidly growing birds, they are

‘known to be most voracious eaters, living entirely upon insects.

1881.] : Zoilogy. 319

The point upon which most stress may be laid is this: That by

providing them with nesting-places in our gardens, orchards or

grounds, and not allowing them to be caught by cats or scared

away by mischievous boys, we may have scores if not hundreds

of them about us during most of the time in which insects are

destructive. They undoubtedly return to the same localities to

rear their young year after year. Last season I had up about

thirty of these nesting-boxes, and all but two or three, which were

not favorably located, were occupied. My crop of wrens could

scarcely have been less than one hundred and fifty, and the old

birds ‘filled the air with music when they were not on duty in

building their nests or feeding their young! The coming spring

I intend to put up at least a hundred of these nesting-boxes ia

my orchards and groves, and I have no doubt I shall be repaid

a hundred thousand fold for the little labor it costs. As long as

“they come back so regularly every year and in constantly increas-

ing numbers, and serve me so well, I shall do all in my power to

protect and encourage them. And I am of the opinion that when

One species of social, useful birds can be made to congregate in

such unusual numbers, others will come also. But the hardiness,

sociability, love of the locality where it was reared, and wonder-

ful fecundity of the little house wren, render it, in my judgment,

one of the most valuable of all our insectivorous birds.—Charles

Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, 1881.

Our Soctar Biue-Jays.—None of our winter birds are so social

as the blue-jays. We see them every day during our long, cold

winters. Our barnyards are their favorite resorts, where they

walk about very familiarly among the poultry and domestic ani-

ni atte my jay had made the best possible provision to protect

better than any others that remain with us all the year round.

Soon after sunrise on any of these cold, clear mornings, they can

be heard merrily chirping in the neighboring groves and thickets.

—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, Fan. 7, 1881. :

ZooLocicat Norrs.—M. Jules MacLeod has contributed a brief

Paper to the Royal Academy of Belgium on the ré/e of insects in

the pollinization of heterostyle flowers (Primula elatior). Mr.

S. H, Scudder continues in the Library Bulletin of Harvard Uni-

versity, No. 17, his bibliography of fossil insects, beginning with

A. G. Butler and ending with d'Eichwald. A structural feature

pty 0 unknown among Echinodermata, found in deep-sea

Jphiurans, is pointed out by Mr. T. Lyman in an essay under this

utle in the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural |

320 General Notes. [ April,

History. The feature in question consists of branches of minute

spines of different forms, some resembling long-stemmmed agarics

or parasols with small shades. The question whether these novel

shapes are spines or pedicellariz or not, is not regarded by Mr.

yman as a very important one, ‘since the pedicellaria is only a

spine peculiarly modified. But it may be said that their supple-

mentary character and abnormal shape’give these parasol spines

the position of what used to be carefully distinguished as pedicel-

lari.” Mr. Lyman has also distributed a preliminary list of the

known genera and species of living Ophiuride and Astrophytide,

with their localities, and the depths at which they have’ been

found; and references to the principal synonyms and authorities,

Cambridge, December, 1880. The heart of the Stomapod

Crustacea is said by Claus in Zvologischer Anzeiger to consist of an

anterior heart-like wider section, and of an elongated many-

chambered dorsal vessel, the anterior part corresponding with the

Decapod heart and situated in the region of the maxilla and

maxillipedes. The dorsal vessel has twelve pairs of venous

nerve extends along the dorsal side of the dorsal vessel, forming

a large ganglion ce!l on each chamber. In the same journal

for November 29, Dr. Krancher writes on the structure of the

stigmata of insects. He distinguishes five types; of simple stig-

mata without lips, two forms, the simplest (1) representing a hole

surrounded by a chitinous ring, and (2) where the stigma con-

sists of a row of single stigmata surrounde a common

chitinous ring, and whose tube-like continuations form the

trachea. Of stigmata with lips, the lips (3) are represented by a—

it until it dies of weakness, but presumably leaving, like the

ichneumons that prey upon caterpillars, the vital parts untouched

until the last. The hag is fitted for its work by its suctorial

mouth, which is terminal, soft, not provided with jaws, and form-

ing a round opening when in use, as well as by two teeth on each

1881.] : _ «Loblogy. 321

side of the gullet. The mouth is surrounded by barbels, and in

preserved examples is scarcely visible. The fishermen of Mon-

terey declare that one of these parasitic fishes will devour a fisa

of six or eight pounds weight in a single night. It is especially

destructive to fish taken in gill-nets. When the hulk is taken out

of the net, the hag scrambles out with great alacrity. It reaches

a length of fourteen inches, and is not used for food at Monterey.

Prof. Verrill has described in the Proceedings of the National

Museum, a large number of new mollusks, echinoderms, annelids,

etc., many of which were obtained last summer in the remarkably

successful dredging explorations of the U. S. Fish Commission

about one hundred miles south of Newport, R. I. upon the slope

of the continent where it plunges under the Gulf Stream. Among _

the most interesting discoveries were nearly fresh shells of Ar-

§-nauta argo, which indicate that this shell must often be com-

mon near our coast. Quantities of a large, handsome but very

fragile cup-coral ( Alabellum gocdei Verr.) occurred. While many

of the species of every class obtained are Arctic or belong to the

cold waters found at similar or greater depths on the coasts of

Europe and in the Mediterranean, a few genera, like Avicula,

Solarium and Marginella are related to southern or West Indian

forms. Though the very large collections of specimens obtained

on these three trips of the /ish-hawk have, as yet, been only par-

tially examined, enough has already been done to prove this

region to be altogether the richest and most’ remarkable dredging

ground ever discovered on our coast. As we have before

remarked, the scientific results of the work of the U. S. Fish

-ommission are of the highest value; were it not for Government

aid in this direction, to say nothing of the practical value of such

researches, as showing where and on what kind of food our edi-

ble sea fishes live in winter, we could never, by private enterprise,

have arrived at the knowledge of our marine fauna which we now

Possess, nor have got at many facts in distribution which bear

on geological and palzontological ‘problems. The Bulletin of

the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Vol. vit, No. 1, contains

a preliminary study of the Crustacea dredged in the Gulf of Mexivo

by the U.S. coast survey steamer Blake in 1877,’78 and ’79, by M.

Alphonse Milne-Edwards ; Mr. Alexander Agassiz being the nat-

uralist of the expedition.——Although one of the toughest of mol-

lusks, it appears, on the authority of Mr. A. W. Roberts in the

Scientific American, that the winkle ( Sycotypus canaticulatus ) may

added to our list of edible mollusks, from the fact that a col- _

T., of colored people back of Keyport, N. J., known as “ Winkle —

wn,” live largely on these shell-fish.

322 General Notes, [ April,

ENTOMOLOGY. !

THE FRENCH STILL LOOKING TOWARD AMERICAN VINES.—The

latest London papers bring information concerning the French

Superior Commission on the Phylloxera, which lately held its

final sitting under the presidency of the Minister of Agriculture

and Commerce. The introduction of American stocks into the

department of the Gironde was authorized. The commission

then decided that no one had gained the £12,0c0 prize for an

efficient remedy. The remedies approved by the commission

continue to be, as before, submersion, sulphur of carbon and sul-

phocarbonate of potassium. They recommend further the con-

tinuance of State aid to those departments which are attempting

the reconstitution of their vineyards by the aid of American

descriptions. In certain departments this attempt has hitherto

roved very successful. The nursery established at Saintes

(Charente Inferieur) distributed last year 7000 roots and this year

30,000, and further anticipated providing double if not triple the

last number next year, with the promised aid of Government.—

Pa:ific Rural Press.

LEGISLATION TO CONTROL INSECTS INJURIOUS TO VEGETATION.—

Professor C. H. Dwinelle, of the University of California, has

been appointed by the California State Horticultural Society as a

member of a committee to consider what legislation is desirable

to check the spreading of noxious insects, and force land-owners

to destroy them when practicable.

The committee has in mind a commission with power to inves-

tigate and abate nuisances in the way of neglected breeding

grounds of insect pests, codling moth, scale insects, etc. They

have full power to rigidly enforce these laws and regulations,

which, on the whole, do a great deal of good. The whole popu-

lation of a district which is invaded by an insect enemy is, in cas¢

of emergency, at the command of the authorities, and what can

1 This department is edited by Pror. C. V. RrLey, Washington, D. C., to whom

communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent.

1881.] Entomology. 323

V. R. in Farmers’ Review.

ON soME INTERACTIONS OF ORGANISMS.—We have received an

advance copy ofa brochure with this title by Professor S. A. Forbes,

extracted from Bulletin No. 3 of the Illinois State Laboratory of

Natural History. It contains some thoughts and generalizations

that have grown out of that writer’s studies on the food of birds,

insects and fishes, and the interrelation and interdependence of

these animals. Professor Forbes finds that it is extremely unlikely

is is a conclusion which

mies which shall best promote this common interest; therefore,

324 General Notes. [ April,

_ abling them to escape scarcity in one region which might other-

wise decimate them, by simply passing to a more favorable region

where they can find food. It does not follow, however, from

these facts that the indefinite multiplication of either birds or

insects is beneficial, since there is a limit beyond which such mul-

tiplication becomes harmful.

We recommend and heartily endorse the following concluding

passages from the paper

“We are therefore sure that the destruction of any species of

insectivorous bird or predaceous insect is a thing to be done, if

at all, only after the fullest acquaintance with the facts. The

natural presumptions are nearly all in their favor. It is also cer-

tain that the species best worth preserving are the mixed feeders

and not those of narrowly restricted dietary (parasites, for instance)

—that while the destruction of the latter would cause injurious

oscillations in the species affected by them, they afford a very un-

certain safeguard against the vise of such oscillations. In fact,

their undue increase would be finally as dangerous as their dimi-

nution. lt Sg

“ When we compare the results of the primitive natural order

with the interests of man, we see that, with much coincidence,

there is also considerable conflict. While the natural order is

directed to the mere maintenance of the species, the necessities of

man usually require much more. They require that the plant

or animal should be urged to excessive and superfluous growth and

increase, and that all the surplus, variously and widely distributed

in nature, should now be appropriated to the supply of human

wants. From the consequent human interferences with the estab-

lished system of things, numerous disturbances arise, many ©

them full of danger, others fruitful of positive evil. Oscillations of

species appear, not less injurious to man than to the plants and

animals more directly involved. Indeed, most of the serious 10-

sect injuries, for example, are due to species whose injurious oscil-

lations have resulted from changes of the organic balance initiated

by man. |

“To avoid or mitigate the evils likely to arise, and to adapt

the life of his region more exactly to his purposes, man ‘must

study the natural order as a whole, and must understand the dis-

turbances to which it has been subject. Especially, he must know

the forces which tend to the reduction of these disturbances, and

those which tend to perpetuate or aggravate them, in order that

he may reinforce the first, and weaken or divest the second. _

“The main lesson of conduct taught us by these facts an¢

reasonings, is that of conservative action and exhaustive inquiry-

Reasoning unwarranted by facts, not correctly and sufficiently

reasoned out, are equally worthless and dangerous for practical

use.”

Baron de. Chaudoir, of Russia, R. H. McLachlan, of England,

and Baron C. R. Osten Sacken, formerly Russian Consul General

1881.] Entomology. 325

to this country, have been elected honorary members of the Bel-

gian Entomological Society to fill the vacancies caused by the

deaths of Boisduval, Mulsant and Snellen van Vollenhoven.

Insect Locomotion.—M. G. Carlet, of France, has been study-

ing the locomotion ofi tsand hnids, and réportsas the result

of his observations that the walking of insects may be represented

by that of three men in Indian file, the foremost and hindmost of

whom keep step with each other, while the middle one walks in

the alternate step. The walking of arachnids is represented by four

men in file, the even-numbered ones walking in one step, while

the odd-numbered ones walk in the alternate step.

PLANT-FEEDING Hapits oF PREDACEOUS BEETLES.—In a recent

letter Mr. V. T. Chambers suggests that when Harpalus has

1See Curtis’ “ F,

arm Insects,” p. 388.

2 Am. Ent., Ill, p. 26. es

326 General Netes. [ April,

matter of some sort. In fact about one-half the food of these

twenty-eight specimens consisted of vegetation, one-third of it

being derived from Cryptogamia and the rest from grasses and

Composite.

Still more startling, however, are the results of his examinations

of different Coccinellidee or ladybirds., Coccinella novem-notata,

Brachyacantha ursina, Hippodamia convergens and Megiila macu-

/ata were all found to be extremely fond of the spores of fungi

and some of them of the pollen of different Composite, the last

named species in addition to fungus spores and pollen grains

(probably those of the common dandelion), was proven to feed

also upon the anthers and pollen of grasses. We have long been

suspicious that this species was almost as thoroughly a vegetable °

feeder as the well-known northern squash-beetle (4pilachna

borealis), which was always supposed to be the only exception to

the carnivorous habits of its family.

In July, 1874, we received a number of specimens of this Megilla

from Mr. Geo. B. P. Taylor, of St. Inigoes, Md., who reported

them as having done considerable injury to corn by eating holes

in the blades, and specimens of blades that were riddled and

perforated accompanied the beeties. We have on one or two 0¢-

casions since endeavored to test the vegetable-feedipg habit of

this insect in confinement, but without success, though it freely

partook of the eggs of other insects, while we have known it to

feed indiscriminately on the eggs, larvae and pupee of Lina scripia,

or the streaked cottonwood-beetle.

Mr. Chambers’ note refers to a communication by Mr, Wm.

Trelease in the American Entemologist who found the common

Harpalus caliginosus engaged in eating the contents of the partly-

grown seed of the Rag-weed (Ambrosia artemisiefolia), which ob-

servations were confirmed by Prof. W. A. Buckhout,? of the State

College, Center Co., Penn., who believed that he had in addition

found this beetle feeding upon the pollen of the staminate flowers

of the same plant.

In accordance with his general conclusions indicated ina notice

in the present number “On some Interactions of Organisms,

Prof. Forbes believes that this partial herbivorous habit among

the predaceous beetles renders them more valuable to man than

they would be if confined solely to animal food. To use his owa

language: “As a prudent sovereign finds it worth while to main-

tain a much larger fighting force than is necessary to the ordinary

administration of his government, in order that he may have

always a reserve of power with which to meet aspiring rebellion,

so it is to the general advantage that carnivorous insects should

abound in largernumbers than could find sustenance in the ordinary

surplus of insect reproduction. They will then be prepared to

1Vol. Il, p. 251.

4ibid., p. 277-

1881.] Entomology. 327

concentrate an overwhelming attack upon any group of insects

which becomes suddenly superabundant. It is evidently impossi-

’

animals.

Notes on Papirio! pHILENOR.—In the Canadian Entomologist

for January, 1881, Mr. W. H. Edwards, of Coalburgh, W. Va., de-

scribes in full the egg and earlier stages of this interesting but-

terfly. Mr. Edwards, remarks that the larva must undoubtedly

feed upon some other plant than Aristolochia, since Mr. Mead

found the female ovipositing on the leaves of a slender vine some

years ago near Coalburg. In 1873 we made notes and descrip-

tions of the egg and larval stages of this insect as found around

St. Louis, where Aristolochia serpentaria and A. sipho are very

Fic. 1.—Papilio philenor (alter Riley).

rare, and where the commoner species in the woods upon which

the larva feeds is A. tomentosa. This species is so unlike the

others that a non-botanist would scarcely, at first, suppose it to

belong to the same genus, and it is probably the vine referred to

by Mr. Edwards, and which he neglected to determine. As bear-

ing on the generic value of Hiibner’s Laértias, the early stages

of Philenor are very interesting, approaching as it does Orni-

thoptera, The eggs show really no difference in sculpture from

those of the other N. A. Papilios, the great difference in appear-

ance being caused by a gummy coating. We found them during

the month of July, on Aristolochia tomentosa, in patches of 16-20,

1 . .

Laértias Hiibn., as proposed by Scudder.

328 General Notes. [ April,

sometimes laid on-the stem, sometimes on the upper side of the

leaf, and we repeat here the brief oe then made

Sub-spherical, having a flattened base. Diameter The perer perfectly

smooth and, when fresh, the color Bean wish ; wy as the cerry devels ops, the color

deepens to reddish-brown. The general c olor r, however, more or less ferruginous,

owing to the surface being coated with's guna my substance of this, cale or, whigh accu-

pe ae in little translucent lumps more or less irregular, but generally Snealne

about a dozen rib-like re from the crown. Spines of the embryo as it matures

ead through _ Shell, Shell so delicate that it collapses in 8 gs soaked in

cohol. The viscid covering is dissolved in alcohol or chloroform

The rahe hatched larva strongly recalls some have: of Acro-

nycta and also the young of Attacus. But it

is structurally very similar to the first larval

stage of our other North American Papilios,

bee exceptions in other ibe Bs a

giving an account of the larval changes,

is of the pupa, expresses the opinion that

€ species is a connecting one between .

of Pa- Papilio and Ornithoptera. The bus

pilio phitenor (after Riley). appears very early in the spring, and w

have even known it to issue in mild weather.in November at St

Louis. We further quote from our notes in regard to the newly-

hatched larva:

Length 2.3 mm. Ferruginous-brown, the head and legs black. ain rows of

small, black, a tubercles, — bearing — black hair as long as or longer

than the diameter of the body; of the tu ey dorsal, and irapesoida on all

j ints but second pag third, the trae —_ sed (Zz. ¢ the a anterior pai of tuber-

cles wing, apart rt than the posterior pair) on the black aa polished bevicst shield.

here is, besides, a oe and a ventral row of less conspicuous tubercles, gen-

ar concolor with body and most prominent on the legless joints. On the ecco

or gg day the outer row ee, dorsal tubercles increase in size and become paler at

base, and this is i apache the case on prothoracic joint,

Mr. Edwards describes in detail the larval changes, and shows

that there are only four molts instead of five, as he formerly sup-

posed, which accords with our own notes. e gave some

1 Correspondence, edited by S. H. Scudder, pp. 147, 273.

Harris’s Companion, p. 247.

1881. | Entomology. 329

account of the insect in 1869,) from which the accompanying

figures are taken. soa ta

Mr. Scudder communicated: to us some years ago an interesting

fact in reference to this spe- eae

cies. It appears that the

caterpillar, in 1840, ravaged

the Aristolochias in the Bo-

tanic Garden at Cambridge?

and had never afterwards ¢

been seen in that vicinity

until some plants of Aris-

tolochia were taken from

the Botanic Garden to Bev-

erly, a few miles distant,

when caterpillars appeared

in 1876, on.the Beverl

Fic. 3.—Chrysalis of Papilio philenor (after

’ Riley).

“I send you herein enclosed a butterfly, and though it is by no

means a rare one, yet from the multitudinous swarms of it now

flying about and literally fi//ing the peach trees now in full bloom, I

wish to know something more about it. I never saw so many

butterflies of any one kind as there now are of this. The little

yellow fellows that are seen in the summer around ‘mud puddles

in the road, are few in comparison.’—C, V. Riley.

ANATOMY OF THE MitKweED Burrerrty.—Mr. Edward Bur-

gess has lately published a paper on the structure of Danais

archippus, which describes the anatomy of that butterfly with rare

accuracy and clearness. Students of insect anatomy will espe-

cially appreciate this memoir, contained in the anniversary vol-

ume of the Boston Society of Natural History. It is one of the

best €ntomological articles yet published, and makes us look for-

. ward eagerly to the appearance of other monographs upon other

Species of insects, which Mr. Burgess is understood to be en-

ooks

described or entirely overlooked by earlier writers. To him Bele

Owe the important discovery of a pharynx, or true sucking

ett., i. I .

Can, Ent., Feb., 1881, Agha

VOL, XV.—no. Iv,

330 General Notes. [ April,

stomach in the head, and of the extraordinary course of the

aorta in the thorax, and the elucidation of the very complicated

arrangement of the sexual organs. Even the gifted dissector,

Newport, blundered badly in these matters. We can, therefore,

better appreciate the skill requisite to avoid a repetition of these

long accepted errors. The whole field of insect anatomy has

een much neglected; we hope, therefore, that other investigators

will add to the excellent contributions of Mr. Burgess.—C. S. J.

EntomotocicaL Notes.—The second number of the new journal

Papilio, organ of the New York Entomological Club, comes to us

with an increased number of pages. There are many descriptions

of new forms by Mr. Henry Edwards and Mr. Grote; among

nozoa; and the name Oribates, proposed by Mr. Henry

Edwards, in the second number, for a genus of small

moths is preoccupied among the mites (Acarina),——In the

Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History for Janu-

ary, 1880, Dr. Hagen describes a remarkably large species

of Simulium (S. pictipes, n. sp.), the larvae and pupa of which

were found in the rapids of the Au Sable river, Adirondack moun-

_ tains. We have the larve and pupe of what is presumably the

- same species, found by Messrs. Hubbard and Schwarz, in the

rapids of the Michipicoten river, north shore of Lake Superior,

and it is probable that this is the celebrated “black-fly” of that

region. In the rapids of the Michipicoten the larvae were found |

to have the peculiarity of floating in long single strings attached

to each other by silken threads and the pup found in the quieter

pools close by, resemble clusters of coral. Mr. Schwarz informs

us that the Hudson Bay Company has furnished its employes

with oil of tar as a protection against these flies, and he confirms

from his own experience the fact that it is much better than penny-

royal or any other substance recommended for the purpose.——

We learn from Mr. H. K. Morrison, of Morganton, N. C., that,

after much delay, he has just received the insects collected by him ,

last summer in California and Washington Territory ——At a fe-

cent meeting at Rochester, of the Western New York Horticul-

tural Society, papers on insects affecting horticulture were rea

by Messrs. C. D. Zimmerman and Wm. Saunders.——Two bills

have been presented before the California Legislature aiming to

rotect the careful farmer from insect pests bred upon the lands

of shiftless neighbors. Mr. Wm. B. Lazenby finds whale-oil

soap the best specific for destroying cabbage-worms, and treats 0

other insecticides in the American Rural Home of February, 19th.

1881. ] Anthropology, 33

He has probably not tried our favorite remedy, Pyrethrum water.

—— The Pacific Rural Press cites some successful experiments

made by Mr. W. H. Gilmore, in the use of crude petroleum for

destroying the scale insects on the bark of fruit trees. A

E. Hodgson gives in the Lutomologists’ Monthly Magazine for

February, a remarkable instance of vitality exhibited by the

thynchophorous genus Otiorhynchus, some specimens of

ambiguus surviving after being left for over eight months ina

poison bottle, consisting of a stopped glass jar with fresh laurel

leaves which kill most insects ina few minutes. Itis well known -

that other species of this genus have been kept in spirits of tur-

pentine, in alcohol and in the cyanide bottle for days without being

killed—_Dr. Theobald at a recent meeting of the Maryland

Academy of Sciences, showed a beetle weighing tw6 grains which.

moved 1320 times its own weight——Dr. Horn publishes in the

proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, a review of

the species of Anisodactylus, and critical notes on the species of

Selenophorus, giving synopses of all the species of these genera

of ground-beetles found in the United States. In the latest

part of the Stettiner Entomologische Zeitung is a short article on

the larvz of Parnidz, by C. W. Friedenreich of Blumenau, Brazil.

——Mr. A. D. Michael has read before the Linnean Society, an in-

teresting paper on the life-history of the Gamaside, a family of

mites which are very common parasites of beetles. Professor

T. J. Burrill writes in the ecu York Tribune, February 16th, regard-

ing two cases in which plant-lice were found to be offensive in wells

penetrated by roots of willow trees near Champaign, IIl. In

Nature for January 13, is an abstract of a paper read before the

innean Society by Sir John Lubbock, relating to the habits of

ants. An account is given of the care with which the ants keep in

their nests over winter the eggs of plant-lice.

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

ANTHROPOLOGY IN France.—In connection with the Exposition

at Paris in 1878, was held the “ Congrés International des sciences

anthropologiques,”’ The superb collections of specimens illus-

rating every department of anthropology added very much to

the interest and value of the papers read. _These communications

D’Acy (E.)—Notes sur les patines des silex taillés des alluvions de Saint-Acheul,

et sur Pordre de leur superpositions, 234—237-

Ameghino, F.—L’homme préhistorique dans le bassin de la Plata, 341-359-

Bataillard, P.—Historj que et préliminaires de la question de l’importation du bronze

dans le nord et l'occident de I’ urope par les Tsiganes, 153-1 6.

; Beddoe, J.—Sur quelques cranes d’un vieux cimetiére de Bristol, 283-285.

Benedikt, M.—Sur les cervaux des Criminels, 141-148.

oo a

* Edited by Prof. Orts T, MAson, Columbian College, Washington, D. C.

332 General Notes. [April,

Barge ayer sur l’ethnologie de 1’ Asie orientale, de l’Afrique, et de l’Oceanie,

Capeliini, G.—Incisions sur des 0s de cétacés tertiaires, 224-234.

Cartailhac, E, —Rapport sur la paléoethnologie; période Robenhausienne ou de la

pierre polie, 51-56.

Chil—Memoire sur l’origine des Guanches ou habitants primitifs des iles Canaries,

167-220

Daleau, F.—Notice sur les stations amciyy de l’etang de Lacanau, arron-

dissement as Bordeats (Gironde), 351-354.

Dupont, E.—Sur les Nutons, 124-12

sont nh inte Rapp sur Pethualogis de l'Europe, de 1’ Asie occidentale, et de

: erique, 35-39.

sage eee A.—Les races pate 264-266.

— H. et P. Usquin—Le n _ de Pougues les-Eaux (Niévre); derniers

temps de l'age du bronze, fe ap

Latteux—Procédé pour Shients des coupes rigoreusement transversales du cheveu,

8-105.

du crane e, 72-75.

Maurel, E.—Etude anthropologique sur les immigrants indiens ala Guyane fran-

i 8

. Gaise, 75-98.

Mortillet, G. de—Découverte de l’Amerique aux temps préhistoriques, 267-273.

Pagliani, L.—Etudes ener étriques, 62—72.

Richard—Sur des découvertes de silex taillés feats le Sahara africain, en Egypte et

en Pieane, au testean de Josué, etc., 282.

Royer, Mme. C, —Des rapports des proportions du crane avec celles du corps, et

des caractéres correlatifs et évolutifs en taxonomie humaine, 105-119.

Mémoire sur l’origine des Aryas et leurs migrations, 304-333.

Schmidt, V. — De V’age de bronze en Europe et notamment en Scandinavie,

285-288.

Me coms OD striate de Rat i Robenhausienne, ou de la pierre polie, a Pam-

Bane Levres), 3

Thomas echerches sur ei po ioe anciennes des environs D’Ain-el-Bey

(near Cotati Algiers), 358— ree

Topinard, P—De l'unification des methodes Noe Ge et en particulier de

cubage fren cranes et du plan siecle -condylien, 135—

MR SD sur l’anthropologie, anatomique, bolopiaus, : pathologique, 29-35-

Ujfalvy, de C.-E —Quelques observations sommaires sur les races en Asie Centrale,

126-135.

Zabarowski, 5.—Des monuments prehistoriques de la basse ete 259-264.

Zawisza J.—Sur la caverne du mammouth (en Pologne), 220-222.

Zeballos, E. S—Note sur un tumulus prehistorique de ethan Ayres, 148-- 153.

THe History oF Reicion.—It is well nigh impossible to keep

pace with the multiplication of anthropological journals. We have

to record, among the number a new aspirant, entitled “ Revue de

l’Historie des Religions, publiée sous la direction de M. Maurice

' Vernes avec le concours de MM. A. Barth, A. Bouche-Leclercq, Pp,

Decharme, S. Guyard, G. Maspero, and C. P. Tiele (of Leyden).

Premiére annee, Tome ul, No. 5, Septembre, Octobre. Paris,

Ernest Leroux, Editeur, 1880 (Annales due Musée Guimet). The

Review is purely historical, excluding everything of a polemic or

dogmatic character. .A very excellent bibliography is anne

to each member,

1881, ] Anthropology. : 333

GERMAN ANTHROPOLOGY.—The third of the series of bibliogra-

phical lists, in the Archiv fiir Anthropologie is a quarto brochure

of 136 pages, by Frederick Ratzel upon ethnography and travels

(Volkerkunde und Reisen), covering a period from July, 1878, to

December, 1879. Dr. Emil Schmidt, of Essen, in. Rhenish

Prussia, is the editor of the Archiv in charge of matters relating to

our country, The readers of the Naturawist who have publish-

ed papers on anthropology would do well to send a copy of eac

to Dr. Schmidt.

THE TRENTON GRAVELS AND Earty Man.—Mr. Henry Carville

Lewis sends us a pamphlet reprint from the Proceedings of the

Acad. of Nat. Sciences of Philad., entitled “ The Trenton Gravel

and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man.” After going over the

ground carefully asa geologist, the author comes to the following

conclusions: Pe.

1. That the Trenton gravel, the only gravel in which imple-

ments occur, is a true river deposit of post-glacial age, and the

most recent of the gravels in the Delaware valley.

2. That the paleoliths found in it really belong to and are a

part of the gravel, and that they indicate the existence of man in

a rude state at a time when the flooded river flowed on top of

this gravel. .

3. That the data obtained do not necessarily prove, geologically

considered, an extreme antiquity of man in Eastern America.

Mica Veins.—Mr. W. C. Kerr, State Geologist, Raleigh, North

Carolina, read a paper before the American Institute of Mining

Engineers, at the New York meeting, February, 1881, on the

‘ aboriginal art and their ethnological value. By Col. Charles Whittlesey.

Ancient quartz workers. By Miss -Frances E. Babbitt.

Rabbit and the Grasshopper: an Otoe myth. By Rev.

On the alabaster quarries and flint-works found in Wyandott

ovey.

Aboriginal use of co er in war and in peace. Prof, J. D. Butler. _ :

Correspondence. — ‘Phe Chemakum Liccuaee. Rock-made Effigies. A gaia

Prehistoric relic. Mounds in Kansas, Another nest of arrow-flints. Ston

., Mage found in gravel. Indian village sites. ;

Editorial Notes.—Gleanings from Magazines.—Book Reviews.

. O. Dorsey.

J cave. By Rev. H. Gi

334 General Notes. [ April,

Tue Bronze AGE IN GERMANY.—Our readers will remember °

the superb volume of M. Chantre upon the Bronze age. e

have to draw attention to a second work that has just fallen into

our hands, though bearing the imprint of 1878. It is entitled,

‘Die Bronzeschwerter des Koniglichen Museums zu Berlin,

Herausgegeben im Auftrage der Generalverwaltung, durch A.

Bastian und A. Voss. Berlin, Weidmannsche Buchhandlung,

1878.” This elegant quarto contains XVI, 79 pages of text, and

16 plates, in which are 281 photolithographic figures. Although

the title is “ bronze-swords,” the drawings and descriptions include

arm-ornaments, axes, buckles, plates, amber, celts, batons, daggers,

iron, ivory, leather, fibula, vessels, gold, girdle, neck-ornaments,

resin, wood, horn, clappers, boxes, spear-points, knives, needles,

eisnas palstave, beads, arrow-points, tweezers, sconces, bucklers,

keys, sword-hilts, spirals, pottery, urns and tongs. The localities

from which the, objects come are the different States of the Ger-

man Empire, Denmark, Sweden, Austro- -Hungary, Italy, Greece,

Turkey and Egypt.

. To each plate a chapter is devoted, in which the separate

objects are described minutely, and the catalogue number an

museum indicated.

In the introduction, Professor Bastian gives an excellent résumé

of studies on the Bronze-age with copious references to authori-

ties. On the whole, this is one of the most comprehensive and

thorough archeological monographs we have seen for many a

day.

NTHROPOLOGY IN GREAT Brirain.—The August number of

the Journal of the Anthropological Institute commences Vol. x.

The original communications cover a variety of yale all of

which are of general interest. Their titles are as follow

: os the Ce Central South African Tribes from the south coast to the Zambesi. By Dr.

Notes on ie een woe Translated from the “Tséén Han Shoo,” Book

96, Part 1. By A. Wy)

On the origin set the plough and ~ ae By E. B. Tylor.

Visualized numerals. By F hath

On Nicobarese idevgt aphs. By

Notes on the Polynesian races. By rl ‘Steniland Wake.

The paper of Dr. Holub is a description of personal adventures

among the Bushmen, Hottentot, and Banthu tribes, and is illus-

trated with plates from his work, ' — Years in South Africa,”

published by Sampson Low and Marst

The Notes on the western regions are translations from ancient

Chinese records of references to Asiatic nations lying to the west

of them.

Mr. Tylor’s communication on the plough and the wheel car-

riage has already appeared in (Vature, as well as Mr. Galton’s

upon visualized numerals.

The paper which will be most carefully and widely read, per-

1881.] Anthropology. ; 335

haps, is that of Mr. Wake. Therein the author proposes “to

show, first, that the Polynesian islanders must be described rather

as a bearded than a non-bearded race, and, second, that, as a

rule, they are well acquainted with the use of the bow and arrow.

He also proposes to substitute for Sazaiorz, of Whitmee, J7Za/ayo-

Polynesians, of Humboldt, or Mahori, of Ranke en, the word Ra-

naka, it being the universal expression for “man” throughout

the Polynesian groups.

BIBLIOGRAPHY :

ALBERTIS, L. M. p’—New Guinea: What I did ea Eide I saw. 2 vols. Samp-

son, Low & Co. (Rev. in the oti Nov. 1880.)

ANCELON—Sur les habitations lacustres connues sous de ena 3 Bia ised de la

i Bull. Soc. d Anthrop. ae. Pas 1879, ee 1, 620—

ARDOUIN—Sur les cranes de Malfaiteurs. Bul. Soc. Spree de Paris, 1879,

38., I, 530.

BATAILuaro, P.—Sur les anciens metallurges en Gréce. Bull. Soc. d Anthrop.

de Paris, sh 38-5 II, 532-557.

BERTILLON, J.—Sur la pretendue longévité des Lapons. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de

Paris, seg ae: 11. 683-689.

BERTILLON, J.—Sur la vie moyenne et la vie oe Lbid, 468-482, 1 pl.

BoTe.er, W. C. —Peculiarities of the American aa from a pystlogieal and

Gatholbica standpoint. rican Wa “he Balt., Beet vii, 54-5

BOuILLenor, A.<—1’hommé dés cav et les animaux quaternaires gaiotr e la

monta, agne de ge argh Satna): deusieae: mémoire d’archéologie préhistor-

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Reena les ‘mensurations de 15 femmes et de 53 hommes tonquinois proven-

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dée). Laroche- neon, 1880. 8vo

FOLEY—Deux mots sur le mode vital ee —— et (tout [padiprge china -

femmes noires a propos du pot-au-feu des Neo-Calédoniens et des Se

cieres Godan settles savent le fabriquer. Bad/. Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Parts, I >

48-756.

—

0-Ca tear ne, Ibid

Wenet5a 1 me defamineala Ni lle Caledonie. bid. 529.

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ue London: Edward Stan

Hamy, Ps Fe Sie sur une vofite m crane trouvée dans les alluvions du: Petit-

Quevilly, pies Ronen Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Paris, 1879, 38+. Uy 602-6 -

JANsseNs—Sur un t de revues anthropologiques appliqués dans les ecoles

Bruxelles, Bul rae @ Anthrop. de Paris, ea 38 Il, §97-902-

Fouty—Quelques es — et réflexions sur le costume et les moeurs de la Coquette eee

675-653.

336 General Notes. | [ April,

LE Bon, G.—Sur la capacité du crane d’un fapteae nombre d’hommes célebres.

Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Paris, 1879, 38., U, 492-

LE Bon, G.—Sur les Nubiens du Jardin cacolnaigase. Bull. Soc. d Anthrop. de

Paris, 1879, 3S-, TI, § 592.

LE Bon, G.—L’ Homme et les Sociétés, leur Origine et leur Histoire. Paris, Roths-

child.

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tnol, i

* MARIGNAN, : oe i aploppi néolithique. Review in Gaz. hebd. d. sc. med. de

Montpelier, 1880, II, 231-233.

MARTIN H.—Sur |’Airyana ‘Vaedja. Bull. Soc. @ Anthrop. de Paris, 1879, 38-5 1

45-651.

MATHOUILLET, PIERRE ALBERT—Etude sur la scaphocéphalie. Paris, 1880, pp. 62.

4to, No. 142.

MItLescamps, G.—Sur des silex taillés et CER de l’époque mérovingienne. —

Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Paris, 1879, 35.; 748.

nates cca) piu’approssimativo per la al 8 del soldato e la diametria toracica _

tituzione della mesura periferica. Gior. di Med. Mil., Roma, 1880,

8 tab. ;

Mo ina (F. A.)—Vocabulario de la le engua mexicana. eae de nuevo por J.

Platzman, sew ion ponegavgecs Leipzig. Teubne

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@ Anthrop. de Paris, eptoye: 38., II, 7OI-707.

Mucu, M.—Bericht uber die Versammlung dsterreichischer Anthropologen und Ur-

shoth ichistariches am 28 u vata Juli, 1879, zu Laebach. Mitth. d. anthrop.

elich. in Wi 80, x. I=

Rey, P. —Sur les inscriptions sur pierre du Rio-Doce (Brésil). Budd. Soc. a’ Anthrop.

de Paris, 1879, 38., 1, 732-736.

_Ruys Davips (T. W.)—Buddhist birth stories; or, Jataka Tales. Vol. 1. Triibner.

RIALLE a 5 peuples de l'Afrique et de i eee Bibliotheque

Utile, Vol. rv. 0, pp. 184. Paris, Balliere & Cie

SaTow, pata ees one ral movinds in Khaicake: neds rv. Asiatic Soe.

of Fapan, see Pt. 111,-pp. 333-368, 4

SCHOLER—Optha mologische aS eas aie an Nubiern und Negern. Zéschr. f-

Ethnol, Pei, Pai I, 59-68.

SCHULENBUR vo ene a in Mardentechiasd. Zischr. fr

Edina Bes, 1880, XII -68,

SoLp /RSe es proportions ee statues a et égyptiénnes. Bull. Soc.

DAnthe ‘hrop. a Paris, 1879, 38., 11, 638-64

So.p1, E.—Sur les ERE: de atthe et les bas. reliefs de Meydoum. /éid, 724-732-

oe F.—Beitrage zur Ethnologie un Anthropologie der Tyroler, gesam-

melt auf einer Reise ts ee und Schnals im Sommer, 1878. Zéschr- f

Haine Berlin, 1880, x

UJFALvy, C. E. Sua sur oP ouvrage intitulé “ Finska Kranier,” par Gustave

tie, 1879, 38., Il, 523-526.

Uypatvar DE Mezo-Kovesp, C. E, DE—Les Bachkirs, les Vépses et les ant sp bea

finno-ougriennes et altdiques précédés dés résulta ts anthr sepatadiaues dun voyag

en Asie centrale. Paris, 1880, 8vo

VERNEAU, R.—Sur la grotte de voutré (Mayeuihe). Bull. Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Paris,

1879, 3S., II, 503-516.

VircHow, R.—Die Kuste der binge Zischr. f. Ethnol., Siac 1880, x11, 40-46.

VircHow, R.—Ueber einige Merkmale niederer Menschenrassen am Schadel 1 und

iiber die Anwendung der etaticka: Methode in der ethnischen Craniologie-

Zischr. f. Ethnol., Berlin, 1880, X11, 1-26,

ZABAROWSKI—Sur cing cranes d’Hakkas et les origines chinoises. Bull. Soe.

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1881. ] Geology and Paleentology. 337

GHOLOGY AND PALZONTOLOGY.

MAMMALIA OF THE Lower EOcENE Beps.—As stated in my re-

port to Lieut. Wheeler in 1877, no vertebrate remains have been

found in the Puerco beds, which underly the Wasatch in New Mex-

ico, up to the present time. It was therefore uncertain whether

they form the top of the Cretaceous or the bottom of the Tertiary

series. I have recently obtained evidence of the existence of ,

Mammalia and turtles in them, so that their position is probably

in the Tertiary division, as already suspected by Dr. Endlich and

myself. Two species of flesh-eaters recently received from beds

that may prove to belong to the Puerco group, do not belong

to genera hitherto known from the Wasatch. The one which I

first describe is of considerable interest as representing a very »

primitive type of carnivorous dentition. :

Periptychus carinidens, gen. et. sp. nov. Creodontium. Char. Gen.

No distinct sectorial teeth, the first and second true inferior mo-

lars similar. ey support a principal median cusp, a broad heel

and a prominent anterior cingulum. The heel is more or less

divided into tubercles; the anterior cingulum is on the inner side,

and represents the anterior cusp of a sectorial tooth. On the

inner side of the principal cusp a cingulum rises, forming a flat

internal tubercle. Last molar not smaller than the others; pre-

molars unknown. :

This genus belongs to the Améblyctonide with Amblyctonus and

Paleonyctis. Vt differs from both in the rudimental character of

the anterior cusp, and from the former, in the presence of the in-

ternal tubercle. In Mesonyx the heel has a median cutting edge.

Char. Specif. Parts of both mandibular rami and the shaft of a

humerus represent this species. They indicate an animal of the

size of the red fox, but much more robust. The mandibular

ramus is rather shallow and thick, and the molars are not large.

The heel of the penultimate supports three tubercles, of which the

external is the largest. The anterior cingulum supports a small

cusp, and then rises to the internal tubercle, which is compressed.

The sides of all the cusps are marked with distinct, well separa-

ted, vertical ridges. Each extremity of the internal cusp is con-

nected with the principal cusp by a ridge. The first true molar

has fewer cusps. Those of the heel are scarcely distinct, and form

a border which rises prominently into the flat internal tubercle,

which forms a narrow longitudinal blade. The anterior cingulum

has no cusp and does not rise into the inner tubercle. he prin-

Length of crown first molar, .o115; width of do., .006; elevation ©

of do., .006, Length of second molar, .o11; width of do., .007;

elevation of do ,.0065. Depth of ramusat do.,.020. The species

isa

sp. har. Gen. Fam.

Leptictide, agreeing with /cfops and Mesodectes in possessing an

338 General Notes. [ April,

at the Denver City discovery shaft, a local wave causes the ore

body to dip slightly to the west. Under this gray porphyritic

granite a low grade deposit has invariably been encountered by

all of the shafts which have so far penetrated through it, which

consists principally of a clayey mass varying from five to twenty

feet in thickness, with small bodies and stringers of low grade

silver ore interspersed through it. So far I have not learned of

any ore being found in this deposit which has assayed over five to

forty ounces, although it has been penetrated at nearly a dozen

different points in this section, viz: in the Denver City discovery

shaft, in the Shamus O’Brien, in the Little Miami, the El Paso,

the Tip Top, the Little Sliver, the Compromise and other shafts

which I will not occupy space in enumerating. To the west of a line

drawn through the Little Sliver and Denver City discovery shafts

the main contact comes so much nearer the surface that these

overlying formations have undoubtedly been scored off by glacial

action. This is plainly evident at points in the Lee, the Little

Pittsburgh and the New Discovery claims, where the excoriation

as cut down clear through the white porphyry and iron and le

the boulder wash lying upon the silver-bearing iron itself.

Sectional View

: of

THE YANKEE HILL FAULT

” Shath

rien

ight

OX Wri

i) oF, ,

: Shamus 0

4 EEE CEQ RIE elites ALE:

SSS

what ts known as

Hill Contact” from

L Break or kin

hee Hill, Contact”

Ytca

ver

SCPATAMN

(4210

the

Gealo,

the’ Xe

1881. ] Geology and Paleontnogy 339

Under the low grade ore bed just described, comes in a soft,

white feldspathic porphyry, which in this vicinity usually averages

about fifty feet thick, although I know of a point about one mile

east, where it was found to be over two hundred feet thick. This

white porphyry lies immediately above the iron with which and

in which the ore bodies are found. A study of the accompanying

diagrams will aid in gaining a clear idea of the lay of the different

formations,

Enough development has already been accomplished at numer-

ous points to prove that the ore body uncovered in the Denver-

City discovery shaft belongs to the Fryer hill deposit, and it is

equally certain that such ore deposit with a few local waves, and

also possible slight faults, continues in a practically unbroken dip

from the extreme western workings of the Chrysolite group, in

an easterly direction for a distance of over four thousand feet, to

“Yankee Hill Contact.” This break corresponds very nearly to .

the fault which separates Carbonate hill from Iron hill, and which

fault is better understood, as the foot wall of the ore bodies on

those hills is a heavy ledge of limestone undoubtedly, in place;

whereas the foot wall of the present Fryer hill bodies is generally

a layer of true quartzite, or metamorphosed sandstone, which in

turn lies upon a hard white, silicious porphyry, similar to that

which overlies the whole of the Carbonate and Iron hill ore

bodies. In places this quartzite is wanting, in which case the

mineral lies upon the hard white porphyry. This porphyry has

not yet been passed through by any of the shafts so far sunk upon

. Fryer hill, and what underlies it is still an unsolved problem. I

will venture to predict, however, that other and possibly larger ore

bodies than those now being worked are yet to be found in place,

with lime as a foot wall, under this porphyry; and such bodies

will probably also be richer in lead, if not in silver, as is the case

with the ore bodies found on lime in other portions of the camp.

This, at least, is a matter which should be proved by sinking

= Vtipacets shafts on Fryer hill to the granite bed rock—W. G.

hedd.

memoir. Mr. Filhol shows that in this genus, the foramina of the ;

base of the skull characteristic of the Wimravide and Cryptoproc-

tide, are all present. These are the two alisphenoids, the post-~

glenoid, and the distinct carotid and condyloid.. These foramina —

340 General Notes. | April,

therefore referred to the Nimravide. Mr. Filhol, however, shows

that there are five toes on all the feet instead of five and four, so

that Proelurus must be referred to the Cryptoproctide. A de-

tailed comparison gives the resemblances and differences between

the P. /emanensis, and the C. ferox. In this memoir we have an-

other interesting contribution to the history of the types of the

"Eocene fauna whose representatives yet remain in the southern

hemisphere

THE Seacsincktion OF THE PERissopactyLa.—In the forth-

coming Report of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories

of Dr. Hayden, the following arrangement is given by Professor

Cope. ©

I, Eugen pa oe crescent of superior molars shortened and connected with an

r basal lobe; inferior molars with cross-crests; premolars different

froth peck nes

Be LOGS 4 0 ees Sea es Lophiodontide.

fey : Tri iplopo odide.

Il. Aer exterior crescent of superior molars like div. I; inferior molars with

ross-crests; superior molars and premolars alike, with cross-crests.

3. Mastoid bone forming part of the €xternal wall of the skull; no poco oid

ngat Hyracodontide.

4. Mastoid hone excluded from the walls of the skull by the saat bi the

wisn and apa: a postcotyloid iy of the mandible

SNOT ds ch ck va he CO Hed ena ees sok a Vena estes aus ‘Rhtwocerontidae

III. Poe ecsenti crésts 3 superior molars ssbacuats inferior molars wit

crests,

er ed

eee ere ees essese

see eee er eee eee

erior molars and premolars alike and with cross-crests...... .» Zapiride.

1¥; The external crescentuid crests of the superior molars subequal ; inferior molars

with crescents

A, Premolars different from molars; the superior with only one internal cusp.

6. Toes nfo divs URC pe CE RUNG VET UN VAC DES bes OT oy Mocs bee Chalicotheriid@.

Recut s Paleotheriide.

8. Toes with digits 3-3 prenayes eid

.... Lyuide

9. Toes with digits 1—I.........

GrotocicaAL News.—Professor Huxley evidently believes in

‘American paleontology. He is still lecturing on our fossil horses,

concerning which he apparently has information not generally acces~

sible to American palzontologists. He has expressed the opinion

that the primitive mammalia were five-toed, after it had been an-

nounced in this country, i and he has recently discovered that the

Insectivora represent a primitive type of mammalia. This view

was proposed. here six years ago, long enough ago for Professor

Huxley to have forgotten where the idea originated. Professor

Wilder in Science, suggests that the large sacral neural cavity

found by Marsh in &% 'y psirhophus ( Stegosaurus), was n ot filled by

nervous matter. This view has doubtless occurred to ce per-

1881.] Geography and Travels, 341

sons familiar with the anatomy of the Batrachia and Reptilia.

——Professor T. S. Hunt has recently published an account of

the mineral products of the Hocking valley, Ohio. Mr. J. W.

Hulke, in the London Geological Society Journal for August,

1880, describes in detail the new /euwanodon prestvichti from the

Kimmeridge clay from near Oxford, England. He shows that in

this genus, the second row of tarsal bones is articulated with the

metatarsals, as in birds.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.! ‘;

VoyaGEs in BEenRING STRAIT IN 1880.—The U. S. revenue °

of life were visible.

he Corwin reached Point Barrow on August 25th. “On the

1ith of September,” Captain Hooper’s report continues, “we saw

the high hills of Wrangell Land, bearing west one-quarter east

(true). We ran in toward it until we came to the solid pack, the

ice having the same general appearance as that we had previously

encountered in the vicinity of Herald Island, except in being cov-

ered with newly fallen snow, and being, consequently, white. We

judged the land to be about twenty-five miles away. The highest

hills, which seemed to be more distant, were covered with snow; -

others were partly covered, and still lower ones were almost en-

tirely bare. The sight of this land repaid us to a certain extent

for our disappointment in not finding Herald Island clear of ice

as we had hoped to do in order that we might run lines of sound- °

ings and make a plan of the island. That part,of Wrangell Land —

Which we saw covered an arc of the horizon of about 50°—from

N.W. 4 N.to W. Y% S. (true)—and was distant from twenty-five

miles on the former, bearing to thirty-five or forty miles on the

latter. On the south were three mountains, probably 3000 feet

high, entirely covered with snow, the central one. presenting a

conical appearance, and the others showing rounded tops. To the

northward of these mountains was a chain of rounded hills, those

near the sea being lower and nearly free from snow, while the

"Edited by ELtis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. —

342 General Notes. [ April,

back hills, which probably reach an elevation of 2000 feet, were

" quite white. To the north of the northern bearing given, the

land ends entirely or becomes very low. The atmosphere was

very clear, and we could easily have seen any land above the hori-

zon within a distance of sixty or seventy miles, but none could be

seen from the masthead.”

Captain Hooper considers it doubtful if Wrangell Land is ever

free from ice. The immense body of warm water which is con-

stantly passing through Behring Strait into the Arctic is carried

to the east along the shore of the American Continent, and does

not pass within two hundred and fifty miles of Wrangell Land. “I

believe, however that it is possible, at times, for a strong vessel,

properly equipped and fitted, to work her way in shore far enough

to reach a safe harbor among the grounded ice within easy travel-

ing distance of the land, where she could remain in safety, and

exploring parties be sent out to examine the land. I am of the

opinion that Wrangell Land is a large island, possibly one of the

chain that passes entirely through the polar regions to Greenland.

That there is other land to the northward there can be no doubt.

“Captain Keenan, then commanding the bark Yames Allen,

reports having seen land to the northward of Harrison’s Bay, 4

few degrees east of Point Barrow. He was boiling out, and stood

north under easy sail, during thick weather, eighty or ninety

miles. When the fog lifted high land was visible to the northward,

along distance away but perfectly distinct. Large numbers of

geese and other aquatic birds pass Point Barrow going north in

the spring, and return in Aygust and September with their young.

As it is well known that these birds breed only on land, this fact

alone must be regarded as proof positive of the existence of land

in the north. Another reason for supposing that there is either

a continent or a chain of islands passing the polar regions, is the

fact that notwithstanding the vast amount of heat diffused by the

warm current passing through Behring Straits, the icy barrier 1s

from 614° to 8° further south on this side than on the Greenland

side of the Arctic Ocean, where the temperature is much lower.

The Tchukches have a number of legends in regard to some of

these people having left the mainland and crossed over the ice to

a ‘great land’ further north; and also of herds of reindeer having

crossed over from,the north. There may or may not be ounda-

tion for these legends.

“To attain a high latitude with a vessel in this part of the Arctie

is impossible. The whalers follow the ice-pack very closely be-

tween Herald Island and Point Barrow, and never have been able

to reach the seventy-fourth degree of latitude as yet, while only

one or two claim to have been as far north as 73°. In the Green-

land seas, on the contrary, it is no uncommon thing for whalers

to reach the seventy-eighth degree, or even higher.

From what I can learn from the accounts of those who have

1881.] Geography and Travels. 343

traveled in other parts of the Arctic, and from my own observa-

tions, I believe that nowhere else within the Arctic Circle does

ice remain permanently so far south as between Wrangell Land

and Point Barrow.’ }

No traces of the missing whalers were found and there can be

no doubt that they and their crews perished in the pack.

Mr. W. H. Dall, of the U, S. Coast Survey, continued his ex-

plorations in Alaska and the northern coast of America during

the past season, being accompanied by Dr. Bean, who has also

been making the zodlogical collections in this region for a number

of summers, for the U. S. Fish Commission.

After visiting the inland waters of British Columbia and Alaska,

they arrived at Sitka and proceeded thence along the coast to

Cook’s Inlet, westward to Unalaskha, and northward through

Behring Strait along the American coast to the Seahorse Islands,

not very far west of Point Barrow, where the ice barred their way.

Forty-two stations were occupied during the season for astronomi-

cal, magnetic, meteorological and hydrographical observations.

A hydrothermal section of Behring Strait was made, which Mr.

Dall states confirms his previous suspicions that there is no south-

erly Polar current through these straits, and that the existing cur-

rents are dependent chiefly on the tides. The warm northerly

current through the straits is chiefly derived from the shallow

sounds and large rivers of the adjacent American coast, and is

warmer than any water found south of St. Lawrence Island, at the

southern entrance to the strait2-

e b

found to pass between the Diomede Islands, as stated in the

treaty. An immense “ dead” glacier was observed on the north-

most remarkable ice phenomenon in Kotzebue Sound, visited by

Kotzebue, Beechey, and the officers of the Herald, whose

it may here be noted that the general experience of navigators north of Behring

Strait has been that the eal part of the summer season is the only time Herald

Island or Wrangell Land can ‘be approached. The action of the warm current from

the Pacific is quickly felt on the ice fields south of latitude 71°, and west of longi-

of the oppos

a 'rom Cape Serdze on the Asiatic coast to Cape Krusenstern on the

re, i i

n ave causes it, as well as Wrangell Land, to be unapproa rae

coal ising; i i ally believ at a

Cbasi Reise _are surprising; it having heretofore been generally -

Passe. portion of the great equatorial current of the Pacific, the Kuro-Siv

edie, rouge the strait, and they invite the careful examination of g ers.

344 General Notes. [ April,

wooden record, standing since 1826, was found in good preserva-

tion on Chamisso Island. This consists of a mountain of pure

ice, covered with a non-conducting layer of moss, vegetable mat-

ter and clay, of the period when the wild horse, buffalo and

mammoth, frequented this region. Their bones are abundant and

have been figured by Seeman, in the zoology of the Herald.

The ice attains an elevation much beyond any hills or rock-forma-

tion visible from its summit, and is interstratified like a rock with

the clays, etc. It is pure, except on the surface, has no glacial

débris about it, and is devoid of motion. The cliffs rise at the

sea front to perhaps one hundred feet, and the hill of ice of which

these cliffs form the face, attains six hundred or eight hundred

feet, a few miles inland, entirely overlooking all the rock-forma-

tions of the vicinity. Mr. Dall considers it impracticable to refer

it to glacial action, properly so called. It extends north to Point

Barrow, and East to Return Reef on the northern coast, but is

not continuous, and is absent in the rocky, elevated parts, as for

instance, about Cape Lisburne.

The zodlogical collections made during the past season include

several birds and many fishes new to the region, as well as a

smaller number probably new to science. Ethnological material

was largely obtained, and it was remarked that the proper name

of the people on the Asiatic side, described by Nordenskidld and _

his companions, and previously by Hooper and Mr. Dall, ts

Yia’-it, a corruption or shortening of In-fia-it (Eskimo), of which

they merely form one tribe. They are totally distinct in language,

race and manners from the so-called Reindeer Tchukches (Tsau’-

yiu-at), who are a mere tribe of the Korak nation. ;

Mr. Dall maintains that these Asiatic Eskimo are comparative-

modern immigrants from America. The change of population

is constantly going on; only last summer a new colony from

Behring Strait settled at Cape Olutorsk, and more will go this

whales has had much to do with it; and the trading of liquor

from the Sandwich Islands, keeping the people drunk when they

should be laying up a winter store, is another.

Lake TANGANYIKA.—Mr. E. C. Hore writes from Ujiji to the

~ Royal Geographical Society’ regarding the still unexplained

phenomenon of the long-continued rise of the waters of this

lake, and the reopening of the Lukuga outlet, which he was the

first to witness two years ago, that the reports at Ujiji “go to show

that when Cameron was here a marked rising of the lake waters

had already been observed, and that it continued from that time

up to about two years ago, when the surface was eight feet higher

than in Cameron’s time. From that date (¢. ¢. two years agO)

1 Proceedings R. G. S., January, 1881, p, 41. |

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 345

have observed that the waters are gradually retiring, and this at

a very regular rate, except during the rains (when, however, there

is no rise). Three months ago the Arabs agreed in telling me,

‘Now.the lake is the same as when Cameron was here.’ The

partly submerged palm-tree on which I had fixed a water-gauge,

was then just left dry, and the Arabs told me that Cameron used

this tree as a target and that it was then just at the water’s edge.

Now, all the observations and the reports I hear lead me to believe

that the jake has been gradually rising for years, and that it rose

until it burst open the Lukuga obstruction, first oozing throug

in small quantities as when seen by Cameron. at the waters

should now rush through the Lukuga instead of gently overflow-

ing is probably due to the first burst having eroded a deeper

channel; for, according to the geological nature of the Lukuga

gap, so will the waters cut a deeper and deeper chasm, or eventu-

ally find a permanent level and gently flow over a rocky sill. I

this periodical rising must have been infinitesimal, if any, com-

pared with that of the few years immediately preceding the burst-

ing of the Lukuga, or we must do away with the ancient charac-

ter of the lake. Iam convinced that the lake never (or, at any

rate, for very many years), was at such a height as it was two years

ago. This is quite apart from any geological evidence of a dif-

ferent state of ‘things in remote ages. And I cannot believe that

the lake has always been rising at this rate. Now, how is it that

this enormous quantity of water could rise so quickly in spite of

that evaporation which has (as is supposed) been sufficient for

ages to maintain it almost at a level. A succession of extraordi-

nary rainy seasons, of which we have -no evidence, would not

account for it. I can bear testimony to an enormous evaporation,

but how is it that the waters suddenly gained upon the evapora-

\. and S. was observed at twelve different places, and the coast

line between them laid down by compass bearings.

VOL. XV.—NO, WV. 24

346 General Notes. [ April,

MICROSCOPY .!

A New Fine Apjustment.—Mr. Ernst Gundlach, of Roches-

ter, has introduced a device by means of which an extremely

slow, fine adjustment can be obtained in addition to the ordinary

coarse screw movement. It is described as follows:

In working high powers, microscopists have felt the need of a

finer adjustment than the ordinary micrometer-screw, which can-

not be made much finer and still be durable enough. This

need is now supplied by the combination of two screws which

give a resultant motion equal to the difference in the threads em-

ployed. One of these screws is a little coarser than the ordinary

micrometer screw, and may be used alone as a fine adjustment,

and a change can be made instantly from this to the finer motion.

Either is given by one milled head located in the usual position

of the fine adjustment screw-head on Gundlach’s microscopes,

and the change is made by turning a smaller clamping screw

having its head over thé former. By tightening the clamping

screw, the adjustment is in order for the work of the combination ;

by loosening, for that of the coarser screw only. As the thread

of this is a little coarser than the ordinary micrometer screw, it

alone gives a better motion for medium powers than the fine

adjustment in common use, a second advantage of the invention.

New Meruop or Dry Mountinc.—Mr. Frank French has con-

tributed to the Postal Microscopical Club, a slide mounted in a

style which promises to be useful for certain kinds of opaque

objects which will bear occasional exposure to the dust and mots-

ture of the air, and which are best viewed without, the interven-

tion of a cover-glass, The slip is composed of cardboard cut LO”;

3 X I inches, the required thickness in each case being attaine

by building up a sufficient number of thicknesses, gummed to-

gether. The centers are punched out as from the paper covers

for glass slips; and the object is fastened at the bottom of the

cell thus formed, either upon mica fastened at the bottom of the

cell or upon a bottom card not punched like the rest. €

object is covered by a rectangular brass sliding plate below the

upper card, the card next below being cut away to receive it and

to allow it room _to slide entirely away from sight when desired.

A pin head is riveted and soldered into this brass plate, and pro-

jects through the upper card, appearing near the right end of the

finished mount, through a longitudinal slot that permits it to be

pushed toward or from the other end of the slide, and thus to

carry the brass plate over the object or away from it. The whole

mount is finished by covering with paper in the old style.

MovuntinG In Copat Varnisu.—]I find this varnish dries very

rapidly if slightly heated, or even if placed ona previouly-warmed

slide. I have many hundred slides of diatoms prepared in copal

varnish, and my friend, Mr. Van Heurck, of Antwerp, who Wa>

1 This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

1881. ] Scientific News. 347

the first to use this material, has many thousands. The varnish

to be used is what is called the “pale copal,” and its consistency

ought to be that of oil. It is much pleasanter to use than Canada

balsam, does not make bubbles, and its refractive index is not

very different from that of balsam, and does not interfere with

the solution of diatom markings. I have of late made many prep-

arations in copal, dispensing with the cover-glass altogether.

The drop of copal is placed on the diatoms and heated lightly

over the spirit-lamp. It soon takes the consistency of amber,

and is hard enough to sustain wiping and brushing with a soft

brush with impunity—S¥ulien Deby, C. E., from the Fournal of

the Queckett Microscopical Club.

IMporRTANCE oF STATING MAGNIFYING Power usED.—Mr. F. J.

George very properly protests, in Science Gossip, against the vague

and ambiguous phraseology used in connection with the magnified

sketches of microscopic objects. Drawings which are lettered

“highly magnified,” “much enlarged,” etc., are rendered un-

scientific and absurd by the very words thus used to explain them.

It would be-more rational, more instructive, and more satisfactory

to every scientific reader, if such vague statements were replaced,

in every possible instance, by a memorandum of the number of

Porcine by which the drawing surpasses the size of the natural

object.

Co.umsus, Ou10, MaRcH 1, 1881.

Epiror American NATURALIST :

Dear Sir:—I am authorized by the president of the American

Society of Microscopists to announce to its members, that the

Executive Committee have decided by an almost unanimous vote,

to accept the invitation received from Columbus, Ohio, and to

call the next meeting of the society at that place, on Tuesday,

August 9, 1981 (the week previous to the Cincinnati meeting of

the American Association for the advancement of Science).

Apert H. Turt.e, Secreary.

:0:

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— From advanced sheets of the report of Professor W. K.

Brooks, Director of the Chesapeake Zodlogical Laboratory of

Johns Hopkins University, we learn that by the liberality of the

Trustees he was enabled to spend a much longer period than

hitherto at the seaside, and was provided with a more liberal out-

fit, including a steam launch which was built for their use in the

last spring, at Bristol, R. I., and has proved a very efficient auxil-

lary. The necessary books, dredges and other instruments were

also provided by the University. In addition to the opportunities

afforded to three of the members of their own academic stall,

three other gentlemen, devoted to the study of zoology, were

348 Scientific News. [ April,

invited to avail themselves of the scientific facilities of the

station.

The laboratory was opened at Beaufort, N. C., on April 23,

1880, and closed on September 30, after a session of twenty-three

weeks. It was supplied with working accommodations for the

six investigators who were in attendance.

Beaufort, was selected for the third season’s work because it is

the nearest accessible town, south of Baltimore, which is favorably

situated for zodlogical study. The advantages of a location in a

town are well shown by the fact that the expenses of a session of

twenty-three weeks this year were considerably less than those of

a ten weeks’ session the year before. .

The scientific advantages of Beaufort are very great; the most

important is the great difference between its fauna and that of our

northern Atlantic coast.

The configuration of our coast line is such that Cape Hatteras,

_ the most projecting point south of New York, deflects the warm

water of the Gulf Stream away from the coast, and thus forms an

abrupt barrier between acold northern coast and a warm southern

one. The fauna north of this barrier passes gradually into that

of Southern New England, while the fauna south of the barrier

passes without any abrupt change into that of Florida, but the

northern fauna is sharply separated by Cape Hatteras from the

southern. :

During the past season Dr, Brooks worked out the interesting

life history of Leucifer, and Mr. Wilson that of Phoronis, which

have been published in abstract in the NATURALIST. wo

Another interesting group which was studied is the Porcellani-

da; the least specialized of the true crabs. The adults of our

American species are almost restricted to our southern waters,

although the swimming larvae are carried north by the Gulf

Stream. Within the last two years two northern naturalists have

studied these floating embryos upon the south coast of New Eng-

land, but as they were working upon stragglers so far from home,

their accounts are incomplete and somewhat contradictory. he

advantages at Beaufort enabled them to contribute towards the

solution of this confused subject by raising one species of Por-

cellana from the egg.

hey also raised six other species of crabs from the egg, and

made drawings of the more important stages of developmient.

One of the species which was thus studied is the edible crab. Its

metamorphosis has never been figured, and although it presents

no unusual features, its economic importance gives value to exact

knowledge of its life history. :

Mr. Wilson also studied the development of one species of

Pycnogonida, a group of very peculiar Arthropods, distantly rela-

ted to the spiders. As he has paid especial attention to the syS

tematic study of this group, and is now engaged in describing .

Pycnogonids collected in the Gulf Stream by Mr. Agassiz, te

1881. ] Scientfic News. 349

opportunity to study them alive in the laboratory has been a great

Qu.

rt)

Oligochzta and Polycheta, is not a natural method of classifica-

tion. The work upon the development of marine Annelids was

Supplementary to an investigation which Mr. Wilson carried on

last spring at Baltimore, and which he will continue this winter,

upon the development of land and fresh-water Annelids.

occur anywhere else, and of some genera and families which are

new to the North American coast, this field has suffered almost

total neglect.

Nearly three months of the time of two members of the party,

Mitsukuri and Wilson, were given to the study of the habits,

are so intimately bound together that the community, as a whole,

has a well marked individuality, distinct from that of the separate

animals which compose it. The compound individuality of Re-

nilla is quite rudimentary as compared with that of a Siphono-

phore, and as there is no trace of it in the closely allied Gor-

‘sms. With this end in view the anatomy of the fully developed

community was carefully studied, and the formation of.a com-

350 Scientific News. { April,

tagious diseases of domestic animals. It provides for the organi-

zation of a bureau of animal economy in the Department of Agri-

culture. It authorizes the Commissioner of Agriculture to ap-

point a Chief of this Bureau, who is a competent veterinary sur-

geon, approved by the National Board of Health, and whose duty

it is to investigate and report the value and condition of domestic

animals, and also the cause of contagious diseases among them,

and provide for the prevention and cure of the same. The Com-

missioner is authorized by the bill to purchase and slaughter dis-

eased animals, provided the sum paid for them shall not exceed

two-thirds the market value of healthy animals, and $200,000 is

appropriated to meet the expenses incurred in carrying out the

provisions of the act. '

— Major J. W. Powell was, a few days ago, confirmed by the

Senate to fill the position of Director of the United States Geo-

logical Survey, recently vacated by Mr. King. While our pref

erences are for Dr. Hayden, the founder of the survey, We will

ope the new occupant may be sustained by liberal congressional

appropriations.

— Dr. James Lewis, the celebrated conchologist, died on the

23d February last, at his home in Mohawk, N. Y. His malady

was one of long standing, and during the later years of his life

caused him much suffering. Well known to most conchologists

in the United States, the intelligence of his death will be receive

by them with deep regret. A brief sketch of his life will appear

in another number.—R. E. C ;

— On the 3d of February died the well-known English orni-

thologist, John Gould, F. R. S., aged 76. He was the author 0

“ A Century of Birds from the Himalaya mountains ;” “ The Birds

of Europe,” and “ The Birds of Australia,” the latter in agai

folio volumes and with colored illustrations of 600 species, an

many other important works. He had been recently engaged on

an entirely new work, “ The Birds of Great Britain.”

1881 | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 351

— Lithology has suffered a loss by the death of Professor

Emanuel Boricky, who died in January last at Prague, aged 40

years. He was well known for his studies on the rocks and

minerals of Hungary and Austria.

:0:

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society or Naturat History, Feb. 16—Dr. C. S.

Minot discussed the question of a common larval type among

annelids, mollusks and vertebrates. The president spoke of the

carboniferous insects of Great Britain, and Mr. Burgess remarked

on the aorta in the Lepidoptera.

March 2.—Mr. Lucien Carr read a paper on sun worship

among the North American Indians, and Dr. M. E. Wadsworth

one on the history of Prepaleozoic geology in New Brunswick.

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, Jan. 31.—Papers were read

by Mr. B. B. Chamberlain, entitled, Studies in local mineralogy—

1. A singular mineral identified ; 2. Iron-coated boulders from

Brooklyn; 3. The gne'ss of New York island ; and by Professor

Newberry on our coast corals, their relations and geological work

(with specimens and lantern illustrations).

Feb. 7—Mr. A. A. Julien made a communication on the gneisses

and diorites of the Greensboro’ belt, North Carolina.

arch 7.—Mr. G. F. Kunz described the spodumene emerald

of North Carolina (Hiddenite), and exhibited specimens.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, Feb. 17.—Mr. John Ban-

vard delivered a lecture on the hierology and reading of the

obelisks of Egypt, illustrated by charts, diagrams and paintings

on Canvas, executed from original drawings made by himself

while in E

APPALACHIAN MOounrTAIN Crus,

Kaye read a paper on Lake Dunmo

STATE Natura History Soctery, Feb. 8—The second annual

meeting was held in the State House at. Springfield, Illinois.

President Worthen addressed the society on the fossil fuels of the

United States. Papers and remarks on the archeology of Illinois,

especially the mound-builders, were communicated by Mr. W.

McAdams, Judge J. G. Henderson, Professor Cyrus Thomas and

others. Mr. McAdams then read a paper on artesian wells. Mr.

F. S. Earle described the cave-dwellers of Southern Illinois. Mr.

- ft. Garman presented the results of studies on the gall mites

(Phytopti). Professor C. Thomas remarked on the Palenque

tablets. Professor Burrill discussed the subject of Bacterta pe -

menta. Mr. D. B. Wier contributed a paper on the grape rot;

While Professor Forbes read a paper entitled illustrations and

application of the doctrine of evolution. Judge Henderson de-

livered an address entitled, The ancient Illinois, and finally Pro-

fessoi Forbes read a paper on the English sparrow in Germany,

with notes on its autumnal food in Illinois. :

eb. g9.—Mrs. Maria E. Mc-

re.

352 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [April, 1881.

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC. SERIALS.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE AND Arts.—March, Struct ‘re

and affinities of Euphorberia of Meek and Worthen, by S. H. Scud-

der. Origin of some new points in the topography of North

Carolina, by W. C. Kerr. ;

Tue GrotocicaL MaGazineE.—February. The glaciation of the

Shetland isles, by B. N. Peach. Oceanic islands, by T. M. Reade.

ANNALS AND MaGazinE oF Naturat History. — January.

Spolia atlantica, Contributions to the knowledge of the changes

of form in fishes during their growth and development, especially

in the pelagic fishes of the Atlantic, by C. F. Litken (continued

in the February number).

BULLETIN OF THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE TERRITO-

RIES— Vol. vi, No. 1, Feb. 11. The vegetation of the Rocky

Mountain region, and a comparison with that of other parts of the

world, by A. Gray and J. D. Hooker. On some new Batrachia

and Reptilia from the Permian beds of Texas. Ona wading-bird

from the Amyzon shales, by E. D. Cope. Osteology of Speotyto

cunicularia var. hypogea, by R. W. Shufeldt. Osteology of

Eremophila alpestris, by R. W. Shufeldt. Preliminary list of the

N. A. species of Agrotis, with descriptions, by A. R. Grote. On

the Nimravidz and Cgnidz of the Miocene period, by E. D. Cope.

On the vertebrata of the Wind river Eocene beds of Wyoming,

by BE. 1) Cope: > =. :

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR W AFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE, FEB. 1.—On

the alternations of generations of oak-gall wasps, by H. Adler. Re-

searches on the Orthonectidz, by E. Metschnikoff. Contribution

the outer neurilemma of the ventral nervous cord, and this latter

passes into the vessel. The tissue is a gelatinous connective

tissue. On the pairing and reproduction of a species of Scyllium,

by H. Bolau.

JENAISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NATURWISSENSCHAFT, January 25-—

The Coelom-theory, attempt at an explanation of the middle

germ layer, by O. and R. Hertwig. The authors give a long dis-

cussion of the subject, regarding the Ccelenterates except the

Ctenophora as possessing no genuine mesoderm, they apply ne

relations of the mesoderm in the higher animals. Contributions

to the knowledge of the structure of the butterfly’s tongue, by

W. Breitenbach. :

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vo.. xv. — WAY, 1881. — No. 5.

THE ENDOCRANIUM AND MAXILLARY SUSPEN-

SORIUM OF THE BEE}!

BY PROF. GEORGE MACLOSKIE, LL.D.

i Soha chitinous wall which covers an insect’s body and lines its

interior, is soft and thin for hinges and other pliable parts, and

is hardened in places where rigidity is required. It is further-

more folded outwards or inwards into processes which impart

additional strength or protection, or for attachment of muscles.

The outgoing folds are seen in the pleura of a lobster

(allied to insects) and the wing of a bee, and are always double

by nature (including the outgoing and returning plates) with

interposed nutritive matter, like the meat in a sandwich.

The outgoing plates (or exodemes) have their counterparts in

the internal processes (or endodemes), which usually mark the

boundaries between adjacent segments of the body, and which are

more or less hardened in particular parts, thus forming an endo-

Skeleton. This internal skeleton is most completely developed in

the ventral part of the thorax, and where it forms the endocran-

‘um, or internal buttresses of the skull. (It may be observed

that the insect has also hard processes of the pharynx and

Stomach which may be collectively termed its splachnodemes.)

Anatomists have not paid much attention to this class of struc-

tures, and some eminent students of insect embryology are as

Silent regarding the endoskeleton as if they had never heard of

Paper read before the Biological Section of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, Boston, Aug., 1880

VOL, Xv.—No, v, 25

354 Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. |May,

such parts. The few references to them already published, are

not distinguished by accuracy. Yet it is patent that all efforts to

evolve an insect’s embryology, or to give the rationale of its

head, ought to include as a preliminary study the structure of its

internal economy. In our present essay it is proposed to exam-

ine these parts in the honey-bee, and to compare them with their

representatives in a few other insects.

The upper part of a bee’s cranium consists of three parts, epi-

cranium (Fig. 1, Ec), clypeus (c) and labrum (LR).

The epicranium is the crown, extending from the

occipital foramen at back of the head, right over

the vertex, to a transverse suture in front of the

insertion of the antennz (ar). It covers the entire

yeti roof and back of the head, and is medially divided

nal view of ver. in many insects (especially in larvz) into right and

tex ofbee’s skull. Jeft sections. It is flanked on both sides by the

EC, epicranium ; ; ;

AT, position of large compound eyes (oc), and is continuous with

praatpwegedl 3 ie the cheeks which form the sides of the skull in

man- front of the eyes (Gc).

coe elias se; oe. A remarkable feature of the epicranial region

ular or com- js that it has no endodemes, no such ridges or 1n-

dese Ay foldings as to hold out any suggestion of a tendency

to segmentation. It has a few ridges near the occipital foramen,

-and a rim around the eyes and sometimes about the root of the

antennz ; but we have found no trace of latent segmentation in

this region. This goes against the doctrine that the antenne

represent a segment in the head; and recent discoveries in em-

bryology indicate the same conclusion.

The clypeus, or “face,” is the roof of the mouth cavity. At

its lateral borders it affords insertion to the mandibular condyles.

(In the Doryphora, or potato-beetle, it is curiously turned in wit

sockets at its angles for the mandibles.) It also shows such invo-

lutions as to bring it into close relations with the endocranial

system. Its posterior border (that next the epicranium) ben

down into a hard transverse ridge, with thick outgrowths at the

-postero-lateral angles. From these outgrowths descend two pil-

1 Balfour denies to the procephalic region any correspondence with somites of the

body, and says that “the antennz can hardly be considered to have the same pe

phological value as the succeeding appendages,’’ (Comparative Embryology, sd

_ 1, p- 337-)

1881.] Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. 355

lars obliquely downward through the cranial cavity ieee 2, MC).

These mesocephalic pillars are inserted in the

floor of the skull just at the sides of the

occipital foramen (FO).

us the endocranium consists of a pair of

pillars, arising by strong roots from the cranial

floor, and fixed above to the clypeus. (The

clypeus has to support the mandibles and to

afford attachment to many muscles.) Near

the top each pillar is forked transversely so as

to afford more extensive support. (Fig. 3, MC.)

It is these pillars which render a bee’s head maxilla; Mv, mandible,

so strong, though its shell is rather thin, ‘The mesocephalic pil-

lars of an ant’s skull are similar to those of the bee; and we

observed short tendons in the neck serving to an-

tagonize them,

The pillars ascend in front of the cerebral brain-

lobes, running between them and the ophthalmic

lobes, and keep the large ocular apparatus in its

proper place.

Burmeister’s well-known account of the endo- Use paket bi

cranium of insects has many errors. He represents tion. neers

that of Hymenoptera as rising from the base and *

ending in two points; he seems to have broken off the sitters and

So missed their attachment to the clypeus. He says that Diptera

and Hemiptera have no endocranium. This is partially true of

the Muscide; but we have shown! that in all probability the

basal part of the proboscis of these insects represents the endo-

Cranium, and there is a rudiment of the endocranial roots in a

small bridge across the occipital foramen. In the large gadfly

(Tabanus atratus), and in the mosquito, we find cephalic pillars as

in the bee (besides what seems to be a splachnodeme or pharynx-

case supporting the complex oral armature.) Coreus, of Hemip-

tera, though seemingly devoid of mandibles, maxilla, labium and

all processes related to them, has a pair of processes depending

from the clypeus, in the position of the upper part of the meso-

cephalic pillars. These probably support the pharynx and the

Toots of the long piercing bristles.

F "See AMERICAN NATURALIST, March, 1880. On the Proboscis of the’ House- —

y.”

356 Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. [ May,

Burmeister attributes to Lepidoptera nothing more than a

small bar across the occipital foramen. But we find (in the swal-

low tail, Papilio turnus) a strong sub-quadrate frame arising in

front of this foramen, and reaching forward so as to be fixed near

the roots of the proboscis.

That the mesocranial pillars represent involutions of the outer

walls, may be understood from the trunk of the cray-fish, where

(as Mr. Huxley has well shown) the ingrowths become plates or

ridges, or even pillars. But we find a closer illustration in the

heads of some other insects. Cicada has similar pillars with the

bee, somewhat flattened out and attached to the sides of the head

(the eyes here not reaching so far forward). This would indicate

that in the bee the ridges have been displaced inwards by the

encroaching of the eyes. (The clypeus of Cicada is transversely

barred so as to show about ten pseudo-somites. It is easy to

examine these parts from one of its exuviated shells.)

The dragon-fly has a stout ridge below the occipital foramen,

sending up processes to the clypeal region, as in the bee. But

these processes are broadened out and transparent, and not rigid.

The clypeus itself is soft and swollen, and has a deep transverse

ridge to meet the processes. Thus the large, weak cranial wall

is somewhat but slightly strengthened.

The attempt to correlate the parts of the bee’s head with those

of the head of the cockroach, gave rise to some interesting reve-

lations. Here Huxley’s excellent description of the cockroach

(“ Anatomy of the Invertebrated Animals ”) was in good season,

but we soon found that his work was superficial and faulty on this

part. He states that the endocranium of the cockroach “ extends

as a cruciform partition from the inner face of the lateral walls of

the cranium to the-sides of the occipital foramen ;” and speaks of

the center of the cross as being “ pierced by a rounded aperture

through which the cesophageal nerve-collars pass.” In fact, it is

not cruciate in form, but consists of two pillars as in the bee (only

softer), and united by membrane some way up, 2. ¢., crotch-webbe

like the webbed fingers of a water-fowl. The upper band run-

ning across is a fascia binding the two mandibles together (present

in the bee, though not thus united with the mesocephalic rods).

Thus we have a “tentorium,” or mesocephalic plate, forming 4

thin diaphragm across the middle of the cranial cavity, with

thickened borders in front and laterally, and itself concave up-

1881.] Exdocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. 357

wards so as to form a channel for the pharynx (Fig. 6, Ec). Its

perforation is not as in the axis of a cross, but forwards, as if the

webbing had ceased at this part. Its correspondence with the

parts already described in other insects is easily shown. In the

locust the lateral pillars approach more closely, so as to resemble

the letter X, but the foramen and other parts are much as in the

cockroach. 7

The Coleoptera appear to want this system. But in following

out the relations of the parts I came to a view which, if correct,

would explain the anomaly, and which I shall reserve for a later

part of this paper.

B. Maxillary suspensorium.—It is convenient to examine to-

gether the proximal adjustments of both maxilla and labium (or

first and second maxillz, as they may be called), These are inti-

mately connected in their mode of attachment in all insects pos-

sessed of such parts. In the case of the bee they are strung

upon a long framework with elbows and hinges, which is able to

thrust them out and to draw them in. Of this framework, which

we shall call the “ maxillary suspensorium,” we have not been

able to find any satisfactory description or figure. Schmarda’s

Zoology gives a correct figure of its distal part; but neither

Schmarda nor Westwood nor Réaumur appears to have traced

_ the structure to its origin. The prize work on the “ Anatomy

and Physiology of the Bee,” by M. Girdwoyn, published by

Rothschild, of Paris, is grossly inaccurate at this part. We shall

begin its description from its base, where it is inserted close to

the inferior insertion of the mesocephalic pillars, immediately in

front of the foramen magnum.

At this point there are, below the mesocephalic pillars, two

basi-cranial rods, running forwards towards the oral opening

(slightly ascending forwards when the mouth parts are retracted,

but nearly horizontal when they are protruded). These basi-

cranial rods arise similarly with the mesocephalic pillars ; but

they are united to the sides of an excavated opening in the basis

cranii by a thin web, just as the mesocephalic pillars are joined

to the side-wall in Cicada. They are not hinged at their root,

but are firmly fixed and widen out here, and are slightly pliant, —

whilst their motion is limited by the web which binds them to

the basi-cranial wall (Fig. 5, Br). (An engineering friend to

whom we showed this structure, informed us that it involves the

388 Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. [May,

principle of a machine recently patented for producing a slight

and steady motion combined with strength.) The two parallel

basi-cranial rods are also connected with each other by a very

thin and pliable sheet of chitine, which forms the lower bound-

ing wall of the head at the excavated part, and yet allows perfect

freedom of motion to the suspensorial mechanism.

The basi-cranial rods are forked at their distal ends, where they

support the maxillary rami, one at each side (Fig. 5, MR), which

are joined to them by avery perfect elbow-joint, enabling the

rami to fold downwards. The rami support the maxille, which

can thus be protruded or withdrawn. We think that each of

these rami corresponds with the cardo or basal segment of the

maxillz of the cockroach or beetle (though this name has been

given to the process next to be described).

The modus operandi of the maxille on these rami is note-

worthy. Each maxilla consists of a flat base (stipe), surmounted

by a lacinia resembling a knife blade, and bearing a rudimentary

palp at the middle; and its lacinia can bend downwards and

backwards so as to be out of the way and to present the stipe as

a flat projecting plate. When the mouth parts are retracted, the

two maxillz are thus bent down, and their plate-like stipes are—

approximated, so as to forma hard under lip for the mouth, upon

which the mandibles play in their operations (as on a piece of cork,

or in cell-making as when the carpenter-bee is operating on wood).

The basi and medi-labium then fill the excavated part of the basi-

cranial surface. When the suspensorium is being protruded, the

thin membrane which borders its proximal joints and which is

extended so as to reach the blades of the maxilla, becomes tense

and divaricates them so as to secure their steadiness of motion

and to give free play to the intervening labium.

From the distal end of the maxillary rami proceed two labial

rami to support the labium, thus giving an additional joint, with

a hinge which moves freely backward and forward. (This is the

piece usually called cardo; we shall call it /adial ramus of the

suspensorium, or labi-suspensorium.) By means of it a very

1Dr. Hagen has shown us Wolff's article on “‘ Das Riechorgan der Biene”’ in

Nowa Acta Leop. Carol., Band Xxxviil (1875), with beautiful and accurate drawings

of the structure of the bee’s head. The author does not appear to have studied the

parts in the relations here discussed ; and he is altogether fanciful in identifying the

hard parts and the muscles of the bee’s skull with the bones and muscles of the

mammalian head.

1881.] Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. 359

great degree of motion backwards and forwards is allowed to the

labium, which mobility is still further increased by the protrusi-

bility of its ligule or distal piece. The labium consists of a basal

piece, usually termed submentum (we would rather call it basi-

labium, Fig. 5, BL); of a medial piece, usually termed mentum.

Fic. 4.—Suspensorium and mouth parts of ant. MS, basi-suspensorium; MC,’

mesocephalic pillar. The other references are as in F ig. 5.

Spensorium; MR, i-suspensorium ; de/ow BL, labi-suspensoriw 3 to

basi-labium ; ML, medi-labium; PG, paraglosse; LP, labial ; LG, ligule or outer

ongue; MD, mandible; Mx, maxilla: the termin rt of the maxilla is the lacinia,

the basal part is the stipe, its narrow middle part has a rudimentary maxillary palp.

One of the endocranial pillars is seen extending from beside the occipital foramen to

ible.

near the insertion of the mandible

(we would call it medi-labium, ML), and of what we may call a

disti-labium, consisting of paraglosse (pc), of well-developed —

labial palps (LP), and of the terminal ligule (LG), about which a

great deal has been written.

In such bee-like insects as do not protrude their maxille, these

Parts are more or less simplified, so as often to illustrate and

explain the complex arrangement of the bee. Very often the

distal parts of the labium are reduced or condensed (so as to

resemble somewhat the swollen tip of a housefly’s proboscis). In

Stizus grandis, with non-retractile proboscis, we found the basi-

cranial rods to be merely a high ledge running forwards around

the excavated part of the basi-cranium, and serving for insertion _

360 Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee, [May,

of the maxille. This shows clearly how the excavation and the

rods and connecting sheets arise by an involution of the cranial

wall, with thickenings in special tracts.

The large black ant (Formica pennsylvanica) carries our

thoughts still further. It has only one basi-cranial rod (Fig. 4,

Ms), extending forward above the basi-cranial wall (which is not

excavated). This is derivable from the case of the bee, on the

supposition that the basal rods and the margins of the basi-cran-

ial involution have approximated medially so as to coalesce. The

ant’s suspensorium has a medi-suspensorial pair of maxillary

rami (MR), as in the bee; but its labial rami are so small as to be

nearly obsolete. Its basi-labium (BL) and its medi-labial case

(mL) are much as in the bee; but its disti-labial parts are con-

densed.

The series of gradations thus attained holds out inducements

to pursue the subject, and we may perhaps see the beginning of a

new line of discovery in this field, Compare, for example, the

maxillary adjustments of the cockroach with those of the insects

already described, Here again Mr. Huxley is less happy than

usual in ‘his anatomical descriptions. He states that the basal

piece or cardo of the maxilla of the cockroach is connected with

a thin band which runs round the posterior margin of the epi-

cranium and is firmly united with it only on its dorsal side. He

does not indeed represent the maxille as directly inserted in the

back of the skull, but he regards them as attached to a band which

is itself attached to the back or dor-

sal aspect of the skull, and which he

is thus compelled to consider a por-

tion of its exoskeleton. This view,

if sustained, would clash with the

mode of suspension in the bee, where

the maxilla have been found to have

endocranial connections with the base

or ventral side of the skull.

A careful examination of the con-

Fic. 6.—Endocranium and max- nections‘ in the cockroach, proves,

aD cach (Porialancie orkeneetay, HoNevens that the: cardines OF sg

EC, endocranium; CA, cardo. Other maxillz are inserted ina ridge which

references as in Fig. 5. crosses the basis-cranium in front of

the occipital foramen (though a slender ridge runs from this part

| 1881.] Endocranium and Maxillary Suspensorium of the Bee. 361

round the occipital foramen, as usually occurs in insects). This

transverse ridge is intimately connected with the roots of the

mesocephalic system; and may be deemed a condensed varia-

tion of the bee’s suspensorium.

The Coleoptera have presented the greatest difficulty here, a dif-

ficulty which has been long felt by zodlogists. With the Coleoptera

the basi-cranial region is so unlike that of other insects that a special

nomenclature has been devised for it; and the terms mentum, sub-

menium and gula are properly confined to the beetles (the appli-

cation of these terms to other insects has been, in some measure,

guess-work). The base of the head failing us as a guide, we

started from the other end, or front. Here it was easy to find in

the clypeus of Lachnosterna the points from which the meso-

cephalic pillars ought to descend; and there the pillars actually

are, but they appear as involutions of the wall, and they descend

not to the vicinity of the occipital foramen, but further forward to

the region of the submentum, and near them the maxillary car-

dines are inserted. The interpretation of these observations is

easy. Mr. Huxley has sought the representatives of the beetle’s

basi-cranial pieces in the neck of the cockroach ; the facts now

given appear to say that in other insects (as the bee) they are |

condensed into the very complex and strong system of ridges

which borders the front of the occipital opening. The Coleop-

tera alone have these parts resolved so as to show the primitive

arrangement. The fact that they reach the basi-cranium at the

point of insertion of the maxillz, is in complete harmony with

what we have seen in*the bee. We observed in the basi-occipital

region of the head of Lachnosterna, and still more distinctly in

the Stag-beetle, an overarching frame, enclosing a nervous canal

Similar to the sternal canal of the thorax. We may, perhaps,

detect traces of this in the very intricate cross-bars in advance of

the foramen magnum of the bee; so that here the sternal canal

and the roots of the sissorephalic and basi-cranial processes are

all crowded together. (Thus it is not correct to say that Coleop-

tera have no endocranium, although Gegenbaur makes a slip

When he cites them as an example of largely developed endo-

Cranium.)

Only a few words can be added as to the cranial splachnodemes,

or that part of the endocranium which consists of hardening of

the pharynx. The mouth is floored by a stiff tongue-like plate

362 Mya arenaria in San Francisco Bay. [May,

(we may call it Zzgua, not to be confounded with the ligule already

mentioned). The tip of this lingua is deflected downwards, and

from its base run backwards two long barbed processes. Over

the mouth is a similar but simpler structure, called epipharynx,

and to these the borders of the pharynx are attached, and also

muscles, If we force open the mouth (by pulling down the

maxillz), we find the open mouth overarched by epipharynx (con-

nected with the labrum), floored inwardly by the lingua (or inner

tongue, formed by the floor of the pharynx), enclosed at the

sides by the long tendons of the lingua which are stretched up

like faucial door posts. All these hard parts keep open the soft

membrane of the pharynx, just as the iron frame of a dredge

keeps open the netting attached to it. In the upper part of the

cranial cavity are racemose glands which send down a pair of

ducts to the inner tongue. The great salivary apparatus of

the thorax sends forward its ducts which unite and penetrate

through the basi and medi-labium to the ligule or long outer-

tongue.

It would be premature, at the present stage of our knowledge,

to theorize upon these facts. They indicate a fundamental unity

of structure of the heads of all insects; but how far and in what

directions it is varied, and what is its relation to other parts of

the body, are questions needing further research.

20;

MYA ARENARIA IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY.

BY ROBERT E, C, STEARNS.

N November, 1874, Dr. W. Newcomb, who at that time resided

in California, described in the Proceedings of the California

Academy of Sciences, a species of Mya which had been given to

him by the well-known collector, Henry Hemphill, who detected

several specimens of the form on the shore of Alameda county,

on the eastern side of San Francisco bay.

The specimens were about two-thirds of the usual average SiZ©

1 Siebold discovered a triple salivary system in the bee; but the text books tig

still sadly at variance with each other and with the facts, in their treatment of this

part of the subject. Some place the bee’s salivary glands in the head, some in the

thorax, ard some say they are sometimes in one part and sometimes in the other!

1881.] Mya arenaria in San Francisco Bay. 363

of Mya arenaria} rather fragile in substance and delicate in

sculpture.

As Dr. Newcomb considered it a new species, he described it

as above and gave it the name of JZ. hemphillii, remarking that

“the only species with which it can be confounded is the JZya

precisa of Gould, which Dr. Carpenter considers as identical with

M. truncata of the North Atlantic. A specimen of MV. arenaria,

from Puget sound, in my collection, is quite distinct from this

species, and, like many of the circumpolar species, is common to

the North Pacific and North Atlantic. It is quite distinct from

the fossil JZ. montereyi Conrad, as Iam informed by Dr. Cooper,

who kindly made for me the comparison of this shell with Con-

rad’s figure and description.”

Since 1874, the date of the description, the Mya has become

abundant, and is found for miles alongside the easterly shore of

the bay, and is now the leading clam in the markets of San Fran-

cisco and Oakland, superseding to a great extent the previous

“clams,” Macerna nasuta and Tapes (or more properly Cuneus)

staminea Conrad, in its varieties, especially diversa Sby., and the

now dominant clam of the fish-stalls, is found exhibiting all of

the characteristics of Mya arenaria, and is universally conceded

to be the same as the Atlantic species.

My friend, Dr. Newcomb, as quoted above, it will be seen, re-

garded his Puget sound Mya as J. arenaria; which is the region

from which Gould’s form, Mya precisa, was brought, and if re-

lated to another form, is more likely to be a variety of the circum-

polar ¢runcata than to be arenaria.

one of the more recent and reliable collectors referred to in

Carpenter’s Supplementary Report (1863) to the British Associa-

tion, neither any collector since this date, to my knowledge, has

verified the occurrence of MV. avenaria at any point north of San

Francisco bay on the west coast of America. Gould was certainly

familiar with a form so common on the New England coast; and

though perhaps in this day and generation we hold rather broader

views as to what constitutes a species than some of the old mas-

“The only bivalve along the coast or in the bay of San Francisco which might be

mistaken for or identified with Mya arenaria is Schisotherus nuttalli Conrad, which

when mature is two or three times as large as the largest specimens of Mya. Dwarfec

forms of the large species are found at low tide on the flats connected with Goat

island on the east. In this species the siphons are enclosed in an external sheath,

the same as in Mya, making what the unsophisticated call a “ long neck.”

364 Mya arenaria in San Francisco Bay. [ May, —

ters, yet he certainly would have noticed it, had the shells before

him been closely like the more common Linnean species.

Middendorff credits it to Sitka} etc., but this is not supported

by any of the numerous subsequent authorities.

As to its presence on the Asiatic side of the North Pacific,

Middendorff credits it to “Kamchatka” and the “ Ochotsk sea.”

Jay, in (Vol. 11) Perry’s Japan Expedition, describes it even as

“V1. japonica,” and credits it to “ Volcano bay, Island of Yeddo,”

remarking that it ‘is very similar to J arenaria.” Arthur

Adams,? who collected in Japan, pronounced it identical. It has

also been detected in Hakodadi bay, and Professor Morse says

“the typical northern form (JZ arenaria) lives in the Gulf of

Yeddo to-day, and its shells are found in the mounds of Omori.”®

It must be admitted that the species is found in these Asiatic

stations upon the testimony here adduced, but as to its presence

on the coast of Western America at any point north of or any-

where outside of San Francisco bay, the fact that neither Nuttall,

Jewett, Kennerly, Lord, Swan, Cooper, Harford, Dunn, Hemphill,

Hepburn, Fischer, Dall, Newcomb (in the field), and many others,

as well as myself, have never detected a specimen prior to the

date of my friend Newcomb’s description (or since, so far as I

can learn), ought to be sufficient evidence on this point.

From whence, then, came the seed which has produced the

abundance of this species which has spread and is now spreading

rapidly along the shores of San Francisco bay ?

Examine the ancient shell heaps and mounds found hereabout,

and one may find the thin broken valves of the Macomas, but

not a fragment of the shell of Mya. One may find the shells of

the native Haliotis and Olivella and the beads and money or orna-

ments made from them; the bones of the common California

deer, of the whales, and perhaps other animals, all of which are

still to be found in the neighborhood or not many miles away, but

not a piece of Mya. The ancient clam-diggers, whose kitchen-

middens are met with in many places on the Alameda and other

shores of the bay, whose skeletons and implements are sometimes

exhumed or discovered, had “ passed over to the majority” cen

turies before the advent of Mya arenaria in California waters:

To proceed to the question—was the seed of this mollusk intro-

1B. A. Report, 1856, p. 219.

2 Td. Rep., 1863, p. 588.

3 AMER. NATURALIST, Sept., 1880, p. 657-8.

1881. ] Mya arenaria in San Francisco Bay. 365

duced from the waters of the Asiatic shores of the North Pacific

or from the American shores of the North Atlantic? If artificially

introduced, of which there can be no doubt—from which direc-

tion does the extent and character of the traffic of our commercial

intercourse make it most probable that the species came or was

brought? By water on the steamships from Japan, or by railroad

three thousand miles overland from the Atlantic seaboard ?

With the completion and operation of the trans-continental

railroad, our oyster men, many of whom have a large capital in-

vested in the business, commenced the importation of small

oysters (O. virginica) from the Atlantic side, by the car load, for

planting in San Francisco bay, where ina season or so they attain

a merchantable size, growing exceedingly fat; as yet, efforts to

Propagate them have not been successful; but the importation

still continues as before, the profit to the oyster planter being sim-

ply through increase in size and not from multiplication of num-

bers by propagation.

There is no similar traffic with Japan, and it is hardly possible

that the fry of Mya arenaria, if it did adhere to the bottom of the

steamers in Japanese parts would be able to hold on for so longa

time or for so great a distance with the friction of the water

against the bottom of the steamer constantly operating to sweep

it off.

Native oysters are also imported from various points in Wash-

ington Territory, and planted in the bay, but we have no knowl-

edge of the Mya existing at any point in the region from whence

these latter oysters are brought.

In the presence of the fact of the rapid increase of this. truly

excellent edible, next to the oyster the most valuable either as

human food or fish bait, of any of this class of food, and the infer-

€nce from its spreading so readily in San Francisco bay, that other

places along the coast might prove equally congenial to it, it

would be a wise, public spirited act if the captains of our coasting

vessels would take the trouble and incur the slight expense attend-

ing the planting of this clam at such points as their vessels touch

at in the ordinary course of business.

Since the manuscript of the foregoing matter was sent to the

Naturauisr, I have received specimens of Mya arenaria from my

end, Dr. C. L. Anderson, of Santa Cruz, for identification.

Santa Cruz is on the coast at the northerly end of Monterey bay,

366 The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. [ May,

about seventy-two miles south of the entrance to San Francisco

bay. The specimens are rather under, than of, the usual size, and

were obtained at the mouth of a lagoon near Santa Cruz.

In a few years we may look for its distribution southerly and

along and around Monterey bay, the shores of which are well

adapted for this species. As to its introduction at Santa Cruz, I

hope to be able to give more particular information hereafter.

a aos

THE SQUID OF THE NEWFOUNDLAND BANKS IN ITS

RELATION TO THE AMERICAN GRAND

BANK COD FISHERIES,

BY H. L. OSBORN.

fees broad continental plateau which fringes our eastern coast,

rises in many places near to the ocean’s surface, and forms

shallows known in sailor language as “banks.” These banks

have, on the average, a depth of thirty fathoms, though in some

places but seven or eight fathoms, and are a favorite resort of the

several species of our most important food fishes, visiting the

places to prey upon the many forms of marine invertebrates

covering these favoring spots in most luxuriant profusion. In

most cases the banks are not extensive, not more than from ten

to twenty miles in length, but this rule finds a notable exception

in the case of the Grand Bank, off Newfoundland. This shoal

is in shape nearly an equilateral triangle ; its base is two hundred

and seventy miles long, running east, north-east, and lying some-

what east of south-east from the island. This northern edge,

furthermore, is sixty miles distant from land, and the intervening

water has an average depth of eighty-five fathoms. The edge of

this shoal is very clearly defined, the water along the northern

limit falling suddenly, in the distance of only a mile or two,

from thirty to sixty fathoms, while, on the other sides, the de- —

scent is frequently very rapid from thirty to one hundred and

eighty fathoms. It has been noted as the most favorable grounds

for the capture of the cod since before 1740, at which time

seventy vessels from Gloucester alone, scoured the banks, and

since which time the number has fluctuated, till at present more

than four hundred schooners are engaged in the pursuit. The

problem of bait has always been a troubling one to this enormous

1881.] The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. 367

fleet. I am told that in early days salt bait of clams or fish was

in universal use, but of late some sort of fresh bait has seemed a

necessity, and the squid has become the favorite form. This

they are forced to procure at Newfoundland, and they have thus

opened a new traffic to the people of the island, and caused, too,

at times, much hostility’and ill-feeling.

During the summer and fall of 1879, I had the opportunity of

spending three months on a codfishing schooner, for the purpose

of making zodlogical collections, and also of studying the men

and their methods; this gave me a chance to visit a large num-

ber of harbors, and to study in some detail the matter of bait.

The bait used during the latter part of the year is the squid; not

Loligo pealii Les,, the common form of the ocean waters south of

Cape Cod, but Ommastrephes illecebrosa Quatr., a more northern

species readily distinguished by its movable eyelids. So many

good descriptions and figures of this species are in the reach of

€very one, that any description of the creature is unnecessary in

this place. For accurate description of the wonderful changes of

color in the integument, I would refer the reader to Professor

Verrill’s account},

The squid does not appear early in the year, during which time-

the herring, Clupea harengus, and the capelin, Mallotus villosus, are

used, but “strikes” late in June or early in July, touching first upon

the southern points of the island. The natives and the fishermen

agree in the opinion that the squid migrates steadily northward

during the season, appearing first in the northern harbors two

weeks later than in the southern, and finally lingering at northern

points in the island after they have entirely disappeared from

those further south. One is induced, moreover, to believe in a

Migration among the squid, from the intermittent manner in

which they are captured. At one time they are taken as fast as

they can be hauled in, while, again, scarcely any can be caught.

Furthermore, captures of different times will often average very

differently in size, indicating that those of the same ages move in

the same schools, and that one school is replaced by another.

Thus on one day we secured a large number of very large squid,

the largest measuring 290 mm. and the average 265 mm. from

base of tentacles to tip of tail, but on the following day could ob-

tain none whose length was greater than 190 mm.

Invertebrates Vineyard Sound, PP. 442-443, 1874.

368 The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. [ May,

Evidence is not wanting to show that the squid do some-

times occur on the Grand Banks. Vessels are reported to have

caught their bait while at anchor there, and yet I can but regard

this as the exception, and I believe that the habit of the squid is

to remain during the summer quite near shore. In examination

of the stomach contents of the cod, I saw nothing to indicate the

squid’s presence on the banks. This to be sure is negative evi-

dence, yet it carries some weight.

Squid jig.

The sole mode of capture of the squid is called “jigging,”

a term derived from, and descriptive of the process. The

only gear is a peculiar hook called a “jig,” and a couple of

fathoms of “mackerel” line. No bait is employed. The jig

of lead, two inches or thereabouts in length, armed at its

base with sharply pointed unbarbed pins radially arranged, and

curving upward and outward as represented in the accompanying

figure. The jigging is conducted in water of from eight to tem

feet, usually from small boats, but occasionally from the vessel's

side. The jig is allowed to sink nearly to the bottom, where it

is kept constantly vibrating up and down, till the squid is felt

upon it. Frequently two jigs are managed, one in each hand.

In its mode of taking the hook, the squid differs from any

other animal I have ever met. In place of a nibble followed by 4

snap with the subsequent struggle for escape, there is a sensation

as of some one grasping the hook with his fingers. The squid

does not use his mouth in “biting,” but merely clasps his tenta-

cles round the jig. The pain from the sharp pins doubtless ™-

duces him to escape instantly, but the fisherman who is constantly

1881. ] The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. 369

jerking the jig up and down, pulls in as rapidly as possible, en-

tangling the squid’s arms among the pins, and drawing him

through the water so fast that escape is impossible.

The instant he emerges from the water he contracts his body,

discharging through his siphon a jet of salt water. This is fol-

lowed by a sucking in of the air by successive respiratory acts,

till in its middle portion his cylindrical body has become almost

spherical. By a second contraction, the squid now ejects from

his siphon a stream of his black, inky secretion. He will usually

make one or two or more contractions in an effort to escape, after

which he becomes resigned. Not infrequently it happens that

the luckless wight has not the squid unhooked before the inky

discharge, and may have this sent at himself, since the siphon

points away from the animal and upward. I have often seen a

fellow struck full in the face by the inky stream, which event was

invariably followed by a stream of almost as black abuse intended

for the benefit of the squid,

The squid is unhooked by simply turning the jig upper end

downward, when he readily drops off. For the most part they are

caught wholly by the natives, the Americans usually preferring

to look on or to find amusement ashore, though in some cases

the fishermen themselves jig also. This, however, is apt to excite

jealousy among the natives, or even such hostile feelings at times

as to induce them to forcibly prevent the Gloucester men from

catching their own bait, or even to purchase it in their harbor.

The scene when the squid are thick is really exciting, the streams

rising here and there, in twenty directions at once, point out the

rapidity of the catch, and the monotonous noise of the squirt is

only varied by an occasional murmur of discontent from this or

that unfortunate as he lifts his querulous voice. In the dull time

most of the jiggers drop away, leaving only those most long-suf-

fering ones, but they return pell-mell if the frequent squirt shall

indicate renewed activity.

The purchase of the squid is made at a certain price per hun-

dred, this being usually thirty-five or forty cents, though occa-

‘tonally falling as low as twenty-five cents. The price but rarely

"Ses above forty cents, for the profits are too small to permit of

'ts reaching a much higher figure. The number used by a single

vessel in only two months is astounding. Our vessel, a small one,

made three “ baitings,” fishing each time about two weeks, and

VOL, XV.—No, y, 26

370 The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. [ May, |

used in that time 80,000 of the squid. A larger vessel, carrying

two more men, would in the same time have probably used over

100,000. As to the whole number of squid used in a single season

by Americans alone, I have not sufficient statistics to give an ac-

curate statement, it would, however, be reckoned high in the tens

of millions.

In delivering his squid, the native accurately counts them, taking

up five at a time and throwing out one at every hundredth for tally.

And in this the native stupidity appears, for had he ten thou-

sand to dispose of, he would handle over the entire number rather

than estimate their value by weighing or measuring. Since they

must be each paid separately, and never have themselves any

change, the skipper is forced to carry with him a large supply of

fractional pieces, so that he will not unfrequently have one or two

hundred dollars on board in five, ten and twenty cent pieces of

Newfoundland currency, having secured them at some of the

larger towns by a draft on his vessel.

It is very strange that, though such an enormous and often

pressing demand for the squid exists, no enterprise has ever been

undertaken for facilitating its supply with the least possible delay.

A vessel is by no means infrequently delayed two or three weeks,

and in the course of her search forced to visit harbor after har-

bor till she had coasted along-shore three or four hundred miles.

To such an extent is this true, that the vessel will often spend

more time in the search for bait than it afterward takes to use it

up. This trouble might be obviated with the greatest ease, for,

in time of plenty, the squid might be preserved in ice to be drawn

upon when, in a lull, the catch was not large enough to supply

the incoming vessel, and the vessel could then return to her fish-

ing ground with the loss of but a single day. Nor would there

be any difficulty in procuring ice in Newfoundland during the

winter, nor any danger that the bait could not find a market, for

the fishermen would not be long in advertising such a place bot

far and wide. Even if there were some means of communication

between the harbors the trouble would be far less than at present;

it would be utterly impossible to drive a horse in most directions,

and there is scarcely a telegraph line in the island. Hence when the

fisherman seeks bait he must cruise about till he finds it, and at

present he spends twice as much time in sailing and bait-hunting

as in the actual work of fishing. ,

1881.] The Squid of the Newfoundland Banks. 371

When at night the day’s catch is brought on board, the men

proceed to preserve the squid either by salting them or by plac-

ing them in ice. In case the season is growing late the skipper

has several thousand well salted and stowed for use when fresh

squid can no longer be had. But most of the squid are sand-

wiched in layers of two or three deep between layers of fine-

ly broken ice in bait bins in the vessel’s hold. Twenty-five or

thirty thousand are thus cared for at a “baiting” and will keep in

fit condition for use from two to three weeks. In using them

each squid is cut into about five pieces and one piece is used for:

each hook. The hooks are usually well cleaned by the carnivor-

ous gastropoda which infest the banks and by the various fish

which are not caught, so that the same piece of squid is rarely

used on two occasions. The fish do not bite with the same avid-

ity at the last of the baiting, the fresh bait securing by far the

most fish. The salt squid is nearly useless in the summer and

early fall, but late in October, I am told, that they are used with

considerable success.

In what I have said, I have made no mention of any use of the

Squid save by the Americans, but I cannot leave thesubject without

a brief mention of other uses fully as important as this. The New-

foundlanders themselves use an enormous number, both for bait

in their shore fisheries, and as a fertilizer for their land. I have

been assured, also, that they are good to eat, but though food

materials are not abundant on the island, they are not put to this use

there so far as I know. The French, moreover, have very extensive

fisheries on the Newfoundland coast fully as important as the

American, I. should judge, their vast size being insured by a

bounty offered by the government to fishermen, and by the prac-

tice of reinforcing the numbers from among the national convicts.

These French vessels do not seek their own bait as is the case

among Americans, but are supplied by vessels, which make

a specialty of collecting bait, and spend their time alternately in

its search, and in its delivery. To a very large extent, I under-

Stand, the French use salt bait, they being content with small

catches, while the American is disgusted unless he makes fine

hauls every day.

And having thus seen the present importance of this industry,

does it not seem strange that it has existed but ten or fifteen

_ years, and that, previously for one hundred and fifty years, innu-

372 The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. [May,

merable fish were captured with salt bait, or the viscera from

the catch of the day before? This fact illustrates a most striking

characteristic of the American fisherman—the strong conviction

that the fish have decided preferences in the matter of bait and

will not take any kind which is out of season. He will often spend

the entire month of August in fruitless search rather than use

herring or capelin and gain but a modefate success; nor could

any argument convince him that a codfish would bite at a salt

clam while “the fleet was using squid.”

$0:

THE BRAIN OF THE EMBRYO AND YOUNG LOCUST.’

BY A. S, PACKARD, JR.

[ Continued from April number. |

Structure of the Brain in the Embryo Locust.—Much light may

be thrown upon the structure of different parts of the adult brain

if we can trace their origin in the embryo, or in the larval and

pupal conditions. Hence, we have, with what material we could

obtain, made a series of sections of the embryo and different

stages of the larva and pupa, with some results of considerable

interest and importance. No one, we belive, has yet examined

the topography of the brain of the embryo insect. The only

observer who has studied the brain of the larva, as compared

with the adult, has been Flogel. Speaking of the cockroach, he

says :

»”

mm. in length.

He says that in the Hymenoptera he has discovered much

concerning the development of the parts of the brain; that in bee

larve the calices are present, though very small and with thin

walls. The peduncle and trabecula have reached their ultimate

proportions more nearly than the cauliculus, which is still very

thin. In the larval ants the central body and entire mushroom

1 Adapted from the 2d Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, Washing-

ton, 1880.

Iv.

Plate

Raa,

nae

;

= 446

;

1881. ] The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. 373

bodies are present, though an early larval stage shows, in place

of the calices, four symmetrically situated balls of much smaller

size; the central body was very flat, and the other parts were

wanting. In the pupa all the parts had attained their definite

shape. It appears from his observations that the calices are the

last to be developed.

He then gives the results of his examination of the brain of

caterpillars, as compared with that of the adult sphinx moth. In

a caterpillar examined near the time of pupation, the central body

is very much undeveloped, forming a small linear transverse body

(Querleiste), while the different parts of the mushroom body are

indicated. In smaller caterpillars it is scarcely possible to work

out the development of the brain. In that of Pontia brassice the

mushroom body and central body were undeveloped, while in

that of an Euprepia larva the double stalk of the mushroom body

was developed, as well as roundish calyx masses. But in a Noc-

tuid larva the entire mushroom body, including well-developed

trabecule and a very flat central body, was present.

The brain of the mature pupz of Lepidoptera, for example

Saturnia carpini, contains all the portions of the adult brain, and

in the same relative proportions. Buta brain of Sphinx ligustri,

in a considerably younger stage of development, did not differ

much from the brain of the larva.

We offer the following observations on the brain of the embryo

locust, shortly before hatching, with much diffidence, as we are

liable to be corrected by future observations in the same direc-

tions. The embryos were taken from the egg-shell, hardened in

the usual manner, and then cut by Mr. Mason, the sections being

frontal, the entire insect being embedded in a mixture of paraffine,

wax and oil.

In the youngest stage (which we will call stage A) observed,

the body and appendages were formed and the eyes with their

facets, the pigment mass coloring the cornea pale reddish.

At this stage, as seen in section 7, the antennal and optic lobes

of the brain are indicated, but the central body and mushroom

bodies are not yet differentiated. Ina plane lying in front of the

optic and antennal lobes, the brain is divided in each hemisphere

into two regions or lobes, 2. ¢,, an upper and lower cerebral lobe.

From these embryonic cerebral lobes, are eventually developed

* Compare the 2d Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, Pls, XII,-XtUt.

374 The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. [ May,

the central body and the two mushroom bodies. The stratum of

cortical ganglionic cells is, at this period, quite distinct from the

paler unstained granular brain matter. The ganglionic cell-por-

tion gradually passes into the central white brain substance,

which is composed of fine granules or nuclei alone, and which do

not apparently differ from the granules scattered among the

ganglion cells. It is to be observed that there are no fibers

among the granules. It thus appears that the brain of insects,

like the other ganglia, originally consists of a paler portion formed

of fine clear granules (nuclei ?), enveloped by a thick, irregular

layer of nucleated cells, containing fine granules outside of the

nucleus.

As the fibers of the adult brain are evidently secondary pro-

ducts, it would appear that they must be transformed granules or

nuclei, and not in all cases, at least, the fibers thrown off from

the ganglion cells, although at this time the ganglion cells have

no fibers, the fibers of those seen in the adult brain being also

secondary growths. It may be that the white inner granulo-

fibrous matter of the adult brain is (1) made up of modified gran- ~

ules, which in some cases remain such, and in others form fibers,

and (2) of fibers sent in from the cortical ganglion cells.

Comparison of the Brain at this Stage with the first Thorac

Ganglion.—If we compare at this stage of development of the

nervous system the brain with one of the ganglia of the trunk,

we shall obtain a fair idea of the primitive difference between the

brain and one of the ordinary ganglia. By a glance at the figures

of the two it will be seen that the organization of the thoracic

ganglion is essentially simple. It is divided into two portions oF

regions. The central granular region is enveloped by a thick

stratum of cortical ganglion cells. The whole ganglion in section

is rudely hour-glass-shaped and much smaller than the brain

There is no differentiation into distinct lobes as in the brain.

The formation of the brain, as is well known by embryologists, is

one of the earliest steps in the development of the nervous syS~

tem, the entire system being at an early date in the life of the

embryo set apart from the epidermis or integument, the latter

with the nervous system originating from the ectoderm or outer

germ-layer.

Second Embryonic Stage, B—In embryos more advanced, and

just ready to hatch, the eyes being now dark red, the cen

1881. ] The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. | 375

body is formed, but our sections do not show any traces of a

mushroom body. The sections are frontal, and we will describe

them in order. The fifth section is through the head and front

part of the eyes, but does not graze the brain itself.

Section 6 passes through the outer portion of the optic and an-

tennal lobes, now clearly differentiated.

In section 7 the cerebral lobes are seen, and in section 8 are

larger, as are the optic lobes, while the antennal lobes are some-

what reduced in size. Section 10 passes through the cerebral lobes

and also grazes the optic lobes, passing through the optic ganglion.

Section 11 shows the central body,-separated from the upper

cerebral lobes by a thin layer of loose ganglionic cells. The re-

lation of the central body to the upper and lower ee lobes

is well shown in this section.

Section 12 passes through the lower cerebral lobes and the upper

left cerebral lobe and the optic ganglion. The cesophagus is

situated beneath the cleft under the lower cerebral lobes. The

next section (13) passes behind the brain, not touching it. These

sections are sto inch thick.

Structure of the Subesophageal Ganglion—In its form this

nerve center is more like the brain than the first thoracic ganglion.

The figure is drawn from the youngest embryo observed. The

ganglion seen in section is very much larger and quite different

in shape from the thoracic ganglia. It expands above the lower

fissure between the two sides, being very deep and narrow, while

the superior furrow is broad and shallow. The internal paler

portion (when magnified 400 diameters) is seen to consist of

granules. The stratum of outer cells (the future ganglion cells)

is thickest on the outside of the upper part of the ganglion, and

at the base of each hemisphere.

The Brain of the Jreshly-hatched Larva of C. spretus. —In the

larva but a few hours after hatching, the brain, so far as I can

learn from four sections, does not essentially differ from that of the

embryo just before hatching, as the interval is apparently too

short for a decided change to take place. It is evident that by the

end of the first larval stage the brain attains the development seen

in the third larval state of the two-banded Caloptenus.

For illustrations of the different larval and pupal stages of de-

velopment of the locust, the reader is referred to the first Report

of the Commission (Plates 1, 11, 11).

376 The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. [ May,

Third Larval Stage of Caloptenus bivittatus —In the third larval

condition of another species, the common Caloptenus bivittatus of

our gardens, the different parts of the brain have attained nearly

the same structure and proportions as in the adult. PI. x1u, Fig.

1, of the second report represents a section passing through the

front of the brain, and also the lateral ocelli and the right eye.

The ganglion cells surrounding and filling the calices are smaller

and more crowded than elsewhere. The mushroom bodies are

now formed, though the trabeculz are not to be seen in our sec-

tion, but the entire double stalk and calices are very clearly seen.

The fibers from the stalk are observed to extend along the inner

edge of each calyx and to suddenly stop just beyond the middle.

The granular calices contain slight irregularities and sinuous

lines, as shown in Fig. 2, 2. ca/., 0 ca., but to what these appeat-

ances are due it is difficult to say; there are also a few scattered

large granules. As the section passes through the front of the

brain, where the hemispheres are separated by the frontal furrow,

the lobes are not well marked, but the substance is made up of it-

regular intercrossing bundles of fibers, with the interspaces filled

with granulated matter. In Fig. 3 the regular saucer-like form of

the calyx is well shown. Fig. 2 is an enlarged view of the right

side of Fig. 1, and at this stage large important bundles of fibers

are seen passing into the optic, antennal, and commissural lobes.

First Pupal Stage of Caloptenus spretus.—My sections are too

imperfect to describe, but the form of the brain is closely like

that of the next stage.

Second or last Pupal Stage of Caloptenus spretus—A numbert

(14) of very successful sections, made by Mr. Mason from one

head, give an excellent opportunity for studying the head of the

locust in this stage, just before becoming fledged (see first Report,

Pl. 1, Fig. 5). Of these sections, Nos. 8 and g pass through the

calices and cesophageal lobes, but do not reach the central body.

Section 10 (Fig. 1, of Pl. 1v) passes through the central body,

which is sts of an inch in thickness, the section itself being of the

same thickness, In the optic ganglion the section passes through

the front of it, but two lenticular masses appear. The trabeculz

are as in the adult, and the superior and inferior intra-trabecular

nerves are clearly seen to pass into the center of each trabecula

just as in the adult. On the left side the origin of the cauliculus

and peduncle is clearly seen, under a power of 225 and of 400

Plate V.

* Ba

com.missure

“soosophagus

r-Clypeus

~>s=-="4~ corpus centrale

eo a

® 1

1881. ] The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. 377

diameters, the relation of parts being exactly as in the adult (see

Pl. 11, Fig. 3). The base of the two divisions of the double stalk

arise suddenly, as if inserted into or resting simply upon, rather

than arising from, the trabecule; the bases of the cauliculus and

peduncle being in the same line with the base of the center of

the upper division of the central body. It appears as if a few

nerve fibers passed under the base of the stalk between it and the

trabecula; at any rate, I have been unable to observe either in

the pupa, or larva, or adult among a number of preparations, any

continuity between the trabecule and the double stalk.

In this section the curving of the double stalk backwards and

the passage in front of this double column is to be clearly seen,

and is just as we have described it from similar sections of the

adult brain (Fig. 3 of Pl. 1). The ball-like masses in the ceso-

phageal commissures are as distinctly shown as in the adult.

Section 11 passes behind the central body, not showing it nor

the basal part of the double stalk of the mushroom body. This

section, and those behind it, show well the structure of the optic

ganglion. In section 11 the three lenticular bodies clearly

appear.

The main, and almost the only difference between the second

pupa and the adult appears to be in the degree of development of

the central body. In the second pupa (PI. rv, Fig. 3) it is rather

more elementary than in the adult, the upper and lower series of

unicellular bodies being a little shorter and rounder, nearer their

primitive condition, and the septa between them are plainly

fibrous. Their contents are as finely granular as the adjoining

parts of the body.

Section 11 is instructive as showing a bundle of directly

ascending and obliquely ascending fibers from the back part of

the trabecula, of which a portion is contained in the section.

Two large bundles enter the commissural lobes, one from above

and one from the inner side under the central body, the bundle

from above passing down into the lobe from around the upper side

of the trabecula. From this fact we should infer that there is a

partial nervous communication between the trabeculae and the

commissural lobes. The fibers enveloping the trabecula above

are more numerous, the mass of fibers much thicker than in sec-

tion 10, showing that what we supposed to be fibers separating

the stalk from the trabecula appear to be really such.

378 The Brain of the Embryo and Young Locust. [May,

A broad bundle of fibers is also seen on the right side, passing

down from the upper side inside of the upper end of the pedun-

cle, down outside and back of the central body, and is seen to en-

ter the commissural lobe on its inner side, terminating at the point

where the ascending fibers to the upper side of the trabecula

originate. There is thus a direct communication between the

upper part of the brain and the cesophageal commissure in the

lower part. It appears, also, that three large nerves or bundles

of fibers enter each commissural lobe from above.

At the under side of the commissural lobes the cortical ganglion

cells (some of them very large) appear to send their fibers into

others to build up the mass of fibers enveloping the lobe. Flogel

states that the opinion that the ganglionic cells in winged insects

are in direct relation through the fibers with the organs of the

body are unfortunately provisionally contradicted by his observa-

tions. But here (seen in a portion of the commissural lobe not

represented in Fig. 3 of Pl. 111), as in one or two other places, we

think we have seen fibers from the cortical ganglion cells passing

into and aiding in building up the nerves. Such a relation is very

plain in the brain of the horseshoe crab, Limulus polyphemus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.

Fic. 1.—Enlarged view of brain and eye of C.spretus in the second pupal stage;

xX %A. This view of the brain is taken from the same preparation (No. 10)

as Fig. 1, Plate v. Cen¢r. b., the central body, showing the two series of cells

in the lower division eat the two rows of unicellular bodies in the superior

division; @. com. /., ce30 eal commissural Rite with the ball-like masses

distinctly seen, though as preparation was stained only with picrocarmine 5

@. com., cesophageal commissure ; off. one sil nervules ; retina, retina with

rods si cones beyond, the cornea not shown.

Fic. 2.—The central body of adult C. spretus, from section 17, showing the inferior

and superior divisions, the cells in inferior division (if), and the two rows of

unicellular bodies (ce. ce//. 6.) in the superior division (sz.). Magnified 225

diameters.

Fic, 3.—The central body of the second or last pupal state, from section No. 103 &

cells in the fibrous septum between the lower and upper divisions of the central

body, from section No. 11. \ 225 diameters

Fic. 4.—Vertical section of the subcesophageal ganglion of the cockroach (B/atta

peieubay showing the commissure on the le :

Fic. 5.—A section farther behind, showing the ne of the ganglion (gang. ,) of the

eng a seen separate from the commissure (com

Fic. 6.—A section through the commissure just behind the ganglion ©

beta

f the

EXPLANATION OF PLATE V. F

Fic. 1.—Frontal section No. 10, through the head of second or last pupal py .

C. spretus, passing through the middle of the brain, the optic ganglion an oi aad

1881. ] . Editors Table. 379

and cutting across the cesophagus. Drawn in order to show = relation of the

brain to the eyes and the exterior of the head; magnified 30 diameters. th

brain, the right mushroom body is seen, wily the optic and sera lobes are

not so well marked. The central body (cem/r. 4.) is cut through near the mid-

; below are the trabeculee oe ); next to the commissural lobes, two trachez

Ur. ) or air-tubes passing near the brain. The commissure to the subcesopha-

geal ganglion is drawn on sd right side, passing down the cesophagus. In the

eye, the cornea, the respective portions composed of rods and cones, the black

retina, the stratum of optic nervules, and the optic ganglion and optic nerve

passing off from the optic lobe, are all well marked

Fic, 2.—-Section through the brain and eyes of the same second pupa of C. spretus,

a through the anterior part of the calices, but not through We central

The section is oblique and does not well represent the right si

Fic, 3. Pkg: of the section represented by Fig. 2; magnified 225 Rascals It is

composed of granulated nerve substance pint a few fibers, the continuation of

ose of the stalk, and with a few ganglion cells.

Fic. 4—Section through the back of brain of the adult Locusta carolina, passing

behind the mushroom body, showing the cesophageal commissures, the antennal

lobes, and the bundle of nerve-fibers crossing to the right hemisphere. The

the right mushroom body. The distribution of the large (/.g.c.) and small

ganglion cells (sm. g. c.) is well seen in this section. It will be seen that the

brain of Locusta carolina does not differ in any respect from that of Caloptenus

Spretus, so far as the sections show.

:0:

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

—— It is rumored that at the next meeting of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science, to be held in Cin-

cinnati in August of this year, a proposition will be brought for-

ward to extend an invitation to the British Association to depart

from their usual custom so far as to come over to this country in

1883, and hold their annual meeting for that year in conjunc-

tion with the American Association, at some place hereafter to be

xed upon. A number of the most prominent scientific men in

the States and Dominion are known to be in favor of the plan,

and doubtless the members of our Association will be glad to send -

such an invitation as a mark of our cordial feelings towards the

students of science in the mother country. It will give us great

pleasure if it should prove practicable for the English body to

accept. We hope that the proposition may be happily successful.

The advantages of such a gathering of scientific men from two

countries having a common language, are as evident as they are

great. The meetings of the American Association have proved

380 Recent Literature. [May,

of inestimable value by bringing the investigators of the conti-

nent into personal contact with one another. Every scientific

man has not only new facts to present, but also theories and

hypotheses which may not be sufficiently complete, or justified by

positive knowledge, to be put into print, yet it is precisely these

vague ideas which are the most valuable stimulants of discovery,

because they are the store from which new and sound ideas can

be selected. By no other process can this selection be rendered

so efficient as by personal discussion with others whose studies

are in the same direction. If the suggested meeting be actually

held, it will certainly prove as profitable as delightful. There is |

no room to doubt that on our part we would be lavish of pains to

make the meeting successful, and we think our reputation for hos-

pitality isa guarantee that our guests will have a pleasant as

well as a profitable visit.

:0:

RECENT LITERATURE.

GeNTH AND Kerr's Minerats or Nortu Carorina.—It is per-

haps not generally known to the readers of this journal, that the

State of North Carolina has nominally carried on a geological

survey continuously for a greater number of years than any other

of the United States. The bill under which the present State

geologist was appointed, and in substance has carried on his sur-

vey, was enacted during the legislative session of 1851-52. Pro-

fessor Ebenezer Emmons was appointed State geologist in 1852,

which office he held until his death, in 1863. His son Dr.

Emmons, Jr., was then nominated, while the present incumbent,

Professor W. C. Kerr, was appointed in 1864. It is of course

obvious that little or no geological work proper was done or could.

have been done from 1860 to 1866. It is not our purpose here to

refer to the various reports of Professors Emmons and Kerr, pub-

lished at different times during the progress of the survey, but to

call attention to the advance chapter of the report now being

published.

1 The Minerals and Mineral Localities of North Carolina, being Chapter I of =

Second Volume of the Geology of North Carolina. By Professors F. A. Genth an

. C. Kerr, Raleigh, 1881.

1881. ] ; Recent Literature. 381

nagyagite. The present writer remembers having seen a very

beautiful specimen of calcite veinstone well filled with sheet

gold, said to have come from North Carolina. The occurrence ot

specimen supposed the veinstone was quartz, such associations

may not be as rare as they are now regarded. We hope that

Professor Kerr will endeavor to ascertain if such veins are to be

found in the State.

Galenite, sometimes argentiferous, exists in considerable quan-

tity. Chalcopyrite is very abundant and is the only copper ore oc-

curring in sufficient quantity to be relied upon in mining. Some

of the copper mines, as for instance the Ore Knob, in Ashe

county, are quite well known throughout the country.

_ Corundum, in association with the peridotite of North Carolina,

is quite abundant. It occurs massive in beds from 10 to 14 feet

thick, associated with prochlorite, also in hexagonal pyramids,

varying from colorless to yellow, deep red, and rarely green shades.

It as been mined to some extent, and since, for certain purposes

in the arts, the crushed corundum is more valuable than the im-

ported emery, itis to be hoped that the industry will flourish.

Hematite and magnetite are abundant and valuable, while

chromite is quite common in connection with the peridotite.

Sive) granite dikes in gneisses and mica schists. We would sug-

gest that the term die be used instead of vein when speaking of

such intrusive forms. We are aware that Professor Dana sanctions

382 Recent Literature. { May,

hausmannite, diaspore, senarmontite or valentintite, bismite,

molybdite, enstatite, spodumene, arfvedsonite, beryl abundant and

often in beautiful forms, zircon, vesuvianite, allanite, zoisite (thulite),

fibrolite, cyanite, topaz of the variety pycnite, euclase, titanite,

succinite.

It will be seen from the above lengthy list that North Carolina

is exceedingly rich in rare minerals; the whole number of min-

erals now found reaching to 178 species, said to be a greater

number than has been observed in any other of the United States.

While this indicates great industry and care on the part of the

State geologist, we can but think that so many being known is

largely due to the great knowledge of rare minerals possessed by

Dr. Genth and his skill in detecting them.

The remaining chapters of the volume will be looked for with

po and we hope that North Carolina will continue the good

ork.

State geologist, or commissioner of mining in them.—

Martin’s Human Bopy.'—This work is in the mode of treatment

of the subject intermediate between the physiologies of Dalton

and of Foster, with valuable features of its own. It gives sufficient

information concerning the anatomy of the human body to enable

the student to appreciate how that body performs its various

1 The Human Body.—An account of its structure and activities and the condition’

of its healthy workings. By H. Newell Martin, D.Sc., essor of Biology 19 a

Johns Hopkins University, etc. American Science Series. New York: Henry Ho

& Co. 1881. 12mo, pp. 621, 34. $2.75.

1881. ] Recent Literature. 383

functions. We like the plan of the book, which bears marks of

care in preparation and cautious treatment, while the statements

are made in a clear simple way, which will make the book of use

to advanced college classes, but more especially to teachers. So

vast at the present day is the science even of human physiology,

so much has been worked out of late, that it is difficult to put in

a convenient compass all the information which the student,

and more especially the teacher, should have. Where it has seemed

profitable, hygienic topics have been treated briefly, and in an ap-

pendix the subject of reproduction and development, with their

practical bearings, has been well, briefly and sufficiently discussed.

he book is sold with or without the appendix. The work is

well rounded, comprehensive in its treatment, and as the latest

work of the kind is commended to students as well as to teachers.

The illustrations are good and sufficiently abundant ; a fair num-

ber are original.

VERRILL’S CEPHALOPODS OF THE East Coast oF NortH AMERI-

of the species mentioned in this paper, with one exception,

are new to science; four of the genera are new, and all the forms

inhabit depths off our coast from about 100 to 1632 fathoms.

The drawings illustrating Professor Verrill’s descriptions were

made by Mr. Emerton; the subjects are difficult to render, but

probably no more truthful delineations of these animals have ever

been published than these illustrating this brochure.

Minor’s STUDIES ON THE ToNnGUES OF REPTILES AND BirDs.’—

This memoir consists mainly of a description of the soft parts of

the tongue of the mocassin snake (Ancistrodon piscivorus), with

the addition of observations on the tongue of the rattlesnake,

the common garter-snake, with two lizards, chameleon and Amerra

surinamensis, and the mocking-bird. Hitherto nothing has been

i Report on the Cephalopods, and on some additional species dredged by the U. S.

Ve Commission Steamer Fish Hawk, during the season of 1880. A. E.

errill, Bolletia of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard College.

» No. 5. ‘

th Reports on the results of dredging under the supervision of Alexander Agassiz on

S € east coast of the United States, during the summer of 15950, by the U. S. Coast

rae ae Steamer Blake, Commander, J. R. Bartlett, U. S, N., commanding. Cam-

ridge, March, 1881, :

thie ities on the Tongues of Reptiles and Birds. By Charles S. Minot. (From

ic cro ian Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History). Boston, 1880.

- Pp. 20.

384 Recent Literature. [ May,

done upon the histology of the tongue of these animals, and it is

a favorable sign that in this country where so little has been ac-

complished in histology, that these studies should originate here.

The paper is illustrated by a rather coarse but well-drawn litho-

graphic plate, and photo-engravings in the text. The author's

conclusions are rather long and technical for reproduction in these

described or figured. The very handy, well arranged and care-

fully executed work of Mr. Rupertsberger, who was already

favorably known as the author of several valuable papers on the

habits and early history of European beetles, does away wit the

difficulty. The number of species enumerated, of which either

the earlier states, or at least the habits, have been described is

remarkably large when compared with the small number of Col-

eopterous larve described in our own country. :

REporT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST OF New JeERsEy!.—The an-

nual report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, Professor Cook,

contains among other interesting information, a classified cata-

logue of the iron mines of the Highlands of the State. Also a

geological map of the valley of the Passaic river and its sutf-

roundings. The upper part of the valley is supposed to have

been a glacial lake.

published by Professor H. C. Lewis in his paper on the Trenton

gravel, etc., in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy,

and adopts a number of the views there set forth as to age of

gravels, &c., but without giving credit to the earlier publication.

Kincstey’s Nores on CRUSTACEA.2—These notices contain de-

scriptions of new species of crabs, with rectifications of synonymy

and facts in their geographical distribution, based on the collection

in the museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.

The second notice is devoted to a revision of the fiddler-crabs OF

Gelasimi. The value of Mr. Kingsley’s work on this genus con-

1 Geological Survey of New Fersey. Annual Report of the State Geologist for the

year 1880, 8vo. Trenton, John L. Murphy. f

2Carcinological Notes, No. 1, 2, 3, 4. From the Proceedings of the Academy ©

Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1880. 8vo. pp. 34-37, 135-155, 179-224:

1881. ] Botany. 385

sists mainly in the reduction of species of this large group, and

his work bears evidence of care and judgment. It is accom-

panied by two plates cee outline figures of the “hands” of these

crabs. The third notice comprises a revision of the genus Ocypoda

or sand-crabs, and here the author has no doubt wisely reduced

the number of nominal species of the genus. In the fourth series

of antes is ven a synopsis of the Grapside.

REcENT Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Das System der Medusen, Erster theil einer

monograph der ‘epee en, chick beh Ernst Haeckel, 1 Vol., folio, pp. 672, plate

40, ,» 1879. From the auth

The

iferous Mesapods. By Ss. H. Scudder. (From Amer. Jour rn. Sci., Vol. XxI,

March, 1881.) pp. 5. From the author.

The st mane and gen — organs of Astrophytide. By a eg bree (Bull.

Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. vit, No. 6.) pp. 9, plates 2, From uthor

n the na te and iganclee muscles of Mammals. ed baci Allen, M.D.

(Pro Acad. Nat. Sci,, 1880.) pp. 12. From the author

ew species of Yeiadiotes: found in the Kimaseddee clay. By J. W. Hulke.

(From th the e Quart. Journ. of the Geol. Soc., Aug., 1880.) pp. 26, plates 3. seed

the

The mineral ne of the Hocking os By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D, 8vo,

PP. 152,and one map. 1881. From the

The Developmen bn ee Appt Loligo foe ie By W. K. Brooks. Gout,

Mem n Soc st.) 4to, pp. 22, plates . 1880. From the aut

an, the ries “ Reptiles — Birds, By C. S. —— (Anniv “Mem.

Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.) 4to, pp. 20, one plate, ae: From the a

Die Jungen caries be am Helles sont, hong Frank Calvert a M. Neumayr.

4to, pp. 22, two plates ry From the au

Second Annual Hens f the Deparment of Statistics « and Geology of Indiana.

8vo, pp. 544, plates 11, one aaeip, 1880, he depart

Monographie des Mammiféres Fossiles et "i epee aem Par M. Emile Cornalia.

40, pp. 95, plates 28. Milan, 1858—71

Carattere marino dell’Amfiteatro morenico del lago di Como, Per A. Stoppani e

G. Negri. 8vo, pp. 77. plates 4. Milano, 1878. From the authors.

Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans l’Amérique Centrale. Recherches

giques oo partie. Etudes sur les Rene et = Ba traciens. Par

cyl t

From the a

a ee de Venezuela. Afio 1v, No. 1, Feb., 1881. Caracas. From the

Notes on Liberian Coffee. By D. Morris. Folio, pp. 14. Jamaica, 1881, From

the author,

‘ Biennial fe 3k of the > Geologist of the State of Colorado, for the term end-

ing Dec. 31, 1880. 8vo, pp.75. Denver, 1881. From the State geologist.

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

HE EVAporaTION OF WATER FROM LEAVES (TRANSPI >

TION). The following investigations, made by Miss Ida Twitchel

im the Botanical Laboratory of the Iowa Apricuttaral College,

* Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

VOL, XV.—NOo, Vv. 27

386 General Notes. | May,

during the year 1881, are important as throwing light upon the

nature of plant evaporation, and its dependence upon light and

heat. Dehérain’s experiments (Chimie Agricole, p. 175) appear

to indicate that the evaporation of water by the leaves of plants

takes place almost as freely in a saturated atmosphere as in the open

air, evaporation being regarded as a strictly vital process. As the

accuracy of Dehérain’s results depend upon the perfect saturation

of the air in his experiments, some careful experiments

mometers indicating 84° F. During the experiment the temper-

ature gradually rose from 73° F, (dry) to 8414° F. at 4.20 P. M.,

the two thermometers differing then but half a degree. At 5.10

Pp, M, the temperature dropped half a degree, when complete

saturation was for the first time reached. These observations

show that perfect saturation is obtained with considerable diffi-

culty, as the experiments upon leaves are ordinarily performed,

and they indicate that it is desirable to carefully review the whole

question of plant evaporation.

S one step in this review, the following experiments were

made to determine the nature of the influence of light and heat

upon evaporation from leaves. A glass bottle with two openings

was filled with water, the temperature of which was varied to sult

the requirements of the experiment, and to keep the temperature

more nearly constant this bottle was set into another glass Jat

filled with water having the same temperature. A thermometer

was placed in one of the openings, and through the other a six

inch test-tube was thrust up to its top. Into this test-tube a cork

was fitted, which was covered with tinfoil to prevent its absorbing

moisture. This was the weighing cork, and had a loop °

platinum wire attached to it, by means of which the whole could

be hung upon the hook of the weighing scales. Another cork was

similarly prepared, and then split open and a healthy leaf of Orchard

Grass (Dactylis glomerata) placed carefully between the two halves-

By means of tinfoil and putty the cork was rendered imperee

to moisture, while not interfering with the healthy and norma

action of the leaf, which was still attached to the plant. ee

The test-tube, with a small thermometer in it, and the weigh

cork in place, was then accurately weighed and put into one of the

1881. ] Botany. 387

openings of the bottle and allowed to remain there until the small

hermometer remained constant at about the temperature of the sur-

sounding water. The weighing cork was then quickly changed for

the one attached to the grass leaf. After leaving the grass leaf in the

test-tube for half an hour, the weighing cork was put in place

again, and the test-tube weighed, care being taken to remove

completely all the external moisture. The following table em-

braces the results. The weights are given in grams and decimals,

and the temperatures in degrees of Fahrenheit’s thermometer.

The same leaf was used in all the experiments, excepting Nos.

. and 17. The observations were continued through several

ays.

Light. Temperature. ae hah eg Mog gt 0 ag

(Sunshine 5. ..6 cases 45-52 25.8700 25.8853 0.0153

2 heee nee os 41-45 25.8670 25.8814 | 0.0144

3 ite ee ek. 45 25.8665 25.8780 | 0.0115

4 te ee eee 50 25.8650 25.8739 0089

5 ie wae kaede 43-48 25.8619 25.8713 °

6 eee UsG 48 25.8619 25.8763 0.0144

7 erp enee 43-48 25.8615 25.8723 0.0108

8 ee ewevees es 68-72 25.8605 25.8703

Pe ay eres Re 95 25.8308 25.54 0.0152

To |Diffused light...... 41 2 895 25.87

xg where ere 59 25.8632 25.8655 0.0023

12 ess Meelis 59 25.8627 25.8643 0,0016

13 |Leaf in darkness... 41 25.8667 25.8688 0,0021

14 |Whole plant in dark-

uit 61 25.861 25.8615 eet

15 |Whole plant in dark- : : “

MESS bows cute ces 61 25.861 25.8619 0.0004

tehine. ......... 93 aaah rot 5036 0.0628

17 |\Darkness,.......... 95-97 20.4402 20.4420 0.0018

A careful study of the foregoing table shows that the leaf in-

variably lost more water in sunshine than in darkness. The

a vital on

A pine splinter from a board was now cut into about the size

and form of a grass leaf, and after being soaked in water until

388 ae General Notes. [May,

saturated, it was fastened into a cork exactly 4s the-grass blade had

been, and a number of observations were made upon it to see

whether it would respond to the changes in light as the grass

leaf had. The results are given in the table below:

: Weight of empty] Weight of tube |Increase (= wa-

tight, AOS, tube. after 1% hour. | ter evaporated).

ReASMRERING 25 s5 Csi. ece | 63-68 20.4437 20.4717 0.0280

2 Se ee irsley sy le) 20.4418 20.5120 0.0602

q pDatkness oso See on 907-74 20.4418 20.4450 0.0032

4 sho Sado peace 109 20.4430 20.4480 0,0050

5 SOs ee aray wine | 61-97 20.4425 20.4439 0.0014

6 Seo NN ie iia Wiese ak | gg-120 20.4422 20.4471 0.0049

Here we had, without doubt, a purely physical action, and yet

the evaporation was about ten times as great in light as in dark-

ness. Now, light itself could not have been the cause of this

increased evaporation in this case, and it is a just inference that it

was no more the cause in the previous experiments upon the

leaf—C. E. Bessey.

Tue Frora or ARKANSAS.—From the geological formations,

varied surface features and central geographical position of Ar-

kansas, one would expect to find a flora rich in genera and

species.

The State embraces Silurian, Sub-carboniferous, Cretaceous,

Tertiary and Quaternary formations. The surface comprises

mountains, uplands, prairies, alluvial bottoms and swamps.

Geographically it is so situated as to invite the floras of the

States on the north-east, south and west, and also has a flora of

These important elements, favoring plant occurrence and distr-

bution, combine to make the botany of Arkansas interesting, an

the species numerous and varied. A few instances will serve t0

show the richness of the flora of Arkansas as compared with

that of Iowa, which lies on the same side of the Mississipp!

river, but some degrees further north.

There are 34 species of the order Rosacea in Iowa, while the

order is represented in Arkansas by 35 species. There are 208

species of Composite in Arkansas and only 156 in Iowa; !

species of the genus Quercus in Arkansas, only 10 in Iowa; 110

species of grasses in Arkansas, only go in Iowa. The genus

Carya is represented in Arkansas by all the 8 species found 1n

the United States, while only 4 are recorded from Iowa. ;

The flora of Arkansas is represented by all the orders found in

Iowa and in addition by Magnoliacez, Droseracee, Calycantha-

cez, Melastomacez, Loasacez, Passifloracez, Hamamelaceds

Aquifoliaceee, Styracee, Loranthacez, Saururacee, Ceratophy!-

lace, Myricacee, Palma, Hemodoracez and Bromeliacee.

1881. ] Botany. 389

The most of the species found in the adjoining States east of

the Mississippi, are also found in Arkansas. The same may be

said of the flora of East Texas, Indian Territory and Kansas.

I will close by giving a few of the trees of the gulf and coast

flora that are found in South Arkansas, viz: Magnolia glauca L..,

Sapindus marginatus Willd., Nyssa uniflora Wang., Fraxinus

platycarpa Michx., Olea Americana L., Persea Carolinensis Nees,

Carya myristiceformis Nutt., Quercus aquatica Nutt., Q. Phellos,

oe and Pinus Teda L.—F. L. Harvey, Ark. Ind. Univ., Fan. 13,

1881,

Botranicat Notrs.—M. E. Jones, of Salt Lake City, well

known as a collector of western plants, has recently sent out a

printed list of his second fascicle of Utah plants. It includes

about four hundred and fifty species, many of which are rare and

interesting. Grawitz has recently shown that the moulds

Eurotium and Aspergillus possess forms which are highly malig-

nant when they obtain access to the circulatory system of animals.

Their spores germinate in the veins and arteries and are carried to

various parts of the body, producing death within a few days.

The other forms of these fungi do not exhibit this malignity.

In a paper on the preservation of grain in closed vessels, presented

to the Paris Academy of Sciences, Jan. 10 and 17, 1881, Muntz

announced that the production of CO, was but one-tenth as much

in air-tight vessels, as when the air had free access. Increase of

moisture and of temperature, increase the production of COy.

The presence of CO,, although indicating the physiological combi-

nation of the material of the grains, is in one sense beneficial, as

the asphyxiating gas prevents the attacks of certain insects.

Woronin has been studying the curious Myxomyceteous organ-

ism, known as Plasmodiophora Brassice, which is supposed to be

the cause of the hernia of the cabbage-——Dr. Koch has shown,

in Cohn’s Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen, that perfectly dry

seeds can withstand a temperature as high as 120° to 125°

Cent. (248° to 257° Fahr.), without injury——lIn the same publi-

cation Dr. Miflet details the results of the studies of the Bacteria

in the air. The air from a sewer contained an abundance of

germs ; that from the soil contained a few, while that from a fever

hospital contained none, because of the excellence of the ventila-

tion, Dr. Heilsher has shown (in Cohn’s Beiraége) that one of

the cotyledons of Streptocarpus polyanthus is persistent and de-

velops into a perennial foliage. leaf. In Nature for Feb. 10,

Mr. Francis Darwin reviews at length Dr. Herman Miiller’s recent

work on the fertilization of Alpine flowers (Alpendlumen, thre Be-

ruchtung durch Insekten und thre Anpassungen an dieselben).

According to Baron Ferdinand von Miller, the blue-gum tree

(Eucalyptus Slobulus) of Australia will endure a temperature as low

as 20° or even 15° Fahr. It would appear from this that it might

be grown in places in the Gulf States——J. C. Arthur publishes

390 General Notes, [ May,

a valuable paper on “ The various forms of Trichomes of Echin-

ocystis lobata,’ in the March Botanical Gazette. It is accom-

panied by a plate with nine figures. In the March Torrey Bulle-

tin, J. B. Ellis hazards the belief that Coleosporium of Solidago

(Uredo Solidaginis Schw.) is the rudimentary stage of the

Dothidea (Spheria Solidaginis Schw.) common somewhat later

in the season on the same leaves. In the same number a transla-

tion appears of Dr. Herpell’s method of preparing the fleshy fungi

for the herbarium. The essential features of the process are these:

Stout sheets of paper are coated over with gelatine. The fungus

is cut into thin longitudinal sections and these are laid upon a

moistened sheet and afterwards placed in an ordinary press.

uch preparations are said to retain their colors excellently.

ZOOLOGY.

New Texan Unto.—The following description is based upon a

series of shells received from the late Prof. Boll, of Dallas, Texas.

lulum tuberculatis ; natibus subelevatis, tumidis, ad apices valde

Habitat, Colorado river, Texas. J. Boll. My cabinet, and

cabinet of Arthur F. Gray.

Shell smooth, rather rounded, inflated, somewhat inzequilateral,

obtusely angular behind, rounded before; substance of shell very

thick, thickened anteriorly, on dorsal aspect, posteriorly, a num-

ber of small tubercles with a tendency to arrangement in rowS;

beaks somewhat raised and tumid, much granulated at the tips;

ligament long, thick, in color partaking of the general character

1881.] Zoilogy. 391

of the epidermis; the latter pale yellow to light brown, with a

greenish cast, without rays, but with very marked darker concen-

tric lines of growth moderately distant, umbonial slope rounded ;

posterior slope raised and broad, slightly sulcate near dorsal

aspect, where are rather numerous small pustules ; cardinal teeth

heavy, erect, acuminate, crenulate, double in the right valve, with

a third accessory small tooth in the sinus of the major divisions,

single in the left valve with sinus corresponding to the small

third tooth of the right valve; lateral teeth rather long, thick,

crenulate and straight; anterior cicatrices distinct, deeply im-

pressed, that of the adductor muscle especially so and extending

very nearly to dorsal margin; posterior adductor cicatrix rather

deeply impressed, confluent with posterior retractor impression,

the latter above, deep, at extreme end of lateral teeth; dorsal

cicatrices at unequal distances along the anterior aspect of the

cavity of the beaks, the last near the protractor pedis impression; pal-

lial impression deep for the anterior two-thirds of its length ; cavity

of the beaks deep and triangular ; of the shell deep and rounded ;

nacre milky white and iridescent posteriorly.

Observations —This is a very distinctly marked species, not

easily confounded with any other Texan shell. It is, perhaps,

allied to U. guadrans Lea, but differs in the following constant

characters: It is not quadrate, has a much lighter epidermis,

heavier teeth, the erect cardinal teeth, the tuberculated posterior

slope, the shape and depth of the cavity of the beaks, and the

distinct anterior cicatrices.

he species is dedicated to the late Professor Jacob Boll, in

memory of his services to science, he having done not a little to

foster a love for natural history in his adopted State of Texas.—

R. Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Iowa.

Note ON SUCCINEA CAMPESTRIS AND S. AUREA—A gentleman

residing in Illinois, recently sent me a number of land and marine

shells for determination, collected in November, 1880, in the

vicinity of New Orleans, Louisiana, and on the main-land of

Florida and Cedar Keys. Among the land shells collected by

him at New Orleans, was Succinea campestris Say. In Part 1, of

Land and Fresh Water Shells of N. A.,” published by the

Smithsonian Institution in 1869, Mr. Binney assigns as the geo-

graphical range of this species the States of Florida and Georgia,

remarking that it has been “ observed as yet only” in those States.

The specimens under consideration are, beyond doubt, campestris.

r. Binney repeats the same remark in Vol. v of his recent “ Ter

restrial Air-breathing Mollusks,” page 427, published in 187 8, by

the Museum of Comparative Zoology, as Vol. 1v of its Bulletin.

The species was sent me from Charleston, S. C., in the summer 0

1877 These two localities will therefore extend its geographical

limits both to the north and west. It will probably be found also

at intermediate points in Mississippi and Alabama.

392 General Notes. [ May,

In both of the works quoted the distribution of Succinea aurea

Lea, is limited to the State of Ohio. It is remarked by Mr. Bin-

ney, “a species of the interior region, but restricted as far as yet

known to Ohio.” There are, in my collection, specimens of this

beautiful species from three separate localities in that State. But

there are also specimens from the interior of New York, collected

by me at Richfield Springs, Otsego county, in July, 1877. In the

Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences for August,

1874, is printed a paper on “ Land and Fresh Water Shells of the

State of New York,” by the late Dr. James Lewis. On p. 133, he

quotes S. aurea from Staten Island on the authority of S. Hub-

bard, but quotes it with a question mark, and in parenthesis, says,

“ Probably not authentic.” He also quotes the species, on the au-

thority of himself, from Little Lakes, with the remark, “ Proba-

bly not clearly identified.” The locality last named is but a few

miles from Richfield Springs, and is in the same county. Bu

beyond a doubt, S. aurea does occur at both of those localities.

The specimens collected by me thoroughly satisfied Dr. Lewis

that aurea really belonged to the New York fauna. He so labeled

some I gave him; and a recent very careful comparison with

typical forms from Ohio affords conclusive proof of specific ac-

curacy. The geographical limits of this last named species must,

therefore, be greatly extended, and made to include Western and

Central New York.

It might also be added to these new localities for well known

shells, another locality for Unio pressus Lea. It was collected

last. This species, therefore, ranges from Whitehall, in New

York, to Fremont county, Iowa, and may be discovered yet

farther west.—R. Ellsworth Call, Des Moines, Towa.

Tue Encuisu Sparrow IN Itttnois.—In relation to the curious

habit of the English sparrow reported by Mr. Gillman, in the

February number of the Natura ist, attention is called to the

following statement, translated from a little book on native Get-

man mammals and birds:

“ To begin with the spring, we must give especial prominence

to the fact that the sparrow, at the very time when it engratiates

itself with the gardener as a protector of his fruit trees, also en-

rages him by wantonly biting off the buds of the leaves and the

blossoms. This mischief appears to us to be done chiefly a5 #

pastime, for the bird carries the plucked bud for a long time

here and there in its beak, and finally lets it fall.

“Whether the discovery of a worm in a bu * Se

not also, in many instances, induce the sparrow to extend its

1 Die einheimischen Saéugethiere und Vigel, nach thren Nutsen und Schaden in der

Land und Forstwirthschaft. Von ApoLr und Kart MULLER. Leipzig, 1873-

1881.| Zoblogy. 393

search to the soundest buds, is a question which we will not

attempt to decide.” :

The thorough examination of the food and food habits of the En-

glish sparrow which is certain to result from the intense and univer-

sal interest the little stranger has awakened, will give us a mass of

valuable facts for comparison with those accumulated in Europe,

where the debate concerning the good and evil of its life has been

vigorous and long-continued. We shall thus be able to trace

much more fully and exactly, than has ever yet been done, the

effects of widely changed conditions upon the alimentary regimen

of a bird.

and often shoot-them. One enterprising legislator even tried to geta

law passed, offering a bounty for their wholesale destruction.

of these birds, which from some cause or other had remained

with us. Below a neighboring mill dam the water flowed Aw

making a small brook. These birds were wading about in the

394 - General Notes. [ May,

shallow water, apparently in search of something for food. When

any one approached too closely they flew into the tree-tops near by,

returning as soon as they were left unmolested. They continued

this unusual habit for a week or more, but finally left us a few

days before Christmas.—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, lowa, Fan.

, 188.

Tue Inpico Brrp.—Writers on the ornithology of this section

seem to convey the idea that this beautiful little bird ( Cyanospiza

cyanea Baird) is not common here, I think this is an error.

have frequently seen them in spring and early summer, and while

I have never looked for their nests, | have had no doubt that they

breed in the thickets and groves along Boone river, I used to

see one quite often, which appeared to me to be a little trifle

lighter in color than those generally met with. The blue was

paler. I have seen him and heard him sing for several days in

succession, and as I observed his peculiarity of color, there

could be little doubt regarding his identity as one and the same

bird. This was on the border of a crab-apple and hazel brush

thicket, and the nest would no doubt have been found by search-

ing for it. I see them so often about the time of breeding that I

have never doubted that this region may be set down as one of

their regular habitats.— Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, 188T.

Zootocicat Nores.—The process of self-division in Euglypha

alveolata, a flagellata infusorian, has been observed and illustrated

by Dr. August Gruber. A very large ascidian ( Czona ocellata

Agassiz) has been discovered by Professor Verrill in abundance on

the rocks and wharves at Newport, R. I. It is our largest and most

elegant ascidian, but rare and very local in its distribution. It

will be remembered that the European Littorina littorea was intro-

duced on the shores of Maine, about 1868, but at a much earlier

date on the shores of Nova Scotia. During the winter of 1 879-80, it

was found by Professor S. I. Smith, of New Haven. Two other lit-

toral species of European shells, not before recorded as American

(Truncatella truncatula and Assiminia grayana), were found by

Professor Verrill at high water, among the docks at Newport.——

Professor Semper’s book, entitled The Natural Conditions of Exist-

ence as they affect animal life, has been published and will deserve

a wide circulation. Itis favorably reviewed in Nature, by Professor

Ray Lankester, who, however, finds fault with the orthodoxy of Sem-

per’s Darwinism. It is evident that we are to have sects and sec-

tarianism among evolutionists. We had supposed that Mr.Darwin

had modified his own Darwinism, certainly among evolutionists

marckianism, as in our opinion it should be. I

ous parasite has been hatched from larve found on two sp!

(Linyphia) ; the larva were apodous and adhered to the abdomen

of the spider, which, when full-grown, they fully equaled in Kore

The embryology of Selachians (Acanthias) has been recently

1881. | Entomology. ; 395.

studied by Dr. H. Rabl-Rickhard, of the Berlin Museum, with a

view (1) to determine the cephalic ending of the notochord in its

relations towards the hypophysis cerebri and the so-called middle

trabecula, and (2) the origin of the pineal gland. He finds that

at no period has the embryo of Acanthias a notochord with its

apex projecting beyond that part of the base of the skull, which

subsequently becomes the dorsum selle, thus confirming the

views of W. Miller, Balfour and Parker; though this view is not

irreconcilable with the view of Reichert, that the notochord of young

question as to the development of a tail in the human embryo,

disputes that it has at first a true tail, as it possesses no super-

numerary vertebre, and in pathology no extra number have ever

occurred.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Exuviation 1n Fricut.—Mr. R. McLachlan has recorded a

skin was shed-in an incredibly short space of time (less than a

minute), but was almost invariably preceded by a brief period of

rest. The impatience to fly off after the true wings were with-

drawn, however, was such that in the large majority of cases the

sect took wing before the subimaginal skin was fully cast, in

which case exuviation would be completed on the wing. We

cannot conceive of the beginning of the process taking place on

the wing, for there is a period, however short, from the bursting

of the skin on the thorax to the extraction of the wings from

their covering, when the use of the wing, it seems to us, is impos-

sible ; and we can conceive of full exuviation in the air only on

1 .

com's department is edited by Pror. C. V. Rivey, Washington, D. C., to whom

munications, books for notice, etc., should be sent,

396 General Notes. [ May,

On Some New TuBE-CoNSTRUCTING SPIDERS.—While wandering

on a bright October day in search of spiders, over the hills on

the Virginian shore of the Potomac, near the Aqueduct bridge, I

noticed on a grassy place at the border of a pine wood, several

small, nest-like structures with a round hole in the center, and

was at once aware that I had at last before me the so-long looked

for home of a certain ground spider or Lycosa.

These little nests were about 2

cm. high, composed of bits of grass,

little sticks of wood, ‘pine leaves

and rootlets, perfectly round and

made in very much the same way

as an ordinary bird’s nest, and 0

much the same form (Fig. 1). The

nest inside was cylindrical and

about 2 cm, in diameter.

Removing carefully the little nest,

I dug open the shaft and found it

to be in some instances 10, in others

_r 12 cm, deep, perfectly round,

Fic. 1.—Nest of 7arentula nidifee smooth, perpendicular and without

ner Coe any web lining. But the nest was

)

stormy winter, for I found several pretty well preserved ones

spring.

At the bottom of this shaft there laid in an unconscious or tor

pid condition, a large dark-

brown spider (Fig. 2) in a sem

erect position. Pulling the

spider out with my forceps, It

awoke, made some movemen

and laid down again. I found

five additional specimens, and

the nests, as well as the s afts,

were all constructed on the

same plan. In only one I

stance did I find the bottom

Fic. 2.— Tarentula nidifex 9 (Marx del.). part somewhat enlarged.

Not far away from the place where the above nests occurred)

but upon a barren clay ravine, where the rain had washed away

all vegetation, I found an apparently newly built structure, which

differed from the former ones in the kind of the material used ae"

its construction, for it was built of clay, little stones and few an

1881. ] Entomology. 397

stronger wooden sticks (Fig. 3). On one side a little colony of

lichens was flourishing.

In this shaft, which was wider than the others, I found a very

large specimen of the same

species. Handling itsome-

what carelessly, it awoke,

and turning quick around,

it with such force, that it

clung on my raised hand.

The pain was intense and

about as acute as that from

the sting of a wasp, but j;

it disappeared in twenty

minutes, while the swell-

ing of the finger and of

half the hand, lasted over

two hours. j

glass jar three-fourths full of earth, and put the spider in its new

home. It laid motionless on the ground, and I thought it was

dead, but the next morning I found that it had dug, during the

night, a hole 5 mm. deep, which it occupied. The following

nights it deepened the shaft more and more until the depth was

12cm. I strewed little sticks of broomcorn over the ground, and

during the night it had placed a few sticks around the hole.

Every morning it had added a few sticks, and at the end of the

week the nest was complete, measuring 3.5 cm. in height. All

stant by the spider outside the habitation. I then fed her regu-

larly with flies, and she would jump up after them. Did the fly

398 General Notes. [May,

water. The specie seems to be new, and I have called it in MS.

Tarentula nidifex.

About the same time I received from Mr. Nicolas Pike, of

Brooklyn, with whom I had corresponded upon this subject, spec-

imens, in a dried state, of a Lycosa which, according to a state-

ment of this eminent naturalist, digs similar holes in the sand

near the sea shore. Mr. Pike speaks thus about the habits of this

remarkable spider, to which I have given the MS. name of Zaren-

tula pike:

22 to 23 aaa pane seal

e depth and diamete

“aie oe

° Es} .

Boa

“7Q

ae”

Oo Pp

- @

> @

pease

5 &

+ &

5 le which form she. smooth finish to.

(tc > the tntetioiy) so shat en it runs in and

icle of sand

out 0: _ tube not a particle of san

Wh [ is displac

Sree The caihcece to the excavation, whet

; inhabited by adults and built o

ain the manner in whl

spiders construct aay paola habita-

tions, as the work is always cart! arried on

night. At last my perseverance was

rewarded. a

In the summer of 1877 I pass

some time at Shinnicook = its vicin-

”

a very re te) t oak the way

place, amongst the sand dunes, —

had th d fortun the operation 0

building as well as to study the habits of this probably hitherto undescribed spider. In

surface tll bagein g the sand on the

surface till a saucer-shaped ex mata; ahicat emetee a a abe deep

This was done by pushin ng ety he aad ehh her body, oe be she commence?

to make the excavation proper, with a peculiar rotary mov of her body. T.

sand was pushed back faa a glutinou sh eb was spu el which held back the pete

of sand, she at re same time pressing it with her abdomen to the size require ‘2

the —. was completed. I could still observe her at work as she con ns was Bi

upper chamber (if I may call it so), which occupied much time. After thi

ished, I eet sight of her, as the excavation in the damp sand was rais sed. My 0

1881.] Entomology. 399

It was midnight when I left her and laid down in my rubber blanket, and at dawn

i ished a i

and a half inch in diameter. I reluctantly destroyed the nest, but was anxious to exam

mine allits parts. I first tried to get the spider out by inserting a straw, but she would

not move. I then carefully removed the thatch and web for preservation, and then

dug down to ascertain the de and structure of the excavation. I found it to be

d e upper and lower chambers were

just twice the size of the main tube, which in this case was

seven-tenths of an inch in diameter. There was nota vestige

of web, except in the two chambers, as the sand was damp an

adhesive.

In the month of June I have found the female on her eggs

at the bottom of the tube; these were loosely covered with

web and agglutinated sand, similar to the egg bag of the Lyco-

sa maritima Hentz, She seldom leaves her eggs, but remains

with them till they are hatched, when the young cling to her

_ body till they are about three-eighths of an inch long.

Fig. 5 represents the male, and Fig. 6 the

female of this interesting species.

Mr. S. H. Scudder has published in Psyche

(January, 1877) an account of a tube-construct-

ing ground-spider which dwells in the sandy :

spots and dunes of Nantucket, and which he a

calls Lycosa arenicola. While the habits differ fel: ad

from those of Tarentula pikei (for instance, t

shaft is without the widenings in the upper half and at the bot-

tom) and the two species differ in some respect in form and color,

they certainly belong to the same genus and are nearly related.

nother mention is made of a spider which makes similar

habitations, by that gifted ob- Ps

Server, Mrs, M. Treat, of Vine-

land, N. J., who in Harper's

Monthly (April, 1880) describes

at length its habits, and names

few facts about the habits of the

spider ( 7. nidifex) which I have

ound, in which it differs from as del

the other three species here F'6 6—Tarentula pike: Mee dre

mentioned, viz: 7. pikei, L. turricola and L. arenicola.

While the discoverers of these three species are unanimous in

Stating that they have found egg-bags at the bottom of the tubes,

I have never found any egg-bag, although I have opened more than

twenty tubes in spring and summer. Nor have I noticed any indi-

cation that the spider uses this subterranean structure as a home

during the time she has to care for her eggs or young ones. On the

contrary, I am convinced, for the following reasons, that this spe-

cies (Widifex) uses this structure only as a safe and secure winter

‘ "See also an article « The Lycosa at Home,” by J. H. Emerton, in the NATUR-

List, Vol. rv, p. 664.—EpiTors NATURALIST.

400 General Netes. [May,

quarter, and that during the warm spring, summer and early

autumn months she lives on the surface: ;

1. Only during the latter part of October and fore part of Novem-

ber, have I found the newly built nest and chimney-like structures.

2. I always found then, in each shaft, one spider in its winter

slee

3. In May the structures above ground were, if still existing, in

a dilapidated condition, and the shafts unoccupied.

4. In June, July and August, I have never found a single spi-

der “ at home,” the above ground buildings were in the same unre-

paired and dilapidated state.

5. During these months I have found by sweeping the grass

and low bushes, three specimens of the spider, and one in an old

stump of a sycamore, where she had constructed a web.

As this spider lives in a cultivated place, 7. ¢., grass bottom

with shrubbery and trees in abundance near by, she finds her

prey outside her shaft, and at the same time, ample opportunity

to hide from her enemies under moss, leaves or stones, etc., W ile

T. pikei and L. arenicola, living without any shelter on the bar-

ren sand dunes, are compelled, for safety sake to occupy their

under-ground habitations permanently.

Lycosa turricola builds her nest, according to the statement of

Fic. 8.—Entrance to nest of 7: nidifex.

half way (see Fig. 8), but if she uses coarser sticks, she lays oe

ways as is shown in Fig. 7, but if she finds a piece naturally

bent, she makes use of the curve by laying it so that the er Wick

side is brought around the hole-—Geo. Marx, Washington, D. ‘

ive

from Mr. J. P. Henderson, Commissioner of Agriculture of Geor-

gia, specimens of this insect (Acrobasts nebulo Walsh) reported as

doing great injury to the orchards of Mr. James Speir, in Bryan

Co., of that State, webbing together the leaves and eating ©

buds as they put forth in the spring. Its injuries in th

States have long been well known, but its appearan

South has not been so generally recorded.

1881. ] Entomology. 401

VERTICAL vs. HorizonTAL Insect Boxes.—A. Preudhomme de

Borre has published a pamphlet on the “ Best arrangement of

boxes and cartons of collections of insects.” While admitting

that as far as space and convenience are concerned, the arrange-

ment of boxes on their edges is advantageous, he claims that for

the following reasons it is unwise, viz: (1) Specimens become

loose and fall, breaking themselves and their neighbors; (2) or

they turn on their pins with similar results ; (3) infected specimens

are not readily detected by the dust.

Dr. G

3. The presence of infection is readily detected in a vertical box

as the dust always falls on the head of the specimen below the

infected one.

4. The box for the preservation of specimens should be made of

well seasoned pine, nine by fourteen inches and two inches deep,

all outside measure. The lining of the bottom should be cork of

one-fourth of an inch in thickness, covered with thin glazed

Paper. In such boxes, specimens may be arranged in the follow-

ing Manner: draw faint pencil lines from one side of the box to

the other, dividing it into five or six equal portions, according to

the size of the specimens, then beginning at the upper left corner

of the box, place four specimens side by side, and so on down

that column, and then the other divisions in succession.

INsrcts AFFECTING THE CHINA TREE.—The China tree (Melia

azedarach) has always been considered as perfectly free from any

sect attacks whatever. No caterpillar of any kind has ever

been found feeding on its foliage; no Buprestid or Scolytid bee-

€s bore in its trunk or branches, and no gall-insects disfigure its

leaves or twigs. This tree, with its beautiful dense foliage, 1s,

fact, to be highly recommended as a shade tree in the South, and

“specially in those cities which are so badly infested with the

VOL. XV,—20, v. 28

402 General Notes. [ May,

Bag-worm ( Thyridopteryx ephemereformis). This immunity en-

joyed by the China tree from the attacks of insects, is not per-

fect, however, as we have recently received from Alabama some

twigs and leaves infested with the scales of a Coccid belonging to

the genus Lecanium; but what is more interesting, the twigs

are covered with the waxy scales of a Ceroplastes of really

beautiful appearance and new to science. The leaf-cutting ant

(Atta fervens) shows a decided partiality for the leaves of this

tree in Texas.

GaLts on Eucatyprus.—Mr. R. McLachlan has recently de-

scribed two very interesting galls occurring on Eucalyptus gracilis

in Australia; the one a curious modification of a flower bud and

possibly Cecidomyidous, the other occurring on the leaf-stem

and looking like a capsule with three or four long arms, and sup-

posed to be Lepidopterous. We know of no Lepidopterous galls

that take on any such specialized characters as the last named,

figured by Mr. McLachlan, the galls made by this Order of insects

being almost invariably mere swellings of a stem, a fact which

would indicate that the Lepidopterous larva which Mr. McLach-

lan found in this Eucalyptus gall might be inquilinous.

Nortu AMERICAN ANTHOMYIAD&.—Dr. Hagen publishes in the

March number of the Canadian Entomologist, a list of the North

American species of this family of flies, contained in the Cam-

bridge Museum, and which have been examined by Mr. R. H.

Meade of England. In Osten Sacken’s Catalogue there are 139

species given, including a number of Mr. Walker's, which seem

not to have been yet identified. Mr. Meade makes out 121 spe

cies, and Dr. Hagen states that Loew’s collection contains 12 not

seen by Mr. Meade, so that the whole number of North Ameri-

can species, represented in the Cambridge Museum, is 133, of

which 34 seem to be identical with European species. a

thomyia angustifrons Meig., of the First Report of the United States

Entomological Commission, which so commonly infests, in the

larva state, the egg masses of Caloptenus spretus,is referred here

as in Osten Sacken’s catalogue to the genus Chortophila Macq.

GALLs AND GALL-INSECTS.—We are -pleased to see, that after

some years of intermission, Mr. H. F. Bassett, of Waterbury,

Conn., continues his descriptions of North American Cynipide.

He describes in the above-named journal, several Californian

species, among others C. g. californica, which attains the largest

size, with perhaps one exception, of any hitherto known “0

American gall. The flies produced from it are all females, but the

gall is interesting to the Coleopterist because it nourishes ye

nathus cornutus Lec., a beetle very curious from the fact that the

male has a long, erect horn on the base of each mandible, the wid

nearly meeting at their incurved tips. Mr. Bassett describes his galls

from specimens collected in 1878 and 1880, at Red Wood city,

1881.] Anthropology. 403

California, upon what he considers, with a question, Quercus hindsu.

Our first specimens of this gall were received some ten years ago

from Sonoma county, the oak not being determined, but we subse-

quently received specimens from San Mateo, Cal., from Dr. L. D.

Morse, who is quite a good botanist, and who determined the oak

as Quercus douglasit, Ne exhibited specimens of the gall to Mr.

Bassett in 1871, and also presented some to Mr. Albert Miiller, of

Basle (then of England), who refers to it under our MSS. name of

Quercus-californica in the Proceedings of the London Entomo-

logical Society for 1872, p. 32 :

Aside from the various parasites which prey upon the Cynips,

__we have always found these galls to be infested with the beetle’

above mentioned. Mr. Miller gives an account of his observa-

tions on the habits of this insect, showing that it agrees therein with

Anobium. We would further remark that the beetle breeds in the

dry galls and still continues its work in galls that have been in

our cabinet over five years.

ANTHROPOLOGY.’

terior in the north, reaching down to the seaboard at Cook's

inlet and the mouth of Copper river

total of population is: whites, 392; Creoles, 1683; Aleuts, 2214;

Innuits of Kodiak, 2196, of Togiak, 1826, of Bristol bay 2099, of

Kuskokvim, 3505, of Yukon, 3359, of Behring sea, 1533, of the

OS setgerag cornutum Lec., Proc. Phila. Acad., 1859, p. 37- Subsequently made

< of a new genus, Ozsognathus, ibid., 1865, p. 226.

. Biited by Prof. Orts T. MAson, Columbian College, Washington, D. c.

404 General Notes. [ May,

Arctic coast, 2990; Indians 8401—total 30,178. The appear-

ance and habits of the natives are also described, and a map gives

the locality of all the places mentioned. The writer is exceed-

ingly happy in his style, and the student will be agreeably disap-

pointed who expects to find in this report a mere mass of arid

details.

Lanpa’s ALPHABET.—The story of the Abbé Brasseur de Bour-

bourg and his discovery of the Landa alphabet in the archives of

the Royal Academy of Madrid in a manuscript entitled “ Relacion

de las Cosas de Yucatan,” has been told again and again. No

ing daunted by these frequent repetitions, Mr. Philipp Valentini,

the learned Mexicologist, advances to the front in a paper pub-

lished in the April number of the Am. Antiquarian for 1880. We

had occasion to speak of the judicious treatment of this subject

by Professor Rau in his Palenque Tablet volume. Professor Val-

entini sets out with the assumption that the alphabet is a Spanish

fabrication, that the Central American hieroglyphics stood for

objects and nothing else, and that the believers in this alphabetic

table were laboring under a delusion. The literature of the Con-

quest, particularly the Mendoza codex, is invoked in confirmation

of this view. Coming to Bishop Landa himself, Mr. Valentini

first examines his text and rejects it as insufficient; the remainder

of the paper is devoted to the alphabet. Its genuineness is ques-

tioned on the following grounds: 1. The number of letters does

not agree with that of the Maya sounds; 2. The succession is the

same as in the English Alphabet, though this is allowed to be not

improbable; 3. There are various characters for the letters 4, 4,

J, 0, pand u; 4. Attention is called to the fact that though this

may be am alphabet, it is not #he Maya alphabet. Indeed, the pre-

sumed phonetic key represents nothing else than one of the various

attempts made by the Spanish missionaries to teach their Yuca-

tecan pupils how to write the prayers or any other text phoneti-

y by means of symbols. In attempting to substantiate his

position, and to interpret the glyphs, however, the author fin

himself in the presence of abbreviated and conventionalized sym-

bols without even the Mendoza codex to guide him. Notwith-

standing, he plants his foot firmly upon the three following prin

ciples previously to making another step: All Central American

hieroglyphics are either representations of (1) natural or (2) man-

ufactured objects, or (3) they are symbols—objects conventionally

chosen to represent some abstract idea, The twenty-seven letters

of Landa are explained as follows: 1. a = ac,a turtle; 2, a=

ach, obsidian knife; 3. a = a, the leg (in Quiche), 4. b= be, a

path or footprint; 5. b, unexplained; 6. c = ¢zec, the fifth Maya

month; 7. t = #, counting years, the sun; 8. 6 = ¢¢h, black ; 9-

h = haaéd, the year tied- up; 10. unexplained; 11. ca=C@% |

pull out hair; 12. k = cémich, death or skull; 13. unexplain 6.

14. | = e/e/, the pod of the oxalis; 15, 17, 18. unexplained ; 19

1881. ] Anthropology. 405

n= ne, tail; I9. p= pek, dog; 20. pp = ppec, stone; 21. cum,

the guacal gourd; 22. ku — uv, to bud like the cactus; 23. x =

chuy, a bunch, as of bananas; 24. x = +e, to vomit; 25. 20. u=

uuc, to bend, to wind; 27. z = ¢zee, to mash corn.

Tue Historica, Society oF Wisconsin—The 27th Annual

addition to some of those above mentioned, Messrs. Perkins,

Allen and Giles. Another committee is charged with collecting

the history of the early settlements. The society is the trustee

of the State collections, and holds all its present and future col-

lections and property for the State.

AMERICA AND THE East.—In a paper reproduced in part from

Mr. C. N. Holford in the Kansas City Review of Feb., is another

of the many occurrences of what might be called the “ double-

corner” of archzology, from the gate of checkers. We are in

the presence of a vessel or a sculpture from Mexico which

reminds one very much of the hoary civilization of Egypt. Ihe

interminable game begins between the assumption that similarity

of technique demonstrates consanguinity, or at least contact; and

that the human mind, being one, unfolds itself similarly under

like environments.

_Harvarp Lisrary Butietins—No. 17 of these publications

gives a list of the more important accessions to the library during

the past year. A goodly number of these are upon anthropology

and are accredited to the Peabody Museum of Archeology.

Antiquities oF Peru.—A. Asher & Co., of Berlin, are preparing

to publish in ten parts, folio, a magnificent work by W. Riess and

A. Stiibel, entitled “ The Necropolis of Ancon in Peru: a series

of Illustrations of the Civilization and Industry of the empire of

the Incas, being the results of excavations made upon the spot.

The edition in English is limited to 250 copies, 100 of which

have been taken by Messrs. Dodd, Mead & Co., who have the

exclusive sale of the work in America.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN FRANCE—The October number of Kevue

@ Anthropologie, closing the third volume of the second series, Is

one of exceedingly great interest. The opening article by a

Pozzi, is an eulogy upon Dr. Paul Broca, the most distinguished

F rench anthropologist, and the founder of the “ Ecole d Anthro-

es 592-608, extending

from 1847 to 1880, and embracing nearly five hundred titles. At

406 General Notes. [ May,

the close of the number, pages 722-738, will be found the funeral

discourses by M. Eugéne Pelletan, in the name of the Senate;

M. Verneuii, for the Faculty of Medicine; M. Trélat, for the

Academy of Medicine; M. Tillaux, for the Chirurgical Society ;

M. Dumont-Pallier, for the Biological Society ; M. Gariel, for the

French Association ; M. Ploix, for the Society of Anthropology;

and M. Henri Martin, on behalf of the Institute. Dr. Gavarret,

formerly President of the Société d’Anthropologie, and at present

Inspector-General of the Medical Schools of France and Professor

in the Faculty of Medicine, at Paris, succeeds Dr. Broca as Presi-

dent of the School of Anthropology. The unaffected sorrow

which has found expression in other anthropological societies and

journals, besides those in his own country, is keenly felt on this

side of the Atlantic by many who have delighted to sit at the feet

of the deceased savant. Dr. Broca (born on the 28th of June,

1824—died, July 8-9, 1880), can scarcely be thought to have

reached “the summit of his curve.” Cut off in the midst of his

arduous labors he has left a void in the heart of his pupils and

at the French Association, p. 738.

SEPULCHRAL Mounps AND CostumE IN JAPAN.—In Vol. VIII,

iI, Translations of the Asiatic Society of Japan, pp. 313-332) pee

cie

be found an important paper by Ernest Satow, upon an

sepulchral mounds in Kaudzuki province. The author makes

honorable mention of Professor Morse’s important discoveries 1?

the shell heaps of Omori and then proceeds to describe the buria™

mounds. Two forms are mentioned, the circular tumuli,

apparently for persons of inferior rank, and the double tumuli,

from one of which was obtained a large collection of pottery,

iron weapons, articles of bronze and blue glass beads. These

twin mounds Futa-go yama, lie east and west, the west end being

square, the eastern, round, and the middle, contracted. The east

end contains the tomb, opening south, and is divided into _

sections, the outer passage, the sacrificial chapel, and the vau"

1881. ] Anthropology. 407

Many of the stones forming the roof are very large. “ Each

mound seems to have been built up in three tiers, on the top of

each of which was a fence formed of a row of terra cotta pipes

about two feet high, connected by wooden poles or bamboo

passed through holes about half way from the base. The paper

is illustrated with forty-three figures, some of which resemble

pueblo and central American specimens (Figs. 2-5), and a careful

examination of them will well repay those who are engaged in

the study of comparative archeology.

Equally interesting and valuable is Mr. Josiah Conder’s paper

in the same number, pp. 333-368, on the History of Japanese

Costume, and we regret the want of space for an abstract.

ETHNOGRAPHY AND PHILOLOGY OF AMERICA.—As an appendix to

H.W. Bates’ “Central America, the West Indies and South America,

London, 1878, 8vo, the ethnologist A. H. Keane, B. A., has pub-

classification is made, although much material has been publish-

ed recently on this interesting subject. In the alphabetical cata-

logue of tribes many typographic errors are noticeable. Besides

these, we find the following: Aruaquis are mentioned separate

from the Arawaks or “ flour-eaters,” the Andaicos from the Nan-

dakoes (Texas), the Mollale from Mollalas and Molels, congeners of

the Cayuses (Oregon). The Goajiros of Venezuela, who speak a lan-

guage clearly akin to the Carib family, are made Dariens and classt-

€d with the Isthmian family. Among the tribes of the vee

family of the Gran Chaco, on the Paraguay river, the importan

408. General Notes. [ May,

Mocobi or Mbocobi tribe is not mentioned, but considered as form-

ing, with the Toba and Abiponian dialect, a linguistic family sep-

arate from the Guaicuru. In this particular he has copied Balbi;

but Balbi is formally contradicted by the Brazilian traveler

Martius (Beitrage 1, pp. 232, 780), who gives the missionary

Dobritzhofer as his authority. The Texan tribe of the Tonka-

ways is relegated into Florida, and the Piqua regarded as an

extinct Algonkin tribe, while it continues to flourish at the pres-

ent time as a clan of the Shawnees or Shawanoes.

For advancing our knowledge of American ethnology and

linguistic topography, not much is to be gained by copying and

extracting modern and ancient authors who have not personally

seen the tribes of which they give accounts. The number of

false and inaccurate statements in this respect is simply enormous,

especially regarding Central and South America. Reliable infor-

mation on all these subjects can only be expected from future ex-

peditions, made by conscientious travelers into the imperfectly

explored regions of both American continents.—A¥Z. S. Gatschet.

GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY.

DISCOVERY OF THE PREGLACIAL OUTLET OF THE BasIN OF LAKE

ERIE INTO THAT OF LAKE Ontario.—This is the subject of a

lengthy paper recently read before the American Philosophical

Society, of which Dr. Spencer gives the following summary :

I. iagara escarpment after skirting the southern shores

of Lake Ontario, bends at nearly right angles in the neighbor-

hood of Hamilton, at the western end of the lake; thence the

trend is northward to Lake Huron. At the extreme western end

of the lake this escarpment (at a height of about 500 feet) encloses

a valley gradually narrowing to four miles, at the meredian of the

western part of the city of Hamilton, where it suddenly closes to

a width of a little more than two miles to form the western end ©

the Dundas valley (proper). This valley has its two sides nearly

parallel and is bounded by vertical escarpments which are capp®

with a great thickness of Niagara limestone, but having the lower

beds of the slopes composed of Medina shales. On its northern

side the escarpment extends for six miles to Copetown, but west-

ward of this village it is covered with drift, but it is not absent.

On its southern side the steep slopes extend for less than four

miles to Ancaster, where they abruptly end in a great deposit of

drift, which there fills the valley to near its summit, but which is

partly re-excavated by modern streams forming gorges from two

to three hundred feet deep. To the north-eastward of Ancaster

these gorges are cut down through drift to nearly the present

lake-level. Westward of Ancaster, a basin occupying 4 hund

1 Di 7 } rie into that of Lake

onde aia wi ses ca tad Origin of tak Lower Get Laka ay 5

B.A.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., King’s College, Windsor, N. S

1881. ] Geology and Paleontology. 409

square miles, where the drift is found to a great depth, forms the

western extension of the Dundas valley. With the north-western

and western portions of this drift-filled area, the upper portions

of the Grand river and Neith’s creek were formerly connected.

The Grand river from Brantford to Seneca runs near the southern

boundary of this basin, then it enters the old, valley which ex-

tends from Seneca to Cayuga, with a breadth of two miles, and a

depth in modern times of seventy-five feet, having its bed but a

few feet above Lake Erie. However, along the eastern margin of

this valley, near Cayuga, we find that the rock is absent even to

a depth below the surface of Lake Erie.

2. The Dundas valley and the country westward forms a por-

tion of a great river valley, filled with drift. Along and near its

present southern margin this drift has been penetrated to 227 feet

below the surface of Lake Ontario, thus producing a cafon with a

lateral depth of 743 feet, but with a computed depth in the mid-

€ of its course of about 1000 feet.

3. The Grand river, at four miles south of Galt, has, since the

Ice age, left its ancient bed, which formerly connected with the

Dundas valley, as did also Neith’s creek, at Paris.

4. Lake Erie emptied by a buried channel, a few miles westward

of the present mouth of the Grand river, and flowed for half a dozen

miles near Cayuga, where it entered the present valley, and con-

tinued in its channel (reversed) to a place at a short distance west-

ward of Seneca, whence it turned into the basin referred to above,

uron.

5. Throughout nearly the whole length of Lake Ontario, and

at no great distance from its southern shore, there is a submerged

¢scarpment (of the Hudson river formation), which in magnitude

's comparable with the Niagara escarpment itself, now skirting

the lake shore. It was along the foot of this escarpment that the

river from the Dundas valley flowed (giving it its present form)

to eastward of or near to Oswego, receiving many streams along

its course,

6. The western portion of the Lake Erie basin, the south-

western counties of Ontario, and the southern portion of the

basin of Lake Huron formed one Preglacial plane, which is now

covered with drift or water (or with both) to a depth varying from

river, and entering the Erie basin, between Port Stanley and

410 General Notes. [ May,

7. The Preglacial valleys (now buried) of Ohio and Pennsyl-

vania—for example, the Cuyahoga, Mahoning (reversed), and

Allegheny (deflected)—formed tributaries to the great river flow-

ing through the Erie basin and the Dundas valley.

e bays and inlets north of Lake Huron are true fiords in

character, and are of aqueous origin.

. The Great lakes owe their existence to sub-aérial and

fluviatile agencies, being old valleys of erosion of great age, but

with their outlets closed by drift. Glaciers did not excavate the

lakes and had no important action in bringing about the present

topography of the basins.

10. The old outlet of the Niagara river, by the valley of St.

David's, was probably an interglacial channel.

Tue IRon OREs OF SOUTHERN Utau.—During the past summer,

which I spent chiefly in Utah, I visited the deposit of crystalline

iron ore of Iron county, in the southern part of the Territory.

These ore beds have been long known and were to some extent

utilized by the Mormons in their first advent, thirty years ago,

but no satisfactory description of them has ever been published.

As they constitute, perhaps, the most remarkable deposit of iron

ore yet discovered on this continent, I have thought that some

facts in regard to them might not be an unimportant addition to

what is known of the economic resources of our country. The iron

region referred to lies nearly three hundred miles directly south

from Salt Lake city, and is situated in what is really the southern

prolongation of the Wasatch mountains. The iron ores occur in

the northern portion of a subordinate range, which attains 1ts

greatest height in Pine Valley mountain near Silver Reef. Thirty

miles north of this point the ridge breaks down into a series of hills

from one thousand to two thousand feet in height, which consist

chiefly of gray fine-grained granite, with dykes and masses of

trachyte and here and there outcrops of highly metamorphosed

limestone. The ore beds forma series of protruding crests and

masses set over an area about fifteen miles long ina north-east

and south-west direction, and having a width of three to five

miles. Within this belt the iron outcrops are very numerous and

striking ; perhaps one hundred distinct claims having already oy

located upon them, each one of which would make the fortune 0

a mining company if situated anywhere in the Mississipp! sbepcid

or the Eastern States. The most impressive outcrops are 1 the

vicinity of Iron springs, Oak springs and Iron city, of which lo-

calities the first and last mentioned are about twelve miles apart.

Near Iron springs the Big Blow-out, as it is called, is a projecting

mass of magnetic ore, which shows a length of perhaps 4 -_

sand feet by a width of five hundred, and rises in castellate

crags one hundred feet or more above its base. __ she

At Iron springs a still more striking exhibition is made by t t

Blair mine, which is a ragged crest of magnetite, black as J&%

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 4it

formed by the upturned edge of the thickest of a series of sheets

of ore, which rises like a ledge of bedded rock two or three hun-

dred feet above the adjacent low lands. This outcrop is visible as

a conspicuous black hill, at a distance of several miles. The con-

nections between the ore bodies of this great iron belt are

obscured by the dééris from the easily decomposed trachyte and

granite. It is evident, however, that for some miles the iron ore

deposits are continuous or separated by very short intervals, =

the outcrops occur within a stone’s throw of each other, and the

surface is everywhere strewed with blocks of rich magnetic ore,

enough in themselves to supply all the furnaces of the gag

for years. It would seem that the iron forms a number of ee

tinct and closely approximated belts, which are the ourctonn

beds that stand nearly vertical, and go down into the earth like

huge walls.

dense hematite. Across a narrow valley from this group the é a

Side is covered with fallen fragments of a rich but soft and ras

hematite, and at no great distance the soil is colored blood-re “an

the decomposition of a hematite so soft as to make no mn

show above the surface. Near this latter location I noticed a f es

of outcrop of a very jaspery hematite, in some places mae A a ol

"uginous jasper closely resembling some of the more silici

ores of the Marquette district, : its, I

As to the age of this remarkable series of iron ore deposits,

cannot ask with absolute certainty, though they are apparen

wer Silurian. i

The granite of the hills which contain the iron is finer ine

and less compact than that which forms the great granitic “of the

the Wasatch, and I suspect is the metamorphic condition of ts

412 General Notes. [May,

quartzite beds which rest upon the Wasatch granite. Some of

the iron ore beds in this granite are distinctly interstratified with

it, and are certainly, like it, metamorphosed sediments. This is

plainly shown at the Blair mine, where the principal crest of the hill

is a distinct sheet of stratified, regularly bedded magnetite, from

thirty to forty feet in thickness, dipping toward the north at an

angle of about eighty degrees. Parallel with this principal layer

are other sheets of magnetite separated by strata of granite and

varying from a quarter of an inch to ten feet in thickness, as per-

fectly parallel and regular as any series of sedimentary beds ever

seen.

On the whole, the Blair mine is the most interesting and instruc-

tive outcrop of iron known to me, and furnishes the most striking

proof of the sedimentary origin of these wonderful ore beds.

None of the other outcrops are so distinctly stratified, but the

Big Blow-out at Iron city affords an equally conclusive argument

against the eruptive theory ; for while it appears to be a huge

amorphous mass, like a hill of basalt, on examination it is found

to be in large part composed of metamorphosed limonite ; that 1s,

» magnetite, which has the botryoidal and concretionary aspec

radiated structure of limonite, and was plainly deposited from

water.

With the exception of the great iron deposits of Southern

Utah, the far West is but imperfectly supplied with this metal. |

have found magnetite and specular ores in small quantities in S¢V-

eral places in the mountains of Oregon and California, and in the

Rocky Mountain belt, and similar ores have been met with by

rospectors and explorers in some of the districts which I have

not visited. We have no evidence, however, that any other great

deposits of iron exist in or beyond the Rocky mountains. Iftt

is true, which I do not believe, that there are anywhere iron ores

that are truly eruptive in character, it is somewhat surprising that

in the immense area where igneous rocks predominate in the

West, no masses of eruptive iron ore have been met with. W

have reports of eruptive masses of magnetite at Nijni Tagilsk, 1"

Russia, and of hematite on the island of Elba, but no observations

have lately been made for the purpose of determining whether

these are what they have been reported to be. The famous beds

of magnetic and specular ore of Sweden have also been consid-

ered, up to a recent date, as eruptive, but Professor Otto Torrell,

Director of the Geological Survey of Sweden, with whom I was

associated in the Centennial Exhibition, assured me that all the

deposits of iron which he had visited in Sweden were metamor-

‘phic and not eruptive, and that he had no faith in erupted ores 0

iron.—F. S. Newberry, in School of Mines Quarterly, Nov., 1880.

GrotocicaL News.—A paper on the uniclinal structure of

the Iberian peninsula, by J. Macpherson, is published in Span-

ish and English. A section of the rocks from the Mediter-

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 413

ranean to the Cantabrian coast is given. Mr. Eugene Smith,

State Geologist of Alabama, gives an account of the geol-

ogy of Florida, in the April number of the American Fournal of

Science and Arts. He shows that the Vicksburg limestone occu-

pies the center of the State, and that a small patch of earlier Mio-

cene in the eastern center of the State, is the oldest formation

within its limits. e everglades and coast regions are Post-

pliocene. In the same journal Professor Marsh describes a new

genus of Opisthoccelous saurians, which he calls Calurus. The

vertebre resemble those of Camarasaurus, but the walls are more

attenuated, and the caudal centra are hollow. It is probable that

Amphicelias fragillissimus Cope, belongs to it. Professor Marsh

proposes to regard the genus as the type of a new order, but gives no

reasons for so doing. The second annual report of the Bureau

of Statistics and Geology of Indiana for 1880, under the direction

of John Collett, is published. It includes reports on the Geolog-

ical Survey of two counties, Monroe and Putnam; descriptions of

new fossil Invertebrata, by R. P. Whitfield, and a synopsis of the

recent Mollusca, by Frederick Stein, M.D. Calvert and Neu-

mayr publish in the Denkschriften of the Wiener Akademie, an

article on the Tertiary formations of the Hellespont. They refer

the latter to two divisions which are unconformable to each other,

of which the inferior is upper Miocene. Fossil remains of Verte-

brata and Mollusca are abundant and are described by the au-

thors, A deposit of carbonate of lead and silver carrying

chloride of silver and embolite, forming the surface of a consider-

able hill, has recently been found in Southwestern New Mexico,

by George Daly. It resembles the formation at the Silver King

S. A. Miller, in

the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, con-

tinues his history of American geological work. _ His last article

(April, 1881) covers the later writings on the Tertiary periods,

but does not conclude this part of the subject. It covers forty-

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS:

SIBERIA IN Evurope.—Mr. Hen h hom we are

| . —Mr. Henry Seebohm, to whom we a

already idebted for much valuable information concerning Siberia,

Edited by Extis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

414 General Notes. [May,

has now prepared a full account! of his journey to the valley of the

Petchora, which was made previous to alonger journey through Asi-

atic Siberia as far as the Yenesei. The portion of the Russian domin-

ions described in this volume occupies the north-eastern corner of

Europe, and lying within the Arctic circle, is a dreary, monotonous

land, with nothing to tempt the ordinary traveler. Its great mo-

rasses are always frozen at a foot below the surface and much of

the firmer land, when not under the snow, is covered by water

from the flooded streams. :

Mr. Seebohm’s and his companion, Mr. Harvie-Brown’s object

in visiting the Petchora, was principally to complete their studies

of ornithology of Northern Europe, and whilst entirely success-

ful in this respect, they have also collected much valuable infor-

mation for the geographer regarding this remote region. Mr.

eebohm having previously visited Norway, with a similar pur-

pose, on his return compared the results of his investigations with

those made about the same time by Mr. Harvie-Brown in the val-

ley of the Dwina near Archangel. The difference between the

birds in these two countries was very striking, and it was con-

cluded that by pushing their explorations ten degrees further

eastward, they would find the breeding ground of birds whose

nests had never been seen, though known as migrants in southern

and western Europe.

The species which excited the keenest interest were the gray

plover (Squatarola helvetica), the little stint ( Tringa minuta), the

sanderling (Calidris arenaria), the curlew sandpiper ( 77imga 5#

arquata), the knot (7. canutus), and Bewick’s swan; but many

other rare birds might also be reasonably expected to breed in

the same district.

The travelers set out from London, in March, so as to reach

the Petchora before the melting snows and the resulting floods

made further progress impossible. Passing through St. Peters-

burg and Moscow, they reached the end of the railroad at Vologda

and continued their journey by a sledge ride of six hundred miles

at Ust-Zylma,” says Mr. Seebohm, “the snow became impassa

the winter road was broken up, the horses at the stations in the

uninhabited portions of the country, a distance of two hun F

and fifty versts, were sent home, and for two months the valley ©

the Petchora was as completely cut off from all communication

with civilized Europe, as if it had been in the moon.” One hun

dred and fifty miles of impassable swamp barred all communica-

tions. Ust-Zylma is a large, straggling village, most of whose

inhabitants belong to a sect known as “ Old Believers.” Outside

1 Siberia in Europe; a Visit to the Valley of the Petchora, in North-east Rueet

‘with descriptions of the Natural History, Migration of Birds, etc. With Map 4"

Mlustrations. By Henry Seebohm, F.L.S., London, 1881. _

1881.] Geography and Travels. AIS

the village were several camps of Samoyedes, of whose life and

customs much is told.

On the opening of navigation the travelers embarked on a

small steamer and descended the Petchora to its delta, east of

which was the ¢wxdra, “a wide expanse of moorland covered with

lichen, reindeer moss, dwarf shrubs. and birch, with swampy

patches and morass into which it was impossible to sink more

than a foot deep, owing to the frozen pavement below.” Their

exertions here received their reward in the valuable collections of

birds and eggs obtained. On the first of August they broke up

their camp on the tundra, and embarking on a steamer, passed

around the North Cape, and after a voyage of thirty-five days,

reached Elsinore.

The collections brought back include eggs of the gray plover

and the little stint. Excellent wood cuts, illustrating the country

and its natural history, are given and a very satisfactory summary

of the scientific results of the journey is added.

O PREJEVALSKY.—The Royal Geographical Society's

Proceedings states that, having reached home, this eminent trav-

eler intends “ to devote himself for some time to the preparation in

retirement of a great work on the results of his travels, including

besides his recent expedition to Tibet, his previous journey to Lob-

nor, of which he was prevented, by want of time, from giving

more than a bare outline. The work is to consist of eight vol-

oft BE Brazza’s JouRNEY FROM THE OGOWE TO THE CONGO.—

ne of the most remarkable of recent journeys in Africa ts that

of M. de Brazza.

416 General Notes.. ee ‘[May,

of the equator or between 2° and 3° south latitude and be-

tween the river Mpaka-Mpama and the Lawson(?). Gaining the

favor of King Makoko, he was able peacefully to descend the

Alima to its junction with the Congo. On October 3d, he

founded the station Ntamo-Nkouma, on land ceded by the king,

on the right bank of the Congo. Makoko is King of Ubanji

(Ubangi-Stanley), The distance by this route from the Ogowé to

the Congo is twelve marches, over a plateau of an average height of

eight hundred metres. The country is healthy and the population

dense and peaceful. He left a sergeant and three men at Ntamo-

Nkouma,who can be supplied and revictualled from Ogowe station

by an easy route.

Descending the Congo in boats in November, he arrived at

Mdambi-Mbongo, about long. 14° east, the advanced post of Mr.

Stanley, whom he met and with whom he reached the latter's

headquarters at Vivi, on November 12th. He reached the

Gaboon, on December 16th. In two days he started again for

the Ogowé and the basin of the Congo. His first station, Mas-

hogo, is in the country of the Okandi. This tribe is devoted

to agriculture, and food is plentiful in their country. .

Brazza has now taken with him, in sections, a small steam vessel,

which has been lately built of steel expressly for his explorations,

and after reaching the upper course of the Ogowé he hopes to be

able to get it conveyed to the Alima or one of the other affluents

of the Congo.

. de Brazza is the first European traveler, who has penetrated

into the interior of equatorial Africa from the west coast. [©

believes the Ogowé to be the best means of communicating with

the interior, as the Congo is so interrupted by cataracts and

STANLEY ON THE Conco.—The permanent station on the Congo

of the Stanley expedition is on an elevated plateau below f

Yellala falls. It is now a small town containing the dwellings d

Mr. Stanley and his European staff, workshops, warehouses, oe

h ; ‘ss les of almost

uts for his laborers and a garden producing vegetables of about

1 See NATURALIST, February, p, 167,

1881.] Geography and Travels. 417

country are not to be relied upon for regular work.

The trade on the Lower Congo is very large and increasing.

The highest point where traders are established is at Noki, twelve

miles below Vivi, which can be reached by vessels drawing eigh-

teen feet of water at any season without the least difficulty.

Above Noki no vessels have been, but there seems littie to pre-

vent their ascending as far as Vivi.

The above statement of Mr. Stanley’s progress in given on the

without loss of baggage or animals. All along the track the

Most picturesque aspect. The valleys and. mountain slopes were

éverywhere covered with a most magnificent tropical vegetation,

consisting of gigantic sycamores, wild citron trees, mimosa, etc.,

densely intertwined with luxuriant creepers ; and as day after day

ay travelers climbed the summits of mountain ranges OF de

418 General Notes. [ May,

Stecker has sent home a detailed description of the country sur-_

rounding Massaua, together with meteorological observations,

which will shortly be published—An expedition sent out by the

French government from Senegal to the Niger, has reached

Segou-Sikorro, on the Niger, and found the Sultan well disposed

and willing to allow the French to navigate and trade on the

Niger. Captain Gallieni, commanding the expedition, finds that

near Bamaku, the water shed of the Niger and Senegal basins, is

only afew miles from the former river and the water parting is so

indistinctly marked, that during the rainy season the water flows

sometimes into one river and sometimes into the other. Recent

explorations by French travelers show that the western Sahara

has considerable tracts of lands that can be reclaimed and ferti-

lized by boring artesian wells, and where this has been done lux-

uriant gardens planted with date, fig, and other fruit trees, and

fields of barley have taken the place of stunted shrubs or bare,

sandy soil. The land of Adrar in the south-west is placed like a

long narrow island between two bands of sand and contains a

considerable population. Yet while the skill of the French en-

have added much of late to our knowledge of this portion of

Africa, their letters relating simply their advances from station to

station, and often containing sad stories of misfortune, starvation,

or death. t the same time permanent stations have been estab-

lished in the interior and on Lake Taganyika, and more success”

ful results may reasonably be expected in the future.

:0:

MICROSCOPY .!

EXAMINATION oF METALLIFEROUs CLAys.— Mr. Melville At-

wood, in a paper on the clays in the Comstock lode, read before

the San Francisco Microscopical Society, describes as follows the

method of separating and examining the gold-bearing fragments:

first, to place them in a porcelain dish, pouring hot water over

and keeping them in the water for several hours, stirring 0CC®

sionally, till all the particles that would dissolve were taken UP by

the water. Afterward I emptied the contents of the porcelain

dish into a batéa, allowing everything that was dissolved to float

away. By the batéa the pyritic matter and other heavy bodies

? This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

1881.] Microscopy. 419

were separated from the rest of the coarser, rounded and lighter

fragments of vein-stuff and country rock. The pyritic matter is

then tested for gold, silver and tellurium, and also a microscopic

examination of it is made under water. The fragments of coun-

try rock and vein-stuff are then washed again, using a brush to

rid them of any clay that might still adhere to them. After dry-

ing, they are put into a separator having sieves with 30, 50 and 100

holes to the linear inch—a uniform size enabling me to examine

them better with the microscope. The fragments that pass

through the sieve having 100 holes, I place in a small cell, fastened

on the glass slide, and filled with water, which I cover with thin

glass—the shape of the fragments are seen much better in this

way, since by slightly moving the thin glass cover, they can be

made to turn and exhibit their forms in different directions.

ARRANGING SMALL OBjects ON SLipEs.—Mr. Julien Deby pro-

poses to facilitate the arrangement of diatoms, foraminifera and

other small objects on slides for mounting, by drawing on the

plain mirror of the microscope regular lines in crosses, circles, or

any desired patterns. The achromatic condenser being so focussed

that the image of these lines shall be in focus of the objective at

the same time with the object slide, there is no difficulty in simi-

ey arranging the objects by hand or by means of a mechanical

nger.

Tue Harrnack Microscorgs.—It is now eleven years since

Hartnack was—in common with other Prussians during the Fran-

co-Prussian war—compelled to leave France. He immediately

Settled in Potsdam, and there established an optical factory for

microscopical work. M. Prazmowski, who had. been for several

years working with Hartnack, was admitted into partnership, and

took entire charge of the house in Paris. The exhibit of micro-

Scopes, &c., at the Paris Exhibition of 1878, was by the firm Hart-

nack & Prazmowski. Since that date the partnership has been

dissolved ; the Potsdam house remaining exclusively Hartnack’s,

and the Paris house Prazmowski’s. It is well known in Paris that

to M. Prazmwoski’s mathematical attainments have been due the

yeats or — M.S. in Eng. Mechanic and World @

tence

New Sea-sip— Lasoratory.—Professor A. Hyatt, the curator

me History, will be under the immediate care of Mr. B. Vi

ck, assistant in the Museum and Laboratory of the Boston So

ciety of Natural History. Students are advised to bring their own

420 | Scientific News. [ May,

microscopes. Only a limited number of students can be accommo-

dated ; and applicants should state the amount of their previous

experience in such work.

Microscopic OpyEcts.—Mr. M. A. Booth, of Longmeadow,

Mass., is furnishing unmounted objects, by mail, at the price of

one dollar for twenty-five packets. Printed lists of the objects

offered can be obtained from him.

Mr. Geo. W. Morehouse, of Wayland, N. Y., has issued a list

of mounted objects, chiefly animal substances and preparations of

various kinds, which he is offering for sale at thirty cents each, or

four for one dollar. -

Mr. David Folsom, of Chicopee, Mass., has also undertaken to

prepare objects for sale, or mount them to order.

:0:

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

ually verified by new discoveries springing up all over the earth.

This point was illustrated by some of his own observations on the

development and anatomy of certain fishes, of which he had

made a special study.

flows by levees, and other operations attendant upon the yess!

primeval nature.

— The fourth session of the Marine Laboratory maintained /

the Johns Hopkins University in connection with its bie 2

department, will commence at Beaufort, N. C., May 2, 1881. ra

session will continue until the end of August. Dr. W. K. Brooks,

1881, | Scientific News. 421

Associate in Biology and Assistant Professor of Comparative

Anatomy, will be in immediate charge as director.

he Laboratory is provided with a steam launch ; small boats,

nets, dredges, aquaria, microscopes, reagents, and a small reference

library are also supplied by the University, for their use. Those

admitted to the Laboratory will be charged a fee of $25.

he Marine Laboratory is designed for advanced students and

for those qualified to carry on original investigation. No definite

courses of instruction will be given, as the persons received will

be presumed to have sufficient knowledge to carry on their studies

without such aid. Dr. Brooks will, however, exercise a genera

Supervision, and control and direct the daily work of the Labora-

tory. Board and lodging may be obtained in the town of Beau

fort near the Laboratory, for from $20 to $30 per month.

— That germs of disease may live long, seems to be proved

by recent experiments of a French Committee directed by M.

Pasteur. Seven sheep were led daily, for a few hours, to a piece

of ground where some animals that died of anthracoid disease, or

charbon, had been buried twelve years previously. Two of them

caught the disease and died. There was no grass for the sheep

sore of malignant pustule (the same kind of disease) on his own

face. . Pasteur supposes that if the vegetables eaten had not

been cooked, there might have been a different tale. The disease,

too, might be communicated by the agency of insects, etc.—

English Mechanic.

— Pasteur has found on taking fowl cholera poison from a _

a fowl which has died, not of acute but of chronic disease, and

cultivating this in several solutions of fowl-broth, that on transferring

Virulence in the passage. However, experiments made by varying

the length of the periods of time during which the solutions are left

intact, after having the parasite added to them, show that the time

sowed for its development is an important element in the ques-

tion,

oy The Kansas Academy of Science, at their November meet-

‘98, appointed a Commission to memorialize the Legislature in

422 Scientific News. [ May,

reference to a State Survey. Two preliminary surveys under

Professors Mudge and Swallow have already been made. more

extended and thorough scientific survey is now needed. The

most active geologist now in the field in this State is Professor O.

W. John, who for two years past has studied the stratigraphical

geology of eastern Kansas.

— Last summer Professor F. H. Snow, with several assistants,

spent over a month in Santa Fé Cafion, New Mexico, as well as

in Colorado, and made important entomological collections,

among them were twelve new species of Coleoptera, and an in-

teresting collection of geometrid moths, comprising a number

new to the Colorado plateau region,

— The French zodlogical station at Roscoff has been making

good progress of late. It has now an aquarium of one hundred

square meters extent, and a good steamer for excursions ; and is

soon to be provided with a pond and a diving dress. M. Lacaze-

Duthiers, who founded this station, announces the establish-

ment of a second one at Port Vendres.

— The death is announced of Dr. John Jeremiah Bigsby,

F.R.S., a well-known writer on palzozoic fossils, at the a vanced

age of 88 years. The greater part of his life was spent in Canada

and in the United States, and his writings on American geology

date back to 1820, when he contributed a paper to Sziman's

Fournal, Dr. Bigsby'’s best-known works. are his “ Thesaurus

Siluricus,” which appeared in 1868, and his “ Thesaurus Devonica-

Carboniferus,” published ten years later. The “ Bigsby Medal,

which he presented to the Geological Society of London a few

years ago, was awarded at the anniversary meeting on Friday, the

18th inst., to the French geologist, M. Charles Barrois.

— Professor Tennant, for many years professor of geology 1

King’s College, London, died early in March, aged 72 Gabriel

Koch, a well-known lepidopterist of Frankfort-on-the- Main, died

in February, aged 80; also Professor Gorini, of Lodi, known by

his works on voleanic phenomena. ;

— Edward R. Alston died at the age of 35 years, was born in

Lanarkshire, Scotland. He was an excellent zoologist. His

most important paper is a monograph of the classification of the

order - Rodentia, published by the London Zodlogical Society

in 1876,

— George B. Emerson, LL.D., well known for his love ai

nature, and as the author of a “ Report on the Trees and sete

growing naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts ” (1849), wits

lately passed through a second enlarged and illustrated edition,

died in Boston, in March. He was born in Kennebunk, rile

. i te on edu~

Sept. 12,1797. He taught in Boston many years, wro Nacsa!

cational topics, was President of the Boston Society ©

istory, and a liberal patron and friend of Science.

1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 423

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL Society, Philadelphia, Oct. 15, 1880.

—A letter from Dr. Henry Draper announcing the successful

photographing, in fifty minutes, of the Orion nebula, was read;

Dr. Barker made some remarks in regard to the discovery.

Mr. Lesley described a kitchen-trash heap at Saltzburg, Va.

Nov. 5.—Dr. Horn presented two papers for publication in the

Proceedings, entitled, “Critical notes on the species of Selen-

ophorus of the United States,” and “A review of the species of

Anisodactylus inhabiting the United States.” Mr. Lesley exhib-

ited some recently executed works of the State Geological Survey.

ov. 19.—Mr. Lesley exhibited and described three models in

plaster, 1st. Of the seven mountains in Middle Pennsylvania, sur-

veyed by Chas. E. Billin; 2d. Of the Stone mountain fault, by

the same, and 3d. Of a part of the Middle Anthracite Coal field,

constructed from the first specimen sheet map of the Anthracite

Survey, by Mr. Chas. A. Ashburner.

Dec. 3—A communication entitled, “On the Vertebrata of the

Wind River Eocene bed, of Wyoming, by E. D. Cope,” was read

by title. Dr. Kénig remarked on two specimens of silver ore

from near Ouray, in Colorado.

Dec. 17.—Prof. Cope remarked on the fossils of the Wind

River Eocene beds,

Jan. 7, 1881.—A paper on Photodynamics was read by Profes-

sor Chase. A note on the protection of oil tanks from lightning

stroke, by B. Howard Rand, and extracts from letters on the dis-

covery of Permian shells in the Upper Coal measures at Wilkes-

barre, by Dr. Ingham, were read. A MS. map of the geology of

parts of Lee, Wise and Scott counties, Va., by J. J. Stevenson,

Was presented by Mr. Lesley. Mr. Lesley exhibited a map of

Pennsylvania, showing the progress of the survey since 1874.

eb. 4.—Professor J. J. Stevenson communicated a paper enti-

tled, “ The Upper Freeport Coal bed along Laurel ridge, in Pres-

ton county of West Virginia.”

Feb. 18, communication was read, entitled “ Certain

almanacs published in Philadelphia between 1705 and 1744, by

Henry Phillips, Jr.”

March 4.—Mr, Lesley read a paper entitled, “Notes on the

meaning of the word Hebrews, and on Egyptian names of

Hebrew kings.”

March 18.—_A paper “ On the Preglacial drainage of the Great

akes, by Dr. J. W. Spencer,” was read by the secretary. “A

Scological section at St. Mary’s in Elk county, Pa.,” was ex-

Plained, and the importance of its consequences noted, by Mr. C.

A. Ashburner.

PaILADELPHIA ACADEMY or Natura Sciences, Nov. 9, 1880.

ihe t. McCook spoke on the habits of Basilica spiders and

4eir mode of constructing the dome-shaped webs and the cocoon.

424: Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [| May, 1881.

He asked for information regarding the use, by birds, of the spin-

ning work of spiders in the construction of their nests. Dr.

Konig spoke on Beegarite.

ov. 16.—Mr. Meehan remarked on the sexual organs of

Andromeda. Mr. Potts gave the names of the new species of

fresh-water sponges collected in Fairmount Park, and spoke on

the characters of some other forms observed by him.

Nov. 23.—Dr. McCook spoke on the enemies of spiders.

Nov. 30.—Mr, Ryder gave an account of the development of

Mya arenaria. Mr. Meehan spoke on the germination of seeds.

Dr. Parker remarked on the morphology of the occipital lobes of

the brain. Dr. Dercum spoke on the termination of nerve-fibers.

Dec. 7——Dr. McCook spoke on the protective instincts and.

industries of the spiders. Mr. Potts remarked on the feeding

habits of ants.

Dec. 14.—Professor Allen spoke on the phalanges of the bats

wing. Mr. Ryder described Zygonopus whiter, a new myriapod

from a cave in Virginia.

Jan. 4, 1881.—Dr. Leidy spoke on the use of rhizopods as food

for fishes.

Jan. 25.—Dr. Horn spoke on the mouth organs of the Cara-

bide and their value in classification.

eb. 1.—Mr. Ryder remarked on Protozoa of Europe and the

United States. ;

Feb. 8.—Mr. Meehan remarked on the lack of trees on pral-

ries. Mr. Bassett spoke on Hymenoptera producing galls.

eb. 22.—Dr. McCook remarked on analysis of honey and

development of abdomen of ants, Dr. Kite spoke on the skulls

of hornbills.

March 1.—Mr. Potts made observations on Spongilla. Profes-

sor Heilprin spoke on geological classification.

Boston Society oF Natura Hisrory, March 16.—Dr. W- 4:

Farlon made some observations on the plants of Bermuda, and

Professor N. S. Shaler discussed the advance and recession of gla-

ciers. :

American GrocrapuicaL Society, March 25.—Lieut-Com

mander H. H. Gorringe, U. S. N., read a paper entitled, A cruise

along the northern coast of Africa.

:0:

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

Tue Grorocicat Macazine.—March. On the traveled blocks

of the Upper Punjab and a supposed Glacial period in India, by

A. B. Wynne. Prehistoric Europe and the Cornish Forest beds,

by W. A. E. Assher. “ Laccolites,” by G. H. Kinahan. —

Tae Canapian Entomotocist.— January. Observation® .

several species of Aigeriode inhabiting the vicinity of Buffa x

N. Y., by D. S. Kellicott. Description of the preparatory stage

of Papilio philenor (Linn.), by W. H. Edwards. |

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Voi. xv. — FUNE, 1881. — No. 6.

ARCHAOLOGY OF VERMONT.

BY PROF. GEO. H, PERKINS.

fs a paper published in the Natura.ist for December, 1879,

the writer attempted to present the chief physical features of

the Champlain valley, and to give a general idea of its archeology.

That paper may suffice as an introduction to the present and

future papers, in which some of the more important groups of

archeological objects will be discussed more fully than would be

possible in a more comprehensive article. Before proceeding, how-

€ver, to the main topic of this article, I wish to add a few general

Statements to those previously given. It has been a cause of some

Surprise to me to discover a close resemblance between many of our

Most peculiar Vermont specimens and others from the Mohawk val-

ley and other parts of New York. We should naturally expect to

find similarity, as we do, in the specimens found on the eastern

and western shores of Lake Champlain, but we should scarcely

©xpect to find many nearly identical specimens in Western Ver-

Mont and Central New York. But Mr. Frey, near Palatine bridge,

and Rev. Mr. Beauchamp, near Baldwinsville, find stone tubes,

Carvings, amulets, &c., some of which are precisely like those

found in Vermont, but not, at least up to this time, found in the

Tegion bordering the western shore of Lake Champlain. In many

Fespects our collections of stone implements and pottery from

Western Vermont seem more closely allied to those from the

Mohawk and Genesee valleys than to those from other parts of

VOL, XV.— No, VI. 30

426 Archeology in Vermont. [June,

New England. Vermont is, to a certain extent, divided by the

Green mountains into two archeological regions, though perhaps

it is not best to make this distinction too prominent. So far as

the more recent specimens are concerned, we should expect this

to be the case, for, while the early history of Vermont is not very

full in its account of the Indians whom the white men found, we

are told a few facts respecting their habits, and among other

things that those living on the western side of the Green mount-

ains rarely crossed them. For instance, Hall, in his “ History of

Eastern Vermont,” page 585, says: “ The Iroquois seldom crossed

the mountains, and have left few marks of their presence in the

eastern part of the State.” He goes on to tell us that, “the

country in the neighborhood of Lunenburg and Newbury (in

Northeastern Vermont), and on the side of the river opposite to

the latter place, was called by the Indians “ Coos,” which word in

the Abenaqui language is said to signify “the Pines.” At this

point and at other localities on the Upper Connecticut, formerly

resided a branch of the Abenaqui tribe. These Indians were

called Coosucks, and being defeated in battle by the white set-

tlers in 1725, they went back to Canada whence they had come,

and in 1760 a few returned to Coos. As to the extent of this

settlement there seems to be no definite information. In a small

work published in 1841 by Rev. Grant Powers, entitled “ Histori-

cal Sketches of Coos County,” on pages 39-40 we find the fol-

lowing: “On the high ground east of the mouth of Cow Meadow

brook, and south of the three large projecting rocks, were found

many indications of an old and extensive Indian settlement

There were many domestic implements. Among the rest were 4

stone mortar and pestle. * * * Heads of arrows, large quat-

tities of ashes, and the ground burnt over to a great extent, are

some of the marks of a long residence there. * * * * O

the meadow, forty or fifty rods below, near the rocks in the river,

was evidently a burying ground. The remains of many of the

sons of the forest, are there deposited. Bones have frequently

been turned up by the plow. That they were buried in the sit-

ting posture, peculiar to the Indians, has been ascertained. Wher

the first settlers came here, the remains of a fort were still visible

on the Ox Bow. * * * The size of the fort was plain to!

seen. Trees as large as a man’s thigh were growing in the CF

cumference of the old fort. A profusion of white flint-stones and

1881. ] Archeology in Vermont. 427

heads of arrows may yet be seen scattered over the ground.” I

have not been able to ascertain the existence of a collection of

the above-mentioned implements, and it is probable that like

many other similar objects, they were thrown aside by their finders

as useless, This is to be regretted, as a collection of stone imple-

ments, the locality of which was certain and also the tribe that

made and used them, would be of great value to us as a basis of

a more definite ethnology than is at present possible, or probably

ever will be.

Proceeding now to special groups of objects, we will first exam-

ine those implements commonly known as “ gouges,” and which

for convenience will be so designated in the following pages,

though, as will appear, it is not the belief of the writer that all, if

any, of them were used for the purposes for which our modern

gouges are designed. I have chosen this class of implements for

description before all others, because, as archzologists well

know, they are eminently characteristic of eastern collections,

very few having been found in the Mississippi valley and none, I

believe, in the mounds, and are especially characteristic of our

Vermont collections. It seems probable that the gouge is of com-

paratively modern origin, and was made and used by such tribes or

nations as the Algonkins and Iroquois, and were unknown to

more ancient peoples. This implement is not, I believe, common

in any other part of the world except the Eastern United States ;

and even here they are not so abundant as to occur in great num-

bers in our collections, yet they form an important part of them.

Presenting great variety in form, size and material, the gouges

seem rather to form a class of implements, some designed for one

Purpose and some for another, than to be simply different forms

of one implement. The absence of gouges from large portions

of this country, is the more remarkable because we find so many

other implements either in identical or similar forms over all that

Portion of the United States east of Kansas.

The general character and variety in form and material of the

Vermont gouges will best appear in the following descrip-

“ions and figures, which include all the different classes which

have seen, though each of these may be taken as a type of

Which varieties may exist. The gouge described on page

744 of Vol. xi of the NATURALIST, and figured on page

741, may serve as a type of still a different form, from any

428 Archeology in Vermont. [June,

here mentioned, and should properly have been embraced in

this article.

; Fic. 1.—Indian “ Gouges.”

In Fig. 1 we have a representation, reduced one-half, of a spec

1881. ] Archeology in Vermont. 429

men which has the general characters of the longest gouges that

have been found. In all of these the groove runs from end to end,

becoming narrower, as does the specimen itself, towards the upper

end. One specimen of this sort is nineteen inches in length.

The material is always some hard, compact stone, like basalt,

which is wrought into the desired form with very great skill. The

specimen figured is 11.5 inches long; its form is very symmetrical,

and the surface smooth and in some portions polished. The up-

per surface is mainly occupied by the groove and there is, on

each side of this, a narrow flat portion from which the sides curve

downward and approach each other until they meet in a-median

ridge, on the lower side, so that a cross section is of the form

shown at 1a. The under side is also curved from end to end,

bending upwards rapidly to form the edge, so that a longitudinal

section is of the form shown in 14. In most of these implements

the main portion of the bevelling at the edge is from beneath,

though generally the upper surface is also beveled, often ab-

ruptly, downwards. The edge in this specimen is very regularly

curved, is sharp, and 1.65 inches in width—the width of the

Opposite end being less than half as much. Near the edge

the groove is .5 inch deep, but grows shallower as well as nar-

rower as it recedes from the end. The greatest thickness of the

implement is near the middle, where it amounts to 1.5 inch.

Other specimens are wider in proportion to the length, for in-

stance, in one case where the length is somewhat more than 9

inches, the width is, in the widest part, 2 inches. In this specimen

we find the widest part about a third of the distance from the edge

to the other end, and from this point the width decreases somewhat

to the edge, and much more to the other end, and the same pecu-

liarity is seen in the thickness, so that a longitudinal section is

Somewhat unequally fusiform, the u pper side curving less than the

wer, as seen in Fig. rc. As the line of the groove, indicated by the

broken line in the figure, is straight, the depth seems to be greater

near the middle than at either end. In cross section this specimen

IS like Fig. 1@ except that it is much broader in proportion to the

height. Figure 2 shows a unique form of this sort of gouge. The

8Toove is similar to others, though the edge is not straight, but

Somewhat oblique. The material is basalt and the specimen

Was evidently formed with much care and labor, although the

Surfaces are not polished, but show stria made by sand used

430 Archeology in Vermont. [June,

in grinding them. The chief peculiarity of this specimen is in the

form of the lower side, which instead

of being more or less convex, as in

almost all other specimens, is ground

in a series of planes, so that in

cross section it has the form of 2a.

These surfaces are flat and even,

and the edges sharp and true. The

groove is very deep and wide. The

length of this specimen is 4.75

inches; width, just above the edge,

1.66 inch. This is the only speci-

men which shows no curved sur-

faces, except the groove, that I have

seen. In some specimens there is

a flat space running longitudinally

through the middle of the back,

but usually even this is convex, OF

raised into a sharp ridge; many

others are flat on the upper side,

but in all some of the surfaces are

convex, In figure 3 we have

another variety of gouge, in which,

as in the foregoing, the groove ©X-

tends throughout the length, but in

this case each end is brought to an

edge, and the sides do not converge

=e aS at one end, as in the specimens thus

Fic. 2.—Indian Gouge. Reduced %, far mentioned, but are parallel, and

the groove is of equal width throughout. One end, as the figure

shows, is broken. The under side is very regularly convex. The

material is basalt, and the surfaces are pretty well finished. The

length is 5.65 inches ; width 1 inch. Col. Whittlesey figures on Pas®

117 of the “ Ohio Centennial Report,” what he calls a “ gouge-form

skinner,” which is somewhat like the above, and mentions three

other Ohio specimens which he has seen. Although gouges

in which the groove extends through the entire length are not

uncommon, yet this is not the form of nearly all such implements.

More have a groove which extends only a short distance from the

edge. Figures 4 and 5 show the opposite sides of one of this

Z Ia ip fr Z

y PETZ

VA;

1881.] Archeology in Vermont. 431

kind. This implement, the general form of which is shown in

the figures referred to, is convex on both surfaces, so that a cross

<< \

————

Fics. 3, 4, 5—Indian Gouge. Reduced one-half.

section is oval. The groove, regularly rounded above. and in

“very way well formed, is well polished. Indeed, it is scarcely

necessary to mention this, for whatever may be the character of

the other parts of one of these specimens, the groove, and usually

the adjacent portions, is always well finished and polished. As

Seen in figure 5, this specimen has, across the under side, a trans-

verse groove, which divides it into two nearly equal portions. I

have seen one or two other specimens of similar form, which

were similarly grooved. Whether we are ‘to regard this as an

Indication that the implement was attached to a handle and used

4S an adze or not may not be clear, but it is difficult to account

for this transverse groove in any other way. These grooves are

not deep nor worked out with as much care as that at the end.

The Material of this specimen is a gray talcose slate with the sur-

432 Archeology in Vermont. {[ June,

face very smoothly finished. It is worthy of notice that all the

specimens with the groove running from end to end are of hard

material, such as trap or basalt, while many of those with a

shorter groove, like figure 5, are of the talcose rock mentioned.

This is not very hard, but readily takes a smooth surface, and

when finished, an implement of this material is often very hand-

some. Some of the gouges of this material are quite large,

though none so large as those first named, or rather they are not

so long, but the width is often greater. The basalt gouges are

more nearly cylindrical in cross section than most of the talcose

ones, which are usually but slightly convex. The latter range in

length from four to eight inches. Of the same talcose rock is the

specimen seen in figure 6. This specimen is somewhat unique in

its rectangular outline and great width, as well as in the chisel-

like character of the upper end. I have seen several of this sort

—gouge at one end chisel at the other. The chisel end is rather

abruptly brought to an edge, which is sharp and even, as is the

opposite edge. The material is of a bluish color with a vein of

white running across the upper portion. The sides are flat and

form sharp angles with the upper and lower surfaces, but they

are not parallel, but slope so that the surface seen in the figure is

narrower than the opposite. The thickness is greatest near the

white band where it is nearly an inch, and from here it grows less

towards each end. The width is about the same, I. 75 inch through-

out. The length is 4.5 inches. The whole specimen is well finished.

Figure 7 shows a very singular gouge-like implement of green

gneissoid stone. It is of regular form and well made, those parts

of the surface that have not been injured being smooth.’ The

surface shown is flat, or nearly so, while the opposite is some-

what convex. As the figure shows, the groove, which is short and

somewhat irregular, does not reach to the end, but stops about a

fourth of an inch from it, leaving a space which is ground very

smooth and quite strongly bevelled from the end of the groove to

that of the implement, and the lower surface is bevelled about this

edge so that it is thin and sharp. The use of the groove is not at all

apparent in this implement, which, judging from its form, was pr ob-

ably used resting on the bevelled portion between the groove and

edge with the groove down. The groove is quite deep and well

excavated, but somewhat one sided. The length of this specimen -

5-3 inches ; greatest width, 1.65 inch; thickness, 1.15 inch. An-

1881. ] Archeology in Vermont. 433

other singular specimen, which should, perhaps, be classed with

the above, is quite rudely made of a dark, micaceous rock ; it is

triangular in outline, being at the edge 1.9 inch wide and growing

narrower towards the other end, which forms a blunt point. In

: Fics. 6, 7.—Indian Gouges. Full size.

thickness the reverse is true, as this is over an inch at the upper

end, from which it grows less towards the edge. The groove, if it

fan be called such, is a small elliptical excavation about a fourth

of an inch from the edge. This implement probably shows us the

434 Archeology in Vermont. [ June,

most rudimentary form of the gouge; indeed, it is essentially a

chisel with a small hollowed out space on one surface near the

edge. The length of this specimen is 5.2 inches. Figure 8 exhib-

its another type of gouge of which I have seen quite a number

of specimens. In these the excavated portion is triangular and

not concave, but with straight sloping sides inclosing a space

~ 10

Indian Gouges. Figures 8 and 9 reduced one-half; figure 10 full size.

nearly or quite flat, and terminating in a more or less straight

edge. The upper surface is flat, and from this the sides curve

regularly until they meet behind. The thickness is relatively

greater than in other forms, and the appearance suggests the

thought that the form was at first cylindrical, and the flat upper

surface ground down afterwards. The upper end, while not very

evenly shaped, is yet ground smooth and finished like the rest of

the implement. The specimen figured is shown one-half full siz

being 7 inches long, 1.9 wide and 1.5 inches thick. The sides are

straight and nearly parallel. The material is a dark steatite, har der

than this material usually is. Other specimens are of syenite and

porphyry, and are larger than this. Besides the specimens with

1881.] Archeology in Vermont. 435

triangular groove and parallel sides, as in figure 8, there are other

gouges, with somewhat similar grooves, which taper from the

edge almost toa point. One of these of the hard black lime-

stone found abundantly in many parts of Western Vermont, is

rather rudely finished, the pick-marks being conspicuous. This

specimen, which is 8 inches long, has a very wide, short groove,

which shows a peculiarity seen to a less degree in other gouges.

It is deeper on each side so that a convex portion occupies the

median part of the groove, thus affording a hint of the manner in

which the excavated portion was worked out, at least in some

cases, 2. ¢., by rubbing or grinding out a narrow groove on each

side of the implement and then removing the space included be-

tween these. It is possible that some pointed hammer or other

implement was used in the excavation of the groove, but only a

very few specimens indicate this in any way; in nearly all, the

smooth surface, sometimes striated, suggests that the whole was

ground out by using sand with some cylindrical instrument. In

one specimen, in which the groove is triangular, though concave

transversely instead of being flat, as in the above, we find the

upper end brought to a chisel edge somewhat like that shown in

figure 6, though this latter is much less highly finished, indeed,

its material, a sort of mica schist, precludes much elegance in the

finish, It is a small implement, being but 4.25 inches long. Both

surfaces are flat, and the sides rounded. Figure g is a fine speci-

men, made of a compact, mottled stone of a greenish hue. The

surface is smooth, though not polished, except near and in the

groove. The surface shown is flat and the edges along the sides

are sharp. The lower surface is convex. As is often the case,

the thickness is ¢reatest, 1.8 inch, near the middle, and from here

the under surface slopes to each end. The form of the groove

and of the specimen itself may be understood from the figure.

This is a large gouge, as it is 9 inches long and 1.65 inch wide at

the edge. The upper end is somewhat rude, but all the rest shows

that much care was exercised in making it. There is a species of

§euge which is found in various parts of the State quite unlike

any of those mentioned. The implements of this sort are of

small size with a blunt, rounded edge, wholly unfitted for cutting

®r even scraping. In some cases, perhaps, this thickness of the

€dge should be regarded as the effects of use, but it is so regu-

lar and of such a character, that I have no doubt that it was

436 Archeology in Vermont. [June,

intended to be so, Figure 10 shows one of this sort. The ma-

terial of all is rather soft, and the surface is not ground so smooth

as in many gouges of other forms. The groove is shallow, long

and wide, and, as has been noticed, the edge is not sharp. The

surface shown is flat, the lower regularly convex. The length of

this specimen is 3.5 inches, width across the edge, 1.6 inch, and

the thickness in general about .5 inch, though in places more.

Still farther removed from gouges with cutting edges, are speci-

mens with a very shallow groove, and with the grooved end

not brought to an edge or anything like it, but only worked

somewhat thinner than the rest of the implement and then evenly

rounded. These are made from talcose or schistoze rocks an

hence are not very hard. ;

A comparison of the figures given with these pages will make

evident several facts worthy of notice. As the reader has prob-

ably discovered, I have included under the name “gouge oF

variety of specimens, some of them without very much in com-

mon, but it has seemed more convenient to do this than to at

tempt a subdivision of the group into classes. The term groove

has also been for the same reason used to designate the excavated

portion of each implement, whatever its character may be. €

have seen that in some the edge is straight, in others curved,

in some concave, in others flat, and the groove is found in all

gradations between a very simple, oval depression and one ele-

gantly wrought and extending through the entire length of the

specimen, as in figure 1. In most, the lower surface, by

which is always meant that opposite the groove, is convex, both

transversely and, to a less degree, longitudinally, though i

a few cases the thickness is greatest, not near the center, but at

the upper end. This end in nearly all specimens is narrower than

the other. In many specimens this end is rough and broken, i

splintered, but not in all, for there are specimens in which this end

is as smooth as any part of them.

A gouge in which the edge shows signs of hard usage is very

uncommon. These facts must be considered when we attempt

to discover the purpose for which these implements were designed.

I have searched the writings of Champlain and other early ae

plorers for some mention of these implements, and some hiat

to their use, but thus far in vain, and without some such aid, ge

orizing upon the use of these, or any other such implements -

1881.] Archeology in Vermont. 437

little value. The most plausible theory for the use of the gouge,

is, perhaps, that it was the chief implement used in excavating

dug-out canoes. Champlain gives a very brief account of the

manner in which some of the Indians whom he met on the coast

of Maine, made canoes, and tells how by charring and scraping

away the charred wood and again charring it, the desired form

was obtained, but he does not give us any definite idea of the

form or character of the stone implements with which the work

was accomplished, and we know that in many parts of the coun-

try, canoes were chiefly made of elm or birch bark. Evans seems

to incline towards this view in speaking of the “hollow chisels”

of flaked flint found in Denmark, and far less abundantly in Eng-

land, as he states that they are found chiefly where canoes

would be most likely to have been used. We also learn from old

writers that gouges made from the columella of the conch, were

used by southern tribes for scraping away charred wood in

making canoes, and Evans, quoting another, says: “‘ On* the

western coast of North America mussel shell adzes are still pre-

ferred by the Abts to the best English chisels for canoe-making

purposes.” Bone gouges are also common in the south, more so,

according to Col. Jones, than those of stone. I have never seen

any other than a stone gouge in Vermont. That some of the

Specimens figured, or such as they, were thus used, either held in

the hand or attached to a handle as adzes, is quite probable, but

that all were so used does not seem so. Another theory has been

Suggested, that the gouges were intended for use in tapping maple

trees in the sugar making operations of the aborigines. I cannot

See any basis of probability for this theory to rest upon. If this

view were correct, we should find gouges most abundantly near

those places where the sugar maple is most abundant, but this is

not the case, at least in Vermont. On the uplands where the

Sugar maple now grows, and has for a long time, we do not find

S0uges as we do on the lowlands and meadows. While the form

of such a gouge as that shown in figure 1 might suggest such a

use as that just mentioned, the form of most would certainly be a

Strong argument against such use, and the material of which

many are made is such as to unfit them for cutting hard wood

Such as that of the sugar maple. It is a remarkable fact that so

many of our gouges appear to have seen so little service. It

Would seem certain that implements requiring so much labor for

438 Larval Habits of Bee-Filies. [June, ©

their formation, and made with such care, must have been

designed for some important service, but even those of the com-

paratively soft talcose rock have as sharp and apparently unused

edges as if just made, the polished groove and edge often not show-

ing even a scratch or notch. Some of them are worn, especially

some of the smaller specimens, but most are not. Another

noticeable fact, which perhaps might be less so in a larger collec-

tion, is that each specimen has certain peculiarities of its own, So

that it is quite difficult to find duplicates, though they do some-

times occur, but each specimen seems to have been made accord-

ing to the present fancy of the maker, and this appears to have

varied somewhat as each new specimen was undertaken. This

variety in form, size and material indicates that the gouge was not

an implement designed for a single, limited use, but that, whether

we can ascertain the use of the various kinds or not, their uses

were as varied as their form and material. Gouge-like imple-

ments have been, figured as skin dressers by some authors, and

this, it seems to me, suggests better than anything else the prob-

able explanation of the character of these implements. If use

in cleaning adhering bits of fat or muscle from the skins a

generally in use among the aborigines, the edge would remain

unworn for a long time, even if the implement were made of ne

very hard material. It may not improbably be true that some

were used in excavating the charred portions of a log selected for

a canoe, but it seems more probable that most were used, in wad

way or another, in the processes of preparing skins for clothing

or for whatever other purposes the skins may have been needed.

——:0:-———

LARVAL HABITS OF BEE-FLIES.’

‘BY C. V. RILEY.

HE bee-flies (Bombyliidz) are a family of Diptera that have

a rapid, darting flight and hover over flowers, from which

they extract nectar by means of a long proboscis which is a char-_

acteristic of most of the genera, They derive their popular

name of bee-flies, or humble-bee flies, from their general resem

blance to bees, due to the hairiness of the body, and enhanced by

igsi to

1 Adapted from the Second Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission,

. . : P te

which the publishers are indebted for permission to have impressions of the

made at their expense, :

1881.] Larval Habits of Bee-Flies. 439

the humming which they produce in flight. Nothing had been

published of their larval habits in this country till last year,

though an undetermined larva, at first supposed to be Hymenop-

terous, but which subsequently proved to be that of Systcechus,

was figured in the writer’s ninth report on the insects of Missouri

(1877), and copied in his ‘‘ Locust Plague in the United States,”

and into the First Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission.

In October, 1879, we obtained from a lot of larve sent us by

Mr. G. M. Dodge, of Glencoe, Neb., a single pupa which agrees

with those of Systechus oreas O. S.,1 presently to be described,

but which, as Baron Osten Sacken writes us, is probably that of

S. vulgaris, a common species in the Western States, east of the

mountains,

During the past two years we have been in correspondence with

Professor J. G. Lemmon, of Sierra Valley, Cal., who has kindly

sent us many specimens of locusts occurring there, and especially

the eggs and early stages of Camuula pellucida. .

Among such eggs these bee-fly larve were, if anything, more

common than we had found them among the eggs of the destruc-

tive locust, Caloptenus spretus, east of the mountains. We here

quote one letter in illustration:

poda atrox, by the end of September looked as if scattered with

loose shells, so thorough was the work of destruction.

“ A few of them were detected in among the eggs in April, but

hot generally until August. One individual seems to empty sev-

eral egg cases before retiring from the feast and coiling himself

"Pp in a case which he has emptied, or in a nidus of his own

< moa G. Lemmon, in letter to C. V. Riley, October 12,

During 1878 and 1879 we failed to rear any of them to the

Perfect state, but on June 20 of the present year, 1880, we

obtained from these California larvze the first fly. This proved to

bea male of Zyiodites mus O. S.2 as kindly identified for us by

Mr. S. Ww. Williston, of New Haven. We have, during the sum-

"Western Diptera, p- 254; Bull. Hayden’s Geol. and Geog. Survey, UI, No, 2.

Ibid, p. 246,

440 Larval Habits of Bee-Fies. [June,

mer reared many additional specimens of this species, and also of

the Systechus oreas O. S., already alluded to. Professor Lemmon

and his brother, Mr. W. C. Lemmon, have also succeeded in

obtaining the mature flies, and have observed this Systcechus

abundantly buzzing about over the ground in which the locust

eggs were laid, as the following extracts from the correspondence

of these gentlemen will show:

“ An enemy which has proved very destructive in Sierra Valley

and vicinity is the larva of, as yet, an unknown insect. It is first

observed as a large yellowish-white grub about half an inch or

even three-fourths of an inch long when extended, it being usually

curved so that the head and tail nearly touch. It is one-sixth to

one-fifth of an inch thick just back of the head, and tapers slightly

towards the tail, also flattened slightly dorsally. It is usually

found in a case of locust eggs which it has devoured, pushing the

empty shells aside, and at last occupying the space where were

twenty-one to thirty-six eggs. Often it is found in a little space

below a number of emptied cases, as though it had feasted off the

contents of several nests. P

“ The grub was first noticed last April 20, in the egg deposits

near Loyalton. This fail, September 7, it was detected in great

quantity near Sierraville, and afterwards in several infested spots

of the valley. A handful of such soil will generally display tem

to twenty cases of locust eggs, more or less emptied, and half as

many of the fine, fat grubs.” —[J. G. Lemmon in the Sacramento,

dormant all winter, and being now found still among the egg*

which are fast hatching out.”—[W. C. Lemmon, Sierra Valley, Cal.,

before yesterday to spend a few days, and while looking |

grubs that I had gathered for you yesterday, one of them ane

oped into the humble-bee fly which you have bred, and a hal

Valley, Cal., July 18, 1880,

“ Happening home ona hurried visit, I find locusts and destruc-

tion all around—a sad, sad sight! Find my brother has tried #8

keep you posted up with specimens and notes. Am pleas d

see a solution of the “big white grub” question. He develope vei

into a species of fly, hosts of which are now seen in midday, pend

zing about among the locusts.”—{ Professor J. G. Lemmon

ter to C. V. Riley, dated Sierra Valley, Cal., July 18, 1830.

U.S.Entomolo¢gical Commission. Am. Naturalist, VoL.XV, PLVI.

sek Riley delet pix. A Hoen& Co. Lithoc austic.Balumore

BEE -FbILS.

1881. ] Larval Habits of Bee-Fites. 441

This habit in the larve of Bombyliids of preying on locust

ege’s has not before been suspected, and in this connection we will

review what has hitherto been known of their habits.

Professor J. O. Westwood has given, in the Transactions of the

Entomological Society of London, 1876, pp. 497, 498, the follow-

ing summary of observations upon the larval habits of Bombylii:

“Thanks to the researches of previous observers, the economy

and transformations of the Bombylii are now satisfactorily known

to entomologists. Latreille rightly considered that the Bombylii,

like Anthrax, were parasites, contrary to the opinion of Zetter-

stedt that the larvz feed on the roots of plants (Ins. Lapp., p.

510). The pupa of Bom. major was first figured by M. Imhoff, in

the /szs for 1834, having been found by him in a situation which

he had previously noticed to be frequented by Andrena humilis

(Vol. 1834 p. 536, pl. xii). In my Introduction (Vol. 1, p. 538,

1840) I published a figure of the same pupa froma specimen discov-

ered by M. C. Pickering in a sandy gravel-pit at Coombe Wood,

on the 28th of March, from which the imago was produced ina few

days. The pupa is very similar to those of the species of

Anthrax, which are known to be parasites; having the front and

under side of the head armed with strong spines, and the dorsal

segments of the abdomen furnished with transverse rows of

strong reflexed hooklets, In 1852, M. H. Lucas published the

The last statement of Professor Westwood is, however, not

justified by Dufour’s observations. On the contrary, Dufour ex-

VOL, XV,—NO, VI. 31

442 Larval Habits of Bee-Fites. [June,

pressly states that he did not observe upon what the larva fed;

the inference which he draws is based upon the analogy of

Anthrax, and he inferred that it was upon the larve of Colletes

that the grub fed; quite a different thing from being a cuckoo in

the nest and feeding only upon the pollen. There is, in Dufour’s

paper, no evidence to prove that the Bombylius larva was found

in the coccoons, or even in the cells of the bee; he states, in fact,

that he failed to find it there, but found it among the clearings

(déblais) which he had made in digging out the nests. Professor

Westwood himself found numbers of Bombylius medius flying in

association with a species of Andrena in the unpaved Forum Tri-

angulare of Pompeii, and found at the same spot the pupa-shell

of the fly protruding from the ground.

As early as 1838, Macleay (Ann. N. H., Vol. n, p. 12), stated

that he had “discovered that the larvz of those tropical Bombylii

which have such a bee-like form live on the larve of the bees

they so strikingly represent,” although he gives no particulars of

his discovery.

Dr. Morelet, in 1854, recorded the fact that he had obtained a

Bombylius from a nest of Halictus succinctus (Bull. Soc. Ent. de

France, 1854, p. XXIv).

Dr. Packard (“ Guide,” &c., p. 397) states that “a species [of

Bombylius] is known in England to lay its eggs at the opening of

the holes of Andrena, whose larvz and pupz are devoured by the

larve of the fly.” But no authority is given for this statement.

Messrs. Allen and Underhill, in Scéence Gossip, 1875, P- 80, €X-

press their belief that the Bombylii are parasitic on humble-

bees. In the volume for 1876, p. 171, they say (speaking of

Sitaris) :

“In relation to the larva of this beetle, we would rem ark

that this year we have found it clinging to Bombylii. This

‘circumstantial evidence’ that Bombylii frequent the nests of aaa

throphora to lay their eggs, since Sitaris itself, from its manner °

life, cannot be the parasite of a fly, but only of a bee.”

Schmidt-Goebel, as Baron Osten Sacken has pointed out, reared

one of the smaller unicolorous Bombylii from among the pup@ of

Colletes fodiens (Stettiner Ent. Zeit., 1876, p. 393), which so in

fested a clayey bank that he could not place his thumb any where

without discovering an entrance to a burrow.

Finally, Dr. T. Algernon Chapman (Ext. Monthly Mag, Feb,

1 Entom. Monthly Mag., Feb., 1881, p. 206,

1881. ] Larval Habits of Bee-Fites. 443

1878, p. 196), as shown in the February number of the NATURAL-

IsT, gives abundant proof of the parasitism of Bombylius major on

Andrena labialts.

From these records of European observations, it is sufficiently

certain that some of the Bombyliids develop in the cells of ma-

son and burrowing bees, but whether as true parasites on the

larvee of the bees or as partial parasites on the pollen-paste

stored up by the same, as in the case of the larvae of some of the

Meloids, does not seem to have been observed. The former is

most probably the case, however, for it has been clearly ascer-

tained, and is well known, that Anthrax feeds in the larva state

upon the young of certain bees. The larva of the Anthrax be-

fore attaining its own full growth and before destroying its host must

await the full growth of the latter, as it has, by several observers,

been bred from the cocoons of the insects upon which it was

parasitic.

In his “Western Diptera” (J. c. p. 243) Baron Osten Sacken

Bives references to the published account of the parasitism of the

Anthracid genus Argyramceba within the nests of Cemonus and

Chalicidoma ; cites Schiner’s statement that the larve live parasiti-

cally in pupz of Lepidoptera, and records the breeding of A.

cephus and A. fur from the nest of a Texan mud-wasp, which he

referred, with a question, to Pelopceus, but which, as we have

ascertained from an examination of the mud tubes which are de-

posited in the Cambridge Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,

belong to Trypoxylon. We have similar cells from Texas and

other parts of the South. They differ from those of Pelopceus

in being wider, ribbed on the upper surface, and fastened not

only side by side, but in long tubes, end to end. The Pelopceus

spins a thin, yielding, semitransparent, elongate cocoon of a

golden-brown color, with more or less loose silk around it, and

the tail end thickened and docked; the Trypoxylon spins a

tougher, thicker, more solid and smooth cocoon of a dull, dark-

brown color, generally about half as long as the other (but vary-

'N§ greatly in size), and with the head-end often expanding into

a flange,

We have reared what is very near to and probably identical

with Argyrameba fur from larve that had preyed on Typoxylon.

albitarse which had made use of the mud’ cells of Pélopaus

lunatus, or the common mud-dab, in Texas; also from the same

444 Larval Habits of Bee-Fties. [June,

wasp that had made use of the burrows of a bee (Anthophora

abrupta Say). The larva of Argyramceba has very much the

same appearance as that of Systcechus and Triodites, and the

pupa is distinguished from the pupa of this last (PI. v1, Figs. 5,

5 a), principally by its longer and more numerous hairs, longer

anal spines, and more conspicuous spiracles.

Systropus also, in the larva state, preys on the larva of Lima-

codes, as has been observed by Walsh (Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. 1x,

300), and by Westwood (Trans. London Ent. Soc., 1876, p. 571);

killing its victim only after the latter has formed its tough cocoon.

With these general remarks, we will now give a more full and

descriptive account of the two bee-flies which, by rearing from the

larva, we know to have this locust-egg-feeding habit. Our plate

illustrates the insects as well as can be done in color printing, but

the enlarged heads of the larva should be somewhat darker and

less yellow.

SysTasCHUS OREAS.—The character of the eggs and the manner

in which they are laid have not yet been observed. The larva (Pl.

vi, Fig. 1) is found in the locust egg-pods, or near them, of differ-

ent sizes, during most of the year. These larve begin to trans-

form to the pupa state early in the summer, and the pupa (Pl. v1,

Fig. 2) pushes itself half way out of the ground in order to dis-

close the fly. These flies continue to issue during the summer

months, As a rule, but one year is required for full development,

but there is, in this respect, great irregularity, and the same ten-

dency to retardation which we have called attention to in the case

of the blister-beetles! We have had quite a number of the larve

remain over unchanged till the second year, and all that we have

said as to the philosophy of this retardation in the one case

applies in the other.2. Weare inclined to think that future obset-

1Am, Entomologist, 111, 196.

2 This irregularity in the development of individuals is noticeable in many insects

that are parasitic, and whose mode of life is precarious. In the case of our blister”

beetles, depending as they do on locust eggs, and especially in the case of

which feed particularly on the eggs of migratory species, it is not difficult Je per

ceive how this trait may prove serviceable to the species possessing it. Migratory

locusts occur in immense numbers, in some particular part of the country,

intervals, and.there are periods or years of absolute immunity from their pre

same regions. The young blister-beetles that hatch the year following the ;

the locusts in immense numbers may frequently find few or no locust eggs upon

to prey, and the great bulk of them would, as a consequence, perish; while t

young from such exceptional individuals as should not develop till two, three, OF

1881.] Larval Habits of Bee-FNes. 445

vation will show that there is a still further parallel, in that the

newly-hatched larve of the bee-flies are much more active than

the later stages, and somewhat different in structure.

The three later stages of the insect may be characterized as

follows: |

Larva (Pl, vi, Fig. 1)—We quote herewith our former de-

scription: :

“Average length, 0.50 inch. Body curved, glabrous, tapering

posteriorly, swollen anteriorly. Color opaque whitish, with trans-

lucent yellowish mottlings, and some venous marks at sutures,

especially along medio-dorsum. Sutures deep. A lateral row of

swellings, Head small, flattened, dark brown, in five pieces, con-

sisting above of a frontal ovoid piece and two lateral pieces of

somewhat similar form, and each bearing near tip a minute, two-

jointed palpus; beneath of two broad, subtriangular jaws, having

forward and lateral motion, and each, also, bearing near the cen-

ter, in a depression, a two-jointed feeler. A spiracle each side in

a fold between joints 2 and 3, and another on each side of the

penultimate joint, 12. None otherwise perceptible.”

ith additional material we have been enabled to examine

Pus of these lower pieces when viewed from above is, as repre-

sented in the figure (Pl. v1, Fig. 1 d), circular, with two dark

marks indicating minute appendages.

When the larva is fresh and plump it shows the greater swell-

ing of the thoracic joints and the translucent mottlings mentioned

vis years after a locust invasion might stand a much better chance of finding appro-

Priate food, and of thus perpetuating the species. In this case and in most other

cases of retarded development with which we are familiar, the exceptional retarda-

_ Hon may and does become a benefit to the species, enabling it to bridge over periods

of adversity. And we can see how, by the preservation of such favored individuals,

the habit of irregular development may have become fixed in the species as a conse-

quence of Surrounding conditions and circumstances which render it advantageous,

446 Larval Habits of Bee-Fiies, [June,

above. Toward the period of pupation, it becomes more opaque

and more contracted.!

Pupa (Pl. v1, Fig. 2)—Average length 8.5 mm. Color honey-

yellow, but varying with age, the head and thorax assuming a

dark color with maturity. Head narrow, with two sets of three

stout, dark spines on the top, all on a common prominence, the

two lower ones of each set connected at base; a pair of smaller

frontal spines near the base of proboscis, which is protuberant

and laid along the breast, extending to near the tips of the wings;

the face with two parallel depressions running from between the

triple tubercles ending in two fossz above the frontal spines ; two

basal, medio-dorsal tubercles. Thorax unarmed, the prothoracic

each abdominal joint with a circle of hairs, those on lateral ridge

stoutest and one-third the width of abdomen in length ; eight

pair of abdominal spiracles (making ten with those on thorax),

the first and last pairs rather difficult of detection.

TriopitEs Mus.—The habits of this insect in the larva state are

precisely like those of the preceding :

Larva (Pl. v1, Fig. 4).—So greatly resembling that of the Sys

toechus that it is well nigh impossible to separate the two with

tcechus in the broader and more bulbous head ; in the two sets of

three stout spines at top being well separated; in the frontal pair be-

general form and structure the true Bombylius larva agrees very closely with those

here described, as we know from Dr. Chapman’s description.

1881. ] Late Explorations in the Gaboon. 447

ing stouter, each with a conspicuous bristle externally ; in having a

single spine or tooth above these, and another much stouter,

erect, recurved spine, bidentate at tip, below them or at base of

tongue, which is here represented by a cordate lobe. There is a

spine on the front anterior border of each wing; the legs are all

shorter ; the prothoracic spiracles less conspicuous ; the hairs on

abdominal joints shorter ; the transverse dorsal teeth smaller and in

single row ; the basal abdominal joint without spines, but with long

stout hairs and the dorsal tubercles of abdominal joints nine re-

placed by a single spine.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VI.

(Natural sizes indicated in hair-line.)

Fic. 1—Larva of Systechus oreas, from the side; 1 4, head from side, still further en-

ged; 1 c, same from front; 1 d, left maxilla; 1 ¢, left mandible; 1 /, meso-

thoracic spiracle ; 1 g, pre-anal spiraele.

Fic. 2,—Pupa of Systechus oreas, ventral view; 2 a, same, side view; 2 4, dorsal

part of anal end; 2 ¢, prothoracic spiracle ; 2 d, form of dorsal horny plates and

spines on the abdomen,

Fic. 3.—Systechus oreas, 2; 3.4, head of same from side; 3 4, antenna of same

from above ; 3 ¢, antenna of same from side; 3 ¢, mouth parts separated.

Fic. 4.—Larva of Zyriodites mus as it appears when contracted prior to pupation ;

4 @, head from side; 4 4, left maxilla; 4 c, left mandible

Fic. §.—Pupa of 7riodites mus, ventral view; 5 a, same, side view; 5 4, dorsal

view of anal parts; § c, form of dorsal plates and spines on abdomen.

FIG. 6.— Triodites mus, 9; 6 a, her head, front view; 6 4, her right antenna from

above; 6c, right antenna from side. ‘

Fic. 7.— Triodites mus, 3; 7 4, his head, front view.

:0:

LATE EXPLORATIONS IN THE GABOON.

BY HUGO VON KOPPENFELS. .

TOwarps the end of last year I again had the good luck to

kill an almost full-grown gorilla, whose length was 1.75

meters, and the width of the shoulders 0.89 meters. This gorilla,

and a young female, should, by this time, be in possession of Dr.

V. von Kraus, Stuttgart. I, by chance, shot the male gorilla in

the Vicinity of my stopping place on the Eliva-Comi (an inland

lake), so that I was able to take a very good cast of it. I hope to

be able to take a cast of the next animal I shall kill, but I cannot

Predict at what time and place I shall get a full-grown male go-

pra and whether the circumstances will allow me to take a cast

im.

From a letter to Mr. H. A. Ward, Rochester, N. Y.

448 Late Explorations in the Gaboon. [June,

I have already asserted, and I believe it is proved, that there

are crosses between the male Zroglodytes gorilla and the female

Troglodytes niger, but for reasons easily understood, there are

none in the opposite direction. I have in my possession positive

proof of this. This settles all the questions about the gorilla,

chimpanzee, Kooloo Kamba, N’schigo, M’bouvé, the Sokos, Ba-

boos, etc.

The French savants seem to have a special predilection for

creating new species from variations in the form of the skull, such

as often occur in this group of animals,

There is but one district which forms the range of the gorilla,

and this is situated in the western part of equatorial Africa, and

here it exhibits no varieties, while the chimpanzee is found all

over tropical Africa, and naturally exhibits considerable variation.

The chimpanzee of Northern Guinea differs essentially from that

of the southern portion of the same country, and, according to

Livingston, the “Soko” differs from both, but is still a chimpan-

zee. Du Chaillu’s Kooloo Kamba, N’schigo and M’bouve are

not distinct species, and this traveler, who is certainly a man of

merit but is too credulous, has been imposed upon by the men-

dacity of the natives, which beggars description. The names

N’schigo, M’bouvé, Koola, Baboo, Soko, Quia and Kooloo Kamba

are only different designations of the chimpanzee by different

tribes. The mongrel progeny of the male gorilla and female

chimpanzee discovered by me, is found, but in individual cases,

and as such deserves no special name.

I jntend in a few days to start on an excursion to the Crystal

mountains over the N’tampuny falls. My purpose is primarily to

shoot elephants. Du Chaillu’s journey to the Oschebas by the

Munin-Tampnay did not extend far, as I accomplished, last daria

the same distance in six days’ marches. I found the population

harmless though somewhat suspicious. The whole district 15

almost unknown, as I encountered, the second day, members

entirely new tribes on the Yoko, Manga and later the Akuke.

The population of this region is continually migrating from the

north-east to the south-west, and no one will ever succeed in sift-

ing out the relationship of these commingling tribes.

As a point of departure for penetrating the interior from the

west, this seems to be one of the most promising. In all direc-

tions are districts which are as yet entirely unknown. On the

1881.] : Late Explorations in the Gaboon. 449

north one could ina short time reach the Buiné, a tributary of

the Niger; at an equally short distance in a south-easterly direc-

tion, one would reach the: Sihari, which empties into Tode lake.

The district which it drains also forms the water shed of some of

the tributaries of the Congo. Had I the means I would not hesi-

tate to begin this important and promising exploration. With a

fund of only $10,000, I would venture upon the undertaking.

From what I have been able to learn, I am led to believe that

the mountains of the interior consist of three parallel chains run-

ning from N.N.W. to S.S.E., having an average height of about

400 to 500 meters. With the volcanic cone of Cameroon 3600

meters high, and which stands opposite Fernando Po, begins a

line of elevation which takes a more southerly direction, and with

its continuation south of the Ogowé, the Sierra Compleda, forms

the border or palisade mountain range of West Africa. In these

mountains, protrusions of granite, generally micaceous, are every-

where visible. Adjacent to this is a reddish-yellow sandstone and

slate, often succeeded by a hard gray granite. On the table lands

and in the valleys I have observed hard quartzose sandstone of

varied colors, elsewhere a light gray quartzite with veins of glassy

quartz, and large tracts of crystalline slate. The outcrops of all

these strata follow the line of bearing of which I have spoken

above. The dip of the layers is different in different places, but

1S generally eastward at a high angle.

Floods do not occur here as the Muni is formed by the Congu-

O'tongo, Banji, Tampuny and Noya, all of which with the excep-

tion of the latter are short, because the mountains come so near

to the bay ; but the Noya flows through a plain in a broad curve

parallel with the shore of Corisco bay. Toward the Munda, and

with this river the Como and the Rembo—both of which empty

into the Gaboon—receive their waters from the Crystal mountains.

This chain forms the water shed between these rivers and the

tributaries which flow northward into the Ogowé.

‘The mountains south of the Ogowé, and which run parallel

with the Loango coast, have the same general character as the

“tyatal mountains, but have more bog iron ore on the woody

rn than they, and contain less quartz.

“ it rapids of the Ogowé, near Ogota and Okanda, the rocks

Pnsist of gneiss which weathers into wonderful imitative forms.

On the Eliva-Comi and the Sette-Comi, Nyangu, which owe

450 Late Explorations in the Gaboon. [June,

their origin to the sand heaped up along the shore by the very

strong surf, we find, among transported stones, roundish masses

of quartz which, when broken, show the most beautiful quartz

crystals.

The effect of the tides is felt in the labyrinthine estuary of the

lower river districts as far as forty miles into the interior. Here

the tides act like a dam checking the flow of the rivers, which in

the rainy season rise four or five meters, and thus all the adjacent

country for many miles is inundated.

With the exception of a few higher points where forest trees

grow, the vegetation of this swampy lowland consists mostly of

thickets of mangrove, from whence comes, under the stimulus of

the tropical sun, the aria cativa (malaria) so fatal to Europeans.

It is extremely dangerous to travel through the districts where the

air is impregnated with poisonous exhalations, and efficient proph-

ylactic measures must be taken if one would escape. It has

been my custom to take for this purpose one or two doses daily

of quinine, and to wear a respirator of fine wire gauze over my

mouth. In the evening I bathe the entire body with salicylic

acid mixed with a few drops of spirits of ammonia and ol

glycerine.

Further up the stream, and beyond the mangroves, and where

the water is less saline, we find the Pandanus, the wild date

palm (Phenix spinosa) and the trunkless Raphia, which forms

tangled thickets. All these plants, as well as the Bombax ( Erto-

dendron anfractuosum), though the latter least, endure the brack-

ish water, but grow quite as well where the water saturating the

soil is fresh. On banks which are not reached by the high water,

the Bombax rises to a respectable height, and can be seen from

a great distance overtopping all the associated plants. This tree

throws out strong buttresses which reach up to one-third of the

height of the trunk, protecting it from fracture to which its tem-

der wood would be exposed as well as from being uprooted. The

above mentioned palm trees and Pandanus form the foreground

to the forest of tall trees which covers the highlands of the inte-

rior. In this zone the mangrove is replaced in the shallow water

by a species of papyrus which sometimes covers large tracts. In

time of flood, matted masses of it many rods square are lifted

from their anchorage and carried even into the ocean, where they

often surprise and mislead navigators,

1881.] Late Explorations in the Gaboon., 451

It is quite beyond my power to fitly describe the forests of the

interior, for here stand in a motley mixture the Scitamnacee, the

Malvacez, the Orchidaceze, Euphorbiacee, the Aracex, the Bom-

bacez, etc. To disentangle this confusion would require a first

rate botanist. No writer can give a just description of a primitive

tropical forest; it is too grand and diversified; but with all its

exterior splendor and beauty, it is a deceitful and dangerous

thing. Woe to the inexperienced man who essays to penetrate

into its interior; he soon becomes involved in a chaos of roots,

of interlacing lianas, of fallen trunks, covered with a tangled

growth of thorny underbrush, all growing from a dank and

swampy soil. Here he breathes a stagnant, musty, greenhouse

air, which depresses the spirits and deadens the energies. Added

to this there isa deep gloomy silence which broods over this

place of most luxuriant growth and rapid decay. Although

these mysterious shadows hide an active and varied animal life,

the ear is seldom struck by a sound of any kind. Only now and

then the falling of a fruit or a dry branch breaks the oppressive

stillness. Early in the morning and in the short evening twilight

of the tropics, some birds are heard to herald the advent or

departure of the day. Such a forest is a subject of unending

study, and only he whom nature has endowed with peculiar

tastes and acute senses can, with use and experience, become

familiar with its varied constituents, its changing phases and its

silent language. Woe to the novice who without guide wanders

into its recesses, where death lurks for him. In most cases he is

soon hopelessly lost, and when weary and despairing he throws

himself on the ground to rest, swarms of ants and other insects

soon sting him into movement again. Almost no wholesome

food is attainable in these forest depths, and should the traveler

me die of starvation, or fall a victim to violent, acute fever, the

Poisonous atmosphere, slowly acting on the system, paralyzes the

digestion, corrupts the blood, and produces irritating eruptions of

the skin, and frequently malignant ulcers. Such is the primitive

forest on the alluvial bottoms of the rivers of tropical Africa. It

has been represented as a paradise, and poetical descriptions,

drawn from the imagination, have inspired in many, a longing de-

Sire to penetrate their mysteries. One must, however, do as I

~ done, wander lost and alone for days together, enduring ter-

bia: as ing and constant fear of death before he can form for

a true image of the real tropical primeval forest.

452 Late Explorations in the Gaboon. [ June,

Among the errors current in regard to the tropical forest, is the

common impression that they are full of dangers from the wild

animals which inhabit them. Such dangers are, however, for the

‘most part imaginary. Far up on the highlands of the interior,

away from the rivers, the atmosphere is pure, and animal life

abounds, but there the forest is, for the most part, replaced by

savannahs. These, with a rolling surface covered with luxuriant

grass, here and there set with picturesque groves, resemble great

deer parks, in which herds of elephants, buffaloes and antelopes

of many species find abundant food. In the country about the

Gaboon the mammalian fauna is, on the contrary, very poor in

species, but it has the crowning interest that it includes the great

anthromorphous apes, Zroglodytes gorilla and Troglodytes niger.

Here are none of the large antelopes, giraffes, gnus, zebras,

quaggas, rhinoceroses, gazelles, lions, ostriches, etc., which

abound in the interior. The leopard is common, the black vari-

ety is occasionally seen, but rare. Of wild hogs there are a few

bands of Phacochcerus, and in greater number, Sus peniculatus,

the former with gigantic tusks, the other with long face, tufte

ears and tail. Only a few jackals and hyenas are found, and

during my six years of roaming, I have shot but one of the lat-

ter; it was the large spotted hyena. The JZystomys velox, which

belongs to the Insectivora, is found, though rarely, along the

banks and shores of rivers or lakes, hunting after crabs and

fishes. From similar glands it diffuses a musky smell like that

of the civet. Otters occur, also the African porcupine, and an

animal resembling the great ant-eater, Myrmecophaga jubata ; the

latter is found only in South America, but a native offered to s¢

me at a trading post in the interior, a large and fresh skin with

the long haired broom-like tail, remarkably like this species.

Beside the gorilla and chimpanzee, the monkey tribe is repre”

sented by the mandrill with the blue face, and by the long tailed

dog-faced baboons, as also the black four-fingered very timid and

nimble Colobus niger, Cercopithecus cephus, C. erxlebent, C. ethiops.

C. erythropyga, as asserted by my friend Dr. Pecknel.

In the rivers and lakes there are hippopotami which sometimes,

but rarely, go down to and into the ocean, The manatee, being,

much hunted for its delicious flesh by the natives, who are ae

tremely skillful in throwing the harpoon, is continually decreasing

in numbers, and will probably suffer the fate of her sister of the

salt water.

1881.] Pueblo Pottery. 453

There are here two kinds of crocodiles, C. ¢etraspes and C. cata-

phractus ; the latter resembles the East Indian Gavial in size and

the form of its muzzle, while the former is more like the caiman ;

I have never heard that any one has here been injured by them, and

yet both species, in the Camaroon near the Congo, make victims

of many of the natives.

A leather-backed turtle, Aspidonectes aspilus, is found here, and

the waters abound in fish, but they seem to me far inferior to our

common European species. This may, however, be in part due

to the very rude manner in which they are prepared for the table.

Of serpents there exist the following kinds: first, the slender,

pointed-headed, harmless tree snakes; second, various sorts of

water snakes, of which the names are unknown to me; third, we

find here the largest of serpents, the python. Exaggerated re-

ports of the size, strength and voracity of these snakes are cur-

rent in the mouths of the people, and even yet in scientific books.

I have frequently met with them; I even once stepped on the tail

of a python eighteen feet long, which was lying stretched at full

length on the ground in the torpor of digestion. To be sure it

took it in bad part, but fortunately I did not give it time to

fully declare its intentions, for a hasty shot of my gun laid it

writhing at my feet.

:0:——

PUEBLO POTTERY. °

BY EDWIN A. BARBER.

ae ancient Pueblos were the only aboriginal people within the

limits of the United States who possessed the art of glazing

their pottery. Their descendants, the Pueblo and Moqui In-

dians of New Mexico and Arizona, are the only tribes which

manufactured a lustred ware, that remained, until a year or so

ago, comparatively uninfluenced by civilization. The art may

have deteriorated in some respects during the past century, yet

some of the original forms of vessels have been preserved from a

remote antiquity. Many of the modern productions are almost

identical in shape with specimens which have been found in

ancient graves and amongst the ruined buildings in the valleys of

the Rio San Juan and the Rio Grande del Norte; yet the influ-

€nce of Caucasian refinement has, to a certain extent, begun to

Show itself in the imitation of objects of recent introduction, and

454 Pueblo Pottery. [June,

we may safely conclude that aboriginal ceramic art will have dis-

appeared forever in this section before the rapid march of civiliza-

tion, within the space of a few more years. The railroad which has,

during the last few months, penetrated into hitherto isolated sec-

tions of the West, inhabited by the modern Pueblo tribes, has car-

ried away the greater portion of the native household wares, and

the limited amount of pottery which is still being produced, is

made in a hasty and superficial manner for sale to curiosity hunt-

ers. It will not be long ere metal utensils will supersede the fictile

vessels of the natives, and specimens of earthen-ware which were

made a few years ago will increase in rarity and value, which will

be enhanced as the art becomes entirely obsolete.

The Tenth Annual Report of the United States Geological and

Geographical Survey of the Territories, in charge of Dr. F. V.

Hayden, containing several full-page lithographic plates of Pueblo

pottery, has drawn considerable attention to this interesting ware.

A large number of examples sent to me at various times during

the past two years, however, shows more satisfactorily the great

diversity of form which eminently characterizes the modern pro-

ductions. Pottery is still made in the majority of the twenty

Pueblo towns of New Mexico and the seven Moqui villages of

Arizona. The ware produced in the different pueblos varies con-

siderably, however, in quality and style. That made in Zufii is

probably most prolific in animal forms, whilst some of the finest

workmanship is displayed in specimens fashioned at the pueblos

of Acoma and Cochite. Water bottles made in imitation of birds,

such as hawks and owls, are common at Zuii, while domesticated

fowls, such as ducks and hens, are favorite representations at

Laguna and Jemez. Vessels shaped after models of mammals

are not so numerous in any of the Pueblo villages, but there are

not wanting specimens representing rams, goats, sheep, bears,

cats, dogs and even a few in imitation of the human form. Indee

the Pueblo potters seem to have copied in clay every object which

was familiar to them, and their pottery seems to have surpass¢

the ancient Peruvian /Awacas in the diversity of form. Specimens

made especially for the eastern market, consist of cream pitchers.

cups and saucers, miniature boats, figurines and imitations of an

endless variety,of objects of European manufacture, but these arr

comparatively worthless as examples of aboriginal art. I am in-

debted to the Rev. John Menaul, of Laguna, Dr. T. F. Ealy, of

1881.] Pueblo Pottery. 455

Zui, and Dr. J. M. Shields, of Jemez, New Mexico, for a large

number of characteristic and interesting specimens of modern

ware from several of the Pueblo villages. Some of these exam-

ples have been in constant use as household utensils for a score

of years, and represent the Indian art in its original purity. These

vessels vary from three inches to two feet in diameter, the common-

est form being a sphere surmounted by a short, broad cylindrical

mouth. One of the finer specimens is an o//a or meal bowl from

Laguna, thirteen inches in diameter and eight in height, the body

of which is ornamented with geometrical designs and conven-

tional bird-shaped figures, while the shoulder or expanded neck

is decorated with paintings of the elk or deer, This animal fig-

Fic. 1,—Water vessel from Jemez.

ures largely on much of the Pueblo pottery, and is often found on

the Laguna jars. It is characterized by an exceedingly large

head, thin small body and attenuated legs, with a passage extend-

ing from the mouth to the heart, which is usually triangular.

The latter js generally colored red, though sometimes brown or

ack, A particularly interesting pot, or ¢eneha, as it is called,

PoSsessing a capacity of three or four gallons, had been in use in

the tribe for upwards of twenty years. Its value consists in the

Peculiarity of its ornamentation, being covered with paintings of

“erpents and conventional devices. It is difficult now to procure

such pieces with representations of snakes, frogs, the sun and

moon, as, according to Mr. Menaul, the priests monopolize these

Symbols and discourage the people from employing them. In

4506 Pueblo Pottery. { June,

olden times all of the paintings on their pottery possessed some

significance. Tenehas are made of all sizes, varying from speci-

mens an inch in diameter to those that will hold twenty or thirty

gallons. The majority of the larger vessels possess concave bot-

toms for steadying on the head in carrying water from the well.

> ———"—4

_——

Fic. 2.—Water vessel (Elk) from Laguia.

A common form is the canteen-shaped vessel, being made, in some

localities, spherical, with a small bottle mouth. In the Moqui towns

these are flattened on one side so as to be adapted for carrying

the back. They are supported by woolen bands which are passe

through the vertical ear-shaped handles and over the forehead °

the water bearer. A large proportion of the imitative forms rep

1881. ] Pueblo Pottery. 457

resent birds, and are designed for household ornaments or for

carrying water on journeys. A characteristic feature in the bird

vessels of Laguna is a broad, short, ascending tail with a perfora-

tion for suspension when not in use. One of these vessels, which

I have in my possession, is a water bottle or duck, the only open-

ing passing through the bill. This specimen measures six and a

half inches in length, and is decorated in brown, buff and red

colors on a pure white ground, Another example represents a

sitting hen, the body being inflated and almost spherical, sur-

mounted by a very,small head with beak curving upward. The

FM pall

‘ew ay

t«

Fic. 3.--Water bottle from Laguna.

Orifice is in the top of the cranium. The oldest bird-shaped ves-

Sel in the collection is represented in figure 1, and is a fine sam-

ple of Jemez workmanship. It is six inches long, the opening

being in the head, From the animal forms I have selected a

Specimen probably intended to represent the deer. The original

S twelve inches from nose to tail, with an aperture just back of

the ears (figure 2). In addition to the ordinary colors the back is

decorated with three triangular patches of bright green paint, which

VOL, XV—mo, vr, 32

ask... Pueblo Pottery. [ June,

is rare in Pueblo pottery, and has, without doubt, been recently

introduced by traders. Specimens from Zia are generally of

ruder workmanship, but present the same characteristics as those

from the other towns. A large basin from Cochite, twenty inches

in diameter, used for mixing bread in, is the finest example of

Pueblo ware I have ever seen; the exterior surface is decorated

with geometrical designs, while the interior is elaborately and

profusely ornamented with animal figures representing elk, deer

and wild turkeys, in black. The clay which composes the speci-

men is of a very fine, compact texture, and is. covered with a lus-

ter closely resembling that seen upon many of the ancient Grécian

urns,

As has been previously stated, vessels are now rarely made in

imitation of the human form, and ancient pieces of this shape

have never been found. Figure 3 illustrates a modern water bottle,

six and a quarter inches in height, from Laguna. It represents a

woman carrying an infant. Attached to her left side is a basket or

bag in which her hand is thrust. The mouth of the vessel is in

the back of the head. It would be tedious to extend our descrip-

tions of modern forms. Suffice it to say that vessels have been

molded into every shape that fancy could suggest or ingenuity

devise. For the greater part the women are the potters, and their

delicacy of touch and keen perception of beauty, enable them to

produce many things which are worthy of a place with other

ornaments in our cultivated homes. .

The clay used in the manufacture of the Laguna pottery is of

a dark-slate color, and exceedingly compact, oftentimes approach-

ing soft rock in texture. It occurs in seams or veins in the mes

walls. The Indians in order to procure a good quality usually

dig into the rock for some distance. There are many grades ©

this clay, and a variety of colors, the best sorts naturally pro

ducing the finer wares. It is prepared for use by first soaking

water for two or three days, when it becomes plastic and easily

worked. It is then kneaded with the hands and all the hard

lumps extracted, after which it is worked with the feet on a large

flat stone, until it resembles a mass of dark colored wax.

potsherds are also ground up and mixed with the clay in ma

new vessels, From this paste vessels of various forms are mo

and set aside to dry.

The decoration consists of black, brown, red or buff

king

Jded

designs

1881. | Pueblo Pottery. 459

on a white or cream-colored ground. The clay used for the

ground is a superior quality of kaolin. After being finely pow-

dered, it is mixed with water and agitated, and is then poured

from one vessel to another until the gritty substances are en-

tirely removed. This coating, when of the consistency of ordi-

nary lead paint, which it greatly resembles, is then applied to the

dried clay vessels, which are in the “biscuit” state, by means of a

stick, until the surfaces are entirely covered. “The lustre or

glaze,” remarks Mr. Menaul, “is given them when the white paint

is put on, by rubbing and polishing them with a small, very

smooth, flinty stone, such as you find on the sea beach. The

paint, being made of a kind of pumice-stone, smooths off as if

it had oil in it.”

The brown or black pigment is made from a red oxide of iron,

and is prepared in the same way as the white clay. Before using

this in ornamenting the vessels, in order to prevent its rubbing

off, it is mixed with the residue of two plants, obtained by boiling

together for a long time until of the required consistency, when

it is allowed to cool, and becomes perfectly hard and black. The

substance formed by this combination is then applied to the white

surfaces of the vessels to be decorated, by means of a brush made

from a wisp cut from the surface of a corn-stalk, the designs being

generally drawn without first being traced. A yellowish clay or

stone which is treated in the same manner as the white, changes

to a brilliant red color during the process of burning. The clay

used to produce a yellow color is pink, whilst that for drab is of

a grayish hue.

After the molding and decorating processes have been com-

pleted, the vessels are elevated on stones, usually in the open

air, and the dried manure of goats is placed below, around and

above them, This is considered the best fuel, producing a very

hot, even fire of two or three hours’ duration. Through the

burning process the vessels are closely watched, so that no por-

tion of them is allowed to become exposed to the atmosphere,

The Pueblo potter works very slowly, and occupies considerable

time in molding and beautifying her wares, When at work she

kneels Upon the ground or floor of her dwelling and bending

Over the unfinished vessel, gradually imparts to it a symmetry of

form by repeatedly going over it with moistened fingers.

The resident missionary at Zufi, Rev. T, F. Ealy, M.D., writes

460 Pueblo Pottery. [June,

me in regard to the inhabitants of that town, “ old and young try

their hand at the art, making objects of all descriptions. When

they wish to make anything of mud very carefully, they use the

lips to wet the mud and to smooth it, and, I suppose, as a test of

its quality. Of course the clay is gotten in different localities—

one kind out of one mesa, another out of another, according as

it is white, blue or red clay.” The process as further described

by Mr. Ealy is the same as that employed by the Laguna Indians.

Dr. J. V. Lauderdale, now stationed at Mt. Vernon, Alabama,

but formerly post surgeon at Fort Wingate, informs me that

“Indian women make fancy pottery as other women in civilized

life make fancy needlework. They work at it in intervals of more

practical labor, and they ornament it as they feel disposed to do

at the time. No complete collection of their work can be made

at one visit. It is necessary to make repeated visits to get a fair

Fic. 4.—Ancient Pueblo Dish.

collection of their art in pottery. I resided near their village

(Zufii) for four years, and every time I visited the pueblo, I saw

something new or a modification of what I had seen before.” Mr.

F. H. Cushing and Mr. James Stevenson, of the Smithsonian

Institution, in 1879 collected at this place upwards of two thou-

sand specimens of pottery, ancient and modern, of which few, if

any, were duplicates,

Through the kindness of Mr. Menaul I have been so fortunate

as to secure several valuable pieces of prehistoric Pueblo pottery:

Figure 4 represents a rectangular dish seven and a half inches in

length and four and a half in breadth, with a painting of a bear on

either side. It is somewhat similar in form to the salt vessels now

made by the Moqui Indians of Arizona. It was found in the ruins

1881. | Pueblo Pottery. 461

of an ancient building about twenty miles north-east of Laguna.

The remains are so old that none of the modern Indians know

anything about them or their former occupants, Mr. Menaul in-

forms me that in this locality the ruined houses possessed under-

ground vaults for storehouses, which the tribes now farming the

Fic. 5.—Ancient Pueblo Jar.

land do not construct. Specimens of the older pottery, possess-

ing animal decorations, are exceedingly rare. Figure 5 is a copy

of another antique vessel from the same place; it measures six

inches in height, and is a perfect imitation of a gourd ; the surface

1S very much weather-worn, and in some places the ornamenta-

tion is entirely obliterated, The small, circular orifice is situated

on the upper portion of the stem or handle. Another ancient

vessel from New Mexico, five inches in diameter, so old that the

ornamentation can scarcely be traced, closely resembles in form

@ specimen from Utah in the collection of Dr. Palmer and figured

- Hayden's Report for 1876, in Pl. xiv, Fig. 12. Two other

specimens, from an ancient ruin in New Mexico, now known as

Pueblo Nunishe, are of a shape similar to the modern Zufian clay

basket figured in Pl. :x1x, in the same report. These two ancient

Specimens are decorated both inside and out with paintings rep-

resenting tadpoles, dragon-flies and turtles, the lesser divinities

of water, and two animals which were probably intended to por-

tray the squirrel (possibly skunk) and porcupine, both of which

462 Recent Literature. [June,

possess the characteristic passage connecting the mouth with

the heart. The older pieces described are of the same character

as the ancient pottery figured by Dr. Hayden. They represent

the ceramic art of past centuries, when almost the entire territory

now included in Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and Arizona was

thickly peopled by a semi-civilized race who were proficient in

many of the useful arts and surpassed all of the other North

American peoples in the art of making pottery.

:0:

RECENT LITERATURE.

determining the species growing spontaneously in North America

1 For article on the ancient Pueblo pottery by the author of this paper, S€€ AMER

ICAN NATURALIST for August, 1876, i a

? Our Native Ferns and how to study them, with Synoptical Descriptions of

North American species. By Lucien M. UNpERWoop.

1381.] Recent Literature. 463

of technical terms in the proper places in the text. Every reader

or student should be expected to possess and exercise a memory

of sufficient strength to enabie him to keep in mind the meaning

of the terms used and explained in the text. A glossary which

merely re-describes or re-defines is a standing temptation to

slovenly reading or study, and in the opinion of the writer, ought

never to find a place in ordinary text-books designed for students.

he mechanical execution of the book, in the printing and the

binding, is neat, and the typographical errors are notably rare.

Professor Underwood deserves and will receive the thanks of the

many fern-lovers in the country for giving us this book.—C. Z. B.

Kent’s MANUAL OF THE INFUSORIAJ—This will, when com-

pleted, be the only available manual of the Infusoria in the En-

glish language, the old one by Prichard being superannuated, in-

cluding as it does diatoms, desmids and Protozoa of all classes.

We have looked forward with much interest to the appearance of

Mr. Kent’s work, and owe to the kindness of a friend an oppor-

tunity of looking over three parts which have already been pub-

lished. It is a much more valuable, extensive and important

work than we expected to find, and we can recommend it to mi-

Croscopists and to the general student as in every way excellent,

both in its scientific execution, its fullness of detail, its elaborate

and comprehensive introductory portions, which will be read with

much interest and profit, and the variety and excellence of its

os pa the latter of course being an essential feature of such

work,

The first chapter gives the general history of the Infusoria from

the time of their discovery, by Leuwenhoek, in 1675, to the year

1880. In the second chapter the sub-kingdom Protozoa is dis-

cussed in a way calculated to bring out clearly the relations of the

Infusoria to the other classes. Mr. Kent does not regard the

regarinide as entitled to constitute a distinct class of Protozoa,

of Structure with relation to the latter as is presented by the

Opalinide with respect to the ordinary Ciliata.” He divides the

G ~ Manual of the Infusoria : including a description of all known Flagellate,

iliate, and Tentaculiferous P t British and foreign, aR ee tofth Organi

— and Affinities of the Sponges. By W. Savitte Kent, F, L. S., etc. London,

wid Bogue, 1880, Parts 1 to Ill, each tos. 6d, 8°. tk

464 Recent Literature. [June,

lated to call attention to the successive steps in the differentiation

in the Protozoa of a “ mouth” or ingestive area.

The author’s system does not recognize the Monera of Haeckel,

and he rather dogmatically relegates them to the Rhizopods, not

awaiting further discoveries as to the presence or absence of a nu-

cleus, dismissing them with the remark that since the Foraminifera,

included by Haeckel in the group Monera, have been proved to

possess a nucleus, “A similar demonstration of the possession of

nucleolar structures in the few remaining organisms relegated to

this group will not improbably result from their further careful ex-

amination, with the assistance of the special treatment resorted to

in the case of the Foraminifera. Finally, it is altogether ques-

tionable whether the presence or absence of a nucleus or endo-

plast can be accepted as furnishing a distinct and reliable charac-

ter even for specific diagnosis. This structure, as,shown at greater

length in the chapter devoted to the organization of the Infusoria,

is evidently in many instances an accompaniment only of the ma-

tured and reproductive phase.”

r. Kent also, and here we think with excellent reason, dismisses

as “entirely unnecessary and untenable,” the Profista, a kingdom

set up by Haeckel and including all organisms supposed to be

intermediate between the plants and animals and comprising the

lowest representatives of both; although our author is clearly

alive to “ the difficulty of indicating a clear line of demarkation

that shall arbitrarily separate certain unicellular cryptogamic

plants or Protophyta from the unicellular animals or Protozoa.

Mr. Kent claims, however, as the result of close investigation on

his part upon Volvox and Protococcus and certain allies of these

forms, that he failed to find any periodically contracting vesicles,

and he thinks that the absence of a contractile vesicle is charac

recently and independently eliminated by L. Cienkowski and Dr.

A. de Bary, concerning the structure and life-history of this most

remarkable group, establishes, however, beyond question Bit”

purely animal nature. The Mycetozoa, in common with all ordl-

nary representatives of the Protozoa, originate from minute

sporaloid bodies which escape from the spore case as monadiform

animalcules having a soft, plastic body-substance, a single term

nal flagellum, contractile vesicle and endoplast or nucleus, being

thus in no way distinguishable from the typical representatives

the ordinary Flagellata-Pantostomata, as met with in the ae)

Monas.” He then farther recapitulates their later developme?

stages, and gives good reasons for their Protozoan nature.

Another singular and doubtful group, the Labyrinthulida, are

likewise referred by Mr. Kent, to a position in the Protozoa ™ y

between the Foraminifera and the Myxomycetes. The sp?

1881. ] Recent Literature. 465

are by Mr. Kent regarded as forming simply a single order

(Spongida) of Flagellate Infusoria and standing next to his order of

Choano-Flagellata, represented by the stalked, collared Codosiga,

Salpingceca, and Protospongia.

The structure of the Infusoria proper, are then described with

much clearness and detail, as well as their reproductive phenomena,

the author devoting considerable space to the modern view of

Balbiani and the opposing one of Engelmann and Biitschli as to

the nature of reproduction in the Infusoria. While not accepting

Balbiani’s views, afterwards confirmed by Kolliker, Stein,Claparéde

and Lachmann, that the nucleus is an ovary and the nucleolus is

other observers and moderate and original in the views presented.

Mr. Kent believes with Clark that the sponges are colonies of col-

_ lared flagellate infusoria, and considers that the Protospongia is the

connecting link between the genuine Flagellata with acollar andthe

Sponges. He considers that the fact that the collared cells lining

8 genuine Infusoria, is a powerful argument in favor of their

lagellate affinities. The strongest argument against the Proto-

under

and

466 Recent Literature. [June,

embryology of sponges in Balfour’s Comparative Embryology,

we think that he will be inclined neither to accept the view that

the sponges are on the one hand genuine Protozoa, nor on the

other genuine Metazoa. In this connection the suggestions of

Balfour as to the Protozoan affinities of the sponges will have

much weight. The arguments of Mr. Kent have made a strong

impression on us, and have led us, while believing that the sponges

represent a distinct subkingdom, to look with more favor than

heretofore on the close relations of the sponges to the Protozoa.

Indeed, we should feel, strongly inclined to the view that the

sponges belonged to a category or super-branch, as we might con-

sider it, intermediate between the Protozoa and Metazoa, to which

the term Spongozoa, already used, might well be applied. We

do not see why the so-called eggs of sponges are not such, even

if they are originally amceba-like forms, that of Hydra being at

one time amcebiform. Kent has studied more closely than any

one else the so-called spermatozoa of the sponges, and concludes

that they simply correspond to the spores which originate from the

collared Flagellata, but we should hazard the opinion that his

facts may be interpreted in an opposite way, and judging from

his drawings do not see why his cells (see Pl. x, fig. 11, b on upper

edge of figure) containing spores do not correspond to the mother-

cells inclosing the incipient spermatozoa of higher forms of Meta-

The lining cells of the ampullaceous sacs, even if they are

collared, appear to us to fairly represent the epithelial tissue of

hydra and higher animals, though forming a less homogeneous,

differentiated tissue; why should not, as in Metazoa, certain ©

epithelial cells become specialized in the manner described by

Kent, and form egg-cells and sperm-cells? The striking individ-

uality of the sponge-cells and their power of ingesting living

algze and other minute organisms have lately been shown to exist

by different observers in different Ccelenterates. We Owe to

Messrs, James Clark and Saville Kent, we are bound to say, strong

arguments for the Protozoan affinities of the sponges, but W yf

we balance their observations and conclusions with those ©

Haeckel, Metschnikoff, Schultze and Barrois, we cannot resist

the impression that the sponges should stand as an independent

branch half way between the Protozoa and Ccelenterates Of

Metazoa in general. They are the connecting links between se

unicellular and the many-celled animals; between those we

tissues and germ-layers, and those with genuine tissues an

definite cell-layers. We may fail to apply the terms ectoderm,

mesoderm and endoderm to the but partially differenti

1881, ] Recent Literature. 467

The systematic part of Mr. Kent’s work is well done, the

generic and specific characters are given in much detail. The

work is evidently the result of much labor and skill, in microscopic

observation and delineation, and will, we feel sure, incite many

others to study these infinitesimal forms.

REcENT Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Beitrage zur Palaontologie van Osterreichun-

garn und den Angrenzenden Gebieten. Herausgegeben von E. v. Mojsisovics und

M. Neumayr. Band I, Heft 11, mit Tafel 1x-xv. Ausgegeben Am, 1. Marz, 1881.

4to, pp. 152, plates 5. 1881. From publishers. :

eber Zoantharia 1ugosa aus dem rheinschen Mittel und ober Devon. Gesellschaft

Naturforschender Freunde zu Berlin. Her Clemens Schuller, 8vo, pp, 16. Ber-

lin, March 16, 1880. From the author.

Zoologischer Anzeiger. Von Prof. J. Victor Carus. 8vo, pp. 27, cuts. March

17, 1881, Leipzig. From the author, :

Uber die von Hrn, Gerhard Rohlfs und Dr. A. Stecker auf der Oase Kufru gesam-

melten Amphibien. r. W. Peters. Auszug aus dem Monatsberich der Konigl.

Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, 11 Marz, 1880. 8vo, pp. 12, plates 1.

From the author.

Uber neue Flederthiere (Vesperus vampyrops). Hr. W. Peters, Auszug aus dem

Monatsbericht der Konigh Abadenic der Wissenschaften iu Berlin. 8vo, pp. 8,

1880. From the author.

Uber ein neue Art der Nagergattung Anomalurus von Zanzibar. Hr. W. Peters.

(Auszug aus Monatsbericht der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.)

8vo, pp. 8, plates 1, Feb. 12, 1880. From the author.

eber die von Hm. Dr. F. Hildgendorf in Japan gesammelten Chiropteren. Hr.

(Auszug aus dem Monatsbericht der Konigl. Akademie der Wissen-

Berlin.) 8vo, pp. 8, plate 1, Jan. 5, 1880. From the author :

die von der chinesischen Regierung zu der internationalen Fischerei- Aus-

gpo. Hr. W. Peters. (Auszug aus dem

Monatsbericht der Konig]. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.) 8vo, pp. 12,

cuts, Nov. 4, 1880. From the author.

Neue Gatlung von Ge konen, Schalabotes thomensis. Hr. W. Peters. (Auszug

aus dem Monatsbericht der Konigl. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin.) 8vo,

Pp. 8, plate 1, October 18, 1880. From the author. “oe

neue oder weniger bekannte Amphibien des Berliner Zoologisc en Museums.

Hr. W; Peters. mipion is aus dem Monatsbericht der Konig]. Akademie der Wis-

Senschaften zu Berlin.) 8vo, pp. 8, plate 1, Feb. 19, 1880. From the author

_ Denti di Ippopotamo da aggiungersi, della fauna fossile del Veneto. Prof.

Giovanni Omboni, 4to, pp. 8, plate 1, 1880. From author.

Fr Annual Report of the Public Gardens and Plantations, Jamaica. D. Marris, M.A.,

‘G.S., Director 4to, pp. 40. Jamaica, 1880. From the author.

ia Societa Toscana di Scienze Naturali. Folio, pp. 168, 1881. From the

W. Peters,

Schaften zy

ran Emulacion, Cenodico de la Medico Farmaceutica. ‘Tomo Iv, numero bake

O89) PP. 20. Prom, the editor.

468 Recent Literature. [ June,

Etude sur les Favors des Faluns de Bretagne. Par M. H.-E. Sauvage. 4to, pp.

44, plates 2. Chalons, 1880. From the author.

Sur un eeeade a Be des Infusoires et des Eléments Anatomiques, pen-

dant la vie. Par M. A. Certes. 4to, pp. 6. From the author.

Note sur quelques poissons recueilluis = M. Letourneux et Empire 4 Corfou et

dans le lac Mariotis. Par M. H. E. Sauvage. Extrait eid eae de la Societe

Philomathique de Paris. 8vo, pp, 24, 1880. From the a

Penns bhp pecs Geological Survey. Coal Flora. pee Vols. 1 and 2. Leo

Lesquereux. 8vo, pp. 764. iaaatere. 1880. From the surve

tee ny savy of N 7 Jersey. Annual wed of the se Geologist 8vo,

. 220, plate Trenton, t880. From the author, Geo, H. Coo

wean! eighth hii ual ial of the New Yorte State seu of vatintadl His-

tory. 8vo, pp. 210, plates 37. Albany, 1879. From Jas.

Twenty ninth Annual Report of a New York be cag Met of Natural History.

8vo, pp. 84, plates 2. airie ny, 1878. From Jas

Thi rtieth ba Repert of the New York State alle al Pets History. Syvo,

pp. 256, plates 4. State 1 Printer, Albany, 1879. From Jas

Thirty-first Annual Report of the New York arg ee of Natural History.

ee as 78, plate 1. Albany, 1879. From Jas. Hal

menclature of the N veh American Birds, va contained in the pice

Pc Natural Museum. reall t Ridgway. 8vo, pp. 94. Washington, 1881. From

the author.

Annual Report of the sgenpesicae of the Yellowstone decir gies 6 the

oe, of the eming for Pugs 1880. 8vo, pp. 64, plates Washington

m the author, P. W. Nor.

"The Geclopical nos esl Mandy: London (Jan., 1881). 8vo, pp. 48, plate 2,

cuts. From the pu ublis

Notes on the Cra f the w England Indians. From the Anniversary Mem

oirs of the Bosto n sc of theitien History. Lucian Carr. 4to, pp. 19, plates 2.

From the author

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Vol. Iv, No. I. 80,

pp. 90, plates 3. Cincinnati, April 1881.

The American Journal of Sciences, April, 1881. New Have

On the Geology of Florida. From the American f aetar - aint Eugene A.

Smith. =a pp. 18, plate r. April, 1881. From

The Minerals and the Mineral Localities of Nia party Being chatty <

the second voles of the Geology of North Fitts a. F. A. Genth and W. C

8vo, pp. 124, cuts. Raleigh, 1881. From the

The ents of the Ores of Iron. Viestinted thom the School of Mines ia 2

J. S. Newberry. 8vo, pp. oe New York, Nov. 1, 1880. From the aut

Description of some new and remarkable Crinoids and other fossils of the Hale

River group, and notice o f Stiotoc ocrinus bloomfieldensis. From the Journal of

Cincinnati Society of Natural History. S. A. Miller. 8vo, pp. 10, plate I. Cinci-

nati, 1881, From the author

n the iti re Distribution fe. the indigenous Plants of Europe and pet

United States. Jose m the Cincinnati Society of Natural Histo

April, 1881. Ocerat From the mia

The gradual dispersion of certain Mollus ee ba England, Edward S. Mo

From the Bulletin of the Essex "Tnetleate: Vel pp. 8, cut. From the author.

Uniclinal structure of the Iberian peninsula, . Macpherson. 8vo, pp» 34 mer

Madrid, 1880. From the author

rse.

The American Journal of ittciiaci and Popular Science, March, 1881. From :

the publishers

oe Medical Review, March 20, 1881. Chicago. From the publishers.

Johns Hopkins ete Baltimore, Marine rie sai 06 oti

ment. "Senden of 1881. pp.4. From area Baltimore

1881. ] Botany. 469

List of books and papers published by T. Eggelston. pp. 4. From the author.

Valedictory address to the Twenty-ninth Graduating Class of the Women’s Med-

ical College. Rachel L, Bodley, A.M., M.D. From the authoress.

——-:0:

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

A Boranist's Trip To “ Tue Aroosroox.’—I find by reading

the Natura ist, that all. matters of botanical interest are wel-

comed by its editors, and full of the enthusiasm of all lovers of

nature, I venture to send to its readers a brief account of my life

last summer in Aroostook county, Maine. I went there for the

purpose of gathering ‘wild flowers,’ hoping to add a few new

species. to the large number which I had already collected in

various counties in the State. I arrived at Fort Fairfield July 6th,

and to my delight found the banks of the Aroostook river

abounding in work for my brush. I remained there six weeks,

and enriched my portfolio with sketches of the following plants,

viz: lofieldia glutinosa, Allium Schenoprasum, Parnassia Caro-

liniana, T) riglechin palustre, Castilleia pallida, Rosa blanda, Ane-

mone Pennsylvanica, Campanula rotundifolia var. linifolia, Ascyrum

stans, Tanacetum Huronense, Hedysarum boreale and Astragalus

alpinus. (The three latter are reported by Professor Goodale and

Mr. C.G. Pringle.) From Fort Fairfield I went to Caribou and

Presque Isle, still following the river. In these places I gathered

Oxytropis campestris (also reported by G. L. G.), Nabalus racemo-

sus, Lobelia Kalmii, Polygala Senega, besides many more plants with

which the banks ab 1. Andinacoldd p p t Caribou, which

they call the “ Bog on the Barren,” I gathered large quantities of

Valeriana sylvatica, Galium trifidum vars. pusillum and tinctorium,

Fpilobium molle, and a few specimens of Microsiylis monophyllos

and 7. ophioglossoides. Orchids abound in these wet, inaccessible

places, especially Cypripedium spectabile, Habenaria dilatata and

1. hyperborea. | found the first named in such masses and so high

that it hindered our progress considerably, In an equally cold

bog at Presque Isle, I gathered Rides rubrum, Lonicera oblongifolia

and Khamnus alnifolius, In “a fallow” at Caribou, occurred an ab-

Normal form of Viola canina (Aug.); I gathered it because it was so

late in the season and the blossoms were so pretty,.not discovering

at the time that they were spurless, but I have shown them to four

botanists and they agree that they are V. canina, and are both

Spurless and beardless. In the same wild and fascinating place I

found rge numbers of the delicate fern named Cystopteris bulbif-

“7@, it was so woven into the underbrush that the longest speci-

“agg which I was able to procure in a perfect state are but two

‘et in length, but they grew much longer. It was warm and

: | .

Edited by Pror. C. E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa,

470 General Notes. [June,

damp there, and nestled beneath them were plants of Asarum

Canadense. The same morning I stood to my eyes (five feet) in

masses of Expatorium ageratoides. It is a coarse but very showy

plant with large corymbs of white flowers. It is abundant in

Northern Maine. I mention the height of this plant to give some

idea of the rank growth of the “weeds” in this county, and I

will state here that I saw Verbascum Thapsus ten feet high, also

Lactuca Canadensis, Go and see! I will not tell my aster story

here, but will wait till we visit the place where I found it. Sedum

Telephium is a very troublesome weed in some parts of the county,

whole acres of land being overrun with it, and I am told that it

has been there as long as the oldest inhabitants can remember.

The only new plant which I found in the Swedish colony was

Ribes lacustre. In riding from Caribou to Van Buren, a distance

of twenty-two miles, the monotony of the wearisome ride was

the landscape gorgeous. In the ride of forty-five miles along the

reached in Maine), we looked upon acres of the mammo ae

of Solidago squarrosa. In the two and a-half montis ey

ho cursed

hade

1881.] Botany. 471

Our Species oF CEDAR AppLes.—The curious growths on white

cedar, red cedar and juniper,.to which the name Cedar Apples has

been given, have recently been carefully studied by Dr. Farlow.

The results of his studies are published in the Memoirs of the

Boston Society of Natural History, covering thirty-eight quarto

pages, and accompanied by two plates.’ This important contribu-

tion is the first of a series of papers upon the Uredinez, which

Dr. Farlow hopes to publish soon. The popular interest in these

plants is sufficient reason for giving space here for a synopsis of

the paper.

All the cedar apples are now considered to be species of the

genus Gymnosporangium, belonging to the order Uredinez, and

Now as we have several species of Reestelia in the United States,

ments have failed to show any such connection, however.

ost cedar apples are perennial, and appear year after year

upon the host. The teleutospores, which are mostly two-celled,

sometimes several celled, develop in little clusters which expan

into columnar or irregular masses (technically called the sporif-

érous masses) when wet, as after a rain. In this expanded state

they are very conspicuous, and are often mistaken by the non-

scientific for the flowers or the fruits of the trees upon which they

ow.

The following generic and specific descriptions are taken with-

Out modification from Dr. Farlow's paper ; in his paper, however,

each description is accompanied with notes upon their synonomy,

and copious discussions upon structural peculiarities. —

Gymnosporangium De Cand.

rors yellow or orange-colored, usually two-celled, occasion-

Sat one to six-celled, on long hyaline pedicels, imbedded in a

ass of jelly which, when moistened, swells into columnar or

tregularly expanded masses. Mycelium parasitic in the leaves

and branches of di : : : ,

i ifferent ducing in them various

distortions. Cupressinez, pro g

The Gymnosporangia, or Cedar Apples of the United States. By W. G. Farlow.

472 General Notes. [June,

The genus as here defined includes the species of the old

genus Podisoma. |

. 1. G, lisa Farlow.—Sporiferous masses numerous, scattered,

cylindrical, filiform, from one-eighth to a quarter of an inch high;

spores dark yellow, linear-fusiform, obtuse, usually three to four-

celled, sometimes one to five-celled, 10 to 16 uw. in diameter, 75

to 190 yw. long, average 120 to 150 ».; pedicels long and slender;

promycelia short and much curved, usually one from each cell.

Mycelium perennial, distorting the smaller branches. On Cupres-

sus thyoides, N.J., Ma

2. G. clavarieforme De Cand.—Sporiferous masses numerous,

scattered or aggregated, yellowish-brown when dry, bright yel-

low when swollen, cylindrica slightly compressed, acute or

occasionally forked at the ¢ex, from a quarter to half an inch

igh ; spores narrowly lanceolate, those on the outside of the

gelatinous masses clavate, two-celled, 13 to 19 mw. broad, by

55 to gO ». long; promycelia usually one or two from each

cell. Mycelium perennial, causing long fusiform swellings of the

branches. On Funiperus communis, Maine.

3. G. macropus Lk.—Sporiferous masses aggregated in globose

tufts, surrounded at the base by a ring formed by the raised epi-

dermis and subepidermal tissue of the host plant, orange-yellow,

cylindrical, acuminate, half an inch to an inch long, or at times

longer; spores ovate-acute, two-celled, generally constricted at

the septum, and with a papilla at the apex, 15 to 20 p. broad, by

45 to 60 ». long; promycelia generally four from each cell. My-

celium annual, producing globose or reniform knots in the smaller

branches. On Funiperus Virginiana. Mass. to S. C. and west-

ward to Wis., Mo. and Colorado

4. G. fuscum De Cand.—Sporiferous masses numerous, get-

erally approximated brownish when dry, dark-orange when swol-

len, a quarter to half an inch high, compressed-conical or wedge-

shaped, upper margin thick, rounded, sometimes notched ; spores

roundish-ovate, two-celled, frequently constricted at the i

38 to 53 ». long, by 15 to 22 ». broad; upper cell either nearly

hemispherical or obtuse ; promycelia generally four from ¢ac®

cell. Mycelium perennial, causing long swellings of the branches.

On Funiperus Virginiana and ¥. communis. Mass., M

llowish-

ssed-

1881.] Botany. 473

inch high; spores linear-oblong, obtuse, two to six-celled, most

frequently three or four-celled, 50 to 84 ». long, by 15 to 20 u.

broad ; promycelia one or two from each cell. Mycelium peren-

nial, forming node-like swellings in the branches. On Cupressus

thyoides, Mass., N. J. On Libocedrus, Calif.

7. G. clavipes C. and P.—Sporiferous masses subpyriform or

irregularly globose, becoming indefinitely expanded, reddish-yel-

ow when dry, orange when swollen, about a quarter of an inch

high; spores broadly ovate, obtuse, two-celled, generally con-

stricted at the septum ; pedicels broad, much swollen beneath the

spores, 40 to 60 yw. long, by 22 to 38 ». broad; promycelia usu-

ally two or three from a cell, frequently produced from the apex

of the cells. Mycelium perennial in the leaves and branches,

producing nest-like distortions. On Suniperus Virginiana. Mass.,

Nu¥. iN. J Penn: No, S.C

_ 8. G. conicum De Cand.—Sporiferous masses subpyriform or

indefinitely expanded, orange colored, half an inch high; spores

oblong, two-celled, constricted at the septum, 48 to 58 ». long,

by 1§ to 18 ». broad; promycelia, either two or four from each

cell, given off near the septum. Mycelium perennial, forming

N's, ‘ae in the branches. On ¥uniperus Virginiana, Mass.,

Coun’s CLassIFICATION OF THE THALLOPHYTES.—This recent

attempt at a satisfactory disposition of the Thallophytes deserves

the careful study of botanists. As will be seen, Cohn still holds

to the view originally put forth by him in 1872, which discards

the old groups Algz, Fungi and Lichenes. The present arrange-

a questionable. The Entomophthore are much more nearly

ao to the Saprolegniz (if indeed they are not to be classed

ith them) than to Piptocephalis and Mucor.

This ; SERIES I.—CARPOSPORE#.

the i 1S nearly identical with the group of the same name as defined by Sachs in

Mt sag edition of his “ Lehrbuch.” It however includes the Schizospores, an

. €s the Characee, which are considered as low forms of Bryophyta

au 1. SCHIZOSPOREA : (a) Schizophyta. Families, Chroococcacex, Oscillari

tod: } Scytonemacece, Nostocacez, Rivulariacee. (6) Schizomycetes, Fam. Mi-

meee Coccacexe, Bacillacese, Cladotric ace, Myconostaceze :

ten, WETRADOSPOREA (F loridee); Fam. Bangiacee, Dictyotacee, Nemali-

ac ; Bois

ee, Lemaneacen, Cernmiacee, Gigartinacese, Sphzrococtacex,

474 General Notes. [ June,

ORDER 3. ASCOSPOREA: (a) Gymnocarpi, Saccharomyces, Ascomyces, Exoascus,

Gymnoascus, (6) £cidiocarpi, Fam. x

Fam. Stictidex, Graphideze, Hysteriaceze, Bulgaria 4

Collemaceze, Parmeliaceze, Usneacee. (d) Porocarpi, Fam. Laboulbeniacee,

Spheeriaceze, Lichenaez, Verrucariacee, Pertusariaceze, (e) Cletstocarpi, Fam,

Erysiphacez, Eurotiacez, Tuberacez.

ORDER 4. BAsIDIOSPORE@: Fam. Auriculariacez, Tremellacez, Telephoracee,

Clavariacez, Polyporacez, Agaricacee, Phallaceze, Hymenogastracez, Lyco-

perdacee, Nidulariacez.

SERIES If.—GAMOSPORE/&,

The single reproductive cells, formed by the sexual union of other cells, provide

the main character binding together the groups of plants, constituting this series.

ORDER I. ConjuGAT&: (a) Zygophycee, Fam. Bacillariaceze, Desmidiacee, Zyg-

nemacez, (6) Zygomycetes, Fam. Entomophthoracez, Ustilaginacese, Pipto-

cephalidez, Mucoracez. ;

ORDER 2. SIPHOIDEA: (a) Siphophycee, Fam. Caulerpacex, Bryopsidex, Codi-

acex, Vaucheriacexe. (4) Siphomycetes, Fam. Peronosporacex, Saprolegniacee,

Chytridiacez. !

ORDER 3. C@ENOBI#: (a) Canophycee, Fam. Protococcaceze, Palmellacez, Valoni-

acez, Volvocacee, Hydrodictyacez. (4) Cenomycetes, Fam, Myxomycetes.

ORDER 4. CONFERVOIDEA: (2) Syngamete, Fam. Ulvacez, Ulotrichaceze, Clado-

phoracez, (6) Oosporee, Fam, Sphzropleacez, Oedogoniacex, Coleoche-

taceze.

ORDER 5. FUCOIDE#: (a) Pheosporee, Fam. Ectocarpex, Sphacelariacez, Chor-

i F ex.

dariacee, Laminariacee, Sporochnoidez. (4) Oosporea, Fam. Fucacee

and among others he deprecates the tendency, in some quarters,

to the abandonment of the rather liberal use of initial capital let-

ters in writing specific names, which Linnzeus introduced. e€

regards the usage of Linnzus as authoritative, and cites examples

to show that the initial capital letter should be used when the

specific name is (1) an old generic name, (2) a native name, (3) 4

substantive used instead of an adjective, (4) a substantive used

in the genitive case, (5) a substantive used adjectively in cone

oration. “ other names,” he says, “ must begin with a sma

letter, even if derived from places or other genera.” This cet

1881.] Zoology. 475

scopes and a good deal of apparatus to enable one to successfully

engage in histological study in botany. The fallacy of this notion

is well shown in an article in the April Botanical Gazette, by Dr.

Rothrock, who describes the apparatus and modes of work in De

Bary’s laboratory in Strasburg. Hartnack’s small upright micro-

scope, without sub-stage or joint, and costing from thirty to forty

dollars, are used. The optical parts are, however, of good qual-

ity, and furnish a power ranging up to about six hundred diame-

ters. In making sections, razors and pieces of pith are mainly

relied upon, expensive section cutters not being used. Dulau

& Co., of London, are to publish immediately an important book,

“ A Guide to the Literature of Botany,” by B.D. Jackson. It in-

cludes nearly six thousand more titles than Pritzel’s “ Thesaurus.”

——*“A Manual for the Preservation of the larger Fungi,” by

James L. English, is announced as_ in preparation. : Cc.

Cooke has begun the publication of Illustrations of British

Fungi, consisting ‘of colored plates of the Hymenomycetes. The

parts, issued quarterly, include sixteen octavo plates each.

Professor McBride, of the University of Iowa, has issued a Plant

Aecord for the use of Students, which in some respects is an

improvement upon any previously published ones. F

James, in the Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural Fis-

tory, presents a paper in which he compares the flora o ES

United States with that of Europe. It is an excellent summary

of what is known as to the geographical distribution of plants.

Dr. Gray and Dr. Hooker have finally brought out their long

Promised report upon the vegetation of the Rocky Mountain

_Tegion. It is published in Vol. v1 of the Bulletins of the U. 5.

Geol. and Geog. Survey of the Territories. It will be noticed

More fully hereafter. Francis Wolle contributes another of

his valuable notes on Fresh-water Algze, to the April Zorrey Bul-

letin, An interesting list of the plants of Western Dakota and

Eastern Montana, by Assistant Surgeon Havard, has just been

issued from the Government printing office, as an appendix to

the Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1880.

ZOOLOGY.

More asour tat Cat.—In the February NaTuratist, I nar-

rated some instances of unusual sagacity in our pet cat, “Old

Shorty.” He died on the 19th of that month, deeply lamented

by his friends. He was not only a model of all the virtues con-

sistent with the feline life, but possessed many high and noble

traits not supposed to appertain to this species of carnivores. — I

mentioned his fastidiously neat and tidy habits, which he main-

tained down to the last day of his lite. We once had a pet

Squirrel which was kept in a cage with the usual revolving wheel.

Shorty” never molested the mischievous rodent unless he hap-

Pened to escape from the cage, when he was always ready to help

476 General Notes. [June,

released. He started at once for home, though he was fully

three days in reaching us. We imagined that the sounds

of the church and schoolhouse bells in the village enabled

him to find his way back. He had to cross a small stream,

which would be quite a serious obstacle in the way of a cat, and

this, doubtless, made his journey more protracted. But we never

gave him away again! He had no fear of an dog he ever met,

and in his younger days had the honor of soundly threshing sev-

eral of them! I could set him upon any stray dog that happened

to come upon the premises. He never failed to drive the in-

truder off, and woe to the dog if he failed to “ git out” in a

twinkling! Contrary to the prevailing disposition of common

cats, he never stole anything! Neither choice beef nor Jersey

milk on the pantry shelves ever tempted him to violate the

eighth commandment. He was sick at the last about three weeks,

hours before he died, as Isat holding his poor weary head in my

left hand and stroking his rich glossy back. I was telling him

how good he had been all his life long, and how sorry I was to

deserted and lonesome—though he was “ only a cat.” We ee

thought he would deserve a monument, and we feel that in ——

ting his humble story to its pages, the AMERICAN Navn oo

given him a proud and enduring one—Chas. Aldrich, We

City, Towa, March, 188 1. ee

BIRDs OuT OF PLace.—The red-wing blackbird (Age/ams me

miceus) usually leaves this region by the middle of pane gs

though if the weather continues mild, some of them Wi

1881.] Zovlogy. 477

awhile longer. But late in December I saw perhaps a dozen of

them wading in the shallow water just below a mill-dam near my

residence. They remained about this place for several days. At

the time the ground was covered with snow, and the ice was

more than fifteen inches thick on the mill-pond above.

Lately a workman on my farm stated that in January he had

seen a robin ( Zurdus migratorius.) where a little spring of water

flows out of the bank below the mill-dam. This was deemed a

breast! It seems more singular that it should remain with us

when its mates are all away in the sunny South! To-day we are

having a regular Iowa “blizzard.” The snow would be twenty

inches deep if it were not piled in great drifts, and the ice in our

little river is at least three and a half feet thick! I visited the

spot to-day, but did not find my robin. Several chickadees

(Parus atricapillus) were hopping about the spring, doubtless in

search of food or drink

Mer in this view I cannot concur, no specimens among the many

Sees examined, indicating that any light color phase exists ;

478 General Notes. [June,

form black below as well as above. While premising that this

bird may be the Buteo fuliginosus of Sclater, it should be re-

marked that in “ History of North American Birds” (Vol. 111, p:

266), I referred to B. swainsonit on the presumption that it was

probably based on a small example of the latter species in the

dark phase of plumage; but I may have been wrong in this

determination.

The specimen in question was shot at Oyster bay, Florida,

Jan. 28, 1881, by W. S. Cransford, and was secured for the

National Museum from W. H. Collins, of Detroit, Mich.—odert

Ridgway in Forest and Stream.

CURIOUS INSTANCE IN THE BreEpING Hasits OF THE BLUE-

BIRD.—In April, 1879, while on a collecting tour near Prince

Frederictown, Maryland, I found a nest of the blue-bird (Sza-

fia sialis) in a hollow post. The eggs, five in number, were re-

markably small, and in the body of the nest were three other

specimens, abnormal in shape and very large. As this is the only

instance of the kind I have ever heard of, it may not be amiss to

record it. Either the original owners had been driven away by a

new pair, who having rebuilt the nest, laid their own eggs ; or the

first three were deserted. The latter explanation is sustained by

the small size of the five found in the upper part. Curiously

enough both sets were perfectly fresh.—A. J. Reynolds, German-

town, Pa,

actually predominate over the real food in quantity. Besides 4

young nematoid worm and a gregarine, there are three

infusoria, a vibrio, and a minute filamentous alga, which was

viously known to inhabit the digestive canal of certain myriapods

and a beetle (Passalus cornutus ). In the thirteenth number of

Vol. vit of the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zool-

ogy, Mr. Walter Faxon describes and figures certain deformities

in the lobster, most of which appear to originate from injure’

received after molting, before the new skin becomes hardened i

the deposition of salts of lime. Mr, Faxon, after reviewing al

the deformities which have been described among Arthropods,

divides them into five categories: (a) of deficiency in nutrition,

() of excess, (c) of transformation, (d) of arrested development,

and (¢) of hermaphroditism. In an article on the mode

A. eg 2

pr c

1881.] Entomology. 479

spider presents an intermediate type between eggs with gen-

eral superficial segmentation of the Crustacea, such as Peneus,

and the eggs with regular discoidal segmentation, such as those

of certain fishes, that is to say, it has a blastulation intermediate

between periblastulation and discoblastulation. It greatly ap-

proaches the eggs of Chelifer (Metschnikoff), Tetranychus (Cla-

paréde), and of insects (Bobretsky). Thus is plainly manifested

from the outset the affinity of the Araneina with the groups of

Arachnida and with the insects. The Bezoar or guliga stones

are concretions or calculi formed in the “ stomach and intestines ”

of the red monkey, a species of Semnopithecus abundant in the

interior districts of Borneo. Mr. A. H. Everett says (in the Azz.

and Mag. Nat. Hist., March) that “accounts vary very much

ater. Everett adds that “ the widespread idea of the medicinal

virtue of these concretions would lead us to suppose that there is

some foundation for their reputation.” The Cervus maral, of

Siberia, has recently been domesticated by Cossacks in the neigh-

borhood of Kiakhta, in Western Siberia, where there are herds of

been domesticated, lose a good many of their original qualities.

———In a recently-discovered stalactite cave at Kinchberg, near

Kremsmiinster (Austria), a jaw-bone of a man with well preserved

teeth was found among numerous remains of Ursus spelaus.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

THE PerIopica Cicapa, alias, “ SEVENTEEN-YEAR LocusT.”—

The Present year will be marked by a quite extended appearance

of this interesting insect, both a seventeen and a thirteen year

brood simultaneously appearing. The readers of the NATURALIST

are doubtless familiar with the habits and natural history of Cicada

Séptemdecim Linn., and those of the thirteen-year race (C. tredectm

ley) which agree with it in every respect except in the time re-

quired for full development. We will, therefore, simply quote here,

with brief comments, what was said in 1868, in the writer’s First

“Port on the Insects of Missouri, regarding the two broods that

: ”

commy department is edited by Pror. C. V. Ritey, Washington, D. C., to whom

mations, books for notice, etc., should be sent. t

480 BS | General Notes. [June,

are to appear the present summer and that will be rendering the

woods vocal with their rattling song, in the more southern parts

Ha!

Fic. 1. Saighin septemdecim; a, pupa; 4, pupa shell; c, perfect ines d, twig

egg-punctures, nat. size; e, eggs, enlar rged. (After Riley.

of the Pe by the time the present number of the te

IST is out,

appear in ign tin te rage Green Lake c odie n, and may als oO ap ;

in the western part of North Carolina, and abot tw colts ne, Ving in sda

1 >

Ther ng foes a

sin in Pn and fair evidence that Bic! appeated tl that year in Summit erg

east ant while octraggling g specimens were found in the same year,

Rathvon, in Lan ounty, Pa., oa by Mr. James Angus, in Westchester cst

ae Fitch : en records their appearance in 1847, or seventeen ipsam: = P rh

viously, in the bisetig part of North Carolina, and Dr. Smith, in Wheeling, \ 0 ne

in 1830, 47, a The distance between the neat bi is very grea

it is doubtful hee all hase records belong to one and the same brood.

rae XVIII— 7redecim—1868, 1

In the year 1881, at intervals of thirteen geod ‘hereafter, oe ¥.

probability, appear be: Scuatace Illinois, throughou with the

the north-western corner, in Louisiana, Arkansas tadias n cesitning Kentuck

nessee, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and North and Seat, Ca rt sete ence

Though, as already stated, I publis hed cies sont account ever given of ya this

of a thirteen-year brood, yet, besides the ntione eo in this ene ca

particular br has been rece since, oa occurred in the years SS

*42, 755, and 68; and Mr. L, W. Lyon, at ea nee 1868) pecan of the

Se +. Horticutaral on even mentione its appearance in 1803. eption

occurs more or less on the iota “ered with the exe 88

of oat no ret ae corner that is bounded o ast by Grand river,

by the Slascset! river! The south-east ale ‘she State, “where Dr. S

ill, in a

jon 0

iF y, ren-

the

s Mr. Wm. Raucher, of Oregon, Holt county, saw a few gpa = dis

ea east part of Buchanan county in 1855, it may occur in small

tricts even north of the Missouri river.

1881.] Entomology. 48.

corded it since 1829, is most icky gevatess I age pi those counties in

which there is undoubted eviden appearance during the present year

( asad viz: Adan, Bollinger, ‘Benton, Clarke ce a Pomme’ & Cooper, Cole,

nklin, Gasconade, Iron, Je Kno wis, Mario Macon, Morgan,

re nitean, Pike, "Phe Ips, Pulaski, ‘Pol Petts, beter Be St. ne St. dike: St.

Francois, St. Clair, Warren ingto

t not improbably overlaps some of the erttory fog a by the septemdecim Brood

oe [a brood which appeared last in 1879], but 1 do not think it extends into

ansas.

In Illinois it occurs more or less throughout the whole southern half of the State,

ut more especially occupies the counties from the south part of Adams pavanné along

; i ar county, and

part), Franklin, mie ardin, Hamilt tah Johnson, Jaspe', Jersey, P gnc Law-

rence, McLean (east end), Macon, Madison, Marion, Massac, Monroe, Pike, Perry,

Piatt, Pope, Richland, Randolph, Sangamon, Saline, St. Clair, Union (north east

corner), Washington, Wayne, Wabash agp cers and White. There were none

the present — either at str n Maco sgn or at Pia fi in rcurkinn county;

nor were there any at Bloom bet Norm ean; nor in Dewitt county,

which lies south of M McLean; nor in Spting reo ieceucls county, which is north-

east of Champaign.

In Kentucky, according to Dr. Smith, it occurred in the north-west corner of the

— about Paducah and adjacent counties south, in 1829, 42 and ‘55, and it oc-

Paired hoveie 18

nsas, it occupied all the northern counties in 1842, ’55 and ’68.

In Aisoata’ it o cupied R ussell and adjacent counties on i east side of Black

Warrior river, in A ag and ’68.

n Tennessee, it occupied Davidson, Montgomery, Bedford, Williamson, Ruther-

ford and adjacent counties, n 1842, ’55 and ’

In North Carolina, t appeared in Mecklenburg county, in 1829, ’42, 755 and ’68.

n e Chester district and all the adjoining country to the Geor-

gia line, west, and to oe North Carolina line, north, was occupied with it in 1816,

"29, °42, 55 and ’68.

In Geo Rogie, it has estas in Cherokee county since the year 1816

‘ ana, it appear Heaps, Caddo, Clairborne, Washington and ad-

Jacent parishes, in 1855 an

It cae patos SS bone in ‘Mississippi and Indian Territory, though I am unable

ocalities,

‘th in 1868, various facts which extend its range in Georgia

and Tennessee, and which show that it also occurs in restricted

Parts of Indj

We shall be very glad to receive detailed information of the

“Edgar county also has the septemdecim Brood ul.

482 General Notes. | June,

exact limits of either of these two broods, or indeed any record

of the appearance of the insects the present year, and these

records will be all the more valuable if the years of earlier appear-

ances in the same localities can also be furnished. Information

on these points should be sent to the editor of this department.

A NEW SPECIES OF Oak CocciID MISTAKEN For A GALL.—An

esteemed correspondent from Ohio (Dr. Jno. A. Warder) sends

s e supposed to be some kind of gall which he found at

Iron mountain, Mo., on the twigs of Quercus palustris, They

are pretty large, globular or almost globular, objects fastened to

the twigs either singly or in clusters, as we are accustomed to see

or interrupted black lines. These objects have frequently been

mistaken for galls, even by entomologists, but they are in reality

the female scales of a Coccid, and are often infested by a Lept-

terized as follows :

Kermes galliformis n. sp. Mature 9 scale, average length 5 mm. Subspherical,

usually somewhat broader than long, and often with a broad shallow constriction

medig-dorsally. Attached by a broad, dark-brown cut or excavation, which 1s Cov”

th. Gro

under lens minutely and evenly speckled with brown; more or less su

mottled with gray or brown, the constriction, when present, generally dark. ;

of about seven irregular rows of black punctations running across the scale, 0 ee

connected by an irregular black line, and this again relieved by white or pale bb

low. The three uppermost rows most distinct and constant. f

The species is quite variable, the general shape and the form 0:

cut point of attachment varying according to the position on @

twig or as individuals are crowded; while the general color varies

according as one color or the other predominates. Specimens

striction and with a pale-gray rather than a pale-yellow ground

color. Prof. Comstock, Entomologist of the Department of Ag-

riculture, is at work on this family of insects, and will, we hope,

soon give us the natural history of many of the interesting forms,

of the development of which nothing has so far been recorded.—

C. V. Riley.

ruary

Tue “ Warter-WEEVIL” oF THE Rice Prant.—In the Feb bias

number we called attention to two of the worst insect enemi oe

the rice plant, first, the “ grub,” which injures the plant wher

1881.] Entomology. 483

cently received the Shere interesting communication from Mr.

John Screven, of Savannah, Ga., the specimens accompanying it

being Lissorhoptrus siete Say —-a tolerably common species

throughout the eastern part of the country, and found on various

other water plants, so that it is probably not confined to rice as

food. Wehave little doubt but that Mr. Screven is correct in his

deduction that this snout-beetle is the parent of the “ maggot,”

in which event the larva differs from the more typical larva of

the pasenanids, in being quite elongate and not arched. Mr.

writes as follow

will observ tig latter the metho d of the ce ee feeding, and will

find n o di iffic cing th in ccmeteding that when i erinepey numbers, as is sometimes the

fact, vb may do much damage in the

I have obs ae with aire maar sik sttention your allusion to this gn in the

rte se from the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Feb., 1881. But it has su uddenly

ccurred to me as possible that these “‘ water-weevils’’ are the perfect insect of the

ot.’ larva riwciey I sent to you last summer. Allow me to suggest some rea-

sons for a opinio

- Both the weevi il and the maggot are water insects; both seek the same food,

nam mely, the rice plant, differing eee in this, that the one feeds on the leaf and -

the other on the 1o0ot of the plan

hey differ in their periods ‘of existence, the weevil appearing in April an

May, the maggot in the summer months ; but this may speciai spaaidet Scdigcar time

mane nie rae ita ars gre water is siete to the generation and existence

ma t if from the cae weevil, will sarc within thirty

phys ater a harvest water is pains ed to the fields.

water weevil and the maggot are found in the same habitat, and both dis-

i pate§ on the removal of the water in which they live. I may note here that the

po is

n the greatest numbers in the e early morning, feeding on the delicate leaves of

the plane, and Gaake: — down the stem, the cooler recesses under water as the

sun grows warmer. Many, however, feed all da ay.

THE IMPREGNATED EGG OF PHYLLOXERA VASTATRIX.—It is get

esting to note how, one by one, all the conclusions we have

ormer years arrived at, are verified and their accuracy S cadiad

by European observers having, presumably, no knowledge of

what we have recorded. In 1875 (see Transactions St. Louis

484. General Notes. [June,

vious writings that this species winters in the larva state, and

not in the impregnated egg as does the European guercus ; and

remembering further, that vas¢atrix resembles ri/eyz in wintering

as larva, it is safe to conclude that the impregnated egg of vasta-

trix will also hatch the same season that it is laid, and that we

cannot apply to it the term ‘winter egg,’ which Balbiani applies

to the impregnated egg of guercus. It is not unlikely that since

mother a few days after thay are laid. In this we have the true

‘explanation of the larval hibernation of Phylloxera vastair4, cor

responding, in fact, with that of P. riley.

Works on Nortu American Micro-Lerrpoprera.— Lord

Walsingham’s “ North American Tortricide,’! which lays ms

foundation for a study of the Tortricids of the Pacific coast, ane

gives a scientific value to Walker's North American ee has

i e

peated in Psyche for October), and by Mr. Grote in Papilio for

January, 1881. It will be unnecessary to repeat their com-

ments, but as the book is indispensable to any one engaged in

studying the parents of our “ leaf-rollers,” we take pleasure :

calling further attention to it. The number of new species col

lected by Lord Walsingham in California and Oregon, 1§ very

large, and there are, besides, several new species described from

Texas and a few from other parts of the country. _ .

The illustration and description of Walker’s species has as

most ably and generously performed. That the coloring of er

of the figures is faulty, or not in exact agreement with the f

scriptions in the text, is doubtless due to the poor condition

the specimens from which Walker described many of his species.

It has been suggested that in cases where more than one spec! a

has been described by Walker under the same name, the last pa

has not been said; but it is evident to us that if either of t ee

species had been previously named and described, Walker 5 ™

. ; FOES - : in the collection of the

British Miascum, Part Wo Nonth Ameren Vertes, By Lond WALSINGHAE

London, printed by order of the Trustees. 1879. 4to, pp. 84, with 17 colore

graphic plates.

1881.] Entomology. 485

must sink as a synonym of that earlier name and should not be

used for any other species. The application of this principle will

doubtless serve to settle the synonymy of his “ Grapholitha

discoferana,” among others.

he new genera are Hendecastema (which Professor Fernald

has, in his review, shown to be synonymous with Clemens’s prior

genus Amorbia), peculiar for the pectinate antenna of the male,

and for vein seven of the primaries being forked in the female but

not in the male; Synunoma, also with pectinate male antenne,

remarkable for the great size of the abdomen of the female; Hys-

trichophora, differing from Phoxopteris in the longer palpi; and

Proteopteryx, allied to Grapholitha but peculiar for an abrupt in-

dentation of the posterior margin of the primaries upon vein five,

and for the curving of veins three and four towards it. We may

add in regard to Proteopteryx that Hedya spoliana Clem., and

Hedya cressoniana Clem., have identically the same structure, and

will doubtless take their place in that genus; but that this char-

acter is not confined to a single genus is evident from its opcir

rence in a new genus which we have, in a paper just published,

named Proteoteras, and which differs from Proteopteryx in the »

rough scaling of the primaries and the presence of a peculiar

costal tuft on the male secondaries

ne of t

latiferreana, we

characters for a distinct genus, allied to Zeller’s Ecdytolopha,

486 General Notes. [June,

treated of in our Report to the Department of Agriculture for 1878,

and probably Zulia ministrana which we have received from the

late Dr. LeBaron of Illinois, and also Spzlonota roborana Schiff.

(cydnosana Fabr.) which we have reason to believe is the same as

Hedya Scudderiana Clem. = Euryptichia saligneana Clem. =

Pedisca affusana Zell.

In regard to the conventional specific ending to the names of

Tortricids, we notice that Lord Walsingham follows Zeller im

making it conform to the gender of the generic name; thus we

have Lophoderus gloveranus and Exartema sericoranum.

Lord Walsingham’s paper on Tineidz? and his “ Pterophoride

of California and Oregon,’? have been reviewed by Mr. E

Chambers and Mr. Charles Fish in the November number of our

contemporary, the Canadian Entomologist. In the latter mono-

graph appears the first general treatment of any portion of the

North American species and the success of Lord Walsingham s

collecting in California and Oregon is shown in the discovery of

twenty-seven new species of this restricted group of moths,

making the whole number known from Northwest America,

thirty-eight. Some interesting introductory remarks are given 19

regard to the geographical distribution and variation of the Spe

cies; and a new genus, 7richoptilus, is proposed for “ probably

the smallest known species of Pterophoride,” differing from al

other genera in the front wings being cleft to the middle and in

the tuft of scales on the third lobe of the hind wings being situ-

ated only just beyond the middle—C. V. R.

~ Morus Mistaken ror Aretia.—Mr. F. A. Walthall, of New-

burn, Ala., sends us a number of moths, which he captured during

the latter half of February flying in immense numbers at evening

time around buildings, and which he supposes to be the cotton-

moth. They are, however, all Platyhypena scabra ( Fabr.), which

has been so often recorded by us as being mistaken for ete be

outil,

as imago and which are seen flying about on warm evenings,

species can always be found, even during the coldest spell.

very slight shelter, such as the loose bark of dead trees, fence

posts, etc., is sufficient to protect it from the cold, and it has been

found alive in such places where other hibernating insects, é.§

Carabidz and Heteroptera were frozen stiff and dead. ie

Several other correspondents have lately sent moths from re

South under the supposition that they were Aletia. Those - £

Mr. J. W. Burch, of Fayette, Miss., and from Mr. H. Hawkins, ©

1 On some new and little known species of Tineide. By THOMAS, LORD WALSING:

HAM. 8vo, pp. 17, 2 plates. Proc. Zodl. Soc., London, 1880. HAM.

2 Pterophoride of Calijornia and Oregon. By THOMAS, Lorp WALSING

8vo, pp. 66, 3 plates. London, John Van Voorst, 1880.

1881.] Anthropology. 487

Hawkinsville, Ala., are Phoderia atomaris, while those from Mr. J.

S. Newman, Atlanta, Ala., are the Platyhypena above-mentioned.

the following remarks: “The insect has been ruinous to the

black-cap raspberry in this vicinity for the last three or four

years. Old raspberry plants have been dug up and thrown away

to get rid of the pest. It first appeared (or was noticed) in one

garden, and has spread to all in this vicinity. If it is a bark-louse,

and if, as is stated by Harris, the female has no wings, how could

the insect have spread so rapidly to six or eight gardens? I

have not noticed it on the red or yellow raspberry. It multiplies

so fast that it seems useless to try to kill it by any applications to

the plant.”

The whitish, flat, either broady-oval or round scales on the

cane are, judging from the scales and eggs, those of the wide-

spread Harris’s bark-louse (Diaspis harrisii Walsh), which is

known to infest various trees and shrubs. The mode of spread-

ing of this and other scale insects, the females of which never

acquire wings, is more rapid than is generally supposed. The

young lice which hatch in the spring are very active during a few

days, and can overrun a large garden in a very short time. They

may easily be carried from one garden to another by the wind or

by the aid of birds or flying insects. In most cases, however, the

female scales are transported from one place to another on cut-

tings and nursery stock. The best way to counteract the ravages

of this insect is to dig up and burn, in winter.time, all infested

plants. New plants should always be carefully examined and

thoroughly cleansed before planting.

SreciFic VaLuE oF ApaTURA ALICIA Epw.—Mr. W. H. Ed-

A form. Whether it be considered a good species or not Is

fi ANTHROPOLOGY."

eyo XTHROPOLOGY In GERMANy.—Just as the Journal of the An-

Bul ec Institute represents our science in England, and the

rise etins, Revue and Materiaux, exhibit the labors of anthropol-

gists in France, so in Germany the cream of all contributions

sig

Edited by Prof. Oris T, Mason, Columbian College, Washington, D. C.

488. General Notes. [June,

finds its way into the Archiv fir Anthropologie. The first and

second quarterly parts of the thirteenth volume close the year

1880. The volume consists of original papers, shorter commu-

nications, reviews, and reports of meetings.

The original contributions are as follows:

The occurrence of a tail on human beings, pp. 42, 1 table, by Dr. Max Bartels,

met

of Berlin.

2. Monuments and localities with which the myth os Me thus is Fae

communication to the An or Ri Society of Kiel, March 16, 1880. This

ange is tame, upon a passe n the Germania of p Reon Pith 40.] pp.

o, by Heinrich Handelm

z acinar HS ‘ Richard bidiee.

4. Contribution to a Serena: ke the European races. I. With a table of curves,

by Professor J. Kollm bP

Quite extended reviews appear of Mook’s “ Prehistoric Egypt,”

Hart’s “Stone implements in the Museum of Rio Janeiro,’

Molon’s “ Ligurians,” Habel’s “Sculptures of Santa Lucia,”

Rau’s “Palenque Tablet,” and “ Archeological collections in the

National Museum,” Bell’s “ Jungle Life,” Marty’s “ Color Sense,”

Emmert’s “ Eye and Skull,” and Valentini’ s “Calendar Stone.”

A supplement of 160 pages contains a stenographic report of

the eleventh general meeting of the German Society of Anthro-

pology, Ethnology and Prehistory in Berlin, August, 1880. Nos.

g, 10 and 11 of Correspondenz-Blait give an account of the organ-

ization, a list of the members, a résumé of the proceedings, and a

catalogue of works presented at the meetin

ANTHROPOLOGY IN France.—The Revue - d' Anthropologie for

January of the current year, furnishes the following contributions

to our knowledge:

Quelques subdivisions des groupes basés sur l’indice cephaliques, by Paul 1 Broca.

De l’embryogenie dans ses rapports avec l’anthropologie (Legon d’ouverture al’

d’ Anthropologie), by Mathias Duval.

Classification et chronologie des haches en Bronze, by M. Gabriel de Mortillet.

Les Negres chez eux (Part 2), by M. Mondiere.

Sur quelques Cranes de criminels et de suicides, by MM. Ten Kate and Pav

Revue Critique—* Les Samoyedes,” of on and Bogdanof.

Rev. Préhistoriques—Soc. d’Anthrop. de Paris; The antiquity of Man in Dauphiny.

ete. ; Deg pological Society of Berlin, and Congress of Prehistoric A

goa Morr concen ethnica; and Discovery of America by the Normans in

ury.

Ecole

lovsky- ,

Higher Studies; Conferences on Anthropology by the Faculty of Scene

Lyons; On siaccpclogival peor in Italy; Congress in Algiers 19

Bibliagraphyc. Ste closely printed pages are devoted to bibliography.

HE EcypriAN StonE AGE.—The New York Nation for janue

ary 13, alludes to the researches of Dr. Mook as finally se

at rest the greatly disputed question as to the existence 0

Prehamitic population in the valley of the Nile. In the nu

mber for

on)

1881.] Anthropology. 489

January 27, Mr. Henry W. Haynes, of Boston, calls the attention

of the editor to the fact that as early as 1868 he himself had dis-

covered palzolithic axes of the St. Acheul type, together with a

most extensive series of all the usual implements that are found

in other countries in which the existence of the “ stone age” is

regarded as established. Mr. Haynes also states that it was he

who first directed Dr. Mook’s attention to the palzolithic imple- .

ments, and complains that Dr. Mook has almost totally ignored

him in his work. The death of Dr. Mook, recently announced,

deprive our countryman of the explanation which is justly

is due.

PreuIsToric ILtinors,—At the second annual meeting of the

State Natural History Society of Illinois, held in the State House

at Springfield, Feb. 8--10, the following papers were read: “ The

ancient agricultural implements of stone found in the Illinois

river bottoms and in the mounds in the Mississippi valley,” by the

ton. Wm. Mc. Adams, of Otterville; “The Palenque Tablet,

by Professor Cyrus Thomas; and “The Ancient Illinois,” by

the Hon. J. G. Henderson, of Winchester. Only the most

meager report of these interesting papers has reached us, hence

the brevity of this notice.

Ancient Works in New York.—There are within ten miles

of Watertown, N. Y., many ancient fortified village sites, not to speak

of those obliterated by the plow. We cannot use the term mound,

as applicable to this locality, for there are no artificially construct-

¢d mounds found here. One of the most marked features is, that

all these sites were fortified, or defended with ditches. They are

€n two forks of Sandy creek, a steep hill serving as embank-

ment for the rest of the enclosure, and usually the lines run along

the edges of an escarpment. Iam informed Ly several of our

five feet deep. Pottery of the usual forms, and nearly always

br oken into small pieces, is a constant paniment of these for-

tified sites, and it is generally blackened on the inside with charred

od, showing that the owners cooked with heated stones thrown

into the vessels. The jar or pot, the most perfect specimens I have

met with, was dug up in the town of Rutland many years since,

VOL. Xv.—No, VI.

490 General Notes. [June,

and is owned by Mr, J. A. Lawyer of this city. Arrow-heads,

stone-axes, scrapers, knives, bone awls, charred corn, etc., found

west and south, are dug up from the graves of these people, or

a j

strew the sites of their homes.—David S. Marvin.

Tue AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.—The number for January of this

useful Journal makes the following contributions to anthropol-

ogy:—The military architecture of the emblematic Mound-

builders, by the Rev. S. D. Peet; Oregon and her Prehistoric

relics; Lookout mounds in Ohio; Earthworks on the Mis-

souri river; The ancient pottery makers; Wisconsin copper

finds and lake dwellings; The rapid formation of rock strata

in Oregon; Wild rice; Nest of flint relics ; The Mound-builders

in Minnesota; Indian relics in a mound; Ancient man in Mis-

souri; Relics of the Mound-builders near Joliet Ill.; Gold orna-

ments in Tehuantepec; Aleutian mummies.

GERMAN ANTHROPOLOGY.—Onur readers will remember that there

enth annual meeting of the German Anthropological Society:

Under the direction of Dr. A. Voss, of Berlin, an illustrated cata-

logue and supplement have been published, 619 and 48 page

In these volumes are brought together not only descriptions of the

objects exhibited but catalogues of books and lists of localities

which makes them really a complete hand-book of German alr

thropology. ‘

AnTHropotocy IN Great Britain.—The Journal of the ee

thropological Institute is coming more and more to reflect the

labors of British anthropologists. In the number for November,

1880, No. 11, Vol. x, the original matter is supplemented by t"

pages of miscellanea, The original papers are as follows:

Notes on Fijian Burial Customs. By the Rev. Lorimer Fison.

The Ethnology of Germany. Part v. The Jutes and Fomorians.

owor

Observations upon the methods and processes of Anthropometry. By

By C. Pfoundes:

TURALIST

Dr. Paul

opinard,

The Japanese People: their origin and the race as it now exists.

ent ages, to learn the law of the rélative growth of parts;

races, so as to distinguish them; 3, in all environments, eis

to ascertain their influence on variation. As the few skeleton

our museums are insufficient to obtain a just average, 4

efforts should tend to perfect the methods of operating 0”

1881. ] Anthropology. 491

living, and to simplify them so as to render them available cs

travelers, officers of the Ages and navy, recruiting agents, teach-

ers, etc. To obtain good measures one should demand only a

few, such as height, bicsatiias some circumferences, and perhaps

the facial angle.

The aaa of the patella, adopted in the statistics of the Civil

war is preferred upon the living to all others, as one datum ee

From the summit of the olecranon to the upper border of the hea

of the radius is another. And, indeed, Dr. Topinard boldly af-

firms that when it is impossible to reconcile anatomical ge

with external configuration, the former must give way. T. a

engaged in anthropometric investigations cannot afford to omi

reading this paper.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—

L’Assapie—Sur la vision de la série des nombres, Bull. Soc. a’ Anthrop., Paris,

1880, 3s., III, 216-224 Housh

D’ ALBERTIS CL. M. nag New Page What I did and what I saw. i om ‘

ton, Mifflin & Co., = 2 vols., Ill. 8vo. $10. (Rev. in Mature, Dec. 3

by Alfred R. Wailee

ALLEN (N.)—Laws of fakenite nce. Samaritan, N. Y., 1880, VIII, 385-390.

AMAT “3 began mental et conformation cranienne. Rev. Scient., Paris, 1880. 2s.,

XIX, 2 :

ARGYLL, Dux KE OF. ie a foment in its relation to the mind of man; Reprinted

in Science from the Con eview

ANGER—Das gemischte pe feld auf eee co Felde bei Elbing. Zéschr.

SJ. Eth vet “Berlin, 1880, XII, 106-125, 2 b

Bayer, BARON J. ha L/Archéclogic Gtiastis Paris, Leroux; London, Trub-

ner & Co., 1880.

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Bay sae <n en at the north side of Yentai Hill. % Wo. China Br.

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Bono, G. B. Scene a capacita sei gece e cranica dell’indice Se ies nei faa

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Bourcrois—La ngeiation du marig envisagée sous le aaa médi jay

@hyg., Paris, 1880, 3s, Iv 144-1 :

BRANFIL R—Me ega pete Monument in North Arcot, Rude. ¥ Roy. As. Soc.

nora dee rag ek 1té Ws

A (P.)—Sur un eee nk, nommé Jacques Arnodi, doué Wa a t

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492 General Notes, [June,

Bucuer, H C. R.—A trip to Mexico. With an appendix about ancient nations and

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Discussion du rapport de M. Duverdy sur une comniunication de M. le Dr. Bourgey?

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Fuscien—Neuere mip tor figgoe eh auf der Balkanhalbinsel. Afi#h. a.

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Trans. by D, Asher, Triibner & Co. éeations

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suprémes. Precédé d’une lettre a P a Fr riee re. Paris, C. =

1880, 1 Vol., 8vo, pp. xl, 7

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GILDMEISTER, J.—Zur Héhenmessung des Schadels, Arch. f- pane’ B

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1881.] Anthropology. 493

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18 +» III, 64-131.

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494 General Notes. [June,

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GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY.

ies

‘Tue Taconic System IN Grotocy—The existence of a es

of stratified rocks in the Appalachian valley, inet alazozic

between the older crystalline or primitive schists and th d main-

rocks of the New York s system, was taught by Eaton an

* Abstract of a paper read before the National Academy of Sciences at Waste e°

ton, April 18, 1880.

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 495

tained by Emmons, whose Taconic system, as first proposed, was

later declared by him to consist of an upper division, which he re-

ferred to the horizon of the calciferous sandrock of the New York

system, and a lower division, the proper Taconic. In this latter

was included a great group of quartzites, limestones, and soft

crystalline schists, which have since, by different geologists, been

assigned to not less than three distinct horizons in the New York

system. The grounds of those contradictory opinions have been

supposed stratigraphical relations, and also the apparent associa-

tion with the Taconic limestones of organic remains belonging to

these various horizons.

In localities away from the disturbed regions of the Appala-

chian valley there exists a series of rocks occupying the position

assigned by Emmons to his Lower Taconic, and agreeing with

this in its essential characters. Such a series is found north-west

of the Appalachian region, a little to the north of Lake Ontario,

Where it rests upon schists like those of the Green mountains,

and is unconformably overlaid by the Trenton limestone, an

]

_ Again, Mr. W. O. Crosby has lately described a similar series

in the Island of Trinidad, resting on the ancient crystalline rocks

and overlaid unconformably by limestones of Trenton age.

We have thus abundant evidence of a great and wide-spread

Series of rocks, pre-Cambrian in age, and occupying the position

assigned by Emmons to the Lower Taconic or Taconian system

—which, according to him, extends continously along the Appa-

Within the vast region occupied by these rocks in the great

valley, have been found a few small areas of fossiliferous strata,

belonging chiefly to the Ordovian (Siluro-Cambrian) or to the

mbrian series; but the characters of the great mass o these

rocks are such as to lead to the conclusion that they constitute,

aS Maintained by Emmons, a more ancient series. ae

To the Taconian rocks belong the peculiar magnetic iron-ores

found at Reading, Cornwall, and Dillsburg, Penn., which have

n by some geologists regarded as Mesozoic, but were by

Rogers assigned to the base of the Paleozoic. To this same

490 General Notes. [June,

series belong the limonites of the great valley, which occur in

clays derived from the sub-aérial decay of the rocks, These

rocks, in their unchanged condition, contain beds and masses of

siderite and pyrites, the alteration of which 7v set has given rise to

the limonites. In the formation of this from siderite or iron-car-

bonate, it was pointed out by the speaker that there is a contract-

tion of volume equal to about 20 per cent; to which is due the

cellular character of the limonites and their frequent occurrence

in the form of geodes. ’

_ These older rocks are not without traces of organic life, having

yielded in the Appalachian valley the original Scolithus, and

related markings, besides obscure Brachiopods ; and in Ontario,

besides similar Scolithus like-markings, a form apparently iden-

tical with the Aozodéu of the more ancient gneisses. may

hope to find in the Taconian series a fauna which shall help to fill

the wide interval that now divides that of the Eozoic rocks from

the Cambrian. We should seek in the study of stratigraphical

geology not the breaks dividing groups from each other, so muc

as the beds of passage which serve to unite all these groups

one great system, remembering that there is no local hiatus which

is not somewhere filled up by the continuous process of nature-—

T. Sterry Hunt.

_ A Fossit PHYLLOPOD CRUSTACEAN FROM THE QUATERNARY

CLAYS OF CANADA—wWe have received through the kindness of

Principal J. W. Dawson, LL.D., of Montreal, a valve in partial

preservation, of an Estheria quite unlike any existing Americal

form. The following account of its discovery is from Principal

Dawson:

“Tt was found at Green’s creek on the Ottawa river, in nodules

in the Post-pliocene clay, holding skeletons of MJadlotus villosus

and other northern fishes, and shells of Leda (Portlandia) arcttea,

Saxicava rugosa, &c.; also leaves of Populus, Potamogeton, &e.

washed the débris of neighboring land, and of. fresh water streams-

The climate at the time was colder than at present, and the

m .

present some resemblances to £. middendorfit Jones, but- differs me

the want of anastomosing cross wrinkles between the ridges. =

One valve and portions of others were preserved; but none

1881. ] Geology and Palecniology. li

them show the beaks (umbones), though the form of the remain-

der of the shell indicates that they were situated nearer the mid-

dle of the valve than usual, 7 ¢., between the middle and the an-

terior third of the shell. The shell is deep, probably more so

than in £. jonesii, though the valves have evidently been flattened

and somewhat distorted by pressure, but apparently the head-end

as more truncated than in Z. jonesii, as the edge of the shell and

the parallel lines (or ridges) of growth along the head-end are be-

low bent at right angles to the lower edge of the shell. The raised

lines of growth are very numerous and near together; they are

of nearly the same distance apart above near the beaks as on the

lower edge. The very numerous lines. of growth are thrown up

into high sharp ridges, the edges of which are often rough, finely

granulated, and often the valleys between are rugose on the sur-

face. In one or two places a row of papilla for the insertion of

spinules may be seen where the shell has been well preserved, and

between many of the lines of growth there are irregular superfi-

cial ridges. Length 10 mm.; depth 7. :

The valve is evidently that of an Estheria, much truncated an-

teriorly, and with the lines of growth much thicker, higher and

closer together than in any North American species known to us,

d may prove when better specimens are found, to be allied to

the tertiary Siberian E. middendorfi.

The species is named in honor of the discoverer, J. W. Daw-

son, LL.D., who has so persistently and ably investigated the

Leda clays of Canada.—A. S. Packard, Fr.

Miocene Docs.—In the Bulletin of the Hayden Survey, Vol.

VI, p. 177 (Feb., 1881), I gave a synopsis of the genera and spe-

cies of this family found in the Lower Miocene formation of the

Western Territories. These numbered seven and‘nineteen respect-

> -

3; M.}. Its reference to the Canide is not certain. (2) Itseems

Icticyon as follows: Oligobunis, 1. 3; C.}; Pm. 4; M.3; an in-

ternal tubercle of the inferior sectorial, which has a basin-shaped

; cyon, 1.3; C.4; Pm.$; M.$; no internal tubercle of

the inferior sectorial, which has a trenchant heel—Z£. D. Cope.

Retscn’s Microscopic INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STRUCTURE OF

Coar}—Whilst there is a general agreement among geologists

that the coal of all geological formations is of vegetable origin,

Neue Untersuchungen ueber die Microstructur. der Steinkohle des Carbon, der

498 General Notes. [June,

there have been contentions from time to time, in the literature,

as to the mode of accumulation of such immense masses of veg-

etable material, and as to the species of plants furnishing it. In

his book on Chemical Geology, 1861, Dr. Fred Mohr argues

forcibly in favor of the hypothesis that the massing together of

marine algz, or seaweeds, in bays by oceanic currents will account

for many otherwise inexplicable occurrences of coal beds. This

view, however, was unable to gain a foothold against the botani-

cal evidence furnished by the fossil plants so beautifully pre-

served in the slates overlying the coal beds, and which are terres-

trial plants exclusively, belonging to much higher organized

families than the alge. The frequent occurrence, too, of whole

fossil forests of Sigillarids and Lepidodendroids, rooting in the

underclay and penetrating the coal beds at right angles, are a5

many evidences for the swamp hypothesis. Thus far no internal

coal itself had not been made a part of the argument on either

with the preparation of microscopic sections of coal. Thus,

whilst many industrious observers have examined sections and

noticed the presence of organic structure, no one has ventured to

interpret what he saw, botanically, because nothing can be seen

distinctly unless the cutting of the section be proceeded with in

acertain way. At this point Professor Reinsch steps up with the

beautiful work now before us. He tells of his microscopic work

upon the metamorphic limestones of the Huronion, 7. ¢, the

Eozoon Canadense, the quartz schists and the hornstone concre-

tions of the Silurian limestones of Ohio; and how he then turned

his attention upon the coal, and with the previously gained expe-

rience, soon obtained such remarkable results, that the apparent

hopelessness of getting satisfaction from the serpentinized and

silicified structures, was turned into exultation by the carbonized

material. Here there could be no more doubts, whether the

things seen under the microscope were sedimentary, concretionary

or crystalline or organized structures. The results and conclu-

mineral sections, generally is not serviceable; the cut must be

less transparent, since the softest parts will be worn faster and

hence be finally thinner and more transparent than the more

resisting forms, Sections parallel to the bedding are made with-

out difficulty. Not so sections at right angle. Much precaution

is to be exerted with these. Cut the raw plate with a steel saw

4mm. thick, 15 mm. square. Make a plane cut as usually 19

1881. ] Geology and Paleontology. 499

in all directions with a cork plate (perfectly soft and no grains) 10

mm. square and moistened with a drop of glycerine. This treat-

ment produces the relief. Frequent examinations must be made

under the microscope, to observe the point where the desired

transparency has been reached (not less thano0.o1 mm.). In some

cases as for Trichites and Grammites it is best to warm the raw

plate and saturate it with a mixture of wax and paraffine. When

terium, Vibrio, Asterothrix, Protoleptis, Zodgleea, etc.

3. These forms constitute seven generic types (thus far) in a

lower and higher order.

A. Naked Plasma, forming indefinitely outlined bodies, without indication of an

exterior wall.

I. Racostromide. Plasmatic thalloms, stronger trunks branching into many con-

nected branchlets. Substance uniform, without celluloid structure, (Color in

section, brown red to deep purplish red, semi-transparent.) UAE

LE Trichodide, Trichomic plasma, running into numerous capillary ramifications.

“eparation of the plasma into two substances indicated.

III. Grammitoide. Plasmic thalloms composed of a honeycomb web. No cells.

Uniform opaque substance. :

IV, Asterophragmide. Plasmatic thalloms resembling Racostromium, but w

substance is connected with radially arranged spheres, composed of centro-

V. Blastophr agmide, ‘Trichoid plasma forming Trichomata, from whose granular

stance polarizing spheres are formed, as in Asterophr: ium.

B. The plasma forms definitely outlined bodies with an indication of external

wall,

VI. Plasmide. The thalloid plasma is not yet clearly outlined by an external bbs

but is composed of a granular, or fibrillary substance from which primary ceils

ed, ;

occide. The plasmatic body has become a cell, surrounded by an ex-

ternal wall not fully developed

Of these types, fifty-two specific forms are described in the

500 General Notes. [June,

book, and richly illustrated with admirable drawings, without

whose assistance a description is not intelligible.

4. From the great rapidity with which, under proper surround-

ings, the Bacteria and even the fresh-water Desmids grow and

multiply, the considerable thickness of strata which the siliceous

cells of the latter accumulate in a few years, there is no longer

difficulty in the way of understanding the formation of coal beds

now, nor the absence of microscopic structure in all true coals,

nor their compactness. For pressure alone is amply sufficient

to produce this density. Nor is the difference in chemical compo-

sition of various coals now so much astonishing, since this will

depend on the composition of the predominating protophytes of

the stratum. However, these points are not investigated yet, as

indeed the whole study has not advanced beyond the establish-

ment of a few fundamental theses. Professor Reinsch does not

expect a rapid acceptation of his views, but he desires stimulating

capable observers everywhere, to carry the light of science into

this dark field of hereditary beliefs. ;

In conclusion, we would heartily congratulate Prof. Reinsch

for this invigorating contribution to geology, in the prosecution

of which upon our vast carboniferous areas, botanists and chemt-

Bulletin, No. 32.

Empedias (= Empedocles nom, praeocc.) and Dimetrodon.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS!

Important Discovertes in Sourn America.—In the Natu-

de Dios rivers, in Brazil. He proposed to continue the wor :

the late Professor Orton, so sadly interrupted by his death. T .

Kansas City Review of Science for April, contains an interesting

. wake

account of the success of Dr. Heath’s expedition. He has

* Edited by Ettts H. YARNALL, Philadelphia,

1881.] Geography and Travels. : 501

plored the Beni and made very valuable additions to our know-

ledge of this heretofore almost unknown region.

Dr. Heath writes from Reyes, Bolivia, December 20, 1880:

“The question of the Beni is solved. The work of Professor

Orton is finished. I made the trip from Cabinas (rubber camps

on the Madidi) in a canoe with two Indians. I left Cabinas Sep-

tember 27th, and after delays from sickness of my men, at 8 A.M.,

October 8th, discovered a new river entering from the south, and

at mid-day of the 8th, arrived at the junction of the Madre de

Dios with the Beni. No other white man has ever seen the

mouth of this magnificent river. Crude measurement gave 735

feet for the width of the Beni, and 2350 for that of the Madre de

ios. Took careful observations for latitude and longitude. At

6,50 A. M. of the oth, I passed the mouth of a river the size of the

Yacuma, entering from the north, to which I gave the name

rton. At night we slept on a sand bar joined to a large island.

On the 1oth we passed this island, and at 8 a. M. another large

one, and at 10 A. M. came to a line of rocks obstructing the river

and making rapids, One mile further down we came to the main

fall, which exhibits a perpendicular descent of the entire river of

thirty feet. We occupied the remainder of the roth in drawing

our little craft over the rocks to the water below. i

risk we passed the waves below the falls and camped. On the

morning of October 11, we passed some rocks in the river cor-

responding to the rapids of the Palo Grande of the River Mamoré,

but which here offer no serious obstructions to navigation. At

10 A. M., October 11, 1880, we arrived at the mouth of the Beni

—that is, at the junction of the Beni and Mamoré Rivers. From

thence we ascended the Mamoré, three hundred miles, to Exal-

tacion and Santa Ana to this place, two hundred miles west over

the Pampas ; brought my boat on an ox cart.

the River Beni, the productions of the rubber camps on the River

Madidi have ascended the River Beni two hundred miles to

dred miles around, in place of less than three hundred miles

__ The waters of the Beni come down from the gold mines

of Bolivia, and through forests of cinchona trees, and those of the

Mad

P re de Dios from a much larger area of similar territory of

eru,

502 General Notes. [June,

“Dr. Heath,” writes Professor Parker in the Kansas City Re-

view, “alone, unaided, spent two years in patient, determined

preparation near the scene of the proposed exploration, and then,

in a frail canoe, with only two Indian servants, with certain death

before them, as all Bolivia believed, paddled. bravely forth to ex-

plore a great river and extensive country, where during 350 years,

a score of costly expeditions have disastrously failed. It is

thought that the governments of Peru and Bolivia will give offi-

cial recognition of his daring and successful achievement. His

work will develop and change the commerce of many hundred

miles of mountain and plain. Rubber and bark will now descend

the Beni instead of going six or seven hundred miles around.’

FRanz-Joser LAND REVISITED. 11.—We extract from a paper

prepared and read before the Royal Geographical Society, by Mr.

C. R. Markham, the following additional information concerning

the geology of the land visited by Mr. Leigh Smith.)

“The lowest rocks belong to the Oxford clay, and are repre-

sented, in the collection brought home in the Eira, by two belem-

nites. Above the Oxford clay the rock is of the cretaceous

period, to which the fossil coniferous wood belongs, including one

very perfect cone. There: are also slabs with impressions of

plants. Over all there has been an overflow of basalt and

lava forming a cap, as on the Island of Disco. The col-

lection of fossils brought home by Captain Markham from No-

vaya Zemlya, proved the existence of carboniferous rocks there,

which dip under the more recent formations of Franz-Josef Land.

Exactly the same carboniferous fossils were found by Sir George

Nares Expedition at Cape Joseph Henry ; and these discoveries

point to the probable existence of a carboniferous series 0 rocks

in the unknown region nearer the Pole, on which the cretaceous

rocks of Franz-Josef Land are resting. The complete geological

examination of the unknown region is one out of many important

results to be derived from further Polar discovery.”

smithi, after its discoverer. “These sea spiders are found in a

British seas of very small size. The large ones have been 60”

lected in the Kara Sea; but this new genus is peculiar to the S¢

of Franz-Josef Land.” mes

n our narrative? of Mr. Smith’s voyage, we took from My

London Zimes a notice of a “ can” being seen on Wilczek Islan¢,

? Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, March, 1881.

? NATURALIST, March, 1881, p. 254.

ae ee

DISCOVERIES

along the

SOUTH COAST

FRANZ-JOSEF LAND

by M'B. Leigh Smith,

1880.

Snundings in fithons—— 8

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 503

but it should have been, it now appears, a carn erected by the

Austrian expedition.

In the interesting discussion which followed the reading of this

paper, Captain Sir George Nares said, in the course of his re-

marks: ‘From Payer’s voyage it was learned that the Arctic

migratory sea-birds went to Franz-Josef Land earlier than to any

known spot. The precise reason for this has not yet been ascer-

tained, but it afforded evidence that the water in the channels

that Payer traveled over always thawed earlier in the summer

than in other parts of the Arctic seas very much further south.

This must be in consequence of some very strong current pour-

ing through the strait represented in the chart, thawing the ice.

He could not think that this current flowed from the south; if it

did it would carry the ice towards the land, and there could not

possibly be such a large quantity of water there. He therefore

reasoned that the current came from the north, causing a large

body of water close to the land by forcing the ice south; a vessel

bound north would meet this ice at a distance from the land, and

would have to force her way through it.” “Mr. Markham

has referred to the heavy icebergs that were born there. What

became of them was not known. If his conclusion about the

northern current was correct, this, in combination with a move+

ment towards the north-west of a lower stratum of warmer water,

would carry them towards Wiche’s Land, of which nothing was

. They were not found drifting down past Hope Island

and Bear Island in any great quantities, and it was still uncertain

Mr. Etheridge, F.R.S. (President of the Geological Society)

said: “Amongst the few specimens which Mr. Leigh Smith

and Pinus pallasiana. No other fossil plant-remains had been

brought from that region, but he had no doubt that it was Upper

Cretaceous, That settled the question of the existence of Cre-

important formations in Great Britain and Russia. Beneath that

again were older rocks still. A great deal had been done with

regard to the groups of Palaozoic rocks in the northern regions,

especially through Sir George Nares and Captain Fielding, who

S€cured a fine collection of fossil Mollusca and corals. Captain

Markham’s investigation of Novaya Zemlya had proved the exts-

tence, in that island, of carboniferous rocks, agreeing closely with

504 ’ General Notes. [June,

those of the Pennine chain, Probably from Petchora Land to

Spitzbergen was once continuous land. Sir Roderick Murchison

had proved the existence of carboniferous rocks in Petchora

Land and the Ural chain, but until he himself examined the spec-

imens from Novaya Zemlya, they were not known to exist in that

island. Since Sir George Nares returned, the complete flora of

those parts had been described; but unfortunately nothing had

been done on the northern coast of Greenland to the eastward,

and an exploration of that district and of Franz-Josef Lan

would give clearer information as to the geological history of the

Polar regions, which he felt certain were largely composed of car-

boniferous rocks. By placing the several acquisitions together

and comparing notes on the Ural chain, Petchora Land, Novaya

Zemlya, Franz-Josef Land, and Spitzbergen, a complete history °

could be obtained of those rocks which stretched away to the

north of Asia and America.”

“The great bulk of the collection brought home by Sir George

Nares was carboniferous, but the coal found was of Miocene age

and thirty feet thick. No one could doubt this if he knew the

plants contained in the shales, &c.” * * * * “Inthe whole

region examined by Sir George Nares, none of the carboniferous

corals discovered could have lived in water less than 77°, 7 8° or

80° of temperature, so that most of the rocks of which the Polar

regions were composed must have been formed in tropical seas.

It was well known that large Enaliosaurian reptiles (Ichthyo-

sauri) had been found in Spitzbergen. There were other things

brought back by Mr. Leigh Smith, which he (Mr. Etheridge)

could not yet make out, but they appeared to him to be older

still. With regard to the great lava flows, they appeared to sd

nine in succession, most likely occurring about the same time a

that of the Giant’s Causeway, in Ireland, in the Miocene period,

or at about the same age as the thick bed of coal found in Smith

Sound. These lava flows are perfectly horizontal for many miles,

showing that their condition now was just as formerly.” ‘

Tue Turrp INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHICAL CONGRESS. — We

have received the programme of the next meeting of the Congress,

to be held at Venice on September 15th of this year, and to cone

tinue to the 22d. There are three classes of members: sub-

scribers paying fifteen francs, donors giving not less than see

francs, and honorary members nominated by the committee °

i The sections of the Congress are: I. pip ag

cal geogra , geod rograpnhy., *

Ph geography, geodesy and topography. U1. Hydrog ates ical

1881.] Geography and Travels. 505

are invited from all geographical societies. Delegates will Hae

ments of other countries. Geographical societies are invited to

send in suggestions of ye to be discussed.

In connection with the Congress there will be held an Inter-

national Geographical Exhibition to be open during the month of

September. It is ela into sections corresponding to those of

the eongress as follow

—Instru y perk S at geometry. an ee and instruments of topog-

raphy, pe sy and astr Te ages ree 2 nts for me asuring velocity.

—_— Sidereal m maps; maps of stiningadatton ait h metry, Original topo-

en ore cainitl: portable and of precision, relating to hydrography. Re-

flectors, Chro: onometers, marine and pocket. Logs, leads, dredge es; igang for

ermo

rogra

maritime geography. Guides ton igation; carognes of lighthouses, beacons, &c,

Proposals for a uniform jritersnionat's system of buoys and beac ns, and for com-

pleting the lighting of the coasts. Layin oF submarine lines of telegraph

Magnetica charts (isoclinous, isogon and isodynamic). Cha: f iso-

bars and bithietine, &c. Maps of geological, zoBlogic on and botanical geography.

bran

Class Iv.—Maps and atlases referring to gener ig nthro opology, ethnology and

comparative philology. Other publications and Satincttors relating to these subjects.

Grammars and vocabularies of languages little known ;_ commons studies.

t ublication i

aps other publications of historical geography. A t and

ern works and manuscripts relating to the history of geography. Ancient maps

and globes. Instruments used bv ancie geographers, astrolabes,

SS Vi.—-Works, charts and diagrams bee statistical, economi d commerci

geography (population, agriculture, manufactures, commerce, public works, coloniza-

tion, &c.), psggy ctions of commercial ae and objects made from a gi phi-

. Class. vir reac and methods ve instruction in geography. — Outlines and

aniseapes, Wall maps; eee weed struments for instructions in geography.

Atlases an rata cose diction Cha rts and maps of the globe, terrestrial and

celestial gl globes. Copi of topographical charts; maps and plans in relief. Differ-

methods of re a rae maps (photography, heliotyphy, nc gh zin¢gogra-

: p

Phy, photolithography, chromolithography &c.). Materials and apparatu s specially

in the :

Class vitl.—Instrum bt fo or expeditions, astronomical determinations and to

Rraphical copies ; traveling — ters a en thermometers, pedometers rise ape oe

Portable photographic appar. specimens of camera lucida. Route maps 5 sk

ill nee ys, faé:Similies, eke tions per collections of every description whic >

Mustrate voyages of discovery, photographic views and drawings of countries little

explored Instructions for geographical expeditions. Instruments and equipment

3 1 san ici :

€ncampmen d act

a, and valtivgin, of all kinds shine to geographical voyages. Publications

instruments used j in Alpine climbin

VOL. Xv.—No yr, 35

506 Scientific News. [ June,

MICROSCOPY.

Test Osjects. AMPLIFIER.—Why I think little of the Podura

as a test, is, that it requires a skilled microscopist to appreciate it

for that purpose, anda skilled microscopist can judge of the value

of a lens by its performance on any object. Test-objects are of

most use to a beginner, and if he does not know exactly what he

ought to see, a skilled showman can make them both a delusion

and a snare.

World of Science.

10:

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— Dr. James Lewis, the well-known conchologist, died of apo-

Massachusetts, from 1849 to 1851 that he became interested in

his favorite science and formed the nucleus of what was to via 5

one of the most valuable private collections of American lan

and fresh-water shells extant. From that time untila year or tW°

previous to his death, he was a most devoted student and untiring

enthusiastic collector. He is widely known to the authorities

the science he cultivated by a very extensive correspondence, °

which art Dr. Lewis was certainly a master. Within the mer”

of his acquaintance are embraced all the living names familiar

to the younger naturalists, and many others who have ‘

away. His published works, when the magnitude of his labor:

1881. ] Scientific News. 507

and the opportunities they have presented are considered, have

not been many, but all published possess permanent value. ey

date from 1854, and number some eleven titles, The first con-

sists of notes on “A/as. (Marg) marginata,’ published in 1854.

In 1856 he published three papers, two in the Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat.

Hist. and one in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., all relating to the Mol-

lusca of the State of New York, and two of them are local lists,

with notes. In 1857 he published a single paper “On Erosion of

Uniones,” in Proc. Bos. Soc. Nat. Hist. In 1860, two papers, one

on “Colors of Unionidz,” and the other a local list, both of which

appeared in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences of Philadelphia. He

published nothing further until 1868, when appeared a paper in

the dm. Four. of Conchology, “On the Mollusks of the Mohawk

valley.” In 1869, in the same journal, he published a valu-

able paper “On the Shells of the Coosa river,’ Alabama. The

bibliography and indices of Dr. Lea’s “Synopsis of the Unionidze”

next engaged his attention, and they are, in great part, largely

arranged by him. His last published work of value appears

in the Geological Report of Alabama for 1875(?), and contains

the almost complete geographical distribution, by streams, of

the Shells of that State. Some very suggestive remarks are

likewise appended as notes to the work which he has there

performed. He was also an occasional contributor to the Nat-

published, would add largely to our knowledge of fresh-water

forms. The most of these have passed into the hands of my col-

a Systematist. In this field he was an acknowledged master, and

here his services were frequently required by individuals and freely

Siven. He arranged and classified many public collections, among

which were the American fresh-water shells in the Smithsonian

Institution, the last critical revision of which was made by him;

the collection of the Buffalo Acad. of Nat. Sci., those of Vassar

College, Mount Holyoke Seminary, Wellesley and Hamilton

Colleges, and the State Cabinet at Albany. The examination of

these extensive collections furnished him with material for the

determination of synonomy, which, had he lived to complete it,

Would have very greatly reduced the number of acknowledged

species. In work of this character he was truly philosophic, and

his opinions commanded and obtained respect. The great changes

In Scientific thought occasioned by the doctrines of evolution,

ound an ardent advocate in him, and those great principles

formed the basis of all his later work. He has often remarked,

d repeated it to others in his correspondence, that the great

Work of the future would be done from this standpoint,and “much

remains to be done in eradicating the errors of the older natural-

~~ € was a conscientious worker, an acute thinker, and a

man of great research, In the prosecution of his studies he was

508 Scientific News. [June,

indefatigable, and here was the cause of his disease—a nervous

disorder which reached its climax in his death. He lived but five

hours after the apoplectic stroke, and died without regaining con-

sciousness. His merits were recognized by various ‘scientific so-

cieties in electing him to a membership, among which were the

Philadelphia Academy, the Boston Society Nat. Hist., the Amer-

ican Association for the Advancement of Science and the Buffalo

Academy. To the publications of all these he was a contributor.

In his death science loses a man of no ostentation, but of patient

and painstaking endeavor; in manner he was reserved at times,

but always gentlemanly and courteous; he was single in his pur-

pose, and devoted in pursuit of his objects. It is with a deep

sense of personal loss that these lines are penned in memory of

one who was universally kind and helpful ; a kindness and help-

fulness that many another has shared time and again at the hands

of Dr. Lewis; advice was always freely given, nor was aid ever

denied when aid was needed. His death is a loss to American

science that all will deplore—R. EC.

the natural history of the entire State—a thing long and sadly

needed. Aside from occasional local contributions, made by in-

dividuals and at little expense save to themselves, nothing has

been done in this State, and the field is open still to investigation.

Dr. Parry has alone done much in its botany, Mr. J. A. Allen in

its ornithology and mammalogy, and there the natural history

work ends. Twice has the General Assembly instituted a ge0-

logical survey, and as often brought them to an abrupt ending.

‘Dr. Hall has since described and illustrated a large number of these forms in ae

Annual Reports N. Y. State Cabinet of Natural History. But there are now many

them, rare and costly, and beyond the reach of the student.—2#. &. C.

1881.] Sctentfic News. 509

&c., of portions of the coal field, prepared for publication, not

only refused to publish or go on with the field work, but refused

to refund to the principal geologist the salaries of his assistants,

and expenses of the survey for the preceding year, which he had

advanced from his own means, or to pay for his own services

during that time; all of which to this day remains unpaid. This

was not only dishonest but foolish—dishonest, because repudiating

a just debt ; foolish, because a continuance of the survey meant a

clearer insight into the riches of the great State for whose high-

est interests they were sent to legislate. Then came the survey

of Dr. White, the results of which, in an imperfect form, were

ordered printed despite the protests of the geologist, and the sur-

vey again brought to a close. The complete geology of the State

is still unknown. Many thousands of dollars are being expended

in the counties of Page, Fremont, Mills and Montgomery, in a

vain attempt to find coal. The survey of Dr. White, incomplete

as it necessarily was, had demonstrated that no coal could be ob-

tained in that portion of the State, at a distance from the surface

to prove remunerative. Personal observations confirm the accu-

racy of his judgment. So the field is still open, and the various

Societies in the State might apportion it into districts, convenient

to the seat of each, and accomplish a work which a short-sighted

legislature declared useless. There are local geologists of some

reputation in Iowa, and they could thoroughly and completely

perform the work.—R. &. C.

— An important memoir on the crustaceans of the Caribbean

sea and the Gulf of Mexico, has been read by M. Alph. Milne-

Edwards to the Paris Academy. The material he has to deal

with had been sent him by Mr. Agassiz, and obtained during

cruises in the Blake, in recent years. The author is struck with

the great difference between the fauna of the coast and that of

the deep parts. The shore animals are of a highly-organized

type, while the deep-water animals have a more ancient character.

A large number of new species have been met with, and it has

often been necessary to form new generic divisions. Seve

§Toups, formerly thought foreign to American seas, have been

found abundant at great depths (¢. g. the family of Galathea).

The infinite variety of forms is very remarkable, and the accepted

modes of classification will often not apply. There isa large

number of transition-forms. M. Milne-Edwards considers that the

study of animals, living at great depths, is only begun, and he in-

-vites men of science to organized effort in a domain which is cer-

tain to prove highly fruitful.

— M. Certes has lately found a method of coloring infusoria

and anatomical elements during life. Placed in a weak solution of

Chinoline blue or cyanine, infusoria are colored pale-blue, and

any continue to live 25 and even 36 hours. Strong doses poison

immediately. Again, after being 24 hours in a moist chamber,

510 Proceedings of Sctentifie Societies. [June,

the white blood corpuscles of a frog colored with cyanine show

amceboid movements. The cyanine should here be dissolved in

serum. Chinoline blue is, par excellence, the reagent of fatty mat-

ter. By affecting the cellular and not the nuclear protoplasm in

infusoria, it shows fatty matters to exist only in the former. It

should prove a useful means of studying cellular life.

— The annual meeting of the Society for the Promotion of

Agricultural Science will be at Cincinnati, on Tuesday, August

16, 1881, the day preceding the sessions of the American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement of Science. ;

The following gentlemen have indicated to the secretary their

readiness to present essays at the coming meeting: Professor 3

W. Johnson, Patrick Barry, Professor W. J. Beal—subject, Testing

seeds, Professor J. Henry Comstock, Professor E. W. Hilgard, Pro-

teachers. Professor E. S, Morse, the director, will be aided by

Dr. J. W. Fewkes, Dr. C. S. Minot and Professor Straight, and

Messrs. Fish and Sears.

——:0:———

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Nationa Acapemy oF Sciences.—The annual meeting bega"

in Washington, April 19, the president of the Academy, P rofes-

sor W. B. Rogers, of Boston, in the chair. The list of papers

read is as follows:

Tuesday, April 19.— The domain of physiology,” by T. mar

unt; “The compass plant of the western prairie,” by B- of

vord; “The solar constant,” by S. P. Langley; “ The color 0

the sun,” by S. P. Langley ; “On mountain observations” by 5. ¥-

Langley ; “ On the relations of soils to health,” by R. P umpelly ;

“ Reduction to sea level of barometric observations made at ele-

vated stations,” by Elias Loomis

to our knowledge of the currents and temperature of the ©

in the vicinity of Behring’s strait,’ by W. H: Dall; as method

1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. Sit)

for finding the proximities of the orbits of minor planets,” by C.

H. F. Peters: “ Structure of the wings of insects, studied palzon-

tologically,” by Samuel H. Scudder; “ Biographical memoir of

S. S. Haldeman,” by J. P. Lesley ; “ On the auriferous gravels of

California,’ T. Sterry Hunt; “ On the utilization of the sun’s rays

in heating and ventilating,” by Edw. S. Morse; “Results just

obtained with regard to the molecular height of hydro-fluoric

comb was elected home secretary, and Professor J. H.C. Coffin,

United States Navy, treasurer.

New York Acapemy or Sciences, New York, March 28.—

The following papers were read: Notes on the fauna and flora of

the gorilla region, Equatorial West Africa, by Mr. Hugo von

Koppentels ; On the occurrence of Helix aspersa (European) in

California, and the geographical distribution of certain West

American land-shells, etc., by Mr. Robert E. C. Stearns.

A\pril 4—Mr, N. L. Britton read a paper on the geology of

Richmond county (Staten Island), N. Y. ae

April 11.—The following paper was read: On the building and

©rnamental stones used in New York, with illustrations of their

sucroscopic structure, as shown in the lantern by polarized light,

y Mr. Alexis A. Julien, 7

512 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. (June, 1881.

May 2.—Mr. A. A. Julien presented the results of some recent

observations on fluid cavities in minerals; and the president (Pro-

fessor J. S. Newberry) exhibited some interesting and remarkable

fossils lately received at the School of Mines.

AppaALACHIAN Mountain Crus, April 14.—Professor Charles E.

Hamlin read a paper entitled “ Mount Ktaadn and its approaches

as seen in 1879 and 1880.” A newly constructed model of the

mountain illustrated the paper.

——:0:———

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

QuarTERLY JOURNAL OF Microscopicat Scrence.—April. The

minute anatomy of the Branchiate Echinoderms, by P. H. Car-

penter. On young stages of Limnocodium and Geryonia, by E.

R. Lankester. The origin and significance of the metamorphosis

of Actinotrocha, by E. B. Wilson. A further contribution to the

minute anatomy of the organ of Jacobson in the Guinea pig, by

E. Klein. On the development of certain microscopic organisms

occurring in the intestinal canal, by D. D. Cunningham. On the

cause of the striation of voluntary muscular tissue, by J. B. Hay-

craft. On the relation of micro-organisms to disease, by J. Lis-

ter. Observations and reflections on the appendages and on the

nervous system of Apus cancriformis, by E. R. Lankester.

THE GEOLocicAL MaGazinE.—April. Geology of British Co-

lumbia, by G. M. Dawson.

ANNALS AND Macazine or Naturat Hisrory.—March. On

some new or little known Infusoria, by C. Mereschkowsky- On

Synaxes, a new genus of Crustacea, by C. Spence Bate. On sili-

cious sponge growth in the Cretaceous ocean, by Dr. Wallich.

On Spongilla cinerea, by H. J. Carter.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ScIENCE AND Arts.— April. Mono-

graph by Professor Marsh on the Odontornithes, or toothed birds

of North America, notice by G. B. Grinnell. Elements in ake

graphic displacement, by W. J. McGee. The basin of the Gul

arrangement of superficial earthy material, by W. C. Kerr. Dall ;

observations on Arctic ice, and the bearing of the facts on glacia

CaNnapiaAN Naturatist.— March 17. Revision of the baa

snails of the Paleozoic era, with descriptions of new species, DY

J. W. Dawson. Note on fossils from the red sandstone yen)

of Prince Edward island, by F. Bain. On new Erian (Devonian

plants, by J. W. Dawson.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Voi. xv. — FULY, 1881.— No. 7.

ORIGIN AND DESCENT OF THE HUMAN BRAIN,}

BY S, V. CLEVENGER, M.D.

tesa object of this paper is to present to comparative anato-

mists certain aspects in the phylogenesis of the spinal cord,

which culminate in the development of the brain of man.

The word brain is here used to include only the nerves and

ganglia of the skull. The term has been applied so loosely that

Professor Wilder rightly advises its discontinuance from neurolog-

ical nomenclature.

Briefly stated, the nerves interrelate the rauscles as the muscles

interrelate the bones, nerves further are internuncial in conveying

external or internal molecular vibrations to irritable or contractile

tissues,

Biological investigations enable us to approach very closely the

border land of sensation and molecular physics. While the

physicist is striving to reduce his laws of sound, heat, light, elec-

tricity and gravitation to their ultimates, the biologist is meeting

him over consideration of the forces which control the motions

of the Ameeba or evolve the animal from the cell.

In the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society (Vol. 111,

No. 1, P. 63, from Arch. Mikr. Anat., xv, 1879, p. 58) are dia-

§rams of the simplest acoustic and visual cells. These forms of

nerve cells proceed from a still simpler protoplasmic cell, which,

according to situation or the influences brought to bear upon it,

: Read before the Chicago Academy of Sciences, February’, 1881.

VOL, XV.—No, vir, 36

514 Origin and Descent of the Human Brain. [July,

can as well develop into muscle, cartilage, cuticle or bone. It is

the position of the cell and its environment which in embryology,

as well as in phylogeny, determines what the cell shall become.

The unity of the forces at work in nature are very evident to the

biologist as well as to the physicist. But we must pass on to the

main subject with the statement that after an orderly method of

aggregation, certain protoplasmic cells arrange themselves along

the dorsum of the embryo in the egg, and a spinal cord is formed.

The simplest spinal cord is owned by the Amphioxus, a verte-

brate lower than the lamprey of our lakes. This fish-like animal

has no brain. Extended the length of the body, is the cord, and

nerves enter it dorsally and ventrally ; the second pair of nerves

of the head end pass caudally. Those along the back in this

diagram are sensory, the lowermost being motor :

Owen compares these longer nerves to the nervus lateralis of

the cod. He mentions them also as nerves of association com-

parable to the trigeminal and vagal. :

The cord of the lamprey (Petromyzon fluviatilis ) is quite rudi-

mentary, but a distinct brain presents itself in this case for analy-

sis. We find certain intumescences attached to the spinal cord at

the head end, which can be represented schematically thus:

The real appearance of these ganglionic swellings, for such

they are, resembles the embryonic fusion of cerebral and spit

ganglia. A very important revelation concerning the homologic®

of these tubercles, I hope to be able to present to the next nie

ing of the American Neurological Society.

Notice that in this low vertebrate form, these enlargements on

the sensory or ingoing nerves, occur at the head. :

1881.] Origin and Descent of the Human Brain. 515

A Teliost, the Zrigla adriatica, affords an example of these

same enlargements appearing all along the spinal column:

eos ae ei

la ds a i

(The /ateral fusion also between these ganglia in the head end,

occurs among the intervertebral in Orthogoriscus mola.)

Taking a general survey of the piscine and amphibian brains,

we find, in many, these ganglia well defined as rounded, symmetri-

cally placed bodies (Lepidosteus, Amblyopsis, Leuciscus), while in

others these lobes are distorted, by elongation or cramping, in all

directions (sturgeon, chimzra, sharks), and in still others, some of

the lobes are pushed below the usual site (cod, herring, perch).

Of necessity the ventricles must often be partially or wholly

obliterated, showing the inexpediency of making use of ventricu-

lar passages in homologizing.

This crowding together, fusion and distortion of ganglionic

lobes, obtains throughout animal life, and the olfactory lobe is

often so closely fused with the prosencephalon as to afford us no

line of separation. An interesting point in this connection is pre-

sented by the corpora bigemina, which lie upon the upper surface

of the brain in reptiles, being succeeded in birds by these bodies be-

ing thrown down to the sides and base of the brain, crowded

there by the greater relative size of the superior lobes.

The intervertebral ganglia which develop on the afferent nerves

of the higher vetebrates undergo great developinent within the

cranium, and by lateral crowding together, the median line of sepa-

ration is obliterated, giving us the large central lobe of the shark

and birds. Two or more of these ganglia may develop upon the

Same sensory strand (see Davida, Centralblatt, No. 26). The

Subsequent lateral lobes of the cerebellum can be resolved either

into secondary or primary ganglia, or a mixture of both, certainly

the vagus tubercle of the fox shark is in all essentials the pneu-

Mogastric lobule of man’s cerebellum, the flocculus.

Thus it appears that by the pressure together of a nuthber of

€s€ posterior spinal nerve root swellings a cerebellum has been

formed, The cerebellum is now generally conceded to be a co-

ordinator of sensation for cranial sensory nerves, and how can it

be otherwise from this view? By this coalescence of interverte-

516 Origin and Descent of the Human Brain. [July,

bral bodies it necessarily follows that sensations passing in from a

variety of points must be distributed to a wider area of central

points in the medulla and spinal cord. This explains why

injury to the lateral lobes may occur without manifestation of the

lesion and why a disorder of the central lobe or vermis produces

a staggering gait. The main bundles of ingoing nerves are

gathered in the latter region, while the plexus of fibers in the

lateral lobes afford many avenues for impulse passage, other than

those injured or destroyed. The original globular appearance of

the lobes composing the cerebellum may be well made out in

most quadrupedal forms, but as we pass to man we see that these

lobes have become compressed into laminz.

In a previous paper (presented to the American Association for

the Advancement of Science, Boston, August 28, 1880, published

in the Yournal of Nervous and Mental Disease, October, 1880,

and American Narurauist, January and February, 1881), 1 en-

deavored to show that all tubercles of the vertebrate brain fall

within this category of intervertebral, a notable instance being the

Gasserian ganglion. Mr, A. Milnes Marshall ( Monthly Microscopt-

cal Yournal, London, October, 1877), in an article “ On the de-

velopment of the nerves of the chick,” shows plainly that

the olfactory nerve must be considered homologous with spinal

nerves, for it is similarly developed and in no way differs from a

spinal nerve. Nor does the comparison rest here, for the lobe

(not bulb) of the mammalian olfactory niay be seen to be de

veloped between the central tubular gray and the periphery jost

as is an invertebral. As to internal structure, the law of dif

ferentiation shows that subsequently acquired differences are not

arguments against original derivation, for what can be more UM

like than bone and cartilage, skull and vertebra or hand and foot ?

And yet the one is a developed or differentiated condition of

the other.

Thus the mammillary eminences, the epiphysis, the optic and

post-optic lobes were originally intervertebral, and the olwat

body embedded in the spinal gray is another related particularly

to innervation of the tongue. It is very large in the parrot

has relation to the ability of that bird to articulate. But the mos —

general interest centers in this large mass of nerve fibers and er

called the cerebrum. In the Ornithorynchus, it is smooth at

simple in form, but the beaver also has an unconvoluted bratty

1881.] Origin and Déscent of the Human Brain. 517

which shows at once the folly of attaching psychological impor-

tance to the number and intricacy of folds in animal brains. With

phrenology, which finds bibativeness in the mastoid process of the

temporal bone and amativeness in the occipital ridge, the convolu-

tional controversies must die out, as has the old.so-called science

of palmistry, which read one’s fate and fortune in the skin-folds

of the hand.

The most noticeable change in form, as we pass up the scale of

mammalian life, occurs in the production of the fissure of Sylvius.

In most quadrupeds the olfactory lobe fills up largely the anterior

part of the cranium. As the smelling sense diminishes this lobe

degenerates to a mere tract and the frontal lobe of the brain in-

creases in size, lifting the forehead into a vertical plane. The

medulla is pushed forward to a less oblique angle with the front

of the brain, from Lemuridz to chimpanzee and man, and the frontal

lobe pressure covers the cerebellum with the backward progress of

occipital, till finally the occipital forms the temporal by curling

under and forwards, forming the Sylvian fissure. These stages of

Progress are evident in the horse, elephant and human embryo.

Often, in idiots, we find through want of development of this

frontal lobe, that ossification takes place in a plane inclined at an

angle corresponding with that of lower animals, and the cerebel-

lum is uncovered. This is an adaptation of the skull to its con-

tents, which, however, does not always take place. There are

other elements at work to cause the skull to develop normally or

€ven enlarge it abnormally, as for example, an accumulation of

water in the ventricles will change the relative positions of the

cranial bones to such an extent as to give to the hydrocephalic

idiot the “ front of Jove.”

_ While the ontogenetic stages of development resemble strik-

ingly the forms mentioned by Haeckel, the nervous system is not

apparent in the embryo until we reach the ninth stage or Acranial,

after this the cerebral vesicles rapidly develop and resemble in

eneral the Cyclostome stage, and just as the sharks and mud

fishes possess the intervertebral ganglia, which the hags and lam-

Preys have not, the human fcetus, subsequent to the shaping of the

cerebral vesicles, develops the posterior spinal nerve root swellings.

From this point upward, it is easy enough to observe, that like the

brains of ‘Marsupial adults, the cerebellum is at first uncovered,

then by frontal lobe growth the temporal lobe is formed as in

Simiadz, |

518 Lhe Eastern Snow-Lird. [July,

THE EASTERN SNOW-BIRD.

BY REV. SAMUEL LOCKWOOD, PH.D.

| ees New Jersey, so severe was last winter, that appeal is made

to “the oldest inhabitant” to adduce a similar experience:

As is usual with this mythical “ Old Prob.,” he fails to cite an in-

stance. Albeit the pure white of her “wrap,” nature in her

snowy deshabille is not altogether lovely. In truth, many of her

admirers, with a shiver, withdraw from their open-air converse to

a fire-side communion. It is all very well to talk of coasting and

skating, and to get into high jinks about “ the tintinnabulation of

the bells,” meaning that excruciating jangle, yclept “ sleigh

music,” which has no music in it, unless we thus dignify the

sonorously uproarious “ gling! glang! glorious!” of that Teuton,

Hans Breitmann. It may be as a dull man we prefer a toot on

a gentler even if sadder strain. Leaving out the pangs of pov-

erty, what shall be said of the keen suffering attendant on out-of

door industry, when exposure is so pitiless on man and beast!

And yet this general nudeness is not without advantage of @

weird sort to the true naturalist, because of a certain transparency

which whets the faculties, imparting edge to curiosity and pre-

cision to observation. All things seem open. The very atmos-

phere is in sympathy with the naked truth—and even the trees,

from bole to spray, become ona sudden crystalline. The sight

is sharper and the hearing keener, and both are farther reaching.

Last Lord’s Day morning, January 30th, the air was pure, bright

and still, and the timbre of our village church bells seemed pect”

liarly fresh, as they pealed forth the hebdomadal summons in the

pure frosty breath of their brazen throats. Though walking

briskly, the church-goer looked more thoughtful. He felt him-

self possessed of an almost mysterious enlargement and refine-

ment of the senses; for he heard with startling distinctness the

church bell of a hamlet fully five miles away to the east, and

with equal clearness his ears touk in the sound of another church

bell from a village as far away to the west. It was observable,

too, that both rang in the same tone—but that the ringing at pet

east was set eight notes, or a full octave higher, than that at the

west. Did the one think herself eight strides the nearet ~

churchly perfection? But fie! Why seek to revive a point 5°

mooted by the oriental and occidental churches ?

1881.] The Eastern Snow-Bird. 519

But how obliging has nature become, that she allows a con-

valescent to interview her from his study windows. Yes, and her

coyness breaks down too, for she lets out some of the esoteric

ways of her winter birds. After falling many hours, the snow

Stops, and a cold clear blue sky opens over head. A flock of

snow-birds has come. They seem to be the living feathery fringe

on the skirts of the snow storm. And what a relief these pretty

birds impart. This nival covering is not a shroud to conceal the

dead, but a warm comforter spread over earth’s slumbering forces

by that Great, Good Hand “ which giveth snow like wool.” In

€asy view from my library windows is a spot in the headland of

the old orchard, where last autumn grew a tall Phytolacca decan-

dra, The tip of the dead plant is but just exposed, and that is

hint enough to the little fellows that the dried currant-like berries

of the pokewort are to be found ina natural cache under the

snow. The way in which a group of five or six birds keep at the

Spot would indicate that the placer “ pans out well.” How they

do dig down into the snow! Dig? Yes, though, very un-bird-

like, that is the right word, for it is altogether unlike scratching.

Its method of mining, for a bird, seems to me to be original.

Our Junco hyemalis is a hopper, not a runner, and scratching is,

as a rule, not an accomplishment of the hopper family. In truth,

you can't bring the hoppers up to the scratch any way. Still our

snow-bird is great on push—he does shove things; and a queer

Shove it is. I am almost afraid to attempt a description. The

bird stiffens out its toes, then makes a jumping shove forward

and upward, thus lifting and flirting the snow. The movement is

of the whole body, and the action is scooping, not unlike that of

aditcher. It is not a shuffling motion, for it demands too much

dexterity, but a true shoveling movement. Like the post-hole

digger’s shovel with its short blade and long handle, the middle

toe of Junco is shorter than its tarsus.

Soon this natural cache was exhausted, and a deep, wide exca-

vation with a small entrance was the result of their patient dig-

Sing. It was truly a snow cavern. The birds soon learned to

feed from a Supply put at their service on the window sill. Find-

ng SO good a commissariat, they sojourned with us a number of

days, the little bevy of not more than seven, keeping always to-

gether, as if by a family compact. Indeed, this is a pretty domes-

uc feature of our eastern snow-bird. Some twenty-five feet from

520 ; The Eastern Snow-Bird. [July,

our study windows is a beautiful copse of Thuja occidentalis, or

arbor vita, its object being to screen an outhouse from the public

road. The trees are high and the foliage dense, and each tree hugs

its companion lovingly, so that all seem but as one. Hither come

our little birds when the day’s foraging is done—this is their nightly

“covert from storm and rain;” while strange to tell, their snow

dug-out is made to serve as a cosy asylum from the cutting wind

by day. A callow philosopher to whom the above was men-

tioned, pronounced it a probable instance of mimicry inherited

from a very ancient Junco, who got the idea from that glacial

Eskimo who made snow dug-outs in Central New Jersey. The

suggestion was declined, with thanks, but our speculative friend

seemed much graveled about it. Nor did the counter suggestion

mollify matters—that snow-house building required some archi-

tectural skill. We even urged the fact of its form, a segment of

a sphere, and further that as a true surbased dome, this igloo of

these Innuits greatly antedated that famous dome of the Parthenon,

yet were less ancient than the dug-out domiciles made by mol-

lusks, insects, birds and beasts.

There are always to be found the ne’er-do-wells among both

birds and men. The survivals generally are such as anticipate the

untoward times. We hear of the imported sparrows stuffing their

boxes to exclude the cold; and we saw in an elm tree in the

village, a nest which they had made of coarse materials, almost

large enough for a hawk, the simple carrying labor for which

must have been prodigious. But among these little folks, this

providing for a rainy day is exceptional. It does not indicate

tribal habit so much as the individual capacity. I-did not see

any other Juncos improvise a snow. dug-out into a shelter from

the storm. With many birds it is a common practice to avail

themselves of the handiwork of man. My daily paper reads:

“ During the recent cold weather a flock of snow-birds took ref-

uge from the cold in Margaret English’s barn at Smith’s Land'ng,

and became very tame.” We trust that the good Madam, like @

pearl of a woman, gave the wee birdies food. ‘“ Became very

tame.” This tail end of that local item wags more gravely thas

the writer knew. This tameness of the snow-bird is only in wit-

ter born, and comes of pitiless pinching pain, The food supply

withdrawn they come timidly to our doors. And how delightful

it is that one may turn his window sill into an almonry for the

1881.] The Eastern Snow-Bird. 521

winter birds—to us and them, so much happiness at such small

cost. What goes on in these little birdies’ brains, we may not find

out; yet it would be just nice to know if gratitude were there,

and maybe homage too; and if they looked to us as being unto

them their Great, and Good, and Bountiful. Well, all this is the

poor man’s privilege, despite that greed of opulence:

‘* Whose talons grasp the blessings of the world.”

Our eastern snow-bird does not hold together long in large

flocks, but does like to keep together in small bevies, or family

groups. Whatever it is, whether conjugal, parental or filial, or

all combined—there certainly is affection:

“Oh, love is sweet through all the busy day time;

Oh, love is true in winter and in May-time!”

The group I am interviewing numbers seven individuals;

whether they are blood-kin I cannot affirm, but I adopt the

hypothesis and feed them as a necessitous family. But see! Is

a good deed contagious? These tiny things have caught the

knack of charity among themselves! There is a poor little snow-

bird on a rail; something ails it, for a stalwart Junco is carrying

food and feeding it with nursely tenderness. To and fro goes the

noble little fellow, until the hunger of its nursling is appeased.

The bird is in some way lame of wing; and its benefactor knows

all about it. But this in a little birdie’s noddle, is a good deal;

for a double question is under consideration, namely, hunger and

safety, demanding foresight and strategy. If it would, the crip-

pled bird could go to the window sill and help itself; for it has

managed to keep up with the family flock, but with painful effort.

These two words lighten up the whole case. Even the stalwarts

come to the place of feeding not without circumspection and

Some distrust, being very watchful for grimalkin and every other

danger ; hence this thoughtful commiseration—that crippled bird

Must be allowed a position “surveying vantage.” We have it

from the professional bird trapper, that “snow-birds are not easy

to catch,”

Our Junco hyematis has some really good qualities; he is

Social, and can be generous on occasion, and if clannish he is at

least peaceably minded in his own family circle ; with encourage-

ment, I think the trick of familiarity would grow upon him, and

he might become a welcome window bird in winter, like the

English redbreast, sitting on the sill and pecking at the pane.

522 : The Eastern Snow-Bird. [July,

Although farther on I may have, for the sake of truth, to mention

an instance, far from commendable, of Junco’s ill conduct in the

company of his “betters.” As a cage bird he is cheerful, and

generally bears a good reputation; he is reported to us, however,

as impatient of restraint when the warm season comes; and I

think that I have seen his best qualities in his winter freedom.

He is winsome, and has a trace of humor—an unconscious seren-

ity.of the Mark Tapley order—for let the clime be almost

Arctic, so but the rations hold out, he is gay and wide-awake ;

his plumage, too, is that of a well conditioned bird—so trim and

smooth and bright. But here comes one of those proletarian

summer bickerers—he of the bad reputation—“ who killed Cock

Robin.” Poor sparrow! I do feel for him, with his fluffy out-

spread like a little impish owl, which “for all his feathers is

acold,” He moves squattingly, so as to hug his frozen toes.

The snow-birds let him to their store and welcome; having fed

well, they feel too good to be malevolent, and are enjoying a sort

of pop-game, hopping in and out of their snow dug-out. But

whom have we here? The Carolina wax-wing, close cousin to

that big Bohemian; he is the only one of his tribe that has been

along this winter; despite a trace of the stuck-up, there is some-

thing almost ducal in his coronal uprightness; nor is he at all

crestfallen at the unwonted inclemency ; in fact he is rather ma-

jestical in a toploftical way, and deigns, through a two minutes’

patronage, to look at the snow-birds’ frolic, and then leaves. A

very practical fellow now appears in the apple tree near my window,

the hairy woodpecker, and he begins business at once, pegging

in for dear life after that larval Saperda. How he makes the chips

fly, and breaks the cold stillness with his rat-ta tat-tat. All these

are living episodes. But that poor moribund sparrow, he is $0

forlorn; and well he may be, for my boy reports that several of

his fellows have just succumbed to the pitiless cold, and are lying

stark-stiff in the barnyard. The truth told, the winter is exceP-

tionally severe; reports from over thirty observers in our county

declare that two-thirds of the quails have perished, albeit the ©

efforts to feed them; and our village taxidermist has set up #

number of “ new birds,” brought him by farmers who found them

dead, and who say that many small birds have died of starvation.

Well, what about Junco? O, he’s become jocose ; at least

seems to twitter: “ This is none of my funeral.” But then our

Junco can be jolly under trying circumstances, and we must not

1881.] : The Eastern Snow-Bird., 523

write him down as going to the bad, simply because he trends a

little on the heartless ways of men.

As hinted above, I think the snow-bird has capacities for human

attachments. I saw one at a friend’s house which had domiciled

for the winter among the plants that filled the bay window. Over

these hung a canary cage, the seed spilling from which fell into

the flower pots, and were ample for Junco’s wants. The bird

seemed entirely at home, often leaving the window garden for the

wider range of the sitting room. With the first snow of the

winter, the bird had entered at an open door of its own accord ;

and when the spring came it took its departure in the same way.

I find myself so much interested by an account of a caged

snow-bird, in a letter from my friend, Dr. Richard E. Kunzé, of

New York, that I cannot refrain from giving an extract: “ In my

aviary I have kept from eighteen to twenty denizens, during the

past winter. I had no canary, and only one snow-bird, /uzco

hyemalis, which I obtained from a bird dealer early in the winter.

I kept him two months, and I think I had him just two months

too long! They are regularly trapped and offered for sale in this

city, on account of their frolicsome ‘ways, and not because they

are songsters. In song they are much inferior to our purple

finch, song sparrow or yellow-bird, yet their song is more varied

than that of the lesser red-poll. They also sing at night, and

quite frequently when domesticated. His note at night is more

of a monotonous character, amounting to just a whirring r-r-r-r-r-r

~—l-I-r-r-r-r—r-r-r-r, and so on, reminding one of a tree-toad

more than anything else. Not being very timid, he naturally be-

comes very tame. He is rather too much of a pugnacious char-

acter for a well kept aviary, and to my sorrow I must confess that

when last week I took him to one of the Central Park menagerie

aviaries, it was with no great reluctance that I parted with him.

Before his banishment he had destroyed the plumage of many a

€ bird forme. In putting a new bird in my aviary, it is the

aviarian custom to give him a hazing, like any other freshman of

a higher order of beings; yet that snow-bird was not molested

by any one, which, no doubt, made him bolder. I have in my

aviary an African weaver-bird and a Japanese robin, both of which

are not to be trifled with, and generally are very aggressive them-

Selves ; yet he chased them in pairs, as he did also the indigo

sig yellow-bird, nonpareil and the smaller birds of the finch

ibe,

524 The Eastern Snow-Bird. [July,

“ He ate every kind of food that he saw the others eat. When

satiated he would get into a seed cup and throw out the larger

seed, such as unhulled rice. He would then flirt with his feet

like a chicken, and in a few minutes empty a cup of seed. After

a while I placed a small flat wooden plant label across the cup,

held in place by the wire of the cage to prevent him throwing

out seed. He would hop along the top of it with the greatest

delight, producing well measured sounds, by one end of the label

being raised and then suddenly brought down with a sharp clap.

While thus performing for minutes at a time, he often uttered low

notes, and seemed to keep perfect time with his feet.”

So it turned out that the little snow-bird was the coquinet, the

clever little rascal of the establishment. I think his ability was

exceptional. Perhaps he was a genius in his way ; and being too

roguishly cute for the general comfort, he must needs go into

exile for the good of the community.

Dr. Kunzé informs me that quite a trade is carried on in New

York exporting the snow-bird, Junco hyemalis, to Europe, and

what seems strange is the fact, that the snow-bunting, Plectro-

phanes nivalis, is imported by us from Europe. But I must again

quote my friend's letters; he says that ‘‘ Reiche Brothers, of New

York, sometimes take a lot of snow-birds to Europe, more for

experiment than to fill orders. A smaller dealer is Mr. Schlawe,

who is also trapper and fowler, and who watches the habits of our

birds that are in demand very closely. He says that of all birds

the snow-bird is certainly difficult to catch, notwithstanding the

presence of great numbers in the field. No kind of food, or

call-note will enchant this bird, or bring him with any kind of

calculation under the fowler’s devices. He claims that most of

the snow-birds caught are accidental catches, and that it happens

when fowlers set limed rods for other birds! Out of a hundred

birds thus caught, only a very few are snow-birds; and oftener

none at all. They will not enter a trap cage. He says that the

bird is in fair demand, and that he could sell more than he caught.

He says he has kept him through the summer very well, and that

he is certainly a most hardy cage-bird. He often takes many =

Europe on a single trip, and never lost a single specimen *”

transitu. He often takes these transatlantic journeys. On one

of them he had forty snow-birds in one cage, and landed all

safely in Germany, finding a market for them in Berlin without

any difficulty.” :

1881.] The Eastern Snow-Bird. 525

However interesting to the philosopher a new species may be,

it is “caviare to the general.” If you would please the million

show up your “white black-bird.” Last summer it was given

out that a white robin was in town, and forthwith every avicide

from sixteen to forty-five years old, with gun in hand, inspected

every shade tree in the village. The bird-killers were foiled.

The robin had been and gone. And it was similar with the few

who got the word of another arrival one bitter day in this cold

February, Just before the gas was lighted “a snow-white snow-

bird” had flown into the ticket office of our village depot. It

was an albino. The poor bewildered thing sailed round the

room close to the ceiling, much as a swallow would do; and

what with the glare of the lights, and the heat, and the senseless

efforts made to capture it by throwing hats, it hada really hard time.

The door being opened, it darted out, and happily escaped; more

fortunate than the one seen by Mr. Alcott in Connecticut in 1870.

Has there not been within the memory of man, a marked

change in the migration habits of Junco hyemalis? They have

their stragglers and “ tender-foots,” who do not go so far north to

breed as do the others. Still. the laggers seem capable of a

topical compromise, nesting higher in the Southern mountains,

while their tardier kindred, who venture farther north, nest lower

down on the mountain sides. Was there not a time when this

nesting southward of our eastern snow-bird was, at most, very

€xceptional ? I see these birds so happy and in such good heart

in the severest winter day, that I infer an Arctic constitution in

the well-to-do’s of the tribe. Were they not once like the snow-

bunting, Plectrophanes nivalis, which nests as high as Labrador,

but which, it seems, has twice been found nesting in the Northern

United States, May one who is not even the son of a prophet

venture a prediction for the bird men of the future, that the snow-

bunting will be found working southward after the example of

its cousin the snow-bird.

I do not remember the name of the bard, and fear lest I should

Sarble his classic lines, yet the very best I can do is to quote

his verse in an ad sensum way ;

y ** Noah of old, three children had,

Or sons, I should say, rather;

Shem, Ham and Japhet, called Ly dad—

Now, who was Japhet’s father ?

~The above it appeared was too much for Hodge; he could

Scratch his ear, but could not answer. Perhaps science has its

526 The Eastern Snow-Bird. [July,

Hodges too. At any rate, who will riddle us this concerning the

pedigree of our Junco hyemalts ?

Junco a first ancestor had,

Or great original, rather ;

If you’ll point out, you’ll make us glad,

Our Junco’s great-grand-father.

Authors give several species of Junco, as follows, the first

three being by some considered as mere varieties : /. hyemalts,

our eastern snow-bird, /. aikeni, the white-winged, and /. ore-

gonus, the Oregon snow-bird; besides these are //. caniceps, the

chestnut-backed, and /. annectens, the chestnut-sided snow-bird.

This much we must credit to Mr. J. Martin Trippe, as cited

though hardly accepted by Dr. Coues. Are these all good spe-

cies? I cannot go into the controversy, but will ask permission

to adduce the following:

Once upon a time a patronymic dispute arose. With a ge0o-

graphical range so extraordinary as to preclude the idea of dis-

persion from a common center, there were the Smiths, and the

Smithes, and the Smyths, and the Smythes, and the Schmits, and

the Smids, and the Smeds. That there were differences also be-

sides the names, was noticeable, such as black eyes, and blue

eyes, and gray eyes, and hazel eyes. Still it was observable that

what of difference there was, was best appreciated by themselves.

But had these slight differences been overlooked, and the re

similarities not been neglected; and in other ways, had the mod-

ern scientific methods been then in vogue, it might have appeared

that in all this diversity there was not anything that had passed

the varietal stage; that a nascent species had not been attained ;

in fact, with respect to the names, it had been suspected that really

they were but one and the same cognominal. But an event hap-

pened which set all to take the matter in hand seriously ; it came

out that long agoa great ancestor had died and left “ untold

wealth” which was waiting the proper claimants. Discussion

now brought out the fact that these patronymics were but evolu-

tional variations of the same family name, which had been brought

about by modifications of descent, the simple effect of time and

circumstance, or in more modern phrase, the environment > for

all had descended from one great ancestral stirp—the old, original,

genuine Johannes Smithius, vulg. John Smith.

Perhaps we may yet decide as satisfactorily the stirp of the

Juncos ; meanwhile we lean to the belief that a /usco hyemalts

was the grand ancestor of the whole tribe.

1881. ] Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants. 527

BACTERIA AS A CAUSE OF DISEASE IN PLANTS.

BY PROFESSOR T. J. BURRILL.

peas diseases of animals are now positively known to be

‘ due to the action of the minute organisms commonly known

as bacteria, They are spoken of as “disease germs” or “ spores,”

and the “germ theory” of disease is very fully discussed in

medical literature. Among the best proved examples that the

so-called germs are the actual cause of disease, we may cite

anthrax in cattle, malignant pustule in man, and the diseases of

swine and fowl ordinarily known as cholera. Many other con-

tagious diseases of man and the domestic animals are scarcely

less clearly known to be due to bacteria, but it has not been

shown that they also cause disease and death of plants, except as

recently announced by the writer in case of “ blight” in pear and

apple trees (August, 1880, American Association for the Advance-

Healthy Pear Bark, showing cells filled with starch. Magnified 125 times. —

ment of Science). I am now able to add the “yellows” of the

peach with much confidence, without, however, the full investiga-

tion given to the former disease.

In 1877 I observed in the fluids of blighting pear trees, great

numbers of minute, moving things which were not clearly identi-

fied as bacteria until the following year. Their presence was

uniformly detected in every examination made (and they were

numerous) during the summer of 1878, and the fact was reported

to the Illinois State Horticultural Society, in December of that

year (Transactions, p. 79). Investigations were not further pros-

528 Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants. [July,

ecuted until June, 1880, when the unusual prevalence of the dis-

ease called more special attention to it. The same organisms, or

those very similar, were as uniformly found in the tissues of apple

trees suffering with the disease called twig blight. On diseased

parts of both trees, drops of whitish, viscid material were often

found, oozing from the bark, and this proved to be almost wholly

made up of the bacteria. After some hours’ exposure the mass

became yellowish, and finally dark-brown. These bacteria are

generally double jointed, each article being about .oO1 mm.

(.0000393 in.) in transverse diameter, and about .oo15 mm. long.

Sometimes, however, the oval single forms are common, and not

unfrequently lonyer ones of several joints are found.

Upon examining the infected tissues, the absence of the starch

4 a

4 f) i

, p

2 P)

e fo)

4 aa oe ‘ig

4, o “

% %

f) a a € =

ff fi ae

AAG G hal

2% , é

, oes

Diseased Pear Bark, from limb three weeks afer blight commenced. Magnified

granules, so abundant in the healthy cells, was especially marked.

Tests revealed the fermentation of this starch with the evolution

of carbon dioxide, hydrogen and butyric acid. The other car-

bonaceous materials in the cells, as sugar, malic acid, &c., doubt-

less undergoes the same fermentation, but being soluble in water

their loss is not rendered evident by the microscope. The ce

walls contrary to my expectation, were not found injured, neither

was the protoplasm involved in the fermentation. i

By passing a thin section of the bark under the microscopes it

is possible to find in the same slice, all variations, from perfectly

healthy cells to those which have lost the whole of the store®

starch, the bacteria likewise varying in numbers as the destruc

1881.] Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants. 529

tion of the starch bacteria progresses. How these originally

gain entrance to the cells was not made out. There are cer-

tainly no pores or other visible openings through which they

pass. Water, however, is absorbed by the cell walls, and passes

through their molecular spaces in all directions. It may be that

in the germ condition the bacteria are really small enough to

pass with the water through the walls, notwithstanding the fact

the highest powers of our microscopes fail to detect the molecu-

lar openings. However this may be, it is positive enough that

the adult bacteria do not in this way traverse the cell walls.

The evidence is totally against any distribution of the organisms

in the tissues by the circulations of water or sap. They slowly

make their own way from cell to cell, progressing equally in all

directions from the starting point when the same conditions are

presented.

On July 1, 1880, I inoculated two pear trees by inserting small

pieces of bark from a pear tree in which the disease was in active

progress. On the 12th and thereafter, inoculations were made by

dipping a clean needle or the sharp point of the blade of a pen-

knife into the viscid substance exuding from diseased bark, dilu-

ted or not with distilled water, and thrusting the instrument into

the experimental trees. Usually three such punctures were

made near each other, but the three were counted as one inocula-

tion.

No visible results followed any of these inoculations during

the first eight days, and in some cases for two or even three times.

this period. In the majority of cases ten to twelve days elapsed

before external signs of the disease could be observed. No differ-

ence was detected in this or any other respect in the different

Ways of inoculation. But numerous external applications of the

virus were made to the bark and leaves without wounding, none of

Which seemed to communicate the disease. The trees were ex-

amined at least once each day until the 14th of August, 1880,

and every observed change carefully noted. Very often the dis-

* cate could be detected by dissections and microscopical examina-

tions when no external indications were presented, but these were

Rot counted as successful inoculations except in very clear cases.

The €xperiments upon pear trees were made upon trees three

years old, Bartlett and Clapp's Favorite, seventy-two in num-

ber. The apple trees are Grime’s Golden, and the quince, Angers.

VOL, XV.—nNo, vir, 37

530 Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants. [July,

The following table gives the results in per cents of the number

of successful inoculations:

Tah ccsescid Kinds of Trees. = _— Virus from Apple.

36 Pear 54 72

29 Apple 30 Not tried.

4 Quince 100 Not tried,

It will be observed that the virus from the diseased apple limbs

was more fatal to the pear than that from blighting pear, showing

at least that the disease in the apple is of the same nature as that

known as fire blight in the pear. It is quite possible, however,

that the greater percentage is due to other causes than the viru-

lence of the inoculating material, and that another set of experi-

ments would show this. The low per centage in case of the ap-

ple (30) inoculated with pear virus is partially explained from the

fact that ten inoculations were in the bark of portions more than

one year old, none of which were successful. As these trees show

blight for the most part in the shoots of the current year’s growth

only, some reason for the failure may be conceived. But four in-

oculations were made in the quince, all of which communicated

the disease. These were made upon the young shoots of a bushy

tree which was not otherwise unhealthy.

Since these experiments were made, careful study has com

vinced me that the death of patches of bark on

d oe. & Be the trunk and larger limbs of the apple tree #8 —

09 vcs due to the same cause. The disease slowly pro-

Hie 8 gresses from the center of infection and kills the

gas 8 i: ye tree when the whole circumference becomes 1

Peg ge volved. Sometimes, however, the liber (the bast

oom os cells are not penetrated by the bacteria) forms 4

Blight Bacteria. complete shield to the inner tissues, and after the

Magnified rooo outer cellular bark is destroyed a new layer 1S

formed beneath, the old finally falling away-

Meteorological conditions probably have some influence, but

how much and what is not clear. The disease slowly progresses

in winter as well as summer, in dry weather as well as wet, The

1881.] Bacteria as a Cause of Disease in Plants. 531

sudden appearance often noted is but the blackening of the

leaves upon a branch long diseased.

The slow progress of the malady gives the best hope for suc-

cessful treatment. It has been considered sudden and irregular,

with little or no indications of trouble until destruction came;

but this is greatly over-stated. Acquaintance with the first ap-

pearance in the bark, and careful examination every two or three

weeks, will make treatment much more possible than heretofore

supposed. The remedy proposed is the old one of cutting away

the diseased portions, adding, however, the precaution of taking

all infected parts, and not merely such as have become blackish

after the ravages are complete, and to observe requisite care in

cleansing the knife or other instrument, that by the very process

of cure the contamination is not spread. Probably carbolic acid

or other antiseptic washes may be useful, but proof from ac-

tual and indisputable experiment has not yet been reached.

Very recent examinations of material sent from Michigan con-

clusively confirms my opinion that the yellows of the peach tree

is caused by a similar organism. In the cells of an infected shoot

I find very little stored starch, but numerous bacteria. These are

seemingly different, under a one-tenth Tolles’ or Spencer’s objec-

tive, from the bacteria of the pear and apple. Compared with the

latter, they are long and slender, measuring about .oor mm. by

0035 mm. They consist of several joints, but little longer than

wide in what appears to be the typical forms.

The Lombardy poplar trees are also destroyed by these fer-

ment producing agents, following the attacks of certain wood-

boring coleopterous larve. The latter penetrate the bark and take

devious courses through the bark parenchyma and the cambium

layer, Starting from their channels, the bacteria slowly spread

from cell to cell, until so much of the essential tissue is destroyed

that the tree, after some years of hopeless struggle, succumbs.

Sometimes the bacteria collect in immense numbers in pockets,

which they appear to form in the bark of this tree by absorption

of the cell walls, The thick, white mass which they thus form,

has the appearance to the unaided eye of pus from sores in the

flesh of animals.

_ The aspen (Populus tremuloides) is similarly affected. The

young limbs die and the leaves become black in a manner every

Way similar to those of the pear and the apple.

532 Record of American Carcinology for 1880. [July,

RECORD OF AMERICAN CARCINOLOGY FOR 1880.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY.

re continuing the record of American crustacean literature, be-

gun by the writer last year (NATURALIST, XIV, pp. 498-503), the

principal papers will be considered under the heads, systematic,

anatomical and embryological, and in these by authors in alphabet-

ical order. A complete list of papers, so far as known to the re-

corder, completes the record.

Descriptive papers have this year been few and are of appar-

ently a better character than is frequently the case, a goodly pro-

portion being monographic in character. Messrs. Harger, Kings-

ley, Packard and Smith are the only writers who have described

new species during the year. Mr. Harger (4) presents a valuable

synopsis of all the marine Isopoda of the New England coast,

with full synonyma and good illustrative figures. He begins with

a general account of the external anatomy of the Isopoda; next

comes the systematic portion, by which we find that New Eng-

land possesses 46 species arranged under 34 genera and 14 fami-

lies. One new genus and species is described, Syscenus infelrx, and

of this but a single specimen is known. Possibly its solitary

condition and consequent lonesomeness prompted the specific

name. Following the systematic portion we find a résumé of the

geographical and bathymetrical distribution, from which we learn

that If species are found only south of Cape. Cod, 19 exist only

north of that barrier, while 16 are common to both sides of the

cape, and 11 species are common to both Europe and America.

A very complete bibliography concludes the article, enumerating

over two hundred titles. We notice, however, that the excellent

articles of Schiodte and Meinert! are nowhere mentioned. With

our marine Isopods in this excellent condition, we wish that Mr.

Harger or some other equally competent naturalist would under-

take to straighten out the terrestrial forms, on which, with the

exception of work by Say, Fitch, Dana and Stuxberg, but little

has been done. 3

Mr. Kingsley has been the largest contributor to systematic

carcinology, but this is hardly the place for a critical review of

his work. His first paper (7), though issued in the Proceedings

of the Philadelphia Academy for 1879, was not printed until the

1 See NATURALIST, XIV, p. 519, 1880. _

1881.] Record of American Carcinology for 1880. 533

beginning of 1880, and hence falls within the scope of this record.

It gives an account of the Crustacea collected by Professor H. E.

Webster of Union College, in Virginia, North Carolina and

Florida, together with a revision of the genera of shrimps.

This paper has been noticed by Professor Smith (29). It may be

well to say that the genus Azphocaris, which in the article is

merged with Caulurus, really is distinct, and belongs to the

Atyide, near Caradina, as an examination of the mandibles has

shown.

The four remaining papers to be noticed treat of the grapsoid

Crustacea. The first (14) is on the Thelphuside, describing

some new forms and giving notes on the habitats of others. The

next (15) is a revision of the fiddler crabs of the world, in which

the known species are reduced to forty-one. A further examina-

tion of types ard more complete series would probably reduce

the number still further. Two new species are described. The

Ocypodz are next treated in the same manner (16), II spe-

cies (I new) being recognized. The last of the series (17) takes

up the family Grapsidz, giving descriptions and analytical keys to

the majority of the forms. The nominal species of Sesarma are

merely enumerated in alphabetical order, the task of simplifying

and straightening them out being too much for the writer. Sev-

eral genera and many species are thrown into synonymy, and the

geographical distribution of many is greatly extended. Two new

genera and species are characterized, and, including the Sesarme,

159 species are enumerated.

Professor Packard, who has in progress a monograph of the

North American Phyllopoda, describes (19) Streptocephalus flort-

danus as new, and gives notes on other Phyllopods.

Professor Smith, our oldest publishing American carcinologist,

contributes several short articles which, like all of his papers, add

greatly to our knowledge of the Crustacea. In the first of these

articles to be noticed (26), the presence of the destructive Chelura

terebrans, a wood-eating Crustacean, is recorded on our shores.

In the next (31) some forms of British Columbia are discussed.

A single new genus and species of Cumacea, Diastylopsis daw-

Soni is described, and the notes on the other forms enumerate

throw much light on our knowledge of the west coast species.

In his paper on Pinnixa (32), to be referred to again, the New

England species, two in number, are described. The next paper

534 Record of American Carcinology for 1880. [July,

(33) discusses the presence of certain tropical and subtropical

forms on the New England coast. These are ten in number.

Concerning some of the Crustacea described by Thomas Say,

there has been considerable uncertainty, and in the case of

three genera of Amphipods, Mr. Smith (34) presents us extended

descriptions of ‘Say’s forms, and settles the disputed points.

The genus Zrichthonius is considered as belonging to a distinct

subfamily from Cerapus, with which it has been confounded.

Dr. Packard is the only one who has published anything con-

cerning the anatomy of the Crustacea, and his articles have all

been upon the eye and brain of Limulus, and are all published in

the pages of the Naruraist, and hence do not need more

extended notice here. A more extended paper on Limulus,’

though bearing date 1880, did not appear until the beginning of

the present year, and will be noticed more at length elsewhere.

_ Dr. Brooks has published preliminary accounts of the embry-

ology of the curious genus Lucifer (1 and 2). We understand

that the complete history will appear in the Philosophical Trans-

actions of the Royal Society. The most important feature dis-

covered is that the young Lucifer is a Nauplius and not a Zoea

as is the case with most Decapods. This discovery adds addi-

tional probability to the statement of Fritz Miller that the young

of Peneus is also a Nauplius,

Mr. Emerton (4) figures the nauplius of a barnacle.

Dr. Faxon (5) discusses the membrane which envelops the

larva of Carcinus menas and the morphology of the zoéal anten-

nz; seven figures are given of the zoéa of Panopeus Say, and

one of the tail of zoéa of Gelasimus pugnax. The text is so Con”

densed as not to admit of putting into an abstract, and students

are referred to the article itself. The two folded plates accom

panying the paper are very good.

Professor Smith’s paper on Pinznixa (32) should be read in con-

nection with that of Dr. Faxon, noticed in the review of last

year,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Brooks, WILLIAM KeIrH—

1. The young stages of the Crustacean Leucifer a Nauplius. Am, Nat., XIV,

80).

pp. 806-808 ( ce

2. The Embryology and Metamorphosis of the Sergestids. Zool. Anzeigets

Ill. pp. 563-567 (1880).

'The Anatomy, Histology and Embryology of Limudus polyphemus. Anniver-

sary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History, 1880, pp- 45» pls. 7-

1881.] Record of American Carcinology for 1880. 535

3. The Rythmical character of the process of Segmentation, Am. Jour. Sci.,

III, xx, p. 293 (1880). Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., V, vi, p. 408 (1880),

Jour. Roy. Micr. Soc., February (1881).

[States that in Lucifer, as in irepe-gn from other classes of animals, there

are sara i activity and rest in the segmentation of the egg. This had

; previously been commented Goon by several embryologists. ]

EMERTON, JAMES H.—

ife on the Seashore, or animals of our coasts and bays. 8vo, Salem, 1880.

[Gives figures, original and copied, of several forms.]

Faxon, WALTER.—

5. On some points in the structure of the embryonic Zoéa. Bulletin Mus.

Comp. Zool., v1, No. 10, pp. 159-166, pls. 2 (1880).

HARrGER,. Oscarn—

Report on the marine Isopoda of New England and the oo waters.

Rep. U. S. Fish. Com. for 1878, pp. 297-462, pls. 1-12 (188

“yal JoHN STERLINGC—

a collection of Crustacea ce Virginia, North Carolina and Florida,

wih a revision of the gen of Crangonide and Palemonide. Proc.

Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadel, Fel! pp. 383-427, pl. xiv (1880).

8. The Development of M . Nat., XIV, pp. 114-116 (1880).

[An abstract of Grobben’ $ paper on the same subject. ]

9. [Notice of Harger’s] Notes on New England Isopoda. /. ¢., XIV, p. 120

(1880),

10, [Review of] Herrick’s Entomostraca. /, ¢. XIV, p. 121 (1880).

11. Carcinological papers of Paul Meyer. 7. c. XIV, p. 121 (1880).

12. Notes on the geographical distribution of the Crustacea. /. c. XIV, p. 209

(1880),

13. Recent articles on Crustacea. 7. ¢. a . 519-521 (1880).

14. Carcinological Notes, No.1. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., ~— 1880, pp.

34-37.

15. Carcinological Notes, No. 1. Revision of the Catania 7. c. 1880, pp.

135-155, pls. 2.

16. ean yap Notes, No. 111. Revision of the genus Ocypoda. / ¢. 1880,

p- 179-186.

17; Carsinologiea Notes, No. rv. Synopsis of the Grapsidz. pet Poags pp-

187-224.

PACKARD, ALPHEUS SPRING, JR

18, [Notice of Yung on] thitddnes of poisons on Crustacea, Am. Nat., XIV,

P- 52, 1880,

19. Notes on Phyllopod Crustacea. / ¢., p. 53+

20. New Classification of the Crustacea. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., V, V, p.

189 (1880).

[Reprint of article in NATURALIST for Dec., 1879.]

21, sangeet of the eye of Limulus. Am, Nat., XIV, pp. 213, 214 (1880). Ann.

d Mag. Nat. Hist., V, v, 4 (1880).

22: [Notice of] Grenacher’s ‘wistacces ee the eyes of Arthropods. Am. Nat,

~ 23. [Notice of] Hindley on the Crayfish, 4 c., p. 282. .

24. On the Internal pe ama of the brain of Limulus polyphemus. Am. Nat.,

XIV, pp. 445-448 (1880). Ann. = Mag. Nat. Hist., V, VI, p- ri eds

Zool. Anzeiger, 111, p, 306 (1880 :

536 Aboriginal Stone-Drilling. [July,

25. The structure of the Eye of Trilobites. Am. Nat., xIv, pp. 503-508

SMITH, SIDNEY IRVING—

26. Occurrence of Chelura terebrans, a crustacean destructive to the timber of

submarine structures on the coast of the United States. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus., Il, pp. 232-235 (1880).

27. Onsome points in the structure of a species of the “ Willemcesia group of

Crustacea.”? Ann. and Mag., V, Vv, p. 269 (1880).

. Crustacea of Mexico and Central America. Am, Jour. Sci., III, XIX, pp.

332, 333 (1880).

[Notice of A. Milne-Edwards’ Etudes sur les Xiphosures et les Crus-

taces de la region Mexicaine.

. [Review of Kingsley] On a collection of Crustacea from Virginia, North

Carolina and Florida, with a revision of the genera of Crangonidz and

Palemonidee [supra 5]. Ann. Jour. Sci., HII, xix, pp. 423-424 (1880).

. [Notice of Huxley’s] The Crayfish; an introduction to the study of Zool-

ogy. Am. Journ., III, xix, p. 424 (1

31. Notes on Crustacea collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson at Vancouver and the

Queen Charlotte islands. Report of progress of the Geol. Survey of

Canada, 1878-79, pp. 206 B-218 B (1880).

. On the species of Pinnixa inhabiting the New England coast, with remarks

on their early stages. rans. Conn, Acad., Iv, pp. 247-253 (1880).

33. Occasional occurrence of tropical and subtropical species of Decapod Crus-

tacea on the coast of New England. Trans. Conn. Acad., IV, pp- 254-257

ios)

iS)

iss)

(1880). :

. On the Amphipodous genera, Cerapus, Unicola and Lepidactylis, described

by Thomas Say. Trans. Conn. Acad., Iv, pp. 268-284, pl. 11a (1880).

:03

ABORIGINAL STONE-DRILLING.

BY CHARLES RAU.

iL twelve years ago, I published an account of my exper

ments in drilling in stone without the aid of metallic tools,’

and, though during the interval my attention was constantly fixed

upon archeological matters, I had, on the whole, no occasion for

changing the opinions then expressed.

In the meantime, however, similar experiments, made by Euro-

pean archeologists, were commented on by Mr. John Evans, who,

after a due consideration of the subject of stone-drilling, gives the

following summary of methods:

“On the whole, we may conclude that the holes were bored in

various manners, of which the principal were—

1. By chiseling, or picking with a sharp stone. ;

2. By grinding with a solid grinder, probably of wood.

1 Drilling in Stone without Metal; Smithsonian Report for 1868, p- 392-40

1881.] Aboriginal Stone-Drilling. 537

3. By grinding with a tubular grinder, probably of ox-horn.

4. By drilling with a stone drill.

5. By drilling with a metallic drill.

“Holes produced by any of these means could, of course,

receive their final polish by grinding.”

It appears doubtful to me whether in North America (north of

Mexico) metallic tools for drilling stone were used, considering

that the only metal which could have been employed for such

purposes was hammered native copper—a substance too soft to be

applied to any kind of hard stone without the aid of a very efficient

triturated grinding material. Nor do I believe that the former in-

habitants had sufficient skill in working copper to fashion it-into a

tubular tool suitable for stone-drilling ; and to my knowledge no

such object has ever been discovered in the United States. Soft

stone, moreover, could be bored with greater facility by means of

properly-shaped flint implements, as will be exemplified in this

article. Even bronze, I think, would be found less serviceable

than flint for drilling stone of inferior hardness?

Dr. Ferdinand Keller, of Ziirich, the meritorious investigator

of Swiss lake-habitations, has made quite interesting experiments

in drilling stone and other substances employed by the lake-

dwellers. He operated on stone with tubular bones of goats and

sheep, and with hollow cylinders of stag-horn and yew-wood,

these drills being inserted into spindles slightly pressed at the

upper end, and set in motion by means of a bow. This apparatus

corresponded in general principle to that figured by me on page

399 of the Smithsonian Report for 1868. Water and quartz

sand, of course, were necessary agents in the operation. Dr.

Keller expresses himself quite satisfied with his success ; for

there appeared the round, smooth hole, with the characteristic

parallel striz and the core at its bottom, which is always seen in

unfinished antique specimens drilled with a hollow tool. The

work, however, progressed very slowly, and the operator adds to

this statement the observation that no prepared hollow bone,

which might have served as a drill, has thus far been discovered in

the lacustrine deposits of Switzerland. After these experiments

it occurred to him to employ a hollow cylinder made of ox-horn,

‘Evans: The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Bri- ©

tain; London, 1872, Pp. 4

*For oe = hard sini; such as granite, bronze tools have been found to be

cage “7 trial of this kind is described in my Smithsonian — en-

“ The Palenies Tablet in the United States National Museum,” p. 37, note.

538 Aboriginal Stone-Drilling. [July,

and he obtained now more favorable results, owing to the yield-

ing substance of the horn, in which the sand became imbedded

and acted like a file. “The objection,’ he says, “ that no drills

made of this material have been discovered, is rendered invalid

by the nature of the horns of bovines, which are totally dissolved

in water in a comparatively short time.’

Methods like those employed by Dr. Keller, may have been

practiced by the aborigines of this country; yet among the

hundreds of bone and horn implements which have passed through

my hands during my connection with the United States National

Museum, not one exhibited the character of a hollow drill, and I

am not aware that any of the collections of this country contains

such a tool. But I must not omit to state what I learned in 1875

from a Warm Spring Indian belonging to a delegation which had

come to Washington for the purpose of transacting business with

the Government. These Indians were well supplied with pipes,

mostly made of alabaster, and shaped like the ordinary catlinite

pipes. With some difficulty I obtained from one of them the in-

formation that they drill the cavities of their pipes with bone

tools, and, in order to strengthen his assertion, he led me to a

case in the Museum in which objects of bone were exhibited.

The cavities of their pipes, some of which were purchased from

them, appear to have been produced by solid rather than hollow

drills. According to Catlin, the pipes made of the material now

named after him, are (or were) drilled by means of a wooden

stick, in conjunction with sand and water. :

In my account of drilling, referred to. in the beginning of this

article, I should have stated with greater emphasis that, in illus-

trating the possibility of perforating very hard stone by employ :

ing a revolving stick and sand and water, I was far from under-

rating the efficiency of a flint tool for drilling stone of less obdu-

rate character. In operating with a well-pointed flint arrow-head,

firmly set in the cleft end of a short stick, on a fragment of 4

pierced tablet of tolerably hard slate, I produced in about half an

hour a small perforation in no way distinguishable from one made

by an aboriginal worker in stone, The perforations in these tab-

lets are either conical or bi-conical, By drilling from both sides

of the fragment I made one of bi-conical form; if I had continued

‘Keller: Durchbohrung der Steinbeile, Hirschh kzeuge und anderer Gerithe

aus den Pfahlbauten, in: Anzeiger fiir Schweizerische Alterthumskunde ; Zirrich, |

Juni, 1870, S. 139-144. :

1881.] Aboriginal Stone-Drilling. 539

to drill from one side only, the bore would have assumed a coni-

cal shape. I simply turned the improvised tool with the hand

like a gimlet, exerting a moderate pressure, and wetting the cav-

ity from time to time with water. During the operation very

diminutive particles of the drilling tool came off with a slight

crack, and the flint showed afterward scarcely any wear. This

fact is worth noting, as it accounts for the fresh appearance of

many flint tools which undoubtedly have served for drilling

purposes.

Any one who has handled a large number of North American

flint implements must be aware that there are some which approach

in outline more or less the arrow-head shape, but exhibit a

rounded edge instead of a point. They might often be taken for

cutters; yet many of them, I am now inclined to believe, served as

tools for boring stone of inferior hardness, the curved extremity

forming, of course, the penetrating part of the drill. My view is

based upon the fact that an implement of this kind actually has

been found in the unfinished bore of an aboriginal stone object,

now in possession of Mr. James Wood, of Mount Kisco, West-

chester County, New York. Last year that gentleman, who is

President of the Westchester County Historical Society, was kind

enough to send the partly-drilled specimen, together with the

drill, for examination to the Smithsonian Institution, where I

caused drawings of both to be made. The objects were found at

Croton Point, on the Hudson, in Westchester County, by Mr.

Wood’s cousin, a lad about thirteen years of age, whose veracity

cannot be doubted, and who is not at all given to collecting abo-

riginal relics, of which, indeed, he has no knowledge. The genu-

ineness of the discovery is beyond any suspicion.

Figure 1 shows the character of the drilled object, which is a

rather rude exemplification of a type not unfrequent in the United

States, and represented by a number of specimens in the archzo-

logical collection of the National Museum, where I have classed

them for the present with the drilled ceremonial weapons, some-

times very inappropriately called “ banner-stones.””

The specimen in question consists of chloritic potstone, a very

Soft material, which could easily be fashioned and drilled. The

‘A specimen not unlike the original of Figure 1, though larger and of a more

regular shape, was found in the town of Monkton, Vermont. It is figured and de-

Scribed in « Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-

fnce ’’ (Twenty-eighth meeting, August, 1879); Salem, 1880, p. 526, etc.

540 Aboriginal Stone-Drilling. [July,

bore is an inch and a half deep and nine-sixteenths of an inch in

diameter at the orifice. It is straight and smooth, but shows par-

allel furrows or striae impressed by the corners and slight lateral

projections of the drill. The latter, represented by Figure 2, con-

sists of black hornstone and is very carefully chipped. It is an en-

tirely uninjured specimen. When Mr. Wood’s young relation

found the potstone implement, its bore was filled with earth, the

removal of which brought to light the flint drill. It stuck in the

Fic. 1.—Stone object with unfinished bore, and (2) the drill used in the operation.

Westchester County, New York (natural size).

lowest part of the bore, which exhibits here a shape correspond-

ing exactly to the somewhat tapering form of the tool. No trace

of a handle, without which the drilling could not have been per-

formed, was found. Its material—doubtless wood—had totally

disappeared.

It rarely happens that a discovery of such demonstrative char-

acter is made, and I therefore concluded to publish the present

account, which, no doubt, will be of interest to the many W"°

care for the details of North American archeology.

1881, ] Aboriginal Stone-Driliing. 541

In Figures 3-9 I present delineations of some of the stone im-

) )

ya AM)

PAS 4

Fics, 3-9.—Stone drills in the U. S. National Museum (natural size).

plements in the National Museum, which resemble more or less

542 On the Effect of Impacts and Strains [July,

Mr. Wood’s specimen, and to which I ascribe the character of

drills.

Figure 3.—Original made of light-brown stone of chalcedonic

appearance. Colorado. (Museum No. 9208.)

Figure 4.—Yellowish flint. Ohio. (Museum No. 16,484.)

Figure 5.—Gray jasper. New York. (Mus. No. 6180.)

Figure 6.—Cast of a large implement of brownish hornstone.

The original is in possession of Mr. L. Leppelman, of Fremont,

Ohio. (Museum No. 35,624.)

Figure 7.— Yellowish-brown jasper. Connecticut. (Museum

No. 6084.)

Figure 8.— Dark-gray hornstone. Ohio. (Museum No.

16,484.)

Figure 9.—Light-reddish jasper. West Virginia. (Museum

No. 13,376.)

Having properly hafted the original of Figure 8, I operated

with it on a piece of an aboriginal potstone vessel, three-fourths

of an inch in thickness, which I perforated in about twelve min-

utes, the result being a bore not quite as regular as that exhibited

in Mr. Wood’s specimen, but otherwise resembling it in all essen-

tial points. The manipulation was the same as in the previously-

described experiment by which I obtained a small bi-conical pet-

foration. ;

20%

ON THE EFFECT OF IMPACTS AND STRAINS ON

THE FEET OF MAMMALIA?

BY E. D, COPE.

Te principal specializations in the structure of the feet of the

Mammalia may be summarized as follows: :

I. The reduction of the number of the toes to one in the Per

sodactyla (horses, etc.), and two in the Artiodactyla (cloven feet).

II. The second hinge-joint in the tarsus of the Artiodactyla.

1 The specimen from the Yorkshire Wolds, represented by Figure 231 0n page 29%

of Mr. Evans’s work (Ancient Stone Implements, etc.) appears to belong to the

same class of tools.

* Read before the National Academy of Sciences, April, 1881. Abstract. ed

of the points of this paper have already been discussed in the NATURALIST (April),

but the present abstract contains additional matter. ;

1881. ] on the Feet of Mammata. 543

III. The trochlear ridges and keels at the various movable

articulations of the limbs. These are as follows:

fi peti downward

. Intertrochlear crests of the humerus.

z. On the carpal end of the radius.

Yt: Netacrpl distal ends,

6, Tibia dis

é. SNancadials 7

2. Looking ‘apy

B. Astragalus, edge

y: Astragalus distally boars ster

6, Phalanges (very weak).

The following sleet may be made respecting the struc-

tures included under division III: The trochlear keels which

look downwards are much the most prominent and important.

Those enumerated as looking upwards are weak and insignificant,

or of a different character from the down-looking ones. The

latter are all projections from the middles of the ends of the

respective elements. The up-looking are generally projections of

the edges of =. Such are the lateral crests of the astragalus,

bees

Fig. 1, Fic. 2.

Fic, 1.—Right osterior foot of f Corvphodon from New Mexico, one-

ze-t nat size Frc Report 1 Ex pl. W. of a pes i Mer G .M. Weer Pl, ux.

—Right st foot of Aphel lodus Cope, from Colorado, one-

halt'n natural si in se rom Repor rt U.S. é pleles mess Tennis FE. v. Hayden, IV, Pl. XxX.

and the adjacent edges of the cuboid and navicular bones which

544 On the Effect of Impacts and Strains [July,

cause the distal emargination of the astragalus in the Artiodac-

tyla, The proximal ridges of the phalanges are very weak, and

the concavities in the extremity of the radius cannot be called

trochlear, as they are adaptations to the carpal bones.

I. The reduction in the number of toes is supposed to be due to

the elongation of those which slightly exceeded the others in

length, in consequence of the greater number of strains and im-

pacts received by them in rapid progression, and the complement-

ary loss of material available for the growth of the smaller ones.

This is rendered probable from the fact that the types with

reduced digits are dwellers on dry land in both orders, and those

that have more numerous digits are inhabitants of swamps and

mud. In geological BPOry it is supposed that the Reason aae

rado, a

Fic

G. 3.—Right — foot = Protohippus —— mack Te v.H Gofal Hayden

urv.

Fic

one- half natural size. From Report U. S. Geol.

ght Epics font of Pibela bin jobietsiie Cope,

ices from Chota

iby fifths ants size. From Hayden’s Report, Iv, Pl. cxv

1881.] on the Feet of Mammaha. 545

(figures 2-3) originated from the Amdélypoda, or primitive Ungu-

lata (figure 1), which first assumed terrestrial habits, while the

Artiodactyla (figures 4 and 9-11), originating from the same

order, long continued as mud dwellers; as witness the hippo-

potami and hogs of to-day. The mechanical effect of walking

in the mud is to spread the toes equally on opposite sides of

the middle line. This would encourage the equal development of

the digits on each side of the middle line, as in the cloven-footed

types. In progression on hard ground, the longest toe (the

third) will receive the greatest amount of shock from contact

with the earth. There is every reason to believe that shocks, if

not excessive, encourage growth in the direction of the force

applied. This is strongly suggested by the relations between the

length of the legs and the rate of speed of animals; and the

lengths of the teeth and their long-continued use. Certain it is

that the lengths of the bones of the feet of the Ungulate orders

have a direct relation to the dryness of the ground they inhabit,

and the possibility of speed which their habitat permits them, or

necessarily imposes on them.

II. The hinge between the first and second series of tarsal

bones in the Artiodactyla, may be accounted for by reference to the

habits which are supposed to have caused the cloven-footed char-

acter. Observation on an animal of this order walking in mud,

Shows that there is a great strain anteroposteriorly transverse to

the long axis of the foot, which would readily cause a gradual

loosening of an articulation like that connecting the two series

of tarsals in the extinct Amblypoda. Any one who has examined

this part of Coryphodon will see that a little additional mobility

at this point would soon resemble the second tarsal joint of the

hogs. In the case of animals which progress on hard ground, no

Such cross-strain would be experienced, and the effect would be

to consolidate by flattening the fixed articulation.

IIT. The trochlez. These prominences, which form the tongues

of the tongue and groove articulations, exhibit various degrees of

development in the different Mammalia. Those of different parts

of the skeleton coincide in their condition in any one type of am-

bulatory Mammalia, and so may be all considered together. This

fact suggests strongly that they are all due to a common cause.

They are all imperfect in the Rodentia and Carnivora (figures

5-6) (except the Leporide, which are especially characterized by

VOL. XV.—No, vil, 38

546 On the Effect of Impacts and Strains [July,

their great speed). Among ungulates they are very imperfect in

the Proboscidea. The orders mention- a

ed all have elastic pads on the under

sides of their feet or toes. The same is

true of the lowest types of both the Ar-

tiodactyla and Perissodactyla, the hip-

popotami and rhinoceroses. In the

Ruminantia the trochlee are well de-

veloped (figure 10) with one ex-

FIG. 5. Fic. 6. Fie. 8. Fic. 7.

Fic. 5.—Distal extremity of tibia of Amblyctonus sinosus Cope. Fic. eat

extremity of tibia of Oxyena morsitans Cope. Both flesh-eaters and two-thir a

ural size. From Report Expl. and Surv. W. of 100th Mer., G. M. Wheeler, IV, tt

Fic. 7.— End of tibia and astragalus of Archelurus debilis. FG. g,— Femur of

Nimravus gomphodus. Carnivora, one-third natural size. Mus. Cope.

ception, and that is the distal metacarpal and metatarsal keels

of the Camelide (figure 9). These animals confirm the probability -

of the keels being the effect of long-continued shocks, for they

are the only Ruminants which have elastic pads on the inferior

sides of their digits.

That these processes may be displacements due to shocks long-

continued, is rendered probable by the structure of the ers :

themselves. (1) They project mostly in the direction of gravity:

Constant jarring on the lower extremity of a hollow cy id

with soft (medullary) contents, and flexible end walls pe

tend to a decurvature of both inferior and superior adjacent eet

walls. If the side walls are wide and resistant, the projection |

will be median, and will be prolonged in the direction of

1881. ] on the Feet of Mammalia. 547

flexure of the joint. (2) They fit entering grooves of the proxi-

mal ends of corresponding bones. These will be the result of the

same application of force and displacement, as the protrusion of

the oe commencing with a concavity (Elephas); becoming

Fic. -9. Fic. 10. Fic It,

'_ Fic. 9.—Part of args foot of Procamelus identalis from, New Mexico. From

Report of Capt. G. M. Wheeler, Vol. Iv, “i i.

FiG, 16 — Mat als of Cosoryx far espe from abosstirsrt two thirds natural size;

a, ce face; 2, Sosterior ; ¢, prox end ; d, distal end.

pie eft forefoot with part 7 a of ResmneT vilsont Leidy, from

. prado, ace: fifths natural size. From Hayden’s Report, Iv.

More concave (Fig. 7), and becoming finally a groove. (3) When

the dense edge of a bone, as in the case of the lateral walls of the

“Astragalus, is presented upwards, a groove is produced in the

548 Editors’ Table. (July,

down-looking bone ; ¢. g., the lateral grooves of the distal end of

the tibia. (4) When the inferior bones are the denser, the

superior articular face yields; ¢. g., the distal end of the radius to

the first row of carpals (Fig. 11).

(5) The metapodial keels commence in the lower types on the

posterior side of the distal extremity of the bone. This is partly

due to the presence there of a pair of sesamoid bones, which with

the tendons in which they are developed, sustain and press on

the lateral parts of the extremities, and leave the middle line

without support.

x 6

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S, PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

Morphological biology treats of the relations of solid

bodies of organic origin. These solid bodies are often in the

highest degree irregular in form, as for instance, the squamosal

bone, or the liver, of vertebrated animals. The mental handling

of such material requires faculties which belong to the artist and

the mechanic, together with a capacity for generalization not

essential to either of those classes of specialists, The mastery of

any considerable number of organic forms requires the exercise

of a thorough analysis of them, which of course presuppose?

good perceptive faculties. The latter form the important class

which furnishes material to the reflective department of the mind,

and without which the grandest powers of thought wander

aimlessly in the search of truth, for want of fundamental

facts.

While a definite idea of the forms of organic bodies is neces-

sary to the biological thinker, the power of describing them 1S

necessary to the biological writer. It is absolutely essential that

the describer of structure and form shall use language which 1s

not susceptible of several meanings, and that he shall know how vid

express contrasts when describing different objects. It is not un-

common to find divisions or groups of various grades defined 19

somewhat the following manner: Div.1. Legs long ; bill curved ;

Div. u. Tail truncate; legs scaly. On reading this, the inexpe-

rienced student is impressed with the occult wisdom of the oracle,

while the scientist, on the other hand, feels his fulminate if

degree denser than before. Our experience leads us cs

188 1.] Editors’ Table. 549

gest that the faculty of analytical description sorely needs cul-

tivation. It cannot be called a lost art until it shall have been

found. Word painting is a high art, and the highest type of it

is that which conveys to the mind of the reader a definite idea

of the actual form of the object described. To accomplish this

cannot be shown by the number of representations which are

within the reach of the average biologist. In the field of science

the picture-maker may be a useful man, but he can never be a

substitute for the analytical taxonomist. oe

2) That pictures can never relieve the author from specifying

the characters of his higher groups, as genera, families, etc., is

self-evident.

_ (3) Iconography is only within reach of naturalists in propor-

tion to their financial ability. Poverty should not condemn

genius to inaction and obscurity.—C.

7 We have received a circular from the committee on in-

struction of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

asking for subscriptions towards the expenses of the next win-

ter’s course of lectures, and for endowments of some or all of the

lectureships provided for in the by-laws of the institution. We

pe this request will be liberally responded to by citizens, so

only introduce teaching as a collateral activity, as its primary

object is Original research. The professorships in question were

Not created for teachers only, but as positions for original investi-

gators of distinguished merit. Such men will be generally good

550 Recent Literature. fJuly,

—— We have received the following from a distinguished cor-

respondent: .

ALBANY, May 14, 1881.

Gentlemen:—I have received the notice extracted from AM.

NATURALIST, in reference to an invitation to the British Associa-

tion for the Advancement of Science to meet in America in 1883.

I approve of the invitation, which it will be necessary to repeat

before its acceptance.

It is well to begin the invitation in order that we may approach

the object which sooner or later I believe will be accomplished.

Very truly yours, James HALL.

20:

RECENT LITERATURE.

Semper’s AmMIMAL LiFe as AFFECTED BY THE NATURAL CONDI-

TIONS OF ExisTENCE.1—The author’s aim in preparing the lectures

which he originally delivered before the Lowell Institute, at Boston,

and which are here presented to the reading public, is expressed in

the following words, to be found in the preface: “ It appears to me

that of all the properties of the animal organism, variability 1s that

which may first and most easily be traced by exact investigation

to its efficient causes; and, as it is beyond a doubt the subject

around which at the present moment the strife of opinions 1S most

violent, it is that which will be most likely to repay the trouble of

closer research.” Professor Semper, therefore, endeavors, and We

are either of universal significance or, from his own point of "ied

appear to offer favorable subjects for experimental treatment. The

an original contribution to the general subject of evolution fro

the point of view of experiments on the relations between animals

and their environment, which may be largely made in the labora

tory, as well as in the field. The subject of endeavoring to account

or the origin of the variations of species, of seeking for the cod

cient causes of variability, is not unfamiliar to American natura™

ists. Darwin professedly starts from the tendency to variation,

and his theory, as such, ignores or opposes any thing like Lae

marckianism or the influence of the environment on the organism.

A few American writers have felt that we must endeavor to See

the causes inducing the tendency to variation, and have sist

been led to what we may call a modified, scientific form of La-

marckianism. Inorder that the organism may undergo change =

ditions of Existence. By KARL Semper, Professor of the University of

With two maps and 106 wood cuts. I2mo, pp. 472.

. . * * Loi 2

1 The International Scientific Series. Animal Life as Affected by es eee vo

1881. ] Recent Literature. 551

it must first be acted upon by a change in its surroundings, and

the change must then be transmitted to its descendants. This is

(1) modern Lamarckianism. Then, when the organism or set of

organic forms are really in a stage of inequilibrium or of change,

the principle or forces of (2) natural selection, or Darwinism, come

in, eliminating the useless and preserving the useful forms. Thus

marckianism, in its modern shape, forms the base of the pyramid

of evolution and Darwinism the apex. Lamarck and his follow-

ers (whether conscious of their intellectual descent from the

learned and philosophic Frenchman or not) are endeavoring tolay

the foundation. Meanwhile, Darwin and his English and German

colaborers have began at the top and worked downward. While

Professor Semper does not mention Lamarck, his entire line of

thought is that of a modern Lamarckian, or what Lamarck would

probably have been had he lived in the present half century.

The work before us is not metaphysical, as is Darwinism. The

term “ natural selection ” is seldom, if ever, completely personified

as an efficient cause or active law, but we are, on the contrary,

treated to the results, so manifold, of the effects upon animals of

changed conditions of life by changes wrought artificially or in the

laboratory of nature. The author, instead of taking up example after

example, as do Darwin and especially his followers,and endeavoring

to explain their variation by hypothesis piled on hypothesis, like

the pile of metaphysical truths of old-school metaphysicians, which

may be deftly demolished by removing the premise or undermost

tick—the author, we say, works on the inductive method, and

‘endeavors at least to plant his first brick on a substratum of facts

tested by experiment. As Semper remarks at the end of his book,

“ No power which is able to act’ only as a selective and not as a

direct

It was not until the change had actually taken place that selection

cee habit of theoretical explanations from general proposi-

ions,

tions which Darwin has opened out to us by his theory may beé

genet the prospect of gradually bringing even Organic Being

chanical efficient cause.”

552 Recent Literature. [July,

mathematical astronomer. Zodlogy will, in consequence be more 0

an exact sclence and possess more real interest and value in the

eyes of the masses than it now does.

The chapters on the influence of light and of temperature are

particularly suggestive. So is the fifth chapter, on the influence

of stagnant water, which embraces the results of the experiments

of Schmankewitsch on the brine shrimp; also those of Semper on

the effect of changes in the volume of water on the pond snail.

The portion which is quite novel, and which will attract gener

attention, is Semper’s theory of the origin of coral islands. !e at-

tempts to show that the connection between the strength and di-

rection of ocean currents, and the vigor of growth in the corals and

in the reefs they form, is one of the principal causes that have

given the reefs their frequently very remarkable forms. This view

is, he claims, in direct contradiction to Darwin’s theory of subsi-

dence, as well as Dana’s theory. It is more of a piece with Mose-

ley’s theory recently proposed, although it is not impossible that

Darwin’s, as well as Dana’s, on the one hand and Moseley’s and

Semper’s on the other, may all be the terms of a series of causes.

he book teems with facts which will be new to most of out

readers, and hence it is a solid contribution to the evolution theory.

Compared with Oscar Schmidt’s crude and one-sided presentation

of Darwinism, in his little book entitled Descent and Darwinism,

Semper’s will remain a classical work, from its basis of well-

grounded facts.

Without careful search for errors we notice that under the head

of hybridism several cases known in the United States among the

deer and Salmonidz are not referred to (perhaps they were ee

gular Branchipod genus Thamnocephalus cannot be said to occur

in the “ South of the Union,” for its only known habitat is Kansas,

on the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountain plateau. We notice a

few typographical errors, and the index is too short and quite de-

fective.

Anniversary Memoirs oF THE Boston SocreTy OF NATURAP

History.—Following the example of German scientific societies;

1881.] Recent Literature. 553

the Boston Society of Natural History has published a thick

quarto volume of memoirs, contributed by its members and de-

signed to commemorate the fiftieth anniversary of the society’s

foundation. The scientific portion is preceded by a minute,

detailed history of the society by its late president, Thomas

Bouvé, Esq., which will possess great interest to the immediate

friends of the society, and will also serve as a monographical

account of the origin and development of our most vigorous and

model natural history society. It appears that the enthusiasm,

zeal, and unremitted and unpaid toil of its founders, together

with the high scientific character of its president and officers, and

more particularly the influence of the late Professor Jeffries Wy-

man, led men of wealth and refinement to liberally endow it.

* The following memoirs are contained in this elegant volume, and

have in part been noticed in this journal, while others will be

hereafter. Mr. Bouvé’s history occupies 250 pages, and is illus-

trated with two plates and nine portraits. The following is the

table of contents:

Propositions concerning the classification of lavas considered.

with reference to the circumstances of their extrusion, by N. S.

Shaler (15 pp.) ; The genesis of the Tertiary species of Planorbis

at Steinheim, by Alpheus Hyatt (114 pp., 9 pl.); The Devonian

insects of New Brunswick, by S. H. Scudder (41 pp., 1 pl.); The

Gymnosporangia, or cedar-apples, of the United States, by W.

G. Farlow ( 38 pp., 2 pl.); A structural feature, hitherto unknown

“among Echinodermata, found in deep-sea Ophiurans, by Theodore

yman (12 pp., 2 pl.); The development of the squid, Lolzgo

pealiit Lesueur, by W. K. Brooks (22 pp., 3 pl.); The anatomy,

histology and embryology of Limulus polyphemus, by A. S.

Packard, Jr., (45 pp. 7 pl.); On the identity of the ascending pro-

cess of the astragalus in birds with the intermedium, by E. 5.

Morse (10 pp., I pl.); Contributions to the anatomy of the milk-

Weed butterfly, Danais archipus Fabr., by Edward Burgess (16

Pp., 2 pl.); Studies on the tongue of reptiles and birds, by C. S.

Minot (20 pp. 1 pl.); Notes on the crania of New England In-

dians, by Lucien Carr (10 pp., 2 pl.); The feeling of effort, by

William James (32 pp.); On the development of a double-headed

vertebrate, by S. F. Clarke (6 pp., 1 pl.).

of the shell, the mode of origi d of the mantle

: , gin of the mantle and of the

cme? and the form and position of the gills of the Cephalopod

™Dryo are more closely like those of the typical Gasteropod than

554 Lrecent Literature. [July,

are to be inferred from the condition of these organs in the adult,

and thus enable us to better understand the homology between

the Cephalopod and a typical Mollusk than before, as first shown

Grenacher, while Professor Brooks has discovered several

additional stages which enable him to correct some of Grenacher’s

conclusions and to fill up the gaps in the evidence bearing on this

subject. The yolk sac Professor Brooks regards as the homologue

of the gasteropod foot; the arms of the Cephalopods have no

homologues in the Gasteropods, but may, perhaps, be the equiva-

lents of the “cephaloconi” of the Pteropod, Clio; Brooks also

believes that the siphon is a structure peculiar to the Cephalopods,

with no equivalent in the Gasteropods. The views of Huxley,

Grenacher and Von Ihering are presented, with the author’s rea-

sons for agreeing with or dissenting from them.

SEconD Report OF THE U. S. EnromotocicaL Commission. —

This volume of four hundred pages gives the results of the labors

of the Commission during the years 1878 and 1879. It is divided

into fourteen chapters, of which the most are of a practical nature

relating to the following subjects: Additions to the chronology of

locust ravages ; the relation of the locust and its ravages to agri-

culture and the settlement of the Territories; facts concerning

and laws governing the migrations of locusts in all countries;

habits and characteristics of locusts in all countries within the

while the appendix contains the description of a number of new —

species of grasshoppers collected by the Commission in the West,

cheba by Mr. S. H. Scudder, and illustrated with a lithographic

ate.

| Department of the Interior. Second Report of the U. S. Entomological eaereore

sion for the years 1878 and 1879, relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust and the

manent breeding grounds, with a view of preventing its migrations into the whe

i ntry, in pursuance of SDP ee

made by Congress for the purpose, with maps and illustrations. CHARLES V. RI r .

A. S. PACKARD, JR., and Cyrus THomas, Commissioners. Washington, 1880. ite

1881. ] Recent Literature. 555

The third report of the Commission has been ordered by Con-

gress, while a fourth upon the cotton worm and other cotton in-

sects is in preparation. Five bulletins have appeared and three

others are either in press or nearly ready for the printer. These

bulletins will eventually form a volume relating entirely to prac-

tical or applied entomology.

fren. pote AND PAMPHLETS.—Ueber eine Sammlung von Fischen, welche Hr.

r. Gerl n Hong Kong gesant hat. Prof. W. Peters, Pegi ee der Wissen-

17) ots zu "Berlin: 8vo, p pp. 10, plate. Berlin, Dec. 13, 1 rom the author,

rig nag rai igie. ae SS in Museum des onigreche Béhmen

in Prag. Dr. . Fric. 8vo, pp. 40, 1881. From the author

Rin a aie vivants, et ‘Foals, Rodentia (Suite), 8vo, pp, 79.

Paris, 1881. From the auth

Les Petit Mammiferes de la Pace: Procedés pour capturer et reunir en collec-

tions les Mammifeies. Par Dr. M. Trouessart. 8vo, pp. 16, plate. Paris, 1881.

From the au Hhige

re and affinities of the genus Monticulipora and its sub-genera.

With critical descriptions Hg illustrative species. H. Alleyne Nicholson, M.D.,

D.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.L.S. Royal 8vo, pp. 244, cuts, 6 plates. Bound. Edinburgh

and London, 1881, From the aut thor

pe ecicgee! Reports 1880, in clading + pete for Aetl is 1878, 1879, and averages

for previous years ector James Hec , F.R.S. Colonial Mu-

ssiiis and Getogical§ Surves Dinan ies a pen ibis 3. Wellington, 1881.

From the author

A Memorial = Joseph Henry. Published by order of Congress. Royal 8vo, pp.

530. Engraving. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, 1881.

Osteology of Speotyto cunicularia, var. hypogeea and of Eremophila ve bid

R. W. Schufeldt, ihe Assistan nt Surgeon U.S, Army. 8vo, pp. 66, cuts, plates

Department of the rior, Gov. Printing Office, Washington. From the pO

The set untain se Ny Pern.anent courses for the gy ey ing . adopt to

lessen or avert peby injury. Charles V. Riley, M.A., Ph.D. 8vo, pp. 22, maps 6.

Government Printing Office, Washlagion: 1881, From the author.

Census Bulletin, No. 141. 4to , pp. 4. Gov. Printing Office, Washington, 1881.

co of the United States National Museum, §8vo, pp. 31. Washington,

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, of Harvard. Vol. vill, No. 8.

Studies of e Jelly-fishes of evan preapel ten J. Walter Fewkes. 8vo, pp. 41,

plates 10. Cambridge, 1881. From the r.

Biographical Sketch of Louis Bigs ae i Alexander Agassiz. 8vo,

Pp. 12, Cambridge, eg From the

Geological Notes. 1. Taco nghawey re “Gesto ogy. . The Genesis of certain

Iron ores. 111. The Origin of oar Meany: iv. The resai formation * bern

and the ne of Woo 2) Seer Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. 8vo, pp. 8. Mon-

treal, “ 1881. From ie author ,

ities r Kenntuiss ae Flus sire Siid-amerika’s (111)”’ und * beat

ge? Belirag e (x1).” Director Dr. Steindacher. From the Sitzung der Math

: os Seay iaias, Classe Akad. "Vaasa. Vom 5. Mai, 1881. 8vo, pp. 15. From the

‘ Illustrations of the Earth’s Surface. Glaciers. Nathaniel Southgate Shaler, Pro-

€ssor of Supra and William Morris Davis, Instructor in eS in Harvard

rsit

0, pp. 200, cuts, plates xxv. Boston, 1881. From J. B. Jeiggepreest

Fulletin of ‘the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College. Vol. vim,

w 9. 9. List of Sidiceaie collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Northeasiern Mexico,

ith at notes “eth the collector. By J. A. Allen. 8vo, Pe 17. Cam! bridge, 1881. \e

om the hei shers Rites

556 General Notes. [July,

Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 1881. Check list of dupli-

cates of fishes from the Pacific coast of North America, distributed by the Smith-

sonian Institution in behalf of the United States National Museum, 1881. Prepared

by David S. Jordan and Pierre L. Jouy. 8vo, pp. 48. Washington, Gov. Print-

Proceedings of the United States National Museum (1881.) Notes on the Fishes

of the Pacific coast of the United States. By David S. Jordan and Charles H, Gil-

bert. 8vo, pp. 46. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1

Geological Survey of Alabama, Report of progress for 1879 and 1880. Eugene

A. Smith, Ph.D., State Geologist. 8vo, pp. 158, with map. Montgomery, Ala.,

1881. From the author.

bapananese!,

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

Nageli’s theory, however, seemed to be firmly established ee!

the following properties of starch-grains: (1) Their being ae?

up of regularly alternating more and less watery layers, the.

the large ones, the first being very dense, the latter very wae

(3) Their unequal growth in different directions. (4) The gon

of compound and half compound grains being, according

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

1881.] Botany. 557

Nageli, strongest between the nuclei, while growth by apposition

would only take place at the periphery of the grains. (5) The

partial grains of compound and half compound grains being more

watery than simple grains of similar size.

In the discussion and explanation of these properties, the

remarkable inner differentiation of starch-grains is first consid-

ered. The development of simple granules which was found to

agree in the most important points with the observations of Na-

geli, excepting the peculiar properties above referred to and belong-

ing to a limited number of plants, may be summed up as follows:

(1) Young grains consist of very dense, highly refractive sub-

stance. (2) Later a less refractive, more watery spot (nucleus)

According to the generally adopted views of Nageli, these facts

are held to prove that the inner structure is not due to a succes-

Sive deposit of alternating more and less dense layers around a

highly watery primary grain, but that the more watery layers and

the nucleus have been differentiated within the less watery sub-

stance, The investigation of the physical properties of starch-

4 ains leads, however, to an explanation of these properties which

558 General Notes. [July,

their reaching a certain thickness by apposition growth), the trans-

formation of less watery to more watery substance will be per-

formed; in other words, the nucleus and the less dense layers will

appear. That the inner parts of the grains, taken as a whole, are

less watery than the peripheral ones, is due also to their being

extended by the latter.

The unequal growth of starch-grains in different directions was

shown in a former paper! to be due to the unequal conveyance of

material. Starch-grains which are formed in the inner parts of

chlorophyll or starch-forming granules, and remain surrounded

y them, have central nuclei. They become eccentric when they

are formed at the periphery of chlorophyll or starch-forming

granules, and show constantly the greatest growth where they are

in contact with them. ;

The formation of compound grains was also described in the

paper already quoted, and shown to be due to the growing to-

gether of free granules, and not, as Nageli holds, to the division

of simple grains. The development of half compound grains was

investigated principally in the rhizome of Canna and found to be

analogous. The structure of grains having their nuclei distant

from each other, which led Nageli to suppose an intense growing

of the grains between them, is caused by their being formed at

distant spots upon the periphery of the chlorophyll, or starch-

orming granules. e differences in the density of simple grains

and the partial grains of the half compound and compound ones,

is due to the extension of the inner by the outer parts. :

Nageli, and after him most biologists, hold that starch-grains

agree with protoplasm as to their molecular structure, and are -

be considered as living bodies. There is no longer any en

for ascribing to them properties different from those of inert se

ies ; their cohesion and their optical properties prove conclusively

that they are sphzrocrystals; they differ from most crystals by

their property of swelling up in water, but the so-called prote™

artificially under the same circumstances in which true ave

would have been formed2—A. F. W. Schimper, Fohns Hopxim

University.

HARDINESS OF THE Eucatyprus,—The paragraph on p. 389 eh

Naturatist for May, requires qualification ; what Baron Muelle

no doubt said, was, that in the native places of rowth the blue

° . *. P

gum was uninjured sometimes when the thermometer fell to 20 be

° Fahr. Luminose and hygrometrical conditions in conn

. Le i J

1 Botanische Zeitung, 1880. Translated in Quarterly Fournal of Microscopie

Science, April, 1881. epee

*These conclusions are based upon the researches of Schmiedeberg (Zeitschryf,

fiir physiol. Chemie, Vol. 1), Drechsel (Yournal fir praktische Chemie, V

_ and my own investigations (Zeitschrift fiir Krystallographie, Vol. V)- $

1881.] Botany, 559

tion with thermometrical—indeed, all that we understand by the

word climate, decide hardiness. In this case the Eucalyptus globu-

Jus will not stand even a white frost in many parts of the United

States. In a letter to me Baron Mueller says that Eucalyptus

amygdalina and £. Gunnii stand a much lower temperature in their

own homes than the common blue gum, and are now being used to

replace the celebrated plantations on the marshes near Rome,

which were destroyed during the winter of 1879-80.—Zhomas

Meehan.

Curiosities In TREE Growrn.—Some years since a gentleman

in New Jersey pointed out to me what he thought to be a curious

case of natural grafting. One of the boughs of a maple tree

(Acer rubrum) had thrown off a branch which after growing to a

length of several feet without branches, had again united with the

parent bough, the two forming a smooth and perfect union. The

matter was discussed among some friends distinguished alike in

horticulture and botany, and it was decided that such a thing

could not take place naturally. Recently a similar case has come

to my notice ina tree whose location, in a remote portion of

Arizona, places it almost beyond possibility that human agency

could have been concerned. The tree is a variety of oak, com-

mon here, which no botanist seems at present willing to assign to

any species.

; S represented in figure 1, the bough forks at the point a,

about three feet from the trunk. The two branches, after running

nearly side by side for a distance of three feet, come together at

S\ ge

SS Ze ea

fy Ob As

9 Wey

6 Ye;

SSS ? | MEP AG, “/

= <= CZ * RY i EEL

eo Vy ae a \ Lede 4

yy ANY ANN aN

ASSN SN aes

SS a \) Ae vat

> ~ aS Sy

ee SA WE. US Yt

. Wes SS

SSN

SASS

~: ~v&D

Fic. 1, . Fic. 2. q

4, forming a smooth and perfect union. As the bough is dead

and bared of its bark, the fibers of the wood can be seen with

Sreat distinctness. The “crotch” at 4 presents precisely the same

560 General Notes. (July,

appearance that it would were the parent trunk toward 4, forking

in the direction of a. It is worthy of note that the bough beyond

6 has about the same diameter as inside of a, while at the branch-

ing part the wood is about equally divided between the two

branches.

This interesting specimen has been forwarded to the Smith-

from the bark and protruded through the aperture. Later the

tree has resumed the erect position. At the present time the

entire cavity has been filled with new wood, and all traces of the

wound bid fair to disappear. The mass of rubbish which has

accumulated at the base of the tree gives the portion a—d the ap-

pearance of having been elongated.

Possibly such wounds are more readily healed in this country,

owing to the irregularity and frequency of the periods of growth,

corresponding to the great irregularity in the seasons of heat, cold,

routh and moisture.—Heury H. Rusby.

Boranicat Norrs.—The Characez of North and South Amer-—

ica are now under a fair way to be elaborated systematically. Dr.

T. F. Allen, of 10 E. 36th street, New York, who has already

done such good work for some of our species, is making arrange

ments for enlarging the scheme of his exsiccate and illustrations

so as to include the South American species. He requests

collectors to secure good specimens for him, and for those from

South America he will make arrangements to pay liberally ——It

is a genuine pleasure to call attention to the increasing usefulness

of microscopical journals. The publishers of the American ecg

nal of Mircroscopy deserve the thanks of students and teachers

botany for republishing, in the April number, a lecture on . How

to examine a plant microscopically,” by H. Pocklington Spee

Eng.). The article, which occupies eight pages, is a most exCer”

lent one, and cannot fail to do much I. C, Martindale,

of Camden, N. J., has issued a neat Catalogue of Desiderata (2!

Professor

1881.] Zoology. 561

Incidentally he refers to the pitcher of Sarracenia as “ corres-

ponding morphologically to a peltate leaf like that of Nelumbium,”

but with the hollowed out depression of the upper surface much

deepened and narrowed. orren’s Correspondance Botanique,

8th edition, is a valuable aid to the botanical collector as well as

the general botanist, giving as it does the address, title and spe-

cial line of work of the more prominent botanists and collectors

in all parts of the world. We shall be doing a good service to

many students by calling attention to the catalogue of works on

natural history, just issued by Bernard Quaritch, 15 Piccadilly,

London. Many rare and valuable botanical books are offered at

moderate prices. An important work, “ Eléments de Botanique

Fossile,” by Edouard Bureau, is announced by the Paris booksel-

lers as about ready. Peter Henderson, well known for many

years as a prominent horticulturist, has just published a “ Hand-

book of Plants,” which is designed to serve as a dictionary, or

reference-book for the plants in cultivation either for use or orna-

ment. It is especially adapted to this country, and is thus more

valuable for Americans than Paxton’s, Loudon’s or Lindley’s works.

The arrangement is alphabetical for easy reference, but the natu-

ral order is indicated in every case. Instructions as to the best

modes of cultivation are given in many cases, in addition to short

descriptions of the plants. Not only will this book prove valu-

able to the horticulturist, but in many cases the botanist will find

it indispensable also.

ZOOLOGY.

THE KING SNAKE (OPHIBOLUS SAYI) SUPS ON A FULL GROWN

WATER MOCCASIN (ANCISTRODON PIscivoRUS).—“ Be ye therefore

wise as serpents.”—Matt. x, 16.

The non-venom-secreting Ophibolus and the deadly Ancistro-

don had kept a friendly companionship for several days in the

same prison box. Well aware of each other’s peculiar meth

of self-defence, there had been a policy truce instituted for the

nonce. The former did not relish a hypodermic injection of pol-

son from his surgeon neighbor, and the latter equally as much

dreaded a fraternal embrace from his acrobatic companion. e

by the reduplicating folds of its agile enemy. From neck to tail

bs back again, its entire length was tied up so effectually that

respiration became difficult, movement of the body was out of

562 General Notes. [July,

question excepting a vibrating tremor passing helplessly from

nasal tip to tail tip, and a swift contracting of the assailant’s con-

voluting folds assured the victim of broken ribs and speedy help-

lessness. The mouth of the moccasin was open, though the bifid

tongue could not dart forth, the lower jaw hung livid, and the

strength left in the upper maxillary was insufficient to allow the

poison fangs to erect themselves. Suffocation and broken ribs

were too much even for a dead!y snake to withstand. These

facts were closely noted by our acute Ophibolus who slowly un-

coiled himself from the neck of the vanquished, and withdrawing

his head a few inches so as to notice the features of his prey, he

advanced for the banquet. The stunning blow being felt, the moc-

casin had closed his mouth and was apparently resigned to his

fate. Fastening his upper teeth upon the occipitals, and distend-

ing his os quadratum, the king snake held the head of his victim

in his mouth, the tail of the latter still wriggling uneasily.

coiling became tighter and tighter, a slight noise like the crack-

ling of bones was heard, accompanied by a tremor which shook

both alike, and the two, victor and vanquished, now twisted up m

a labyrinthine knot, rolled over and over like a spent ball froma _

cannon

Taking them from the box, I uncoiled and stretched them out — *

on the floor where they appeared like a double tailed snake with-

out ahead. This gave relief to the moccasin who, although his

head, as far as the atlas, was firmly held between the jaws of his

antagonist, wriggled manfully with renewed strength obtained by

a release from the constrictor’s folds. The king snake was ae

at a disadvantage, as noted from the movements of his tail.

Way repast, was two hours. d

Only a scientific consideration prompted me to destroy eee E

dissect my useful cannibal, for he had already eaten seven 0 =

snakes while in ‘captivity.

This note must be added. Ophiophagi, or snake eating $ ee

prefer other victims, and prey on their own species only % 2

count of the absence of their regular food— ohn T. Humpir

Burke Co., N. C.

ces,

1881.] Zoology. 563

SURVIVAL oF Witp Hapirts IN DoMEsTICATED CATTLE.—One

would suppose that Jersey cattle, which are probably the oldest

domesticated breed, and which are noted for being such docile

and gentle pets, had outgrown all traces of their wild habits ; but

I have frequently noticed some traits in my herd, which seem to

me to be a survival of their wild habits away back in far distant

times. For instance, in going to or returning from the pasture,

the strongest cow or bull heads the procession, and the weakest

or youngest calves bring up the rear. This order of movement

is seldom varied, and it would seem to have been necessary for

the protection of the weaker members of the herd in a wild state.

Then, it often happens that those in the rear, as they are being

driven to pasture, are lazy in their movements, and it is some-

arouse them to life and movement at once. Horses act very

survived the necessities which called it into existence. Such

peculiarities, though not specially important or noteworthy in

themselves, would be more marked and decided in a wild state,

and what we see now is but a faint trace of the alert habits of.

it old time predecessors.—Chas. Aldrch, Webster City, Iowa,

% A Dos’s DIscRIMINATION OF Sounps.—My neighbor’s dog,

Shep,” used to stay at my place about as muchas at home. He

was of mixed blood—probably Newfoundland, shepherd and water

—~and very sagacious and tractable. A bridge crosses

Boone river just below my residence, and below this bridge there

'© Perhaps two hundred acres of timbered land, which is unin-

h d used for common pasturage. One:‘of my cows wore a

j U, ay deep- sounding bell, which could easily be heard a _ mile.

PON several occasions I sent “ Shep ” after the cows and he al-

ways brought them—and frequently after dark. My plan was to

3 and stand upon the high bridge and listen, keeping “Shep

ose by my side. Upon catching the sound of our bell among

564 General Notes. [July,

a dozen others, as it came up rather indistinctly through the trees,

Iwould say: “There, ‘Shep,’ that is our bell; go and get the

cows!” As soon as he seemed to feel sure of the sound he would

start off upon a run, and it would be but a few minutes until I

would hear the bell coming towards home. From many trials I

satisfied myself that he could distinguish the sound of our bell as

far as I could myself. _He could doubtless have been trained to

o many such tasks, but he had had little or no training of any

kind, and this instance that I have stated seemed to have been un-

derstood by him as a matter of course, and had not come through

any special effort or discipline—Chas, Aldrich, Webster City, Lowa,

ISS.

and histology of these forms. He first discusses the glands in

the legs of certain forms first pointed out by Prof. Smith? Next

the urinary glands, which are found at the posterior portion of the

alimentary tract are investigated. Following this comes an

account of the structure of the gills and the rectum of Orchestia.

e next point discussed is the fact that certain portions of he:

testes of Orchestia produces eggs, and our author says: “WE

da,

and shows only the remarkable exception shat a definite portion Ks

(@°)

—

fe")

t=}

ty 7

jon

be. |

ben}

(er)

gO.

[sed

i~ 3

EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT COLORED LIGHT ON THE GROWTH OF A

MALS.—Various persons have experimented upon the effects of ie

ferent colored light upon the growth of animals, and have univer

sally found that animals develop at different rates under besten

fluence of the different colors. M. Yung in his recent investiga-

tions on the eggs of frogs, trout and Lymnza,? found that Oe

developed in the following order, the violet accelerating and the

red retarding:

Violet.

; Blue.

These two colors acted in nearly ¢ Yellow.

the same manner. { White.

Green.

—F. seo

ZoorocicaL Nores.—The Proceedings of the United ree

National Museum, just issued, contain a check-list of dupli 3

* Otmar Nebeski, Beitrige zur Kenntniss der Amphi;oden der Adria. Arbeiten

dem Zool. Inst. Wien, 1, pp. I-52. pls. 4, 1880. oe

* Tube building Amphipoda. 4m. Your. Sci., 111, VII, p- 601, 1874

‘ : . Scé., TH, oS ‘ oe

* De l’influence des lumiéres ante sur le dével ¢ des animaus—Mitthelr

ung Zool. Station Neapel, 11, p. 233, 1880, x

Sof

1881.] Zoology. 565

of fishes from the Pacific Coast of North America, distributed by

the Smithsonian Institution, in behalf of the National Museum, to

different college museums. These collections are of great value,

comprising many rare typical forms, and will do much towards

the progress of ichthyology. Valuable notes on the fishes of the

Pacific coast by Messrs. Jordan and Gilbert appear in the same

periodical. Among ornithological papers in the signature of the

same Proceedings, issued April 13, 1881, is the description of a

duck, Fuligula rufina (Pallas), which is new to the United States,

having been found in the New York market, and supposed to

have been shot on Long Island sound. rom his extended

observations on the food of the fresh-water fishes of Illinois, Mr.

S. A. Forbes is impressed with the “supreme importance of

Entomostraca and the minute aquatic larve of Diptera as food for

nearly or quite all of our fresh-water fishes, a conclusion that

gives these trivial and neglected creatures, of whose very existerice

the majority of people are scarcely aware, a prominent place among

the most valuable animals of the State, for without them all our

waters would be virtually depopulated.” He also brings out the

interesting conclusion that a prolific species having an abundant

food Supply, and itself the most important food of predaceous

fishes, may, by extraordinary multiplication, so diminish the food

of the young of the latter as to cause, through its own abundance,

a serious diminution of the numbers of the very species which

prey upon it. It is not certain that the excessive increase of the

gizzard shad would, by eventually reducing the supply of Ento-

Mostraca, cause a corresponding reduction in the numbers of all

the species of that stream by starvation of the young; and this

decimation, applying to all in the same ratio, would take effect

upon the ordinary number of the other species, but upon the ex-

traordinary number of the gizzard shad, would reduce the other

Species below the usual limit, but might not even cut off the ex-

cess of the shad above that limit. Consequently, important as is

the supply of food-fishes for the predaceous species, it is not less

‘portant that the predaceous species should be supplied to eat

up the food, The third volume of Dr. G. S. Brady’s Mono-

graph of the Copepod Crustacea of the British Islands, published

Portant faunal entomological lists by Prof. F. H. Snow, of Kan-

sas, Colorado and New Mexico; articles on the Batrachian rep-

of Kansas, by F, W. Cragin; and notes on the birds of

iley county, Kansas, by Dr. Blachly.

566 General Notes. [July,

ENTOMOLOGY.’

was shown to have a larger asexual dimorphic form (our €.¢

operatola) that develops in an autumnal pip-like gall formed be-

tween the cupule and the fruit. Walsh had previously given good

reasons for the belief that C. g-acicu/ata was the autumnal agamic

dimorphous form of C. g-spongifica (Am. Entomologist 1, Pp. 330

ff.), and Mr. H. F. Basset has, following Adler’s interesting Oe

ments in Europe, suggested the probable dimorphic connection ©

several of our vernal galls which produce bisexual individuals

with autumnal forms which produce larger, asexual flies. VT

Adler continues his successful study and experiment in this direc-

tion, and gives in the Zeitschrift fiir wissens. Zool, (Vol. XXXV, P-

151), the results obtained so far in his researches, and the number

of species in which the occurrence of dimorphic forms has —

proven is already quite considerable. The following 1s 4 ee

thereof, the name in the first column referring to the agamic, tha

in the second to the bisexual generation:

i Spathegaster baccarum

fs albipes

1. Neuroterus lenticularis

a. ag leviusculus

3- re numismatis = “ vesicalrtx

4. wig ‘umipennis = tricolor

5. Aphilotrix radicis ese Andricus noduli

6. M ieboldi — “ testaceipes

7s sag con ticts = “ gemmatus

8. globuli —_ 6 at

9. ty collarts = vig curvator

I fecundatrix = “ losus

II hy callidoma = sf cirratus

12. ve malpighit = “ mudus

AE es. ulummnatis bea “ ramult i

14. Dryophanta scutellaris = Spathegaster taschenbergu

15. . longiventris = “ similis

16, te adivisa oa ‘ verrucosus

17. Biorhiza aptera = Teras terminalis

1. vena = Trigonaspis crustalis

19. Neuroter / = Spathegaster aprilinus ?

Of Nos. 1-13, the Gist form. appears in March until May,

and the sexual generation in May until July. In No. 14 the first”

form appears in January until February, the second in May un

Very remarkable is the fact that in some closely allied spe

no alternate generation seem to occur. They are the following

species: Aphil.

albopunctatus.

‘This department is edited by Pror, C. V. Rrtey, Washington,

communications, bouks for notice, etc., should be sent.

cies

. . e . . FP an ee

otrix seminationis, marginalis, quadriline itis oe

sesamiae core

Re yee = ee Meee eee eta ae

D. Co Oe.

1881,] Entomology. 567

BLEPHAROCERID&.—The very interesting discovery, by Dr. Fritz

Miller, of the earlier states of Paltostoma torrentium, has been

followed in rapid succession by that of other Blepharocerid larvae

and pupz in various parts of the globe, and it seems that most,

if not all, species of Blepharoceridz agree in the mode of devel-

opment and in habit. Thus Dr. F. Brauer finds that pupz from the

of water. The surface of the rock was coated with the pupe.

Another species (Liponeura brevirostris Low) has been described

in the larva and pupa states by H. Dewitz in the Berlin Enso-

mologische Zeitschrift (Vol. xxv, p. 61-66). The latest contribu-

tion to the natural history of these interesting Diptera we owe to

- A. Wierzejski of the University of Krakau, who gives in the

Zoologischer Anzeiger (No. 81, p. 212-216) full descriptions of the

larva and pupa of another Blepharocerid. He found them ina

mountain brook in the Tatra mountains, adhering to the rocks in

the swiftest part of the current. The larve are able, by means

of the six suctorial disks on the ventral side not only to with-

Stand the swift current but also to move freely about, usually side-

wise. Dr. W. did not succeed in rearing the perfect insect, as

the larve and pupz soon perished when confined in standing

water; but from examination of the pupa he is confident that his

Species is very nearly allied to Blepharocera fasciata. He prom-

For those not familiar with the descriptions already given of

the larvee and pupe of this interesting group of Diptera we would

add that the larva is one of the most remarkable in the insect

world. It has apparently but six joints to the body, and its gen-

¢ral appearance recalls that of Ased/us, the joints being, however,

deeply cut on the sides and widely separated. The six-jointed

character is, however, only apparent, as the last joint is evidently

_ ©omposed of three, and the first joint is also evidently composed

568 General Notes. [July,

of several, the head being distinctly separated beneath. The sides

of the joints appear tuberculous and each joint has, indeed, a pair of

separate, decurved, cylindrical and pointed tubercles issuing from

it, resembling six pairs of legs, and used doubtless to lift the larva

from its attachment when movement is desired. Medio-ventrally

there is a series of six circular, elevated sucking disks, each hav-

ing a series of tracheal filaments on the side, which filaments also

doubtless aid in suction. The pupa is very flat ventrally, convex

dorsaily, with two conical horns on the anterior end, each com-

posed of four compressed laminz, which easily separate, and

which are the thoracic trachez, corresponding to those of other

aquatic dipterous pupz, as in the common mosquito. The pup®

collected in Massachusetts are somewhat smaller than Fritz Mil-

ler’s specimens, but structurally identical. They strongly recall

6 color and general appearance some of our smaller Gyrinid

eetles.

BRAULA Ca@:cA NOT PARTICULARLY InjuRIOUS TO THE HONEY

Ber.—Mr. J. Fedarb has in Hardwicke’s Science Gossip for May 2,

1881, an article on Braula caca, that curious dipterous parasite of

our honey bee. He asserts that there can be no doubt that the

damage done by it is generally overestimated, and that the rav-

ages of other hidden guests within the apiary are often wrongly

attributed to Braula, the real authors of the mischief being overt

looked. Braula is no doubt annoying to the bee it infests, but

only when it occurs in very great numbers has it an injurious ef

fect on the bee colony. Mr. Fedarb finds that Braula was Ut

known to the ancient authors on the honey bee, while even such

careful observers of a more recent time as Swammerdam an

Huber do not mention it at all. The parasite may have only lately

developed the habit of living on the honey bee, being present

formerly under other conditions, or it may have spread recently

from some restricted point of the globe.

stances of insect injury during that year in Great Britain, none ss

more remarkable than that of the wide-spread damage caused by

various species of Tipulid larva to wheat, barley, oats, cabbage,

potatoes, peas and strawberries. The larve gnaw away theo

part of the plant just at the surface of the ground or a little be-

neath it, thus weakening or in many instances killing the plants.

Tipulid larva are very plentiful in many parts of our own coun fe

and occasionally inflict some damage to rich meadows, but no son

of injury to field and garden crops has so far been reported to wee

Miss Ormerod is doing an admirable work, and we are glad to

see that she is meeting with success and encouragement.

1881. ] Entomology. 569

Tue CULTIVATION OF PyRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE

PowpEer.—In accordance with an announcement in the March

number of the Narura.isT, the editor of this department has sent

out the seed of two species of Pyrethrum, viz: P. rosewm and P.

cinerariefolium, to a large number of correspondents in different

parts of North America. Every mail brings us some inquiries for

further particulars and directions to guide in the cultivation of the

plant and preparation of the powder. We have concluded, there-

tore, that such information as is obtainable on these heads will

prove of public interest, and we shall ask Professor Bessey’s

pardon for trenching somewhat on his domain.

There are very few data at hand concerning the discovery of

the insecticide properties of Pyrethrum. The powder has been in

use for many years in Asiatic countries south of the Caucasus

mountains. It was sold at a high price by the inhabitants, who suc-

cessfully kept its nature a secret until the beginning of this cen-

ury, when an Armenian merchant, Mr. Jumtikoff, learned that the

powder was obtained from the dried and pulverized flower-heads

of certain species of Pyrethrum growing abundantly in the moun-

tain region of what is now known as the Russian province of

Transcaucasia. The son of Mr. Jumtikoff began the manufacture

of the article on a large scale in 1828, after which year the Pyre-

thrum industry steadily grew, until to-day the export of the dried

flower-heads represents an important item in the revenue of those

countries,

Still less seems to be known of the discovery and history of the

Dalmatian species of Pyrethrum (P. cinerariefolium), but it is prob-

able that its history is very similar to that of the Asiatic species.

At the present time the Pyrethrum flowers are considered by far

the most valuable product of the soil of Dalmatia.

There is also very little information published regarding either

the mode of growth or the cultivation of Pyrethrum plants in their

Native home. As to the Caucasian species we have reasons to be-

lieve that they are not cultivated, at least not at the present time,

statements to the contrary notwithstanding! The well-known Dr.

ustav Radde, director of the Imperial Museum of Natural His-

tory at Tiflis, Traascaucasia, who is the highest living authority

©n everything pertaining to the natural history of that region,

Wrote us recently as follows: “The only species of its genus,

Pyrethrum roseum, which gives a good, effective insect powder, is

nowhere cultivated, but grows wild in the basal-alpine zone of our

mountains at an altitude of from 6000 to 8009 feet.” From this it

appears that this species, at least, is not cultivated in its native home,

and Dr. Radde’s statement is corroborated by a communication of

Mr, S. M. Hutton, Vice-Consul General of the U. S. at Moscow,

Russia, to whom we applied for seed of this species. He writ

that his agents were not able to get more than about half a pound

1 : _ :

Report Comm. of Patents, 1857, Agriculture, p. 130.

570 General Notes: [ July,

of the seed from any one person. From this statement it may

be inferred that the seeds have to be gathered from the wild and

not from the cultivated plants.

: Mr. Willemot calls his plant Pyréthre du caucase (P. Willemoti Duchartre),

it is more than probable that this is only a synonym of P. roseum. We have oF

liberally from Mr, Willemot’s paper on the subject, a translation of et

tee in the Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1861, Agric ‘

Pp: 223-331.

but

1881.] Entomology. 571

seeds are sown they are covered bya stratum of ground mixed

with some vegetable mould, when the roller is slightly applied to

it. Every five or six days the watering is to be renewed, in order

to facilitate the germination. At the end of about thirty or forty

days the young plants make their appearance, and as soon as they

have gained strength enough they are transplanted at a distance

of about six inches from each other, Three months after this

operation they are transplanted again at a distance of from four-

teen to twenty inches, according to their strength. Each trans-

plantation requires, of course, a new watering, which, however,

should only be moderately applied. The blossoming of the Pyre-

thrum commences the second year, toward the end of May, and

continues to the end of September.” Mr. Willemot also states

that the plant is very little sensitive to cold, and needs no shelter,

even during severe winters.

The above-quoted directions have reference to the climate of

France, and as the cultivation of the plant in many parts of North

America is yet an experiment, a great deal of independent judg-

ment must be used. The plants should be treated in the same man-

ner as the ordinary Asters of the garden or other perennial Com-

posite,

cient. When about a month old, weed carefully. They should

be transplanted to loamy soil during the rainy season of winter

Or spring.”

Our own experience with P. roseum as well as P. cineraria-

Solium in Washington, D. C., has been so far quite satisfactory.

ome that we planted Jast year in the fall came up quite well in

the spring and will perhaps bloom the present year. The plants

from sound seed which we planted this spring are also doing

finely, and as the soil is a rather stiff clay and the rains have been

many and heavy, we conclude that Mr. Willemot has overstated

the delicacy of the plants. |

In regard to manufacturing the powder, the flower heads

Should be gathered during fine weather when they are about to

572 General Notes, [July,

open, or at the time when fertilization takes place, as the essential oil

that gives the insecticide qualities reaches, at this time, its greatest

development. When the blossoming has ceased the stalks may

be cut within about four inches from the ground and utilized, be-

ing ground and mixed with the flowers in the proportion of one

third of their weight. Great care must be taken not to expose

the flowers to moisture, or the rays of the sun, or still less to

artificial heat. They should be dried under cover and hermeti-

cally closed up in sacs or other vessels to prevent untimely pul-

verization. The finer the flower-heads are pulverized the more

effectually the powder acts and the more economical is its use.

Proper pulverization in large quantities is best done by those who

make a business of it and have special mill facilities. Lehn &

Fink, of New York, have furnished us with the most satisfactory

powder. For his own use the farmer can pulverize smaller quan-

tities by the simple method of pounding the flowers in a mortar.

It is necessary that the mortar be closed, and a piece of leather

through which the pestle moves, such as is generally used in pul-

verizing pharmaceutic substances in a laboratory, will answer.

The quantity to be pulverized should not exceed one pound at a

time, thus avoiding too high a degree of heat, which would be

injurious to the quality of the powder. The pulverization being

deemed sufficient, the substance is sifted through a silk sieve,

and then the remainder, with a new addition of flowers, is put 19

the mortar and pulverized again. ;

The best vessels for keeping the powder are fruit jars with patent

covers or any other perfectly tight glass vessel or tin box.

In the next number we will give some account of the different

ways in which the powder may be used to destroy insects.

TREES ATTRACTIVE TO BuTTerFLiss.—Mrs, A. E. Bush, of San

José, Cal., writes: “I have been to Monterey, and was on

enough to see the ‘butterfly tree,’ or trees, as there are three ©

them. These trees are the Monterey pine (Pinus insignis Dougl.),

and are probably over one and a half feet in diameter, and coml-

pletely covered with live butterflies. To say that there were as

many butterflies as leaves upon the trees would not bea pot“

great exaggeration. I saw them in the morning when it was coo!

and they could not fly very well, and picked up a dozen from the

grass in a few seconds, A lady resident informed me that for the

twelve years she had lived there the appearance had been the

same.’ .

belonging to ten genera, all the genera but one occurrin ret

Great Britain. The list includes Vanessa antiopa, Pyramets ¢

1881.] Lntomotogy. . 573

dut, P. atalanta, Pieris oleracea, Argynnis atlantis, A. myrina, Van-

essa milbertit, Grapta faunus, Lycena lucia, Colias erytheme, var.,

keewaydin, Argynnis lapponica, A. tarquinius, A. bellona, Papilio

glaucus var. turnus, Limenitis arthemis var. lamina, and Phyciodes

tharos. Mr. Weir concludes his paper with the following re-

marks: “ The collection of which I have now given a description,

small as it is, is not wanting in interest. It is surprising to con-

template the time which must have elapsed since the three identi-

cal with European species had a common ancestor, and yet the

difference now existing is too slight to consider them even varie-

ties of each other. A former connection with Europe by the

Faroe islands, Iceland and Greenland no doubt existed, and during

one of the periods of mild Arctic climate the transmission of

species from one continent to another was effected. We are so in

the habit of calling this hemisphere the old world, that it does

not occur to us that it is just as likely that Vanessa antiopa passed

rom America to Europe, as that the converse was the case.”

Unfortunately the three species referred to ( Vanessa anttopa,

Pyrameis cardu and P. atalanta) are the very poorest that could

be chosen as indicating length of time required for variation of

forms that have become separated by wide expanse of ocean.

hey are cosmopolitan butterflies, all known to be capable of

extended flight, and it seems to us that the constancy they exhibit

in different quarters of the globe is explicable rather on frequent

and recent migration from one part of the world to another.

Trape IN InsEcrs.——It is a well known fact that sixty or more

years ago exorbitant prices were paid for rare insects, or at least

for species that were considered rare. Since that time the mar-

ket price for insects has been constantly on the decline, and at the

Present time a vast number of species of the two favorite orders,

Lepidoptera and Coleoptera, can be had through reliable dealers at

2£. macleayt, 3 E. cantori and 3 LE. hardwicku brought 48; gee

Ants Injurtous in Arizona.—Mr. H. H. Rusby, of Clifton,

Arizona, sends us a rather doleful account of the destruction

Wrought by ants in that Territory. He says the country 1s one

Vast ant colony, and that the ants prove the greatest drawback to

574 General Notes. [July,

successful agriculture in the more arable portions. Several spe-

cies seem to be thus troublesome, and until they are better known

and the habits of the different species studied, it will be impossi-

ble to suggest a rational mode of warfare against them.

Larv#& oF CoLeoprera.—Professor F. G. Schaupp continues,

in the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomological Society, his de-

scriptions of larve of Coleoptera. In No. 10, Vol. 111, of said

Bulletin, he gives a plate with illustrations representing the larve

of Platynus extensicollis, Chlenius leucoscelis, Pterostichus lucu-

blandus, P. mutus and Staphylinus vulpinus.

CoveRING OF EGG-PUNCTURE MISTAKEN FOR DorTHESIA.—In

hastily looking over the collection of the late Dr. Fitch recently,

we were somewhat amused to recognize the white and ribbed

waxy material covering the egg-punctures of Enchophyllum bino-

tatum \abeled as Dorthesia viburni and D. celasiri. This covering

does bear a superficial resemblance to the exudations of Dorthe-

sia, though a glance suffices to show that it has no structure con-

nected with it. We cannot find that any such species of Dor-

thesia were described by Fitch, though Glover refers to his Y.

celastri as found on Celastrus (Agricultural Report, 1876, p. 45):

Mr. Lintner, the present State entomologist of New York, thinks

that the species may possibly have been published in fugitive

articles in the Country Gentleman, but we have no means of ascer-

taining the facts.

Mr. H. Keenan, of Quaker City, Ohio, sends us the saw-fly,

Dolerus unicolor (Beauv.), the 2 of which is described as arvensis

by Say, with a statement of its injuries to the fruit buds of pear

trees by eating holes therein, the saw-flies occurring in vast num-

pee around the trees. This is the first case that has come to our

' Gentleman. Mr. J. Q. Adams, of Watertown, N. Y., writes to us

under date of May 24th, as follows:

“Many hill pastures hereabouts are being ruined by what is called the army worm

and while I cannot doubt but that it is pee by unt, cta from its work, still I wish

confirmation of the fact by an authority. My search in the fields has developed on ¥

a black headed, black spotted, smoky colored, naked worm that builds a nidus 0

1881.] Entomology. 575

own chips, which are pure green, and lives either close upon or below the surface of

the soil. I know what the mature army worm is like from my books, but I find no

mention of the immature larvae. If you will favor me with a line or pamphlet describ

ing the immature worm, you will help me out of the dilemma. Doubts suggest them-

seo because of the silken nidus which seems to me inconsistent with migratory

abits

It is con

fined to the limestone ridges and to pastures. Are all our other pastures in danger?

This is a dairy country and great harm will result if the work continues.”

There seems to have been considerable doubt as to whether

these worms were the true army worm or not. From specimens

that were forwarded to us by Mr. Lintner and Mr. Adams, it

would seem that there are two different species concerned in

the work. The principal and larger one is the larva of Neph-

élodes violans Guen. We have known the insect since 1871, an

it is tolerably common All over the eastern portion of the country.

Walsh refers to it in an unpublished note as being found in mead-

ows under stones at Rock Island, Ill. We have found it ona

number of occasions since 1871 in different parts of IJlinois and

Missouri, usually hiding under planks or stones or cow dung in

ineadows, but occasionally feeding some distance up on a grass

stalk, even in the hot sun. When at rest it is usually curled side-

wise and surrounded with its frass which is of a bright green

color. The larva is one of our largest cut-worms, distinguished

from all others by the pale amber-colored head and the bronzy

hue of the body; the pale dorsal and sub-dorsal stripes always

showing distinctly on the dark, highly polished cervical and anal

plates, It is referred to by Mr. G. H. French, of Carbondale, Ill,

in the Prairie Farmer for April, 1878, and also in Professor

Thomas’s 2d Report on the Insects of Illinois (7th State Report,

for 1877), pp. 99 and 220. We have also referred to it as taken

from the stomach of a blue-bird, in the American Entomologist

Vol. 111, p. 205. The larva is found of various sizes in the early

Spring, some being so large as to prove hibernation in this state,

larval hibernation being further established by the occurrence of the

Specimen in the stomach of a blue bird shot in March, and by our

having dug it up in a semi-torpid state last February in Virginia.

€ species may also hibernate, however, in the imago state, in

Which it is frequently captured in the winter, especially in the

Southern States. The very young larve are bright-green with

indications of the stripes which characterize the full-grown larva.

€ eggs have not yet been discovered. Pupation takes place in

a naked cell just beneath the surface, and not till June or there-

aiter even in Missouri, the moth issuing in the autumn.

he wide-spread appearance and injury of the species the pres-

ent Spr ing, furnishes an excellent illustration of the fact, that

Species which have never before been looked upon as injurious to

agriculture may suddenly become so. The insect has various

Parasites,

576 General Notes. [July,

We notice that Mr. Lintner, disregarding the popular name of

“ bronzy cut-worm,” by which we have characterized the larva,

proposes to call it the “ grass-cutter,” on the plea that the term

“worm” is, strictly speaking, used for the class Vermes, and

should be discarded from entomological nomenclature as apply-

ing to larve. Such ultra-refined reasoning, could it have any

following, would lead to absurd ends. Vulgar names rarely be-

come popular except as they come from the people, and should,

when coined by naturalists, be as far as possible specific of some

peculiarity that will permit recognition of the object. The term

“ grass-culter” is a gencral one ‘hat would equally fit (he army

worm, the Pyralid larva referred to by Mr. Adams, and dozens of

other Noctuid larva which are “ grass-cutters” and to which the

term “cut-worm” has been aptly applied. The term “ worm,” in

the entomological sense, comes from the people and is universally

employed by English writers, while its equivalent is employed

in t e same sense in French, German and other languages. To

undertake to eliminate it from the vernacular is to attempt an Ir

ide. We have also in past years found it in Missouri in pastures,

mostly under cow dung, but have not yet reared it to the image

state. It evidently played a considerable part in the injury.

referred to by Mr. Lintner, and was more common

Nephelodes in the fields referred to by Mr. Adams. It forms, for

transformation, among the grass roots, an elongate pod of silk

intermixed and covered on the outside with earth.

Without having seen the specimens it would have been safe to —

conclude that the reported injury was not from the true army

worm, which nevers appears, in destructive numbers, so early in

have shown no propensity to travel from field to field as does

it may be distinguished from the Leucania unipunctata, the lar-

Mo. Reputt, a

pp. 184-5. 2)

ee : ; est in

NEPHELODES VIOLANS—/arva : Larger specimens fully 1.9 inch long, large

middle of body and tapering slightly each Way, expecially toward anus. COT. c

ish bronze, the surface faintly corrugulate but polished, the piliferous spots © yale

A darker, highly polished cervical shield and anal plate. A medio-dorsal an@ 8°” —

1881.] Entomology. 577

dorsal stripe of a buff, or dull flesh-color, each stripe of about equal diameter,

(nearly 0.04 inch on middle joints) forming narrower, paler lines on the plates and

nearly converging on the anal plate; a similar but somewhat broader substigmatal

stripe which is wavy below; between sub-dorsal and stigmatal stripes a faintly indi-

e f

green, a

sub-polished, faintly translucent, pale dingy-olive, the jaws, and som

mouth-parts, darker. Legs and prolegs of same pale olive color, the latter with a

black band at outer base. Stigmata black.

he young larva is green but early shows the pale stripes. When about one third

grown the general hue is olive-green with the cervical and anal plates but little darker.

The head is pale, greenish, faintly freckled and with a few dark hairs; the suture:

he narrower supra-stigmal line are very pale, greenish-

yellow, the broader sub-stigmatal stripe of a clearer cream-yellow with a faint car-

int.

hown to me when full grown by the pale, immaculate head (recalling cofal) and the

polished, bronzy or umber color of body. The upper strives are often obsolete or sub-

i bo r

tna]

Ln J

vad

ie]

°o

—

Micration OF BurrerFLies.—Under date of June 2, Dr. J. H.

Mellichamp, of Bluffton, S. C., sends the following interesting

day and to- ay. Savannah (Ga.) is west or south west of this place, and I am in-

: ee . the

ae at a long distance, and they come along in twos, and threes, and fours and

tise m a greater number—going steadily east or north-east—seldom stopping

. a darkey would say!), but occasionally alighting on a weed, or

me th shy and wary and very difficult to capture. A colored man said to

stand ghey came in his field “like a swarm of bees,’ and that he “ just pongias

iny longer—! : . > th es he

and came See my ft never saw such a thing in my life,”’—-and so droppe .

CLASSIFICATION OF THE Mires.—In a recent letter Dr. G. Hal-

ne : Bern, Switzerland, already well known through his studies

VOL. XV.—No, vir, 40

578 General Notes. [July,

known, two pairs of abdominal, as well as cephalothoracic, legs.

He does not consider that they belong to the Arachnida, with

which they have been hitherto placed, but that they are much

more nearly allied to the Crustacea, from which they differ, of

course, in breathing through trachez instead of gills. He be-

lieves they must form a fifth class of Arthropods equivalent to

Crustacea, Myriapoda, Arachnida and Hexapoda.

CARRYING OUT THE LAaw.—The British Parliament passed, in

1877, an act providing for the imposition of a fine for the person

who should import living specimens of the Colorado potato-beetle.

That this act did not remain an empty letter is proven by the fol-

lowing case: In February of this year it came to the knowledge

of the authorities that a man in Devonshire had in nis possession

living specimens of the Doryphora, which he had brought over

from America, and which he refused to give up. The man was

immediately tried, convicted and fined 45, notwithstanding he

proved that he had meanwhile killed the beetles. The Devon-

shire farmers are said to be much dissatisfied at the small amount

of the fine, the maximum penalty fixed by law being 410.

Locusts 1v Mexico 1x 1880—We are indebted to Dr. E.

Palmer, for the following data concerning the appearances of

locusts of unknown species in Mexico last autumn. They appeared

during October at Chihuahua, at Saltillo and at Parras. At Saltillo

they attacked the winter wheat, which was sufficiently advanced

‘to be injured by them.—A. S. Packard, Fr.

Erratum.—A rather annoying error crept into the article on

Cicada in the last.number. On page 481, line fourteen, from

bottom, “1860” should be “ 1660,” that being the year of the

last simultaneous appearance of the two broods that appear this

year. ;

ANTHROPOLOGY .!

ARCHEOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN NICARAGUA.—Number 383 at

The geology and natural scenery of the island, the lake, eG

the surrounding country, are so graphically described that

1 Edited by Prof. Oris T. Mason, Columbian College, Washington, D. C-

1881.] Anthropology. 579

reader will have no trouble in following the narrative and in catch-

ing the relation between the sites explored and their environment.

The hacienda of Don José Angel Luna having been placed at the

author’s disposal in 1876, most of the work was done in that vi-

cinity. To reach the burial vessels it was necessary to dig down

through a layer of light ash and volcanic cinder, a second of old

lava much decomposed, a third of gritty ash, to the fourth, of black

sand similar to that now forming the neighboring beach. Pottery,

beads, shells, human bones, etc., the necessary concomitants of

such a site, were found in abundance. The great interest of the

exploration, however, and the vrazson a’étre of the book are the

burials jars, some globose, others with wide flaring mouths, but

the greater number belonging to the unique shoe-shaped burial

urns of coarse red material, over the mouth of which were placed

delicate bowls of thin yellow ware elaborately painted.

To the description of the covers which are called Luna ware,

especially to the elucidation of the designs upon the exterior and

the interior surface, Dr. Bransford gives the greatest attention.

It is very much to be regretted that his artist is so far behind

him ; indeed, in a few instances, has omitted from the drawing the

very features alluded to in the text. Itisa grave fault of nearly

all who attempt to illustrate savage technique that things are rep-

resented more regular and beautiful than they really are. In this

instance, however, the picture falls very far beneath the reality.

The two plates of photolithographs at the end are worse still,

the objects seeming to be blurred and out of focus,

nected with the South Americans than with Nahuas and Mayas

of Mexico and Guatemala. ” ;

‘s The volume closes with a minute list of Dr. Bransford’s collec-

tion, giving over 1500 entries.

580 General Notes. [July,

Wi11p Rice In Europe.—The Zizania aquatica, or wild rice,

grows very extensively in many parts of the United States, and

being a wholesome food-plant, has been, and is still one of the most

important food articles of the Indians of the Mississippi plains.

he Menomonees are named after it and were formerly called by

the French “ Folles Avoines.”

Norse Mytnotocy.—The traveler in Switzerland passing from

one village to another finds himself ever and anon at the foot of

a glacier, where he beholds in the weird cathedral outlines the

crystallized remains of the soft and plastic snow,—in its high

: r or

—— Edda (poetry) and the Younger or Snorre’s Edda (prose).

1881. ] Anthropology. 581

Vale (brother of Balder), Uller, Forsete (the peacemaker), and Loke

(the evil giant-god). The goddesses are twenty-six in number.

Odin’s hall is the great Valhal. The tree Ygdrasil, striking its

roots through all worlds, spreading its life-giving arms through

the heavens, and furnishing bodies for mankind from its branches

is beautifully described (188, and 205). The second part of the

volume, 215-409, constitutes a perfect classical dictionary of

Norse mythology, adding to its richness of detail the enthusiasm

of intense sympathy.

The final destruction of the world, and regeneration of gods

and men, is called Ragnarak. This theoktonic myth is wanting

in Greek mythology. Ragnarak is an outbreak of all the chaotic

powers, a conflict between them and the established order of crea-

ion

The student of comparative mythology, upon taking a work of

this class in his hand, almost instinctively asks what the author

will do with his body of myths. It is possible to run any theory

to extremes and to say some very silly things, as Tylor and Bar-

ing Gould have shown us. Here is the point where the sympa-

thetic reader trembles for his author. Professor Anderson, while

taking the nature view of Norse mythology, handles the subject

with extreme caution. The myth reflects nature and society, the

One inextricably in communion with the other. The harsh cli-

mate of the North modified not only the Norse mythology, but

also molded indefinitely the national character, and then the two

acted and reacted upon each other

the name of Dr. Samuel H. Barlow, of New York, and Dr. N.

oe Bradner, of Philadelphia, dated July, 1873. The characters

Purport to be Hebrew letters, and the inscriptions cover the four

es of a truncated pyramid. The story of the finding of the

Precious relic is briefly told by Col. Whittlesey, and calls to mind

a remark made by Professor Dawkins to the editor of these notes

during his visit to America last autumn: “ Is it not too bad,” said

the learned cave-hunter, “that the question of veracity should be

raised at the very threshold of an important investigation, to cast

a cloud of doubt over all future work. And yet we are constantly

582 General Notes. [July,

troubled with it in England, nor are you quite free from it in

America.” The thanklessness of the task of showing up frauds

should not deter those who are ina position to do the work

effectively, should be no discouragement to those who hold the

truth above all ephemeral theories.

AMERICAN PHILosopHicaL Society.—In the Proceedings of the

Am. Philos. Soc., 1880, but four papers appear bearing at all upon

our theme:

Some recent discoveries of Stone Implements in Africa and Asia, by Henry Phil-

ips, Jr.

On Dr. Valentini’s Critique of Landa’s Maya Alphabet, by J. P. Lesley.

On a kitchen heap at Saltville, in Southwestern Virginia, by C. Lewis.

Note on an engraved disk from Guatemala, by Mr. Dubois.

CRUISE OF THE CoRWIN IN BEHRING SEA AND THE ARCTIC

Ocran.—Document No. 118 of the Treasury Department, Nov.

1, 1880, is a Report of the cruise of the U.S. revenue steamer

Corwin, commanded by Captain C. L. Hooper, U.S.R.M., in the

Behring sea and the Arctic ocean. In addition to the customary

Capt. Hooper gave a great deal of attention to ethnological re-

search. The sad story is told of the starvation of several whole

villages on St. Lawrence island, indeed over four hundred natives

had died in this manner upon this one island in two years. e

author attributes the great mortality to the improvidence caused

by whisky. It seems rather heartless, but really, four hundred

skeletons, or even crania, of this homogeneous group of people,

would be a precious acquisition to any museum. o

CHAVERO, ALFREDO—Historias de las Indias de Nueva Espana

y Islas de tierra firme. Por El Padre fray Diego Duran, Religios©

de la Orden de Predicadores (Escritor del Siglo, xv1). Ape

Explicacion del Cédice Geroglefico de Mr. Aubin. Por Alfredo

Chavero, Secretario perpetues de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geo-

grafia y Estradistica. 16 plates. 3

Tue Vicroria Instirure—The handsome volumes of this

society have reached the fourteenth number. The follow

papers are valuable in our field of study: The ethnology of 4 :

Pacific, by the Rev. S. J. Whitmee, with a map showing the of

‘tribution of races and all the results of the latest discoveries ;

The Druids and their religion, by J. E. Howard; The evidence

the later movements of elevation and depression in the British

Isles, by Professor T. Mck. Hughes; The religion and mythology

of the Aryans of Northern Europe, by R. Brown.

ConGress oF AMERICANISTS.—The fourth meeting of the Saal

national Congress of Americanists will be held in Madrid, Ke

pt. 18-20, 1881, under the protection of King Alfonso ee G

neat little 16mo pamphlet of 72 pages, published by Manua bo |

Hernandez, of Madrid, contains full directions for those W

would take part in the proceedings. .

1881.] Anthropology. 583

ANTHROPOLOGY OF THE East InpiEs.—The Journal of the

Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland was founded

interesting to notice how the old standard periodicals are becom-

ing infused with the latest subjects of anthropologic research. The

number contains papers on the Indian Theistic Reformers, on the

Kawi language and literature, on the Nirvana of the Northern

Buddhists, and the Invention of the Indian alphabet,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—

America y Oceanica. Documentos de America: Coleccion de documentos inédi-

ig S. C. riggs © I vol., 8vo, 1879.. By rhe same author an pub-

lisher. **The Younger Edda;” « Viking ines of the North;” “ Fridthjof’s

Saga ;” and “ America not discovered by Col

PE tae uence of the Aryans upon the Gioricinal speech of India., Am.

Antiquarian, Jan. 1881, 6 pp.

Bawavur, Parcs oe Mirra RAt—On the Age of the Ajanta Caves. F Joy.

As. Soc., X\1, 126, 1

Birarp, A.—Les races re ae et les grandes explorations du globe. Rouen, Me-

jard, 1880, ~ Pp. 392.

igre H.—Oregon and her prehistoric relics. Am. Antiquarian, Jan.,

Bursripce, F. W.—The Gardens of the Sun; or, a Naturalist’s Journal on the

Mountains and in the Forests and Swamps of Borneo and the Sulu Archipelago.

y i 8, 1881.

Butter, W. F.—The Boers and the Transvaal. Contemp. Rev., Feb., 1881.

Chinese Linguistic Study, The Progress of—7Zrubner’s Literary Record, 1,11 & 12.

eo Rev. R. H.—Notes on the customs of Mota, Banks islands. With

Re s by o Rev. Lorimer Fison. Zr. Roy. Soc. of Victoria. Vol. xvi,

Damant, G. H.—Loca sony and poration . the tribes dwelling between the

Brakmaputra and Ningthi river. ¥. Roy, As. Soc., Xtt, 228, 1880.

Dawson, J. W.—The antiquity of man and <aigs origin of species. Kansas C. Rev.,

Jan. ‘and Feb., 1881, (From the Prisca on Rev.). 6 and §

RMAN, R/ M.—The origin of — ciiliiok Philadelphia, J. B. Lip-

Pincott & Co., 1881. Ill. 8vo

URAND, Se on she Islands and Antiquities of Bahrein. ¥. Roy. As.

Edinburgh, Andrew Elliot 1880, 12mo. Origina gta ne nation.

ny Aga geologic evidence of the antiquity of man. Christian Month.,

FAIDHERgE, bash on aee Sarakhole ou Soninke., Xev. Linguistique, Jan., 17 pp-

erst —What we learn from old Aryan words. Atlantic Month. April, 1881,

Pp- : la.

F Is0x, L., and A. W. Howrrr—Kamilaroi and Kurnai grou Lae slap fia x

tio nshi ip; &c. With introduction by Lewis H. Morgan. in vo. 1501.

584 General Notes. [July,

FRERE, we BARTLE—The — rose the Constitution of the Cape of Good Hope.

Nineteenth Cent., Jan., 1881,

ion: PHO ELE ds Spten to sak history of the Development of the Human

e. Translated from the German by David Asher, Ph.D. Vol. xx, Eng. &

Pavia Philos. Library.

GEIKIE, JAMEs—Prehistoric Europe : a Geological Sketch. With Maps and IIL, Ore:

Gomm_, G. L.—Some traditions and superstitions connected with buildings. Arti-

Hamy, Dr. E.—Rapport sur le développement des collections ethnographiques ap-

partenant au Ministére de 1’Instruction publique.

Hitt, Rev. Dr, THomas—The souls of plants and animals. Science, Feb. 12

Hoveacque, A,.—Langue mene etudiée sous le rapport de l’evolution des forte

Rev Bigpaitine, Jan., 39 pp.

Husparp, J. G.—A census of Religions. Nineteenth Cent., Jan. 1881, 14 pp.

pipe Dr.—Aide Mémoire du Voyageur. Zurich, Wurster et Ge 1881.

KraneE, A. H.The Indo- _phfe tee and pes Races. Types and Affinities. Na-

hive, Dec. 30, 1880, e¢ seg.

KNIGHTON, W.—Savage el in India. Contemp. Rev., March, 1881.

gees Ak 7 antan Traditions respecting their Origin. Kansas C. Rev., March,

ear et HELEN ee we oe education at Hampton and Carlisle. Hl. Harpers

April, 1881, 17 p d

ely janes—The Religions of Si, Confucianism and Taoism described an

compared with Christianity.

Luspock, Str JoHN—Observations on are ts, Bees and Wasps: Power of heyer

"cation by something segs Bee ot (Abstract of a — read

the Linnzan “a i 17, 1880.) Nature, Jan, 13, 1881 ic

MacLean, Rev. J. P.—A study of seat Or Archeology. I. The literature ia t

subject. Thdotpsalese Our, Jan., 1881, 22 pp. i

McCurpy, J. F po gaied of the Aryan ia Semitic Languages, Bibiiothes

Sacra, Jan., 1881, 31

rarest F. Witenes os on ‘die Libyan Languages. ¥. Roy. As. Soc., XM, 417;

NORTHBROOK, EARL OF—The Natives of India. Frazer's Mag., ae a

PeAL, S, E.—Pile Dwellings, [In farther India.] Masure, Jan. 6 sited

plgaer = SIR Ee —The Aryan village in India and Ceylon. sade ‘ieee

Co.

Poor, tlke ie —Sanskrit and its kindred Literatures: Studies in Com-

parative Mythology. Boston, Roberts Bros., 1880. i

PorTER, best SAMUEL—Is thought possible widont speech? Princeton Reviei

an., 188

Riess oe 7 A. StuBEL—Necropolis of Ancon in Peru, Part 1, served. assis,

Suny Jose Dictionary st —— relating to America, from its discovery to the

esent time, Parts Lxxv, a

Sento ade Les Oiseaux Savages: Dictons, Formulettes et Superstitions.

, 18 pp.

_SPITZKA, Dr. E. = Co on the anatomy of the Encephalon, notably of the 8

glion. Science, Jan. 15, 1881.

Varicny, H. Pap ai lacelication: Pop. Sc. Month., Max., 1881, 11 PP- 880.

Vinson, J.—La Scie u Langage et les Etudes Dravidiennes en pee

Rev. Lin, tense rieoy a 1881, 21 pp. %

Verukla Language, as spoken in a, A brief sketch of the. Madras

of Lit. and Sci. » 1879. ae

1881.] Geclogy and Paleontology. 585

GEOLOGY AND PALASONTOLOGY.

Fossits OF THE Iowa Logss.—The loess of Iowa is, for the

major part, limited to the extreme western and south-western

portions of the State. The counties of Fremont and Mills are

entirely, while those of Page, Pottawattamie, Harrison, Monona

and Woodbury, are partially covered by this deposit. Professor

Witter has discovered it under and about the city of Muscatine,

on the Mississippi river, but as the following list is the result of

personal observations, it will be limited to those portions studied

formation, was all deposited during the same period, had the

Same origin, and the geographical extent of its deposition is too

limited, by far, to admit of such radical differences of climate that

tropical and sub-tropical forms should be found on one side of

the M issouri river, but fail to appear in the same formation on the

Opposite side.

During occasional visits to the bluffs of loess that border the

Missouri in the counties of Fremont and Mills, the following

Species of Mollusca have been found, some of them in fair abund-

ance when the nature of the deposit is considered, while others

are of extreme rarity: Hyalina arborea Say, H. indentata Say,

1. minuscula Binney, Stenctrema monodon Rack., Helitodiscus line-

atus Anth., Conulus fulvus Drap., Strobila labyrinthica Say, Patula

alternata Say, P. striatella Anth., Mesodon clausa Say, M. pro

funda Say, M. multilineata Say, M. thyroides Say, M. albolabris

Say, Vallonia pulchella Mill., Macrocyclis concava Say, Pupa

Pentodon Say, P. armifera Say, Succinea obliqua Say, S. ovalts

y, and perhaps one or two other species of Pupa not satisfactorily

determined, This list comprises all the land shells found. The

586 General Notes. {July,

varieties belonging to the fresh-water fauna are less numerous,

though they occur in perhaps greater relative abundance, Limnea

being the genus most numerously represented. The kinds found

were /Yelicina oculata Say, Pomatiopsis lapidaria Say, Limnea hu-

milts Say, L. reflexa Say, L. caperata Say, Physa heterostropha Say,

Planorbis trivolvis Say, Segmentina armigera Say, Valvata tricart-

nata Say, Spherium striatinum Lam., and an occasional fragmen

ot Anodonta (?). The last has-never been found in a sufficiently

well preserved condition to make a sure generic classification.

No remains of Unio have ever come under my notice. €

nature of the sediment composing the loess, together with the

habits of the genera above indicated, all of which inhabit com-

paratively still and shallow waters, will enable us to gain a fairly

correct idea of the conditions under which the deposit was

formed. These lists ah do i they can to determine the

origin of the loess, which, so far as their individual testimony goes,

was lacustral.—R. Ev/sworth Call, Des Moines, lowa.

Tue RopentiA oF THE AMERICAN Mrocene.—The following

catalogue shows the affinities of the members of the order Roden-

tia found hitherto in the White river, Truckee and Loup Fork

horizons of the Miocene:

i Picante tot Squirrels.

Sciurus vortmani re Pal. Bull. 31, p. 1 oe Tru ‘vel

Sciurus relictus Cope (Pa ete New Vertebr. Cotarado, 175, p. 3. White river.

Sciurus ballovianus Cope ; Bullet, U. S, Geol. Surv. Ter , 4581. 2 uckee

Gymnoptychus minutus a Pal. Bull. No. 16, p. 6, “oak “White river.

Gymnopiychus trilophus Cope; Pal. Bull., No. 16, p. 6, 1873. White river.

Meniscomys hippodus Cope; Pa 1. Bull., No. 30, p. 5, 1878. Truckee.

Rbncauays liolophus Cope; Rept. U. : Geol. Surv. Terrs., tv, MS. Truckee.

Meniscomys cavatus Cope; ‘Rept. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1v, MS. Truckee.

Meniscomys nitens Marsh; Am. Journ, Sci. Arts, ie 1877. Truckee.

Ischyronys typus Leidy; Ext. Fauna 0% Nebr 1869, 335- _. White river.

Cast

tor peninsulatus Cope, Report U. S. ove a spin rv. — 1v, MS. Truckee.

care gradatus Cope Ccnsies. Pal. Bull., 30, p. 1878. Truckee. 38.

— Cast lic sabanaiancs Leidy (Stencofiber) ; Ext. ‘Mamm. Da. Nebr., ee Eo

Castor pansus Cope; Report U.S. Expl. Surv. W. of 100 Mer., IV, P- soe 1077

Eucastor tortus Leidy; Ext. Mamm. Dak., sal ., 1869, p. 341. Loup Fork.

MYLAGA as

Baines wees sesquipedalis Cope; Bull. U. 'y an Surv. Terrs. 1873, P- 384- ye

Slytelpinahes: monodon Cope; Rept. U. S. vere Surv., Iv, MS. Loup Fork.

Heliscomys velus Cope; Synopsis New thee Eileradé 1873, p- 3 White river.

MYOMORPHA. Mice, etc.

Mur mph

Padiys elegans Leidy; Ext. Mamm. Dak., , 1869, p. 342. White river.

Hesperomys nematodon Cope; Pal. Bull., a 31, p Is £870) Truckee.

—

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 587

Hesperomys loxodon Cope ; Report U. S. Expl. Surv. W. of tooth Mer., Iv, p. 300.

Loup Fork.

Paciculus insolitus Cope; Pal. Bull., No. 31, p. 2, 1879. Truckee.

Paciculus lockingtonianus Cope; Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1881, p. 176.

Truckee.

GEOMYID

Entoptychus planifrons Cope; Pal. Bull., No

fE.

» NO. 3

Entoptychus lambdoideus Cope; Report U. S

0, p. 3, 1878. Truckee.

. Geol. Survey, Terrs., Iv, MS.

Truckee.

Entoptychus minor Cope; Report U.S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., Iv, MS. Truckee.

Entoptychus cavifrons Cope; Pal. Bull., No. 30, p. 2, 1878. Truckee.

Ln 7 7

urolt I é

Pleurelicus leptophrys Cope; Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1vV, MS. Truckee.

Pleurolicus diplophysus Cope; Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs.,1v, MS. Truckee.

HYSTRICOMORPHA.

YSTRICIDZ.

Hystrix venustus Leidy ; Ext. Mamm. Dak., Nebr., 1869, p. 343. Loup Fork.

LAGOMORPHA. Rabbits.

LEPORID#.

Panolax sanctefidei Cope; Report U. S. Expl. Surv. W. of tooth Mer., Iv, p. 296.

Loup Fork.

Paleolagus agapetillus Cope; Pal. Bull., No. 15, p. 1, 1873. White river.

anatase Soy haydeni Leidy; Ext. Mamm. Dak., Nebr., 18069, p. 331. Truckee and

ite river

Paleolagus turcidus Cope; Pal. Bull, No. 16, p. 14, 1873. White river.

Paleolagus triplex Cope; Pal. Bull., No. 16, p. 14, 1873. White river.

Lepus ennisianus Cope; Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terrs., 1v, MS. Truckee.

SUMMARY,

Genera. Species.

Seainr, { L 8 17

Myomorpha syste ess aerate: aes 5 13

Hystrico pl sees ee eee eeeeeere oe “eee 0 ® eer eee eee I I

Lagomorpha, : i eet | 6

Wo 8

—F, D, Cope.

A new Cuipastes From New Jersey.—Professor Samuel Lock-

wood, of Rutgers College, recently discovered part of the skele-

plays other points of resemblance to the known species of Cii-

dastes, as the narrow articular surfaces of the lateral joint of the

lower jaw, the slender dentary bone and the very robust agnor

: re

sixteen teeth and alveole on the portion preserved, and there

Were probably two or three others on the lost portion. The

— 588 General Notes. | [July,

teeth differ from those of the known species in their subcircular

instead of lenticular section. The middle teeth have fore and aft

cutting edges, and are not faceted. The anterior teeth have no

posterior cutting edge, and resemble in form those of latecarpus.

The enamel in all is smooth. The coracoid has a deep fissure

extending towards the foramen. The humerus is wider distally

than it islong. There are eight cervical vertebrz preserved, in-

cluding the atlas and axis. The articular faces of the centra of

these are a little wider than deep, and subcordate in form. The

articular surfaces of the dorsals are relatively a little deeper, but

are distinctly depressed. A distal caudal is also wider than deep,

and of subquadrate outline. The chevron bones are codssified.

Probable length of dentary bone m, .620; depth of do, at fifth

tooth from behind .077; diameters of crown of eighth tooth from

behind, anteroposterior .o18, transverse .016; diameters of cup ©

a cervical vertebrez, vertical .056, transverse, .066; do. of a dorsal,

vertical .058, transverse .066. Length of humerus .130; distal

width .160. Width of coracoid .225.

The species may be called Clidastes conodon.—E. D. Cope.

THE INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL ConGREss.—The International

Geological Congress, which held its first session at Paris, in 1879,

will meet again in Bologna, on the 26th September next under

the presidency of M. Sella. Its success is assured by the gener

ous liberality of the King of Italy, its protector. During the

congress a geological exposition will be opened, for which Wy

rtant material has been sent. Professor M. Capellini of the

University of Bologna, president of the committee on orgamiza-

tion, will distribute the programme for the coming session, com

prising different excursions of much interest to Imola, Poretta,

arrara, Pisa and Florence. The report of the international com-

mission appointed in 1878 for the preparation of simplified ae

logical nomenclature and conventional signs for the charts w!

also be addressed to the subscribers. The last question is open for

competition, for which the king has set aside prizes awarded ny

jury. The memoirs for this competition must be in the hands ©

-Gaupry ON STEREORHACHIS.—Professor Gaudry exhibited to

the French Academy of Sciences, May 16, a block of the ay

mian of Igornay containing the bones of the Saurian named i

him Stercorhachis dominans. It is the finest specimen of a 4¥4

1881.] Geology and Palecntology. 589

rupedal animal yet found in a Paleozoic formation. The size of

the specimens readily permits study of the curious scales formed

like spines, which cover the belly in this species, the Euchirosau-

rus and the Actinodon. When these animals turned upon their

backs, they presented these scales, and a strong entosternum and

episterna, all supported by strong ribs, and were unassailable.

Ditier’s FELsires oF THE ReGion oF Boston.—A Geological

Series of the Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy of

Harvard University has been commenced, the second number of

the volume being an essay on the felsites and the associated rocks

north of Boston, by J. S. Diller.

Grotocicat News.—The Journal of the Geological Society of

London for January, 1881, contains several articles of unusual

interest. First is a paper on the structure of the spiral arms in

several families of the Brachiopoda, by Thos. Davidson, which is

largely based on specimens worked out very beautifully by the

ev. Norman Glass. Secondly, Descriptions of some specimens

of pterodactyles of the genus Ornithochirrus from the Cambridge

pper Greensand, by Professor H. G. Seeley. Third, The rela-

tion of the Escharoid forms of Oélitic Polyzoa, by F. D. Longe,

F.G.S. Fourth, New species of fossil fishes from the Black band

iron stone near Edinburgh, by Dr. Traquair. In the number

of the Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society for

January—June, 1881, Professor J. J. Stevenson gives an account of

the geology of the south-western counties of Virginia. Professor

Cope publishes a systematic analysis of the families and genera

of the Perissodactyla, and of the species of Zriplopide ; also a

note on the structure of the hind foot of Zexodon, which he finds

to refer the Zoxodontide near to or among the Proboscidea.-

Miss Agnes Crane, of Brighton, England, author of various

palzontological papers, is at present traveling in this country

accompanied by her father. Professor Weatherby, of Cin-

cinnati, has recently discovered, in Kentucky, some huge crinoids

fclspathic granite of very coarse texture in the Laurentian forma-

ion, : :

Wagon loads. The sheets sometimes measure three or four feet in

diameter, ;

590 General Notes. [July,

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS!

AFRICAN Exptoration.—The April number of the Royal Geo-

graphical Society’s Proceedings notices an interesting report

received by the London Missionary Society from their mis-

sion at Mtowa, on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika, in

Northern Uguha, concerning the country and its people. Uguha

is divided by the Lukuga river into two districts, northern and

southern. Northern Uguha has a population of probably from

15,000 to 20,000, and the largest village is Ruanda, with from 500

to 600 houses. Mtowa, near which the missionaries have settled,

isa village of the average size, containing ninety houses and some

300 inhabitants. It is enclosed by a semi-circle of hills, which

start from Southern Ugoma, trend inland for some distance, and

reach the lake shore at Cape Kahangwa. Beyond these hills

stretches the plain of Ruanda, watered by several small streams,

of which the Lugumba is the only one of importance. The do-

mestic animals of Uguha are goats, sheep and fowls, but some of

their chiefs possess pigeons obtained from Marungu or Ujjji. The

only cattle are those belonging to the mission, though some are

occasionally brought across the lake to be taken into the interior.

There are said to be numerous wild animals in the hills to the

to precedence in the arrangement of the houses, the fear Se -

slaves, living in one part and the Wabangt, or freemen, in another.

1 Edited by Exuis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

1881.] Geography and Travels. 591

The latter have elders, or Watwita, who represent them in the

council of the e

On the outside the houses appear like beehives, but the inside

walls are perpendicular and some four feet high. From these

walls springs the roof, the center of which is ten or twelve feet

from the ground, but there is no center post, and the rafters are

simply fastened by rings of cane from the center downwards, On

the outside, grass is laid very thickly and made to reach the ground,

The interior is kept scrupulously clean by the women, and order

appears to prevail in the arrangement of everything.

The trade of the country consists chiefly of ivory from Urua,

Ubudjwe and other districts and in home-grown corn. Of late

years the men have shown a disposition to travel, visiting Unyan-

yembe and even Bagamoyo and Zanzibar, Some go as porters

in Arab caravans and others on ventures of their own.

Further interesting details are given concerning the domestic

life, musical instruments, modes of burial and religious notions of

the Waguha.

At the meeting of the Berlin Geographical Society, held on

March 5, 1881, it was announced that several letters had been

received from Dr. E. unker, who at the commencement of

ast year undertook at his own expense a second voyage to

Africa, for the purpose of exploring those portions of Central

Africa first made known to us by the travels of Dr. Schweinfurth.

The most recent of these letters was dated from the Monbuttu

country, September 1, 1880. After a lengthened sojourn at Mes-

chera-el-Rek, on the banks of the Bahr-el-Gazal, Dr. Junker had

5 territory of the Mangballa, a day’s journey north of the Welle.

592 General Notes. [July,

On April tst the French Geographical Society gave a recep-

tion to Dr. Lenz, on his return from Timbuktu. The suc-

cessful traveler gave some interesting details on the present

condition of Timbuktu. Its houses are built of brick, and the

population is now only 20,000. It has greatly decayed, and the

inhabited part of the town is surrounded by great spaces covered

with ruins, There are numerous schools and rich libraries. Dr.

learned men of the city held with his interpreter. The commen-

taries on the Koran formed the only subject of conversation. Tim-

buktu is united with the Niger three miles off by a series of lakes

formerly canals, Dr. Lenz has also made some interesting ob-

servations on the Sahara, tending to confirm the conclusions of

Rohifs and other recent scientific travelers, as to the variety which

is to be met with in the great desert. It is really a plateau about

300 meters in altitude, no part of it being below the level of the

sea. Granite hills, sandy plains, shallow lakes, fertile oases alternate

over nearly the whole surface, while beasts of prey are rarely to

be met with. Dr. Lenz does not advocate the construction of a

railroad from the Niger to Algeria.

No fewer than seven different languages are spoken on om

side of Lake Nyassa, which is only 350 miles in length, an

natives from the southern end cannot understand those at the

northern.

tire absence of Arabs. The Wabikari, who live near where “v

missionaries are settled, have shown themselves well dispose¢,

though they have the reputation of being thieves and enemies to

all strangers. They were anxious for the party to settle among

them on their arrival, but, the Bikari district lying low, it ..

thought wiser to occupy the right bank of the Murembue, whic

appeared a healthier site.

After the completion of seventy or eighty miles, i ie

from Dar-es-Salaam to Lake Nyassa has been tempornney

discontinued. Its superintendent is now employed by he ee

tan of Zanzibar exploring the neighboring region. +45 prs

has already,had an excellent, even marvelous, effect upo? *~

1881.] Geography and Travels. 593

natives. Dr. Kirk, of Zanzibar, has recently passed over it for

some forty miles in company with a naval officer. He reports

that it is now quite safe for unarmed travelers, although but

two or three years ago no one would have ventured in the

neighborhood without a large escort.

The Academy states that “ one of the objects of Mr. Jas. Stewart's

late visit to the head of Lake Nyassa was to ascertain how far the

mbwe lagoon cou Id b d ilable as a harbor for the mission-

ary steamer from Livingstonia. During his investigations he made a

curious discovery with regard to the River Rukuru, which until

about two years ago flowed through the lagoon. He found that this

river had changed its course, and that its former bed had silted up

and is now even higher than the surrounding ground. This un-

usual occurrence he accounts for in the following way: During

the rainy season the country is under water for miles, so the Ru-

kuru flowed in a course marked by reeds and had for its banks the

standing water of its own overflow. The heavy sand was rolled

down the channel from the higher ground and deposited over its

whole length until it was raised to such a height that the current

was forced into another channel. In further explanation it should

be mentioned thatthe Rukuru, in the last fifteen miles of its course,

winds through precipitous valleys and falls upwards of 2000 feet,

washing far into the lake large quantities of blueish-gray silt.”

road between Lake Nyassa and Tanganyika is projected.

The Atheneum states that ‘‘ two important maps bearing upon the

aid of Africa have been published in the JJzthetlungen.

ond map, almost equally important, exhibits Dr. Junker’s journey

up the Khor Baraka, from its mouth to the south of Suakin, as

ern Palestine. It is estimated that the work will take five years

to accomplish, Mr. Leigh Smith expects to pay another visit

to Franz-Josef Land this summer. In an appendix to Captain

VoL, 4r =

594 General Notes. (uly,

Markham’s “ Polar Reconnaisance,” Sir Joseph Hooker, in treat-

ing of the botanical specimens collected in this voyage to Novaya

Zemlya observes: ‘Comparing, then, the floras of the three

high Arctic meridians of Novaya Zemlya, lat. 70°-77°, long. E.

60° ; Spitzbergen, lat. 7614°-8014°, long. E. 20° ; West Greenland

and Smith’s Sound, &c., lat. 71°-82°, long., W.60°—70°, we find that

they present great differences, Greenland being the most remark-

able: 1. From the number of species of European types it con-

tains which there reach so very high a parallel. 2. From differ-

ing more in its flora from Spitzbergen and Novaya Zemlya than

these do from one another; and, 3, From the absence of Arctic

Leguminose, Caltha and various other plants that extend eise-

where around the Arctic circle. These facts favor the conclusion

which I have expressed in the Appendix to Sir George Nare’s

Narrative (11, 307), that the distribution of plants in the Arctic

regions has been meridional, and that their subsequent spreat

eastward and westward has not been sufficient to obliterate the

evidence of this prior direction of migration. To this conclusion

I would now add that whereas there is no difficulty in assuming

that Novaya Zemlyaand the American Polar Islands have been pe

pled with plants by migration from the south, no such assumption

will explain the European character of the Greenland, and espe

cially the high Northern Greenland vegetation, the main features

of which favor the supposition that it retains many plants which

arrived from Europe by a route that crossed the Polar area. itself

when that area was under geographical and climatal conditions

which no longer obtain.”——In a lecture delivered recently be-

gated by doses of ten grains of chlorate of potash every two OF

three hours. After suffering for several days on Chimborazo,

during which he persevered and ascended to a height of 17,499

feet, his condition improved, and finally he was restored to his —

normal state, so that after a residence of seventeen days on the —

mountain, passing the nights at heights varying from 14,400 2

17,300, all trace of mountain sickness had disap eared,——Lieu- ;

tenant Karl Weyprecht, the discoverer, with Lieutenant Payer, of a

Franz-Josef Land, died on March 2oth, at the age of forty-t ree.

ble for its severity in America and Europe, was one of un

1881.] Microscopy. 595

MICROSCOPY.!

Recent AMERICAN Books on Microscopy. — Compendium of

Microscopical Technology, by Carl Seiler, M.D., pp. 130, Philadel-

phia, 1881.—This book, while designed as a guide for beginners,

will also be of frequent use to more experienced workers. is

intended as a guide for physicians and students in the use of the

microscope, and in the prepartion of histological and pathological

specimens for examination. Without attempting to give a com-

prehensive discussion of all the new or even of the most import-

ant standard methods of examination and preparation of objects,

the author simply describes a few methods and expedients which

he has himself fallen into the habit of using, and which he is,

therefore, able to endorse as uniformly satisfactory, and to de-

scribe with that clearness, fullness and precision which should be

characteristic of a working handbook. After a short and judi-

cious chapter on the structure and use of the microscope, includ-

ing a few of the most simple and indispensable accessories,

practical directions are given for preparing, cutting, staining, in-

jecting and mounting animal tissues, with separate chapters on

preparation of vegetable tissues and insects, and photo-micro-

graphy. Description of the tissues themselves is omitted through-

out; except that a synoptical table of the more common tumors

and neoplasms is given as an appendix, which is one of the most

valuable portions of the book. Two or three of the formule are

given in the metric form, and some others in “ parts,’ which in

is case amounts to about the same thing; and the beautiful sim-

plicity of these, and the self-evident proportion of their different

constituents, gives an interesting contrast to those clumsy ones

which are still given in grains, drachms, ounces and drops.

Practical Hints on the Selection and Use of the Microscope, by

John Phin, editor of the Am. Fourn. of Microscopy, pp. 231, New

York, 1881.—The third edition of a book so well known as this

little manual needs no commendation. Introduced six years ago

aS a popular handbook, of extreme simplicity, for the use of

inners, it still retains the same character, though with such

extensive additions and improvements that the last edition may

be considered a new book. Three quarters or more of the work

are given to a description of the microscope and its various

accessories, and the remaining portion to the collection and pres-

€rvation of objects. The whole is characterized by its sound com-

mon sense, and its practical utility. Probably no book on the

Subject, really adapted to beginners and presuming so little on

their Previous education, contains so much of valuable and inter-

€sting information.

Handbook of Systematic Urinary Analysis, Chemical and Micro-

Scopical, for the use of Physicians, Medical Students and Clinical

Assistants, by Frank M,. Deems, M.D., pp. 30, N. Y., 1880.—This

*This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. ¥-

596 General Notes. [July,

little essay furnishes in a tabular form a synopsis of a chemical

and microscopical analysis which can, by its aid, be carried out

with great facility by any person accustomed to such manipula-

tion and familiar with the appearance of the objects sought for.

Such a manual should not and cannot be made to take the place

of more thorough treatises on the same subject, but as an adjunct

to them it is a great convenience and time-saver, alike to begin-

ners who are lost in the multiplied details of the larger books and

need a guide-book to them, and to experienced men of business

whose crowded time compels them to refresh their memories in

the easiest possible way.

flow to See with the Microscope, by J. Edwards Smith, M.D.,

pp. 410, Chicago, 1880.—The most valuable portions of this work

are the various suggestions in regard to the manipulation of the

modern wide-angled objectives, which are scattered throughout

the work, though given more particularly in the form of lessons

in the latter pages of the book. It is greatly to be regretted that

the really useful ideas should be buried in such a vast amount of

personality and of (to say the least) irrelevant discussion.

fresh-water Rhizopods of North America, by Joseph Leidy,

M.D., 4to, pp. 324, Washington, 1879, and Synopsis of Fresh-water

Rhizopods, compiled by Romyn Hitchcock, F.R.MS., PP. 56,

New York, 1881.—The superb work on Fresh-water Rhizopods

by Professor Leidy has lately made the study of these organisms

easy as well as charming. His treatise is a scholarly and digni-

fied work, upon a class of objects hitherto studied with difficulty

‘on account of the fragmentary and scattered character of the data

that were available to students. The present work, published by

the Department of the Interior as a portion of the U. S. Geologi-

cal Survey of the Territories, is well printed and sumptuously

illustrated, and is a credit not only to the author and to the sur-

vey of which it forms a part, but also to American science.

upon it, and published it as stated above. Brief descriptions

of the genera and species are given, with scarcely any var

will

engravings of typical species would probably find ready sale

book.

1881.] Scientific News. 597

The Student's Manual of Histology, by Charles H. Stowell, M.

D., pp. 279, Detroit, 1881.—This modest book is really one of

the most useful of recent publications. After a brief chapter on

the microscope and mounting apparatus and reagents, some twenty

chapters are given upon the microscopic anatomy of the various

organs of the body, with an additional chapter on tumors and one

upon starches. The descriptions of the tissues are concise, pithy

and clear, and abundantly illustrated by nearly two hundred wood-

cuts. The directions for preparing and examining the various tis-

sues are not loaded down by a great variety of untried methods,

but are confined to a few methods which are in very general use

or have become favorites with the author. Altogether the book,

while not competing with the large manuals for use by scholars

and teachers, is a most excellent handbook for the student,

whether in the study or in the laboratory. Much credit is due

for the care taken to add a statement of the magnifying power to

the engravings, but it is to be hoped that other authors will go

still further, and that, ere long, no engraving will be considered

worth copying which lacks this essential feature.

Prizes FoR MicroscopicaL Essays.—The Boston Society of

Natural History offers a first prize of from $60 to $100 and a sec-

ond of $50 forthe best memoirs in English upon the following

subjects: The occurrence, microscopic structure and use of North

American fiber-plants ; treating especially of the fibers employed

by the Native Races; and original, unpublished investigations re-

Specting the life-history of any animal. Prizes for papers on

the first subject will be awarded in April, 1882, and on the

second subject in April, 1883, provided the papers offered are

deemed of adequate merit. Further particulars can be obtained

from Edward Burgess, secretary of the society.

70:

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— Dr. J. J. Bigsby, well known as a writer on the geology of

British America, and author of Thesaurus Siluricus, and founder

of the “Bigsby Medal,” died in London, Feb. 10, 1881. The

death of Dr, Barnard Davis, the distinguished _craniologist,

occurred at Hanley, England, late in May. He was joint author

with Thurnam of “Crania Brittanica.” His collection of skulls,

Said to be the largest in existence, has recently been purch

598 Scientific News. [July,

— The municipality of Marseilles has granted a subsidy to--

wards the laboratory of marine zodlogy proposed to be esta

lished on the Gulf of Lyons. In this connection appears in the

Academy the statement that a dredging excursion in the Austra-

lian seas, organized in connection with the Sidney Museum, has

made extensive collections of marine life.

— The thirtieth meeting of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science will begin at Cincinnati at 10 o’clock Aug.

17th. It is expected that this meeting will be the largest and

most important ever held in the West. The headquarters of the

Association will be at Music Hall.

— The reptiles and fishes of Australia have been made known,

largely through the efforts of Mr. Gerard Krefft, who was the

curator of the Sidney museum. His death in February last at

the age of -fifty-one, has been announced in Nature.

— The dinner of the New York Ichthyophagous Club took

place at Glenn’s island (off New Rochelle, N. Y.), on May 27th.

The menu was as follows:

Little Neck clams. Sauterne.

Potages.

Consommé of Mossbunker.

isque of Razor clams. Amontillado,

*ceuvre.

Boudins of Graysnapper a la Blackford.

orseshoe crabs a la diable. :

Sardines. Anchovies.

Relevés, ae?

Drum 4 la Cope. Filet de boeuf & la Richelieu. st. Ruifliole

Pommes duchesse.

Entrées.

Raie au beurre noir.

heepshead a la Normande.

Sauté of shark, Chinese style.

Squid a la Starin. 4

Pain de menhaden & la Goo het

Asperges. Nias

Sorbet des Princes.

Roti.

Striped bass & la Mather,

ibier.

Hell-benders, Sea robins, Angle-worms,

Pieces Froides.

Lophius a la Baird. Sturgeon a l’Ichthyuphage-

alade.

Weed.

Pommery:

Dessert.

Glaces nautiques, Petits fours, —- Fruits,

romages, Café.

Liqueurs.

The object of the society is to test and introduce to notice artl-

cles of food, derived from fresh and salt water, whose merits tie

generally unknown to American scientists and epicures. hag le

occasion in question considerable progress was made in this ai"

tion, while the guests were entertained by humorous 3

1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 599

. and music. The following programme for the band was pre-

sented:

‘Avie Torpedo-and the Whale. i.iie. sc cevrs ees ceres sewer cs eee Audran.

Marchande de Marée.............00. ‘ Lecocq

ne day I caught a Fish..... Planquette

One of the editors of the NATuRALIST who was present and en-

joyed the occasion, makes the following report on the merits of

some of the more novel dishes.

Bisque of razor clams (.So/en), very delicate.

Consommé of Mossbunker (Brevurtia menhaden), strong and

oily,

Horse-shoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus), good, equal to the

best devilled crabs.

Drum (Pogonias chremis), very flat.

Raie au beurre noir (Raja), tender but tasteless.

Sauté of shark steaks (man-eater, Eulamia milberti, said to have

recently eaten a negro), tender and with good flavor.

Squid a la Starin (Lo/igo sp.), rather tasteless.

Hellbenders (Protonopsis horrida) ‘to be now called in defer-

ence to the new revision N. T., hades-benders), good, much like

frogs’ hind legs.

_ Beyond this the editor did not extend his researches. He de-

sires to express his acknowledgment to Messrs. John Foord,

president, and Eugene Blackford, of the committee of arrange-

ments, for especial favors. ;

70:

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

_ Boston Society or Naturat History, May 4.—Annual meet-

ing. The annual reports of the curator, secretary and treasurer

were presented, and the officers for 1881-2, elected. Dr. H. P.

Bowditch spoke of the distribution of the papilla on the skin,

and Dr. C.S. Minot remarked on the young stages of the embryo

chick, both subjects being illustrated by lantern projections. = __

‘v 18—Dr. M. E. Wadsworth remarked on a microscopic

€xamination of the Iron ore (Peridotite) of Iron Mine Hill, Cum-

berland, Rhode Island; Mr. F. W. Putnam gave an account of

his recent archeological explorations in the Little Miami valley

in Southern Ohio ; Professor E. S. Morse spoke of the agricultu-

ral implements of Japan; and Mr. W. W. Dodge gave a few de-

tails of local geology.

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, May 30.—Mr. A. A. Julien

read a paper on the identification of the so-called “ porphyry

600 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [July, 1881.

AMERICAN GEOGRAPHICAL Society, May 10.—Mr. J. Douglas,

Jr., read a paper on Chili; its geography, people and institutions.

APPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, May 21.—An excursion of the

members was made to Doublet hill, Weston, and one to Mt. Grey-

lock via the Hoosac Tunnel, was projected for June 17th. At the

meeting held June 8th, Mr. H. Murdock read a paper on the

region surrounding the Smith’s River valley, N. H., and Mr. 5.

H. Woodbridge gave a description of the scenery about Williams-

town, Mass.

Troy Screntiric Association, Feb. 21.—Dr. R. H. Ward read

a paper on the recent teachings of the microscope in regard to

different kinds of blood,

10:

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

ANNALS AND MaGaAzinE oF Naturat History. January.—

Spolia Atlantica; contributions to the knowledge of the changes

of form in fishes during their growth and development, especially

in the pelagic fishes of the Atlantic, by C. F. Litken.

ANNALS AND MacGazine oF Natura History.—April. Gen-

eral considerations upon the carcinological fauna of great depths

in the Carribean sea and Gulf of Mexico, by A. Milne-Edwards.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ScIENCcE, June. — Geological relations

of the Limestone belts of Westchester county, New York, outh-

ern Westchester county and Northern New York island, by J. D.

Dana. Fossil fishes from the Devonian rocks of Scaumenac bay,

Province of Quebec, by J. F. Whiteaves. New Jurassic mam-

mals, by O. C. Marsh.

Canapian Narturatist.—April 30. Paleontological notes, by

J. W. Dawson. Notes on the geology of the Peace River regio?

by G. M. Dawson. On the glacial phenomena of the Bay Cha-

leur region, by R. Chalmers.

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE Zootocie.— April 22.

The organ of smell and the nervous system of mollusks, by J:

W. Spengel. (The olfactory organ is composed of a pair of olfac-

tory ganglia united with an epithelial organ of hearing, the entire

apparatus connected by commissures with the visceral ganglia).

Process of self-division in Euglypha alveolata, by A. Gruber.

The developmental history of the Amphipoda, by B. Uliana

(with an exquisite colored plate). On molluscan eyes of an em-

bryonic type, by P. Fraisse. The white of the egg-gland of Am-

phibia and birds, by P. A. Loos.

GrotocicaL Macazing. May.—The mammoth in Europe, ed

H. H. Howorth; glaciation of the Shetland, by D. Milne

Home; Geology of British Columbia, by G. M. Dawson.

Errata.—P, 363, line 19, for Macerna read Macoma. P. 365

line 21, for Japanese parts read Japanese ports.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Voi. xv. — AUGUST, 1881.— No. 8.

mnie eae

THE GREAT CRESTED FLYCATCHER.

BY MRS, MARY TREAT.

: Farid Spring a pair of noisy great crested flycatchers aban-

doned their usual nesting place in the woods, and resolved to

take up their abode among civilized birds.

It is only a few years since the wood pewee was first observed

to leave the dark woods and nest around our dwellings, This

little bird builds a neat compact nest which it glues fast to the

limb of a tree, and lines it’ with some soft material. In Southern

New Jersey it often uses the silky down of the cotton grass

(Eriophorum virginicum) fora lining. It covers its nest exter-

nally with lichens, very much after the fashion of the humming-

ird. This charming little flycatcher is now one of our most

confiding, familiar birds. It will be interesting to learn if the

great crested flycatcher has also concluded to become civilized,

or is it simply a freak of one pair of birds?

Audubon says of this species, “‘ The places chosen by the great

crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus Linn.) for its nest are so

familiar, and the composition of its fabric is so very different from

that of all others of the genus with which I am acquainted, that

Perhaps no one, on seeing it for the first time, would imagine it

to belong toa flycatcher. There is nothing of the elegance of

Some or the curious texture of others displayed in it. Unlike its

kinsfolk, it is contented to seek a retreat in the decayed part of a

tree, of a fence rail, or even of a prostrate log moldering on the

Stound. I have found it placed in a short stump at the bottom

of a ravine where the tracks of raccoons were as close together

VOL, XV,—no, virr, ‘ 42 : :

602 The Great Crested Flycatcher. [ August,

as those of sheep in a fold. In all these situations our bird seeks

a place for its nest, which is composed of more or fewer mate-

rials as the emergency may require, and I have observed that in

nests nearest to the ground the greatest quantity of grass, fibrous

roots, feathers, the hair of different quadrupeds, and the exuvie

of snakes was accumulated. The nest is under the above circum-

stances at all times a loose mass. Sometimes when at a great

height, very few materials are used, and in more than one instance

I have found the eggs merely deposited on the decaying particles

of the wood, at the bottom of a hole in the broken branch of a

tree, sometimes of one that had been worked out by the gray

squirrel.”

In “ Wilson’s Ornithology,” we find the following with regard

to the nesting habits of this bird: “The great crested flycatcher

arrives in Pennsylvania in May and builds his nest in a hollow

tree deserted by the blue-bird or woodpecker. The material of

which this is formed is scanty or rather novel. One of these

nests now before me is formed of a little loose hay, feathers of

the guinea fowl, hogs’ bristles, pieces of cork, snake skins and

dogs’ hair. Snake skins with this bird appear to be an indispens-

able article, for I have never found one of his nests without this

material forming a part of it. Whether he surrounds his nest

with it by way of terrorism to prevent other birds or animals

from entering, or whether it be that he finds its silky softness

suitable for his young, is uncertain; the fact, however, 18 9°

torious.”

So it seems that heretofore the great crested flycatcher has bees

content with any old tree or stump that afforded him a cavity In-

to which he could gain access. But now the little bird-houses in

the vineyard, scattered about on the posts, attract his attention

much to the chagrin of the bluebirds and wrens. Apparently

unconscious of this, the pair proceed with their house hunting

much after the fashion of human bipeds.

The male stations himself on one of the little houses, aad with

his harsh voice calls his mate. She comes and inspects the

house, but seems to have some objection, so they go the rounds,

even looking into those already occupied by bluebirds, but they

do not molest them.

A male bluebird is watching the pair from an adjacent grape

post as they visit his home. The flycatcher is stationed on the

1881.] The Great Crested Flycatcher. 603

top of the house and screaming for his mate. She comes and

merely looks in and finds the female on the nest and immediately

flies away, but the male stays awhile and continues to call, evi-

dently thinking that she did not half look at the house, but she

does not return, and as he flies away, the bluebird who was

watching him at a safe distance, now courayeously flies after him

and then returns to his mate who meets him at the door, and they

chatter over the matter in their low, sweet way, he apparently

telling her how he has driven the hateful fellow away!

The flycatchers next visit a little house fastened to the railing

of an upper piazza, but this too is occupied by a family of blue-

birds, and they leave them unmolested. At last madam flycatcher

chooses the finest establishment on the premises—a three-storied

octagon house surmounted with a cupola and spire, with a

weather vane and ball attached to the spire. The house is fas-

tened to the top of the stable, and was originally intended for the

Martins, but a pair of bluebirds were the first to occupy it, and

they have held it for several years past, allowing no other bird to

get possession; but they do not try to drive the flycatchers, who

finally select the cupola which they find empty.

They are beyond my reach but they do not try to prevent my

seeing the material which the female carries to the house, On

the contrary they seem wholly indifferent to my presence, much

More so than our familiar bluebird.

The male always precedes his mate and heralds her approach

with a clamorous noise. He stations himself on the ball or

Weather vane above the cupola, and seems to be giving directions

to his partner in a very loud voice, while she works with a per-

verse stick that she cannot get through the door.

She selects a stick longer than the door, and stupidly holds it

about midway and tries to force it through. If it is too stout to

bend or break, she works long and laboriously, while her partner

looks on and screams, At last, discouraged with the hopeless

endeavor, she comes to the ground and selects another. She

Proceeds in this way for several hours, Finally she learns to put

the stick end first through the door, and now the work progresses

Tapidly,

They are gone longer than usual, so long that I begin to fear

_ they have given up their elegant site, but in a few hours I again

hear the harsh voice of the male, and on looking up, see the

604 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. [August,

female following her mate with a streaming banner, which proves

to be the indispensable snake skin.

Whether this bird, like its little congener, the wood-pewee,

has at last concluded that its nest will be more safe near the habi-

tations of man, remains to be seen.

70:

THE REASONING FACULTY OF ANIMALS.

BY JOSEPH F. JAMES.

i Aaa as has been written on the subject of instinct and

reason in animals, the question as to whether they possess

reason is nearly as far from being answered as ever, and people

continue to write and argue with the same pertinacity as of yore.

Some writers have maintained that all the actions of animals

lower than man, are performed by a something designated as

instinct, and that this was a faculty given by Divine power to

animals, to take the place of reason possessed only by mankind.

Others have said that both animals and men have reasoning

powers, but the former in such a limited degree as to be hardly

noticeable, Still others contended that animals were actuated to

a very great extent in their actions by reasoning faculties, and that

entirely too much stress has been placed upon the power of oi

stinct ;} while a last party have said that neither man nor beast 6

possessed of reason, but that both perform all their actions auto-

matically, and being under the influence of unchangeable law, do

what they do because they cannot do otherwise.” 3

In the olden time, before we knew as much about the animal

world as we do now, the unerring faculty of instinct was ex-

patiated upon times without number. All animals were set down

as without reasoning powers, and when one did perform 4”

action. out of accordance with its usual life, it was looked upor a

a most remarkable phenomenon, and as instinct working 17 =

abnormal direction. Besides, this instinct was thought to be be-

stowed by the Deity, directly upon the animal. In later days

?The latest book taking this ground is « Mind in the Lower Animals,” by W.

_ Lauder Lindsay, 2 vols, 1880.

_. * Descartes’ idea of animated machines, It has for its strongest supporter bog

_ fessor Huxley. See article “Are Animals Automata?” by T. H. Huxley in Popular

‘Science Monthly, v, 724. :

1881. ] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 605

this is not so much the case, and many consider that the sooner

we discard the idea of instinct, and the sooner we attempt to ex-

plain the actions of animals upon the theory of their possessing

reason, just that much sooner will we be able to come to a just

conclusion.

It can hardly be denied that there are some actions, which, in-

stinctive in the ordinary sense, are transmitted from one genera-

tion to another, and are performed by all alike. Let us see if we

can not find a reasonable ground for the first introduction of some

of these instincts.

There was a time when the first mud wasp stung its first spider

or grub, and deposited it in the first nest for the use of its young.

But how do we know that this action was performed as success-

fully by the first female wasp, as it is now by her descendants?

Would it not be just as reasonable to suppose that the present

perfection of this action, if it be perfect, was the result of long ex-

perience, and of a gradual improvement from generation to gener-

ation, as to imagine that the first wasp succeeded as well as her

descendants do now? There was a time when the first chicken

was hatched and scratched the ground. But is it necessary to

Suppose that the first born of the jungle-fowl of India acted as

our barnyard fowls do now, to account for the ability of the new

born chicks to run over and scratch the ground? Not so. These

actions, and perhaps many more, are hereditary faculties, imper-

fect and crude at first, but gradually improving and perfecting,

and transmitted from generation to generation in the same way as

a taste for engineering, a liking for science, or ambition to be a

Soldier, descends from father to son. The gradual development

of the mind of animals and of man, is under the influence of the

Same laws as the development of the body.

It is probable that the first pair of jungle-fowls of India, way

back in antediluvian times, hatched a brood of young ones, which

Stayed in the nest till fully fledged, as do the young of most all

birds, Suppose an accidental event occurred, which made it

advantageous for the young chick to be able to run and scratch

a$ Soon as it broke out of the shell. Suppose it was found by

Nature, that the chick that could run away soonest after being

™m, would be the one most likely to escape from the clutches of

the hawk when the mother was driven from the nest, The

additional safeguard of life would be seized upon, and by

606 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. [ August,

gradually strengthening the ability to run, it would be trans-

mitted in an improved form through the birds which escaped by

running, to their descendants, and finally be bequeathed to their

posterity in the form in which we now find it. Such an explana-

tion would apply to quail and grouse, and, in fact, to all birds

which run as soon as hatched, and seek to hide themselves from

their enemies in the grass and bushes. This instinct in young

chickens is by no means so perfect as it might be; for any one

who has noticed them when just hatched, and led by the hen, will

have seen that they stumble and stagger, sometimes going head

over heels in their efforts to pick something up. So that even if

it were instinct, it is perfected by practice.

Then again with the wasp. The one which provided best for

its offspring, would leave the most descendants; and the faculty

and the ability to provide would be transmitted from generation

to generation, being improved each time by the natural laws of

modification with descent, and by the struggle for existence. 50

with the cells of the bee. Mathematicians have been struck with

astonishment, and held up their hands in holy wonder, to see

such an insignificant insect as a bee making a cell more mathe-

matically accurate than they can after a lapse of 2000 years.’ But

it was a matter of necessity to use as little material and occupy aS

little space as possible with his cells, The ancient bees doubtless

made their cells much less mathematically correct than the pres-

ent ones are supposed to do.2 And it was only when the use of

less wax, and of less space, gave one hive the advantage Over

another in the struggle for existence, that the present cell began

to appear. It was not made so because of the instinct of the bee,

but because the laws of nature compelled it to be made so, if the

bee would hold its own in the struggie. We know well that bees

do not make their-cells always exactly alike, nor as exactly hex-

agonal as we are often told. They depart from the regular shape,

and use other forms to suit circumstances, and we have here 4

‘Lord Brougham, “ Dialogues on. Instinct,” 1844, pp. 66-70.

* Even the cells of the present hive bee are by no means perfect. In fact, a.

gations by Professor Wyman, printed in the Proceedings of American Academy ‘

Arts and Sciences, vi1, 1866, have proved “ that the cells are all more or less Bit

fect, and that an hexagonal cell, mathematically exact, does not exist in esi a

only in theory.” Packard, “ Guide to Study of Insects,” 1869, pp. 123-127) W!

see for an extended notice of Professor Wyman’s paper.

_ §See Kirby and Spence, “ Introduction to Entomology.” Lond. ed. 1, 469-

1881.] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 607

clear evidence of reasoning powers, and of the facuJty of adapting

means to ends.

Again we are told that many insects lay their eggs upon the

leaves of certain plants, upon which the larve feed, and upon no

others, and it is pointed out as a case in which the Almighty has

endowed the creature with an instinctive knowledge of the plant.

But why should it be so? The white butterfly lays its eggs upon

the cabbage, and the larve feed upon its leaves. What right

have we to say that the butterfly does not know the cabbage?

There may be something about that plant agreeable to her olfac-

tory nerves; which induces her to alight and deposit her eggs.

Or it may be that in ancient days, and must have been, that the

butterfly deposited her eggs upon any plant indiscriminately.

If those that fed upon the cabbage throve better than those on

some other plant, they would be preserved in the struggle for

existence, and leaving more descendants than their rivals, would

thus transinit the habit of frequenting more and more the cabbage

plant. Perhaps at the time some species of insects originated, the

ancestor of all deposited her eggs upon any plant most con-

venient. All may not have been suitable, but the larve throve

on those that were, and frequented the same plant afterwards ;

and thus in feeding on different plants and leading different lives,

the one original species became differentiated into distinct but —

allied species,

The instinct which induces the cuckoo to lay her eggs in the

nests of other birds, can be shown to have arisen in much the

Same manner as those to which we have referred. Mr. Darwin

gives an excellent account of how the instinct might be developed.

He says: “ Now let us suppose that the ancient progenitor of the

European cuckoo, had the habits of the American cuckoo, and

that she occasionally laid an egg in another bird’s nest. If the

old bird profited by this occasional habit through being able to

migrate earlier, or through any other cause; or if the young

were made more vigorous by advantage being taken of the mis-

taken instinct of another species, than when reared by their own

Mother, encumbered as she could hardly fail to be by having

gs and young of different ages at the same time; then the old

birds or the fostered young ones would gain an advantage. And

analogy would lead us to believe, that the young thus reared,

Would be apt to follow by inheritance the occasional and abber-

608 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. (August,

rant habits of their mother, and in their turn would be apt to lay

their eggs in other birds’ nests, and thus be more successful in _

rearing their young.”! This explanation seems to us simple, and

at the some time adequate, and the same process of reasoning

applied to all instincts of like character, would with little modifica-

tion be sufficient. Such instincts as the last, the hive bee cells,

the case of butterflies laying eggs on plants, the slave-making

habits of ants, and many more which will recur to any one, are

brought into existence accidentally, and given a tendency to

variation in any faculty of the mind or power of the body, and we

can expect to see it modified by nature’s seizing upon the favor-

able variations, transmitting them in an improved state each time

by inheritance from one generation to another, until they reach

such perfection that men are astonished, and can see no other

way of accounting for the fact, but by bringing to their aid

divine power and intervention.

Now we are told, that instinct is some power or principle

possessed by animals, by means of which they perform, blindly

and ignorantly, works of an intelligent nature; further, an im-

pulse by which they are directed, without previous instruction OF

experience, to do unerringly what is necessary for the preserva-

tion of the individual or the species. The fact that instincts are

not unerring, goes far to prove that they had some such origin aS

we have described. It is known, for instance, that butterflies and

moths often lay their eggs upon plants or in positions where their

larve can not flourish? What is this but a return to a former

method of proceeding, when the insect laid her eggs on any

plant? Here the instinct fails utterly, and not only does not a5

sist in the preservation of the species, but is instrumental in

destroying it. Cattle are supposed to know by instinct poisonous

from beneficial plants, but take them to a new country, and they

at first are as likely to eat the poisonous ones as those that are

not. Their so-called instinct fails, because it is not an instinct at

all, but the result of experience and observation. The instinctive

dread birds have of man is often spoken of; but that is no instinct

either. Birds and animals of all kinds in a state of nature, where

? Origin of Species, 6th ed., N. Y., p- 212.

Kirby and Spence, loc. cit. 11, 466, say that the flesh fly sometimes lays her &88°

in the flowers of Stapelia hirsuta, instead of in carrion, and further that the common

house fly will frequently deposit her eggs in the snuff in a box.

1881.] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 609

they have never been molested, or disturbed but little, have no

great dread of man, and it is only after they have learned by dire

experience, and by observation, the evils likely to fall upon them

from the advent of man, that they show any dread or fear of him.}

This dread is then transmitted to their offspring, but is by no

means an inherent faculty of the birds’ or animals’ mind.

It is said again that a marked instinct is shown in birds by their

nest building. Some say the bird makes as good a nest the first

time she tries, as when she becomes old and experienced. But

this has been emphatically denied, and is doubtless untrue. An

observer has given an account of the first and subsequent attempts

of one pair of birds to build a nest; and he shows conclusively

that the first was a poor specimen of bird architecture, the second

was an improvement, the third still better, and so on until the art

was finally reached of making a handsome and serviceable nest.

Alexander Wilson, one of the best of ornithologists, believed im-

plicitly that birds improve in nest building and gives several in-

stances of it.2. Birds learn to sing, too, by a long apprenticeship.

At first the song consists merely of a few disconnected notes.

By continual practice the art is developed, and at last the bird

carols forth the lay which delights all hearers? It is not the re-

sult of instinct, but of practice and gradual improvement. Mr,

Wallace believes that as man performs many of his intelligent acts

merely by imitation, so it is with birds in making a nest.4

One would think that if there is any action which is instinctive

With water animals, it would be that of swimming, yet this is not

always the case. A writer in Harper's Weekly stated that “ were

a young seal taken three or four weeks after birth and thrown into

1See Darwin’s Voyage of Naturalist, pp. 398-401. In speaking of the birds of the

Galapagos islands, he says: “ A gun is here almost superfluous, for with the muzzle

I pushed a hawk off the branch of a tree. One day whilst lying down, a mocking

thrush alighted on the edge of a pitcher, made of the shell of a tortoise, which I

d in my hand, and began very quietly to sip the water; it allowed me to lift it

from the ground whilst seated ‘on the vessel.” The testimony of other travelers is

corroborative,

? American Ornithology (16mo, Edinburgh edition, 4 vols. 1831), I, 179, 189-190

*¢ also article by Dr, Brewer, “ On Variation of the nests of the same species of

Birds.” Am. Nar. x11, 35. Wallace, “ Contributions to Natural Selection,” p. 227

Article from “ Revue des Deux Mondes” in Pop. Sci Monthly, 1, 485, and others.

* Darwin’s « Descent of Man,” 1st. ed.,1, 53 and 54. Wallace, ibid, p. 220, et seq,

“Wallace, ibid. « Essay on Philosophy of Birds’ Nests.”

610 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. [ August,

deep water, it would drown miserably in a few minutes; they be-

gin to grow accustomed to the water at the end of three or four

months by degrees, and it takes a pup about three weeks’ practice

at the surf margin before it can handle its flippers properly in the

water.” Here instinct is out of the question, for to be that, the

ability to swim would be manifested almost at birth.

We have granted that some animals are possessed of instincts,

but we deny that these are implanted by divine agency, and con-

tend that they come into existence in obedience to natural laws.

We contend also that outside of these instincts proper, animals of

all classes, from insects! up to monkeys, perform acts which are

certainly analogous to those performed by the human mind, and

which ought to rank with the reason of man. Reason, we are

told, is the power by means of which one proposition is deduced

from another, and of forming a conclusion from known premises.

Now if it could be proved that animals are possessed of feelings

of love, hate, jealousy, grief, kindness, memory, and many other

human traits; that they can distinguish right from wrong; if it

could be proved that they are capable of drawing conclusions

from known premises; and that they can and do follow out 4

train of reasoning; then it would be proved beyond all peradven-

ture that they do have reason, and to a very marked degree.

There are thousands of anecdotes relating to all classes of the

animal kingdom showing in a greater or less degree the reason-

ing faculty. It is obviously impossible to give anything like all

of them here, and a few of the more striking and relating to the

principal classes, will serve to point our moral and adorn our

tale.

Of the Articulates, the Crustacea are considered low in the

scale, yet instances showing reason are recorded of them. Dar-

win? tells us of a shore crab’ seen in Brazil by Mr. Gardiner. The

animal was making its burrow in the sand, and Mr. G. threw some

shells toward it. One of them rolled in, and three others lodged

on the edge. The crab in about five minutes, brought out the

shell, and carried it off about a foot and dropped it. Returning

1 Lindsay in his « Mind in the Lower Animals” says that even in the Protozoa 8°

find manifestations of purpose. That, in fact, all the orders of the Invertebrata ead

possessed of intelligence, foresight and reason to a greater or less extent. This 15

especially the case with ants. 1, pp. 52-68.

? Descent of Man, tst ed., 1, $256

1881.] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 611

and seeing the three other shells near the edge of his burrow, and

apparently thinking that they too might roll in, he carried them

off one by one, and deposited them with the other. Did not this

animal reason on the subject in the same manner as a man

would? Most decidely so. Hermit crabs have been seen to rob

one another of their shells. A big one was once seen to give

chase to a little crab with a shell much larger than his own.

“The little one, apparently quite alive to the sinister intentions of

his pursuer, took to flight as quickly as possible, and his attempts

to escape were continued with the utmost vigor until further

effort was hopeless, * * * At length he was overtaken, and

then a regular pitched battle ensued. The little one resisted

manfully, but was finally overcome, the more bulky opponent

having, after the most strenuous exertions, succeeded in forcing

his claws between the body of his weaker opponent, and his shell,

and with the most frantic exertion turning him out.’ They then,

apparently as a matter of course, exchanged shells, the ousted

tenant yielding submissively to his fate, and quietly adapting

himself to. his reduced circumstances.”! Suppose a man with

boots too small for him, saw a little man with boots much larger

than his own. Suppose society in such a state as to allow the big

man to rob the little one of his boots, and leave his own for the

use of the other. Would the man act by reason or by instinct ?

The answer is obvious. :

Insects are higher than crabs in the animal creation, and

among them we find the best developed instincts with a high

degree of reasoning. Take for instance the ants. They live in

communities, and some obey while others command; some work

while others direct, so they must have a method of communi-

cating ideas; they recognize their comrades after being separated

from them for months,’ and therefore have memory ; and language

and memory are two of the highest gifts of man’s mental. nature.

Bees can distinguish one kind of flower from another ;* they bite

holes in the base of the corolla to get at the honey when it is too

* Wood's “ Man and Beast.” N. Y., 8vo ed, p- 95.

io 4 sbagltee in AM. Nat., X, 156, et seq. Also note in Pop. Sci. Mon., 1X, P.

od rticle on “ Habits of Ants”? in Pop. Science, X1, 39-

ia Recherches sur les Fourmes,” quoted in Kirby and Spence, l. ¢., 11, 66.

» ibid, x, 154.

* Darwin, “ Cross and Self Fertilization in Vegetable Kingdom,” p. 416,

612 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. [ August,

far for them to reach from the top, and when the hole is once bit-

ten will always seek it; thus one individual takes advantage of

the labor of another. They can alter the shape of the cells of

their hive to suit circumstances? They are compelled to learn

how to distinguish the situation of their hive when moved to a

new place by circling round and round in the air and taking

mental notes of its position ;3 and it is only after observation, expe-

rience and practice, that they can fly directly to the entrance.

Wasps learn the position of their nests in the same manner.

They are capable of being tamed and of recognizing their

masters,‘ as are also butterflies. In districts where some species

of dung beetles are found, they have the habit of depositing eggs

in pellets made of horse or cow manure; but in districts where

sheep are kept, instead of making the pellets, the insects use the

pellet shaped excrement of these animals. Beetles assist one

another in their work and communicate ideas.®

If it seems unreasonable to say that an insect, without any dis-

tinct brain and nothing but a system of ganglia, can reason 1M

such a manner, we might ask, what do you know about

mental powers of insects? How can we gauge their sight an f

compare it with ours, when their eyes have often hundreds 0

facets ?7 Or know aught of their feelings when we know that

some feel with their antenne?§ Or anything about their hear-

ing, when some hear with their antenne, some with their un’

legs, and some with their wings? We don’t know anything meer

it, and perhaps never will. ge

Many stories are told of the actions of toads. They ca “il

easily tamed, will feed out of one’s hand, and come at a Cal

Here is an anecdote of one. A lady was sitting in @ en,

1 Huber, Linn. Trans., vi, 222, quoted by Kirby and Spence, l. c., 1, 516. Dare

win, ibid, pp. 426, et seq.

? Kirby and Spence, |. c., 11, 475-489.

* Huber, Recherches, p. 100, quoted by Kirby and Spence, I. ¢., I, P- 529

4 Sir John Lubbock’s tame wasp has become historical.

5 Kirby and Spence, loc, cit., 11, 469, quoted from Sturm’s Deutschland’s Faun

I, 27.

§ Kirby and Spence, loc. cit., 11, 519, quoted from J//iger’s Mag., 1, 488.

7™« The number of facets or cornex vary from 50 (in the ant) to 3650, the cn

number being counted by Geoffroy in the eye of a butterfly.” Packard, 1, Gey Pe 79°

8 Packard, loc. cit., p. 26,

® Wallace, Contributions, loc, cit.,.p. 202,

1881.] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 613

when she saw a large toad moving along the base of a wall, and

examining it most systematically. He raised himself on his hind

legs, peered into a crevice first with one eye and then with the

other, and pushed his paw into the aperture. Apparently dissat-

ished, he continued his operations and examined another, and

then a third. This last seemed to satisfy him, and slowly draw-

ing himself up he disappeared into the crevice. He evidently

knew his own size and selected a hole big enough to crawl

into without effort. All fishermen know how difficult it is

to induce an old trout to take the fly,and when hooked how suc-

cessful he often is in tangling the line, or snapping it off against

roots or stones. He has gained by long experience a knowledge

of the traps set for him by man, and uses his knowledge in keep-

ing out of the snares, and breaking away when caught. He has

sense enough to know the danger he is in, and reason enough to

keep out of it.

In respect to the reasoning powers of birds, there are so many

anecdotes that it is difficult to make a selection. Every one

nows how easily many birds are tamed; the crow or raven for

instance, and above all the parrot, and how cunning they are in

hiding any article they wish to keep to themselves. Swallows know

that the hawk is their enemy, and sometimes take great delight

in pestering him. Dashing forward as if immediately into his

claws, then suddenly swerving off and enjoying the discomfiture

of their enemy, who thought to have a feast. A swallow had be-

come entangled by the leg with a string. His cries attracted

some companions, and after a consultation they conceived a

method of releasing the captive. They commenced to fly past the

bird one after the other, each pecking at a certain point on the

string as he passed, until it was cut in two, and the bird freed

from bondage. A story is told of a goose and a hen. The latter

hatched out some duck eggs, and of course the ducklings wished

‘o take immediately to the water. The hen objected seriously, but

without avail, and while she was mourning over the obstinacy of

her brood, a solitary goose swam up, and with a noisy gabble

took charge of them. After piloting them up and down for a

while, they were turned over to their foster mother, Next day

the same scene was repeated. This time the goose came close up

to the bank, and without further parley the hen jumped on her

* Wood, Man and Beast, loc. cit., p. 23.

614 The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. [ August,

back and sailed about while the ducklings were enjoying theif

swim. This took place day after day, until the ducks were large

enough to take care of themselves! A gentleman busily at work

in his garden had his attention attracted by a robin, who was act-

ing in a curious manner. Feeling some curiosity to know what

was the cause, he followed the bird and was led directly to her

nest. There he saw a black snake which was in the act of rob-

bing the nest. After the snake was killed, the bird showed great

joy ; flew down and pecked at the dead animal with every appear-

ance of hatred, and then lighted on the gentleman’s arm and

poured forth her delight and gratitude in song..

With respect to mammals, it is hardly possible to see how any

body can deny that they often reason. Who can not think of

instances of the intelligence of dogs? or of a horse? or of the

elephant? A very few anecdotes must here suffice, A retriever

was observed by a workman busily collecting grass and leaves

and carrying them in his mouth to one place. On examining the

spot he found a hedgehog closely rolled up. When the dog had

collected a sufficient quantity of grass to prevent the spines

wounding him, he took the bunch in his mouth and trotted off.

Darwin? tells a story of another retriever which most conclusively

shows reason. “ Mr. Colquhoun winged two wild ducks, which

fell on the opposité side of a stream. His retriever tried to bring

over both at once, but could not succeed; she then, though never

before known to ruffle a feather, deliberately killed one, brought

over the other, and returned for the dead bird.” He also quotes

Rengger in regard to American monkeys. Rengger states, “that

when he first gave eggs to his monkeys, they smashed them, thus

losing much of their contents; afterward they gently hit one end

against some hard body and picked off the bits of shell with their

fingers. After cutting themselves only once with any sharp tool,

they would not touch it again, or would handle it with the

greatest care. Lumps of sugar were often given them wra

up in paper, and Rengger sometimes put a live wasp jn the pape?

so that in hastily unfolding it they got stung; after this had once

happened, they always first held the packet to their ears to detect

any movement within.”> A baboon in London had the habit of

? Wood, Man and Beast, loc. cit., p. 49.

? Descent of Man, tst ed., 1, p. 46.

® Descent of Man, tst ed., 1, 45, 46.

1881.] The Reasoning Faculty of Animals. 615

adopting animals. Once a young kitten scratched him. He was

astonished and looking at the kitten’s paws, immediately bit off

the claws. Animals, monkeys especially, use sticks and stones as

instruments and weapons. A party of baboons in Africa were at-

tacked by men at the entrance of a narrow pass in the mountains.

The animals were up on the mountain side, and rolled the stones

down into the pass so thick and fast that for a time it was com-

pletely blockaded. The orang in Borneo knows how to handle

and throw sticks in the same manner, and even makes himself a

bed in the tree to sleep at night, covering his head with leaves?

Humboldt refers to the horses and mules used in crossing the

Andes. “Thus the mountaineers are heard to say, ‘I will not

give you the mule whose step is the easiest, but the one which

has the most intelligence.’

It is hardly possible in the limits of an article like this, to do

justice to our subject, but we are sure that what little has been

said, will show to a fair and impartial reader, that animals cer-

tainly do possess a large amount of reason. There may be those .

who prefer to think that instincts are given to animals in a per-

fect form, by the Almighty. These seem to think that in taking

the matter out of the Creator’s hands directly, and placing all

animal life under the contro! of natural laws, that we thereby de-

tract from His power. But not so. For He-made the Jaws by

means of which animal life has progressed on the globe, and after

the establishment of these laws, He holds Himself aloof from in-

terfering. It is more degrading to the grandeur of the Infinite to

Suppose He has been compelled to interfere constantly with the

works of His hands, than to suppose that He has, in the first place,

established laws immutable and unchangeable, and endowed the

first germs of life with the possibilities which have led to such

Srand results as are visible in the animal kingdom.

* Wallace, Malay Archipelago, N. Y. ed., p. 52, 70.

? Travels in Equatorial Regions of South America, I, 249.

616 Progress of Anthropology in America [August,

PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN AMERICA

DURING THE YEAR 1880.

BY PROFESSOR OTIS T. MASON.

fe E definition given to anthropology in the last year's sketch,

published in the Natrurauist, May, 1880, is still retained.

And the restricted area of this summary must also preclude any

referenée to the vast body of literature which has accumulated

upon this subject in all the civilized countries of Europe. By

American anthropology, however, we would be understood to

mean both the subjective and the objective view of the term—

publications (1) upon the anthropology of the American races,

wherever they may have been printed, and (2) works by Ameri-

can anthropologists, whatever may have been the special branch

of the science upon which they wrote.

The subdivisions of anthropology are somewhat arbitrary;

indeed, those adopted here represent specialists rather than sharp

lines of scientific demarcation. It is very convenient, however, to

' group the titles of papers in the following order :

1. Anthropogeny,

1. Archeology.

11. Biology.

Iv. Comparative psychology,

v. Ethnology.

vi. Linguistic anthropology,

vit. Technology.

vill. Sociology.

1x. Religion.

x. Instrumentalities.

1. Anthropogeny.—The appearance in an English translation of

Ernst Haeckel’s “ Genesis of Man,” during the year 1879, m4! é

an epoch in anthropology. No such contribution to one

and phylogeny appeared in 1880, but the statements of Haecke

have been taken up in detail, examined, attacked and defended

with great spirit. k

American scholarship continues to occupy a very humble see

in this department of our subject, as the following titles ™’

show:

Git, THEOpORE—(Washington, D.C.) On the Zodlogical Relations

Tr. Anthrop, Soc., Washington. 1,p.15. [A résumé of the doctrine

lution, ]

of Man.

of evo-

1881.] During the year 188o. 617

Hotes, NATHANIEL—(St. Louis, Mo.) Geological and geographical distribution

f the human race. Tr. Acad. Sci., St, Louis, 1v, 1. [A summary. ]

PARKER, Dr. A. J.—On the brain of a Chimpanzee. MW. ¥. Med. Record, Jan.

[An original investigation. ]

Warp, Lester F,—(Washington, D. C.) Pre-social Man. Tr. Anthrop, Soc.,

Washington, 1,68. [An application of the doctrines of Haeckel to the origin

of intellectual and social phenomena. ]

WINCHELL, ALEXANDER (Ann Arbor, Mich.) —Pre-adamites; or a demonstration of

the existence of men before Adam: together with a study of their condition,

antiquity, racial affinities and progressive dispersion over the earth. Chicago:

S. C. Griggs & Co., 1880, 1 vol., pp. 500, with charts and illustrations, 8vo.

[Outside of its controversial aspect, a valuable contribution to anthropology. ]

i, Archeology.— The subject of archeology is a favorite

among the divisions of anthropology in America. The Smith-

sonian Institution, conjointly with the National Museum, repre-

sents the country at large. In Massachusetts the Archeological

Institute of America, the Peabody Museum, and the American

Antiquarian Society have all made most valuable contributions

to archeological knowledge. In New York city the American

Museum of Natural History is making rich collections. Mr, Terry’s

fine private cabinet is now on exhibition there. Nothing is pub-

lished by them as yet. The Philadelphia societies are not idle in

the matter of archeology, although they have lost an earnest

worker in Professor Haldeman. The Bureau of Ethnology at

Washington, under the direction of Major J. W. Powell, while

engaged more especially in the living problems of humanity, has

made very exhaustive investigations relative to the Pueblos, The

Anthropological Society of Washington has published its first

volume of Transactions, which, although bearing date of 1881, is

really a part of the work of 1880. ,

Proceeding westward, we find the Western Reserve Society of

Cleveland, the Cincinnati Society of Natural Iistory, the Madi-

Sonville Literary and Scientific Society doing excellent work in

Ohio, The St. Louis Academy of Missouri and the Davenport

Academy of Iowa are not a whit behind the older societies of the

East in their zeal and efficiency. In several of the Western

States, notably Indiana, Wisconsin and Minnesota, the State

Seological and statistical reports contain much that is valuable in

archeology.

Nor is this all; private wealth is lavished upon local museums

80 indiscriminately, that frauds begin to multiply unpleasantly.

In the discussion of instrumentalities, a catalogue of journals

VOL, XV.—No, vimt, 43 ,

618 Progress of Anthropology in America [August,

publishing archeological papers will be given. The following is

a list of papers and works published upon the subject:

Assott, C. C. (Cambridge, Mass.)—Flint Chips. Peabody Mus. Rep., I, pp-

06-52

Aboriginal remains in the valley of the Shenandoah river. Science, p. 262.

AMEGHINO rare nae CBC et instruments de ’homme préhistorique des Pam-

Rev. @ Anthrop., 1880, pp. I-12.

American peri Society Preieciclindss, No..75 and No. 76. [Papers by Valen-

ini on Mexican paper and on the Landa alphabet. ]

American PRG VTE [Published by the Rev. S. D. Peet, with a corps of able

assistants. seco papers by Babbitt, Beauchamp, Brown, Hovey, Love,

Peet and Whittlesey. ]

Anales del Museo washed de Mexico, [Papers on Mexican antiquities, by

or ll, 1-46, 107-126, illustr, Anales de Cuauhtitlan, appendix, pp-

I-32.

Bacon, A. T.—The ruins of the Colorado valley. Lippincott’s Mag., Nov.

‘CasE, THEO. S. (Kansas City, Mo.)—An excursion to the birthplace of Montezuma.

Ks. City Rev., Nov. [This periodical devotes a great deal of space to archee-

ology and other branches of anthropology. ]

(CHARNAY, Destrt—The ruins of Central Kuskithe No. Am. Rev., Sept., Octs

Nov., Dec., 1880. [This expedition, fitted out by Pisrté Lorillard, of New

York, in conjunction with the French Government, represents a phase of arche-

ology, which may be called the Prescott School, against which Mr. Morgan and

those who agree with him, are working. ]

ier Joun—* A Vincennes ee ” and * a Worthington mound.” Indi-

na Rep. of Stat. and Geol., » Pp. 387-3

sDicheoon J. W. (Pres. McGill Solleae, aay. Fossil men and their modern

representatives, An attempt to illustrate the character and condition of Pre-

historic men in Europe by those of the American races. Montreal, Dawsom

Brothers, 1880, 5 vol., viis, pp. 348, illustr., r2mo, The same author has also

published “ The chain of life in geological time,” and ‘‘ The antiquity of man

and the origin of species.”

Farquuarson, R. J. (Davenport, Iowa)—Prehistoric trephining in America, and

The contemporaneous existence of man and the mastodon in America. A-

A. S., Boston, 1880.

GanneETT, H.—Prehistoric ruins in So. Colorado. Pop. Sci, Month., March.

Haines, Henry W.—Fossil man. Pop. Sc. Month., Jan.

Kerr, W. C.—The mica veins of North Carolina. Tr. Am. Inst. Min. Engineers,

Feb., 1880.

‘Lewis, H. C.—Antiquity of man geologically considered. Science, Oct. 16. a

also Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Philad., , Nov. 24, 1879, for a Stecasekiek of the an

tiquity of the Trenton gravels,

Low, CHARLES F.—Archzological explorations by the Literary and Scientific 5°

ciety of Madisonville, O., Part 111, Jan. to June 30, 1880. 1

MacApams WILLIAM (Otterville, Ill.)—Antiquities of Western Illinois in sever

journals, A in list in Smithson. Rep, for 1880.

MacLean, J. P.—Mastodon, mammoth and man. R. Clarke & Co., Cin. See ss

Universalist Quarteriy, July.

1881.] During the year 1880. 619

Morcan, Lewis H.—Description of an ancient stone pueblo on the Animas river,

N. Mex, with a ground plan. Rep, Peabody Mus., 11, 536-556. [In the first

Report of the Archeological Institute of America, Boston, Mr. Morgan defines

minutely his views with reference to the significance of the architectural fea-

tures of the stone structures of Mexico and Central Americ i]

Morse, Epwarp S.—The Omori OR sy Nature, April 15,1880. Japanese

es, Am. Naturalist, September. Dolmens in sat Pop. Sci.

Month.,

Potter, W. B. ani EDWARD Evers—Contribution to the archzeology of Missouri,

by the Archeological Section of the St, Louis Acac emy. Part I. Pottery. pp.

30, 5 maps, 24 plates. 4to. [A work of great eoniey and solid merit. ]

Ricz, A. THORNDIKE—Ruined cities of Central Ameri NV. A. Review, Aug.

[Introduction to M. Charnay’s articles. ]

SHort, JouN T.—The North Americans of antiquity; their origin, migrations and

type of civilization considered. N. York, Harper & Brothers, 1880. 1 vol., pp.

544, illustr., 8vo.

Smithsonian Benet of 1879, ee es in 1880. Archeological papers on Mon-

tana, P. W. Norris; Arizona, R. BM cae Thos. Armstrong, W. G.

sneeiore, Iowa, Samuel B. Evans, i if d C. L. Dahlberg; saath G.

ogo Illinois, Theron ‘Phisdasisb, i ee A. Oehler, Brainerd

Mitchell, W. H. Adams; Indiana, Edgar R. Quick, F. Jackman; Georgia,

Chas. C. Jones, Jr.; hihi a, W. Gesner; Mindeituel. tet Hough ; Louisiana,

B. H. Brodnax; N. Jers as D. Andrews; Florida, S. T. Walker.

Washington, Aathioiatobreat Sais of—vVol, 1 of the Proceedings up to Dec. 31,

1880, contdins archeological papers by Cushing, Mason, De Hass, Reynolds

and McGui

WHITTLEsEy, Cot. CHARLES (Cleveland, O.)—Relics of aboriginal art and nig

ethnologic value. No. 52. W. Reserve and No. Ohio Hist. Soc., May,

e also Am. Antiquarian, 11, No. 1.

WIENER, CHARLY¥S—Pérou et Bolivie. Paris, Hachette & Co., 1 vol., pp. 796, 1100

cuts, 27 charts and 18 plans, gr. 8vo. [A superb work.

11. Biological Anthropology.—In the division of biological

anthropology are included all labors relative to man as an animal.

hether or not intellection shall be included will be left an open

question. There is no doubt, however, of the great value derived

to anthropology from a comparison of the human being with

other living forms, from the dawn of life to the night of death.

Again, anthropology was at first studied almost solely by physi-

cians, and the number of those who attach great importance to

anthropometry and structural characters in determining race, etc.,

is very large. Our own country, alas, is not up to the mark in

this particular, and the list of authorities can soon be read over.

Anthropological Society of ule Papers by Dr. Swan M, Burnett on color

indness as affected by race. Vol.

Boreuen, W. C.—Peculiarities of diedaas Indians from a physiological and path-

ological standpoint. Afaryland M. $., Baltimore, 1880-1, V1, 54-5

620 Progress of Anthropology in America [ August,

HaprA, B. E.—Mensuration of the thorax below the diaphragm, Boston M1. and °

S. F., 1880, 247—249.

HAymonpb, W. S.—Human longevity. Tr. Indiana M, Soc., Indianapolis, 1880,

73-99.

SpirzKa, E. C.—Contributions to anatomical anthropology, chiefly the encephalon.

Science, 1, pp. 73, 125, 134, 176, 202, 235, 251, 303; % Werv. and Ment. Dis.,

p. and July, 1880, p. 106; see also #id, Oct., and St.Louis Clin, Record, Jan.,

Feb., April, May, June, Aug., Sept., 1880.

Yarrow, H. C.—Medical facts relating to the Zufii Indians of N. Mexico. Rocky

Mt. M. Rev., Colorado Springs, 1880, 192-194.

1v. Comparative Psychology.—Psychical anthropology has to do

with ratiocination, emotion and volition from two points of view.

In the first place it is a proper subject of investigation whether

the difference in the manifestation of the qualities just mentioned

is one of kind or one of degree in man and the lower animals.

In the language of the physicist we would know whether the dif-

ference is quantitative or qualitative also. However this may be

settled, there springs up a question of vital significance to us a5

Americans and to all civilized nations that have uncivilized tribes

to deal with. It is this: Are there psycho-racial characteristics

which should be regarded in treating with various peoples ? An-

other query might arise whether there are intellectual boundaries,

mental gradations, psychic lines of promotion along which spiritual

growth must take place. Whatever may be the outcome of these

problems, there is no lack of activity among investigators.

Bibliograph :

Animal instinct in relation to the mind of man. Science, 1, 267, 280. ‘nh

‘Linpsay, W. LAupEr—The moral sense in the lower animals. af. S¢- —_

Feb.

PoRTER, PROFESSOR SAMUEL—TIs thought possible without language? Case of #

deaf-mute. Tr, Anthrop. Soc., Washington, 1, 74.

Precer, W.—Psychogenesis in the human infant. Pop. Sc. Month., Sept.

v. Ethnology. — Men are found in groups called variously,

tribes, nations, races, peoples, stocks, etc. No two ethnologists

agree as to the proper distinguishing marks, or to the numbe

the groups ; yet every traveler knows that such divisions of man-

kind exist. A rough definition of one of these units would be #

collection of human beings occupying a given territory, who

recognize in one another a common bond of kinship. P hy: sical,

‘mental, linguistic, social and religious peculiarities are US

coordinated with territory and kinship.

r of

1881.] During the year 1880. 621

The following works have appeared during 1880:

AcostTA, J. DE—The natural and moral history of the Indies. Reprinted from the

English edition by Edward Grimshaw, 1604, and edited with notes and an in

troduction by Cl. R. Markham. London, Hackluyt Soc., 1880, I v., pp. 295,

hart, 8vo.

dlaciere: nero S.—The Shoshones or Snake Indians; their religion, supersti-

tions and manners. Smithson. Rep., 1879, 328.

Dunsar, J. B. (Deposit, N. Y.)—The Pawnee Indians. Mag. Am. Hist., April,

ov., 1880, See also on the decrease of the Indians. As. City Rev., Sept.

Flower, W. H.—The American Races. Brit. M. $, London, 1880, I, 549, 577;

616,

Havarp, V.—French and Indian half-breeds. Smithson Rep., 1879.

IcAZBALCETA, dae Garcia (Mexico)—Historia de los Mexicanos por sus pintu-

ras. An. us. Nac. de Mexico, 11, 85-106.

LEGGE, ww. aseye coaik and her “fadian tribes, Canadian Month., Aug.,

1880, p. 137-149.

Lemty, H. a —Among the Arrapahoes. Harper's Mag., March.

Narragansett tribe of Indians. Providence, E. L. Freeman & Co., 1880. Pamph.

PP: 92, Ovo.

eae ‘ ierirnaen A.—Camps in the Caribees. Boston, Lee & Shepard, 1 vol.,

Vieni F. W.—The Indians of California. Bull. Essex Inst., xt, Mar. 1, 1880.

Rey, PHILIPPE MArtus—Etude anthropologique sur les Botocudos. Paris, 1880.

RIALLE, GIRARD DE—Les peuples de l'Afrique et de ar gagli Bibliotheque

Utile, Vol. rv. Paris, Bailiers & Cie, 1880, p

Royce, C. C.—An aged into the history an one of the Shawnee Indians.

Tr. Anthrop Soc., Washington, 1, 94.

SHEA, JoHn GILMARY—A description of Louisiana. By Father Louis Hennepin, I.

. Vi. Linguistic Anthropology.—A linguist is not necessarily an

anthropologist; indeed, a philologist, or one versed in the com-

parative study of language, may prosecute his researches in such

a manner as to fall short of the meaning of the term. Linguistic

anthropology is the study of language, first in its origin, as the

medium of communicating thought, emotion and volition. In

this sense animals have language. In the second place, it takes

into consideration the evolution and the elaboration of language

to keep pace with human progress. Thirdly, there are genera

and species of language, that is to say, there are summa genera,

or great divisions, which are separable into stocks, tongues and

dialects. It is the design of the anthropologists to comprehend

all the languages of the world in a vast scheme as the botanist

groups his plants or the zodlogist his animal specimens. In order

to accomplish this end it is necessary to become acquainted with

the plan of structure of every language on earth. It is for this

Purpose, and not for their commercial value, that so much pains is

622 Progress of Anthropology in America [ August,

taken in preserving the language of savages. The Bureau of

Ethnology of the Smithsonian Institution, under the manage-

ment of Major J. W. Powell, is devoting most of its energies to

this branch of the subject. Indeed it is one of the departments

of anthropology of which our country has just reason to be proud.

The following works appeared in 1880:

CuaAreEncy, H. pe—Archéologie Americaine. Déchiffrement des écritures calculi-

formes ou Mayas, le bas-relief de la croix de Palenque et le manuscrit Troano,

Alencon, de Broise, 1880, pp. 52, figs., 8vo.

Fay, E, A.—The testimony of the Romance languges concerning the forms of the

imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive in the Roman folk-speech. Tr. Anthrop.

Soc. Wash., 1, 72. Reprinted in the Am. $. of Philology., 1, p. 411.

GATSCHET, ALBERT SAMUEL (Bureau of Ethnology, S. I., Washington, also editor

of the dept. of language in the 4m. Antiguarian)—The numeral adjectives in

the Klamath language, So. Oregon. Am. Antig., 11, 210-217. The Timucua

language. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Feb, 20, 1880, Indian color names. Tr.

nthrop. Soc. of Wash., I, ro. :

MALLERY, GARRICK (Bureau of Ethnology, S. I., Washington, D. C.)—Introduction

to the study of sign language among the No. Am. Indians as illusirating the

gesture speech of mankind. Washington, Gov. Printing Office, 1880, PP»

A collection of gesture signs and signals, &c., distributed to collaborators.

Same printer, pp. 329, 4to. ;

Mason, Otis T.—A comparison of a written language with one that is spoken only

Tr. Anthrop. Soc. W., 1, 21.

MOLINA, PADRE FR. ALONZO DE—Vocabulario de la Lengua Mexicana. Platzman

ed, Leipzig, Tuebner, 1880

Orozco Y BeRRO, MANUEL (Mexico)—Codice Mendocino, Anales del Mus. Nac.

d. Mex., 11, 47-82, 127-130, 205-222.

Pausort, J.—Note sur la langue des Taensas. Rev. Linguistique, Ap.

PowELt, J. W. (Chief of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, D. C.)—On the

evolution of language. Tr. Anthrop. Soc., W., 1, 35-

Introduction to the study of Indian languages. Washington, Govt. Print. of,

XI, pp. 228, 8 ruled leaves, 4 charts, 4to.

VALENTINI, PHILipp, J. J.—The Landa alphabet. Proc. Am. Antiq. Soc., Ap. 28.

1880.

vil. Technology—tIn looking over the whole area of human

activity, one is struck with the great variety of industries which

have grown up around a few necessities—for food, clothing,

shelter, emotional gratification, and the means of enforcing ieee

tion, This class of investigations we exclude from Mr. Spencer $

notion of sociology, including under technology his operativ®

phenomena; and retaining sociology for the manifestation of so- :

ciety in the family, the guild and the state. A third class of

questions will then be grouped under religion or Sebastic anthro-

1881.] During the year 1880. 623

pology. Let it be borne in mind that this classification is for the

convenience of investigators. The following works are noted:

BUTLER, PROFESSOR J. D.—Aboriginal use of copper in war and peace. Am, Anti-

guarian, Il, No. I.

DAHLBERG, R. N. and Charles L.—Composition of ancient pottery. Smithson Rep.,

1979, 349.

Goong, G. BkowN—The use of agricultural fertilizers by the Am. Indians. Am.

Naturalist, July, 1880. ‘

Gore, J. Howarp—Tuckahoe, or Indian bread. Tr. Anthrop. Soc. W., I, 101.

Hoy. P, R. (Racine, Wis.)—How were copper implements fabricated by the abo.

rigines of this country. Wis. Histor. Collections, VIII.

Kyicut, Epwarp H.—A study of savage weapons at the Centennial Exhibition,

Philadelphia, 1876. Smithson. Rep., 1879, 212-297. [Profusely illustrated.

Separately printed for distribution. ]

Morcan, Lewis H.—A study of the houses of the American aborigines, with sug-

gestions for the explorations of the ruins of New Mexico, Arizona, the valley

of the San Juan, Yucatan and Central America. Rep. Archzol. Inst. of Am.

1879-1880.

SCHUMACHER, PAUL—-The method of making pottery and baskets by the Indians of

So. California. Rep. Peabody Mus., I, 521-525.

SOLLAs, W. J.—On some Eskimo bone implements from the east coast of Greenland,

F- Anthrop Inst., 1X, 329-336.

vit, Sociology —Biography and history are records of human

actions done by individuals or organized communities. Sociology

is based on human actions also. The line of demarcation is here.

Of any people their history would tell what they did in this or

that emergency, but sociology inquires into what they were accus-

tomed to do. The dividing line is like the sutures of the cran--

ium, exceedingly crooked and involved, but with a little care it is

not difficult to decide where history leaves off and sociology be-

gins, The appearance of the Rev. Lorimer Fison’s work on

Australian marriage laws, with an introduction by Mr. Lewis H.

Morgan, has been the occasion of brightening up old armor by

Mr. McLennan and others who do not agree with our fellow-

Citizen,

BANDELIER, Ap. F.—On the social organization and mode of government of the

ancient Mexicans, Rep. Peabody Mus., 11, 557 s :

Dunrar, J. B—The decrease of the North American Indians. Kan. City Rev.,

Sept

Gore, J. Howarp.—The development of deliberative government among the No.

Am. Indians. Tr. Anthrop. Soc. Washington, 1, 58. By the same author,

The old Roman Senate: a study of deliberative assemblies, #d., 9.

Hoven, M, B. W.—Civilization. Tr. Anthrop. Soc. W., I, 100.

624 Progress of Anthropology in America, etc. (August,

— J. W.—Wyandotte Government. A short study of tribal society. A.A

A. S., Boston. Science, 1, No, 17; Cong. Record, Feb, 1, 1881; Tr. Acted

Soc.'W., 1.76.

Royce, iS: C—The Indian title. ‘The method and chronology of its extinction.

Tr. Anthrop. Soc. W.,

YARROW, HENRY Sentient to the study of mortuary customs among

Am. Indians. Washington, Gov. Print. Office.

IX. Religion. —Religion, in its widest sense, includes the belief

in the existence of spiritual beings, together with all the parapher-

nalia and observances which have grown up around that belief.

In this sense the anthropologist takes the term and seeks to trace

its origin and wv The following works appeared in 1880:

ANDERSON, Rasmus B.—+Tetitonic mythology. Am. Antiquarian, 11, No. 4. [Pro-

had conducts the department of Pre-columbian Hist. in the Anti-

guarian. |

Dorsey, J. OWEN—The rabbit and the grasshopper: an Otce myth. Am. Ani

quarian, Ill,

GATSCHET, A. S.—Superstitions. Tr. Anthrop. Soc. W., 1, hae 103.

he four creations of mankind; a Tualati myth, zd.,

Luquins—The Avesta and the storm myth. Mew iia: Sept.

MALLERY, GARRICK——-Comparative mythology of the two Indies. Tr. Anthrop.

Soc.

“ply 32.

PowELL, J. W.—Mythologic capi Vice-president’s address before the Am.

Association at Saratoga, Vol.,

Rices, STEPHEN R.—The Thesgony gt ne Sioux. Am. Antiquarian, il, 4-

x. Jnstrumentalities—Under this head we have no more to do

than to enumerate the sources of information to which the stu-

dent must go for his materials of study.

‘American Antiquarian, Rev. S. D. Peet, Clinton, Wisconsin, Ed.

American Association fur the Advancement of Science, Vol. XXVIII, Saratog@

Meeting

American Naturalist, McCalla & Stavely, Philad. Papers by various authors.

Notes M

ason.

Ainthropological Society of Washington.,. J. W. Powell, Prest,,'Cs Gs Royets Set

Archeological Institute of America, Boston. Edward H. Greenleaf, Sec

cs Grorce H.—Index of papers on anthropology published by t

‘ n. Inst, from 1847-1878. Sm. Rep., 1879 and madagg ht

Savesiauet Academy, Iowa. Proceedings. J. D, Putnam, Pres

Davis, CHARLES H. S.—Index of articles on archzology, erie Ait “

ogy. Am. Antiquarian, 1, No 3, 239. £

Index Medicus. A monthly classified record of the current medical literature @

the world. Compiled under the supervision of Dr. John S. Billings and DF

Robert Fletcher, Vol. 11, 1880. N. Y., Leypoldt

Index to Periodical Literature. Published by the American News Co., N. Y- -

Index-Catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office, U United Le

. Authors and subjects, Vol. 1. A. Berlinski with a list of abbreviatio

of titles of periodicals, indexed, Washington, Govt. Printing Office,

die Smith-

d ethnol-

1881. ] The Manuscript Troano, 625

[Under the word anthropology, pages 437-444, will be found a grand collec-

tion of titles and journals. A list of abbreviations occupies pp. 1-126, With-

out exception this work is the most minute specimen of cataloguing in exis-

tence

Mason, O. T.—For Anthropological Summaries. Smithson. Rep., 1879, 428-475.

Am. Naluralist, May, and Notes in each number from Jan.—December.

Peabody Museum, Cambridge, Mass. Twelfth and Thirteenth Annual Reports,

. 11, Nos. 3 and 4.

Popular Science Monthly. N. York, D. Appleton & Co.

Ruers, Wo. J.—Visitors’ Guide to the Smithsonian Institution and the National

Museum. Washington.

Saint Louis Academy of Natural Sciences, Nathaniel Holmes, Secretary.

Smithsonian Institution.. Annual Report, Contributions to knowledge.

Besides these, there are innumerable sources of publication in

our country of which anthropologists are willing to avail them-

selves, and in which they seem willing to hide their productions.

All of these that have any value, however, find mention in the

Index Medicus, or in the Index to Periodical Literature. Pam-

phlets and brochures should be sent to the editor of the Depart-

ment of Anthropology in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, addressed

to 1305 Q st., N. W., Washington, D. C.

:0:

THE MANUSCRIPT TROANO.'

BY PROFESSOR CYRUS THOMAS.

This manuscript was found about the year 1865 at Madrid,

Spain, by the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg while on a visit to the

Library of the Royal Historical Academy and named by him

“Manuscript Troano,” in honor of its possessor Don Juan de Tro

y Ortolano,

So far as I am aware nothing more is known in reference to its

history ; we are not even informed by its last owner where or how.

he obtained it. In ordinary cases this would be sufficient to

arouse our suspicions as to its genuineness, but in this case the

work itself will dispel all such suspicions. '

his work was reproduced in fac-simile by a chromo-lithographic

Process, by the Commission Scientifique du Mexique under the

auspices of the French Government, Brasseur de Bourbourg

being the editor.

_ The original is written on a strip of Maguey paper about four-

* Extracts from a paper now being prepared by Professor Thomas for the Bureau

of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution.

626 The Manuscript Troano. [ August,

teen feet long and nine inches wide, the surface of which is covered

with a white paint or varnish on which the characters and figures

are painted in black, red, blue and brown. It is folded fan-like

into thirty-five folds, presenting when the folds are pressed together

the apvearance of an ordinary octavo volume. The hieroglyphics

and figures cover both sides of the paper comprising seventy

pages, the writing and painting of the figures having been

apparently executed, after the paper was folded, so that the fold-

ing does not interfere with the writing.

A slight examination of this manuscript is sufficient to con-

vince any one at all familiar with Landa’s characters that those

used here are substantially the same, be the significations what

they may. On almost every page are to be found columns of

characters agreeing precisely with those given by him as repre-

renting the Maya days. Are they used on account of the signifi-

cation of the words they represent, as Brasseur supposed, oF

simply to designate days ?

The determination of this point must be one important step

toward ascertaining the object and contents of the work.

Another prominent feature of the manuscript is the great num-

ber of numerals or numeral characters—short straight lines and

dots—found on every plate. These, together with the columns

of day characters, constitute fully one half the written portion of

the work; hence if we can ascertain the method in which, and

the object for which, these were used, sufficient will have been

learned to indicate, beyond doubt, the character of the work, and

will render the task of deciphering the hieroglyphs much easier

than to work at them blindly,

Assuming that the reader is familiar with what has already

been written upon this subject, I will at once proceed with what I

believe to be the correct explanation of the use of these two

classes of characters in this manuscript, and which I believe 'S the

key that will ultimately unlock its mysteries.

As I shall have occasion to refer very frequently to the Maya

calendar, and cannot, without occupying too much space, Sd

here a full explanation of it, I refer the reader to the following

easily accessible works: “ Bancroft’s Native Races,” Vol. 1, an

Dr. Valentini’s article in the Proceedings American Antiquariat

Society, giving here only the following brief summary :

1881. ]

The Manuscript Troano, 627

Their year consisted of eighteen months of

TABLE I, ‘

=== twenty days each, and five intercalated or added

Nos. Maya Days|| Gays at the end. These added days—to make the

st b Kah full number, 365—were not counted in any of the

; ee months, as the month never counted more or less

4 | Manik than twenty days. The names of these twenty

3 oh days are given in the annexed table. Although

z 9 they were sometimes numbered from 1 to 20, yet

9 Eb. || the usual method, especially in computations of

ri i time relating to religious feasts and ceremonies, was

x « ‘ .

12 | Men as shown in the table. Commencing with 1 they

3 re were numbered to 13, the following day instead of

_ 2 | Ezanab being 14 was numbered 1, the next 2, and so on to

: 13. As will be seen from the table, supposing it to

5 Ymix represent the first month, the second month would

4 oe begin with 8 Kan, and so on through the year as

shown in the following table of the months and days:

TABLE II.

4 led

g s&

: rs

<s c co 2 s fs

S Nio we S a S @ |S aS

a a. al SiSislHisiSixlolei8) s/s) 4\e 8b.

z SSSEE MS SOS SC am sik elo ze

Numbers of the Months. t} 2} 3} 4) 5} 6 7| 8 g,r0jn1 12.13 14 15 161718 |

Names of Days,

wee eee revere 1 8 2) 9} 3/10) gird} 5)12| 613) 7] 1) 8) 2) 9 3i) 2

Ghicchan Bei vin tw tens eo} 2} 9} 3/f0) 4irz] gin2| 6:23) 7 | 8 at of git 4| 2

eit VE Ea eo oda oui 3/10} 4121) S\12} 6/13) 7] 4) 8) 2) 9) 3/20) 4)8H Si) 3

pera eer 4\tt} §\12| 613! 7] 1| 8| 2] 9} 3/10) 4/11] 5/12) O| 4

ica iv entedpes ey iy, 5/12} 6\13) 7) 3} 8! 2} 9] 3/x0} qimt] §)42| G13) 7) 5

Re Sis saline, xh 6)13| 7} 1| 8) 2/9] 3/40) 4|ra| 5/12) 613) 7} 1) 8) 6

Grea: litecere cases 7| | 8} 2) 9} 310) 411] 5/12) 6/13) 7] 1) 8} 2) 9) 7

Bh trteteees Weseue 8| 2) 9) 3.10) 4irt| §\12| 6/13] 7| 1] 8} 2) 9) 3)10| 8

gs ae tae pele oooess| Q} 3/10] 481) 5112} 6/13] 7] £| 8 2) 9) 3/10) 411) 9

te Reta eoe{HO} 4/18] 5 12) 6/43) 7| 1} 8| 2] 9} 3/10] 4/11) 5/12)|10

oo tte eee Tr} 5/12) 6113) 7] 1} 8} 2] g| 3)10) 4itt) 5/12 6/13, 11

Cib, tte ceseeseeeeene[t2) 6/13) 7] 1] 8! 2} gi 3]10) 41m) 5/12) 613) 7) 1/12

Gna. »++{13| 7} 1} 8) 2| gf giro} gina) 5/12) 6113) 7| 1) 8) 2/13

saan “ eeeees| E} 8} 2). 9] 3]10) gina} 5i12) 6/13) 7) 2] 8) 2] 9) 3194

nag eee ceeeceensees; 2] 9} 3/10) ita] Sinz} 6/13) 7} 3] 8) 2} 9} 3/10 4/195

yoteed PP eccceeeecseces| 3/10) AEE] 5/42) 6/23] 7) 1) 8) 2] 9) 3/10) 4)11) 5 16

Ven Stirs : 4)U1} 5/12) 6\13' 7| 1} 8) 2) 9} 3)fO! 4:1) 5.12) 617

Ik ene eee: <+xy 5 12 613) 7 1 8} 2) 9) 310) ait) § 12) 613) 7 18

Fes lat reseceecbvee| 6/13] 7] 1 8 2| g| 3/10) 4/11] 5/12) 6.13) 7) 1) 319

Pe 4 os we kbs 7/1 8 2) 9) 310) 4irr) 5/12 6\13/ 7| 1 | 2| 91120

~~ -[Kans.....{10

ey Chicchan , |11

ae Cimi oer I

A |Manik.... I

& |Lamat att

628 The Manuscript Troano. [August,

If the first day of the year was Kan, as in this table, then each

month would commence with Kan and end with Akbal, though

numbered differently. If the last day of the 18th month was 9

Akbal, as shown in this table, the five added days would be 10

Kan, 11 Chicchan, 12 Cimi, 13 Manik and 1 Lamat; the first day

of the next year would be 2 Muluc.

When the year began with 2 Muluc, the last day of the 18th

month would be 10 Lamat and the five added days would be I!

Muluc, 12 Oc, 13 Chuen, 1 Eb and 2 Ben. The next year would

then begin with 3 Ix. Following out this process we shall find

TABLE rr, the years commencing as follows: 1 Kan, 2 Mulue,

5 Ix, 4 Cauac, § Kan, 6 ‘Muluc; 7 Ix, 3 Canam

3 5 || Kan, to Muluc, rt Ix, 12 Cauac, 53 Kan, 1 Muluc,

€/s/ ,| || 2 Ix and so on, the first day being in all cases one

12/5/91 of these four. As 13 is a prime number it will

: ; ae: require a cycle of 52 years—I3 x 4—before we

9/10 his again reach t Kan. I give here a table of one 0

a ‘ : : these cycles, showing the order of the years for ee

8| 9 10\«1|| length of time. The names by which the years ©

es es p z\| the different columns are designated are given af

7| 8| 9|10|) the head of the columns. ‘

2 f° = ® Although their system was somewhat compli-

ne Z i 2 cated by this singular method of numbering the

————*-' days and years, still it is not difficult to understand

it so far. But in order to further complicate this calendar, gi

was undoubtedly devised by the priests as Landa truly says, =

deceive this simple p2ople,” another period called the Katun oF

Ahau was introduced. This period, according to most authori-

ties, consisted of twenty years, but according to Perez of twenty-

four. Instead of being numbered in regular order, one, two,

three, &c., these periods were also numbered by the thirteen

series, but in the following singular order: 13, 11, 9) 7» 5» 3 “

12, 10, 8, 6, 4, 2, the 13th Katun preceding the 11th, a9

so on. :

The chief difficulty experienced in attempting to bring this

period into harmony with the system so far as given, is, Ist. .

uncertainty as to whether it consisted of 20 or 24 years; 2d. To

place these periods in their proper positions in the great cycle,

that is, to determine what year in any cycle was the jrrst year °

a Katun, If this can be done, then it is not difficult to compare

1881.] The Manuscript Treano, 629

the years of the Maya calendar with those dated from the Chris-

tian era, if any one can be determined.

The reader will observe that we have so far proceeded upon

the assumption that the first year of the cycle was 1 Kan, or in

other words, that the Kan column always occupied the extreme

left. That the four days, Kan, Muluc, Ix, Cauac—or “ year bear-

ers,” as they were called by the Mayas—must follow in the order

given, is manifest, but that Kan must come first does not follow

from anything apparent in the system itself; either.day may be the

first, without any change in the system, but not without a differ-

ence in the result. There are some reasons apparent in the manu-

Script itself for believing that the. author considered Cauac the

first, or ruling day, and hence Kan the second, Muluc the third

and Ix the fourth. One of these reasons will be given here-

after.

The importance of knowing which one of these days came

first will be apparent from the following illustration: A certain

event, for example, is dated a particular day in the year, 1 Ix. By

: reference to the tables we

TABL :

= cas mei give here—one commenc-

ay 8 3 g | 3 ing with Kan and the other

Zigi#lé |lé § 21 with Cauac—we see that if

—|—|— |— “|| the former be the correct

: ‘ : Ps : ; c ‘ one, the year 1 Ix would

re a BPS te 91 ae (ok be the 27th year of the

wr se : . ; Ps : cycle (it is marked with a

"oe My pe ee . aa ae star); if the latter, it would

3] 4] 5s! 6 3 : 5| 6|| be the 40th, or 13 years

es i Pe a - - 2 ee later.

; : PAS ce : 5 As we shall have to re-

0} | 12 = io zt ‘a RA fer very frequently to the

calendar, it becomes neces-

Sary that we construct one. Since the system admits of fifty-two

changes in the day on which the year begins, it would require

fifty-two calendars to include the years of one cycle, just as four-

teen are required to suit all the years of our system—seven for

the ordinary and seven for the leap years.

_ As it would require much time and space to write these out in

[August,

TABLE VI.

The Manuscript Troano.

full, I have adopted the expedient shown in the following table of

abbreviating the work

630

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61 II o1 & 28%: £ ee qua suey AL ueqey

gi ol 6 § . ei - oe oy Ss uany) wig XIU A, qo

Li 6 8 ££ 3 oe eee 20 ueqooryy neyy ud

gI 8 Z 0 Cit a oe eS onnyW ury oenesy x]

SI L 9 S$. te ak ee your’y 1reqqv qeurzy weg

v1 9 § >. Oe 8 8 ee 4 ylueyy AI uvqey qa

8 S 4 C Se pee ee uy XIU qiD uony

ZI + ro. 8-4 L- fa 3 ueyoory) neyy uryy 20

II C8 2 ce? 3g 5.6: 5. Aan ury oeney x] on ny

or 6 eg “Aes 5 oe or Ikquy quurz"y ug yeure’y

6 . % <£ 9 $ + ot 3 41 uvqr qa yrurypy

g eS ee S + s - 63 XIU | qo uany) rr

ZL g-et 5 b € . €.2-98 neyy ud 20 uvyooiy)

9 i aS £ z ee oe gene) x] onmnyy ury

S as ae z I tt) a8 5 qrurzg ug jeure’y requy

+ . 62 I £1 v1 S$. 8 * urquvo qa yluryy MI

¢ Se: 4 1 zl ae ae ee qo uany) Twi XTULA

Zz A ZI II OL 81 a Udy 20 uvyoo1y neyy

I o 1 Il oI 6-856 4 | on[nyy uvy dune

we akea

“syuoyy ata Li $1 t1 “uunyjos *uumnyjos sumnjo “uumnfo>

jo siaquinyy Il 9 P 4 I x] onjnyy ury ovney

1881.] Lhe Manuscript Troano, 631

As each of the four days (the year bearers) can have but thir-

teen different numbers, it is unnecessary for us to have more than

thirteen columns of numbers; when we reach the thirteenth col-

umn, or month, we have passed through all possible changes of

numbers, and the fourteenth month begins with one as did the

first. Instead, therefore, of having eighteen columns in our table,

we need to extend it only so as to include thirteen, as we can

use the first, second, third, fourth and fifth respectively for the

fourteenth, fifteenth, sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth

months, as indicated by the numbers of the months which we

have placed above the table.

The reader must bear in mind the fact that although we have

’ numbered the months as commencing with the left hand column,

which has 1 for its upper figure; yet this holds good only when

the year is r Cauac, 1 Kan, 1 Muluc or 1 Ix, and for none of the

, other years, The first month of the year may be any one of the

thirteen columns, thus, 8 Cauac, 8 Kan, 8 Muluc and 8 Ix have

the second column—which has 8 as its top figure—as their first

month, then the one with 2 at top will be the second month, and

So on to the thirteenth (7 at top) which will be the 12th month.

Then we go back to the first column (1 at top) for the 13 month,

and so on to the one with ro at top for the 18th month. As the

months always retain the same order and numbers, by knowing

the column with which the year begins, we can, by counting in

this way, find any month for any possible year. We must here

warn the reader against confounding the days of month with the

days of the week, the latter being the ones by which the days are

usually designated; we must also warn him against confounding

the numbers of the months with the top numbers of the columns. 1

will now show how this table is to be used by giving one or two

examples :

Given the day 8 Ahau and the year 11 Kan to find the month

and day of the month. As the year is 11 Kaz, we must look to

the Kan column. By running our eyes down this column we find

that Ahau is the 1 7th day ; then by looking along the 17th trans-

verse line we find the figure 8 to be in the column which has 5

at the top, which we find is the second (always counting both)

from the column with 11 at top; hence 8 Ahau of the year It

Kan is the 17th day of the 2d month.

In the same way we find that 8 Ahau of the year 11 Muluc is

632 The Manuscript Troano. [August,

the 12th day of the 12th month, but in this case we have to count

the columns from the one having 11 at top (always inclusive) to

the right through to the thirteenth (the one with 7 at top), and

then go back to the first and count up to the one in which we find

8 in the twelfth transverse line.

In the Perez manuscript, translated by Stephens and published

in his “ Yucatan,” Vol. 11, we find it stated that one Ajpula died

“in the year 4 Kan, the 18th day of the month Zip on 9 Ymix.”

The year 4 Kan begins with the column of our table which has

4 as its top figure; the third month (Zip) will then be the one

with 5 at the top; running down this to the eighteenth transverse

line, we find the figure g, we also find that the 18th day of the

Kan column is Ymix, agreeing exactly with the date given.

In the Manuscript Troano we find another

method of giving dates, which is very com- pepo

mon throughout the work, thus: + + * (black)

This, according to my interpretation, signifies 13 Ahau of the

13th month. As neither the year nor the day of the month 1S

given, it is evident that we may find four dates satisfying the de-

mand. Turning to our table we commence with the Ahau in the

Cauac column, which we find is the second day of the month.

The 13 in the second transverse we find in the column having TT

at the top; by counting Jack thirteen months (always including

the one counted from and to) we find that the first month of the

year is the one with 6 at the top, hence the year is 6 Cauac. The

backward counting is exactly the reverse of the forward count-

ing—count toward the left until the first colunin is reached, then

return to the thirteenth and so on until the number of the month

required is reached.

Proceeding in the same way with the Ahau in the Kan, te

and Ix columns, we find the years to be 4 Kan, 9 Muluc an

3x; |

We are now prepared to discuss the question as to whether &

numerals and day characters are used in the manuscript simply

as dates or not.

By counting, I find there are about 235 recognizable columns

1881.] The Manuscript Troano, 633

of day characters in the work, eight-ninths of which contain five

characters each. Why this number? If, as I suppose, and as

above illustrated, each has four dates (four different years) this

gives to each of these columns twenty years (4 x 5 = 20), or one

Katun, for even according to the theory of Perez, four years of

his period were not generally counted.

But before testing this suggestion, I wish to call attention to a

certain regularity in the order of the days in these columns. The

left hand column of the middle division of Plate x is composed of

characters representing the following days (always reading from

the top downwards) in the order here given: Oc, Cib, Ik, Lamat,

Ix. If we turn to the list of days and count from one of these

names to the other, we shall find in each case an interval of six

days. The other column, same plate and division, contains the

characters for Ahau, Cimi, Eb, Ezanab and Kan, with an interval of

six days between each two. The column in the middle division

of Plate vi shows an interval of five days between each two; the

columns on Plate xvi, of twelve days; a column on Plate xxxI,

of sixteen days; but the usual interval is either six or twelve days.

Although the interval is usually the same throughout a column,

there are occasional departures from this rule, for example, in the

left hand column of the upper division of Plate x1, they are

6, 6, 4 and 2 days.

This fact, which is a marked characteristic of the work, is suffi-

cient to show, beyond a reasonable doubt, that the days are here

used simply as dates, and not for the signification of the words, as

Brasseur supposed.

I understand that Charency has noticed a regularity in the

order of the days, but as I have had no opportunity of examining

his work, I am unable to state whether it is the fact here men-

tioned or not.

By examining Plates xx-xxu, we see such a strong resem-

blance between them that we are forced to believe they relate to

One and the same subject; the left hand column of each, which

extends the whole length of the plate, is the repetition of a single

day character with red numerals over each character. In Plate

Xx the character repeated is Cauac, one of the year bearers ;

the numerals over them are as follows, and in the following order

(reading from the top downwards): 10, I, 5, 9, 13) 4 8, 12, (?),

7, (?), 2, 6—two of them. being obliterated.

‘VOU, XV.—No, vir, 44

634 The Manuscript Troano. [August,

Turning to Plate xxi we find the character for Kan repeated in

the same way with the numerals over them as follows: 11, 2, 6,

$0; 1, 5.9. (2) 42S Fa 3) Ade

On Plate xxi the character for Muluc is similarly repeated, and

the numerals are 12, 3, 6, 10, I, 5,9, 13, 4, 8, 2, 7, 3

On Plate xx Ix is similarly repeated, and here the numerals are

13:(?), 3,42 Se 7,1 2,6, 80, 1, §; 0

If we construct a table of years for two cycles, and compare

these numbers with those in the table, we shall find the two pre-

cisely the same and in the same order, except the Muluc column

which presents a partial variation which I will endeavor pres-

ently to explain. We give both Cauac and Kan tables.

TABLE VII. TABLE VIII. If we run our eyes down the

Cauac column of either table

until we reach 10, we shall find

gvaleho gigl tg

& & E | 5 3 rad ié the numbers from thence down-

nae eae ar —|—|—|— wards as follows: 10, I, 5, 9

Para) SLaL 3] 41 aga & 1, 357s 102s Gee

9|10\ 1m 12 9| 10/111 12 cisely as in Plate XXIII. The

oahd O48. A 8 3 same thing is trne in reference

41.5) ,61.7 4} 5| 6| 7 to the Kan and Ix columns.

AO dc hey 8) 9} 10) 1 The numbers on Plate Xx!

Be ge = ert (Muluc) after the. first two-=14

; 3 9 10 ; ; =i and 3—skip to 6 and es ie

11]12\13| 1, fitr}aata3) 1 regularly from thence to 8. y

2 5 2 we start with 12, we find t

3| 4 34:4) 5 t

Phedaletidac’ 6) 7| 8] 9 next to be 3 as given, the nex

10/ 11| 12| 13 10/ 11 | 12| 13 is 6 instead of 7, as it ee:

ti Pi als 1] 2 4 be; we notice that in the

5 6). 7| 88 $5} 6) 7) 8 joining Kan column the next

ee Bo te th figure is 6, and the numbers

sd ed eed | Oe le eg ae thence to 8 as given. May ge

41°5|.6)°7 4) 5) 8) 7 not suppose that the author 0

ij bes Las my! Stes ae int had a similar

12|13| 1| 2 12/13| 1] 2 the manuscrip gest

3; 4|.5| 6 3] 4] 5] 6 table (with numeral ¢ ar Pe

7} 8) 9/10 7|_8_ g9fffo || before him, and that in copy 4

11/12/13) 1] frrgt2713] + |I his eye fell on the wrong ©?

‘ tLe nA umn? That such tables oe

Tih 08 6) 7s 9 s nd d prob:

on rendered Pp

Topufiz]13, rola rad 13 used by them is

Soo Sole bythe following Orgone :

which Perez makes from an ancient manuscript in his possessio eos :

1881. ] The Manuscript Troano. 635

“There was another number which they called Ua Katun and

which served them as a key to find the Katunes; according to the

order of its march it falls on the Uayed haaé, and revolves to the

end of certain years, Katunes 13,9, 5, I, 10, 6,2, II, 7, 3, 12,8, 4.”

By commencing at the bottom of either column of our table of

years, and running up, we will find precisely these numbers, and

in the order here given. It is scarcely possible these could have

been obtained except by a table of years similar to those we have

given. Be this as it may, the fact that these numerals and char-

acters, as here interpreted, include a continuous period, is too

plain to be ignored. The agreement in so many numbers and

the order in which they come cannot be accidental.

From this we are justified in concluding, tst. That these day

characters are used simply to represent days; 2d. That the red

numerals are used to denote the days or years of the Maya

“week” (as their period of 13 days and years has been termed,

though they applied no name to it), which is corroborated by the

fact that with the exception of two on the title page, none in the

manuscript denote a greater number than 13 (there is one other

apparent exception, but the additional dot is a blotch or evident mis-

take); 3d, That the day columns are to be read from the top down-

wards; 4th. That Landa’s characters for the Maya days are correct;

~ and 5th. That the work is some kind of a calendar, probably con-

taining directions to be followed by the priests and people in refer-

€nce to their religious duties. Now let us apply our theory to

the day columns and numerals found in some of the other

plates,

We select as our first example the column in the lower division

of Plate xxvr, as here both the red and black numerals are 13

throughout, The day characters are those for Ahau, Eb, Kan,

Cib and Lamat, in the order here given. According to the inter-

Pretation suggested, the red numerals refer to the days of the week

and the black to the days of the month. Proceeding upon this

assumption, we will now try to find out, by using these numbers,

in what years 13 Ahau, 13 Eb, 13 Kan, 13 Cib and 13 Lamat are

to be found in the 1 3th month. The result is as follows :

13 Ahau. 17 Bb ap Kee. 137 Cib, = 13 Lamat.

Years.... 6 Cauac 7 Cauac 2Cauac 3 Cauac~ 11 Cauac

NAb 4 Rie 12 Kan 7 Kan

geee 9 Muluc = 4Muluc 5 Muluc 13 Muluc 1 Muluc

oie oe Jc... Soe 5 Ix 6 Ix

636 The Manuscript Troano. [ August,

TABLE IX

oe aa) In order to bring clearly before the eye the

slgls places in the cycle where these years fall, we

5 | E 4 give here the Cauac table governing the period

rol11/ 12/13 embraced in the four plates heretofore alluded

slalels to. Marking the numbers, we find a continu-

5| 6| 7] 8 ous period of twenty years, possibly one Ka-

9/10/11} 12 tun, though not in the precise order we would

tg; 87 264 expect it, that is, it does not include five com-

4155 pee plete transverse lines. If we use the Kan table,

da we obtain the same result, except that then we

——! : shall have three years in the uppermost line

71 8! gli and but one in the lowest. The years of this

It} 12/13] 1 period are surrounded by a continuous dark

od dg som at line. :

ey Pte As Plate xxvir appears to bea continuation of

BO Ahi 38 13; the same subject as that presented on Plate

i ri : se XXvI, we select the day column of the upper

9/10\11 ‘Zs division. The days are 11 Ahau, II Eb

ee a 3: Kan, 11 Cib and 11 Lamat—the months all the

4! se bd bs 13th. This gives us the following years:

8] g| oj 1

rr Ahau, rz Eb, rr Kan. rr Cib. 112 Lamat.

Years.... 4Cauac 5 Cauac 13Cauac 1Cauac 9 Cauac

Ocoee 2 Kan 1o Kan 5 Kan 6 Kan 1 Kan

©’ aeee 7 Muluc ~~ 2 Muluc 3 Muluc 11 Muluc 12 Muluc

* weet ld if 8 8 Ix 3 Ix 4 Ix

The numbers which are surrounded in the table by a waved

line, also form, as we see, a continuous period of twenty sass

We likewise observe that between the periods there is an intery

of four years, d

Plates vit, vit, 1x and x, of the second part of the manuscript

furnish perhaps the strongest proof of the correctness of my ™

terpretation of the red numerals. The middle division of thes

plates evidently refers to one subject. Here we find thirteen

short columns, of three day characters each, inserted in the ts

each character with red numerals over it, and each column wit

black numerals at the bottom denoting 17, as the month. | ae

give here the names of the days with the number of each as shown

by the red numerals; the order in which the columns occuf is a

1881. ] The Manuscript Treano. 637

also preserved although we have strong doubts as to the correct-

ness of Brasseur’s paging.

6 Cib 13 Cib 4 Cib 11 Cib 5 Cib 12 Cib 2 Cib

7Caban 1: Caban 5 Caban 12Caban 6Caban 13Caban 3 Caban

8 Ezanab 2Ezanab 6 Ezanab 13 Ezanab 7 Ezanab 1 Ezanab 4 Ezanab

9 Cib 3 Cib 10 Cib 7 Cib 1 Cib 8 Cib

1oCaban 4Caban 11 Caban 8Caban_ 2 Caban 9 Caban

11 Ezanab 5 Ezanab 12 Ezanab g Ezanab 3 Ezanab 10 Ezanab

We see by examining the list of days in the Table No. u, that

these three days follow each other in the order here given, thus:

if the first is 6 Cib, the next is 7 Caban and the next 8 Ezanab.

It follows, therefore, that the three days of any one of these

groups must fall in the same month! and year, hence we have to

search for but four years for each column—but 4 x 13 = 52

years, an entire cycle. As the three numbers in a group will

sufficiently designate the group, we will omit the names.

Years. Years. Years. Years, TABLE X.

a fe -- 7Cauac 12Kan 4Muluc 9g Ix 3 :

13, I, 2 oor I wig 6 € II . 3 ae g c 5

or Be Gites... £7 io Sahat ; ee 3 2 = 4

it, 12, . 12 “ 4 * 9 1 je Ae

5, 6, aR 6 si II ¥ 3 a 8 ais sis o ha 13

MP ABE koe o> vob d iM $0. # a r*| 2*| 3%) 4*

2, 3; erie y “ 2 eee 5 “ec 5* 6* *| gs

WAG Ave... oe: Fe ee auf y 2 Hose g* |ro* | 11* | 12%

ogo... 4 * 9, tee EO ee mM

MAY, 180s. oe 5 as etd ea se oe 10* 11*

1.3, Ga. oe ee 13 cis Io * 12* 13* ei 2

aegis. 2.8 7 12 4% Bri ae sey 8°

* 1 Be * 1 10%

8, Oy 20. eo. «+ 9 bi pe 6 * ois 11* |12* 13* 1*

If we mark in the table the numbers cor- se s 4* oe

responding with these years, we find that they. || ,o*/17*| 12* 13*

Make one complete cycle, neither more nor Te at

less, It is true we should find the same |! —/~————-__—_

result, no matter where we begin in the cycle, but the point in-

sisted on is, that they form a continuous term corresponding

~ With one of the Maya periods.

We give one more example. In the second division of Plates xxx

and xxx commencing on the left half of the former and continuing

through the latter, we find a series of similar figures, except the

‘It is not necessary as a matter of course, that three successive days always fall in

the same month, but in this case they do. In the Dresden codex plates 5 1-38, we

find similar three day columns, some of which do not conform to this rule.

638 The Manuscript Troano, [ August,

one on the right of the first plate, which is the god Tlaloc, or

Maya equivalent. Over each figure are red numerals differing in

number, and in front black numerals all denoting 11, The red

numerals are (?) 9, 7, 5,3. The first is obliterated, but judging

from the space, is 1, but by the succession, is 11; however, as the

result will be the same except as to the position of the period in

the table, it does not make any material difference for present

purposes, which we select. For reasons not necessary to be dis-

cussed here, notwithstanding the strong evidence afforded by the

succession of numbers, we are inclined to believe the missing

number was I, and that the order was 9, I, 3, 5,7: The days

found at the left of the compartment on Plate xxx1, are Kan, Cib,

Lamat, Ahau, Eb; as each numeral applies to each day, the

number of years panies will be 5 x 5 x 4= 100, and will be as

follows, the month being the 11th in each case:

9 Kan, g Cib. 9 Lamat. g Ahan, 9 Eb.

Years....12 Cauac 13 Cauac 8 Cauac 3 Cauac 4 Cauac

“peso 4 Ran 5 Kan 13 Kan 1 Kan 9 xan

yes. '2Muluc «10 Muluc 11 Muluc 6 Muluc 1 Muluc

i tees oe 2 Ix g ik 11 Ix 12 Ix

7 Kan. 7 Cib. a Lamat. 7 Ahau. 7 Bb.

Years....10Cauac 11 Cauac 6 Cauac 1 Cauac 2 Cauac

ei en 3 Kan 11 Kan 12 Kan 7 Kan

eee ks wee 8 Muluc 9 Muluc 4 Muluc 12 Muluc

eee Sh Te 13 Ix 1 Ix 9 Ix 10 Ix

5 Kan, 5 Cib. 5 Lamat. 5 Ahan. 5 Ph

Years.... .8 Cauac 9 Cauac 4 Cauac 12Cauac 13 Cauac

o cecet3 Man 1 Kan 9 Kan 10 Kan 5 Kan

« .+.-11 Muluc -6 Muluc 7 Muluc 2Muluc 10 Mulue

* Leng dx 11 Ix 12 Ix 7 Ix 8 Ix

3 Kan. 3 Cb. 3 Lama. 3 Ahau. jg Eb.

vee, ... 6 Cauac 7 Cauac aCanac 10. Canac, 11,0005

S ctieh t Ran 12 Kan 7 Kan 8 Kan 3 Kan

ce 9 Uee 4 Muluc 5 Muluc 13 Muluc 8 Muluc

wees ek 9 Ix 10 Ix 5 Ix 6 Ix

1 Kan. z Cib. + Lama. rz Ahau. 1 Eb.

Years,... 4 Cauac 5 Cauac 13 Cauac 8 Cauac g Cauac

wees 8 een 10 Kan 5 Kan 6 Kan 1 Kan

“ 4... 7Muluc 2Muluc 3 Muluc 11 Muluc 6 Muluc

oy anne Uk 7 Ix 8 Ix 3 Ix 4 Ix

We give here a table running through four cycles, ‘

we mark the five periods indicated by the preceding list. Ear

1881. ] The Manuscript Troano, 639

as a matter of course, embraces twenty years, but we observe

TABLE XL. between each period

four uncounted years.

We must not presume

from this that these

T L2 i 3) 4 years are never counted,

vei ee 7*| 8*F || as this is contradicted

g* | 10* | 11* | 12*

rst re] ge] om not only by the pre-

4*| 5*| 6*| 7% ceding example but by

| 8*| o*f{ 1o;ir || others which might be

eee, ee presented ; still it does

3 : a indicate that the view

- th * Z maintained by Perez

“hd bat ag Betis Ge’ was correct. Assuming

ery sis that a Katun consisted

1o /ir | 12 |'r3 of twenty-four years,

Ab ED a BP we can see from this

Clery ts table why they were

9 180 te. {ta numbered in the pecu-

wits ts liar manner heretofore

4 $:4.60 9 mentioned. We _ see

$ for) BF that the years with

routoes iA which the five, here

; : : ne marked, begin, are II,

rr fre (13 | 1 9, 7, 5, 3, in other words

214 | get's this order necessarily

Gil PO GS follows if the Katun or

to lar ir2 | 43 Ahau (we prefer the

name Katun) consists

of 24 years. If the upper and lower dark lines are extended

across so as to include the whole 24 years, the periods will then

commence with the years 9, 7, $, 3, I, and will, as I believe, give

us the correct numbers of these Ahaues.

Our Space will not permit us to give further examples or to

discuss further the meaning and use of the numerals. But before

Closing we would ask the reader to turn again to our table No. vit.

showing the period indicated by the characters on Plates xX—XXII,

S we see, this embraces part of two cycles, and includes parts

of me least three Katuns, If I am correct, it will then include a

Period of time which was considered notable by that people. If

640 The Manuscript Troano. [ August,

we turn to Plate xxxiu1, where Cauac is the ruling character, we

find, as I think, in the figures of the upper compartment, and in

its ground-color, which is of a brownish or twilight tint, indica-

tions of the close of some important period of time. We see

Ahau with a fiery red face sinking out of sight in the lower, left-

hand corner, casting back, as represented by the torch in his hand,

his fiery beams as he sinks below the western horizon. We say

_ “sinks below,” because, just above is another (headless) figure on

which is the character Caban or Cab which signifies “to descend,”

and the machete. The dark figure to the right drops ten white

balls, to the last or upper of which he points one finger; while

just above it we see a single dark one, with a slender streak of

light in it, just leaving the hand. If we cast our eyes over the

Cauac column of the tables we see that ¢ex, of the first cycle, 15

followed by ove, of the second. This 10 corresponds with the 10

Cauac year in the next to the last group in Table x1. To the

left, and directly in front of the face of the dark figure, are two

characters connected, the lower one Cauac, the upper a rather

unusual form of Ix. We have in this a symbol of the meeting of

the two periods, the one ending with 13 Ix the other commencing

with 1 Cauac.

The most conspicuous object in the compartment is the br ight

blue figure in the upper left-hand corner, on a black ground,

surrounded by a white bordering which is crossed by dotted rays,

each ending with a small round character. By counting, we fin

there are just twenty-three of these rays, but exactly where the

dagger crosses to the eye, isa space for one more—the 2qth.

One year more will complete the Ahau and then its light will go

out forever.

If we notice the single red dot over the second Canac character

in the left-hand column of this Plate (xx), we observe that it 15

surrounded by a circle of dots, indicating its importance in some

respect.

We might go on to show that the figures in the upper compart-

ments of the four Plates xx—xxim all relate to the close or com™

mencement of some important period, but our limits will not

permit of this, moreover our only object in presenting the fore-

going is to call attention to the evidence of the following ©o”

clusions:

Ist, That the work isa religious calendar of some kind; 24,

1881.] Editors’ Table. 641

that the day characters are used for the purpose of designating the

days and not for the significations for the words; 3d, that Landa’s

characters for the days are at least substantially correct ; 4th, that

the columns composed of these characters are to be read from the

top downwards; 5th, that the red numerals refer to the days or

years of the week; and 6th, that the black numerals in connec-

tion with the day characters, as well as those in the spaces usually

refer to the numbers of the month. There are some apparant ~

exceptions, but I have ascertained, as I can show, that these are

only apparent and not real exceptions. I may also add that we

have in what has been shown strong evidence that Perez was

right in asserting that the Ahau consisted of 24 years.

I have succeeded in deciphering a number of the hieroglyphics

of the text but will not enter upon an explanation of these at

present, as I have only commenced this part of the work.

70.

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

The recent attempt on the life of the President of the United

States naturally leads to reflections on the mental condition of the

author of the crime. It is profitable to look into the question

involved in the words insanity and responsibility, as expressed in

terms of mental science.

The clearest classification of the mental faculties arranges them

under the three heads of the affections or emotions, the intellect,

and the will. It is held that through the mutual actions of the

qualities of these three divisions, the acts, ordinary and extra-

ordinary, are produced. The affections include the tastes or ten-

dencies of the individual, which -determine primarily the general

direction of conduct. The intelligence furnishes the mode and

means of execution, besides directing the affections through the

light it throws on ends, as well as means, For those who do not

believe that the doctrine of the directive power of the strongest

inducement, covers the whole ground, the will is supposed to

choose between the motives offered by the two classes of faculties

first named,

Experience shows that the mind may be disordered in one of

these departments and not in another, or in only one, sometimes

642 Editors’ Table. [August,

a very subordinate, subdivision of either one of them. Emotional

insanity may coéxist with unimpaired intelligence, and vice-versa;

but when one class of faculties is involved, it is usual for the

other to be more or less affected. So closely are they interwoven

in practice, that it is not easy to unravel the insane thread from

the fabric of the actions, and assert that the disorder is located in

this or that region of the mental machine. To do this success-

fully is one of the future possibilities of a completed metaphysics.

The history of Guiteau, as reported in the daily papers, clearly

indicates affectional disorder. He is evidently a person more or

less insensible to the ordinary feelings of benevolence, and sym-

pathy with his kind. His general dishonesty in questions of prop-

erty, is also in evidence. The manner of his matrimonial ventures

indicates the same. His regardlessness of the opinion of his fellow-

men is an indication of affectional deficiency. Ingenuity and ability

in the execution of his preferences, indicate that a part at least of

his rational faculties are sound. Guiteau is however subject to

the control of what is termed “ the fixed idea,” which is probably

at root an emotional disorder, though it has the appearance of

disease of the power of ratiocination, The mind becomes pos-

sessed of an idea to which it clings in spite of powerful counter-

inducements, whether arising from the part of reason or feeling.

This is probably because of some peculiar pleasure experienced

in its possession. Excessive feeling controlling reason, is its usua

phase, but it may sometimes be due to a defect of reason alone in

some particular. In that case, however, there must be less of

energy and tenacity in the idea. If Guiteau correctly represents

himself, the enthusiasm for the performance of a great deed to

benefit a great country, and destined to confer lasting fame upon

himself, as an instrument in the hand of God, has excluded all

opposing thoughts. Here now is sufficient evidence of great

defect of the rational faculties. Regardlessness of consequences

alone cannot be so construed, for all true heroism displays it;

It is true that many persons accounted sane, possess pre] udices

dea.” All persons at times

1881.] Recent Literature. 643

insanity is not a clear one, and that the attempt to draw it sharply

is futile. ‘

In like manner we wilt not attempt to fix responsibility for

these states and their outcoming acts. It is too deep a question

for the present state of science, and so we leave it. Practically,

be taken of the matter, which is accordant with philosophy and

effective in practice. The mind of the so-called insane are as

open to the influence of motives as are those of the sane. If

those motives are known, supply them in order to produce results,

Pains and penalties affect the insane, though perhaps in different

kind and degree, from those that control the sane. or the

benefit of other disordered minds, if not for that of the guilty

person, let them be inflicted. This will not be in a spirit of re-

venge, but in benevolent consideration for the greatest good of

the greatest number.

:0:

RECENT LITERATURE:

fundamental distinction between man and animals,” he proceeds

. . u < . *

Givided into numerous races, his origin, antiquity and original

irth-place, his migrations from his specific center, and the steps

‘ The Human Species. By A. De Quatref: Profi f Anthropology in the

. By A. ages vse sane ‘

Museum of Natural inact Paris. te International Scientific Series, New York,

- Appleton & Co., 1881. 12mo, pp. 498. $2.00.

644 wrecent Literature. [ August,

in his acclimatization as he moved out in successive waves of

migration from his birth-place. Our author then studies primitive

man, the fossil human races, and finally discusses the physical and

psychological characters of the present human races. From this

sketch it will be seen in what a comprehensive way De Quatre-

fages has viewed the subject.

After endeavoring to prove the unity of the human species, a

topic upon which there is now but little disagreement, he discusses

Darwinism, and, while he accepts the doctrine of natural

selection, claims that we have not yet discovered any vera causa

of transmutation of species, though expressing his willingness

to accept a theory of evolution when a good working one is dis-

covered. He meanwhile strongly insists upon the fact that the

early races of man have been modified during their migrations,

and that the prehistoric races have been acted upon by climatic

changes; thus far De Quatrefages is an evolutionist. His

i of Huxley’s pithecoid man,

are certainly weighty.

As to the antiquity of man, De Quatrefages agrees with those

who trace him back to miocene times, or to use his own, emphatic

words, “Man was most certainly in existence during the

quaternary epoch and during the transition age, to which the

gravels of Saint Prest and the deposits of the Victoria cave be-

ong. He has, in all probability, seen miocene times, and con-

sequently the entire pliocene epoch” and, he adds, man may “ have

been contemporaneous with the earliest mammalia, and go back

as far as the secondary period.” ;

While, simply for want of evidence, discarding the views of

Darwin and Haeckel, as to the origin of man from some lower

mammal, and indulging in no speculations of this sort, h2 still

applies to man Darwin's theory of natural selection an the

principle of the struggle for existence among the different races.

After tracing briefly the history of the Aryan race, its orig!)

on the southern slopes of the central Himalayas, in a region where

the summer lasted only two months, and indicating the route this

hardy race followed as it decended into Bokhara, and overrur

Persia and Cabul before reaching the basin of the Indus, and

finally reached the Ganges, and showing how this prepotent race

overran the world until it has gradually become acclimatized et

the poles to the tropics, he graphically compares the beginning Ht

the human race to that of the far later Aryan race, in the follow-

ing words :—

“The human species must have made a beginning like the

Aryans. Upon leaving their center of creation, it was by SiOW

stages that the primitive colonists, ancestors of all existing tact

marched forth to the conquest of the uninhabited world. — They

thus accustomed themselves to the different conditions of existence

1881. ] Recent Literature. 645 .

imposed upon them by the north, the south, the east, or the west,

cold or heat, plain or mountain. Diverging in every direction,

and meeting with different conditions of life, they gradually

established a harmony between themselves and each one of them.

Thus acclimatization, advancing at the same rate as geographical

conquest, was less fatal. The struggle, however, though mitigated

indeed by the slowness of the advance, still existed, and many

pioneers must have fallen upon the route. But the survivors had

only nature to face, and, therefore, succeded, and peopled the

orld.”

The studies of our author and the facts he presents are ex-

tremely interesting, as well as original and most valuable to the

zoologist. How he looks upon primitive man may be seen by

another extract, which reads as if written by a confirmed evolu-

tionist.

“The primitive type of the human species must necessarily

have been effaced, and have disappeared. The enforced migra-

tions, and the actions of climate, must of themselves have produced

this result. Man has passed through two geological epochs ;

perhaps his center of appearance is no longer in existence; at

any rate, the conditions are very different to those prevailing

when humanity began its existence. When everything was

agents, if they remain constant, agents of stabilization. In bo

cases their result is to harmonize organisms with the conditions

of their existence. Heredity, which is essentially a preserving

agent, becomes an agent of variation when it transmits and ac-

cumulates the modifying actions of the conditions ole

De Quatrefages in opposition to Lubbock and others claims,

. 646 - Recent Literature. [August,

with citations of numerous authorities, that the lowest of existing

savages, such as the Australians, have a moral sense and ideas of

a God, and that so far as we know the earliest prehistoric races

had the religious sense and an idea of a. hereafter, as shown by

the burial of their dead.

The book, though published in the present year, must have

been prepared several years since, as it is strangely deficient in ref-

erences. to recent discoveries in American anthropology, such as.

Wyman’s works, the discoveries of Professor J. D, Whitney in

California and several other prominent archzologists, but still the

work is a most useful and valuable one, in many respects written

from an advanced standpoint, and. the author distinguishes, as 1s

not always done by modern anthropologists, between reasonable

inductions and simple conjectures.

Tue ZooLocicaL Recorp For 1879.\—This volume, though

erence book for zodlogists. A have repeatedly said, rape

merican zodlogists or entomologists, who live out of reac i

libraries, would do well own the volumes as they annually

appear. The Record for 1880 is promised to subscribers 10 the

course of the present year. Meanwhile the work of the eanetn,

will be greatly facilitated and the list of zodlogical papers and oF

new species and genera more perfect if American authors hie

think to send copies of their articles to the editor, care of Mr. ws

Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row, London.

_ Our Sportine Journats.2—No country can boast of porns

conducted sporting journals than the United States. The a

of our country furnishes many varieties of sport, and all are tag

represented by agreeable correspondents from every section O° va

continent. An important function of these periodicals, and ne

which they are effectively performing, is the preservation of

' The Zoological Record for 1879; being volume ‘sixteenth of the Record of

Zoological Literature. Edited by Eowarp CALDWELL Rye, London, pel and

* Afield and Afloat, Philadelphia, 16 pp. The American Field, New tL lot 22.

Chicago, 28 pp. Zhe Forest and Stream and Rod and Gun, New York, pp» *™ -

The Chicago Fitld, Chicago, 24 pp. .

1881. ] Recent Literature. 647

Native fauna of the country. No one is more solicitous for the

protection of our wild animals than the true sportsman. Without

them, indeed, his occupation would be gone. It is through the

pressure brought to bear by gentlemen represented by these

journals, that such protective legislation as we have, has been ob-

tained, In their- pages we constantly find protests against the

murderous practices of a class of hunters who care for nothing

but the gratification of the instinct of destruction, and who would,

if not suppressed, reduce the world to a condition as lifeless as

that of our unfortunate neighbor the moon.

A valuable feature of these journals is the scientific element

which enters into them. They all have a department devoted to

exact information, which is generally edited by some competent

Scientist. In this, as in other respects, the NATURALIST recognizes

in these journals natural allies in the work of interesting and in-

Structing in the facts of nature. By these facts we live, enjoy,

suffer and die; and the knowledge of them is a most agreeable

combination of the wile with the duice.

Report OF THE GEOLOGICAL SuRVEY OF CANADA FOR 1878-79."

This volume possesses special interest from the large amount. of

novel information it gives regarding the geology and physical

geography of British Columbia and of the region lying west of

Hudson’s bay. While the survey work has gone on in Canada,

Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, having been performed in the

latter province by Messrs. Bailey, Matthew and Ells, British

Columbia has naturally, from the recent discovery of coal an

gold mines, received of late particular attention. Mr. G. M.

Dawson has had charge of this region. His report relates to the

zueen Charlotte islands. He believes that two periods of glacia-

tion have occurred on these islands, the second less intense, con-

sisting of a temporary advance of glaciers from the various

mountain systems, Mr. Robert Bell’s report of his explorations

of the Churchill and Nelson rivers, and around God’s and Island

Lakes is a continuation from the previous volume of his account

of this vast and little known region. The remarks on the north-

€rn limits of forest trees in British America and on forest preserva-

ton will be of much permanent value, as well as the zoological

and botanical appendices in the volume, To anthropologists the

chapter by Mr. Dawson on the habits and architecture of the

cong Indians will prove well worth examining and of permanent

lue.

Recenr Lirgorocicat Nortices.—In a brief paper on the age

of the copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior, which is extracted

fromthe Proceedings of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, Boston Meeting, 1880, Mr. M. E. Wads-

* Geological Survey of Canada. ALFRED R.C. Setwyn, F. R. S., F. G. S,

Director, R “A ese for 1878-79. Montreal, Dawson Biothers, 1880. 8vo,

With Maps bis pine a serine ene 3

648 Recent Literature. [ August,

worth thinks he has proved that the eastern sandstone conform-

ably underlies the copper-bearing rocks, and that both are of the

same geological age, and that the evidence brought forward by

r. Rominger until disproved, shows that Messrs. Foster and

(Nos. 111, 1v, May 1881). No. 11 is on an occurrence of gold in

Maine, at Sullivan, Hancock county. No. tv, is of considerable

interest, being a microscopical study of the iron ore, or peridotite

of Iron Mine hill, Cumberland, R. I. The rock is similar to the

celebrated iron ore of Taberg, Sweden, which has been worked

for over 300 years. As it was impossible by field observations to

determine the origin of the rock, Mr. Wadsworth concludes that

it is most probably eruptive in its nature. This examination may

serve, the author adds, as an illustration of the aid that microscop!-

cal lithology may be to the practical side of life. hate

Tue Economic Enromotocy or Ontario, CANADA.1—This 2

one of a series of reports which have been annually cal

since 1870 by a Society which has done much good, both in the

Provinces and in the United States, towards compiling and ot

ing a knowledge of the habits of our more injurious insec :

These reports are mostly made up of compilations from mavens

authors, and while the scientific organ of the Society, the Cava 7

Entomologist, which has many contributors in the States, publis a

much that is new about our common injurious insects, It wou

be well if our Canadian friends could find the opportunity a

make and publish in their Annual Report original saieeighiee ,

for the field is a wide one, and original observers are sadly nee e ;

Tne Geotocy oF Inprana.2W—While the larger proportion a

this report is devoted to statistics and allied subjects, yan he

hundred pages bear upon the geology and paleontology Of. A

State, the latter comprising descriptions of the more Sense

fossils of Indiana, by Dr. C. A. White, adapted for the use 0

public and beginners in the study. rien ie

RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thee ae

Dr. H. G. Bronn, Fortgesetzt von C. K. Hoffmann, Prof. 1 Jates.

Band, 111, Abtheilung. Reptilien, 16. und 17. Lieferung. 12vo, pp- 68, 3 P

Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1881. From the editors. Fraas.

Simosaurus pusillus, aus der Lettenkohle von Holeneck, von Dr. Oscar

Separat-Abdruck ans den Wiirttemb. Naturw, Jahreshefien, Jahrg. 1881. $v PP:

6, 1 plate. From auth r.

Paleoethnologie de L’Antiquité de L’Homme dans les Alpes-Maritimesy Pe

Emile Riviére. Planches en chromo-lithographie par J. Cillay. Gravures

par Guzman. 4vo, pp. 31, IV, plates. Paris, 1881. From the author.

; : the

1 Annual Report of the Entomological Society of the Province of One, f yes

year 1880. Printed by order of the Legislative Assembly, Toronto, 1551-

pp.

‘ B

* Second Annual Report of the Department of Statistics and Geology, 1880+ ( y

Joun Cotter, Chief of Bureau.) Indianapolis, 1880. 8vo, pp- 544:

1881.] Recent Literature, 649

Sur les plus anciens te. on sry ie en France. Par M. A, Gaudry. 4vo, pp.

4. Paris 1881. Fro

Note sur une rier ig et “tie Pett tyes ede oie bi Madagascar. Par

L. 8 18

le Dr. E, L. Trouessart. 8vo, pp. 12,11 plate. Paris, 1881. m the author

evision synoptique du Genre Semnopitheaue (Semnopithecus) et desription de

quelques especes rares au rie connus. Par | . Trouessart. S8vo

Paris, 1881, From the auth :

Horse, Part 1, Zodlogy a piers ‘An natomy. Prof. W. H. “wipes 8vo, pp. 12, cuts.

Ree from Nehiayelopelin Britanica, 1881. From the author

On the ge Generative organs of ae hg gyi: gracias SSapperee lag

sumatranus), By W. A. Forbes, B. A L. S., Scholar of St. John’s College,

Cambridge, Provet to the Soc iety. "Fo m the Hhigyarca of the Zoological

Society, 4to, pp. 1 plate. Cambridge, 1881. From the author

Bie the Elephant Seal saat ts ae leoninus Linn) by Willia a Ht Flower, LL.

» FR. ZS., Fr cB hai of the Zoological Speity'o of

rie ‘vo pp. hs t eccahig anges Fe the author.

On the a Fabricii in Birds. A. Fone ® Z.S. From proceedings of

the Zoologia s Society of London, ss ‘pp. 15, cuts, ‘London, 1881, From the

On some points in the structure of bh patie on its Affinities. By W. A.

eae B.A., F.L.S., Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge, Prosector to the

ety, Fr rom the proceedings of the Zictagical Society of London, 8vo, pp. 2.

ete 1880. From the author.

oo hs a deiccera ee of Passerine Birds, Part 1, On the structure of the

stomach in of Tongers. By W. A. Forbes, B.A., F.L.S., Scholar to

bt Jonas College, Cunibvidee, eShectil to the Society. Proc. Zool: Soc. 8vo, pp.

London, 1881. From author.

utes ei the Anatomy of Passerine Birds, Part mu, On the Syrinx and

other points in their Anatom my of the Eurylemide By W. A. Forbes, B.A., F.L.S.,

_ Scholar of St. John’s College, Cambridge, Proestot to the Society. From the € pro-

lone of the ~S, Aaga ae of preiee May 4, 1880, 8vo, pp. 8, cuts,'

London, 1880, From uthor

Cont Pitbvarbon ns to the nos my of sievandpace ekg: Part 11. Onsome points in

the structure of ara a pia its position amongst the rab By bie rage an

Forbes, B.A., F, » Prosector to the Soc alate Proceedings Zool. Soc., 1880, N

maids afte 0, pp. 6, cuts, Cambridge, 1881, From the

€ points in “ny Anatomy of the Koala acsoanigag cinerus), Ww.

orbes » BA, , F.Z.S., Prosector to the Soc From the proceedings of.

the deol Society of Londen, Jan, 18, 1881. ire PP 18, cuts. London, 1881,

m uthor

Note on rn a3 lett’s communication on the habits ‘of the Darter. By W. A.

Foshes, B.A., Prosector to the pie From the Zacleaies Sones of London,

sbruary 1, 1881, 8vo, pp. 1. Lond vets . m the a

On the Anatomy of Leptosoma liscolo. Forbes, TL so Bol Se, RPA

he Soc ety. From the pro oe f th Zsologial ‘Society of Loudon.

June 15, 1880. 8vo 0, pp. 10, cuts. London, 1880. Fro? ut

On the wes of the African Ele od Elephas africanus BI i vA.

Fothes, F.Z VELA - From the proceedings of ihe Zoological Society of 4 pa

May 6, 1879, ’ 8v0, pp. 18, cuts. London, 1879. From the author.

On the External Characters and Anatomy of the Red Uakari Monkey — .

Vag ae with remarks on the other species of that Genus. By W. A. For!

BA.F.LS. Fellow of St, John’s College, Cambridge, Prosector to the Soci cy.

From the Le catings of the San ial Soviety of age November 30, 1550.

YO, pp. 26, 3 sige, cuts. London, 1880. From the auth

Sm Pty d _—e By W

18 Cogemih of Den shail s Bustard She ae e

otbes, B.A , Prosector to the Society. m the proceedings of Fro is

inten Society of ra June 15, 1880. 8vo, ria , Lederer 1S8o. rom

eiesgad xV.—no. vir, 48 :

650 Recent Literature. [August,

On the Soapitions to the a gh and classification of Birds, made by the

late Prof. Garrod, F.R.S. By W. A. Forbes, B.A. Fellow of St. John’s College,

peng Ma emaaais to the Zoviveienl, Soci of London. The Ibis. Fourth Se-

ries, No. Xvi, January, 1881. 1. 1881. From the author

Reports aa Geological Explorations i 1879-30. With maps, » and sections.

James Hector, C.M.C., M.D., F.R.S., Director. Published by com Gov

A tae ag Ma ab aa New Zealand. 8vo, pp. 166, maps, cuts, mn Walliagion:

m the author.

sir Regis of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, none

Pe tiation expenditures, and condition of the it for year 1879. 8vo

bound, pp. 631, cuts. Gov. Printing Office. Washin 1881.

The Paleonicogs, June Io, 188r. pais ee to Patent, es of the

Lower Silurian formation, Ohio, Indiana and Kentucky. By U. P. Jam 80,

pp. 8. Cincinnati, 1881. From the auihiee

The Panama Canal and the Isthmus. By Col. ne Worrall. Reprint role

Pisiacers Clas of Philadelphia. Vol. 1, No. 2 8vo, pp. 8. Philadelphia,

1881. From the author.

Proceedings of the California Seg ien! of Science, at its regular meeting, Lae §

une 6, 1881. Reception of Lieut. rt M. Berry, U. S. N., commanding ie

Steamer oe. de of the Jeanette Seuc Expedition. San Francisco, Cal., 1551.

From the ety.

New Socios of Fossils and Remarks upon others from the Niagara Group of Illinois,

8vo

By S. A. Miller 0, pp. 12, 1 plate. srinhes 1881. h,

eit Mica veh of = Carolina. By W. C. Kerr, State Goole per

orth Carolina. rom the Transactions of ‘the Am hasiy napete of Dg

aeatt 8vo, pp. 6, pe New York, Feb., 1881. From

The structure, affinities and species of Scolopendrella. B om A, Rid Sg

pp. 8, cuts. Frem the proceedings of the Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, I

Philadelphia, 1881, From the author. al

Proceedings of the United States National Museum. 8vo, pp. 40, 1881. W. ‘

ington, 1881.

Memoirs of the Peabody ota of a Vol. 1, No. v. 4to, pp. 14, 2 plates-

Salem, Mass., 1881. From the a

Memoirs of the Peabody at Science, Vol. 1, No. VI. 4t0, PP» a

plate. Salem, Mass., 1881. From the academ B

Illustrations of the ‘Nests and Fees of Birds of: the United States. With Text. be

Thomas G., Gentry, 4t0, pp. 6, 2 plates, Part 8. Philadelphia, 1881. From

pare ‘

Iilustrations of the Nests and Eggs of the Birds of the United States. With Lees

By Piles . G. Gentry, 4to, pp.-14, 2 plates. Part 9. Philadelphia, 1881. From

author.

Gill-Nets in the Cod Fishery, etc. U.S, Commission of Fish and Fisheries. BY

ms ney - Collins, Bulletin U. S. Fish Commission 1, April, 1881. Washington,

Report of the State Comatidioncis of Fisheries for the years 1879 and £O8D:, 0°

bound, pp. 151, cuts. State Printer, Harrisburg, 1881. 8 C.

_ Notes on North American Microgasters with descriptions of new species. By.

V. Riley, M.A., Ph.D. From th eTransacton of the Academy of Science kag

os, Vol. 1, No, 2. Bve, PP- 20, cuts, St. Louis, April 6, 1881. From

or.

_ Johns Hopkins A oth ag Baltimore. Studies from the Biological spent

Editor H. ape M.A., D.Sc, M.D. Associate Editor, W. K- ditors. |

Ph.D., Vol. Il, S fous ns Hopkins University, June, sees From the edi :

Tllinois ane es ratory of Natural Histo Bulletin No. 4. Catalogue '

Birds of Illinois. By tin inp rt Ridgeway, Bledaington. Tl Ill. 8v0, PP- 208, May»

1881. Fr ‘he author ae

A Report of twenty ated experience in the Department of Physical Edu

1881.] Botany. 651

and Hygiene in Amherst College. To the Board of Trustees. By Edward Hitchcoc’.

8vo, pp. 16, table. Amherst, Mass, 1881. From the author.

Ward’s Natural Science Bulletin. 4to, pp. 16, cuts. New York, June 1, 1881.

From the author.

On an occurrence of Gold in Maine. By M. E. Wadsworth. 8vo, p.1, No. 3.

A Microscopical study of Iron Ore, or Peridotite of Iron Mine Hill, Cumberland,

Rhode Island. By M. E. Wadsworth. 8vo, pp. 6, No. 4. From the Bulletin of

Museum of Comparative Zoology, at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., May,

1881. From the author,

70:

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

_ Tue Poison of ZYGADENUS PANICULATUS.—A partial report from

the Government chemist, shows that the bulbs of Zygadenus

paniculatus Watson, have a glucosid to which their poisonous

properties are attributed. Convulsions and speedy death follow

the eating the bulbs of this plant. No antidote is yet known for

it—I, EF. Fones, Salt Lake City. :

GERMINATION OF AsTRAGALUS UTAHENSIS.—While gathering

plants on the mountains near Salt Lake City (Utah Territory), I

was very much puzzled by seedlings of our beautiful Astragalus

Utahensis T. and G. It grows in the sand, first throwing up its

small cotyledons, then producing two large round, woolly, simple

leaves one inch in diameter, on a petiole often three inches long;

after these comes another pair of similar leaves; then another

with two leaflets on the long petiole, then another with either two

leaflets (one on the end of the petiole and the other on one side),

or three leaflets in the true odd-pinnate style; the next pair with

either three or five, the next with five or seven, and so on, It is

a long while after the germination of the seeds before one would

Suspect that it is an Astragalus, or even a member of the Legu-

minose.— MM. E. Fones, Salt Lake City.

Ow our Rep CLoveR BEHAVEs.—In 1879 our crops of red

Clover ( Trifolium pratense) were very luxuriant. After the hay-

ing season it made a second growth, in many instances little in-

* Edited by Pror, C, E, Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

652 General Notes. [August,

and produce a new set of the plants. But this did not occur, and

in many meadows where the clover had been thickest, there were

bare patches of ground all summer long. As clover is usually

sown with timothy (Phleum pratense), this last species thickened

up and largely supplied its place, so that the hay crop was gener-

ally a fine one. During the spring of 1$80 there was less than

the usual amount of moisture in the soil, while the summer and

early autumn were excessively dry. This diminution of moisture

no doubt kept the clover seeds from germinating until this spring,

when the ground is full of moisture. To the surprise of most

people now, after the seeds have lain upon the ground two win-

ters and one summer, they have germinated, and promise to

make our meadows as luxuriant with clover as they were in 1879,

and previous years! The little plants have sprung up by millions,

simultaneously with that sown only a few weeks ago. They are

so numerous that probably not one in a score will live. But

through the unerring processes of “natural selection,” only the

fittest will survive; and what is of more practical moment, this

unlooked for result will gladden the hearts of our farmers, who

were sorely disappointed in the spring of 1880, to find that their

clover did not wake up from its long winter sleep.— Charles Ald-

rich, Webster City, lowa, May 17, 1881.

Sets or NortH AmMERrIcAN Arca.—Several years ago Dr.

Farlow, Dr. Anderson and Professor Eaton began the publication

of sets of the marine algz of the eastern and western coasts 0

North America. The first fasciculus of fifty species appeared in

1877; the second also containing fifty species in 1878; the third

containing thirty species in 1879. The fourth fasciculus has just

been issued (June), and like the first and second, it.-includes fifty

species. It may well be said that it is impossible for any one t0

get anywhere more satisfactory representatives of the one hun-

dred and eighty species already included in this important distri-

bution, Not only are the specimens all that can be desired, but

the eminent qualifications of the editors for this work, give an Uh

usual value and high authenticity to the sets. We are glad to

learn that this work has been fully appreciated by botanists, an

botanists in charge of college herbaria could hardly do better than

to secure one or more of them, especially Fasciculus 111, which

2 or mainly of the larger species, such as Sargassum ”

ts alles,

1881.] Zoblogy. 653

comycetes 44, Myxomycetes 1, and of the so-called imperfect fungi

33. In Century vir, there are of Basidiomycetes 13, Ascomycetes

42. Mixomycetes 2, miscellaneous species and imperfect forms 43.

These five sets, which now aggregate 700 species, are well nigh in-

dispensable to the botanist who wishes to intelligently study the

lower plants. Their cheapness ($7 per Century, mounted and

labeled), ought to commend them to the curators of college her-

baria. Professor Spalding, of the University of Michigan, has

reprinted from the Therapeutic Gazette, an interesting pamphlet of

16 pp. on Ustilago maydis, the smut of Indian corn. Several

wood-cuts serve to illustrate the text. Dr. Sturtevant has been

Studying the subject of seedless fruits, and has embodied his re-

sults in a paper recently printed by the Massachusetts Horticul-

tural Society. He has brought together a large number of very

curious facts. G. E. Davenport describes in the June 7Zorrey

Bulletin a new fern, Cheilanihes Parishii, from California. An ex-

cellent plate, by Faxon, accompanies the text—Professor

uckeman in the same number of the Bu//etin directs attention to

logue of the Musci of the valleys of the Serchio and the Magra

(central Italy west of the Appenines), by Fitzgerald and Bottini,

ccupies about 100 pp. of the April number of Wuove Giornale

otanico Italiano. Three hundred and sixty-nine species are ~

ire Full notes as to habitat and locality accompany each

en ry.

ZOOLOGY.

near by. | : hae ah

I also mentioned seeing a robin ( Turdus migratorius ) during the

654 General Notes... [August,

“blizzard” times last winter. After my article was sent away, I

repeatedly saw one, which I presumed to have been the same bird.

It undoubtedly tarried with us during all of our unexceptionably

severe winter. I am also reliably informed that these birds wine

tered in large numbers in Boone county, thirty or forty miles

south of this place, that they made their homes in some of the

deep ravines which extend back from the Des Moines river. In

these ravines there would generally be open water from springs,

about which they could doubtless pursue food, while the high

timbered bluffs would very materially modify the severe climate.

A few nights ago a young friend was passing an old mill just

across the river from me, with a lighted lantern. His attention

was attracted to some flying creatures, which came very close to

him, and which he thought at first were bats. But stopping a

moment, he caught two of them, and they proved to be swallows,

which had lately arrived, and were building their nests under the

eaves of “that ancient mill.” I read of birds being attracted by

a light, and killing themselves by flying against the windows of

lighthouses, or other elevated buildings, but never before of an

instance of this kind.

the same notes here! But there is this difference: Our jays are

very tame, almost half domesticated, coming freely to our pants

yards and corn-cribs, aud helping themselves, in a bold, confiden

hands upon his sides and captured him! It is amusing to a

them eat a kernel of our large western corn. They cann

clear. But back in western New York and Pennsy ivania,

were shy and secretive, living for the most part in the gran be

woods. It seems to me this difference in habits may be large+Y

1881.]} Zoology. 655

due to the scarcity of timber in this region, which makes it a

necessity for them to live near the abodes of men. As popula-

tion increases, their habits of familiarity are increased, and so the

blue jay has become one of the tamest and most domestic of our

Iowa birds, tolerated for his beauty and sprightliness in spite of

his alleged, and I fear too often apparent, depredations upon

other birds.—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, Fune 11, 1881.

THE OrGaAns OF SMELL IN LAND Snatits.—Dr. Sochaczewer has

endeavored in the Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie (1880),

to decide between the claims of the tentacles, the organ 0

Semper, and the pedal gland to be regarded as the organ of

smell in land snails. It has been known for many years that the

tentacles each contain a large ganglion whence radiate five fibers

with the investing epithelium, giving rise to terminal knobs, en-

dowed apparently with a sensory function. Naturalists differ as

to the office of these organs, for some, like Linnzus, regard them

as having the sense of touch. In order to decide the matter, Dr.

Sochaczewer cut off the tentacles of Helix pomatia, and after the

healing process was completed, the snail was placed in the center

of a flat plate, the edge of which was smeared with oil of turpen-

tine. The movements of the snail were very slow and uncertain. °

When it approached the edge of the plate, it behaved itself ex-

actly as did a snail in which the tentacles were completely unin-

jured, returning at last to the middle of the plate, and withdrawing

itself into its shell, This and similar experiments seem to show

that the tentacles are not the seat of the sense of smell.

Lae |

ne gg

rt)

Les 3

77)

r=)

jan

fa)

Secretion, and so come in contact with the peripheral nerve-cells.

he author concludes by pointing out that the sensory arrange-

ments which obtain in the invertebrates are not to be too closely

or hastily compared with those seen in vertebrate animals.—

Fournal of the Royal Microscopical Soctety.

Tue Srrucrure or THE ORANG Ouranc.—Under this title Dr.

H.C. Chapman has published in the Proceedings of the Academy

_ Of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, notes of the dissection of a

Male orang. The author states that “the cerebellum in my orang”

Was relatively larger than that of man, but smaller than that of

656 General Notes. [ August,

either the chimpanzees I have dissected, and was just covered and

no more by the posterior lobes of the cerebrum.” He closes his

paper with the following remarks:

“What can be inferred from the general organization of the

orang as to its relation to the other primates? The orang like

man has twelve ribs, whereas the gorilla and chimpanzee have

thirteen ; on the other hand, the carpal and tarsal bones are nine

in number in the orang, while the chimpanzee and gorilla agree

with man in having eight. The upper extremity of the orang re-

sembles that of the gorilla in the absence of the flexor longus

pollicis. The chimpanzee and man are alike in this respect, at

least the slip from the flexor longus digitorum in the former 1s

functionally a flexor longus. In the absence of a flexor longus hallu-

cis, and in the presence of an opponens hallucis, the orang differs from

man, the anthropoids, and all the monkeys. The great blood

vessels arise from the arch of the aorta in the gorilla and man in

the same way; the same disposition is usually seen in the chim-

panzee, rarely in the orang. The lungs in the orang are not

chimpanzee and man. The

the progress of biology, as many of the leading German, English,

Russian and Italian zodlogists have, owing to the unusual facilities

ong animals breeding in the aquarium, none are SO easily

observed as the large crustacea and molluscs. The large crabs

pair and lay eggs, though the zoéz or larvz, could not be reared;

Sepia, Aplysia and Doris. Though many nudibranchs lay freely,

their eggs never come to maturity. But many of the lower

animals without any care whatever, thrive and multiply wonder-

fully, Compound Tunicates take the lead among these “spo?

taneous” productions, The graceful Botryllide exuberate 1

1881.) : Zobiogy. 657

both the northern and southern tanks. Compared with Ascidians,

Polyzoa are not very. generally distributed. Bugula is now the

commonest, especially in the compartment for eels, where it

flourishes along with Zoanthus and Hydractinia. Mullet and

some other fishes, hurtful to various low growths, soon scour the

rocks tenanted by Ascidians.

e tank allotted to Annelids affords a spectacle of great

beauty and variety; in short, it is a perfect microcosm. Of ‘its

inhabitants, we can only note the young of a species of Spirorbis,

a well known commensral of Palinurus. This annelid multiplies so

fast that much trouble is spent in removing its tubes, shaped like

a post-horn, which soon cement themselves with obstinate firm-

ness to the glass windows of the aquarium.

Fishes, if we except Selachians, do not breed well in the

aquarium. Otherwise, they are flourishing prisoners; the condi-

tions unfavorable to their -propagation have not yet been

thoroughly ascertained.

Tue Eve-Like OrGaNs oF THE SKIN OF CERTAIN FisHes.—M.

Ussow, in the Bulletin of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of

oscow, 1879, gives an account of these singular organs in

Astronesthes, Argyroplicus, Chauliodus, Gonostoma, Maurolicus,

He finds that in Astronesthes, Chauhodus

Which the eyes are replaced by a large, probably luminiferous,

®rgan which covers the entire frontal part of the top of the skull.

Mason's Microscopic Sruptes in THE CentraL Nervous

SYSTEM OF Reptices anp Barracuians.—A third article by Dr.

John J. Mason on this subject, appears in the Journal of Nervous

and Mental Disease for January, 1881. The author has studied

the nuclei of the spinal cord of the alligator and Heloderma sus-

sig cells of the central nervous system have, in the same indi-

ae average diameters, which are proportional to the power

“veloped in the related muscles.”

638 General. Notes. [August,

THE JELLY FisHes oF NARRAGANSETT Bay.—A beautifully illus-

‘trated memoir entitled ‘‘ Studies on the jelly-fishes of Narragansett

bay,” by J. W. Fewkes, appears in the Bulletin of the Museum of

Comparative Zodlogy, under date of February, 1881. It con-

tains an account of certain new Acalephe, collected by the author

during three summers spent at Newport, with anatomical and

embryological notes. As it is impossible to give an abstract of

the article, we would refer the reader to the memoir itself, merely

stating that a number of interesting forms originally described by

Professor McCrady from Charleston, South Carolina, range as far

north as Newport.

conquest. “There seems to be no reason why, so far as the

e U.S. coast steamer Blake, dredged along the east coast of

the United States during the summer of 1880, have been an

scribed, with numerous figures, by Mr. E. B. Wilson, in the

Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. d

able feature in their deep sea forms, as in those elsewhere foun

are their colossal size, compared with the shoal water forms ;

also, in a number of forms, the eyes (ocelli) are (1) either on

mentary and destitute of pigment; or (2) entirely absent; whi :

on the other hand in Pallenopsis the eyes are relatively of un

1881.] Zoology. 659

usually great size. The remarks on the morphology and innerva-

tion of the anterior appendages are excellent, and have an inti-

mate bearing on the systematic portion of these creatures, for Mr.

Wilson sagaciously remarks that “it is easily possible that the

external resemblances of a Pycnogonid to an Arachnid are those of

analogy only, and have no morphological significance. This is the

more probable from the extreme variability of the three anterior

pairs of appendages in position and structure.” n the same

Bulletin Mr. S. Garman reports on the Selachians, all captured at

great depths, belonging to species hitherto unknown; the results

of this and other deep sea work indicate (1) that the migrations of

these animals, including the fishes, are much more limited in ex-

tent than has generally been supposed; and (2) these creatures

especially the skates, are more or less affected by a period of

comparative inaction, in a measure corresponding to what obtains

among Batrachia and Reptilia. Concerning the migrations of fish

and Selachians, there are many species in our waters, the author

remarks, “whose movements do not amount to more than short

runs from shoal to deeper water and back again. Others would

seem to extend their travels from the coasts and banks to the

Gulf Stream. And still others make much more extensive migra-

tions,” e anatomy of the African elephant is much less

-known than that of the Asiatic species, which is naturally far

more abundant in menageries and zoological gardens. Messrs.

Plateau and Liénard have recently published the results of the

dissection of an African species, with especial reference to the

eart, larynx and male reproductive organs. Apropos of this in-

teresting animal, it would seem probable that Yankee perse-

Verance and painstaking may enable us to raise our own elephants.

arnum’s baby elephant, born at Philadelphia, is growing rapidly,

and is avigorouscreature in itsthird year. Itsmotheris again about

seven months along in pregnancy, and it is therefore not unlikely

that a second one will be born in this country. The sexes in

Barnum’s herd of elephants pair readily in confinement. We learn

on good authority that an American resident in India of thirty

years, never heard of an elephant being born there, and was as-

tonished at learning of the birth of one in the United States.

. . Forbes has succeeded Professor Garrod as prosector

to the zodlogical society of London. He is successfully rivaling

his able predecessor in the quality of his papers, which are chiefly

devoted to the anatomy of mammalia and birds.——Dr. Troues-

sart has completed his catalogue of the mammalia as far as the

end of the Rodentia, including that order with the Prosimie and

the Quadrumana, ‘The number of species is so far 2001. The

Catalogue will be very useful to students, as it includes synonymy

ri geographical distribution, as well as the extinct species.——

t. Gentry continues his illustrated quarto work on the nests and

gs of American birds. The last plates issued are very good,

660 General Notes. [ August,

and the text is written with considerable literary ability ——Mr.

Ridgway gives a list of the species of birds of Illinois which is

critical and verv full, including 341 species.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Tite Eco-case AND LarvA OF HyDROPHILUS TRIANGULARIS SAY,

As the nidus and young of this beetle do not appear to have been

observed, a few notes gathered from an examination of several

egg-cases and of larve hatched from them may be of interest.

The cases were collected about the first of June, 1876, from a

small pool of water in the Normal School grounds at this place.

A half dozen were obtained floating at the surface of the water,

with bits of weeds and dead leaves attached to the upper surface

as floats (Fig. 1). In no case were they secured to living plants,

fete ee +

1.—Eggs, egg-case and larva of Hydrophilus, nat. size; @ air-tube, 4 €x-

panded lower portion of tube; ¢ opening into nidus; @ eggs shown in vertical sec-

tion of nidus; ¢ empty under portion of the case; f chambers above eggs; £ larva.

€Garman del.)

as the egg-case of H. piceus is said to be. In one instance @

female was discovered finishing her case. The last touches were

being put on the expanded lower portion of the “horn” (Fig. 1, 6),

this part of the latter being then of a rich yellow color. 42°

nidus and its maker were lifted gently in the hand and carried @

vessel of water: finished her task. When the case was next

observed the yellow material had been concealed by a brown

gummy coating. |

The surface of the egg-case is smooth, light brown, and re-

sembles very closely that of the nidus of the large black and

yellow spider, Argiope riparia (2). Viewed from above or below,

the outline is a good circle. The diameter is about 20™, *

‘This department is edited by Pror. C. V. Ritey, Washington, D. C., t0 whom

communications, bouks for notice, etc., should be sent.

1881.] Entomology. ~ 661

depth about 14™. The spine-like process (Fig. 1, @) which

arises from what may be termed the front of the case is of a

dense horny nature, quite unlike the remainder of the case. It

expands below into a hatchet-shaped plate (Fig. 1, 4). The spine

indeed is formed by this plate narrowing and folding backwards

above the case until its edges almost meet, thus forming a partial

tube, which, as will be seen later, facilitates the entrance of air

into the interior. The length of the tube, as also the shape of

the plate, varies somewhat. Below the hatchet-shaped expansion

is a narrow opening (Fig. I, c) into the case, allowing the water

free passage from without and permitting the escape of the larve.

he eggs form a discoid mass suspended from the roof of the

nidus. They are all placed vertically and arranged closely in a

single layer. (See Fig. 1, @.) Specimens (in alcohol) are cylindri-

cal, about 4™™ in length and about 1™ in diameter. One hun-

dred and seven were counted in one nidus. The mass is surrounded

by a rather loosely woven silken coat, while each egg is wrapped

Separately in a coat of similar character. Below, at the sides,

and behind the mass, is left a vacant space (Fig. I, ¢) into which

the opening in front gives access to the water. The silken material

above and in front of the eggs is so disposed as to form large.

cells (Fig. 1,/) and these connect with the tube through which

air is admitted.

The chief object of the peculiarly constructed case appears to

be to ensure a supply of air to the newly hatched larve. As

will be seen by reference to the figures, this object is attained by

excluding water from, and admitting air into, the upper part of

the case, and by attaching a float to the upper surface. This

keeps the top of the case at the surface of the water while the

air-tube projects above.

In the very young larve, the head is relatively wider and larger

‘very way than in older examples ; the body is covered by a coat

of short, fine pubescence, becomes gradually wider from behind

forwar ds, and the general color is a uniform grayish-brown, becom-

Ing lighter beneath, In older examples, the body is sensibly

natrowed before and behind. In the largest specimen examined,

the pubescence is wanting, and there is a faint dorsal line, with

a Droader waved line bordered outside with dark on each side

of it. The head is so attached to the body as to project obliquely.

upwards; it is reddish-brown, with obsolete darker shades. The

mandibles and labium are narrowly edged with black. The legs

are of the same color as the head. The skin is-minutely roughened

ae deeply wrinkled. The lateral appendages of other Hydrophi-

la are represented by elevations so slight as to be scarcely

- i ¥ rom the under side of the last segment of the abdomen

. 1S species, arise two light-colored, cylindrical, flexible appen-

(eee about equal in length to the first joint of the antenna.

or the larva, see Fig, 1, g:)

662 General Notes. (August,

Figure 2, a renders a detailed description of the mouth-parts

A noticeable

characteristic is the differ-

ence in size and shape of

the right and left mandibles.

The right is longer, more

slender and strongly

curved, and has a bicuspid

prominence on the cutting

edge. The left one has a

single minute tooth. The

maxillz are the most promi-

Fic. 2.— Head an .. nent mouth parts, and are

larva, enlarged; a, fsa ade elas aaa Blew: probably chilly useful as

eenemeapees palpi. They are especially

large in the youngest larva. The terminal palpial joint and the

small appendage of the second joint have areas at their apices

from which arise tactile.rods. The inner edges of the long basal

joints of both the maxilla and antennz are beset with numerous

straight hairs. Lateral basal prominences of the labium are

roughened with minute, depressed, tooth-like processess.

The legs do not vary perceptibly ; all have the femora supplied

with fringes of soft hair (Fig. 2, 8).

The striking feature of the tracheal system is two large longi-

tudinal trunks, one on each side of the middle line of the

body (Fig. 3 % dia

acles are never

i Fic, pees y racheal system of Hydrophilus larva. - :

@, bode showing the a branches of tracheal certainly or tru termi

system; 4, opening of large spiracle; c, terminal besides the large ence

appendage; d@, stigmatal bran - ie i irs of

Ret del) 3 @, stigma ch of trache. (Gar- ya] pair, nine pairs 7

iracles, with bran a

of these

running to them from the large trunks, can be counted. One

1881. ] Anthropology. 663

larvee has lateral filaments a sixteenth of an inch long, but there

is no connection between them and the stigmatal branches of the

trachee. (Fig. 3, 2, shows one of the branches.) The latter open

immediately over the large trunks some distance above the lateral

filaments. They are very short, are comparatively small, pass

directly upward to the skin from the trunks, and consequently a

good view of them can scarcely be obtained without dissection,

certainly not without rendering the specimens transparent. They

can be best seen by cutting out a strip of skin above the trunks,

placing it, with the air-vessels attached, under the microscope,

and rolling one of the trunks aside with a needle. The

spiracles are situated in the anterior border of the mesothorax,

the second in the anterior border of the metathorax, and follow-

ing these there are seven others in the abdomen besides the large

terminal pair, making ten pairs in all.

Westwood states that the terminal appendages of the abdomen

(Fig. 3, c) are respiratory organs. With this statement in mind I

was prepared to see them well supplied with tracheze, and was

Surprised to find, instead, but a simple branch of not more than

one-twentieth the diameter of the appendages.

he trunks give off numerous short branches in the abdomen

and thorax near the points from which the branches proceed to

the stigmata. At the posterior part of the prothorax the trunks

divide, one large branch on each side continuing forward till near

the front of the head, where branches are given off supplying the

mandibles, maxilla and antennz. At about the point at which

these branches leave the main branch, an arch is formed by a

branch from each side curving forwards towards the middle line

and there uniting. The anterior portion of this arch lies within

the base of the labium, where branches pass forward from it into

the labial palpi. The other branches produced by the division of

¢ trunks form a large arch, the anterior portion of which lies

within the base of the head. Branches from this arch pass along

hi side of the cesophagus, while others supply the sides of the

yap and the region of the eyes. (See diagram, Fig. 3, a.)—W.

- Garman, Normal, Ills.

ANTHROPOLOGY .'

the MPARATIVE Brotocy.—The comprehensive term by which

well nigh settled in its application. In the summaries which have

€n published in the NaTurauist, the Smithsonian Report, and

folle d's Annual Record, it has been found convenient to adopt the

pNeeteg 3 subdivisions of Anthropology: 1. Anthropogeny, in-

is me both the laws of environment and inheritance as effecting

ne affecting our race ; “2. Archzeology, a term well understood ;

3 Anatomy, specificand comparative; 4. Psychology, involuntary

1 *

Edited by Prof. Oris T. Mason, 1 305 Q Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.

664 General Notes. [ August;

and voluntary; 5. Ethnology, including ethnography, the descrip-

tion and discussion of races; 6. Philology, noting the origin and

elaboration of language; 7. Technics, or the manifestations of

handicraft in peace and war; 8. Sociology, noting the origin and

differentiation of society; 9. Religion, embracing all discussions

concerning the origin and forms of the religious sentiment; 10.

The description of all the instrumentalities of research, museums,

libraries, journals, works of general merit, instructions to col-

lectors, instruments of precision, and bibliography.

The term comparative biology, while really embracing all that

relates to all living beings, has, in anthropology, more immediate

relation with classes three and four. We have just laid aside a

charming work which, in another department of zodlogy, discusses

the subject of biology in these two aspects. We refer to St,

George Mivart’s work on the Cat, published in 1881, by Charles

Scribner's Sons of New York. Indeed, as hundreds of intelligent

scope and characters of cat language. id

Had we space, it would be profitable to discuss some of the

author's grounds at length, but this is one of the works on

anatomy which students of anthropology cannot afford to omit.

1881.] Anthropology. 665

THE British AssoctATION IN 1880.—The Report of the fiftieth

meeting, held at Swansea in August and September, 1867, is a

volume of 740 pages, with an ap endix of 92 pages giving a list

mbers. For the benefit of reference the titles of all ad-

dresses, reports and papers bearing on anthropology, are ap-

pended:

amet and concluding report of the committee Seay of John Evans, Sir John

ck, Edward Vivian, Geor - Busk, William Boyd Dawkins, William

raiitera Sanford, John Edward Lee and Wittiam "Pagal appointed for the

purpose of exploring Kent’s cavern, ew 2,

First — of me nse mmittee, consisting of Protesior A. Leith Adams, the Rev. Pro-

fessor Hau . Boyd Dawkins and Dr. John Evans, on the caves of the

aah, of ieee pages 209, 575.

Report ~ ~ anthropometric committee, consisting of Dr. Me Dr. Beddoe, Mr.

Brabrook, Sir George Campbell, F, P. peyioe sr Tes" -Gen. A. L, F. Pit-River,

F, Cal .n, wed Park H arrison, oie . Hallet, Leone Levi

Ritleton pp. 120, 625,

On the site of a Paleolithic nian manufactory at Crayford, Kent, by F. C. J.

purrell, p nde

Notes on the occurrence of stone implements in the Coast cee south of Madras,

and in rae level gravels and other formations in the South Mahratta country, by

R. Bruce Foote, of the Geological Survey of India, p. 589.

DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.

\ddress of F, W. Rudler on the nian of Wales, p. 609.

n the Origin of the Malagasy, by C. Staniland Wake, p. 620,

n the Antiquities of Loughor Cast ie by B. Jones, p. 620.

ony, : p- ae

Jn Drum- “signa ling in Africa, by iayae ore P 620.

na manuscript, perhaps Ghita, ‘tra m W. China, by Hyde Oaks oP: 621.

Tonosyllabism in philologic cleaalication, Os Hide eae p- 6:

“he st Kec thet in South Africa, by W.

Fike ORO AO NH

as:

“Ss

ie}

= t

sli stone implemen from Egypt, H. dae p- 627.

Lopes

\ pocket registrator for gr pate F. Galton, p. 625.

ek profile, J. P. oi Harmison, p. 625.

rhe flint-workers at Brandon, J. Park Harrison, p. 626.

\etention of prehistoric siecipaes in the Pyrenees, Dr. Rhené, p. 627.

“olor Phenomena i in Belgium and weg tempt ia Beddoe, p. 629.

Fecymric epoch in Wal ales, — vee p- 62

hee Crania, Professor G, Rolle ston, p. ei:

u x e

e > ee TPH a"h@ e-) So by owed eed Sag A A &,

— a

> a” 2

ilingual seal in Cuneiform and mr PCBe. prance Clarke, 633.

ehistoric relations with gesture and sign langu Hyde Clarke, p. 635.

. Ch iberia, W. Africa, si yde Clarke, p- 635.

adi ilian hapten by john H. Madge, p. 636.

'a the home of gunpowder on philitonts detente’ Dr. G. Oppert, p. 936.

Mines ees in Bertin.—The Smithsonian Institution is in

receipt of the Transactions of the Berlin Society of Anthropol-

VOL, XV.—No, vir1,

Sip yt >

ac) "2

n= A

666 General Notes. [August,

ogy, Ethnology and Prehistory, edited by Rud. Virchow. We

infer that the society holds monthly meetings, since a separate

pamphlet is devoted to each meeting, as follows: Feb. 21, March

20, April 17, May 22, June 12, June 19, July 17, Oct. 16. The

greater portion of the papers are on home topics, but a few relate

to America:

The preparation of arrow-poison by the Pai-Ute Indians of Nevada, by Dr. Weg.

Hoffinan, ;

Precolumbian Syphilis in America, p. 225.

Stone Implements from Yucatan, p. 237.

Irattan AnturopoLocy.—The third fasciculus of the Archivio

per l’Anthropologia e la Etnologia, furnishes the following addi-

tions to our knowledge:

Casi di anomalie numeriche delle vertebre nell uomo, by Dr. E, Regalia.

Ulteriori notizie intorno ai Negriti, by Professor Enrico Hillyer Giglioli. ,

These original papers are followed by reviews of Beccari s

“ Guide to the Mussulman pilgrimages and the Suez canal,” Ra-

mon Lista’s “ Los Charruas,” Giovanni Pelleschi’s ‘“ Republica Ar-

gentina,” Ricardi’s “ L’Attenzione in rapporto alla pedagogia,

Nicolosi-Tirrizzi’s “ Teschio umano Scafo-ultra-dolicacefalo- Ortop:

nato,” Canestrini’s “Anomaly of the Trentini cranium, and

Moschen’s “ Studies in the cephalic and the nasal index.” The

journal is the official organ of the Italian Society of Anthro-

pology, Ethnology and Compartive Psychology, and therefore,

each number contains the minutes for one quarter. ‘

THE AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN.—The April number of the

Antiquarian, Vol. 111, contains the following papers :

An enquiry i it ians. By C. C. Royce. |

poekesan: Sue ateacee ten rs aiteeeenl eat. C. H. Brinkly.

Inductive Metrology. W. J. McGee. te taal

Tn condition of the American races a clue to the condition of society

Prehisioric ages, By Rev. S. D. Peet. we, tern

Correspondence. On the Dakota language.—French footprints in northwes

Wisconsin, ; : The Paez

Linguistic Notes (A. S. Gatschet), Wandot. Early Greek History.

language. Thothmes,

Ethnologic Notes. General Reviews.

Poutico-SoctaL Funcrions.—Science approaches man fr ek

many sides. While the physician directs his attacks against oe

animal organism, the philologist seeks to master the vrver

approaches to the source of speech, and the sociologist to $ F

prise him in the very act of organizing his forces. Mr. Lester ap

Ward, in the Penn Monthly for May, publishes in full a 3

read March 15th, before the Anthropological Society of Washing

ton, on Politico-Social Functions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY,— a

RDIER, A.—De l’anthropologie pathologique. Rev. Scient., Paris 1881, I top

Bossu, A.—Anthropologie. Etude des organes, fonctions, maladies de bees tk

de la femme, comprenant l’anatomie, la physiologie, I’hygiéne, 1a pat A oe?

therapeutique et notions de medicine legale. 2 vols., Paris, 1881, 8v0-

1881.] Geology and Palecntology. 667

Byrn, H. L.—Pre-adamite races of men, Lndepend. Pract., Balt., 1881. Sepa-

rately printed by Thomas & Evans, pp. 7, 8vo.

Usted PROFESSOR J. (of ae in of the it Soke pal Be ear A

paper read before the Lit. and Hist. Soc. of Quebec. Quebe

Phetoenae of —Congrés enaaiedi A egg - archi préhis-

toriques. Rapport sur la session de Lisbon. Toulouse, 1881.

CouLerr, JoHN—The mammoth and the mastodon, Remains in Indiana and Ili-

nois. A Vincennes mound. Indiana Geolog. Rep. 1879-1880. Indianapolis,

6-28,

re}

ie)

Dewar, A.—The materialistic origin of the F. Sc., Lond., 1881, heya ar

Geikikr, J.—Prehistoric Europe; a sainiak dela Phila. ., 1881,

HARTMANN, R.—Handbuch der anatomie des menschen fiir rete wid Aertzte.

Strassburg, 1881, 8vo

Hesse, W.—Besti timmungen des Gewichtes und Messungen der Kdrperlainges bei

einem kinde im ersten und zweiten Lebensjahre. Arch. f. Gynaek., Berl., 1881,

15C—152

Lapin—Zur Casuistik der Verletzungen der asseren Geschlechtsorgane des Weibes

zen. Arch. f. Gynaek., Berlin, 1881.

Lianas, E. Sta yaar sa ipteiaiers pitigtcees sobre el origen del hombre, Santido

catél., Barcel., 1881,

Sen C.—Ein Fingebornr der Insel Espiritu Santo. enaische Ztschr. f. Na-

6-69.

furw., 1881,

Martin, H. ese n body: account of its structure, activities and condi-

tions of its healthy modi: N, Y., 1881, 120.

MITCHELL, ARTHUR——The past in the present: what is civilization? N. Y., 1881.

ee) penne pnanches Ey askin atta sur les apprentis canonniers. Arch.

de av., Paris, 1881, 5~21.

ie L sii aes UIS AOR premiers hommes et les temps préhistoriques. Paris,

1881, 2 vols., 12 plates, 211 figures, 8v«

Part, A. Gus Spud iil della psicologia scientifica. "Udine, 1881, 8vo

ryt Henry A.—Early discoveries of the Hawaiian islands. San Francisco,

1880.

Suanie, a7 eee ny rea any races, and the evolution of physical beauty.

New N. Y., 1881, 16m

SpirzKa, te , en a D. ( New York)—Author of a series of pamphlets on the

nervous system ” Prelim nary considerations, Chapter fe ieee central tubular

gray; Cnapter it. The higher ganglia of the mid and hind brain.

oe oor a die Schadelform der Eskimo. Prag. ned. Wehiscbr., 1881,

GEOLOGY AND PALAIONTOLOGY.

Tue Temporary DENTITION oF A New CrEopont.—The na-

ture of the he sen dentition of the Creodonta has been hitherto

unknown. As this point has an important bearing on the sup-

Posed relation of these animals to the Mursupialia, I give an ac-

count of it as seen in a new genus which has recently come under

my observation:

rlsodon quivirensis gen. et sp. nov. Char. gen—Derived from

lower jaw. Probably only three premolars. True molars

alike, consisting ‘of three anterior cusps and a heel. The cusps

are relatively smail and the heel large. Of the former the inter-

nal is much smaller than the external, and the anterior is rudi-

mental, being merely a projection of the cingulum. The cutting

668 General Notes. [ August,

edges of the large external cusp are obtuse. The heel is basin-

shaped, and its posterior border is divided into tubercles, of which

the external isa large cusp. The fourth premolar has no ante-

rior inner tubercle, so that the anterior part of the crown consists

of a compressed cutting cusp. e heel has two well-developed

posterior cusps. e third premolar has a similar principal tren-

chant cusp, but a smaller heel. Canines large.

This genus differs from Herpetotherium and Ictops in the sim-

plicity of its fourth inferior premolar, and from Szypolophus and

Deltatherium in the rudimental character of the accessory anterior

cusps of the true molars, as well as in the three premolars. - The

rudimental anterior cusp of the true molars, with the three similar

true molars, separates it from Paleonyctis, and the presence of a

conic inner cusp of the same indicates it as different from Amblye-

tonus and Periptychus. It is not possible to state whether 77zso-

don must be placed in the Amdélyctonide or not, on account of the

absence of the superior molar teeth.

This specimen of the type species of this genus is instructive as

showing the succession of premolar teeth. Both the third and

fourth premolars have temporary predecessors. The predecessor

of the fourth premolar differs much from it in form, and is essen-

tially identical in all respects with the true permanent molars.

e crown of the predecessor of the third premolar -is wanting,

the roots only remaining in the jaw.

The permanent third premolar was protruded before the per

manent fourth. Which temporary tooth of Zriisodon is homolo-

gous with the single one of the Marsupialia pointed out by Pro:

fessor Flower?! As the additional permanent teeth of the pla-

cental Mammalia must have appeared later in time than the one

already found in the implacentals, they must be those later pro-

truded; hence the fourth tooth in the jaw of 7riisodon must be =

garded as homologous with the fourth premolar of a placental,

which is the last of that series to appear. If this be true, the

tooth which follows the shed tooth of the Marsupials is not a

fourth premolar, as supposed by Professor Flower, but the oe

premolar. This view is confirmed by the fact that the milk too

displaced by the fourth tooth in Zriisodon resembles 1n all he

spects the true molars, just as the permanent tooth occupying the

same position does in Didelphys and some extinct eocene gener’

This goes to show that this tooth, permanent in marsupials “4

temporary in placentals, and that, in spite of its form in the ith

mer group, it is the fourth premolar, and not the first true Mo ar,

as supposed by Professor Flower. Thus the posterior milk-mo ar

of diphyodonts is a permanent tooth in the Marsupialia. se

This observation confirms my conclusion that the Creodon :

form a group intermediate between the JMJarsupialia and Car

1 Transactions of the Royal Society, 1867, p. 631.

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 669°

nivora» 1 may add that in 7Zriisodon the inferior border of the

lower jaw is not inflected posteriorly.

Char, specif—Size about that ofthe wolf. Inferior canine directed

upwards, its section nearly elliptic; a faint posterior, no anterior

cutting edge. Fourth premolar rather large, with an anterior

basal cingulum which is angulate upwards, and is not continued

on the inner side of the crown. Cusps of the heel each sending a

ridge forwards, the internal lower, obtuse and descending to base

of inner side. of large cusp; the external larger, with an acute an-

terior cutting edge continuous with the cutting edge of the large

cusp. True molars with an external, but no internal basal cingu-

lum. Border of heel with one large and three smaller tubercles,

the former with, the latter without, anterior cutting edge. Ena-

mel of all the teeth nearly smooth. All the cusps are rather ob-

tuse. Measurements——Length of inferior molar series: M. .080;

long diameter of base of canine .013; length of true molar se-

ries .044; length of base of Prem. iv. .016; elevation of crown of

a0. .014 ; Jength of base of M. 11..016; width of do. in front .ort,

elevation of do, .ot4. The measurements of the jaw are not given,

as the animal is not adult, the last molar not being yet protruded,

the lower (? Puerco) Eocene beds of New Mexico.

Deltatherium absaroke sp. nov. Char. specif.— This animal

repeats very closely the characters of the D. fuxdaminis, but

is much smaller in all its proportions. Both branches of the

lower jaw accompany the anterior part of the skull, so that the

dentition is well displayed. There are three inferior tubercular-

sectorial molars, as in Styfo/ophus, but the fourth premolar has an

internal tubercle, which is not found in that genus. The same

tooth has a rudimental heel. The third inferior premolar is large,

has a rudimental heel, and no inner lobe; the first premolar is

two-rooted. There are only three inferior incisors. The supe-

rior molars are triangular, and the external posterior angle is not

Produced. The external cusp of the fourth posterior molar is

compressed and simple, as in Proviverra; in Stypolophus ¢ Proto-

fomus) viverrinus and S. multicuspis, that tooth has a conic cusp

and large posterior heel. The two posterior sides of the last

Superior molar are equal. Canines well developed. Enamel

smooth,

Measurements,—Length of superior molar series: M. .0216; of

Superior true molars .o107. Diameters of second true molars:

anteroposterior .0033 ; transverse .0055; width of jaws at same

tooth .022; width between bases of canines .008; depth ramus

Mandibuli at Prem. 1 .005; at M. 111.009. From the Wasatch

Eocene of the Big Horn river; J. L. Wortman.—F. D. Cope.

A Laramie Saurtan IN THE Eocenr.—It is known that in

North America the saurians of the Laramie formation are mostly

*See Proceedings American Philosophical Society, July, 1880.

670 General Notes. [ August,

Dinosauria, and that principally on this ground the formation has

been referred to the Cretaceous series. A genus of uncertain

affinity, Champsosaurus (Simedosaurus Gerv.), has hitherto been

regarded as peculiar to the Laramie. In France, however, it has

been found by Dr. Lemoine near Reims, in the Suessonian

ocene, associated with Mammalia. JI am now able to announce

that the same association occurs in New Mexico in a formation

which lies below the typical Wasatch Eocene, and which may be

the Puerco. Champsosaurus is found imbedded in the same

matrix with species of Triisodon, Periptychus, Hyracotherium, and

a species probably of Phenacodus. Portions of a dozen vertebre

were sent me, mingled with the teeth of the last:named mammal,

and they appear to belong to one animal, and are unworn, As

usual with vertebrz of the Laramie, the neural arches are lost. I

describe the new species as follows: Scent

Champsosaurus australis, Cervical vertebra distinguished by

the superior transverse extent as compared with the longitudinal

and vertical. The dimensions are about those of the C. /aticollis.

There is a similar median inferior low keel. The outline of the

pierced by a foramen below the base of each diapophysis. on-

articular surfaces of centrum marked with a delicate thread-like

sculpture. Diameters of cervical centrum: anteroposterior M.

012; vertical 014; transverse 017. Diameters of a dorsal:

anteroposterior .o13 ; vertical .o12; transverse .015. The pi

vical vertebra is wider and more transverse than in either ©

the four known American species._—E£, D. Cope.

CoLors oF GEoLocicaL Maps.-—Professor Renevier, of hae

sanne, general secretary of the commission appointed by the

Geological Congress of Paris of 1878, to unify the colors of geo-

logical maps, makes a report which is published in the Bulletin

of the Vaudoise Society of Natural Sciences. Sub-committees

were appointed in the following countries: Germany, Spain, FoF

tugal, Russia, France, Italy, Switzerland and the United states

The fullest reports were made by the Italian and French com

mittees, and the colors they suggest are as follows:

Italian. Freseh

A. STRATIGRAPHIC SERIES (colors pale).

Moses beds. iii do. .oses a: igs

COMMON, ON oo a Pal Pale oer

PROGR TT ere Clear yellow peor

Wiccan. 6c wcais es Reddish yellow Reddish yellow

EOCENE soi i sgeeeecs istre Pale yellow

Cretaceoas 1000730). es, Gree reen

Jurassion sc: isieag 4 vee

eee cay ue lue

Liassie. 655 5. cse eed asst cr Violet Violet

1881] Geelogy and Paleontology. 671

Italian, French,

A. STRATIGRAPHIC SERIES (colors pale)—Continued.

Triassic..... Burnt sienna Burnt sienna

Pera oo). ashi wy ds cache

RBPHONeTOUS 6 oo oie es veh cs ; Oe Ser verr erer

see Ee pen cn eed ie . Rose brown banded Deep brown

Crystalline :'. ackuseca oasdees Rose carmine Rose carmine

B. ERuptTive SERIES,

STATUE os 0s sc he ears 56 ee as 9 Deep carmine Deep carmine

Porphyries..... Saturn red Orange yellow

POMS Nos. Ueda OU FIR Indian yellow Indian yellow

PETPOnther oi $iissy pent Peis dt Deep verdigris Jeep verdigris

RAMs case, sda sibs ne © 0K3 Deep blue

sng, dio ae) fig EEE ee BPE Deep violet ’

ROME. 5. Seiji cies Deep bistre ; Peenvivict

Prodern lava... c0wiie2s i S eep red Orange red

ernie AMS oe ts nae Very pale blue Very pale blue

Grotocicat News.—Dr. Anton Fritsch’s monograph of the

Permian fauna of Bohemia, has advanced to the third part, includ-

ing page 158. He describes the species of Urocordylus, Cera-

terpeton and Limnerpeton. There are eleven plates and numerous

The annual distribution of the prizes

Orthis resupmotdes Cox; O. ?michelini, Rhynchonella prolutosa

Whit A recent Cyprinid fish from China, having exactly

the dental characters of the American Pliocene genus Mylocypri-

nus Leidy, has been 1ecently described by Peters under a new

§eneric name.

672 General Notes, [ August,

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.!

perience in 1879 was a usual one. Perhaps there the October

rains really mark the beginning of the wet season. The rains last

till April, sometimes even into the month of May. At Living-

stonia, on Cape Maclear, the average rainfall is about thirty inches.

for, and on them depends the success of the great wheat crop of

the Punjab. Nothing corresponding to them is found in the

Nyassa region of Africa. ‘

“ With the change of season a change in the direction of the wind

occurs, or more correctly the latter is the cause of the change of

weather. Winds from the north prevail from November to May,

bringing with them the moisture-laden clouds from the Indian

cean, while during the whole of the dry weather southerly winds

prevail. The constancy of those winds is a source of trouble and

expense to us. In May, for instance, it is easy and pleasant sail-

ing to go to the north end of the lake, but to return in the same

month requires a constant fight with the elements for ten days or

a fortnight, taxing our courage as well as our seamanship. ,

“It is well known that the barometer in tropical countries is not

subject to such rapid changes as in northern latitudes. At Living-

stonia the annual range is only about half an inch, or from 28.20

1 Edited by Etxis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia,

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 673

inches in November to 28.70 in June. The diurnal variation is

rarely more than twenty hundredths of an inch. The barometer

is therefore of little use as a weather glass, but, on the other hand,

is more serviceable for geographical work in the measurement of

mountain heights.

“The temperature on Lake Nyassa is very equable. The aver-

age midday temperature of the hottest month, November, is 85°

F., and the average night temperature of the coldest month, May,

is about 60°—a range of only 25° throughout the year. Occa-

sionally, however, we have days at 95°, and even 100° has been

registered once or twice. At the other end of the scale, 54° has

been the lowest. As a general rule the wet-bulb thermometer

stands at 10° below the dry-bulb throughout the dry months of

the year.”

As regards the alteration in level of the waters of Lake Nyassa,

the observations made at Livingstonia show that “since 1875 the

low-water level of the lake has year by year been falling, till in

December, 1880, it was three feet below that of December, 1875.

Should this decrease continue, the matter will soon become

serious during the dry season with regard to the navigation of the

southern end of the lake at the entrance to the Shiré, and still

level. This clearly accounts for the intermittent character of the

drainage. There had been a period of very dry seasons, probably

before this century, in which the level of the lake was lowered so.

that no water went out by the Lukuga. Gradually a change took

place; the rainfall became more abundant and the water gradually

rose until the barrier was swept away and an outlet once more

formed for the surplus water of the lake as they now had it.

r. Thomson’s narrative of his journey has been published

under the title “To the Central African Lakes and back,” and

contains much of scientific interest. He has a note on the recent

great improvement in the climate of Zanzibar, the malaria and

‘ Livingstonia Mission Report for 1880.

674 General Notes: | August,

general unhealthiness experienced there having practically dis-

appeared; since 1857 the rainfall has diminished one-half and the

island is now an ordinarily healthy one.

Botanical and conchological collections are treated of sepa-

rately in an appendix. Mr. Edgar A. Smith, of the British Mu-

seum, states that the shells from Tanganyika indicate that “the

lake was formerly an inland sea, whose waters have gradually

freshened, many of the species having all the appearance of modi-

fied marine forms. Nyassa has apparently no connection with

the formation of this lake, as it presents a quite distinct concho-

logical fauna.”

Of the geology of East Central Africa, Mr. Thomson says, that

the coast tertiary deposits “are succeeded near the base of the

inner plateau by sandstones and carboniferous rocks striking

north and south, never rising over 1000 feet, and suggesting a

continental outline unaltered from an anterior period. An im-

mense series of greatly more ancient metamorphic rocks com-

poses the escarpment of the plateau, after which a granitic district

(sometimes decomposed and forming thick accumulations of clay)

is reached, showing evidences of volcanic eruptions, which ex-

tended from the Cape to Abyssinia parallel to and near the coast.

The upper plateau is also metamorphic, clay-slates occurring near

Nyassa, round which is an extraordinary agglomeration of vol-

canic rocks, probably resulting from one slowly acting crater.

No sufficient material is given for any broad sketch of the coun-

try between Nyassa and Tanganyika. The latter lake is set as'It

were in a socket of sandstone, which ends abruptly with the de-

scent from the plateau, being succeeded by a great mass of fel-

spathic rock forced through the crust of the earth previous to the

formation of the present lake, and subsequently fractured paid

€ 0

The Algerian missionaries in Urundi, near the northern end of

Lake Tanganyika, have founded a station on the west coast of the

lake at Mulonewa in the Masansi country, on the shores of the

large gulf which Stanley named after Capt. Burton. The coun-

try is covered with fine trees. A range of hills separates it im

the rear from the Wabembe, who are said to be cannibals. di

Pére Livinhac, the head of the Algerian Missionary Exped

tion Uganda, has given some account of the rulers of that agin

Under the Kabaka, or absolute monarch, are the chiefs of the grea’

families, called Mohamis, of whom three members visited England -

1881.] Geography and Travels. 675

the company of missionaries who returned last year. Below these

are a class of inferior chiefs. The lowest order are the Wadu or

slaves. Mtesa is much under the influence of the M/ohamzs, who

are mostly opposed to the admission of foreigners into the king-

dom

We learn from the J@tthet/ungen that Dr. Junker returned from

his journey to the Monbuttu country to his station in Ndoruma’s

territory in December last. He crossed the Welle river half-way

between Miani’s Bakangoi and the former capital of Munza. Near

the latter place he saw the grave of the Italian traveler. re-

turned through Wando’s land, crossing the Gadde and Bibali

rivers at their confluence. He finally departed from Ndoruma’s

on the 7th of January for Bakangoi and was last heard from at

_ Pulembata in Baria’s country on January 28th.

West Centrat AFricaA—Dr. Max Buchner failed in his effort

to explore north of the kingdom of the Muata Yanvo. e only

reached lat. 7° 22’ S., when the desertion of his porters obliged

him to return. He arrived at Malange on February 8th. Most

of his collections were on board of a steamer recently lost in the

British Channel.

Dr. Pogge, whose visit to the Muata Yanvo six years ago will

be remembered, has arrived at St. Paul de Loanda and departed

for Dondo.

Herr Flegel, whose trip up the Binué was described in the

Naturatist for September, 1880, has recently been visiting the

unknown course of the Niger between Jauri and Say. He found

navigation obstructed and frequently rendered impossible by beds

of immense boulders, through which the stream forces its way

with immense difficulty.

up than Manyanga. Mr. McCall has determined to proceed to

Stanley pool by the river, believing that many and perhaps the

Majority of the intervening falls and rapids can be passed in

canoes. He has already passed one, the Ntombo Mataka falls of

Mr. Stanley’s map. as

Meanwhile the members of the Baptist Missionary Expedition,

.Messrs. Crudgington and Bentley, have succeeded in reaching

the pool by following the north bank of the river. After a jour-

ney of twenty-one days they arrived at Mfwa, near Mankoneh’s

village at Stanley pool. From here they crossed the pool to Ntamo

676 General Notes. [August,

or Kintamo, where they remained two days, but finding that the

natives did not wish them to stop, they went on by land to

Nehasha or Kinshasha, where the natives were even worse, owing

probably to a misunderstanding. This appears to be the locality

f M. de Brazza’s station, and notwithstanding all that the French

sergeant in charge said, the natives, finding that Mr. Crudgington

and his companions were not Frenchmen, could not be persuaded

that they were not enemies. They accordingly made the best of

their way back to the opposite side of the river and shortly after-

wards commenced their return journey, which was accomplished

in fifteen days, partly by land and partly by water.

e expedition now proposes, after consultation with Mr. Stan-

ley, to use his road as far as Isangila, his furthest station, thirty

miles above Vivi, and then to place a steel boat on the river above

the falls at that point. It is hoped that the navigation will be un-

interrupted above Isangila, except at two or three places where

the boat will have to be taken round the cataracts. Mr. Stanley

himself contemplates adopting this course also, as above Isangila

is a very troublesome tribe, named Basundi. He has a steam

launch and two steel whale-boats above the falls. He is now

awaiting the arrival of a reinforcement of seventy-two natives

from Zanzibar.

Mr. Richards, of the Livingstone (Congo) Inland Mission, has

recently visited two towns, a short distance from Banza Montiko,

where no Europeans had hitherto been. One of them he describes

as neat and orderly in its arrangement. He heard of others fur-

1881.] Microscopy. 677 |

thirty parts, illustrated with wood-cuts, maps, etc., and published

apt. J. E. Sandeman, of the British Indian Sur-

Mogungpoon Maingkung, lat. 26° 8’, at which place the explora-

tion terminated. The eastern and western branches meet at

Ponk-san-poon; the western branch is the largest and is said to

rise inthe Kanti-country. There seems to be no doubt that there

is no longer any reason to suppose the Irrawaddy is connected

with the Sanpu river of Tibet———The Academy says there are

several expeditions preparing to visit the Obi and Yenisei gulfs

this season. M. Siberiakoff is fitting out sledges to take supplies

to two of his vessels which have been frozen up in the Gulf of

Obi during the winter. The steamer Wordenskidld will sail for

the mouth of the Yenisei from Gothenberg. A hydrographic

expedition is also being formed in Russia to visit the Sea of Kara

and Gulf of Obi.

MICROSCOPY."

Tue Broop 1x Hisernation.—In the autumn of 1879, Professor

V. Wittich, received twelve living German moles (Mus montanus ),

in order to investigate the amount of glycogen in the liver during

their winter sleep. One animal was killed accidentally immediately

after its arrival, and the results obtained on a microscopical examina-

tion of the blood, led to an examination of the blood of the other

animals, all killed in perfect health, and in all the same appearances

were found. One of the animals had died on the journey without

signs of disease, although perhaps in consequence of a bite from

another animal.

The blood taken from a vein in the peritoneal cavity contained

a large number of thread-like moving objects, which move the

as decomposition sets in and the putrefaction-bacteria appear.

They were very numerous, ten or twelve being found in every

number of parasitic organisms may exist in the blood without

causing any disturbance to the general health. Attempts were

made to inoculate guinea-pigs, but in every instance with a nega-

tive result—London Lancet.

' This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Ward, Troy, N. Y.

678 General Notes. [August,

Mountinc Srarcnes.—A correspondent of Science Gossip

advises to mount starch by dredging it through muslin into balsam

melted in a test tube over a spirit-lamp. After the air bubbles

which will appear have been caused to burst, a little of the balsam

is transferred to a slide and covered with a warmed cover-glass,

when the starch it contained is found to be evenly distributed, free

from air bubbles, and in suitable condition to be viewe by

polarized light. Very soft balsam, which requires but little heat,

should be used in this procedure, lest the starch grains should

be altered by the heat.

ance that her department will be an important as well as promi-

nent feature of the enterprise.

RECENT PAMPHLETS,—Les apparences microscopiques des Valves des Diatoinees,

par Julian Derby, C. E. Bruxelles, Belgium. Bel

Etudes sur des Coupes de Diatomees (Jutland), par W. Prinz. Bruxelles,

gium.

On some Impurities of Drinking-water. By Professor W. G. Farlow, Boston. re

The condition of the Brain in Insanity. By Theodore Deecke, Utica, New York.

local arrangements for reception and entertainment under ee

auspices of the Tyndall Association of Columbus, will doubtless

of the most satisfactory character. :

The American Association for the Advancement of pqientt?

meets at Cincinnati on Wednesday of the following ty

August 17th, the subsection of microscopy being under ‘ei

chairmanship of Rev. A. B. Hervey of Taunton, Massac

setts. During the week of the meetings, the Departmen

Science and Art of the Ohio Mechanics’ Institute, will bie

a loan exhibition of scientific apparatus, including nuierosaehe

and other optical instruments. It is believed that oe tory

hibition of apparatus and objects illustrating pa o

the interest of the meetings. Among the prizes offered are

1881.] Scientific News. 679 °

the following: Gold medal for the best display of microscopes

and accessories ; silver medals for the best display of optical appa-

ratus, of magic lantern and apparatus for projection, and of micro-

scope slides in set of not less than fifty slides; and honorable

mention for the best microscope stand, best object glass, and best

polarizing apparatus.

The Rochester Microscopical Society, after an existence of two

years, during which time it became the largest organization of

the kind in this country, has drawn around it sections in other

departments of science, and has thus given origin to a new soci-

ety of wider scope, the Rochester Academy of Science, of which

it will hereafter be a section. The recent annual reception of the

new academy was one of the largest and best of such entertain-

ments that have been given in the country.

The ninth annual reception of the San Francisco Microscopi-

cal Society was distinguished by the scientific value of the objects

selected for exhibition, and by the large and appreciative assem-

blage of guests, The concourse of friends was said to be the

largest that has ever attended a reception of the society.

The exhibition of the Wellesley College Microscopical Society,

was remarkable for the thorough scientific character and direct

educational value of the exhibits, The, microscopical work at

this institution is evidently well planned and well executed.

The thirteenth annual field-meeting of the Troy Scientific As-

sociation, held at Trenton Falls, N. Y., was one of the most suc-

cessful out-of-town meetings ever held by this society. A large

and distinguished party of members and friends enjoyed the rare

social advantages and scientific opportunities of the trip.

The Oneida County Microscopical Society has been organized,

under the presidency of Professor A. H. Chester. It meets at

Utica, N. Y,

The American Postal Microscopical Club has just completed

the first year’s work since reorganization. Postal troubles are no

longer experienced, and with rare exceptions the working of the

circuits has been satisfactory. The boxes have been called in for

€ summer, but will be started again in September or October.

4S ieee seed

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— A remarkable cave has been discovered in the Santa Rita

Mountains, Arizona. For several years the existence ofa curious

Cave near Graterville has been known to the miners of the vicinity,

but the difficulty of thorough exploration has deterred many from

Visiting it, and half of its wonderful extent is as yet unknown.

F rom P. J. Coyne, a well-known and reliable prospector, who is

in the city, in company with Mr. Johnson, a Ciéizen reporter, were

gathered some interesting facts, the result of a partial exploration.

680 Scientific News. [ August,

The cave, which is known by the miners as the Aztec, is located

about four miles south of the Graterville placers, in a limestone

ridge. Quite recently a party of miners numbering eight or ten,

including Mr. Coyne, explored seventeen rooms in all, the corridors

and approaches to which extended for nearly a mile from the

entrance.

The cave has two entrances, which lead into an oval cavity,

thence a corridor leads into a large room, and thence into a still

larger. In from the latter are two smaller cavities, and these

comprise the extent of former explorations. In them have been

ound at various times in the past relics of Indian occupation, in-

cluding arrows and skeletons, In one place several Indian skele-

tons were found in a depression in the floor of the cave, evidently

fashioned by human hands. This latter room is described as

largest in the cave. From what was called “ Hale’s room a

party followed a steeply inclined tunnel seventy-five or eighty

feet long, which terminates in a large abyss sixty or seventy feet

in diameter. After lowering one of the party down the perpen-

dicular sides from the mouth of the tunnel as far as the remaining

rope would permit—about seventy feet—and failing to find bottom,

the explorers named it the “bottomless pit.”"—Zucson Citizen.

— What is equivalent to a well sustained, energetic and ied

scientific biological survey of Illinois, is now being carried on DY

the Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History, at Nor-

mal, Illinois. The appropriations for the year ending Ayana

1880, were $4000, and when it is remembered that the State 445

1881, ] Sctentific News. 7 681

besides a salaried entomologist, it must be conceded that Illinois

is leading all the States in the Union in biological work well cal-

culated to elevate, educate and inform the masses. Professor

Forbes’ able contributions, as well as those of his assistants, have

from time to time been noticed in this journal. He is now carry-

ing on the field work, the State being divided into four or five

regions. In the appropriation bill passed for the coming year,

special provision is made for field work in zodlogy, for. field

work in botany, for the supply of series of the plants and animals

of the State, to the State Museum, the State educational institu-

tions and the public high schools, for the investigation of the food

of birds, of the food of fishes and of the parasitic plants and ani-

mals of the State, for the improvement of the library and for the

publication of bulletins of original work. The laboratory has

accumulated the largest collection of fungi in the Western States,

the collection embracing 550 species of Illinois, 1000 United

States species and 1500 species foreign fungi.

ur readers will see that these subjects are so distributed as to

cover directly and indirectly nearly the whole field of the natural

history of Illinois,

— The Zodlogical Society of London has, we learn from Na-

ture, established an insectarium, or series of rooms for rearing in-

sects in captivity. The building for this purpose is constructed

of iron and glass on three sides, with a brick back to it; the cases

Containing the insects are arranged on stands all round the build-

ing, and also occupy two tables in the center. The cases used

for the Principal specimens are formed of zinc plates. The upper

Part of these is glazed on all four sides, the top being formed of

perforated zinc, so as to admit the air. The larger cases in the

front row measure about 24 inches in breadth by 18 in depth, and

are 32 inches in height. The cases in the opposite row are of

similar construction, but rather smaller in dimensions. The whole

Series of insects already on exhibition last spring comprised about

@pplied in part for museum and library purposes. At Brown

University, Mr. W. W. Bailey has been appointed Olney professor

VOL. x az

682 Scientific News. [August,

of natural history, the duties being instruction in botany. A

generous friend of the University is also providing a roomy

laboratory, lecture room, study and store room for the use of the

professor of zodlogy and geology. At Bowdoin College, Mr.

Leslie A. Lee has been appointed professor of geology and biol-

ogy. Dr. S. F. Clarke, late Fellow of Johns Hopkins University,

has been appointed professor of natural history at Williams Col-

lege; an appointment for which the College is to be con-

gratulated.

— Professor Cope’s expedition to Paraguay, known as the

American Naturalist Expedition, left New York for Para, May

Ist. The survey has a wide scope, covering many of the natural

features of the regions to be examined. It is under the direc-

tion of Mr. Herbert H. Smith, formerly of the Geological Survey

of Brazil, under Professor C. F. Hartt, and the author of a scien-

tific volume on Brazil, published by the Scribners. The expedi-

tion is the individual effort of Professor Cope.

r. Smith will act as regular correspondent to the NATURALIST,

describing the regions explored. We anticipate that his notes on

the fauna and flora will be particularly interesting. The survey

is fully equipped with means to preserve a full supply of material,

which will be utilized upon reaching Philadelphia, and will throw

much light on some little known regions of South America.

— Holt & Co., of New York, have in press a book entitled

The Structure and Life-histories of Butterflies, by S. H. Scudder.

It relates particularly to American butterflies, and is mainly a

reproduction of lectures given several years ago before the

Lowell Institute. It deals with the general problems suggeste

by a study of the structure, development, seasons, distribution

and coloring of butterflies from an evolutionary point of view,

and will discuss more fully than has heretofore been attempted,

the ancestry of this group of insects. Nearly three quarters of

the two hundred illustrations have been prepared for the work,

while the others are borrowed principally from Harris and Riley.

— A work of extensive anatomical research on the cerebellum

in various animal species has been conducted recently by two

Italians, Drs, Tenchini and Staurengi, From a résumé of it in the

Archives des Sciences, we gather that it establishes three important

features as the exclusive possession of man, viz., the valves of

aria, a new tubercle in the arch of the fourth ventricle, and any

ventricle of Verga. These are considered characters of prime

importance as being related to the nervous system; and with

others, they show, that if the anthropoid apes are the vertebrates

nearest to man, the distance between man and the ape is still very

great. ;

—— A paper was read at a recent meeting of the Chemical

Society on the action of compounds inimical to bacterial life, by

1881.] Scientific News. 683

Mr. W. M. Hamlet. The cultivating fluids used comprised Pasteur’s

fluid, beef-tea, hay-infusion, brewer’s wort, and extract of meat;

these were sterilized by boiling for ten minutes in Pasteur’s flasks,

cooled with suitable precautions, and then seeded with hay solu-

tion and the substance under examination added. Many gases,

&c., were tried. Chlorine and hydric peroxide were fatal to

bacteria, while chloroform, creosote, carbolic acid, salicylic acid,

&c., hindered their development, but did not destroy them.

— The appointment, by President Garfield, of Hon. George

B. Loring as Commissioner of Agriculture, has been regarded on

all sides as peculiarly fitting. It isa new departure to havea

commissioner who is not only a gentleman of broad culture, but

one who sympathizes with scientific men, and will, undoubtedly,

encourage, as no former commissioner has done, the develop-

ment of applied botany atid zodlogy, particularly entomology.

Ss an earnest of his intentions in this direction, the commissioner

has appointed Professor C. V. Riley entomologist of the depart- —

ment, in place of Professor Comstock, resigned.

— We learn from the Wation that the International Congress

of Americanists will be held at Madrid, Sept. 18-22. The first

day will be devoted to American geology, the history of Pre-

columbian times, and the history of the discovery ; the second

day to archeology ; the third to anthropology and ethnography ;

the last to linguistics and palzography. The general secretary

is Captain C. F. Duro Sauco 13 duplicado, Madrid. The pro-

gramme, list of officers, delegates, etc., has been issued by M.

G. Hernandez, of Madrid.

— We have received Bulletin 4 of the Illinois State Labora-

tory of Natural History, comprising a catalogue of the birds of

Illinois, by R. Ridgway. ‘This list will be of use in the more

important biological work carried on in this institution, which is

a great credit to the state, and will do much to turn naturalists

away from “species work” and induce them to study the rela-

tions of animals to one another, and to their physical sur-

roundings,

applicable to geological maps and sections, including those of

small scale. The competitive papers were demanded by the end

— Near Liitzen, in Saxony, a number of sepulchral urns have

been discovered in a brickfield, and accompanying them skulls

and bones, showing that cremation and burial were both practiced

by the depositors. Professor Virchow says that one of the skulls

he has examined resembles the Neanderthal skull, but differs

684 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [August,

sufficiently to form a type of its own. No ornaments were dis-

covered.

'— Mr. Charles Darwin’s work entitled “The Formation of

vegetable Mold through the action of Worms, with Observations

on their Habits,” and the life and letters of the late Sir Charles

Lyell, Bart., edited by his sister-in-law, Mrs. Lyell, are announced

by Mr. Murray.

_ — It was probably before Carlyle mollified his views concern-

ing evolution and science, owing possibly to the influence of his

friend, Professor Tyndall, that he paid his respects to the theory in

the following terms: “I have no patience whatever with these

Gorilla Damnifications of Humanity! ”

— The Italian government is about to send out a deep-sea €x-

pedition to explore the Mediterranean, Prof. Giglioli, the eminent

zoologist of Florence, having charge of the biological part of the

work.

— The translations of Nageli and Schwendener’s Treatise on

the Microscope is approaching completion. It will be issued by

Sonnenschein & Allen, of London.

— English science has met with a great loss in the untimely

death of Professor George Rolleston, F. R. S., of Oxford Univer-

versity, who died at his home June 16th, at. the comparatively

early age of 51 years. Professor Rolleston was, to those who

knew him, a most genial, attractive and cultivated man, aside from

his thorough scientific spirit and training. He was the author,

besides of a number of anatomical and anthropological papers and

memoirs, of a comparative anatomy for students, entitled, me orms

of Animal Life.” Professor Rolleston first introduced, if we ms-

take not, the plan of giving detailed accounts, with excellent illus-

trations, of typical forms of animal life. The death of Professor

Rolleston will be deeply mourned by those American scientists

who were fortunate enough to have met him at his museum an

also at his pleasant English home.

— Another English naturalist, Mr. John Blackwall, died May

II, at the great age of ninety-two. He was the author of a beau

tifully illustrated folio work on British spiders, and of a number

of zoological papers.

——:0:

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Davenport Acapemy or Naturat Scrences.—Annual piay ee

Our report of the annual meeting of this flourishing society e ae

been delayed for want of space. We give extracts from Presiden

Pratt’s report as to the part taken by the Society in American

archeology, especially as related to the mound-builders. he

The mound-buildérs were very numerous throughout be

Mississippi valley, They dwelt mostly, if not exclusively,

1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. 685

neighborhood of the rivers. They were a people entirely distinct

from the North American Indians, as we know them, had occupied

the country in much earlier times than the latter, and were entifely

unknown to them, even by tradition.

Like the modern Indians they were of different tribes ; but less

warlike and less nomadic, more domestic in their habits; yet their

dwellings must have been of the most imperfect and perishable

character, no traces of them being found.

They practiced cremation, though but to a limited extent, and

only upon great and unusual occasions. :

They lived in a very simple manner, possessed few mechanical

contrivances, but were a laborious, pains-taking people. That they

had some system of barter with neighboring tribes at least (though

perhaps limited to mere occasional exchanges as opportunity

offered) is shown by the occurrence in the mounds of large sea

shells, which, at the nearest must have come from the Gulf of

Mexico; obsidian which must be from the far west, mica, not to

be found in this region; galena, &c. :

opper was evidently a rare and highly valued article among

them; its rarity seems to indicate that they at least did not work

the copper mines of Lake Superior or anywhere, and were not

much in communication with any people who did.

Small nuggets of drift copper are still occasionally found here,

perishable character, more so even than the pottery which is

exceedingly common. :

If cast in molds, many would be made of identical size and

form, whereas no duplicates are ever found. : :

If, as has been argued, though I believe on very insufficient

grounds, the copper implements collected in Wisconsin exhibit in-

dications of having been formed in molds, it would have no bear-

ing whatever. upon the origin of those of Iowa, which are of very

different type; those of the north being mostly of the more

Modern forms of spears and knives; and not unusually found in

Mounds, but scattered on the surface or in the shallow Indian

Taves, ,

686 Proceedings of Scientific Socteties. fAugust,

The copper “axes,” so called (and very inappropriately, too),

in no instances show any indications of having been put to any

use*as tools, or even of having had handles attached. They were

doubtless valued and kept as badges of rank or wealth, and held

in high esteem.

Those people undoubtedly smoked tobacco, not, however, as a

recreation or habitually for pleasure, but as a kind of ceremonial

observance. The pipes are often very elaborately and beautifully

carved out of a great variety of kinds of stone, generally of a

rather soft character, and were apparently held in very high

estimation, perhaps almost sacred. They are all in the Upper

Mississippi Valley, of the same general type, having the flat,

curved base, which is perforated to serve as a stem and not at all

adapted to retain in the mouth for smoking continuously ; which

fact, wiih the smallness of the bowl itself, would indicate that it

was to be used by passing from one to another of the persons

assembled.

They represent a great variety of animal forms, some difficult

to determine, but among themare two, well and distinctly represent-

ing the elephant, though differing somewhat from each other in

form and position. These plainly and unmistakably show that

the sculptors were acquainted with the elephants (the mammoth

or mastodon), of which, though long extinct, numerous remains

are found throughout this country.

Strangest of all, and most contrary to the opinion of archzol-

ogists hitherto, it now appears that the mound-builders had a

written language. Whence derived, or what its origin is matter

of the merest conjecture. What its affinities, or whether any con-

nection with other written languages, ancient or modern, no one

has as yet been able to determine.

The inscribed tablets in our museum, the only ones of much

significance or importance perhaps, which have as yet been dis-

covered in the mounds, have attracted much attention both in this

country and in Europe, and by all eminent and well informed

archeologists, are considered of the highest importance. They

are certain to stimulate research, which will doubtless lead to

further discoveries, until it may well be hoped that the key to the

language may ultimately be discovered, and something of a history

of this ancient people may be made out as written by themselves.

Whether the language was understood by all, or only by a more

learned few, or whether these tablets were heirlooms and cherished

rather significant circumstance, perhaps, is the fact that in the

same mound with the two tablets first found, were the bones yar

pet:

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 687

genuineness of the tablets, though not to any great extent by

competent and candid archzologists, and we feel no uneasiness

on that account.

The tablets have been sent to the Smithsonian Institution for

examination, and were retained there an subjected to the most

thorough scrutiny for two months, during which time the National

Academy of Sciences held its meeting there, and the heliotype

plates of them were obtained under the directions of Professor Baird

himself. They were also exhibited throughout the sessions of

the meeting of the American Associations for the Advancement

of Science at Boston last August.

ny author or other person who cared to inform himself of the

facts, has, and has always had ample opportunity to do so, and

would at once see that ¢he circumstances of the finding were

such as utterly to preclude all possibility of fraud or imposition.

The evidence that they are coéval with the other relics, that is,

that they were inhumed with them and before the mound was

built, is ample and conclusive and will be so considered by any

unbiased mind.

No prehistoric relic ever found has better evidence to establish

its genuineness than these, and not one suspicious circumstance

in connection with them has been pointed out, nor can there be.

We shall confidently hope for and gladly welcome further dis-

coveries by whomsoever made tending to throw more light upon

this still obscure and intensely interesting problem, of our earliest

predecessors on this continent.

Among the principal additions to this department of the

museum since the last annual report, have been fourteen mound-

builders’ pipes, three copper axes, and a number of other relics

from the mounds, secured chiefly by the untiring exertions of our

honored associate, the Rev. Mr. Gass, who has spared no time or

labor, and who has recently presented his report of the explora-

tion of 75 mounds within the year, only one-fifth of which afforded

any relics for the museum, though the investigations are always

instructive, and many facts are thus learned.

_ Besides this gratuitous labors and personal expenses borne by

himself, about $70 made up by private contribution has been ex-

pended for hired help in opening the mounds; the results have

been highly satisfactory ; and this important work should be con-

tinued, and, if possible, better provided for by some regular

appropriations. The time is rapidly passing during which the

opportunity for such researches in this vicinity will remain.

__ We have also received as the product of the persistent enthu-

Siasm of Capt. W. P. Hall about 1100 ancient stone and flint

implements, and 1 50 vessels of ancient pottery, the latter having

been exhumed by his own hands from the mounds and ancient

burial places of the lower Mississippi valley. oes

Our collection of mound relics now consists of the four in-

688 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [August, 1881.

scribed tablets, 32 mound-builder’s pipes, 25 copper axes, 300

copper beads, 14 copper awls, and a great number and variety of

other relics from the mounds of this region, constituting the most

extensive, rare and unique collection of its kind in this country

and probably in the world. :

Besides these, this department contains 225 vessels of ancient

pottery, over 1000 stone implements, and 10,000 of flint, beside

about an equal number of broken ones and fragments worth pre-

serving.

:0:

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SCIENCE, July.+-Restoration of Dinoceras

mirabile, by O. C. Marsh. Observations on the structure of

Dictyophyton and its affinities with certain sponges, by R. P.

Whitfield. Later Tertiary of the Gulf of Mexico, by E. W.

Hilgard (with valuable colored map). Turquois of New Mexico,

by B. Silliman. ahs

GeotocicaL Macazine, June.—Subsidence and elevation, by

J. S. Gardner. The mammoth in Europe, by H. H. Howorth

ANNALS AND Macazine oF Natura History, May.— Male

eels compared with the females, by C. Robin.

June.—On the originally bilateral character of the renal organ

of Prosobranchia, and on the homologies of the yelk-sac

Cephalopoda, by E. R. Lankester.

v FUR MIKRoskopiscHe ANATOMIE, March 8.—On the

distribution of phosphorescent organs in fishes, by B. Solger.

ZEITSCHRIFT FUR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE, June 14,

1881.—The structure of the stigmata in insects, by O. Krancher

(elaborately illustrated). Revision of the Holothuria of Mer-

tens-Brandt, by H. Ludwig. On fish psorosperms, by O. Biitschii.

Studies on the Bopyridz, by R. Kossmann.

ANNALS DES ScIENCES NATURELLES, February.—On a new and

very small species of Crocidura from Madagascar, by M. Troues-

sart. Memoir on the birds of the family Megapodiide, by M.

Oustalet. Memoir on the disposition of the cervical vertebra in

the Chelonians, by L. Vaillant.

Canapian Enromovoaist, June.—Description of the prepara-

tory changes of Papilio palamedes (calchas), by W. H. Edwards.

PsycuE, organ of the Cambridge Entomological Club, January.

—On the number of molts of butterflies, with some history of the

moth, Cadlosamia promethea, by W. H. Edwards.

PaPiLio, organ of the New York Entomological Club, June.—

On Pieris bryionia, and its derivative forms in Europe and Asia,

by W. H. Edwards,

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vor. xv. — SEPTEMBER, 1881.— No. 9.

VARIATIONS IN A COPEPOD CRUSTACEAN.

BY CARL F. GISSLER, PH.D.

gs March, 1878, a large, deep pond near Glendale, Long Island,

was found densely populated with blood red Copepod Crusta-

ceans, which, microscopically examined, proved to be a, form

slightly aberrant from Diaptomus sanguineus, described by Pro-

fessor S. A. Forbes, who figured its inferior and superior maxilli-

ped and fifth pair of legs of the male and female.

The Long Island form? is unquestionably the same species as

that from Illinois, but the climate and locality have effected slight

morphological changes of those organs which in Copepod Crus-

taceans are most liable to occur. The differences noted between

the individuals from the two localities are, however, very trifling,

and its elevation to the rank of a new species would not be advis-

able. It appears, as in so many other instances, that careful

€xaminations of a species from different localities do not demon-

Strate the constancy, but the evolution of the same. The changes

Sometimes concern insignificant structures, but often also the

Most important parts used by the systematist in describing a

Species,

To make the study of Copepods? in general, better understood

to the amateur, I have more thoroughly described and figured all

their external structures.

The body of Copepoda is more or less distinctly segmented and

Bulletin of the Illinois Museum of Natural History. No. 1. List of Crusta-

yink with descriptions of new species, by S. A. Forbes, 1876.

Measures 3™m. in length.

_. Consult also « Die freilebenden Copepoden,” by Professor De. GC, Claus. Leip-

8; 1863, page 200.

VOL. XV.—No. 1x, 48

690 Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. [September,

distinguishable into regions, with two pairs of antenne, the ante-

rior pair much larger, either one or both of the latter often trans-

formed into an auxiliary, prehensile, copulative organ. They

possess neither a carapace nor a bivalve shell; but have three

pairs of mouth-parts and five pairs of swimming feet. Females

with external egg-sac.

Family of Calanide—Body elongate, similar to that of Pon-

tellidze, anterior antennz very long, usually of twenty-four to

twenty-five joints. In the male sex the right, rarely the left an-

tenna is transformed into a geniculating, prehensile organ. Pos-

terior antennz comparatively large, two-branched. Mandibulary

palpus two-branched, similar to the posterior antenne. . Maxille

with a large, manifold-lobed palpus. Maxillipeds powerfully devel-

oped. Fifth pair of legs large, either similar to

the four preceding or alike in both sexes, or ab-

errant from those and dissimilar in the sexes; :n

the male a clasping organ to assist, together with

the right antenna, in copulation. Heart present.

Eyes highly developed, median and mobile. Male

genital glands unpaired, female glands paired.

Single median egg-sac of orbicular shape.

We now drop some live specimens into alco-

hol; they will die in a few seconds; leaving these

crimson colored little Crustaceans in alcohol for

some time, they will soon become pale and finally

yellowish, transparent. We now pour off the

alcohol and add a strong solution of pure car-

mine in concentrated ammonia and a little gly

erine, macerating them for about one day. Then

we wash the staining liquid gradually off, first

with water and then with alcohol, and preserve

them in glycerine for examination.

Placing a male specimen (Fig. 4) on a glass

slide under the dissecting microscope with low

power, we now proceed with the dissecting

needles to separate successively the different

pendages, viz., the anterior long antenn&, the

he ih a les with

teridr “antenas as shorter posterior antennz, the mandibles

ale.

palpus, the superior maxillipeds, the maxillz, the

inferior maxillipeds, the four pairs of natatory legs, the fifth, trans-__

1881.] Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. 691

formed pair of legs, and finally the abdomen with the terminal

furca. Viewing the remaining “carcass” from which those ap-

pendages have been taken, we will notice that there is a certain

demarcation between head and thorax, forming a segment ; fol-

lowing this we find five more thoracic segments, of which the

fifth is half as long as either the second or third, the fourth slightly

shorter than the second or third, which latter two are equally long,

the first being somewhat longer.

In the female the first and fourth thoracic segments are longer

than the second and third, the fifth is faintly sub-segmented on the

dorsal side, laterally terminating in a strong spine similar to /chthy-

ophorba denticornis Claus (Opus citatum, p. 199, Tab. xxxv, Fig. 1).

We now place the glass slide under a compound microscope,

applying a low magnifying power and inspect the left, normally

shaped, anterior antenna (see Fig. 1).

It is beset with pretty large bristles, and consists of twenty-five

joints. When connected with the body, the fifteenth joint will

reach to the base of the abdomen, and the terminal bristles reach

to near the tip of the furcal bristles. The anterior antenne

originate from the first pair of larval legs, and are the means with

which the Diaptomus performs its peculiar jerking motions, de-

: scribed by Herrick in AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1879, page 622.

In glancing at the right antenna of

the male (see Fig. 2) one would

think it had been taken from an

entirely different species—so dissimi-

lar it looks! If we count the joints,

we find but twenty-three, two joints

less than in the left antenna. But

cither the tenth or twelfth joint must

Consist of two connate joints, and the

twenty-first is evidently also sub-seg-

mented, making in all, twenty-five

joints. The sixteenth to the nine-

teenth joints, inclusive, are consider-

ably dilated and swollen, enclosing a

Powerful muscle, inserted near the

fifteenth and in the twentieth joint;

thence follows the knee- shaped sec-

tion of the antenna, the geniculatin

Fic. 2. Bent anterior an-

tenna of m

bs Part, consisting of a larger joint with an inner + duplicatre or

692 Variations in a Copepod Crustacean, (September,

bead, forming a tier (originally several connate segments), and

another larger, semi-segmented joint with a terminal, inner, bent-

backward hook, and finally two smaller terminal joints. The di-

lated joints as well as some of the narrower preceding joints, are

armed with powerful spines, and others

with bristles. If this swollen right an-

tenna be separated from a live male, it

will twist around with snake-like mo-

I /

WHY tions for several minutes.

| | ( As the external structures, with the

\\ exception of the fifth thoracic seg-

. : ment, the anterior antenne, the fifth

\ \\ 4 pair of legs and the abdomen, are

\\ alike in both sexes, we may proceed

; N \\ to the posterior or second pair of an-

\\_}

\ \

tennze (see Fig. 3).

The posterior antenne originate

from the second pair of larval legs and

have like those two branches. They

are destined for locomotion, and

also for respiration. The main branch

is slightly shorter than the secondary branch. ;

Having once with certainty recognized the mandible (Fig. 4),

then, after applying higher powers (about 500 X), we are enabled

to see the following characters:

The tip of the first (outer) tooth

is bent and has a very minute

excavation. There are eight

mandibular teeth. The second

tooth is larger than any of the

remaining six of the series, 1ts

suddenly contracted tip some-

what bent like the first tooth;

it is separated from the third by

an interval equal to the width

1G. 4.—Mandible and mandibulary of the tooth. A. short stiff

palpus. Enlarged about 300 x. bristle appears at the lower end

of the row of teeth. The secondary appendage of the mandibu-

lar palpus is four-jointed and bears six delicate bristles at its tip

and inner margin. The larger, bent-upward bristle near the inner

Fic. 3.—Posterior or second

antenna. Main branch shorter.

1881. ] Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. 693

_ base of the main mandibulary palpus is delicately bristled exte-

riorly only. Three smaller cilia are found above the latter on a

small protuberance.

The mandible in all Copepeda originates from the third larval

leg, which is already in the “ Nauplius stage,” provided with a

dentate mandibular process. In the family of Calanide, the man-

dibulary palpus is

comparatively lon-

ger than in the

other five families

of Copepoda.

The maxilla (Fig.

5) is quite a com-

plicated structure,

consisting of sev-

eral lobes, the ex-

planation of which

is found below the

cut. The maxillz

are the second pair ‘ewes

of oral organs, and. 21 Sj Milne eet ela

originate from the palpus; Ff, posterior lobe, or secondary branch of palpus.

bristled and lobed Enlarged about 300 x. :

appendages of the larva, and these occur behind the third nata-

tory leg, or future mandibulary palpus. eee

Another minute mouth-piece is the superior or first a.

(Fig. 6). It is somewhat sub-jointed, elongate, and bears fifteen

bristles as the illustration shows. Both the

Superior and inferior maxillipeds are the

Separately diverging branches of a single

Pair of limbs originating out of the fifth

pair of legs of the later “ Nauplius stage,”

and are in the adult, with a few exceptions,

dissimilarly inserted, the outer branches of

those legs being transformed into the supe-

rior, the inner branches into the inferior

ee ds. + Fic. 6.—Superior or first

We now take a look at Fig. 7, represent- maxilliped. Enlarged about

ing the inferior or second maxilliped. Its 4% mn

basal segment presents in our species four rounded processe

694 Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. [September,

its inner margin, the three first of which gradu-

ally become larger from base upwards, and bear

each, one invaginate spine, the fourth is slightly

produced inferiorly (the rounded tip being finely

ciliate down to the produced lower middle),

there (at the lower middle) bearing two spines

directed downward, and a very fine long flagellum

at its tip. The arrangement of the bristles of

the last two joints, as well as the general outline

of the whole, differ from Diaptomus sanguin-

cus F,

The inner branch of the first of the four pairs

of natatory legs has two, the rest three joints

(see Fig. 8). Their purpose is aération of the

blood as well as locomotion.

The fifth pair of legs in the female is bi-

Fic. 7.—Inferior TAMOse, both branches arise from a two-jointed

or second maxilli- basal piece (coxa and trochanter), the inner

ts branch is short, straight, slender, not jointed,

abruptly terminating in a conical tip surrounded with micro-

scopically small spines around a longer median one; at the side

of the tip and opposing each

other are two longer, mova-

ble (?) spines. The outer branch

arises from the second broad

basal joint, and is strong, two-

jointed, terminating in a sin-

gle, interiorly (near the tip) fine

serrate claw, which has exte-

riorly two (one longer and ong

shorter) diverging spines a lit-

tle above its middle (Fig. 9):

The office performed by the

transformed fifth pair of legs 1m

Fic. 8.—Form of second, third and female individuals is not suffi-

fourth natatory legs. xx, inner branch; ciently known. They may be

x, outer branch. -

for the protection of the eg¢

sac or for properly placing the same, or perhaps they cooperate

with the male in copulation. In some cases they may burst oF

pierce the spermatophores fastened below the female genital pore.

1881.] Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. 695

The fifth pair of legs in the male (Fig. 10) are very dissimilar.

They both arise from a quadrate coxal joint; the left leg consists

Fic. 9.—Fifih pair of legs of the fe- Fic, 10. or tay pair of legs of the

male. a, inner, and 4, outer branch. male. a, right, and 4, left leg.

of four joints, the first joint is quadrate and about one-third wider

than long, slightly enlarging distally. The second joint is some-

what enlarged distally, about twice as large as the preceding

joint, and bears a strong, wedge-shaped, blunt and finely serrate

spine at the inner, and a shorter, slender one at the outer inferior

angle. The third joint is clavate and distally tapering. The

fourth joint is composed of an anteriorly notched, narrow basal

piece exteriorly terminating with an incurved dactyl. The joint

is from base to tip of dactyl, about two and a half times longer

than the preceding joint; it terminates interiorly with another

dactyl, nearly as long as the other; is finely serrate on both

Sides and acts in closing as a forceps. The right leg consists of

five joints, the basal and the second joints are quadrate, the latter

enlarges distally and bears a smaller blunt spine at the inner, and

a larger one at the outer angle. The third joint is subquadrate,

slightly tapering distally, the fourth joint is clavate, bearing a

slender spine at the middle of its outer margin, and the fifth con-

stitutes a slender incurved dactyl as long as the preceding joint,

finely rugose on the distal half of its inner margin, and is so

jointed as to close back against the inner margin of the fourth

joint, which thus acts as a hand. The left leg (in Fig. 10, 4, pur-

posely drawn larger) reaches only about to the tip of the third

joint of the right leg.

In the family of Calanidz, in general, the abdominal segments

are considerably narrower in the male than in the female, the for-

mer consisting of five, the latter of four segments. The first of

696 Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. (September,

the five male abdominal segments is as long as the fifth, and is

the broadest, its anterior ventral angle is prominent, the second

joint is twice as long as the preceding, the third and fourth

gradually shorter. Furca, from base to tip of bristles, longer

than the first, second and third segments together.

The first of the four female abdominal segments bears ventrally

an opening ona circular elevation (in Fig. 11, seen from the side),

- the female genital orifice, to which the secretion of a

gluey mass, the product of two large orbicular cement

glands, situated on the segmentation line between the

- fifth and sixth thoracic segments, flows. Mounted spec-

imens plainly show the two ducts

of the glands running down to the

orifice in the first abdominal seg-

ment. The two ovarial lobes begin

with broad rounded bases in the

second thoracic segment, and grad-

\ ually taper downward. Although

\ I was unable to find the oviduct en-

Fic. u.— tering the first abdominal segment, ig, 13.

Side view of it is evident, from the position of view of las spoytyee

dominal seg- the egg-sac that the products of whiak on the abdo-

,. the cement gland and ovary have acti se eee

capone gi one and the same exit. A receptacu- (the latter ‘ae

tg lum seminis is wanting. Sa iceeil

The second segment is a little :

shorter than the first, the third is about half as long, the fourth is

still shorter and bears the furca (Fig. 13), with orbicular egg-sac-

From thirty to forty eggs are contained in a sac.

The spermatophores containing the fertilizing zoosperms are

glued by the fifth pair of legs of the male to the female genital

orifice during copulation, I noticed from one to four spermato-

phores on some females (Fig. 12). :

The inaugural dissertation of Dr. Aug. Gruber, “ Ueber ze

Siisswasser-Calaniden,” Leipzig, 1878, pp. 34, two plates, gives

us the latest knowledge concerning the formation and action of

the spermatophores, and as this special work may not be in the

hands of every American carcinologist, and owing to the com-

plexity of the matter itself, an abstract of the same, I trust, will

be welcome.

1881. ] Variations in a Copepod Crustacean. 697

In the male the vas deferens can be distinguished into three dis-

tinct sections, each of them performing a different

function. The glandular cells of the walls of the

_c first section secrete a viscid, gluey substance, a sort

of cement into which, coming from the testis and

passing through the posterior ter-

minus of the vas deferens, the elon-

Fic. 12,. gate (in Diaptomus) zoosperms en-

Front view of ter, forming a long narrow string.

rag 5 he The diameter of the first section is

racic segment nearly of equal width in its entire

of female and ee

part of thefirss 0ngth. The second section is more Sa

being eer dilated anteriorly, rounded and ta- Diapromus sanguine-

two spermato. Pering posteriorly. Here we find a %, ria gt mea

Phores, c, ge central, voluminously swelled mass,

‘the other en- the above mentioned homogeneous glue-mass, periph-

‘rely empty. ¢rically surrounded with a layer of densely packed

zoosperms, which but loosely fit into innumerable roundish lodges

or hives, the latter constituting the interior of the partly perfected

exterior spermatophore capsule. The formation of the latter be-

gan probably already in the first section, since the two sections |

do not functionally differ from each other. This still imperfect

spermatophore enters immediately into the third and last section

of the vas deferens as soon as the last perfect one has just left the

male genital orifice.

A number of zodsperms in the posterior rounded terminus of

the Spermatophore act as abortive or expelling factors, becoming

first granulated toward the perfection of the spermatophore, and,

through the endosmotic absorption of water, several of them co-

alesce with a number of cellular vesicles like soap-bubbles (polyg-

onal in Diaptomus). The expelling cells gradually swell, pressing

the central glue-mass into the middle of the spermatophore, and

first become nucleate and then plain. Through the further increase

of these expelling cells, the central glue-mass is more and more

compressed and slowly moves toward and out of the narrow ter-

minus of the spermatophore, and in oozing out forms a saussage-

like body, by means of which, in copulation, the spermatophore

is glued beneath the valvule of the female genital orifice. Into

the center of this mass follows the remainder of the zodsperms,

the latter being perfectly surrounded by the former, forming a

698 Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. [September,

minute ball. The glue-mass, according to Dr. Gruber, evidently

yields also the material for the formation of the egg-sac, since,

firstly, in oozing out of the valvule the eggs are driven into the

mass, and secondly, the egg-sac is not formed before the act of

sexual union,

SCOLOPENDRELLA AND ITS POSITION IN NATURE.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

a recent notices by Mr. John A. Ryder, particularly his last

able paper,! have called fresh attention to this interesting crea-

ture, and his discovery of two species in addition to the one

originally noticed by the writer, shows that the United States are -

as much favored as Europe in specific forms. Scolopendrella is a

small, whitish tracheate animal, not exceeding a quarter of an

inch in length, with a superficial resemblance to a myriopod, such

as Scolopendra, having a pair of well developed, five-jointed legs to

each abdominal as well as thoracic segment; its name ending in

a diminutive gives evidence of the original opinion of its dis-

coverer, that it was a small myriopod, like Scolopendra, the centi-

pede. In deference to the general opinion of naturalists in our

“ Guide to the Study of Insects,” and our “ Zodlogy ” we have let

_ it remain among the Myriopods, but it occupied an uncertain

place, as we waited for more light upon the subject of its affini-

ties, and for time to study it with more care. 3

Attention was first called to the existence of this type of

Tracheates in the New World by a brief notice which appeared in

the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol.

XVI, p. 111, 1873, which read as follows:

“For nearly two years we have had in the Museum of the Pea-

body Academy of Science a specimen of Scolopendrella, detected

September 8, by Mr. C. A. Walker, under a board in the grounds

of the museum. It is nearly related to Scolopendrella tmmaculata

Newport, and if new may be called S. americana. Of the remark”

able features in the structure of this animal I do not now propos®

to speak. It has, however, in the head and antenne a strong T°

! The structure, affinities and species of Scolopendrella, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc. Phil.,

1881, p. 79.

1881.] Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. 699

semblance to Campodea, and in this and in the presence of spines

at the base of the legs, and in other characters, it bears a striking

similarity to the Campodez and the Thysanura, as already indi-

cated by Lubbock. It may be regarded as a connecting link be-

tween the Thysanura and Myriapoda, and shows the intimate

relation of the Myriapods and the Hexapods, perhaps not suffi-

ciently appreciated by many zoologists.”

It will thus be seen that eight years ago we called attention to

the strongly marked Thysanurous features of Scolopendrella, a fact

apparently overlooked by Mr, Ryder, who quotes at length, how-

ever, the opinion of Menge in 1851, who, therefore, was the first to

call attention at some length in an able paper, to the structure

of Scolopendrella, of which Mr. Ryder gives a useful abstract.

Up to last year Scolopendrella had been left undisturbed in its

niche among the Myriopoda, when in 1880, in this journal,’ Mr.

Ryder boldly suggested that it should be regarded as the type of

a distinct order of articulates, and called attention anew to its

close relationship to the Thysanura; and in his last paper gives

the characters of the order, and a list of the known species, with

descriptions of a new one, under the name Scolopendrella grate.

He also figures a form very closely allied to, if not identical with

S. notacantha of Europe.

Having collected considerable material, notes and drawings for

a monographic account of our Thysanura, and having worked out

the external structure of Campodea and Lepisma, we have tong

been anxious to study with care the structure of Scolopendrella.

A species occurred at Salem, Massachusetts, which we called pro-

visionally S. americana, deferring a description of it until we could

get from Europe specimens of Newport's S. cmmaculata. Writing

for several years past without success to naturalists in England,

Belgium and Denmark, during the past spring we had the good

fortune to receive several specimens of this species from Bohemia,

through the kindness of Dr. Latzel, author of a work on Austrio-

Bohemian myriopods, which we have not, however, seen.

I afterwards, in 1874, found two specimens of my Salem form

under stones at the mouth of a small cave (White’s cave, Jr.) near

Mammoth cave, and the same spring Mr. Sanborn collected one

in a cave near Dismal creek, near Mammoth cave.

’ Scolopendrella as the type of a new order of Articulates (Symphyla), AMERICAN

Narurauisr, May, 1880.

700 Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. [September,

On comparing them with seven well preserved specimens from

Bohemia, I find no differ-

: j ence, except that our form

- : has rather longer and

slenderer antennze than

any of the Bohemian

specimens; the American

cave individuals have uni-

formly thirty-three joints,

and the spaces between

the nodes are longer than

I P in the Bohemian ones,

which have from twenty-

one to thirty-two joints.

We do not, however, re-

gard this as a_ specific

character in so variable

SARS *):

iy see —: ' f :

oy d a genus as this, and it

Neg ag N may be that out-of-door

TF stent Ny . ae

7) NY) forms may occur in this

\ bic) ! e country with shorter and

9 stouter antenne, like the

\ Vp J European one. We fe-

iS gard, then, our 5S. amert-

i aT | YW : cana (no description pub-

WE BY lished) as a synonym of

S. inmaculata Newport.

_Fia. 1.—Scolopendrella tmmaculata highly mag- The adj oining figure,

()

Chu

raraaneeenn eaten.

\ —

Et,

} (

cen

LO ors

end of body, showing the caudal siylets; d,a Re drawn by Mr. Emerton

, : f le 1 body, showing from the specimens from

J > g with supplementary ‘

appendage. Emerton and Packard, del. White’s cave, Jr., with the

details of the caudal appendages drawn with the camera from the

Salem specimen, will represent this form, which is 5 mm. in length.

Let us now look at theThysanurous features of the Scolopen-

drella, and then compare it with the Myriopods, such as our

common Lithobius.

The structure of the head is exactly as in Campodea, the form

of the epicranium being the same, having a well marked median

suture, while the posterior edge of the clypeus is angular, the

apex of the triangular edge meeting the epicranial suture, 45

1881. | Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. 701

in Campodea; the labrum is small and rounded in front (what

Menge calls the labrum is in reality the clypeus). The mode of

insertion of the antennz and their shape is as in Campodea. The

form of the clypeus and of the antenne are entirely unlike those

of any Myriopod known to us. The mouth-parts bear the same

relation to the head, and are sunken or withdrawn into the head

in the same peculiar manner, as according to Meinert and our

own repeated observations, characterizes the Thysanura, The

bases of the jaws and maxilla are contained deep in the cavity of

the head or epicranium, only*the ends projecting out, as in Cam-

podea.* The mandibles are slightly curved, toothed, and con-

structed on the Campodea type; the maxilla are long and slen-

der, and in a side view are seen through the walls of the thin

€picranium, appearing much as in Campodea. Their structure is

in general like that of Campodea.

The legs are five-jointed and, as observed by Menge and

Ryder, end in two claws, as in Campodea; in Myriopods there

are six joints, and always a single large claw. The stigmata we-

nave found to open between and just behind the legs, as Mr.

Ryder has stated, but we have been unable to find any in the first

and second segments behind the head; those corresponding to

the prothoracic and mesothoracic segments of hexapodous in-

sects, ,

The v-shaped opening, supposed to be either sexual or to cor-

respond to the sucking organ of Thysanura, we have observed

Only in the fourth segment, or that corresponding to the first

abdominal segment of Thysanura and insects in general. We

are disposed to regard this as the homologue of the sucker of

*Meinert (Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1867, p. 362), ascribes great importance to

the “ position of thé first two pairs of appendages of the mouth with reference to the

wll”? In most insects,and in the Myriopods, the jaws for example act transversely

and articulate with the epicranium by means of a hinge-joint. In the Thysanura the

bases of the mandibles and maxillz are retracted within the cavity of the epicranium,

and are buried in muscles, while generally only their points project outside of their

Mouth. This is the case with Thysanura, both in Campodea and allies (our sub-

Order Cinura), and in the Podure, or Collembola, but in the highest Thysanura,

Lepisma, the jaws are external and articulated to the skull outside of the mouth,

and thus Lepisma approaches the true hexapod insects, and affords a passage from

ene type of head to the other, Scolopendrella, with its feeble jaws and maxillz

buried in the mouth and enveloped in muscles, is throughout Campodea-like, and

€ssentially unlike the Myriopods, such as Lithobius and Scolopendra with their

Ss Powerful, biting jaws, hinged to the thick, solid epicranium and acting trans-

rersely,

702 Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. |September,

Podure, and which we have designated as the collophore; the

occurrence of this opening on the fourth ring indicates that in

Scolopendrella we may distinguish between a series. of three

thoracic segments and about nine or ten abdominal segments,

Now examining the supposed myriopodous features of Scolo-

pendrella, we find that they consist in the identity in form of all

the body segments behind the head, and in the fact that each seg-

ment bears a pair of functional several-jointed legs. In Machilis,

however, the thoracic segments grade almost imperceptibly into

the abdominal arthromeres or somites; though in Lepisma, and

especially in Japyx and Campodea the thoracic segments are

clearly differentiated from the abdomen.

Now the possession of functional jointed abdominal legs by

Scolopendrella does not imply that it is necessarily a Myriopod ;

we have seen that the feet differ in important respects from those

of the centipede, and the presence or absence of abdominal feet is

not an ordinal or very important character, for the head characters

are both in Hexapods as well as in Arachnida and Myriopods, of

the most importance in separating orders and subclasses. Turn-

ing now to the Thysanura, we see that Campodea has a series of

one-jointed abdominal appendages which are, as we have observed,

very movable while the insect is running. They appear to be

rudimentary locomotive appendages. Those of Machilis are much

better developed and are still more leg-like ; the two pairs of ter-

minal shorter stylets of Lepisma we have observed are used as

prop-legs, so that the transition from the legs of Machilis to Sco-

lopendrella is not a very abrupt one. We therefore conclude that

the sum of the characters of Scolopendrella are Thysanurous, and

that the homogeneity of the body segments and the five-jointed

legs which has led to their being regarded as Myriopods, have

misled naturalists; Scolopendrella seems to us to be only anal-

ogous to the Myriopods as regards its feet. The presence of the

two caudal stylets is also a Thysanurous feature; these organs We

should regard as homologous with the stylets of Lepisma and the

forceps of Japyx. Menge and Ryder regard them as spinning

organs, and we would agree with this opinion, as in one of the

specimens from Bohemia, we could see the ducts leading into each

stylet, from one of which a silken thread projected. From

Menge’s statement that the opening of the oviduct lies imme-

diately above the anus, we should dissent on general grounds, as

1881.] Scolopendrella and its Position in Nature. 703

inno known arthropod is this the case. Although we have not

been able to find the opening, it should be looked for between the

second and third segments from the anus.

The view of Menge and of Ryder that “these singular animals

should be separated from the myriopods proper,” will, it seems

to us, be concurred in by any one who may carefully examine

into the matter.

Now arises the question as to the real position of the Scolopen-

drella. Mr. Ryder gives the following results of his able-investi-

gations:

“This form as interpreted above, becomes of the highest

interest to the zoologist, and if the writer is not mistaken, the

biunguiculate legs and their nearly complete correspondence in

number with the rudimentary abdominal and functional thoracic

limbs of the Thysanura, especially Machilis and Lepisma, which

also have basal appendages to the legs, indicate as much affinity

with insects as with myriopods, and may indeed be looked upon,

perhaps, as representing the last survival of the form from which

insects may he supposed to have descended. I name the new

group Symphyla, in reference to the singular combination of

myriopodous, insectean and Thysanurous characters which it

presents.” He regards the Symphyla as an order with one

family, the Scolopendrellide of Newport. We had been ready to

adopt this order, though we felt uncertain as to its position; but on

a re-examination of the structure of S. zmmaculata, and from the

information afforded by Menge and Ryder, have been led to

question whether the Symphyla should be regarded as an inde-

pendent order of Tracheata, and if so, whether they should be

included with the Thysanura among the genuine insects or not.

We see no reason why the Thysanura should not be regarded as

an order standing at the bottom of the hexapodous series, and

constituting an eighth order of Hexapoda. We regard the Co/-

lembola of Lubbock as a suborder of Thysanura; we have in the

Seventh edition of our “Guide to the study of Insects,” 1880,

thrown the Lepismatidz, Campodez and Japygide into a new

Suborder called CGizura. Now the question arises, have the Sym-

Piyla characters sufficiently distinctive to keep them apart as a

Separate order, next to and below the Thysanura as a whole, or

Should they be regarded as a third suborder of Thysanura equir

alent to the Collembola on the one hand, and to the Czmura on

the other? We are inclined to the latter view.

704 American Work in the Department of —[September,

The distinctive Thysanurous character of the Symphyla, are the

form of the head as a whole, that of the epicranium, and of the

clypeus and the small labrum, as well as the mode of insertion

of the antenne, and their form. The mouth parts, z. é., the man-

dibles, maxillze and labium, have the essential form of Campodea ;

the caudal stylets are insectean. These characters do not re-

move them more than by one family from the Campodee and

Japygide, They also have what is possibly a collophore ; the spi-

racles are muchas in Japyx, but situated between the legs, though

the presence or absence of spiracles is so variable in the Thysa-

nura as to be unimportant. The differential characters are the

presence of five-jointed functional legs, and the dorsal scutes of

the somites, the latter homonomous; but even here the claws are

exactly as in Campodea, and we see an approach to the multi-

articulate legs in Machilis, and the two pairs of long proplegs in

Lepisma. Under these circumstances we should include the

Symphyla as a suborder of Thysanura. At the same time we

wish to bear testimony to the ability and good judgment shown —

by Mr. Ryder in dealing with a most difficult problem, and offer

our own views for the consideration of zodlogists. None the less

as pointed out by Mr. Ryder, is the view (we have also long held)

well founded, that Scolopendrella is an ancestral, synthetic form.

In this respect it stands side by side with the Campodea. The

structure of this synthetic type also shows how close is the rela-

tionship between the hexapodous insects and the Myriopods,

which are more closely related in most respects than the Hexa-

poda and Arachnida. We are also confirmed in the view that

the Hexapods, Arachnids and Myriopods are too closely related

to be regarded as independent classes, and should be regarded

as subdivisions (subclasses) of Tracheata.

70:

AMERICAN WORK IN THE DEPARTMENT OF RE-

CENT MOLLUSCA DURING THE YEAR 1880.

BY WILLIAM H. DALL.

te the recorder prepared his last report on this subject

(for 1879), Dr. James Lewis, of Mohawk, N. Y., well known

for his researches into the natural history of land and fresh water

shells of North America, has passed over to the majority. For-

tunately the ranks of the working malacologists of America have

1881. ] Recent Mollusca during the year 1880. 705

not sustained any other loss during the past year, though the

death of Professor Haldeman recalls the excellent work done in

that department by him, many years ago. |

The recorder would particularly request from authors, early

' copies of any papers bearing on malacological topics,’ in order

that this record may, in future, be more promptly prepared.

This is especially desirable when the article is published in any

of the semi-scientific periodicals of small circulation and uncer-

tain tenure of existence, which appear from time to time, fulfill a

certain good purpose, but usually demonstrate their unfitness for

serving as a medium of communication with the scientific world,

by a pervasive eruption of advertiséments in the text, a feverish

craving for clippings and a rapid descent into an early grave.

The year has been marked by no extraordinary discoveries in

the biology of mollusks, but a fair amount of creditable work has

been done, of which, perhaps, a larger portion than usual is of a

high character. Several investigations of great interest are in

progress, but it has seemed best to confine the record to such as

has been irrevocably placed before the scientific world by pub-

lication.

General Works—Mr. Tryon’s Manual of Conchology has pro-

gressed, during the year, to the first part of the third volume.

Volume second contains the Muricine and Purpurinz, com-

prising two hundred and ninety pages and four hundred and

forty-two figures on seventy plates. Volume three, of which part

One appeared in the last days of the year, is to contain the Tri-

tonide, Fuside and Buccinide.

Anatomy, Physiology and Development.—The most valuable

work in this department, in 1880 as in 1879, is due to the labors

of Professor W. K. Brooks. “ Studies from the Biological Labo-

ratory of the Johns Hopkins University ” (Vol. 1, Part Iv), con-

tains a memoir on “The development of the American oyster,

Ostrea virginiana List.” (pp. 1-104, pl. 1-x), which also appears in

the Report of the Commissioners of Fisheries of Maryland for

1880; and an article on “The acquisition and loss of a Food

Yolk in Molluscan eggs” (pp. 105-116, pl. x1). The researches

on the oyster having been undertaken at the instigation of the

Maryland Fish Commissioners, the first thirty-four pages of this

Memoir contain in untechnical, but quite sufficiently exact phrase-

‘Which may be sent care of the Smithsonian Institution.

VOL. XV.—NO, IX, 49

706 American Work in the Department of [September,

ology, a statement of the nature, method and extent of the

observations and conclusions reached from them, with a few

words of warning in relation to the inevitable ruin of the beds to

follow excessive dredging ; the laws relating to which, it may be

noted—though Professor Brooks does not mention it—are practi-

cally ignored. He finds the average number of eggs in an oyster

of ordinary size to be about nine million, against less than two

million reported for the European oyster; while some American

oysters may furnish sixty million. In the European, however,

the young are believed to be protected, during their most preca-

rious stages, in the parent shell, so that perhaps z3$a0 Of them

come to maturity, while our American species undergo their

development in the open sea, subject to fatal changes of tempera-

ture and unnumbered enemies, which must greatly diminish the

proportion of survivors. The sex of individuals during the

breeding season, contrary to the oystermen’s opinion, cannot be

distinguished without dissection, and they appear, for the time

being at least, to be singly male or female only, and never her-

maphrodite.

The second part of the paper discusses some of the more ab-

struse topics connected with the subject, and is written more for

the embryologist, as the former part is for the general reader.

Among the conclusions arrived at, are the singleness of sex in

the individual ; that the impregnation is external to the shell;

that the segmentation is remarkable for its rapidity ; its bilateral

symmetry and marked alternation of periods of rest and peri

of repose; both regular and rarely-recurring irregular processes

of segmentation are described, and the conclusion is reached that

the process of Lamellibranchiate segmentation is a survival from

ancestral conditions which included few large eggs provided with

food-yolks, these last having been lost as the eggs became

smaller and more numerous, while the mode of segmentation has

been retained perfectly by the oyster and incompletely by other

Lamellibranchs, The evidence appears to the author to strengthen

his previously expressed opinion that the Lamellibranchs must

be regarded as aside branch from a main stem, of which the

Gasteropods are a much more direct continuation, and that the

phylogeny of the higher Mollusca cannot be traced through the

Lamellibranchs to lower invertebrate forms. Of these views, the

second paper on the acquisition and loss of a food-yolk (with a

1881. ] Recent Mollusca during the year 188o. 707

comparative plate of embryo forms) is chiefly an amplification.

The first memoir concludes with a discussion on the formation of

the digestive tract, the shell and the mantle, and the relation of the

facts observed to the Gastrzea theory.

Apropos of the American oyster, a letter dated Gibraltar, June

14, 1880, from Mr. Francis Winslow, U.S.N., to Professor W. K.

Brooks, appears in the January NaTurauist of the present year

(p. 57), giving an account of an attempt made to fertilize some

Cadiz oysters, and the unexpected agreement, so far as the obser-

ver was able to determine, of the development with that of the

American form. Mr. Winslow says: “ So far as these results go,

they prove that the artificial propagation of the European oyster

is practicable to just the same extent as our own, and I think it

throws grave doubts on the theory that the embryo is protected

within the shell, and that the impregnation occurs there and no-

where else.”

The reporter in examining the exhibition of oysters at the

Paris Exposition in 1878, saw shells of a species of oyster in the

collections which was referred to as the “ Portuguese” oyster,

and which he could not distinguish from the shells of O. virgint-

ana. These Portuguese oysters are regarded with contempt by

the French oyster-cultivators, who advertise, as a merit, that

their particular parks are free from contamination by this objec-

tionable variety. They are said to be free from the coppery

flavor of O. edulis, and to be larger and tougher—just the quali-

ties ascribed to American oysters by those who are accustomed

to the O. edulis. The observations on the embryology of the

European oyster were all made on the O. eduls. If, therefore,

these Cadiz native oysters were (as may be suspected) the “ Por-

tuguese”” oysters of the French, and identical (as seems not

impossible) with O. virginiana, the discrepancy would be ex-

plained without throwing discredit on the researches of those

European naturalists who have examined the other species. Mr.

Winslow, under the direction of the U.S. Coast Survey, made

Some very meritorious surveys of a part of the Chesapeake oys-

ter beds in 1879. His report was published in the Report of the

Maryland Fish Commission for 1880, by permission of the Super-

intendent of the Coast Survey; and its value, as we are informed,

since been recognized by the French Société d’Acclimatation,

Which has awarded a bronze medal to the author.

708 American Work in the Department of (September,

In the September Naturatist (p. 674), Mr. J. A. Ryder de-

scribes the course of the intestine in Ostrea virginiana, which he

found to have but one complete turn upon itself, and in the

course of its (dorsal) flexure, to pass almost directly over the

mouth, and to be provided with a pair of internal longitudinal

folds.

Brooks in the American Yournal of Science (Oct., 1880, p. 288)

has a short article on the homology of the Cephalopod siphon

and arms, in which he concludes that they are neither homolo-

gous with the velum nor the foot, but are independent devel-

opments.

In the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural

History (1880), Brooks contributes a paper on the “ Develop-

ment of the Squid (Loligo peali Lesueur),” containing twenty-

two pages and three plates. In this article he observes that

while the squid embryo fails to give us any information as to how

a typical mollusk has been modified to convert it into a Cephalo-

pod, or the transformations undergone during the process, it

nevertheless clearly shows the fundamental similarity of type

which subsists between it and other Mollusca.

In last year’s record allusion was made to Professor Verrill’s

“Cephalopods of the north-eastern coast of North America,”

Part 1 of which, including the gigantic squids and their allies,

has since appeared in the Transactions Connecticut Academy of

Sciences, v, pp. 178-257, with fourteen plates. Much of the

material in this paper has been the subject of preliminary M-

tices; Stenoteuthis n. g. for Architeuthis megaptera Verrill, and

a large Bermudan squid, perhaps Om. pteropus Stp. ; and Les-

- toteuthis for A. kamschatica Midd., from the North Pacific, are

the only absolutely new names proposed here, but a large array

of new facts, a thorough digestion of previous literature, 4 T

vision of the genera and a satisfactory illustration of the several

species as far as known, give to the paper a monographic char-

acter. The principal among the species treated of and figured,

are Architeuthis harveyi, hartingti and princeps, Stenoteuthis

megaptera, [fistioteuthis collinsit and Enoploteuthis hartingti, all

of Verrill; Architeuthis dux and monachus of Steenstrup ; and

Onychoteuthis robusta Dall, the last being from the Aleutian

islands. The paper will form the standard of reference for this

interesting subject. : :

1881. ]. Recent Mollusca during the year 188o. 709

A synopsis of a lecture, by Professor A. Hyatt, given before

the American Association, appears in the Naruratist for De-

cember (p. 915-6); the subject being the transformation of Plan-

oris, as a practical illustration of the evolution of species. Al-

though based on the study of the fossil forms of Steinheim, it is

referred to here on account of its obvious bearing on the general

subject.

A fully illustrated memoir on this subject is contained in the

memorial volume of the Boston Society of Natural History.

In the Naruratist (March, 1880), p. 207, Mr. R. Ellsworth

Call has a note on reversed specimens of MMelantho (Campeloma),

and an examination of embryonic shells of several species, show-

ing that from fifteen to twenty-five reversed specimens were found

in every thousand, of which, however, it is believed by Mr. Call,

only one-tenth per cent. survive to maturity. He suggests that

the reversals may be due, as some other irregularities are, to

crowding in the ovarian sac.

A circular has been issued by Messrs. R. E, Call and A. F.

Gray, asking the cooperation of conchologists in providing mate-

rial for a proposed monograph of the Unionide of North America, in

which they propose to figure the anatomy of each species in detail.

The polymorphous forms of Axodonta found in the United

States, are referred to in a note by Professor Call in the Natu-

RALIsT for July, p. 529. The existence, everywhere about us, of

transition forms of animals, is now being generally recognized by

naturalists, who formerly, under the blinding influence of the

dogma of fixity in specific characters, wandered hopelessly from

the extreme of naming every individual variation, to that of con-

founding every sort of minor characteristic under one specific —

name. Now that a certain amount of freedom in these matters

has become habitual, we may look for the speedy recognition of

the particular effects produced by at léast the more simple features

of the environment, of which several of our Western naturalists

have already given us a foretaste.

In the American Naturauist for July (p. 522), R. Bunker

hotes that a specimen of Lymne@a elodes Say, from which a piece

of shell the size of a half dime had been broken out, showed

Signs of reparation in three days, and in six weeks the injury was

completely repaired, the mollusk meanwhile iplitin sieved its usual

functions in an aquarium.

710 American Work in the Department of [ September,

In the American Naturautist for March (p. 214), Mr. Lock-

wood notes a case of-extreme vitality in a specimen of Helix

aspera (aspersa ?), which lived thirteen months without food.

Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution and Catalogues.—

A valuable contribution to our knowledge of the geographical dis-

tribution of invertebrates on the north-west coast of America, is

made by Mr. J. F. Whiteaves in the ‘“‘ Report of progress of the

Geological Survey of Canada, 1878-9,” pp. 190 B—205 B, Mon-

treal, May 1, 1880; his paper being entitled “ On some Marine In-

vertebrata from the Queen Charlotte islands.” It is based on

collections made by Dr. G. M. and Mr. Rankine Dawson in the

summer of 1878, on the eastern and northern coasts of the group.

Macoma carlottensis Whiteaves, a species much resembling J.

ividescens Sby., and Lepton rude (Dall MS.) are described and

illustrated by good woodcuts. Many species in the list have

hitherto been known only from more southern localities. The

depth and exact locality are precisely indicated; the mollusk

fauna, as might be expected, is distinctively Oregonian in charac-

ter. Several new species of Echinoderms are described by

Professor Verrill, and two species of corals, a Balanophyllia and

Paracyathus are noted, the latter of which was only previously

known from Monterey, Cal.

In the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for the current

year (pp. 40-127, pls. 1-8, rx-xv1), Dr. R. Bergh, of Copenhagen,

concludes his memoir on the Nudibranchiate Gasteropod Mol-

lusca of the North Pacific ocean, with special reference to those

of Alaska. This, with Part 1, noticed in our last report, com-

pletes the revision of the species known to exist in that region,

and is, without doubt, the most important contribution to the

subject ever published in America. Too crowded with anatomi-

cal and other details to admit of intelligible condensation in the

form of an abstract, it may be mentioned that the species de-

scribed by Cooper and others are here for the first time referred

to their true systematic relations, and enumerated under their

proper genera. Several European species are recognized, and

others are represented by closely allied forms, nearly all are sub-

jected to minute microscopic dissection and appropriately figur ed

in detail from camera lucida drawings. The new species described

in the second part, are Akiodoris lutescens, Aleutian islands ;

Lamellidoris (var.) pacifica, Bering sea; L. varians, Aleutians,

1881.]. Recent Mollusca during the year 188o. 7It

and a variety of it; Z. hystricina, same locality ; Adalaria pacifica

and A. virescens, Unalashka; Acanthodoris cerulescens, Bering

sea; Zhemistv (Palio) pallida, Aleutians; and Triopha modesta,

Shumagin islands, Alaska. For the last (at first referred to

Triopa) the genus Z7iopha is proposed, and Colga is suggested

for the group typified by Doris lacera Abildgaard (I. c. p. 112).

Brooks (Proc. B. S. Nat. Hist. xx, pp. 325-9) contributes a

paper on “ The development of the digestive tract in Mollusks,”

in which he records his views of the leading points in the devel-

ment of pulmonates and of the oyster from the observa-

tions given in detail in the subsequently published memoirs on

the fresh-water Pulmonates and on the oyster, elsewhere re-

ferred to.

In the Annals of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences, 1, No. If,

PP. 355-362, pl. xiv, xv, Mr. W. G. Binney continues his valuable

investigations and notes on land shells of the United States, and

on some exotic species. The following new species are described:

Macrocyclis hemphillii ( Olympia, Or.) ; Zonittes rugeli; Z. andrewsi ;

and Mesoden andrews, from Roan mountain, N. C., collected by

Mrs. Andrews. Notes on the anatomy and dentition as well as

the synonymy of species already known, make up the balance of

the paper. The genus 7ebennophorus is now first reported from

the Amazon, three hundred miles inland from Para, Brazil.

In the Bull. Mus. Comp. Zoology (v1, No. 3, Feb., 1880) the

fifth report on the Blake dredgings in the Gulf of Mexico, com-

prises “General conclusions from a preliminary examination of

the Mollusca,” by W. H. Dall (pp. 85-93). The material con-

Sidered embraced four hundred and sixty-two species of ninety-

Six genera (this term being liberally construed), ranging from a

few fathoms to 1920 fathoms. A comparative table of the genera

and number of species of the littoral and abyssal Gulf fauna is

given, together with illustrations of the range of individual spe-

cies, showing that many range from thirty fathoms to over eight

hundred fathoms, a fact which had never been clearly indicated

before, as most of the deep sea expeditions avoided carrying

their investigations continuously from the abyssal into the littoral

region. Pteropods and pelagic surface forms are not considered.

The general conclusions are as follows: 1. The fact, already

known, that certain species have a limited vertical range, forming

respectively a littoral and an abyssal fauna, is supplemented by

712 American Work in the Department of (September,

the hitherto unrecognized fact that a fair proportion have a verti-

cal range including both regions. wu. Of the species with great

vertical range, the smallest part (ten per cent.) belong to boreal or

cold water forms; the néxt larger (twenty per cent.) to tropical or

warm water groups, while more than sixty belong to groups not

specially characteristic of the /ttora/e of either region. ur. Of

the species found in the abyssal region, without regard to their

range above it, ten per cent. may be termed boreal, thirteen per

cent. tropical, and more than seventy-five per cent, uncharacteris-

tic generic forms. Iv. Since the tropical forms found belong to

the same groups as the local littoral mollusk fauna, it is eminently

probable that the abyssal regions have local faunz proper to their

various portions, and that a universal exclusive abyssal mollusk

fauna does not exist. v. The specific characters of many of the

strictly abyssal species appear to exhibit a very remarkable.

degree of variation between supposed specific limits, though it

would seem as if the conditions under which they live must be

remarkably uniform. This would indicate that the tendency to

variation is less dependent upon changes in the existing environ-

ment than has generally been assumed, if not entirely independent

of it; and, conversely, that under uniform conditions (where there

can be hardly any struggle for existence) the innumerable varia-

tions which occur may coéxist with hardly any elimination, and

the equilibrium of characters made temporarily stable by natural

selection (which constitutes “ species”) may fail to be exhibited

to a sufficient degree to permit us to take account of it.

In the American Yournal of Science for November (XX, PP:

390-403), Professor Verrill treats of the remarkable marine fauna

occupying the outer banks off the southern coast of New Eng-

land. This article is a preliminary to the more extended paper

in the Proc. U. S. Nat. Museum, hereafter alluded to, and contains

brief descriptions of two new genera and three new species of |

Cephalopods, one new Pteropod, seventeen species and one new

genus of Gasteropods, and two of acephalous Mollusca. Sev-

eral of these appear to be of particular interest, and some seem

remarkably close to those described from the Challenger collec-

tion by Boog-Watson. The Calliostoma bairdii V. and S., 18 the

Calltostoma psyche of the recorder, named but not describ

preliminary report on the Blake dredgings off the gulf and

Florida coasts in deep water. This lovely species was dredged

edinhis |

1881.] Recent Mollusca during the year 188o. 713

by the lamented Pourtalés many years ago on the Florida reefs.

The species referred to in this article are, in part if not wholly,

members of the deep sea fauna, strictly speaking. A number of

the species mentioned in the article, are described as of “ Verrill

and Smith,” in recognition of the labors of Mr. Sanderson Smith

of the Fish Commission, upon the part of the collection embrac-

ing the Mollusca.

In the same journal (1. c., p. 284, April, 1880), Verrill gives a

“ Synopsis of the Cephalopoda of the north-east coast of Amer-

ica,” with five plates. This is composed chiefly of notes or addi-

tions to knowledge in regard to species heretofore described.

In the Proc. U. S. National Museum (Vol. 11, pp. 356-499),

Professor Verrill publishes a ‘ Notice of recent additions to the

marine Invertebrata of the north-eastern coast of America, with

descriptions of new genera and species, and critical remarks on

others.” * This consists of two parts, the first (1) relating to the

mollusks, with notes on annelids, etc., collected by the U. S. Fish

Commission, and the second (111) comprising a catalogue of Mol-

lusca recently added to the fauna of Southern New England.

Although the latter part (pp. 401-409) did not appear until Jan.

10, 1881, the publication, which has also appeared separately, will

here be considered as a whole, for the sake of convenience. Part

of the new species had previously been published in the Am.

Fournal of Science and Arts for November, as already mentioned.

In this article one hundred and fifteen species of Mollusca are

described as recent additions to the fauna of New England,

which, almost without exception, have been obtained by the par-

ties employed by the U. S. Fish Commission, directed by Profes-

sor S, F. Baird, and under the immediate supervision of Professor

Verrill, who has been aided in the wérk’ by Mr. Sanderson Smith,

Dr. A. S. Packard, Jr., Messrs. Richard Rathbun, H. E. Webster

and several other well-known naturalists. Particularly rich

results have been obtained in depths from sixty-five to five hun-

dred fathoms, south from Narragansett bay extending to the mar-

gin of the so-called “ coast shelf” of the continent in this vicinity,

about ninety miles from the coast. It may be questioned whether

all the forms obtained can be with entire accuracy denoted as be-

longing to the “ New England” fauna, since some of them are,

without doubt, members of the trne deep sea fauna, and may be

found hereafter to extend widely throughout the Atlantic sea-bed

714 American Work in the Department of [September,

without truly forming part of any of the local faunz bordering

upon it. Among the surprises was the discovery, in some num-

bers, of nearly fresh shells of Argoxauta argo, though Lockwood

(American NATURALIST, XI, p. 243, 1877) recorded the capture of

a living individual, probably of this species, on the coast of New

Jersey. The species first named in this paper are Bela sarsi V.

(for B. cancellata Sars non Couthouy); B. hebes V. from 500 fms. ;

Pleurotoma (Pleurotomella) pandionis V., 238 fms.; Taranis pul-

chellaV ., 487 fms.; Neptunea ( Sipho) celata V.,and N. arata V., to

500 fms. ; Nassa nigrolabra V., 155 fms.; Lunatia levicula V., 26

fms. ; Rissow ( Cingula) harpa V.,to 365 fms.; Solarium boreale

Verrill and Smith, 115 fms.; Acirsa gracilis V., 100 to 365 fms. ;

Aclis striata V.; Turbonilla smithii V., 100 to 120 fms.; Odosto-

mia (Menestho) sulcata V., 36 5 fms.; Dendronotus elegans V.;

Polycerella emertont V.n. g. et sp.; Coryphella nobilis V.; Cratena

veronice V.; Halepsyche V.n. g., for Psyche Rang., preoccupied ;

Lyonsiella gemma V., 487 fms.; Meera multicostata Verrill and

Smith ; Avicula hirundo L. (?) var. nitida V., and several unde-

termined species. It is of course impossible, within the limits

of this report, to summarize fully a publication which is in itself

chiefly a summary and a catalogue, nor is it possible fairly to criti-

cisé species or identifications from brief diagnoses without figures.

It is to be hoped that the authorities of the Fish Commission and

Professor Verrill will not allow much time to pass without giving

to students good figures of all these new forms, which have been,

during the existence of the Commission, from time to time neces-

sarily so briefly and imperfectly described. This is the more

necessary now that the investigations of the Commission are

encroaching upon the abyssal fauna. Naturalists in several coun-

tries are working on similar material, and it is growing to be

more and more widely recognized that a description, unless 2¢

companied or soon followed by a good figure, or careful compat!

son with some well-known and well-figured form, is useless

any one who does not possess specimens for comparison.

That the labors of Professor Verrill and his associates should

bear their proper fruit and be placed permanently on a soum

foundation, must be the wish of every American naturalist, and

to bring this about, good figures of their hard earned treasures

are indispensable. | =

One criticism may be permitted. The Bela simplex of G. QO

1881.] Recent Mollusca during the year 188o. 715

Sars being neither the &. devigata Dall (from Bering strait), nor

the Pleurotoma simplex of Middendorf, the identification of the

species recorded under Sars’ name may be considered as still in

oubt.

In the November number of the Valley Naturalist, Mr. Calkins

enumerates twelve species of mollusks additional to his list of

marine shells of Florida of 1878.

Some notes on the molluscan fauna of Dominica, are given by

A. D. Brown, in the American Natura.ist (Vol. xv, No. 1, pp.

56-7), and relate chiefly to the land shells. Mr. Guppy’s publica-

tions (Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1868) are criticised, and it is stated

among the notes that Amphibulima patula possesses the power of

completely contracting itself within its shell.

A list of “ Land and fresh water mollusks of Muscatine county,

lowa,” was printed, in 1879, in the History of Muscatine county,

(8vo, 1879, pp. 332-3) by Professor F. M. Witter, who also

printed a tract of four pages entitled, “ Notes on Wyoming

Hills,” a paper read before the Muscatine Academy of Science,

June 2, 1879, which includes notes on various species of recent

and subfossil Pulmonata. These publications have not been seen

by the recorder.

In the report of the work in 1879 (p. 434) reference was made

to a criticism in Science News, by Mr. Stearns, of a paper on the

Shells of Florida by Mr, Calkins. In the same (now defunct)

publication (June 15, 79, p. 255), Mr. Calkins replies, maintain-

ing the probable accuracy of the disputed identification of a

Floridian Ranella collected by him with R. muriciformis Brod., a

West American species, rather than with 2. caudata of Say, as

Mr. Stearns would suggest.} ag

It seems that there were also published by Mr. Calkins, in

1879, the following papers: “ The terrestrial molluscan species of

Florida, with notes of personal observation,” in the Journal of the

Cincinnati Society of Natural History in 1879, and “Note ona

rare Californian marine mollusk,” in Science News of July, 1879.

During the summer of 1880, Mr. T. A. Verkruzen visited the

Banks and Newfoundland, and dredged there, beside collecting

from several other sources, such as cod stomachs, etc. He pub-

sagem from Florida having been kindly submitted to the feonnder by

‘ cae my compared with authentic specimens of &, muricifor ms, seem to

y different from that Pacific coast species, though belonging to the same

Seneral group, and, in general, not dissimilar in characters.

716 American Work in the Department of [September,

lishes in the January number of Fahrbuch d. Deutschen Mal. Ges.

f. 1881 an account of his collections. Herein appear descriptions

of several forms of ABuccinum, which no one of our American

students has yet thought of separating under a specific name,

though very familiar to all. The limitations of species varying

with different writers, it is sufficient to say that in this case specific

limits seem to be contracted beyond precedent. None of the

forms are figured and described but have been already several

times named, according to the average view of such things.

The figures are fortunately very good.

Lntroduced Species—W. H. Ballou (American NATURALIST,

July, p. 523) states that Bythinia tentaculata L., was discovered at

Oswego, N. Y., in June, 1879, and has more recently been found

in the Champlain canal, at Waterford and Troy, and in the Erie

canal, at Syracuse, N. Y.

Verrill (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., m1, p. 376) notes the occurrence

at Newport, R.I., among the ducks, of Zruncatella truncatula

Drap., with Alexia myosotis, Assiminea grayana, etc., in July.

Professor E. S. Morse, in the Bulletin of the Essex Institute

(Vol. xu, 1880, Salem, Mass.), has a paper of six pages on “ The

gradual dispersion of certain mollusks in New England.” Init

some statistics are given as to the gradual spread of various spe-

cies, especially Litorina litorea L., together with a small map and

a figure of the shell.

In the American Fournal of Science among the zoological

notes, Professor Verrill alludes briefly (1. c. p. 250, Sept., 1880) t©

the occurrence of 7runcatella truncatula and Assiminea grayants

at Newport, R. I. (The recorder believes that in 1871, during ss

brief visit to Wood’s Holl, Mass., he obtained a few dead spect

mens of the former on the beach at that place; at least the spect

mens agreed with European specimens so named, so far as the

shell was concerned.) }

Another note (I. c. p. 2 51) refers to the rapid diffusion of Lito-

vina litorea L., on our coast, this species having now reached as

far south-west as New Haven, Conn.

In the Valley Naturalist (St. Louis) u1, 1, Sept., 1880, Mr. L. B.

Case speaks of the prevalence of Zonites cellarius Miall., in ore

houses, where, however, it is not ascertained to do any damage

unlike an unidentified imported species of Limax, which 's wake

destructive to Begonias and other tender-leaved foliage plant

1881. ] Recent Mollusca during the year 1880. 717

It may be noted that Zonjtes may be beneficial by destroying the

Limaces, as it is believed to be carnivorous.

Descriptive and Miscellaneous Papers——Very few exclusively of

this character have been published during the year, although, as

usual, several noted under previous heads, contain descriptive

matter.

Octopus obesus and O. lentus are described by Professor Verrill

as new to the north-east American coast (Am. Fourn. Sct., Feb.,

1880, xIx, pp. 137-8) from specimens obtained by fishing vessels

off Sable islind and Le Have bank, and presented by their com-

manders to the U. S. Fish Commission.

Partula mooreana, from the Island of Moorea in the Pacific, is

described as new by Dr. W. D. Hartman (Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

Phil., 1880, p. 220).

In the Valley Naturalist (St. Louis) 1, 1, Sept., 1880. p. 6, Mr.

Calkins describes Ammnicola ferruginea n.s., from the Calumet

river, Ill., with a woodcut, and gives some “ Notes on some

Florida Uniones,” in which he unites Unio duckleyi and U. buddt-

anus Lea, specifically, beside considering the distribution of a

nearly allied form, U. d/axdingianus Lea. In the December num-

ber (p. 53), he describes, with a good figure, Zonttes upsoni, a new

Minute and interesting species from Illinois. Mr. Calkins also

Printed in July, 1880, an octavo catalogue of the Uniones in his

Cabinet, which comprises some four hundred numbers.

At the meeting ofthe Am. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, at Bos-

ton, papers were read by Professor E. S. Morse entitled, “ Observa-

tions of Japanese Brachiopods,” and “ Notes on Japanese Pul-

Monifera,” but the reporter has not come across, as yet, any pub-

lished synopsis of these papers, which it is to be hoped will

appear in the annual volume.

Professor Alpheus Hyatt, in one of the Teachers’ Science

Guides (Ginn & Heath, Boston, 1880), has given an account of

Some of our commoner, economically important mollusks, such

as the oyster and clam.

A book, by Mr. Emerton, on the animals of the sea-shore,

which (like that of Professor Hyatt just referred to) has not been

seen by the recorder, may contain some matter pertinent to this

record,

Articles on the economical mollusks appear from’ time to time

in the daily or weekly press. Some of these contain matter

718 American Work in the Department, etc. {September,

worthy of preservation in more permanent form. Among those

of this general nature, which have come under our observation

during 1880, the following may be noted: NW. Y. Weekly Herald

of May Ist, On the Oyster business; Sax Francisco Weekly Bul-

letin Sept. 15th, On Oysters of the Pacific coast and the trade in

them; the same Dec. Ist (in eastern correspondence), On the

Oyster trade of Baltimore. In the San Francisco Morning Call,

Dec. I-12, 1880, appeared a series of letters on Mexican oysters

and the possibility of utilizing them, attempts at which, from the.

vexatious customs regulations of Mexico, and the stupidity of

the local officials who enforce them, have hitherto resulted in fail-

ure, though the oysters are easily obtained and of good quality.

The collections of shells belonging to various gentlemen in the

vicinity of San Francisco, and especially that of Mr. R. E. C.

Stearns, perhaps the most scientifically valuable of any private

collection in the United States, form the subject of an article in

the Sunday Chronicle, San Francisco, Dec. 26, 1880.

Two papers of real value on “Staten island and oysters,”

appeared in the Sczentific American for July 31st and Aug. 7th.

In the supplement to that publication for July 1oth, J. W. Put-

nam, C. E., contributes an important essay on the preservation

of timber, especially with reference to attacks by boring mollusks

such as the Teredo.

The recorder may, perhaps, be permitted here to announce that

having discovered that the name Ceropsis, used by him for a

genus of Carditidz of the Californian coast, in 1871, is preoccu-

pied, he desires to substitute for it the name J//neria, in honor

of the late Dr. J. W. Milner of the U.S. Fish Commission. The

name Candelabrum (used by him in 1878 for a Pleurotomoid

genus having the posterior surface of the whorls concave, and

with the keel produced backward in spines like those ornament:

ing the varices of Murex), appears to have been used by Bisit

ville for a radiate, but it does not appear whether Blainville’s

name has or has not been adopted into science. If a new name

be considered desirable, Ancistrosyrinx may be used. It comes

from deep water off Florida.

1881.] Notes on the Codex Troano, and Maya Chronology. 719

NOTES ON THE CODEX TROANO, AND MAYA

CHRONOLOGY.

BY DANIEL G. BRINTON, M.D.

eae investigations of Professor Thomas, published, in the

American NaArura.ist for August, go far towards dispelling

the obscurity which has hitherto rested on this interesting docu-

ment. In examining its pages some other suggestions have oc-

curred to me which may throw further light on its object and

contents.

One question in reference to it is, as to what precise period of

time it refers. Up to the present there has been no opinion

€xpressed upon this point, but I think it can be approximately if

not definitely determined.

To do so we must decide what was the length of an Ahau. It

is true that all the old authors, Landa, Cogolludo, Beltran,

Lizana and the Maya chronicler, speak of it as a period of twenty

years; and the most recent writer on the subject, Dr. Valentini,’

insists on this being the proper length. On the other hand, we

have the profound Maya scholar, Sefior Juan Pio Perez, who very

Positively maintained that it embraced twenty-four years, only

twenty of which, however, were counted, the remaining four be-

ing considered “ intercalary, and, as it were, non-existent.” Al-

though no reason whatever for this odd arrangement has been

proffered, I am convinced that Perez is correct, and in addition to

the valuable corroborative testimony adducel by Professor

Thomas, I shall bring forward a calculation which some time ago

dispelled any doubts I had on the subject.

As the Kin Katuns, or periods of 52 years, recurred so fre-

quently that after a few generations they could not be distinguished

one from the other, and would thus have led to great confusion

in chronology, the Ahau Katun was devised, embracing the much

longer period of 312 years, and to it was referred any important

event in history. Instead of its purpose being “ further to com-

Plicate the calendar and to deceive the people,” as Professor

Thomas thinks, it is, when properly used, an extremely simple

and easy means of keeping the run of the years, and converting the

one computation into the other.. For this purpose the series of

Numbers was used which has been such a mystery to antiquaries:

For 42,0, 7, 6, 4. 1. 12, 10, 5, 0 a, ©

‘The Katuns of Maya History,”’ 1880.

720 Notes on the Codex Troano, and Maya Chronology. [Sept.,

Gallatin explained them as the numerical characters of the

days “ Ahau”’ following the first day of each year called Cauac;’

Dr. Valentini thinks they refer to the numbers of the various

idols worshiped in the different Ahaus; Professor Thomas that

they are’ the number of the year (in the indiction of 52 years)

on which the Ahau begins. Each of these statements is true in

itself, but each fails to show any practical use of the series; and

of the last mentioned it is to be observed that the objection

applies to it that at the commencement of an Ahau Katun the

numbers would run 1, 12, 10, 8, etc., whereas we know positively

that the numbers of the Ahaus began with 13 and continued It,

6; 7, ‘5, etc.

The explanation which I offer, is, that the number of the Aha

was taken from the last day Cauac preceding the Kan with which

the first year of each Ahau began—for, as 24 is divisible by 4,

the first year of each Ahau necessarily began with the day Kan.

This number was the “ ruling number” of the Ahau, and not for

any mystical or ceremonial purpose, but for the practical one of

at once and easily converting any year designated in the Ahau

into its equivalent in the current Kin Katun, or 52 year cycle.

All that is necessary to do this is to add the number of the

yearin the Ahau to the number of the year Cauac corresponding 1

this “ruling number.’ When the sum exceeds. 52, subtract that

number.

Take an example: To what year in the Kin Katun does 10

Ahau x1 (the roth year of the 11th Ahau) correspond ?

On referring to a table, or, as the Mayas did, to a “ Katun

wheel,” we find the 11th Cauac to be the 24th year of the cy cle;

add ten to this and we have 34 as the number of the year in the

cycle to which 10 Ahau x1 corresponds. The great simplicity

and convenience of this will be evident without further dis

cussion.

I now pass to the important question: Can we establish a cot

rect correspondence between the Kin Katuns and the Ahau Ka-

tuns with the years of the Christian era ?

The attempt has been made with widely divergent results.

Perez makes the 13th Ahau begin in 1488, and Gallatin follows

him; Valentini has it begin in 1522, but he makes the serious

error of supposing the 1 3th was the /ast Ahau, whereas it was.

1 Trans. Am. Ethnol. Soc., Vol. 1, p. 109.

1881.] Motes on the Codex Troano, and Maya Chronology. 721

the first in the Ahau Katun; besides attributing only twenty

years to the Ahau. That both these suppositions are erroneous,

will appear by an analysis of a date which has been given us by

a Maya writer preserved by Perez and referred to by Professor

Thomas. This date is that of the death of Ahpula. A false

translation of this important quotation, led Gallatin to suspect an

error in the original; but it is entirely correct and intelligible as

it stands. The text runs thus: ‘

_ “In the 13th Ahau Chief Ahpula died. Six years were want-

ing to complete the 13th Ahau. This year was counted towards

the east of the wheel, and began on the 4th Kan. Ahpula died

on the 18th day of the month Zip, on the gth Imix; and that it

may be known in numbers it was the year 1536.”

Side by side to this must be put a very precise date given by

Bishop Landa, and corroborated by native writers. It is to the

effect that “the Spaniards arrived at the city of Merida in the

year of the nativity of our Lord 1541, which, said the Indians,

was precisely in the first year of the period of Eleven Ahau.”

Here, then, are two dates which should be reconciled. It

looks difficult, at first sight. Counting six years back from 1541,

brings us to 1 535, not 1536, and Valentini therefore supposes

that the Maya chronicler had in view the official incorporation

of Merida (Jan. 6, 1 542)—though what that would have had to do

with the fixed principles of Maya chronology, he does not make

clear,

In reality, there is no contradiction at all. The Maya year did

not begin January 1 as does ours, but Fuly 16, at or about the time

of the transit of the sun by the zenith in the latitude of Merida.

Hence the Maya chronicler identified the 6th year from the end

of the Ahau with 1536, because the greater part and the latter

part of that Ahau year was actually in A. D. 15 36. In point of

fact, Chief Ahpula, whoever he’ was, died Sept. 11, 1535, O-S.

Having fixed this date beyond peradventure, I shall take

another step. The Ahau Katun of 312 years, divided into 13 |

Periods of 24 years each, embraces 6 Kin Katuns of 52 years

each; yet owing to the properties of the different numbers, the

first year of any Ahau will not coincide with the first year of any

Kin Katun except at the beginning of the Ahau Katun; and

from the date of this coincidence the Ahaus were reckoned deg7n-

- ning with the 13th (as Perez positively and correctly states).

Referring again to Chief Ahpula’s death, the chronicler states

VOL. XV.—No. Ix, 50

722 Notes on the Codex Troano, and Maya Chronology. (Sept.,

that it occurred not only in the 6th year from the close of the

Ahau, but he also gives it in the Kin Katun reckoning as the

year 4 Kan. Now it is obvious that if Ahau xi is the first of

the greater cycle, the number of the year referred to should be

the same as the number of the year 4 Kan in the lesser cycle—

a coincidence which could not occur except in the first Ahau of

the Katun. In fact, 4 Kan is the 18th year of the Kin Katun;

and of course 24 — 6 = 18, the year of the Ahau.

This leads to the result that the coincidence above referred to,

which marked the beginning of the greater cycle, occurred July

16, 1517, on which day, for the first time for 312 years, the cuf-__

rent Ahau und Kin Katun both began on the day 1 Kan.

With this date thus definitely fixed, it would be easy to con-

struct a table showing the correspondences of the Maya and

Christian systems of reckoning. I shall pass, however, to its

application to the Codex Troano.

Leaving aside the opinion of the Abbé Brasseur that this man-

uscript is a sort of geological treatise, and that of Mr. Bollaert

that it is a history, all unprejudiced students have agreed that a

portion of it at least is a calendar—what the Mayas called tzolan

Katun, the arrangement of the Katuns or divisions of time, and

probably also a ¢zo/anzé, ritual. The left hand columns of the

four plates numbered xxi11, xxi, xx1, xXx, as has been noted by

Professor Thomas, enumerate a series of 52 years beginning with

10 Cauac, which is the 36th year of the Kin Katun. Could we

find anywhere on these plates the number of the Ahau, there

would be no difficulty in fixing the exact date of the manuscript.

I have no doubt that Professor Thomas is right in believing that

the Ahau is indicated in the upper compartment of Plate XxUI,

and I had repeatedly sought to make it out there before seeing

his article ; but unless it is the figure two in red at the top of the

column of numbers to the right of the figures in blue, | cannot

discern it. Assuming that the date is Ahau 11, and the year ”

Cauac, it is obvious from the method of calculating above given

that the year with which this calendar begins is that which cor-

responds to July 16, 1500-1501, and that it ends on the year 9

Ix, Ahau x1—July 16, 1552-1553. .

Passing by various other considerations of interest in connec”

tion with the Codex, I shall offer one suggestion which, so far a5

I know, has not heretofore been made.

1881.] Notes on the Codex Troano, and Maya Chronology. 723

It is known to all students of the subject that there is no ac-

count of the plan adopted by the Mayas to arrange their inter-

calary days. That they did allow for these days is asserted by

all authorities ; if they had not done so, they would, as Gallatin

observes, have been out of their reckoning twenty days every

eighty years; whereas we know that they were only forty-eight

hours astray in the time of the transit of the sun by the zenith at

the time of the Conquest (Pio Perez).

Their method of intercalating is, I believe, illustrated by the

Codex Troano, One of the most instructive pages of that manu-

Script, is the title page. Were it fully deciphered, we should

doubtless have a key to the whole work. It is composed of

eleven lines across the page, each presenting either seven num-

bers or seven figures. The first row from the top of the page is

partly erased, but may readily be restored It represents the

hieratic signs of the seven days:

Ymix, Ix, Akbal, Kan, Chicchan, Cimi, Manik.

Below them stand the numbers :

i, <2 3 +i 6, Va

Now of these days, the first three named—Ymix, Ix, Akbal—

are the /ast of the series of 20 which make up the Maya month,

while the remaining four are in their order, the frst of the

month.

This serves to identify the kind of book the Codex is, for

Landa has, among his other obscurities about the Maya calendar,

this particularly obscure passage :

“Tt is curious to note how the dominical letter [of the year]

always comes up at the beginning of its year, without mistake or

also used this method of counting in order to derive from cer-

tain letters a method of counting their epochs and other things,

which, though interesting to them, does not concern us much

here. It is enough to say that the character or letter with which

they begin their computation of the days or their calendar is

{

Sign | :

called One Ymix which is this | et | which has no certain

; Gay. |

Nor fixed day in which it falls. Because each one changes its

I The reasoning of Professor De Rosny on this point is conclusive. See his

“ Essai sur le Déchiffrement de l’Ecriture Hiératique de |’Amérique Contras

Folio, Paris, 1876, p. 26.

”

724 Editors’ Table. [September,

position according to his own count; yet for all that, the domini-

cal letter of the year which follows does not fail to come up cor-

ett

This certainly is not to be understood, as has been supposed

by M. de Charencey, who has made some excellent studies on

this Codex, to mean that the year began with the day Ymix.’

The contrary is distinctly affirmed by Landa. The true explana-

tion I take to be the following :

Each period of 13 years began with the day 1 Kan, and, count

ing 305 days to the year, ended on the day 13 Cauac. In each

period there should be three intercalary days, every fourth year

being properly a leap year. These three days are allowed for by

beginning the next subsequent 13 year period, not on the day fol-

lowing 13 Cauac in regular order, but by starting the almanac of

the period with Ymix, thus allowing three days to elapse, which

would bring 1 Kan of the new year in its proper astronomical

position within about half an hour.

—:0: ———

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D, COPE.

It is refreshing to the ordinary plodding scientific mind,

trammeled by the clogs and chains of the inductive method, to

read the addresses of some (by no means the majority) of the

metaphysicians of the Concord Summer School of Philosophy.

Aiming his a priori gun.at the human soul, Dr. Jones brings it

down at the first shot, stuffs it with the Platonic philosophy, and

finds, after all, that “the soul exists only as odjectivation, manr

festing itself out of itself.” We on the whole prefer this to the

degrading conception of the materialists and nescientists who are

said to teach that the soul is a function of the brain, as it is really

a definition we can understand. We quoted Carlyle’s opinion of

evolution in a recent number; here is Dr. Jones’ deliberate char-

acterization of the evolution theory, doubtless the result of years

of scientific research and philosophic induction: “Of the idea of

evolution and of the origin of the species, we must think some

worthier thought than that of a monkey or gorilla rubbing off a

tail and otherwise improving his condition, until, through natu

« Relacion de las Cosas de Yucatan,” p- 236. ‘

7«* Recherches sur le Codex Troano,” p. 10, 1876.

1881] Editors’ Table. 725

selection of condition, he finds himself a spiritual being with an

immortal soul.” This statement of the evolution theory, which,

for intelligence, matches the above quoted definition of the soul,

was, so far as we are told to the contrary, received with ap- .

plause (clapping and stamping is frowned down at the school

as materialistic) of the silent sort, as befits a band of Hegel-

ians and Super-platonists. It is currently reported, though the

newspapers don’t even whisper the idea, that after adjournment

each evening the soul of each member of the school “retires into

the occiput,” where it lies in a trance for the night, contemplating

the “ Zhingness of the Here.’ Compare these dark orphic sayings

and these aspirations of the souls of the Concord Philosophers

with the materialistic methods of research of the anatomist or

biologist or physicist, and who wouldn’t be a Hegelian and

Super-platonist !

Dr. Jones, full of anti-“ materialistic” ardor, says in another

place, “ There are no natural forces; matter is inert; the poten-

cies of nature are in spirit, not in matter.’ Another speaker

remarked that “ materialists are studying the lower forms of men,

and avoid the higher civilization.” The venerable Mr. Alcott,

is brought face to face with inscrutable problems. Few o them

are thoroughgoing materialists as such. The great lesson of sci-

€nce is to teach us to suspend our judgment and to wait for more

light, even if the solution of many problems has to be deferred

for generations. Least of all can ultimate questions be solved by

refrains from groundless generalizations on ultimate problems,

which he may justly claim that the human mind is no better fitted

for solving now than in the days of Plato and Aristotle. Is not

726 Recent Literature. [ September,

this as truly the evidence of a well-trained, philosophic mind as

‘the utterances of certain illiberal, one-sided philosophers who

ignorance and want of appreciation of science and scientific theo-

ries or working hypotheses, by dismissing them as “ materialistic”

and “atheistical.” Scientific men are too apt to be dogmatic and

censorious in dealing with transcendental and mystical philoso-

phy, but we do not look for this spirit in the philosopher, whose

range of vision takes in matter as well as mind and spirit.

:0:

RECENT LITERATURE.

REPORT OF THE STATE COMMISSIONERS OF FISHERIES OF PENN-

ouse at Marietta, Lancaster Co., the same species have been

sent, together with Clupva sapidissima (shad), Micropterus salmoides

(black bass) and Cyprinus carpio (carp). The most extensive dis-

tributions have been of trout and black bass. An important

feature of the report is a series of answers to questions propound-

ed by the commissioners as to the condition of the streams 1

various parts of the State’ These inquiries relate to the obstruc-

tion, pollution, etc., of the waters, and the answers throw much

light on the subject. They should be continued in future years,

for the destruction of the fish population of many fine streams

will be accomplished, if this matter is not carefully supervised by

the commissioners, and the needful legislation carried into effect.

The ichthyological portion of the report includes descriptions

of one hundred and fifty-seven species, of which four have been

introduced. The descriptions are arranged under the various

systematic heads of genera, families, and orders, for which char-

acters are giveni 1 with the views of theauthor. Professor

_ Cope has been a student of this subject for many years, and he

has made a good many important discoveries in a field already

pretty well occupied. Such may be considered the finding

the genera Placopharynx, Ericymba, and Labidesthes. So also the

peculiar arrangement of the intestines in Campostoma, where they

’ Harrisburg; Lane S. Hart, State Printer, 188r.

1881. ] Recent Literature. 727

are wound in a long helix round the swim-bladder. The deter-

mination of the structure of the jaws and their functions in the

peculiar genus Exog/ossum was first made in Professor Cope’s paper

on the Cyprinide of Pennsylvania, published in 1861. Professor

Cope thinks that additional species will be found in the Ohio

tributaries, which now includes half the fresh water fish fauna of

the State. The eastern limit of distribution of a number of

species is pointed out, and the southern limit of others.

printer.

We hope the commissioners will persevere in their work until

all our fresh waters furnish a permanent supply of good fish food

for our rapidly increasing population.

STUDIES FROM THE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY OF JOHNS HopkKINS

Universrry}—While this part contains valuable physiological

papers by the editor, Prof. Martin, and by Drs. Councilman,

Hartwell, and Sewall, we propose to notice here the purely zoologi-

cal memoirs, which are of a high order of merit. In Dr. S. F.

Clarke’s paper on the early development of the Wolffian body in

the common salamander (Amblystoma punctatum), which is illu-

Strated by three well drawn plates, the author states that this

body arises from the outer layer of the mesoderm as a solid rod

of cells, and is at first largest anteriorly; a split then occurs in

the larger portion which begins at the posterior end of the smaller

part and travels anteriorly, and at this time a lumen has appeare

in the anterior end of the blastema ; finally, the split reaches the

anterior end thus dividing that portion into two ducts; the lumen

is extending itself backward, a small rod of cells has been formed

low the anterior end of the ventral duct, the dorsal and ventral

ducts are united at one point, and a second opening into the body-

cavity from the dorsal duct has been made. This method of de-

velopment seems to be quite different from that in any allied

forms in which the development has been worked out, and, adds

r. Clarke, it is most like that of the Elasmobranchs.

A paper by Dr. C. Sihler, on the formation of dentine and of

Osseous tissue is followed by one by Prof. W. K. Brooks and E.

B. Wilson on the first zoéa of Porcellana, illustrated with two

. Fohns Hopkins University, Baltimore. Studies from the Biological Laboratory.

Editor, H. NEWELL MarTIN; Associate Editor, W. K. Brooxs. Vol. u, No, f.

Published by N. Murray, Johns Hopkins University. June, 1881. 8vo, pp. 134-

Subscription price for the vol., $5.00, :

728 Recent Literature. [September,

plates. It is devoted to a description of the first stages of the

larva, the specimens having been hatched from the eggs at Beau-

fort, N.C, It appears that the larva immediately after hatching

is still quite rudimentary in form compared with the more active

zoéa after it has cast its first larval skin, which occurs in from two

to twenty-four hours after hatching. A second paper by Dr.

Brooks is entitled “ Alternation of periods of rest with periods of

activity in the segmenting eggs of Vertebrates.”

HamLin’s Puysicat GEOGRAPHY AND GEoLocy or Mr. Kraapn

—This little known and somewhat inaccessible mountain, is one

of the grandest peaks in Northeastern America. Its isolation, the

great height to which it rises above the surrounding country, the

wild, savage desolation of its summit, the sharpness of its peak,

the enormous chasm or rent in its side like the crater of a vol-

cano, are features wanting in the White and Green mountains.

Moreover it is of peculiar interest from the fact that during the

glacial period its peak, like that of Mount Washington, probably

stood above the ice sheets, while at an elevation of 4615 feet on

-its sides, occur boulders of Oriskany sandstone containing fossils,

as well as of fossiliferous slates which, in some manner unexplained,

have been carried from the lowlands not many miles to the north-

westward, apparently not much over 600 feet above the sea. Pro-

fessor Hamlin’s account is full and detailed, and we are glad to

know only preliminary to more thorough investigations. The

excellent heliotype of a model made of the mountain, will be

useful to future explorers and visitors to this wildest, most vol-

canic-looking of our New England peaks.

rofessor Hamlin, from numerous soundings in the lakes of

the Ktaadn region, shows that the lakes are shallow, with flat

bottoms, enclosed by glacial detritus, as are all the lakes in

Maine. Of lake basins excavated in solid rocks, he knows

Not an instance in Maine. It would seem from this that the lake

basins of Maine, though our author does not say so, would, 1

drained, appear like the ancient lake bottoms ‘which form the

sites of many a New England village, and which were formed

during the terrace epoch or epoch of great rivers, when the latter

were chains of lakes,

The author shows that the Ktaadn region is not a continuous

granite area as formerly supposed, but that like the other eleva-

tions in Central Maine, it is a mass of intrusive granite rising

out of gneiss. He takes the ground, against Sterry Hunt am

others, that the “ gneiss” is really an eruptive granite, rather than

_ of sedimentary origin, the transitions in many places within 2

Va ponen j A taudn and

the adjacent district, By CE Hasta tle Te eeu ot Comp. Z20k

at Harvard College. Geological series, Vol. 1, No. v. Cambridge, Mass.

ogy at

ad 8vo, pp. 189-223, with a map and heliotype taken from a mod

aadn,

el of Mt. |

1881. ] Recent Literature. 729

small area from crystalline rock to distinct schists being, in his

view, incompatible with the idea that the former is a metamor-

phosed portion of the latter. Ktaadn is itself composed of true

granite, specimens having been referred to Dr. Wadsworth for

microscopic examination. The mountain has been determined,

by Professor Fernald, to be 5215 feet high; the parallel of 46°

crosses the northern base of the mountain. The drift, boulders

and gravel occur as far up as 4600 feet on the sides of the

mountain; the drift has been covered with the débris from the

mountain summits, or in the author’s words, “ Ktaadn has thus

been buried under its own ruins, and beneath these ruins has been

hidden the drift that was deposited when the mountain was com-

paratively intact.”

Darwin’s Power oF Movement IN Prants.!—There are few

botanists indeed who do not prize very highly Mr. Darwin's

botanical works—* Climbing Plants,” “ Fertilization of Orchids,”

“Insectivorous Plants,” “Fertilization in the Vegetable King-

dom,” and the “ Forms of Flowers.” We have now another to

add to the list, and it is not too much to say that it fully equals

In interest and importance, any of its predecessors. Like them

it is the record of a long series of the most patient and pains-

taking observations and direct experiments, and like them the

results are told in the simple and straightforward manner which

is the peculiar charm of Mr. Darwin’s writings.

_ Beginning with a short introduction, the authors take up the

circumnutating movements in seedling plants, devoting particu-

lar attention to the movements of the radicle, or young root, and

Sensitive to contact or other external influences. The movements

of the parts of mature plants are next taken up, and many curi-

ous facts are brought out here for the first time. The movements

connected with the sleep and waking of plants occupy con-

siderably more than one hundred pages of the book. Heliotro-

Pism and its modifications occupy seventy pages or more, an

geotropism upwards of fifty more. At the close is a chapter con-

taining a summary which includes some startling suggestions,

and food enough for many years of diligent and hard thinking.

The public on this side of the Atlantic, have again to thank the

Messrs, Appleton & Co., of New York, for the promptness with

which they have brought out the American edition, and at a price

which places it within easy reach of all—C. 4. B.

' The Power of Movement in Plants. By CHARLES DARWIN, LL.D,, F.R-S.,

assisted by Francis DARWIN. New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1881.

730 Recent Literature. [September,

RECENT Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Dr. H. G. nn’s Klassen und Ordnungen

des Thier. Reichs, Wissenschaftliche dargestellt in sg und Bild. F ortgesetzt von

staecker, Profes der Universtat, Fiinfter Band, 11 Abtheilung.

Dr. A..Ge

Gliederfiissler ; hibitopeds: P Pe fe Lieferung. Roy. 8vo, pp. 96, vill plates. Leip-

zig und Heidelber: sah 1881.

H. G. n’s entre - Ordnungen —_ See nis Reichs, Wissenschaft-

liche dargestell i ae » Wort und B Fortgesetzt von Hoffmann, Doctor der

und P ophie, Pee in Leiden. ee Band. 11 Abtheilung.

Reptilien 18, nap 20 sora 21, Lieferung. Royal 8vo, pp. 27, 1x plates, Leipzig und

Heidelbe Ps

Neu phy 6 von fiancee und Westaustralien beschrieben. Von Dr. J. G.

Fischer, i in Hamburg. 8vo, pp. 16, 2 plates. Bonn, 1881. From the otto

Fauna der a ‘ek te Kalksteine, der Pe rmformation Béhmens. beg

Dr. Ant. Fritsch. Band 1, Heft 3. Roy. 4to, pp. 32, 12 plates, yt Prag, 1881.

From the author

Sur un procedé gomeroi: des Infusorises et des Eléments aap vit , pendant

la vie. Par M. A. Cer 4to, pp. 8. Paris, 1881. From the

Rapports des Conmiaon Internationales. Congrés Geologique Internat hed

2me Session, Bologne, 1881. mae Fova et Gasagnani. Bologne 1881.

pp. rom the © commissio

*Bibiothegue | aig hechived des Sciences Physiques et Nae T ran

cae: Eericate. Congrés Geologique International Session de Bologne,

: 1881, Report Ss pales Suisse sur L’unification de la Nomenclature. oe

1881. 8vo, pp. 14. From the author ss

Note Complementarie sur la Pedpiiratibe et la Conservation des Organi smes eal

A. Gertes. Seance du 12 Avril, 1881. Extrait du ape de la Société Z00

gique de France. ya r L’Année, 1881. Paris. 8vo, pp. 4. From the society.

Le Moniteur de la Flotte. Lloyd Francais Oran hye Intérets Politiques, sas

a et Commerciaux, de la France et des Colagta.: Paris, 1881. From the e pub

er.

Le Musée Geologique de —— en 1880. Rapport Addresse ala genie

des Mvbbes par le geen , E. Renevier, professeur. 8vo, pp. 29. Bull.

Vaud. Se. Nat. xvit, 1 Sep. pretest Juin 1, 1881. From the author.

esefia Fisica y Geologica de la Provincia de Giudad-Real. Por D. De wig

Ingeniero Jefc del Cuerpo de Minas, Roy. 8vo, pp. 4 map. Imprenta y

nde Monuel tello, Madrid, 1881. From the direct

sone big tete de Venezuela, Revista Qumcenal de las cincias Medicas. 49

pp-10. Caracas, 1881. Fro

m the publisher.

Sona oria Bea Sobre el Ste hendy O Sea. La Pesca por Medio Por & re

ihn ge Por A. Ernst. (Del Tomo 1 de los esbrozos de Lane uela. Por

Level.) 8vo, pp. 16. Imprenta Bolivar, 1881, Caracas. From th ee

Las Familias mas Importantes del a Vegetal specie las que son

sikasts en la Agric — e industria, O que estan representad: a Flora geese

zuela, Resumen del curso de Radics ether ing eido en la Sunue Univ

1 T.

seabed Por A. Ernst. Artes pp. 82. Imprenta de espinal e Hijos, Caracas, 188

From the author

879.

Fenomenos Peribelbobs de la Vegetacion estudio Ee Cal al ee ener

Por Mariano Barcena, Director del Observatorio Meter ed Centrat.

de Francisc> Diaz de Leon. Mexi ico, 1881. From the prude

Anales del sce de aes de la Republic Mexicana, Tomo IV, Achy

Pp. 508. Imprenta de Francisco cr de Le eon. Mexico, 1881. From the

vatorio Metersineigs Central. Mexic .

biclogy and

cifer; a study in Wekhetide By W ', K. Brooks, associate in Universi):

Leu

Hecitin of the Che esapeake Zo oological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins

Baltimore, Md., U.S. A. Communicated by Professor Huxley, Sec. R. i: 1881.

ceived April 6, 1881. From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 2

8vo, pp.2. London, 1881. From the author

1881.] Recent Literature. 731

The Scientific Roll and Magazine of Systematized Notes. Conducted by Alexan-

der eng say, F.G.S. Climate. Vol. 1, May, 1881, London. From the editor.

A Catalogue of works on Natural History. By Bernard Quaritch. London,

1881. From the author

get S a Micrecoam, August. 4to, pp. 8, illustrated. New York, 1881.

edito

From

The pe Tertiary a the woul of Mexico. ’. Hilgard, Berkeley, —

fornia. 8yvo, pp. 12, 1 map. the Am aiae *igal of Science, Vol. XxtI,

July, 1881, New Haven, ‘fie, Ted the author

Census Bulletin No, 222. Ownership of the National ggg Bonds.

By Robert P. Porter, specia al agent on Wealth, Debt and Taxation. 4to. pp. 10.

parment of Interior, Government Prin ta! Oe, Washington, “1881. From Hon.

Francis A er, Superintendent of Cen

Notes on Salmonidz of the Upper abana By Capt. Chas. Bendire, U.S.A.

Pp. 40

Observations on Siredon lichenoides. By Wm. E. Carlin. pp. 24.

Descriptions of New Fishes from Alaska and Siberia, By Tarleton H. Bean.

pp. 66. From the Proceedings of United States National Museum (8v0, pp. 81).

Gov oe Printing Office, Washington, 1881. Through the Smithsonian Insti-

oe fy Colbad Bulletin. Statistics of Life Insurance. 4to, pp- 74. Deparcment

of the Interior, Government Pr rinting Office, Washington, 1881.

The et ata es of the Py aay States mise Office, aE the Patents,

Trade-m Designs and Labels. Vol. x1x 26. Vol. xx, Nos. 2-4. Pub-

lished a ees of Congress. Cokereinan: Printing Office, Washington, 1881.

cragalt y the cruise of the bi S. Revenue aovvaal *‘Corwin’’ in the ti

ocean, aptain ooper, U.S.R ia

pp- 76, cuts.

Printing Office, Washington, 1881. From S. W. Clark, Chief eee Mari

A memoir upon Loxolophodon and Uintatherium. Henry F. Osborn "Sc.D. “Ac.

companied by a Stratigraphical Report of ne Bridger beds in the Washakie basin,

by John Bach McMaster, C.E. Vol. 1, No. 1. Contributions from the E. } u-

Seum of Geology pie! Sea af the Cottege of New Jersey. 4to, pp. 54, Vi

plates, map. Princeton, 1881. Fro

Book of the Black ss By. Dr. Q x a hal, Sate pp. 468, ae and cuts.

Bound. Robert Clarke & Co. Cincinnati, 1881. m the oe blish

New species of Fossils, and remarks rye wl eon the Niagara ee up of Il-

linois. By S. A. Miller, Esq. 8vo, pp, 11, 1 plate. From the emia of the Cin-

Nati Society of Natural History. Cincinnati; 1881. From the aut

The Palzeontologist, June 10, 1

Contributions to ong stare ; Fossils of the Lower Silurian Formati on; Ohio,

Oyen ee Kentucky. By U. P. James. Roy. 8vo. pp. 12. Cincinnati, 1881. From

e au

The aa of the Cincinnati Society of Natural sherry July, Vol. rv, No. 2.

8vo, pp, 90, 2 plates. Cincinnati, 1881. From the

Proceedings of the res Acailédey of ay THD at ee regular meeting held

June 6, 1881. Reception of Lt. Robert M. Berry, U.S.N., commanding the U. S.

Steamer. es Rodgers ” of the a ag Search Expedition. 8vo, pp. 20. San Fran-

Cisco, 1881. From the

The State and Higher Education an address before the Minnesota Academy of

Natural — By Professor N. H. Winchell. 8vo, pp. 18. Ext. from the

Academy, Mintcadi: 1381. ‘ion the author

ser a 1878. 8vo, pp. 8. ee serhat from the Smithsonian Report for 1879. Gov-

HPs Printing Office, igaieee 1881.

h American Mesozoi he Conen c Geology and Palont ology ; or an

bridged history er our snowed of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceo and Tertiary

Pn, ons of the Continent. By S. A. Miller. 8vo, pp. 338. Fiske: ten Journal of

732 General Notes. | September,

the Cincinnati Society of Natural History, Oct., 1879. Cincinnati, 1881. From

the author.

The Foundation of American Dermatology; being the President’s address at

fourth annual meeting of the American Dermatological Association held at Newport,

gust 31, 1881. By Louis A. Duhring, M.D. 8vo, pp.30. Ext. from the

Transactions of the Association. Philadelphia, 1881. From the author.

:0:———

GENERAL NOTES. ”

BOTANY .'

Borany in Minnesora.—The University of Minnesota opened,

during July, a Summer School of Science, in which instruction

by lectures and laboratory practice was furnished in chemistry

(Professor Dodge), geology (Professor Hall), and botany (Profes-

sor Bessey). About forty teachers enrolled themselves for the

courses. The botanical laboratory, supplied with twenty-five

microscopes, was open from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M., excepting the lecture

our, from 11 to 12 o’clock. The Mississippi river, above an

below the falls of St. Anthony, and the long cafion, with its

high cliffs, extending from the falls to Fort Snelling, together

with the innumerable lakes in the vicinity of Minneapolis, Sup

plied an abundance of material for study. The cooler climate of

Minnesota made work possible even in the heated term of this

u. The Structure and Physiology of Cryptogams—(1) 1 he Sexless

Plants (Protophyta) Protococcus, Nostoc, Oscillatoria, Rivularia,

yeast plant, Bacteria; (2) The Unisexual Plants (Zygospore®),

Hydrodictyon, Conferva, Desmids, Diatoms, Spirogyra, Mucor ;

(3) The Egg-spore Plants (Odsporeze), CEdogonium, Vaucheria,

Peronospore, Cystopus, Fucus ; (4) The Red Seaweeds and their

allies (Carposporez), Podosphera, Eurotium, Parmelia, Puccinia,

Agaricus; (5) The Mosses and their allies (Bryophyta), Marchan-

tia, Mnium; (6) The Ferns and their allies (Pteridophyta), ye

prothallia, and fruiting, Pteris, Polypodium, Selaginella. 1. ‘

Structure and Physiology of Phanerogams.—The structure ‘a

ymnosperms ; the sexual reproduction of Monocotyledons ; ¢

sexual reproduction of Dicotyledons. we.

Tue Stupy or Arc& In THE Unirep Srates.—About pie

years ago Dr. H.C. Wood, of Philadelphia, published h1s ‘ce

well known “ Contribution to the history of the fresh water A e

of North America,” which made it possible for the earn

begin the systematic study of our fresh water species. Wit ee

1 Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

1881.] Bourny. 733

two or three years, Dr. Allen and Dr. Halsted have pretty well

worked up our Characez (which we must regard as Alga, in the

face of the fact that algologists regard them as falling within the

jurisdiction of the bryologists). It is a pleasure now to notice

the important contribution made by Dr. Farlow, whose “ Marine

Algze of New England and the adjacent coast,” appeared early in

July. It is reprinted from the belated “ Report of the U. S. Fish

Commission for 1879,” and consists of 200 pages of text, accom-

panied by fifteen plates. The author has been connected with

the Fish Commission for many years, and has thus had most ex-

cellent opportunities for studying the Alga of our North Atlantic

coast. How well he has improved those advantages even a Cas-

ual examination of this valuable book will show. It is designed

to be used as a hand-book for the classification of the species

(excepting the Diatoms) of our coast from New Jersey northward,

and it is not too much to say that the author has been entirely

successful in making a béok which every sea-coast visitor with

botanical inclinations will find indispensable.

dinavian Algae. It is especially instructive to examine the Algae

Scandinavice, by Professor Areschoug, in connection with our

Own forms. The resemblance is at once striking.” South of

Cape Cod the Floridez are characteristic, and here West Indian

and even Adriatic forms appear. ae

The general classification is as given below, beginning as 1s

happily becoming the custom, with the simpler forms and passing

tothe higher. Order 1. Cryptophycee, nearly equivalent to Cy-

734 General Notes. { September,

anophycee or Phycochromacee, and containing the sub-orders

Chroococcacez and Nostochinee. Order 11. Zoosporee, with the

sub-orders* Chlorosporee, Bryopsidex, Botrydiez, Phaeosporee.

Order 111. Oosporee, with sub-orders Vaucheriee and Fucacee.

Order 1v. Hloridee, including sub-orders Porphyree, Squamariee,

_ Nemaliez, Spermothamniee, Ceramiez, Spyridiee, Crypto-

nemiez, Dumontiez, Gigartinee, Rhodymeniez, Spongiocarpee,

Gelidiee, Hypnez, Solierieze, Spharococcoidee, Rhodomelee,

Corallinez.

Tue Lirerature or Boraxy.—Mr. B. D. Jackson’s ‘“ Guide to

the Literature of Botany” (I.ongmans, Green & Co., and Dulau

& Co., London), will prove indispensable to the working botanist.

It is not. simply a list of all the botanical publications, but a

selected and classified list, so that when one consults it he is not

obliged to hunt through a great mass of less important matter.

The selections have been quite well made, and as the book con-

tains 6000 titles not found in Pritzel’s “ Thesaurus” (not

more, as we thought from the prospectus and so noted in the June

“ Notes”) it should at once find a place upon the shelves of every

botanist’s library. The general appearance of the book, which

contains over six hundred small quarto pages, is good, and the

typographical errors are, considering the nature of the work, re-

markably rare.

A Hinr To Microscopists.—The editor of this department,

since the publication of his “ Botany for High Schools and Col-

and prepare their own specimens is doing the best work. ut

the fact remains that for a very great number it is impossible for

them, with their thousand and one other duties, to take upo?

themselves the additional labor required to supply, at the proper

time, the proper illustrative specimens. To meet the wants of

such cases, and they are numerous, why cannot some of our

microscopists put up sets of mounted slides, designed to show

the more important structures, in a well selected list of illus-

trative plants. A set of twenty-four specimens, somewhat 2° —

follows, would be useful. Protephyta—(1) Protococcus, (2) yeast

plant; Zygosporee—(3) Hydrodictyon, (4) Diatoms, (5) Spirosyt

(6) Mucor; Oosporee—(7) Volvox, (8) Vaucheria, (9) Peronospora,

(10) Fucus ; Carpfosporee—(11) a fruiting Red Alga, as Nemalion,

(12) Erysiphe, (13) a lichen, as Usnea, (14) Puccinia grams ©

all its stages, (15) sections of mushroom, (16) Chara or Nitella ;

1881. ] Botany. 735

spores and microspores of Selaginella; Phanerogamia—(22) pol-

len, (23) young pistil (sections) and ovules, (24) seeds (sections)

with embryo zz situ. The specimens should, in some cases, be

of considerable size, and in every case, where possible, the sexual

reproductive organs should be clearly shown. The list might

profitably be much enlarged, while a valuable half set costing

much less might be made by selecting from the full set, say by

taking Nos. 1, 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24.

Errata.—Through some delinquency in the U. S. mails, the

editor of this department failed to receive the proof of the August

number in time to correct some typographical errors. On p. 653,

third line, Myxomycetes appears spelled incorrectly; the second

word in the fourth line should be “fine”; Professor Tuckerman’s

name appears without an r, for which we beg his pardon; further

down Dr. Farlow is said to have described “a carpinus which

grew in a jar of water”! which no doubt made many botanists

stare with amazement. What we wrote was “coprinus,” a very

different thing indeed! The additions to the N. A. Flora made

y Dr. Engelmann, were “ some additions,” not “Iowa additions.”

A correction should also be made in Dr. Schimper’s paper, p.

558, fifth line, where “less watery” should be “more watery.”

imagine yourself within or without the spire, so long as you do

Not turn yourself round, or stand upon your head.” All will

agree with him ‘that it does not much matter which way it is

settled, but that it is of the greatest importance to all botanic

describers that it should be settled, definitely and finally, one way

736 General Notes. [ September,

or the other. C. B. Clarke’s paper in the July Yournal of Bot-

any, ‘‘ Notes on Commelinacez,” is very interesting as containing

a summary of the order as it is to appear in the forthcoming vol-

ume of De Candolle’s “ Monographies.” In the same journal, J. G.

Baker catalogues the ferns collected by Kalbreyer in New Gran-

ada, and describes twenty-one new species. J. B. Ellis, in the

July Zorrey Bulletin, describes eleven new species of Fungi from

Utah, collected by M. E. Jones. A notice of the Muhlenberg

Herbarium, now in possession of the American Philosophical So-

ciety in Philadelphia, and a continuation of the List of the State

and local floras of the United States, occur in the same number

of the Bulletin. -Dr. Rothrock’s paper on ‘“ Home and foreign

methods of teaching Botany,” in the July Botanical Gazette, 18

one which should be read by every teacher of botany in the

country. It contains a strong plea for the study of plants rather

than books. n the same number Dr. Engelmann describes

several new species of plants, among them a suffrutescent Portu-

laca. C. H. Peck also describes some new Fungi from Utah. .

C. F. Wheeler and E. F. Smith, of Hubbardston, Mich.;

have just issued a “Catalogue of the Pheznogamous and vasculat

Cryptogamous plants of Michigan.” It contains entries of 1634

species, of which 1559 are flowering plants. Valuable notes

are appended to many of the species, and a good map of te

State is added. The authors offer a limited number of copies

tions to economic botany, has just added another, “The grow”

ing of Indian Corn,” a pamphlet of fifty pages, extracted from

the ante report of the Massachusetts State Board of Ag-

riculture, .

ZOOLOGY.

A SHOWER oF CycLops QUADRICORNIS.—I have just received —

(June 12) from C. L. Garretson, of Salem, Henry county, lo

. asmall vial containing about half a teaspoonful of water, accom:

panied by a note in which he says, “On the night of June i

1881, there was a heavy rain-fall, and on the morning of the oth

Pp ES: ; €

only thing peculiar about them, is, that the body is full of bright

red corpuscles, which accounts for their imparting 4 red appear

ance to the water containing them. A specimen of the same

creature taken from a jar of water that has been standing 11 sit

office for several weeks, contains a few of these corpuscles, DU

not a hundredth part as many as are in the bodies of the rain

1881. | | Zovlogy. 737

water specimens. While it might not be considered remarkable

that a few of these animals should be found in pools of rain-

water, Iam puzzled to understand how they came here in such

immense numbers, unless we suppose that they were distributed

through the whole body of rain that fell, and were afterwards

concentrated by the draining away of the surplus water. There

. Were not less than five hundred in the sample of water sent me,

of which about one-third were alive when received, after having

been tightly corked for several days.—F. E. L. Beal.

_ Mosset anp Insect CurmBers.—In Psyche, Vol, 111, No. 80, just

issued, Victor Tousey Chambers states an interesting fact regard-

ing the minute larva of the Tineid, Aspidisca saliciella Cham. He

Says the method by which it climbs a tree or weed, “is one of the

most surprising in the insect world.’ The larva is footless, nor

does it gain a foothold by the exudation of any glutinous, or

other secretion; yet encumbered by its case, it climbs trees,

fences, &c, “The larve travel solely by their silk. Successive

taps are given with the end of the spinneret to the surface on

which the larva lies, thus a minute byssus is formed, to which

the spinneret adheres, the body is then contracted, so that

the under surface of the case is attached. The head and seg-

ments are again extended, and another byssus is made, and the

body contracting, the case is again brought up and attached. _ Its

attachment is only by a few silken threads, each of which is less

than 0.0002™" in diameter, and the fresh silk readily stretches or

breaks. This is the sole mode of progress of the Jarva.”

I have thought it would add to the interest of the above, to

ask the reader to compare it with our account of the mode of

Perpendicular climbing as practiced by the biack mussel, Mytilus

edulis, in AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. Iv, 1871, p. 331. AS there

described, the climbing of this mollusk is almost identical with

that of the larval Tineids described by Chambers. The opera-

tions of the mussel being on a larger scale were easily observed,

hence each step in the process is given. The figure of the mus-

sel, is, by an unfortunate misunderstanding of the printer, placed

wrong. The umbo, or pointed end of the shell, should be down,

and the nib, or open end, should be up. Then against the three

Sets of byssus let the imagination put the perpendicular side of a

rock, and we have the animal in climbing position. My object in

hot drawing the rock was simply to save expense in engraving.—

Samuel Lockwood, Freehold, N. ¥., May, 1881.

VOL. XV.—No. Ix, 51

jal

738 General Notes. -[September,

very cunning, and managed for some time to keep on the opposite

sides of some of the larger limbs, but I finally got a shot at him.

He came to the ground with a bounce, when I found it was-a

woodchuck. It was but slightly wounded in one of the fore legs,

and I captured it and took it home. I put it in a hollow tree

near my residence, and it remained there a couple of weeks, freely

eating the corn which I regularly fed it. But one night it emi-

grated, and I saw it no more. These animals are not plentiful in

this region, indeed in a residence here of twenty-four years,

have only seen one other specimen, though occasionally hearing

them mentioned. Until this incident, I did not know that they

ever ascended such tall trees— Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Towa,

Fune 9, 1881.

CARPHOPHIOPS HELEN IN INDIANA.—This species of serpent

was originally described from specimens obtained at Monticello,

Miss., and. in Southern Illinois. I have a specimen that was cap-

tured by Mr. Charles Jameson, of Indianapolis, in Brown county,

Indiana. The locality is about forty miles south of Indianapolis.

—0O. P. Hay.

EUT#NIA RADIX IN INDIANA.—In the Museum of Butler Uni-

versity there isa good and well characterized specimen of u-

tenia radix, that I have every reason to believe was found at

Irvington, near Indianapolis. The species is found at Blooming-

‘ton, Illinois, and is included, by Dr. W. H. Smith, in his “ Cata-

logue of the Reptiles and Amphibians of Michigan,” as occurring

in that State—O. P. Hay, Butler University, Fune 15.

Habits oF THE YELLOW-BELLIED WooprEcKER.—! found, at

Buckfield, Maine, early in July, a yellow-bellied woodpecker s

nest, and with it collected a large section of a white birch tree

that shows their marks in vertical instead of horizontal rows, an

is a proof that they eat the sap if not also the bark. The hum-

ming-birds were very thick around the tree, sucking the sap

where it was running from the holes; there were also butterflies

and moths around it. The nest was very peculiar, being placed

on the north side of a tall poplar—H. C. Bumpus

PROBABLE CaUsE OF THE LonGEvITY OF TuRTLES.—So far a

we are aware, no attempt has been made to explain the unusual

longevity of turtles, whose lives, as is well known, span over @

century. There appears to be no longer-lived animals than these

a some tuf-

as any one ever found any empty turtle shells ? As to have

1881. ] Zology. 739

counted upon an immunity from the ordinary evils of childhood

in these animals. It is probable that the larger proportion of, in-

deed most, young turtles when hatched survive, and when two or

three years old, are fitted to resist successfully ordinary fish and

avian enemies. They are not exposed to vicissitudes of weather ;

the fact that the period of egg-laying (in New England from June

10-20) is so constant, and varies so little at different seasons,

shows that they are hardy and tough. Finally, the persistence of

the type of gigantic tortoises on the Galapagos islands, indicate

the wonderful vitality of this type of life in resisting prolonged

climatic-and geological changes.—A. S. Packard, Fr.

Tue TRICHINA AND OTHER ANIMAL ParasiTEs.—Renewed at-

tention has been drawn to the Trichina. According to the Penn

Monthly, Dr. Leidy has recently stated that this parasite was first

discovered by an English surgeon in 1833, but its presence in

pork was first detected by Dr. Leidy himself in 1840. He re-

minds the public for their comfort: Ist, that all food animals are

liable to have parasites, and that the tape-worm is sometimes con-

veyed in rare beef; 2d, that only one hog in about ten thousand

is infected with trichinz ; and, 3d, that thorough cooking will kill

all such parasites, while none of them are poisonous after a good

cooking. He believes that the Mosaic prohibition of pork was

due to the danger of trichinosis, in a country where fuel was

Scanty, and, therefore, their food seldom well cooked. He thinks

that millions may have died of trichinosis in the centuries before

the true source of the danger was discovered, and that many of

the deaths which occurred in the army during the Civil War were

due to the frequent use of raw and badly cooked pork, although

ascribed to typhoid, rheumatic or malarial fevers.

For a general account of the trichina and allied parasites we

would refer the reader to an excellent book’ published a few years

ago by Professor Van Beneden, a Belgian naturalist, who, by the —

way, was the first to discover the history of the transformations of |

the tape-worm. Van Beneden divides animal parasites into several —

categories. The first are free messmates, which only live as board-

ers or commensals in the bodies or in intimate relations with other

‘@ certain louse of the dog, which harbors a larval tenia; and

lastly parasites, which. include leeches, lice, fleas, ticks, ichneumon

flies, and finally the genuine parasites, such as the tape-worm and

trichina, which migrate from one host to another in order to com-

plete their metamorphoses. It is the cheapest, most reliable and

best illustrated work of the kind we have seen.

‘Animal Parasites and Messmates. By Professor P. J. Van gages these 83

illustrations, The International Scientific Series. New York: ppleton &

* 1876. 12mo, pp. 274.

740 General Notes. [ September,

Tue TaiL IN THE Human Empryo.—This is a subject of con-

siderable interest in view of the occasional statements regarding

tailed races of men in the interior of Africa, and of the supposition

that the human embryo has a tail homologous with that of the

monkeys, and that, therefore, in this respect, man passes through

a monkey-stage, as insisted upon by Haeckel, who remarks in his

“History of Creation,” Vol. 1, p. 308, “‘ Now, man in the first months

of development possesses a real tail as well as his nearest kindred,

the tailless apes (orang-outang, chimpanzee, gorilla), and verte-

brate animals in general. But, whereas, in most of them—for ex-

ample the dog, it always grows longer, in man and in: tailless

mammals, at a certain period of development, it degenerates and

finally completely disappears. However, even in fully developed

men, the remnant of the tail is seen in the three, four or five tail

vertebrz (vertebrae coccygae) as an aborted or rudimentary or-

gan, which forms the hinder or lower end of the vertebral col-

umn.” Now this notion is rudely disputed by Professor His, who

contradicts in a paper on this question (abstracted in the Jour-

nal of the Royal Microscopical Society) the assertion that at 4

certain stage in its development the human embryo has a true

tail, which is afterwards absorbed. As to the definition of a tail,

Professor His considers that the caudiform or tail-like prolongation

is a true tail when, extending beyond the cloaca, it contains a

number, greater or less, of supernumerary vertebre. Without

‘this condition there is merely a caudiform appendage. His knows

of no well-authenticated case of supernumerary vertebr@ in the

human embryo, and pathological observation he believes to co!m-

cide with embryological knowledge in justifying the assertion

that in man the normal number of thirty-four vertebra is never

exceeded.

Prof. His’ paper appeared in 1880; the same year, however, Dr.

Leo Gerlach published in Gegenbaur’s Morphologisches Jahrbuch

(Band vi, Heft. 1.) a paper on a case of tail-formation in a uman

embryo. He refers to a case of the occurrence of a tail in an ab-

normal embryo described in 1840 by Dr. Fleischman. On holding

the foetus up to the light there appeared, in the first third ts

whi

nd of

this tail seemed to be skinny, and was very delicate and transp?”

rent. This embryo forms the subject of Gerlach’s exhaustive

anatomical account before us. The embryo is 10.

(four inches) long and was in the early part of the fo

of embryonic life. The free portion of the tail is 12

it is long and slender, being in length equal to that o

the embryo. In this tail a well-marked notochord is present.

organ, therefore, should be regarded as the homologue of a ae

uine tail, and Gerlach considers it as a case of atavism, and that zs

represents an earlier phylogenetic condition. He thinks, for rea |

1881. | Zoology. ers

sons which he assigns, that at an earlier embryonic date there

were a longer notochord, a longer medullary tube and a greater

number of primitive or proto-vertebrae. In an embryo a few weeks

older, on the other hand, the notochord would entirely disappear.

Haeckel’s view, therefore, is, so far as one abnormal example is

concerned, apparently sustained against that of His.

New Type or Parasitic CrusTacEAN.—A new parasitic Cirri-

ped (Laura) has been discovered by Lacaze-Duthiers, according

to the Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, living as an

Antipatharian coral (Gerardia), Externally it is kidney-shaped,

and its body, composed of twelve segments with six pairs of

limbs, is imbedded in the soft parts of the coral; it is a little over

a centimeter long, with a carapace formed of two scales or valves

united along the median line, and is from two to four times as

long as the body. The carapace is hard externally with a soft

internal layer; between these there is lodged the liver and one o

the genital glands, together with a very rich vascular plexus, The

external covering is riddled by a large number of small ducts, the

Outer orifices of which are covered by a membrane, which is sur-

rounded by delicate filaments; these are of a cartilaginous con-

sistency, and have a central duct. A study of the circulatory or-

the tissues of the coral. The peculiar arrangement of the digest-

tion with the cilia beneath which they course. This connection

Engelmann could not confirm, Certain it is that the ciliary move-

eat. of Stentor are independent of the general contractions of

dy.

Do the Infusoria possess an approximation to the nervous sys-

742 General Notes. [September,

tem of the higher animals? It was thought by the late,Professor .

H. J. Clark (see his “ Mind in Nature”’) that the higher Infusoria had

a nervous system or something analogous to it. Engelmann now

says (Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society for April) that

the Infusorian, Stylonychia mytilus, has unquestionably a system

of ventral fibers trending from near the middle line, beneath the

ectoplasm, to the two conspicuous series of large admarginal cilia,

has its own fiber, which is pale, soft, homogeneous, and not more

than 0.2» across. The fibers are parallel and so delicate that they

can only be seen for a short time in specimens starved during

some hours in filtered water, and then killed in osmic acid. re

not these fibers truly nerves ?. Why, asks Engelmann, should not

the higher Infusoria possess a nervous system? May not more

exact researches soon decide this question in the affirmative?

Has not Panophrys flava eyes? If not so what is the function of

the watch glass-shaped organ with its pigment-spot ?

New Genera or Currie Fisnes.—In the Transactions of the .

Danish Academy of Science, Professor Steenstrup describes two

interesting genera allied to Sepia, under the name of Sepiadarium

kochii and Idiosepius pygm@us. They inhabit the Indian ocean.

One of the arms of the 4th ventral pair in the males is adapted

to serve as a fertilizing organ (a hectocotyle), the female recelving

the spermatophores on the internal face of the buccal membrane.

The distinguished author closes his memoir with a comparative

view of all the known genera of Myopsidan cephalopods.

NOTE REGARDING CHANGE OF COLOR IN DIAPTOMUS SANGUINEUS.

—I visited the Glendale pond July 27th, and found thick swarms

of this Copepod. Only a few had egg-sacs, and no male was

found ; while the females were not red, but bluish. The antenn®

had remained red, also the furca, but the postabdomen was yel-

low, and the body and legs bluish—C. F. Giss/er.

New DiscovertEs CONCERNING DeEP-SEA CRUSTACEA OF THE

Gutr oF Mexico.—Additional information of a good deal of in-

terest has since our last note on this subject been published by

A. Milne Edwards. From an abstract in the Yournal of the

Royal Microscopical Society, it appears that forty new genet

types were discovered, while certain groups which had been sup-

posed to be absent from the American seas are very richly repre"

sented at these great depths, Crabs proper disappear below 500°

meters from the surface: at 800 meters, however, there was found —

Bathyplax, which takes the place of Gonoplax of the French coast,

_ but it is blind. Representatives of Willemoesia were found. a

_ 3500 meters, and these too were blind. ce

hack

1881. ] 3 Zoblogy. 743

The infinite variety of the forms is, however, the most astonish-

ing point, transitional types abound, and groups hitherto regarded

as very distinct are now linked by intermediate forms. As exam-

ples, the author cites the Paguridz, generally placed among the

nomura, and which have as yet had no link uniting them to the

Macrura; now there is Pylocheles agassizii, in which the abdomen

is not soft and asymmetrical, but is formed of solid regular rings,

and terminated by swimmerets. This creature lives in holes,

which it closes by means of its claws. Mixtopagurus has the ab-

domen more developed on the right than on the left side, and di-

vided into seven segments, of which the last two are alone large

and hard. There are some curious adaptive modifications: Eupa-

gurus discoidalis, which lives in the tubular shells of Dentalium,

has one of its claws spherical. Xylopagurus lives in holes in

wood, and has its abdomen converted into an operculum for cov-

ering one of the two holes of its retreat. Similar connecting links

were found between the Dromidz and the Homolidz, and on the

whole the author concludes that submarine explorations will aid

paleontological investigations in gradually filling up the lacune

how existing in zodlogical systems.

Tue Musk Surep.—lIn Dr. Bessel’s account of the North Pole

expedition published in German, and noticed in Nature, valuable

accounts of this animal are given. None of those killed by the

members of the expedition had a very marked musk smell. The

author is uncertain whether this peculiarity is to be attributed to

the very high latitude in which they were obtained, or to their

having been killed out of the breeding season. No difficulty was

found in distinguishing the tracks of these animals from those of

reindeer, although some former observers have not found this

easy. In all the herds there are from ten to twenty cows to one

bull. Their whine is somewhat like the snorting of the walrus,

and never resembles in the least the cry of the goat or the sheep.

When danger approaches they never give signal with their voice,

but only by stamping or striking their neighbor with their horns.

They have dire combats with bears sometimes, and often come

off victors, ;

Zootocicar Norrs—The organization of an Echiurus-like

Sipunculoid worm (Thalassema mabu Greef), has been studie

ey are arranged in two or three rows on each side of the

mouth cavity, or externally on the proboscis of Pterotrachea.

They are little papilla with internal sense-cells situated next to

the termination of the nervous fibrilla, while externally they each

carry a long sensitive hair, and the different sensitive hairs of these

cells traverse the canal of the cuticular layer, and arrive at the

744 General Notes. [September,

level of the gustatory pore. In the Annals of the New York

Academy of Sciences, Mr. R. E. C. Stearns publishes a paper on

the existence of a colony of Helix aspersa in California, which

was planted twenty-three years ago at San José. He also re-

marks on the geographical distribution of certain West American

land-snails, and corrects previous errors concerning them.——In

Nature, Mr. W. A. Herdman collects the evidence brought for-

ward by Charles Julien, which shows strong ground for the

belief that the little understood “ neural gland” in the Ascidians,

represents the glandular portion of the Aypophysis cerebri, or

pituitary body of vertebrates. At a recent meeting of the

Royal Society of London, Professor W. K. Parker, in a paper on

the structure and development of the skull in sturgeons, remarks

in closing, that the sturgeons as a group cannot be said to lie

directly between any one family of the Selachians and any one

family of the bony Ganoids, yet, on the whole, that is their posi-

tion; the bony Ganoids, on the whole, approach the Teleostei,

especially such forms as Lepidosteus and Amia, which have lost

their “ spiracle,” and in other points are less than typical, as Gan-

oids. Larval sturgeons are, in appearance, miniature sharks ; for

a few weeks they have a similar mouth, and their lips and throat

are beset with true teeth that are molted before calcification has

fairly set in. Their first gills are very long and exposed, but not

nearly so long, or for such a time uncovered, as in the embryo of

sharks and skates.

A CorRECTION.—On pp. §85 and 586 of the July NATURALIST,

a serious inadvertency occurs. In the list of strictly fresh-water

shells is mentioned Helcina occulta (by typographical error

printed ocu/ata). Though Helicina is not a pulmonate, the spe-

cies here indicated is strictly terrestrial in its habit. The reader

will therefore refer it to the preceding list of land shells, where

the intention was to have placed it.—R. Elsworth Call.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Tae Cutrivation oF PyrErHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE

PowDER.2-—7he use of Pyrethrum as an Insecticide —Up to a com-

paratively recent period the powder was applied to the destruc-

tion of those insects only which are troublesome in dwellings,

and Mr. C. Willemot seems to have been the first in the year

others he proposes ‘the following remedy: “In order fo.

prevent the ravages of the weevil on wheat fields, the powder

1 This department is edited by Professor C. V. R1Ley, Washington, D. C., to whom

communications, books for notice, etc., Should be sent.

Continued from July number.

1881. | . Entomology. 745

properties of Pyrethrum will understand. We have during

diately affects the insects on that plant with which it comes in

contact, but it will prove perfectly harmless to all insects which

come on to the plant half an hour (or even less) after the applica-

ton; 2. The powder acts in the open air—unless, perhaps, applied

in very large quantities—only upon actual contact with the insect:

if €. g., it is applied to the upper side of a cotton leaf the worms

that may be on the underside are not affected by it; 3. It has no

effect on insect eggs nor on pupae that are in any way protected

or hardened.

These disadvantages render Pyrethrum in some respects inferior

‘to arsenical poisons, but, on the other hand, it has the one over-

shadowing advantage that it is perfectly’ harmless to plants or to

higher animals; and if the cultivation of the plant in this country

should prove a success, and the price of the powder become low

enough, the above mentioned disadvantages can be overcome, to

@ certain degree, by copious and repeated applications.

In a closed room the effect of Pyrethrum on insects is by far

More powerful than outdoors. Different species of insects are

differently affected by the powder. Some resist its action most

effectually, e. g., very hairy caterpillars and especially spiders

of all kinds; while others, especially all Hymenoptera, suc-

cumb most readily. In no case are the insects killed instan-

taneously by Pyrethrum. They are rendered perfectly helpless “~

few minutes after application, but do not die till some time after-

ward, the period varying from several hours to two or even three

days, according to the species. Many insects that have been

treated with Pyrethrum show signs of intense pain, while in others

the outward symptoms are much less marked. Differences in

temperature and other meteorological changes do not appear to

have any influence on the effect of Pyrethrum.

Modes of Application.—Pyrethrum can be applied, I. In dry

Powder ; As a fume; 3. As an alcoholic extract diluted; 4.

= Simple solution of the powder in water; 5. Asa tea or decoc-

ion. .

746 General Notes. [September,

The following recommendations are based on repeated exper'-

ments in the fie

1. Applications of Pyrethrum as dry powder—This method is

Pyrethrum powder, will answer the purpose. If the mixture 15

applied immediately after preparation, it is always less efficacious

than when left in a perfectly tight vessel for about 24 hours, oF

longer, before use. This has been proven so far only with the

mixture of Pyrethrum with flour, but holds doubtless true also for

other diluents. Mr. E. A. Schwarz experimented largely under our

direction with the mixture of Pyrethrum and flour for the Cotton

Worm, and he found that one part of the powder to 11 parts of flour

is sufficient to kill the worms (only a portion of the full-grown

worms recovering from the effects of the powder), if the mixture

is applied immediately after preparation; but if kept in a tight .

glass jar for about two days, one part of the powder to 22 parts

of flour is sufficient to kill all average-sized worms with which

the mixture comes in contact. For very young cotton were

mixture of one part of Pyrethrum to 30 parts of flour, and applie

one day after preparation, proved most effective, hardly any of the

worms recovering. ;

An ordinary powder bellows will answer for insects infesting

dwellings or for plants kept in pots in rooms, or single plants 10

the garden, but it hardly answers on a large scale out-doors, D&-

cause it works too slowly, the amount of powder discharge’

cannot be regulated, and there is difficulty in covering all parts

of a large plant. Another method of applying the dry powder y ?

to sieve it on to the plants by means of sieves, and this fae :

is no doubt excellent for insects that live on the upper side of the

leaves. For large, more shrub-like plants with many brnee

and for insects that hide on the underside of the leaves tls

advantage that, if the plants are high enough, the powder can oh |

applied to the underside of the leaves. (7a de continued.)

1881. ] Entomology. 747

THe CarerPILLaR NUISANCE IN Cities: How To SUPPRESS IT.—

In the public interest you have already drawn attention to the

numerous caterpillar nests that are now disfiguring the shade

trees in most parts of the city. These trees are a marked and

beautiful feature of Washington, and our Park Commissioners

cannot be too greatly praised for their endeavors to properly care

for them and protect them from injury. In this good work they

should be aided by all public spirited citizens. I have thought,

therefore, that a few suggestions in reference to this caterpillar

nuisance would be timely and might do some good.

is Web-worm, known in entomological works as the fall:

web-worm / flyphantria textor), is one of the most wide-spread

and injurious insects in the country, feeding, as it does, on all

Sorts of trees, and occurring everywhere east of the Rocky

mountains. The parent isa white moth, more or less spotted

with black, which issues in spring from the cocoon in which the

chrysalis has hibernated, generally near, or just below, the surface

of the ground, but also in any other sheltered situation. The

pale yellow eggs are laid, to the number of 300 and upward,

during the last days of May and the earlier part of June, in this

latitude, in one uniform batch, slighly interspersed with white

hairs from the body of the female. They are not easily noticed,

and it is useless to attempt their destruction in a general way.

Immediately upon hatching, the young worms feed together ua

the parenchyma of the leaf, leaving nothing but the epidermis.

S they grow they spread

from leaf to leaf, enclosing

Whole branches with their

Selves conspicuous, and are

nearly full-grown as at the

Present time. At this stage

€re is no more available

way of destroying them than

by pruning off the infested Hyphantria te

twigs and branches, care “ moth (after Riley)

being taken to subsequently destroy the worms. A wad of cotton,

or other material, attached to the end of a long pole, saturated

with kerosene or coal tar and ignited will also do good service in

burning them. But on all the smaller trees of the city tlfat can

be readily reached with a hand pump, there is a much simpler

remedy which might be uniformly employed by the Commis-

Sioners at trivial expense. With a little practice the first affected

leaf or leaves can be-detected during the first days of June before

the trees shows any disfigurement. If at such time the parts of

the tree where the young caterpillars have been noticed be

748 General Notes, [September,

sprinkled with water in which London Purple has been mixed in

proportion of about 1 pound of the purple to about 100 gallons

of water, the young worms will all be destroyed thereby and no

further disfigurement of the tree ensue from them. A second

application about the middle of June to the more limited number

of worms that hatch from eggs laid after the first application, may

also be desirable. The purple can be got at wholesale from

Hemingway & Co., New York, at from 6 to 10 cents a pound,

and a few dollars’ worth would answer for the trees of the whole

city. It would pay the Park Commission to have a_ special

tank built and mounted on wheels for this purpose, with a force

pump that might be worked with two men, while a third handles

the atomizing nozzle through which the poisoned spray should

be applied. One of the simplest and most satisfactory nozzles of

this kind is made by two converging holes so that the two jets

of water break each other as they issue. Important improvements

in the mode of atomizing will be published in the next report of

the Entomological Commission; but it is not necessary to illustrate

them in this connection. A tank for poisoned water, such as I

have indicated, would not only prove valuable in protecting the

trees from this particular caterpillar, but from most injurious

insects that ‘attack them, as, ¢. g., the imported Elm-leaf beetle,

which is so bad on the elms in the grounds of the Department of

Agriculture and elsewhere. No better investment can be made

_ by the authorities. .

For private gardens and parkings [ would recommend one of

the ordinary force-pumps, and the Nelson aquepult will be found

8 igs satisfactory —C. V. Riley, in Washington Evening

lar.

BLEPHAROCERIDa.—Mr. J. Q. Adams, of Watertown, N. Y.,

writes under date of June 28th, that he recently found what, from

our description in a late number of the NaruraListT, he recog-

nized as Belpharocerid pupa. They were in a very cold stream

over smooth slate rock with numerous falls. They soon died and

became foul, however, when transferred to still water. We sub-

sequently succeeded in obtaining specimens in the pupa and

imago state and they proved to be genuine Blepharocerids, the

Species not yet determined. ; |

REMARKABLE Case or RETARDED DEVELOPMENT.—Mr. J. D.

Graham, of the Kansas State Agricultural College at Manhattan,

1881.] Entomology. 749

of 1876, and a sidewalk was laid immediately above them. This

walk has not been moved since that time, until the eggs were

found. The earth which covered the eggs was principally clay,

old mortar and bits of stone, though there was some black earth

immediately surrounding the eggs.”

The eggs were found, it seems, while men were cleaning away

an accumulation of spalls, mortar and clay, and the sidewalk above

referred to, in the rear of the laboratory. We learn that the eggs

were about ten inches below the sidewalk and certainly not deep

enough to be entirely out of the influence of the changing tem-

perature of the year. Appearing fresh when dug up they were

placed by Mr. Graham under favorable conditions for hatching,

and in due time a lively swarm of locusts issued.

We have, in our own experience, in rearing insects, often known

of retarded development both in larvae and pupe to the second

and even the third year; but in this instance we have a well

authenticated case of eggs remaining unhatched for nearly 4%

years. The fact that the species is Ca/optenus spretus (which, to

our knowledge, so abounded around Manhattan in the fall of 1876

that the ground all around the college was absolutely full of eggs)

is confirmatory of the statement of Mr. Graham, because the

species did not occur there nor in that part of the country last

fall, nor in fact during any year since 1877. The eggs above re-

ferred to must be a retarded remnant of those which were so

thickly laid there in the fall of 1876 and which gave birth to the

destructive multitudes of young locusts the ensuing spring.

PROMOTION OF SILK-CULTURE IN CaLirorniA.—Mrs. Theodore

H. Kittell, corresponding secretary of the California Silk-culture

Association, San Francisco, Cal., writes: “ We have, through our

efforts, succeeded in convincing our people of the practicability of

home silk culture, and by lectures, distribution. of pamphlets,

mulberry seeds, slips and silkworm eggs we have now so animated

the public that complete success seems certain, if we shall be able

to start a filature for the reeling of the silk produced. Our

society takes the liberty of asking you as one of the most

urgent workers for silk-culture in America to give us your advice

as to a filature, and the best and cheapest mode of preparing the

t for the market.” oaak i |

We would refer for our opinions on the subjects mentioned to

our “ Manual of Instructions for the production of Silk,” which

can be obtained, upon application, of the Commissioner of Agri-

culture,

Locusr Fricuts in Dakora.—Mr. Geo. W. Hart of Columbia,

Brown Co., Dakota, reports that a flight of locusts ( Caloptenus

Spretus) passed over that place from 11.30 A. M. to 3.30 P. M. on

the 7th of July, coming from S.S.E., the wind being strong and

the weather dry. On July 16th, another correspondent, Mr. F.

750 General Notes. [ September,

C. Kelley, of Jamestown, Dakota Ter., reports a flight as passing

over that place without giving the direction of the flight. Large

numbers of the common dragon-fly, Diplax rubicundula Say,

were mingled with the locusts.

winter wheat in consequence. Mr. Thomas H. B. Moulder, of

Cane Pump, Camden Co., Mo., sent the insect in the flax-seed

state, the latter part of June, with the statement that he had forty

acres of wheat which all fell or broke down about two weeks be-

fore ripening, from the insect’s injuries. The western agricultural

papers have had abundant notices of the Hessian Fly this season,

but as our eastern entomologists, as a rule, do not see those

journals, it is more than probable that this year would be put

down by them as one in which the species was not heard of or

known. The present year is, however, not exceptional, and more

or less injury has been done by this insect in the West every

year since we have given any attention to entomology.

THE GENUINE ARMy Worm IN THE West.—While the reports

of the appearance of the army worm in New York, noticed in

the July number of the Narura.ist, proved to be, as there stated,

due to the injuries from Mephelodes violans and a supposed Py ralid

larva,’ the true army worm has since appeared in force in Central

an average and favorable one, being neither unusually wet nor

dry. It becomes very evident that the eggs were laid the present

year, either by the moths that had hibernated or by 4 ec

generation of moths, the latter seeming, from all the facts gatheree,

most probable.

New Importep Enemy to Cirover.—Again we have ego

port the sudden appearance in this country of an insect whic s

though well known in Europe for almost a century, was —

‘known to do any serious harm there to crops. 2 asia

Phytonomus punctatus Fabr., a member of the Curculionid family,

We have since bred the moth from this larva and it proves to be —_

vulgivagellus Clem (= chalybirostris Zell). Professor Lintner had previously bret’

ai of what he considered Crambus exsiccatus. Both are common 5 eats) -

the genus

1881] Entomology. 751

which every one who has traveled in Europe, and has paid any

attention to insects, will doubtless have met with under stones,

sticks, etc., in pastures and meadows. Mr. L. D. Snook of Bar-

rington, Yates Co., N. Y., sent us during the latter part of July

a number of specimens of this beetle, with the statement that it

greatly injures clover on his farm. Further particulars as to the

nature of the damage have not yet been received. It is worthy

of remark, that this imported enemy to clover made its first

appearance in the same county from which, three years ago, we

first reported another European beetle affecting the same plant,

viz., the clover root-borer (/ylesinus trifolui Mill).

ANOTHER Enemy oF THE Rice Prant.—To the enemies of

the rice plant already mentioned and discussed by us elsewhere,

viz., Chalepus trachypygus and Lissorhoptus simplex, we have now

to add a third one, and this time of the Order Lepidoptera. It is

the larva of Laphygma frugiperda, well-known to be destructive

to most grasses and grains. Rice suffered greatly from it this

summer in Georgia, and we determined the species from speci-

mens sent us by Mr. W. Barnwell, of Savannah.

CANKER Worms.—One of the next striking exampies of de-

vastation by the spring canker worm (Paleacrita vernata) which

as €ver come to our knowledge, is that to the orchards of Mr.

W. Robeson, of Taswell Co., Ill., which were this year so

seriously affected as to be nearly killed and ruined.

LEPIDOPTEROLOGICAL Notes.\—_¢geria acerni Clem. (Rep. VI,

Pp. 110).—Mr. D. S. Kellicott has an interesting article in the Can-

_adian Entomologist for January, 1881, on the A®gerians inhabiting

the vicinity of Buffalo, N. Y., in which he states that the chrysalis

of this species in his locality, does not agree with my description

as “unarmed,” if that description refers to the dorso-abdomin

te A re-examination of my specimens shows that my state-

ment applies to the absence of these teeth. It is, however, possi-

ble that there is some variation in’ this regard, and that the east-

mm specimens from the hard maple differ from the western ones

from the soft maple in having the teeth, as indicated by Mr.

ellicott,

fy phantria textor Harr. (Rep. 111, 130)—There is no doubt in

my mind, from frequent breeding of specimens, that this is syn-

Onymous with cwnea Drury, and punctata Fitch, which are but

varieties, Drury’s name having priority. .

: Caltimor pia Talvicasts pais (Rep. ul, I 32).—Grote and Rob-

son give the synonymy of this species in their “ List of Lepi-

doptera of N. A.,” etc., Zecontei Boisd., having priority. The late

Jacob Boll bred all the forms from larve feeding on the same

plant, ,

* From advance sheets of Bulletin v1, U.S. Entomological Commission, by C. V.

ee being a general index and supplement to the nine Reports on the Insects of

Missouri, ‘

752 General Notes. [ September,

Samia columbia Smith (Rep. 1v, p. 107)-—Mr. Herman Strecker

has given a beautiful figure of the male of this species in his

“ Lepidoptera Rhopaloceres and Heteroceres,” etc., 1875 (Pl. xu,

Fig. 3), and Mr. F. B. Caulfield has described and figured the

larva (Canadian Entomologist, x, p. 41, 1878), showing that it 1s

structurally identical with that of cecropia, and differs only in the

intenser green of the body, in the lateral tubercles and bases of

the others being white instead of pale blue, and in the upper

thoracic tubercles being of a deeper coral red. It accords more

with the cecropia larva in the fourth stage. It is placed as a good

specimen in Grote’s “ List of N. A. Platypterices,” etc. (Am. Phil.

Soc., 1874), but I am still of opinion that it should not be consid-

ered a distinct species, but simply a well-marked local color vart-

ety worthy of name. There is great variation in color, whether

of the larva, cocoon or imago, in cecropia. ae

Callosamia angulifera Walker (Rep. tv, p. 122, note).—This !s

still considered a good species by systematists, Mr. Akhurst

finds that it is rather constant from larvee which seem to differ in

no respect from those of promethea, but which feed on the tulip

tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), and make the cocoon near the

ground without pedicel.

Celena renigera Stephens (Rep. 1, p. 86)—Referred by Grote

to Hadena. Specimens in the Fitch collection marked with names

evidently from Walker, cufecta, egens, defectua, subcadens ? an

murcimaculata seem to be all synonyms and mere variations.

Prodenia autumnalis Riley (Rep. 1, p. 116 and subsequently).

—As stated in the eighth report (p. 48) this in the more typ! :

form is recognized as Laphygma frugiperda Sm. and Abb. The

variety obscura, as Professor Zeller, who has seen it, informs me,

is so near the European exigua Hiibn., that it is not easily dis-

tinguished.

ANTHROPOLOGY -.'

Tue Sacririciat Stone or THE City oF Mexico, 1s 1T GENU

INE OR NoT?—In the city of Mexico are offered for sale, casts. o

plaster of the so-called sacrificial stone now in the courtyard 0

the museum in the city of Mexico, of which much has been bins

ten to prove its genuineness. These casts are much Nas et

size, and do not contain the groove of the original. The make”

like many of his countrymen living in the city of Mexico, ri

not believe in the genuineness of this stone’s history ; many sei

that it was not the sacrificial stone of the Aztecs used in the ae

of Mexico. -No doubt the basin in the center, and Shaped

ning from it across the top and down the sides were made al

sent the journeying of the Aztecs to the city of Mexico, pane

they not cut the groove first, then the historical represemh®””

1 Edited by Prof. Oris T. MASON, 1305 Q Street, N. W., Washington, i . ; .

1881.] Anthropology. 753

As it is, the figures through which the groove is cut, are partially

effaced. The groove was evidently cut after the completion of the

stone, and in a very rough, uneven manner, passing through the

figures in order to give a false importance to a carved stone, which,

if allowed to tell its own tale, or, rather, if its history had not

been destroyed so as to attach a false representation to it, would

still be a valuable monument.

others, —plain, simple Indians, not fond of the pageantry attrib-

uted to them by the conquerors, who must fictitiously give them

VOL. XV,~-NO. IX. 52

754 General Notes. [September,

importance .n order to throw reflected greatness upon their con-

quest.— Edward Palmer.

Ancient PueBLo WorksHop.—On the north bank of the Rio

San Juan, in Southern Utah, about twenty or thirty miles below

the mouth of the Mancos cajion, in the summer of 1875, I dis-

covered the site of an ancient aboriginal workshop, where axes

and hatchets had formerly been made in large numbers. On an

elevated ledge overlooking the river, I gathered together in the

space of half an hour, upwards of twenty stone axes of various |

sizes and in different stages of manufacture. They were all made

of the natural, rounded, water-worn stones of the river, such as

we call cobble-stones, varying in length from four to ten inches.

As a general thing, the flat stones, which approached most nearly

the desired form, had been selected, and the majority of them had

simply a groove roughly chipped out around one end. None of

the specimens exhibited any traces of surface-pecking. In some

examples the edge had been commenced by flaking off small

fragments on each side, whilst a few had been superficially sharp-

ened by abrasion. One highly polished celt, of the long, narrow

variety, such as the one figured in Hayden’s Report for 1876,

Pl. xivi, Fig. 3, and two or three broken specimens were included

in the series. They were all found on the surface, scattered

through a large number of stones. which had evidently been car-

ried there for the same purpose. The ledge or small plateau on

which they were found, did not exceed two hundred feet in

length and fifty in width.—Z. A. Barber.

FReNcH ANTHROPOLOGY.—The Revue a’ Anthropologie, Vol. 1V,

No. 2, April, 1881, furnishes the following communications :

Broca, Paul—Anthropologie Zoologique. La torsion de la humérus et le T ropome-

tre, pp. 193-210,

Benzengre, B.—Etude Anthropologique sur les Tatars de Kassimoff, pp. 211-221

Hamy, Dr. E. T.—Les Négres de la Vallée du Nil: Impressions et Souvenirs, PpP-

22—235.

Bordier, Dr. A.—Japonais et Malais. [A chapter in pathologic Anthropology, he-

ing a lecture delivered Jan. 15, 1881, before the “Ecole d’Anthropologi¢ as

the Course of Medical Geography.] pp. 236-246.

Chantre, Ernest—Ancienneté des Nécropoles préhistoriques du Caucase.

ment ranes Macrocéphales. pp. 247-254, plates 1, I.

Kuhff, Dr.—De la Platycnémie dans les races humaines, pp- 255-259- .

Rochebrune, Dr, A. T.—Etude morphologique, physiologique, et ethnographique

sur la Femme et |’Enfant dans la Race Ouolove, pp. 260-294, plate Il.

Vars, Ed.—Review of the works of N. J. Zograf and H. B. Bozdanov on the Sa-

moyedes, pp. 295-305, with tables.

Mortillet, G. de—Review of the Marquis of Nadaillac’s work on the first me

prehistoric times, pp. 306-309.

Zabarowski—Review of Archeology in Zéschr f. Ethnol., Berlin, 1879 and se

Cerveau et ses fonctions, by J. Luys, pp. 336-339.

Martinet, Ludovic—Review of Archzeology at the French Association, 1880; Bul-

letins de la Soc. d’ Anthrop. de Paris, 1879; and the Archzology a Me meas

Pp. 312-326; Lesson’s “Les Polynésiens, leur origine, leur migrations,

langage,” pp. 339-343-

Renfer-

n and

1881. ] Anthropology, 755

Deniker—Review of Dr. R. Hartmann’s “Der Gorilla Zoologisch—Zootomische

Untersuchungen, Lpzg., 1880, pp. 327-330.

Letourneau, Ch.—Review of Le Bon’s “ L’ Homme et les Sociétés leurs origines et

leur histoire, Paris, Rothschild, 2 vols. Seewe ” pp. 332-336.

Manouvrier—Review of French and Italian journals, pp. 344-349.

German ANTHROPOLOGY.—The third part, thirteenth volume,

of Archiv fiir Anthropologie, published March, 1881, will be found

to contain the following papers:

wer eats J. (Basel) — a zu einer Kraniologie der Europaischen Vélker, pp.

2, tables u,

Poel, s. i (Bukarest)—Uotersuchungen iiber den mittleren Wuchs der Men-

en in Ungarn, pp. 233-267.

ie Fritz east “pas Verbesserung der Winkelmessungen am

; mit ee Riicksicht auf ihre Verwendung zu weiteren Schluss-

folgerungen und auf i he gm dies sichen Bestimmung durch Konstruction

TER COMMUNICATIONS.

Asbéth, O. (Badape)—Ein a a AERA in Siidrussland. Translated from the

Russian Nn, pp. 317

Fiirst, Carl M. (Stockhaliss —Ueber das Vorkommen ‘hes Trochants tertius beim

Mensch hen, pp. eta

Fligier, ike Revie s of—Miklosich’s ** Travels in Rumania, Istria and the Car-

pathian "Pie's “Origin of the Ru umanians ; “ Diefenbach’s “ Ethnology of

H the wer Danube

pak: “Die nae in de ‘ Poebene ;” Alton’s * Beitrige zur eee

Ostladiniens ;” Kuno’s “ Prehistoric Rome;” the Celts; and works by Schw:

Jirecek, Hasden a Verdes haben Luchaire, Sanpere y Miguel, Alton, Bider.

man, Benloew, Gerar d de Rialle, Tomaschek, y sae A and Koperni icki, pp:

Fischer, George—Reviews of the seep publications of Doctor Leen

Domenico, and anpttioge Art of War among the Mexicans, pp. 335-34

Ecker, A.—Rey of Bischoff’s “ Brain sane of Men,” and Jéger’s “ Diction-

ary of segs Anthropology and Ethnology,” pp. 346— ch

thropologische Material des Anatomischen Museums der Konig-

lichen Universitat. Erster Theil. Zusammengestellt von Dr. G.

Broeseke, im Mai, 1880, pp. 1-vi11, 1-87, closely printed. Cor-

respondenz-Blatt, No. 12, 1880, and Nos. 1-2, 1881 close the

BIBLioGRapny:

Banneuier, AniF <3; eee Apc to studies among the sedentary In-

ians of New Mexico. Re n the Ruins of Pecos. Papers of the Archx-

ological ore a of gets ca. Banca, A. Williams & Co., 1881. 1 vol., pp.

late

Camepert, Pror. J., M.A. (of Montreat)—Origin of the Aborigines of Canada.

A paper read before the Lit. & Hist. Soc. 0 { Quebec. Quebec, Morning Chron-

tele, 1881, am mphey PP. 33-34

Douctass, S.J.—The Eskimo Race: 7 Origin, Migrations and Characteristics.

Good Com vipany, ge aero pp-

apo Pror, G, H.—Traces of the Aborigines of Riley county, Kansas. Tr.

G, H.

msas Acad. Se., Vol. vil, 1879-80, p.

756 General Notes. | September

INGERSOLL, E.—Personal Recollections of the Utes. Good Company, March-

April, pp. 8.

Morsk, Pror, E. §.—Prehistoric Man in America. Kassas City Rev., June, 1881,

p- 90.

Ty or, E. B.—Anthropology : an Introduction to the Study of Man and Civiliza-

tion. N. York, D. Appleton & Co. 1 vol., pp. 448, 78 illus., 12mo.

VERNEAU, D. R.—The Black Races of Oceanica. Pop. Sc. Month., April, pp. 9.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS!

GroGRAPHICAL News.—A meeting of representatives of all the

German geographical societies, was held at the rooms of the Ber-

lin Society, on the 7th and 8th of June last. Dr. Nachtigal,

President of the latter society, was in the chair. In his opening

speech Dr. Nachtigal gave some account of the efforts made to

form a union of the various geographical societies of the Empire.

They include now about 4000 members. A plan of cooperation

under the control of an executive body at Berlin, and including the

publication of a journal, had been proposed, but met with too much

opposition, and was therefore abandoned. Annual meetings for the

reading of papers and discussions, was all that could be decided

upon at present. At this meeting papers were presented, I. On the

Ways and Means of investigating the condition of the Earth's Cen-

ter, by Professor Zoppritz [Professor of Geography at the Univer-

sity of Kénigsberg]; 2. On the Bermudas and their Coral Reefs,

by Professor Rein [Professor of Geography at the University of

arburg], founded on observations made by the author during a

two years’ residence on the islands; 3 On the importance of

Magnetic Researches, from the point of view of geography and

the study of the earth generally, by Dr. Neumayer [Director of

Houses viewed geographically and_ historically, by Professor

Meitzen [Professor of Statistics at the University of Berlin]; 6.

a combination of geographical with historical instruction led to —

the injury and neglect of all school teaching; that even if geog-

raphy is viewed as the only subject which connects physical sct-

ence and mathematics with history, it should be joined wit

physical science in the instruction of the upper classes of schools;

and lastly, that geography in the Government examinations of

teachers, should be admitted as a separate science, and also as an

accessory subject assisting to an important degree various coe

branches of learning.” Professor Wagner, of Gottingen, advo-

cated the sketching of maps, and especially the rapid delineation

1 Edited by Exits H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

1881. ] Microscopy. 757

of the main features of a country, its ranges of mountains, rivers,

etc.,as the chief aids in the. study of geography, which ought,

therefore, to be under the charge of the physical and mathemati-

cal teachers, whose sense of form and skill in drawing was far

better developed than in teachers of philological and historical

subjects. Dr. Neis, a surgeon in the French navy, has recently

made a journey in Indo-China, and discovered the source of the

Dong-nai River in 12° 30’ N. lat., 108° 25’ 15’’ E. long. In

describing Dr. lleath’s recent discoveries on the Beni, as men-

tioned in the Naturatist for June, the Proceedings of the Royal

Geographical Society says: “ As Dr. Heath claims to have been

the first white man to see the mouth of the Madre de Dios, it

may be interesting to remind our readers that in a paper’ read

before the society on February 25, 1867, our honorary corre-

sponding member, Professor Raimondi, informed us that in March,

1861, Don Faustino Maldonado, of Tarapoto, in Peru, with seven

companions, had descended the Madre de Dios into the Mamoré,

and that though the leader and three others were drowned in the

dangerous rapids called the Calderao do Inferno, the remainder

continued the voyage down the Madeira into the Amazon.”

correspondent of the London Azheneum has discovered in a copy

of the Lyons edition of the “ Cosmographia” of Hylacomylus,

published in 1514, a map which is the earliest known upon which

the name America appears. The new world is represented by a

large island in the “ Oceanus Occidental,” and across it is en-

graved “ America noviter reperta.” Heretofore it has been sup-

posed that the most ancient map on which the name appears is

the “ Typus Orbis,” printed at Vienna in 1520.

MICROSCOPY.’

Microcrapuic TrAciINGs.—In many physiological tracings it has

been thought that seme of the curves supposed to be of signifi-

cance may possibly have been the result of oscillations of the

lever, It seemed, therefore, to M. Marey, desirable to remove

this doubt, and ¢o demonstrate the fidelity of the instruments by

showing that identical tracings may be obtained by other instru-

its rapid move-

ment, go too far before the friction arrests it. If, however, the

amplitude of the movement is reduced to one-tenth (qo), the

effect of the momentum of the lever will be reduced to one-

hundredth (rds, the square root) of that which it possessed in the

Ormer case. But in order to preserve the form of the trace, the

‘Surface on which the lever writes must move very slowly, not

More than one (1) millimeter per second. The details of the

UR. G. S. Journal, Vol. xxxvu, p. 137- :

This department is edited by Dr. R. if. WARD, Troy, N. Y.

758 General Notes. [September,

curves thus obtained, will not be visible to the naked eye, but if

placed under a microscope and magnified twenty (20) diameters,

their form can be plainly seen. his method of record has

another advantage. Donders has remarked that a recording appa-

ratus is only accurate for movements of a certain rapidity, for

which it has been constructed, and if it is made to record. move-

ments of much greater rapidity, they are not accurately rep-

resented. But the microscopic inscription multiplies almost in-

definitely the field of work for the graphic method, by obtaining

a sufficiently fine steel point to write, and a black layer thin

enough to receive the tracing. M. Marey has already succeeded

in receiving and registering the movement of a tuning fork vibra-

ting two hundred (200) times per second, and in recording the

vibrations of a voice singing at one end of a tube. Even the

vibrations of blood in a vessel, which causes the “bruit de

souffle,” seem to be among the movements which can be recorded.

At least, in the case of elastic tubes and artificial aneurisms, M.

Marey has succeeded in recording the vibrations produced by 4

current of water, and which are also audible. A possible source

of error in this method, which must not be overlooked, is the

friction of the style against the glass. Momentum and friction

are two sources of possible error in all tracings. The former

necessary to reduce the friction to a minimum to avoid this

error.—/onudon Lancet, |

are

printed in life-like colors, while the text is so arranged that the

exquisite sea weeds of our coast, hitherto determined with diffi-

Abbe, of Jena, to whom we are indebted for the first and on

rational solution of this complicated problem. Taken in connec-

tion with recent papers by Professor Abbe himself, the modern

doctrine of wide-angled objectives and resolving power 1S now

for the first time fairly within reach of English readers.

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 759

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— At a recent meeting of the Anthropological Institute of

London, Gen. Pitts Rivers read a paper on the discovery of flint

implements in the gravel of the Nile valley, near Thebes. The

worked flints were found imbedded two or three meters deep in

stratified gravel. From this it appears that the evidence of human

workmanship has been found in gravel deposits which had be-

come so indurated that the ancient Egyptians were able to cut

flat-topped tombs in it, supported by square pillars of gravel,

which have retained their form uninjured to the present day,

proving an enormously greater age for the flints imbedded in the

gravel, some of which were chiseled out of the sides of the tombs.

— Apropos of the sittings of the Concord School of Philos-

ophers, the same newspaper reports the proceedings of a “ chinch-

bug convention” in Kansas. It was stoutly maintained by the

Philosophers of the Granger School, that chinch-bugs had long

been an infliction to farmers ; but no one called them such names

as one or two of the Concord philosophers bandy about; and we

should much prefer being a chinch-bug, luxuriating in the open

air, than like a venerable transcendentalist’s “soul,” to be pent

up as if a mere Cysticercus in some one’s “ occiput.”

horst, of Meissen (Saxony) was a well-known botanist and editor

of Hedwigia. Among his numerous works was one on the

fresh-water diatoms of Germany. Dr. M. J. Schleiden, a prolific

writer, and author of “Die Planze” and “ Das Meer,” died at

Frankfort, aged 77 years. :

— The fresh-water jelly fish (Limnocodium) has reappeared in

the Victoria Regia tank in the Botanical Gardens. Another writer

in Mature speaks of sea anemones (Actinia) as living and flourish-

ing in a fresh-water aquarium; no particulars are given as to the

length of time, etc. ; :

— The first part of a fourth edition of Griffith and Henfrey’s

Micrographic Dictionary has appeared. It is expected to be com-

pleted in twenty-one monthly parts.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Natura History Society oF ILtinois,- June 12.—According

to programme the members met at the Palmer House, where

ness was transacted, among which was the organization of the

entomologists into a separate section, with C. E. Worthington as

President and G. H. French, secretary. The meeting in Chicago

numbered about thirty, somewhat smaller than the Ottowa meet-

ing, but that may be accounted for, perhaps, by the fact that the

Proposed place for the field meeting did not afford so good an

numbers, C4 om

760 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Sept., 1881.

On the morning of the 13th the society went by the Mich.

Southern R. R., to Whitings, Ind., and from there about a mile

and a half to the grounds of the Lake George Sporting Associa-

tion, the proposed place of rendezvous. This is a tract of wild

land containing two or more lakes, low meadow and marsh lands

and ridges of timber, in all several thousand acres. A few miles

out from here is a belt of pines, the whole giving an exceed-

ingly rich and varied flora and fauna in which all kinds of scien-

tific specialists might find something of interest. The depart

ments of natural history were represented in the field during the

week by the following persons:

Geology—Tyler McWhorter, Aledo; L. E. Evans, Streator ;

Edgar L. Larkin, New Windsor. :

Ornithology—J. L. Skelton, Chicago; B. P. Colton, Princeton;

Geo. S. White, Lake View.

Ichthyology—Professor S. A. Forbes, Normal; W. H. Garman,

Normal; Professor Joshua Lindahl, Rock Island; Frank L. Rice,

Evanston; N. S. Davis, Jr., Evanston. The two last also col-

lected Crustacea. .

Entomology — C. E. Worthington, Chicago; G. H. French,

Carbondale; Dr. E. H. Boardman, Elmira; F. M. Webster, Wa-

terman; W. H. Bridges, Elgin; H. Darlington, Chicago; H. A.

Peters, Rock Island. Dr. Boardman and Mr. Bridges worked

part of the time in botany.

Botany—Professor E. J. Hill, Englewood ; Professor T. J. Bur-

rill, Champaign; Cyrus Kehr, Sterling; Ewing Summers, Chi-

cago; W. J. Stevens, Morris. :

There were a number of others at the Chicago meeting, the

above list including only those who went out to Lake George.

20:

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ScIENCE, August.—Geological relations

of the limestone belts of Westchester county, New York; One

Dictyophyton, by R. P. Whitfield.

Nature, June 2—A chapter in the history of the Conifer.

The Cupressinez. a

June 16.—Dr. Miklucho Maclay’s Anthropological and Ana

tomical researches in Melanesia and Australia.

July 7.—Civilization and barbarism in South Africa.

July 14—British Museum Catalogue of Birds.

GroLoeicaL Macazinr, July.—Two new British Carboniferous

insects, by S. H. Scudder. On Vogt’s View of the sere

teryx, by H. G, Seeley. Sudden extinction of the Mammot ip

east of England, by E.T. Newton. Correlation of the posi

Paleozoic rocks of Britain and Scandinavia, by C. Lapwort™.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

VoL. xv. — OCTOBER, 1881.— No. 10.

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STOMATA OF

TRADESCANTIA AND INDIAN CORN.

BY DOUGLASS H. CAMPBELL,

a we examine a portion of the epidermis from the lower sur-

- face of the leaf of the common trailing Tradescantia ( 7. vu-

Sais ), it will be seen to consist of polygonal cells, mostly irregu-

lar hexagons. At intervals, sometimes in nearly straight rows, in

other cases irregularly, are found the stomata, each consisting of

two semilunar guard-cells, meeting at the ends so as to enclose a

central pore, whose walls are thicker than the external walls of

the guard-cells. These guard-cells contain chlorophyll in distinct

grains, while in the cells of the epidermis it is wanting. Grouped

around the stoma are four cells, one on each side, one above and

one below. These are very different from the ordinary epidermal

cells, being nearly oblong in shape instead of hexagonal. On

the stems the epidermal cells are elongated, and although acces-

sory cells are still present, they are much longer and narrower

(Fig. xrx). If a vertical section is made through the stoma, the

guard-cells as well as the accessory cells are seen to be much shal-

lower than the ordinary epidermal cells, so that a large air-cavity,

€qual to nearly the area of these four cells is formed beneath the

stoma, and communicates with the external air by means of its

pore, If we examine as young a leaf as can be had, the epider-

mis will be found to consist of nearly regular hexagonal cells.

When a stoma is to be formed, a septum is formed across one

end of a cell, at right angles to the axis of the leaf, thus pro-

_ * Special course of in estigation of plant structure and physiology, conducted in

the botanical laboratory of the University of Michigan. : :

a VOL. XV.—No. x. ——

762 On the Development of the Stomata of [ October,

PLATE I.

1881.] Tradescantia and Indian Corn. 763

ducing a cell whose upper surface is rhomboidal (Plate 1,

Fig. 1).

This cell soon becomes nearly square, and at this time, lying

between four nearly equal hexagons, it is a difficult matter to see

from which it was produced (Fig. 11), The cell lengthens so that

in a short time it is longer than broad; and the ends are much

curved, while the sides are nearly straight. The stoma increases

very little in depth from the first, the subsequent growth being

nearly all lateral. Soon after the stoma begins to take this oblong

shape, two cells, of nearly equal size, and somewhat smaller than

the stoma-cell, are cut out from the two epidermal cells at the

sides of the stoma (Figs. 1v and v), and a little later, in the same

way, two similar cells are formed at the ends (Figs. vi and vit).

Near the time of the formation of these latter cells, the mother-

cell of the stoma shows a tendency to divide, the cell approaching

in the meantime nearer and nearer the oval of the perfect stoma.

A vertical septum is formed, dividing the mother-cell into two,

and as growth progresses these separate in the middle, forming a

pore leading to the space beneath (Figs. 1x, x and x1). The con-

tents of the stoma are, from the first, denser than those of the

epidermal cells, but chlorophyll does not appear until the stoma

has attained some size. As it increases in size, the chlorophyll

becomes more evident, and shows a tendency to collect in masses,

until in the perfect stoma very distinct chlorophyll bodies are

present (Figs. xxiv), The accessory cells grow ,in about the

Same ratio as the stoma, so that they bear nearly the same pro-

portion to the completed stoma that they did to the stoma when

they were first formed. The air-cavity beneath the stoma is

small at first, extending only beneath the stoma proper (Figs.

Xvil and xvii), but it increases, extending under the accessory

Cells, until finally it occupies nearly the whole space beneath

them (Figs. xv, xvi). These cells, as well as the stoma proper,

increase little in depth after they are first formed. Occasionally

the accessory cells are more in number, five or six, but this is

rare, and when it does happen, they are crowded so as to occupy

little more space than the normal number.

The first thing that strikes one on examining the epidermis of

Indian corn, is the peculiar form of the stomata. The guard-

cells, apparently, instead of being crescent-shaped, are nearly

triangular, and do not meet at the ends, as would be expected.

764 On the Development of the Stomata of [ October,

If, however, the younger forms of the stomata are examined, it is

perceived at once, that what were taken as guard-cells are not

really such, but are cells corresponding to the accessory cells de-

scribed in Tradescantia. In the mature leaf the epidermal cells

are long and narrow, and have a very marked sinuous outline;

but in the young leaf they are proportionately much shorter, and

have a nearly straight outline. The formation of a stoma is as

follows : ‘

A vertical septum is formed across the end of a cell, shutting

off a cell, which is very short (Plate 11, Fig. 1). This cell, however,

lengthens rapidly, and soon is nearly square in shape. ‘The sto-

mata are at first formed in rows, but when mature this regularity

is not very obvious. Almost as soon as the mother-cell of the

stoma is formed, two small cells, at the sides, are cut out from the

adjoining epidermal cells, much as in Tradescantia (Fig. 1):

These at the outset scarcely keep pace with the development of

the mother-cell; but finally grow much faster, and in the end

so crowd it as to completely change its shape. The mother-cell

rounds off and divides, developing for some time very much as

any ordinary stoma (Figs. ti—vi1); but when it is about half

grown there is a marked change. The stoma gradually begins to

lengthen (Fig. 1x), and the accessory cells which have hitherto

been small and unimportant, begin to grow more rapidly, begin-

ning also to show their triangular form. The stoma becomes

more and more elongated, and at this stage is nearly rectangular

(x), and two or three times as long as broad. Distinct vacuoles

are usually present and situated at the ends, but these soon dis-

appear, and their position marks the place of greatest condensa-

tion. From this time, the accessory cells form the most conspi¢-

uous part of the stoma. They grow toward the center of the

stoma, and in consequence the guard-cells become more and more

contracted, until the stoma itself, instead of being oval, as it was

when half grown, has become somewhat dumb-bell shaped, and

to a casual observer, the accessory cells, which are no part of the

stoma proper, might easily seem to be the guard-cells, while the

real guard-cells are so altered that they look like mere thticken-

ings around the pore,

The shape of the accessory cells varies somewhat, but iS,

general, approximately triangular, or, rather, three-lobed; but

sometimes the lobes are so indistinct, that the cells are nearly oe

1881.] Tradescantia and Indian Corn. 765

semicircular, while at others the lobes are so strongly marked as

to make the cell approach a trefoil. Occasionally, as in Trades-

PLATE. iI.

INDIAN CORN.

<antia, the ordinary number of these cells is increased, and an

additional one is present; but this is apparently formed by the

division of one of the others. Occasionally stomata are also

found on the underground stems for some distance below ground. .

In all such cases they are without the accessory cells, and the

guard-cells are of the ordinary shape, and not compressed.

As far as I have been able to ascertain, the form of stomata ~

found in Indian corn is general among the grasses, but usually

the stoma proper is neither so narrow nor so much constricted ;

this is, however, not so in all cases.

In the examination of both these plants, it is mecessary to

examine the youngest attainable growth, as the stomata are fully

formed very early. In Tradescantia, I took the bases of the

youngest leaves that I could procure, those that scarcely showed

at all without removing the outer leaves, and taking the youngest

parts of this, placed it under the microscope without attempting

to remove the epidermis. The leaf at this stage of its growth is

so thin as to be almost transparent, and by careful focussing, I

was able, with little difficulty, to get the youngest forms. In corn

I made an oblique section of the stem quite low down, and taking

out the bundle of young leaves from within the stem, treated

them the same way as in Tradescantia. Only by doing this is it

possible to get at the young forms, since any leaf which is firm

enough to allow the epidermis to be removed, would show only

forms complete, or nearly so.

In the Tradescantia the stomata are confined to the lower sur

face of the leaves, the upper surface being absolutely without

them, while in Indian corn, although they are much more numer-

ous on the Jower than on the upper side, they are still found to

some extent on the latter.

On first examining the younger forms of the Indian corn sto-

mata, I thought that the accessory cells were formed from the

mother-cell by internal division; but after having examined the

formation of the accessory cells of Tradescantia, I was struck by

the similarity of the two, and on reéxamination of the Indian

corn, I was convinced that they were cut out of the adjoining

epidermal cells, and were in all respects identical with those

around the stomata of Tradescantia.

1881.] Zhe Maya Calendar and the Age of MS. Troano. 767

AN ATTEMPT TO RECONCILE THE DIFFERENCES

BETWEEN AUTHORITIES IN REFERENCE TO

THE MAYA CALENDAR AND CERTAIN

DATES; ALSO TO DETERMINE

THE AGE OF THE MANU-

SCRIPT TROANO.

BY PROFESSOR CYRUS THOMAS.

‘y my former paper (AMERICAN NaturaList for August, 1881),

I reached the following conclusions :

First—That the Ahau or Katun consisted of twenty-four

years.

Second.—That but twenty of these years were usually counted.

Third.—That the grand cycle consisted of 312 years.

Fourth.—That the cycles began with the year 1 Cauac, or in

other words that the Cauac column in the table of years should

Stand at the left.

Two important points yet remain to be determined before we

are in a condition to compare Maya dates with those of the

Christian era:

First—The position of the different Katunes according to their

numbers in the grand cycle.

econd.—Some one year of the Christian era that corresponds

with some one year of a given Katun, or, in other words, to

determine one or more contemporaneous dates of the two

systems,

Before entering upon the discussion of the topic mentioned in

the title to this paper, I wish to present the following additional

Proof that the year series commenced with a Cauac year, as this

‘Sa point which must be settled before we can feel certain in

Tegard to any comparison made between dates of the two

Systems,

In the manuscript discovered by Perez and translated into

English by Stephens, we find the following statement:

_ In the 13th Ahau, Chief Ajpula died. Six years were want-

rs to complete the 13th Ahau. This year was counted towards

= ‘one of the wheel and began on the 4th Kan. Ajpula died

18th day of the month Zip, on g Ymix; and that it may

demain 2 numbers, it was the year 1536, sixty years after the

€molition of the fortress.”

As the years could only begin with one of the four days,

768 The Maya Calendar and the Age of MS. Troano, (October,

Cauac, Kan, Muluc, Ix, which followed each other in the order

here given, it is evident this Ahau must have ended on 10 Ix, and

must have commenced with 13 Cauac, if we count 24 years to

the Ahau. As I have shown in the previous paper that this

period consisted of 24 years, I shall assume that point as settled,

and will give, opposite, a table of years sufficiently extended to

cover one entire grand cycle, also the closing cycle of the prece-

ding, and the first of the following grand cycles, showing the

position of the Ahaues.

As the grand cycle includes just 13 Katunes—312 years—I

take for granted that the first year of this period coincides with

the first year of a Katun, and consequently the close of the for-

mer coincides with the close of a Katun. By dividing the for-

mer into periods of twenty-four years, we will obtain the positions

of the Katunes, and our next step will be to find their respective

numbers. .

The commencement and ending of the great cycle are marked

thus —mgime-— + the divisions between the Ahaues with single

transverse solid black lines. According to the quotation just

made from the Perez manuscript, the 13th Ahau was one that

required six years to complete it after the year 4 Kan. This can

only be found in the one I have numbered xi (the Roman

numerals indicate the numbers of the Ahaues or Katunes). If

we take for granted that the periods were numbered thus, 13, ob

authorities agree—having determined the number of one in the

grand cycle, it is an easy matter to number the rest.

I call special attention to the fact that the one numbered XI

found as above stated, begins with the year 13 Cauac; also that

the first years of the others correspond with numbers and order

as given in the above series. The selection of XIII as the ont

with which to begin the series, was, as Dr. Valentini has giver

the Maya priests.

II,

This numbering, as any one can see, agrees precisely with the

position and numbers of the periods marked in table X1 of my

previous article (p. 639). The position and numbers of these

periods, as I have given them here (Table x11) agree exactly with

the dates in the Manuscript Troano and the Perez manuscript. ‘ =

As 4 Kan of the 13th Ahau coincides with the yeat 15 3° ae

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1881.| Zhe Maya Calendar and the Age of MS. Troano. 76g

the Christian era, we can from this easily change the years of one

system into those: of the other. For convenience, I have marked

on the table the year of our era corresponding with the first and

last of each Ahau!

Now let us test this arrangement by the two or three additional!

_ dates found on record, and which the authorities have failed to

make agree with any explanation of the calendar heretofore

given.

Bishop Landa (‘‘ Relacion de Cosas,” § 41) states that, ‘‘ The

Indians say, for example, that the Spaniards arrived in the City

of Merida the year of the nativity of our Lord and Master 1541,

which was precisely the first year of 11 Ahau.”

As the Indians could have given dates only by their system

and by the number of years, it follows that the Bishop connected

the year 1541 of the one system with that of the first of the 11th

Ahau by his own calculation.

As he understood the twenty usually counted years to form a

complete Ahau, and supposed one of these to follow another

without any intervening years, he would take 9 Muluc of the 13th

Ahau—which was 1541 according to my table—as the first of

the 11th Ahau (13 Muluc), according to his understanding.

In order to make this plain I have surrounded the usually

counted years of the 13th and 11th Ahaues with light waved

lines. I have marked the two years he has confounded (9 and

13) with a star; the year 4 Kan of the 13th Ahau, which cor-

responds with our year 1536, is surrounded by a dark circle.

We know from his express statement that he understood

twenty years to constitute one of these periods, a fact which will

probably explain the discrepancy in relation to another date which

he mentions. :

While writing his work in 1566, he remarks, ‘‘ According to

the computation of the Indians, it is now 120 years since Maya-

Pan was abandoned.” As this period must have been understood

by him to include six Ahaues, the number as corrected would

be 144 years, substituting this number and counting hack we

obtain the year 1422 or 1423—the last year of the 1oth Ahau, or

first of the 8th, as the one in which the destruction occurred.

Cogulludo (as stated by Dr. Valentini) places this event “ about

1 * %

No notice is taken here of the fractional differences between the years of the two

Systems,

770 The Maya Calendar and the Age of MS. Troano. [October,

the year 1420 A. D.” The Perez manuscript locates it in the 8th?

Ahau—the one following the 1oth—but without giving the year.

As my calculation places it in the last year of the 1oth, or first of

the 8th, the agreement is perhaps as close as could be expected.

Perez states that the year 1392 of our era was the Maya year

7 Cauac, “according to all sources of information, confirmed by

the testimony of Don Cosme de Burgos, one of the conquerors

and a writer (but whose observations have been lost.”’—( Bancroft,

i, 763). The correctness of this statement has been very ser

ously questioned because of the apparent impossibility of making

it agree with the other dates. In the first place Perez started

wrong by taking for granted that 7 Cauac was the first year of an

Ahau, a supposition by no means necessary. In the second place

it is more than probable he arrived at the date 1392 by calcula-

tion from the data he had before him, and not from the fact that

the two dates were connected by the authority quoted from. It

is certain that he or his authority must have reduced the years of

one system to those of the other to have arrived at this date.

As he gives, in his calculations, the year 1493 as that on which

Ajpula died, instead of 1536, as stated by his manuscript, thus

antedating it by forty-three years, it is probable that this error

runs through all his calculated dates. Now let us make this cor

rection on our table by counting from the year 1392, as found

there, and see what year it brings us to.

Examining the table, we see that the 12th Ahau closed with

1398, and that 1392, according to my arrangement, was the year

3 Kan of this Ahau. Counting from this forward through the

six remaining years of this Ahau, the 24 of the 1oth to the 13th

year of the 8th Ahau (43 in all), we reach 7 Cauac ; precisely the

date required by his authorities. It also falls in the 8th hau, #

fact which also appears to be demanded by his data; but it is ca

year 1435 of ourera and not 1392. Is it not more than probable

that this was the year in which Mayalpan was destroyed ? It 4

a little strange that Perez should have made the mistake of say :

ing that Ahau No. 2,in which his manuscript places the a

appearance of the Spaniards on the coast of Yucatan, ended yeas

the year 1488, and that Dr. Valentini should have overlooked th!

error. According to my scheme, this Ahau began with 1495 4

ended with 1518, covering the correct date.

’ Brasseur (Relac. des cos. 52 note) says erroneously, “ 6th.”

1881.] Zhe Maya Calendar and the Age of MS. Troano. 771

We see from this that when the Maya calendar is properly ex-

plained, and the manifest errors of the various authorities cor-

rected, the dates can be reconciled, and in fact furnish strong

evidence of the correctness of what I have advanced in reference

to the proper position and numbers of the Ahaues in the grand

cycle.

The theory advanced by Perez that the Ahaues were numbered

from the second day of the Cauac years, is simply a supposition

based upon the name “ Ahau,” and the fact that the numbers of

these periods, as usually given, can be found in this way, and is

really the basis of all his calculations.

But we can find the same numbers, and in the order given,

Without resorting to this theory, as will be seen by reference to

the table. Dividing the series into periods of 24 years will neces-

sarily give these numbers as the first years, no matter where we

commence the division. As will be seen by reference to the

table, the Ahau in which the year 1536 falls, and which the

Perez manuscript states was the 13th, commences with the year

13 Cauac, the next with 11 Cauac, and so on, precisely as given

by all authorities. The only foundation, therefore, for the theory

advanced by Perez, was the name “ Ahau,” which was doubtless

applied to these periods on account of their importance in calcu-

lations of time and in giving dates.

Is there anything in the manuscript itself indicating the date

at which it, or the original from which the one discovered was

copied, was written ?

The period embraced by the four plates xx—xx111, which can be

located in the series of years with reasonable if not absolute cer-

tainty, is evidently peculiar and not a part of the Maya calendar

*ystem. If, as I have given strong reasons for believing, it marks

the close of one great cycle and the commencement of another, it

Will be located as shown by the heavy waved line on the table.

Why was this peculiar period given? My answer is that it

atid marks the time during which the author lived, and

‘nce was written during the latter half of the fourteenth

century,

That exactly the same combinations may be found by going

sty One grand cycle, or 312 years, is true, but the internal as

c as the external evidence, which I cannot undertake to discuss

“, Will not, in my opinion, allow us to carry it back to such a

772 The Siphonophores. [ October,

remote period as the commencement of the eleventh century;

that we cannot bring it down to the middle of the seventeenth

century (the only possible subsequent date on the above supposi-

tion) must be admitted.

That the peculiar period embraced in plates xx—xxu1 may be

located where any two cycles meet is certainly true, so far as the

years are concerned, but judging by the symbols and extent of

the period, certain signs which seem to indicate the 3d and Ist

Ahau, and from the fact that the commencement of no other

cycle, except that with which the grand cycle begins, coincides

with the commencement of an Ahau, I am satisfied it marks the

union of two of the greatest Maya periods.?

ag corer Oe

THE SIPHONOPHORES.

IIl—PHYSOPHORID (ANIMALS CLOSELY RELATED TO AGALMA).

BY J. WALTER FEWKES. “s

r the two previous articles? in the NATURALIST, We have

sketched in outline the anatomy and development of Agalma,

which is regarded as the typical genus of a family of tubular

jelly-fishes to which is given the name of Physophoride, in dis-

tinction from others yet to be mentioned, which are but distantly

related to the type chosen. Before we go further a consideration

of the different genera found in this family may be of interest [0 _

our readers. aa. .

All the genera now to be described agree in this particular,

that they have a float, or air bladder, to support themselves 1 the :

water in which they live. Stem may fail, the attached nect

calyces, covering-scales and “tasters” be wanting, but the har Ey

always remains with the feeding-polyps, tentacles and SeXu@™

bells represented in some form or other. To trace the — -

modifications in structure among the members of the group, i

to show how now one part, and now another is modihenere: 2

leading to no new plan of structure, is a most interesting er

e 631, after

‘ Errata in the First Article.—In second line from the bottom of pag f the

the words “17th day of the 2d” add “or 15th,” so as to read “ r7th oe

2d or 15th month.” In third line from the top of page 636, for “ eran " :

“covering.” In second line from the top of page 639, for “ cach pore

“ each two periods.’’ , ‘

* NATURALIST, September, 1880, March, 1881.

1881.} The Siphonophores. 773

instructive study of these forms of life. Let us, therefore, con-

sider in turn the more important genera allied :

to Agalma which constitute the so-called Phy- ‘ y ord

sophoride.

One of the simplest members of the group }

is a genus in which we have present, as it were

the mere skeleton of the Agalma, or simply

the float and the stem. To this stem is added )

feeding polyps and sexual-bells, while all other pon

appendages, as necto-calyces, covering-scales,

‘tasters’ and the like, are wanting. It is, in |

fact, as if the Agalma had dropped all such as

superfluous, and retained only those parts nec- i

essary for its life; polyps to eat for the com-

munity, a float to support the stem in the 2

water, and sexual organs to reproduce new e--4

colonies. We are to consider a genus which

is one of the simplest, and on that account |

Can very properly be described in this place. :

The name of the animal to which reference ‘

is made, is Rhizophysa, which is one of the

rare Siphonophores of the Mediterranean and

other seas. Its bizarre form and simplicity of

Structure gives to it an interest secohd to none

of the Physophoridz, and as is the case with a

_ Study of all aberrant forms, a few words about

its general anatomy may do something to bring

about a better understanding of the group of

jelly-fishes, of which Agalma may rightly be ,

regarded a representative. The body of Rhizo-

Physa is a simple, flexible, transparent tube,

at one end of which is a float (a), Fig. 11, filled

with air to support it in the water. This tube,

besides being extremely flexible, is highly

Muscular, and can be contracted into a shape-

less snarl under the air bladder, or elongated

_ dnto-a Straight, transparent, thread-like axis, Fic. 11. — Rhizo-

. 38 shown in the figure. Sensitive to the least | PAYS.

_ touch of a foreign body, it is seldom quiet, contracting or ex-

_ Panding its length by muscular action of the stem walls. Inno

774 The Siphonophores. [October,

respect does this axis differ from that of Agalma, with which it is

morphologically identical.

The appendages to the axis are few in number, but very im-

portant. Whatever structures hang from its walls are those only

which are necessary to the life of an anima! so low in structure

as Rhizophysa. There are no swimming-bells for propulsion

through the water. It is a passive agent of wind and tide, and

like many other pelagic animals, irrespective of itself is help-

lessly borne along hither and thither as they carry it. Covering:

scales also fail along the stem, for they likewise are needless i

an organism of this low kind. The organs necessary to the life

of the animal, those of digestion and reproduction, cannot fail,

and these are all which are to be found appended to the walls of

the body of Rhizophysa.

At intervals along the stem, when expanded as shown in Fig.

I1,' there will be noticed flask-shaped bodies, which closely t®

semble the polypites of the Agalma colony. These are the

“ feeding-mouths,” and if the distal end of each of these bodies be

examined, an opening through which the food is taken in will be

found, while in the cavity of the polypite the half digested fragments

of small animals betray at once the character of these bodies.

The cavity of this polypite communicates with that of the body

extending from one end to the other of the axis, through which !t

is brought into connection with the interior of every other orga?

of the animal.

From the base of each of these feeding-polyps, there hangs

down a long tentacle, beset along its whole length with saeco?

or tentacular-knobs of a form very different from that of ad

Agalma. There are three kinds of these pendants, each of vice |

has a characteristic shape which is very different from that figuree

in my former article, as of the tentacular-knob of Agalma eae

There is no other structure in the organization of the Sipho -

phore which varies so much and assumes such a variety “6 rae

as the tentacular-knobs, and upon these differences we rely in ae

main for generic and specific characteristics among the sai

phores. Rhizophysa has three kinds of these tentacular el »

dages, and in that respect differs from most other Siphonopho

where only one form of pendant is found in the adult. -

i ; Bos f, SOG”

* Fig. 11 was taken from a paper by the author of this sketch in Proc. :

Nat. History, Vol. xx. Boe

1881.] The Siphonophores. 775

Midway between each pair of polypites on the axis of Rhizo-

‘ physa, there will be noticed a small cluster (e), which when mag-

nified wiil be found to have a botryoidal shape and to hang from

the axis by a small slender pedicel. These organs are ovaries,

and correspond with the sexual bells of the Agalma colony,

although they never take on a bell shape as is true of the latter

genus. How the egg is formed in these clusters, and what the

character of the development of Rhizophysa is, no one has yet

been able to make out with any degree of certainty.

In recapitulation, these then are the only structures which the

skeleton-like Rhizophysa has: an axis (6), with a terminal float

(a), polypites, or feeding-polyps, (c), from which arise many ten-

tacles (ad), closely set with tentacular knobs, and sexual organs

(e) in the form of botryoidal clusters situated midway between

each pair of feeding-polyps.

In Rhizophysa we have one of the simplest expressions of the

group of animals of which Agalma has been taken as a type.

There is but one simpler related animal, and that is a form in

Which the stem is wholly wanting, and nothing remains to indi-

cate the affinities of the animal with the Physophoridz except the

float. We then have a well-known Siphonophore commonly

figured as a representative of the group and called Physalia, or

the Portuguese man-of-war.

In this curious animal there is no sign, whatsoever, of stem,

swimming-bell or covering-scales, and the float is enormously

€veloped into a bladder, which swims on the surface of the

water, and acts ina way asa sail, to the spread of surface in which

a raised crest also contributes. The colony of individuals is clus-

tered on its under side, and in that position is borne along through

the water. Physalia is, in some respects, the simplest possible

form of Physophore and most distantly removed from the type,

Agalma. Its close relation to Rhizophysa indicates that it is a

true member of the group and not closely related to the floating

hydroids Velella and Porpita, which I have already followed

McCrady in separating from the Siphonophores.'

The genus Physophora or the “ float-bearer,” which has given

the name of Physophoridz to the group, is not perfectly normal,

and differs in some respects from the type Agalma. Physophora

has never been found in American waters, although quite com-

"Bull. Mus. Comp, Zool., Vol. v1, No. 7.

776 The Siphonophores. [ October,

mon in the Mediterranean, and found likewise in the Atlantic

near the Cape Verde islands. It is one of the most beautiful and »

graceful of all the group to which it belongs.

Physophora differs from Agalma and from all other Physo-

phoridz in this particular, that the polyp-stem to which is affixed

polypites, covering-scales, tasters and sexual organs in Agalma,

and which takes on the form of a long tube in this animal, becomes

reduced in length in Physophora and inflated into a special bag,

from the under side of which, in a definite spiral arrangement,

structures similar to those of the polyp-stem in the Agalma, hang.

It is precisely what would be expected if the portion of the axis

of Agalma below the lowest nectocalyx were inflated into a Sac,

and the appended structures drawn into a spiral line over its un-

der surface. The nectocalyces and the nectostem do not essentially

differ in the type and in Physophora. The peculiar tentacular

‘pendants of this animal I will not consider at length, since an

account of them would draw me into a description too technical

for these papers.

One genus of the Physophoride, closely related to the young

of Agaima, remains yet to be mentioned. It will be remembered

that we described the Agalma as passing through what was called

an Athorybia stage. That form is permanently taken by the ge-

nus Athorybia, from which it was named. The resemblance

of the two ‘is, however, only a likeness in general shape, and is, in

particulars, quite remote, for when we study the form of the cov-

ering-scales, the tentacular pendants and the fine anatomy of the

float, we find very little resemblance between the two. The term

“ Athorybia stage” is a very convenient one to designate a well

marked larval condition of the young even of other genera be-

sides Agalma.,.

In the genus Athorybia there are no nectocalyces, and if any

axis is developed, it is so small as to be practically wanting. In

place of swimming-bells, the covering-scales are capable of quite

extended motion, and arise directly under the base of the float,

thus forming a crown or circlet which encloses that body. To

the outline and arrangement of these structures, as well as the

complete absence of nectocalyces, Athorybia owes its peculiar

shape. It is probably an arrested embryonic condition resembling

closely the young of Agalma, although differing from it in struc —

tural details. c

1881.] The Siphonophores. — 777

There remains among the Physophoridz, closely resembling in

general outline the type Agalma, several genera which should be

mentioned in this place. One of these is so well marked that it

can be easily distinguished at a glance, and in one important par-

ticular is different from all the other Physophores. It will be

remembered in my account of the arrangement of the swimming-

bells of Agalma, published in the first article of this series, that I

described these organs as arranged ia two rows, the lines of the

two series apparently opposite on the axis. As is true also of

other genera, where nectocalyces occur, this appearance of being

placed in two rows on different sides of the stem, is brought about

by a twisting of the axis itself, and not by a formation of the

bells on opposite sides. If the axis of Agalma has its fibers

straightened, all the covering-scales, swimming-bells and the like,

would be found one above the other in a line: Consequently the

biserial arrangement of the swimming-bells is wholly distinct

from their place of apparent origin on the axis, but dependent

upon the twisting of the axis itself. In the genus Stephanomia,'

instead of the section of the stem between the position of origin

of two nectocalyces taking a turn through an angle of 180°, thus

bringing the nectocalyces into two series; the stem between two

adjoining swimming-bells is twisted at a smaller angle, even one

less than a right angle, so that the openings of the bell cavity

face on all sides. There still remains a serial arrangement of the

bells, but in Stephanomia it is no longer biserial as in Agalma,

but multiserial with the bells opening in all directions in a plane

at right angles to the axis. The polyp-stem in this beautiful ge-

nus resembles that of an Agalma, but the feeding-polyps are

mounted upon long peduncles, so that the tentacles seem to origi-

nate on the polypites midway between the stem and the mouth.

Covering-scales of peculiar outline are also present, as well as

“tasters,” and male and female sexual-bells. In all of these

structures, the genus is very characteristic, and if its whole organ-

ization be considered, is probably the highest member of the fam-

ily. The arrangement of the swimming-bells, opening as they

apparently do on all sides of the stem, make it possible for the

Whole colony to move rapidly through the water, and nothing can

€xcel the grace with which these animals make their way through

This genus was commonly called Foskalia by European naturalists; Stephanomia

has a prior claim as its true name.

VOL, XV.—-No, xX. 54

778 The Siphonophores. [ October,

| EINE sn

We their native element, when the combined

SKS movements of different series of bells im-

IK >) part a spiral motion to the whole colony.

ga tc: zu Ch In truth, the grace of this animal is some-

Wo AN , ' S

eases eal S thing marvelous, and when once seen is

eS. not soon to be forgotten.

wR There are two genera of Physophores

GRY closely resembling Agalma in external

Barras HN shape, but so well marked that they are.

commonly placed in different genera. They

are known as Agalmopsis, and Halistem-

ma. The likeness of the former of these

animals to Agalma, as its name betrays,

is very great (Fig. 121), The most import-

- ant difference between the two is in the

. structure of the tentacular-knobs, which in

\ Agalmopsis (Fig. 13) have but a single ter-

minal filament, while in Agalma, as has

‘ra

ay f

u (TN been already pointed out, there are two

YAN of these terminal _fila- i

e- i wf ments and an interme-

diate vesicle. In minor

details also, as in the po-

sition of the sexual-bells

SSE:

(af BEN

/ if NaN \ upon the base of the

{ a) NS) A\ “tasters,” instead of mid-

f i \ sal as b He

i /ax| \N' way between the feeding-

ty aN hy\ polyps on the stem,

mK &

' Agalmopsis differs from

Agalma, but as has been

already said, the general

outline of the two is much

the same.

gE.

—

Bien

We:

‘ x } The genus called Hal-

\ \ istemma, or “ sea-tube,”

) N approaches very closely,

) iY in form, the type Agal-

\ ma. The great difference ;

: between the two, as be- Pendant

fe Fic. 13- ig

Fic. 12,—Agalmopsis. tween Agalmopsis and nob of Agen :

a 52 and 13 are copied from my paper in the Bull, Mus. Comp. Zool., V0

0. 7.

1881.] The Siphonophores. 779

Agalma, lies in the form and arrangement of the pendant tentacular-

Fic, 14.—Apolemia.

knobs, In Halistemma as in Agalmopsis, there is but a single

780 The Siphonophores. [ October,

terminal filament on each knob, but there is no involucrum such

as we have already shown covers the “sacculus,” or body of the

knob in Agalma. Moreover, these knobs do not hang from

tentacles, but each one is suspended separately from the base of

the polypite, and what appear to be tentacles are in reality their

pedicels very much elongated.

All the genera mentioned in the previous pages constitute a

natural group of float-bearing jelly-fishes. They are closely

allied to one another, and all possess an air bladder or float.

‘There remains one: more genus to be described, which is

doubly interesting from its great size and its relationship to a

group of tubular jelly-fishes which has little in common with

Agalma. This genus is called Apolemia, and is known to the

Italian fishermen, on whose shores it is most abundant, as the

“Jana di mare,” or wool of the sea. It often reaches, when

extended, a length of from twenty to thirty feet, and is seldom

found entire, but generally in the form of broken fragments like

that figured in Fig. 14}

The main difference between Apolemia and Agalma lies in the

fact, that while in the latter the covering-scales are fastened along

the whole length of the polyp-stem, and no visible break occurs

where these structures are not found, in Apolemia the feeding-

polyps and covering-scales are united together in clusters at inter-

vals on the stem, separated from each other by a bare portion (a)

of the axis, which is destitute of appendages of any kind. The

fragment figured above gives a general view of a portion of such

an Apolemia, but if the whole colony were figured and the

remainder of the axis shown, upon one end would be found a

float just as in Agalma, and four or five pairs of swimming-bells,

arranged in a like biserial manner. There is, however, this pecl-

liarity of the portion of the stem, which bears the nectocalyces

in Apolemia, that from it also hang bodies closely resembling

“ tasters,” yet destitute of tentacular filaments. This 1s, as far as

I know, the only instance among the Physophorida where the

nectostem has tasters arising from it. They are not as a conse

quence found along the polyp-stem as in most other genera.

If now we turn our attention to an examination of the clusters

of bodies arranged at intervals along the polyp-stem as in Fig. 13,

we find each cluster of peculiar shape, differing greatly from

‘The figure (Fig 14) was copied from the Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. V1; No.7:

1881. ] The Siphonophores. 781

what we have already studied. The stem, half way between each

cluster (7), is jointed so that as the animal grows, or the stem

elongates, that cluster most distant from the float ruptures its con-

nection with the colony at the joint in the axis, and when sepa-

rated from the remainder, leads an independent life. It thus hap-

pens that these little clusters are often found floating alone in the

water, hanging from the fragment of the stem, having broken

their connection with the parent, or rather with the colony, to

which they were formerly attached. As is also the case in a lar-

val stage of a common jelly-fish, Aurelia, known as the strobila,

which is, however, attached at one extremity to the ground, suc-

cessive terminal members continually separate from the collection

and swimming away, develop into new Aurelie, so terminal clus-

ters of the free-swimming Apolemia are successively broken off

from the colony as it matures. The likeness between the method

by which Aurelia and the clusters of Apolemia develop is mor-

phologically very great. Let us consider the composition of a

single cluster which has separated in this way from the colony,

and see how far this likeness can be traced.

The fragment of an Apolemia ruptured from the remainder of

the colony, resembles closely in shape a number of transparent

spheres fastened together by one pole, from which hang down a

number of polyp-like organs. The cluster is, in the main, com-

posed of many jelly-like bodies joined together on the fragment

of the stem. These bodies are but modified covering-scales, and

are generally penetrated by a’ single tube, just as is found univer-

sally to be the case among other genera. The covering-scales

are carried uppermost as the cluster floats in the water. From

the lower side, and also attached to a segment of the axis, there

hangs down the same flask-shaped feeding-polyps (/), which have

been described in Agalma. The tentacles (c) of the feeding-

Polyps do not bear pendants as are found in all the other Physo-

Phores except Physalia. In each cluster of polyps there are two

flask-like bodies, in general shape not different from the remain-

ing, which have a bright red color. We are unable to assign

any reason for this peculiar coloration in these two feeding-

polyps. Lastly, in each cluster of the Apolemia colony we find

Sexual-bells, male and female, which fill out the complement of

On account of this independence of life in each cluster, when

782 The Loess in Central Towa. [ October,

separated from the colony, it is evident that we have a condition

of life in this instance very different from that usually met with

among lower animals, especially among the jelly-fishes. Apo-

lemia is, without question, a colony composed of many members,

which in younger stages are attached together in the form of a

Siphonophore, but as it grows older, each colony breaks up into

many fragments, each of which lives wholly independent of its

neighbor. The growth of a fragment after it has been separated

from its connections, has never been traced, and it is not known

how long or short that life may be, but in other genera belong-

ing to a group of Siphonophores, quite unlike the Physophoride,

the whole history of the growth of such a fragment has been

followed. Apolemia is very interesting from its relationship to

this form known as Diphyes, the type of a large family of Siphon-

ophores called the Diphyide. The anatomy of this animal will

be pointed out in a paper to follow the present, after which its

curious relatives can be better understood, and the reasons why

they are not placed in the group with Agalma better appreciated.

THE LOESS IN CENTRAL IOWA.

BY R. ELLSWORTH CALL.

ig the 16th of May last, the writer discovered unmistakable

loess under and around the city of Des Moines. Following

are the details of the discovery, and such notes thereon as may

be of general interest.

It might be well to remark that this formation has hitherto

been known only in Western and Southwestern Iowa, as has been

reported by the various surveys and explorations sustained by the

General and State Governments; and in Southeastern Iowa, as

reported on to the Muscatine Academy of Science, by Professor

F. M. Witter, formerly of that city. He found the loess under

certain portions of Muscatine, with its characteristic fossils, a list

of which, if my memory serves me, he reported with his paper

A reference is made (White’s Geology of Iowa, Vol. 1, p- 114

foot note) to a deposit of the loess near the source of one of the

branches of the Raccoon, east of the great water-shed of the

State, but which of the three branches of the Raccoon is meant,

or the locality of the deposit, is not indicated.

1881.] The Loess in Central Towa. 783

The occurrence of the loess in extensive outcrops, Over areas

subjected at a previous time to geological

investigation, but of which no mention is made,

and that, too, in Central Iowa, was wholly

unexpected. The formation was first seen,

and its true nature surmised, at a point some

two and one-half miles west of the city of Des

Moines, on a branch cut of the C. R. I. & P.

R.R. The cutting was made in the course

of building a branch to the State Fair

Grounds, in the summer of 1880, but the

nature and true geological age of the material

through which it passed seems to have re-

mained wholly unknown. Subsequently out-

crops were seen and studied at various places

in and around the city, and specimens of the

soil, the characteristic concretions and fossils,

were taken from them all. Some of these

exposures, owing to recent excavations like

those in process of completion on Capitol

Hill, in East Des Moines, show the deposit to

be very extensive, and indicate that the higher

lands, for some distance to the east and west

of the Des Moines river in this locality, are

composed in great part of true loess.

Fig. 1 is representative of an actual section,

as it may be seen at a point some three and

one half miles above the city of Des Moines,

on the river of that name. It will be seen

from this section that the loess forms the bluff

Or face of the third terrace, and probably forms

€ mass of the higher land in the imme-

diate vicinity of the stream. Beneath the

loess is found the drift, and beneath that again

the clays of the coal measures. The river has

cut its channel, by corrasion, through the for-

Mations mentioned, and in some localities has

roded a channel through the sandstones

found beneath the clays. Geologists will be

able to form their own conclusions from these

data, and see in them, perhaps, some of the

"BMOT ‘SOULOJ SACT JO AjID OY} DAO" ‘I9ALI SAUTOY| Sac] sso1ov UOTDIS—'I “OL

Avy ‘b fyup ‘€ {ssaoy ‘e faovssay ‘1

784 Notes on the Early Larval Stages of the (October,

results of those great continental oscillations which have con-

tributed so wonderfully to change the physical aspects of this

region. The number and height of the terraces indicate exten-

sive areas of depression and subsequent elevation.

It might here be noted that the lithological or physical features

of these local deposits differ in no appreciable degree from the

loess of the Missouri valley, with which it is probably synchro-

nous, and also of the same ultimate origin. The fossils found in

the loess at this point thus far, are a single spine of a fish, among

the vertebrates, and among the invertebrates the following land

and fresh-water shells: MJesodon thyroides Say, Patula alternata

Say, P. striatella Anth., Hyalina arborea Say, Vallonia pulchella

Miller, Stenotrema monodon Rack., Helicodiscus lineatus Say, Str-

bila labyrinthica Say, Pupa fallax Say, P. armifera Say, P. pentadon

Say, Helicina oculata Say, Succinea obliqua Sar., Limnophysa humilts

Say, and Limnophysa desidiosa (?,) Say. Another species of the sub-

genus Patula, is, perhaps, P. strigosa Gould, and is represented

by four specimens not well preserved. Root marks abound in some

parts of the exposures. The woody matter having decayed, has

left’ the cavity partially filled with carbonaceous material, while

the mass of the concretion-like remains thus referred to vegetable

origin, is strongly impregnated with the sesquioxide of iron. The

presence of this oxide is in itself one of the strong reasons for

regarding these remains as fragments of fossilized roots. It 1s

not here necessary to revert to the composition of roots, for the

reason that the fact of their containing a large per cent. of oxide

of iron is well known. It has been thought best to record sim-

ply the finding of the loess in this vicinity, and leave to others

the forming of any theories of the deposit.

oo: ———

NOTES ON THE EARLY LARVAL STAGES OF THE

FIDDLER CRAB, AND OF ALPHEUS.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

The Zoéa of Gelasimus pugnax.—While at Fort Macon, nde

Carolina, in 1870, I collected a number of the common fiddler a

(Gelasimus pugnax Smith) with eggs. May 15th segmentation ha

in some just taken place, the blastoderm having formed, while in

others the zoéz were about ready to hatch, and were seen to be

surrounded in the eggs by a delicate larval membrane.

1881.] Fiddler Crab, and of Alpheus. 785

For want of time the crabs bearing the eggs were placed in

alcohol and studied after my return to Salem. Hoping to get

another opportunity to study the living embryos and larve, after

waiting about ten years expecting that some of our carcinolo-

gists might describe the transformations of this interesting crab,

I have decided to offer the following slight contribution to the

subject, with the hope that a complete history of the develop-

ment of the fiddler crab may yet be worked out.

Several eggs were observed in which one, two, or sometimes

three large nucleated and nucleolated (blastodermic) cells (Fig. 1,

A) were observed lying on the periphery of the egg; they were

- more or less flattened, and the yolk on which they rested was

hollowed out under them. When the chorion is ruptured they

pass out whole as large round cells(d). Their large size seems unu-

sual for polar blastodermic cells. They all appear to be, however,

waste segmentation cells. In eggs farther advanced, and after

the blastoderm has appeared, the yolk is seen to be surrounded

by a distinct membrane.

In the next stages observed (2), the zoéa, with its appendages

and large, dark, sessile eyes was formed. (C, the same freed

from the egg shell or chorion.)

_ Upon rupturing the egg-membrane of the alcoholic specimens,

I was enabled to work out the form of the larva just before

hatching. The cephalothorax is large and spherical, not seg-

mented, while the abdomen is long and slender, and composed of

Six definite somites; the last one ending in a forked tail, the

rounded lobes provided each with three long sete or bristles (D).

I could detect no frontal or dorsal spine, though they were prob-

ably present in a rudimentary form, The antenné are as repre-

sented at Fig. 1, 1, 1; the upper antenna (1) is conical, short and —

thick, without any terminal seta; while the second or lower an-

tenna (11) is much slenderer, rather longer, and ends in four very

unequal setz, the second seta from above being very much the

larger. The mandibles are simple, and I could detect no palpus.

The first maxilla (tv) is two lobed, the lobes representing two

€ndopodites; the upper (palpus) is about half as thick as the

lower, and the seta hair-like; those of the first (lower) endopo-

dite are spine-like. Of the second maxilla (v) only the three

ner lobes or endopodites were observed, the exopodites or what

Corresponds to the gill and scraper of the adult crab, unfortu-

786 Notes on the Early Larval Stages of the (October,

nately not having been worked out. The two maxillipeds (v1, vi)

repeat each other in form; the basal joint giving rise to a simple

Fic, 1.—A-D, young of Fiddler Crab; E, abdominal leg of larval Alpheus.

exopodite (ex) and a four-jointed endopodite (7) in the first max-

illiped, and a five-jointed one in the second. The new joints of

the zoéa of the second stage and the first larval skin are to be

seen in the figure,

Our knowledge of the zoéa forms of the crabs, or Brachyurous

Decapoda is really quite limited, especially when we consider the

first larval stage. Careful studies on the embryonic zoea-forms

only comprise those of Professor S. I. Smith and Mr. W. Faxon

on the early stages of Hippa, those of Faxon and Professor

Brooks on the early stages of Porcellana, and those of Faxon on

the early stages of Carcinus menas and Panopeus say. Now ai

zoéa of Porcellana, Hippa and Pagurus are, in the abdominal an

other characters, quite different from those of the higher crabs,

and approach those of the shrimps and other Anomura, and this

is what we might expect, as these forms are intermediate ecient?

the shrimps and true crabs. It is a matter of considerable _

est to learn something of the zoéa of Gelasimus, as with O

it stands at the head of the crabs, above Cancer, Carcinus, Pano

pus, etc.

1881.] Fiddler Crab, and of Alpheus. 787

Comparing our Gelasimus larva, artificially removed from the

egg, with Faxon’s beautiful figures! (1, 2) of the embryonic zoéa

of Carcinus shortly before hatching (his Fig. 9 representing the

larva in the act of exuviating the larval skin);’ the first antenne

are seen to be much shorter and proportionately stouter than in

the remarkably developed antennz of Carcinus, being more as in

the zoéa stage; the second antennz have nearly the same general

form as in the zoéa after molting ; the spine (exopodite), squami-

form appendage (endopodite), and rudimentary flagellum being

indicated. The antennz of our embryo Gelasimus do not appear,

then, to have the great development found by Faxon to exist in

Carcinus of the same or nearly the same age. Faxon has not

represented the first maxillz, but it is two-lobed, the lower larger

lobe probably being later in life differentiated into two endopo-

ites; the second maxille differ from Faxon’s figure of the em-

bryonic zoéa of Panopzus in not being divided into four endopo-

dites equal in size and form, but into three endopodites, the sec-

ond (v en?) being deeply lobed, and the third (v en’) being two-

jointed. They, however, are nearly identical in form with the

second maxille of Cyclograpsus as figured by Miller.’

The endopodites of the first and second maxillipeds differ from

those of Carcinus in having five joints, Carcinus having four

joints to the endopodites of the first pair and only two in the

second pair; in Cyclograpsus, however, Miiller figures three, and

as Gelasimus stands higher in the series than Cyclograpsus, it is

possible that Gelasimus is, in this respect, more differentiated.

(All of my drawings were made with the camera, though it is

possible I may have been in error in drawing too many joints.)

he tail of our embryonic Gelasimus also shows no such

extreme development as discovered in Carcinus by Faxon, and in

this respect it is like Cyclograpsus (Miiller’s Fig. 18); and hence

I am inclined to the supposition that Gelasimus before. the first

*On some points in the structure of the embryonic zoéa. By Walter Faxon.

sarong Mus. Comp. Zoology, v1, No. 10, Pl. 1, Fig. I. :

We see no reason for not homologizing this membrane with the amnion of in-

Sects and of Limulus and Apus.

*See Facts for Darwin. English translation, p. 50, Fig. 18. Our Gelasimus zoéa

‘ppears to agree much more closely with the zoéa of Miiller’s marsh crab (Cyclo-

Stapsus) than with that of Carcinus or Panopzeus, but in Miiller’s figure the endopo-

dites of the second pair of maxillipeds are drawn as three-jointed. His zoéa has a

orate and frontal spine, and represents a more advanced stage than our Gelasimus

em, ryo,

788 Notes on the Early Larval Stages, etc. [ October,

molt, after hatching, does not exhibit the strange and suggestive

antennal and caudal features described by Mr. Faxon, and which

he has interpreted so ably.

An Abbreviated Metamorphosis in Alpheus heterochelis.—This

species and Alpheus minus Say, are very abundant, living in the

larger excurrent orifices of the large sponges which exist from

the depth of one or two feet or more to deeper water, at Key

West, Florida. 4. minus is, however, far more abundant than

the larger species. I found several of A. heterochelis with fat

advanced embryo, in the winter of 1869-70, and on removing the

‘embryonic zoéa from the egg, was interested to find that the larva

was of aform much more advanced than in the zoéa of other

Anomoura described and figured by Fritz Miiller in his sugges-

tive work entitled “ Facts for Darwin.” Indeed the metamorpho-

sis appears to be abbreviated, and the larva on hatching closely

approximates the form of the adult, as in the case of the develop-

ment of the lobster, the crawfish, and of Palemon adspersus and

Eriphia spinifrons (the three latter observed by Rathke). The

eyes were developed on very short peduncles, being almost ses

sile. The embryo was near the time of hatching, though the

yolk was not entirely absorbed. The two pairs of antenne were

well developed and hung down behind the large claws ; the five

pairs of legs were well developed, the joints distinct, and the first

pair were about twice as thick as the others, the claws rather

large, but not so disproportionately so as in the adult form, but

as much so as in the larva in the second stage of the lobster, fig-

ured by Professor Smith. The eyes were large, but nearly sessile.

The abdomen was broad and flat, spatulate at the end much as 19

the adult ; there were five pairs of abdominal feet or swimmerets

(Fig. 1Z), each with an endopodite and exopodite, like those

seen in the second larval stage of the lobster.

‘Tt was not until the greater part of this article was written that I saw that Mr.

Faxon has raised Gelasimus pugnax from the egg for the express purpose of

ining the embryonic cuticle, and that he has figured the forked tail of the first 204

on his second plate, figure 11, which closely resembles that of the first stage of t :

zoéa of Carcinus. Had I noticed that he had studied the development of Gelast

mus, I should not have attempted to write out my notes, but conclude to offer oe

remarks in this article subject to future corrections. Mr. Faxon does not renee

whether Gelasimus undergoes the sub-zoéal stage of Carcinus or not, and which ont

= : : nd

responds in a degree to the fleshy-hatched larva of the grasshoppers, myriapods ‘

other Tracheata before the amnion is exuviated.

1881.] Reason—A Psychological Distinction. 789

It thus appears that Alpheus heterochelis hatches in a stage

more advanced than the first larval stage of the lobster. Unfor-

tunately the specimens,.though carefully preserved for several

years, finally got misplaced, so that it is not possible for us to

give a more detailed description of the young at the time of

birth.

:0:

REASON—A PSYCHOLOGICAL DISTINCTION,

BY HARLEY BARNES.

fees its peculiar sphere, psychology requires a very close

and rigid discrimination in the use of words. A prevalent

looseness in this respect is a prolific source of confusion and mis-

understanding in the discussion of this and similar questions.

An article in the August Naturatist, entitled “ The Reasoning

Faculty of Animals,’ contains a number of interesting facts

showing that the lower animals have the power of “ reason ;” this

term is defined as “the power by means of which one proposi-

tion is deduced from another, and of forming a conclusion from

known premises,” This is truly the faculty of reasoning—a part

of the understanding—but reason, as understood by psycholo-

gists, comprehends far more than this. The classification used

in the editorial on insanity in the same number, and now gener-

ally accepted, I believe, places all mental operations in three

great classes : the intellect, the emotions and the will. Continu-

ing this division according to Hickok and others, we have the

Powers of the intellect arranged in three very distinct groups,

called the sense, the understanding and the reason. A few words

of explanation will make the arrangement plain.

Sense is the name given to that operation of the intellect which

forces a constant flow of perceptions upon the field of conscious-

ness. These may be perceptions of the five (or six) senses, inter-

nal perceptions of our own feelings and emotions, or the vague

creations of a wandering judgmentless fancy common to chil-

dren, savages, inebriates and opium-eaters. All these perceptions

Ay in an unconnected, unceasing train across the mirror of con-

sclousness, and are as momentary as the beating of sound-waves

against the tympanum. This gives occasion for the second oper-

ation of the intellect, called the understanding, by which these

‘€parate perceptions are placed in their proper relation to each

790 Reason—A Psychological Distinction. [ October,

other, giving ideas of definite, distinct substances, and of their

reciprocal action in cause and effect. These operations, including

the higher form of abstract reasoning, involve the use of the fac-

ulties of memory, reflection, association, abstraction, etc., and the

formation of logical judgments.

The processes of the understanding, working upon the percep-

tions of sense, weave all the facts of nature into one endless

chain of effects, each dependent upon its foregoing cause. In

pursuing such a train of thought there can, of course, be no

departure from the real and tangible ; no approach to the uncon-

ditional—to the primal cause. There can be no conception of

any pawer above nature because the understanding considers

only natural facts for which it assigns natural causes ; hence there

can be no rising above the things known to the manner of know-

ing, nor above limited time and space to the Infinite, nor above

conditioned power and truth and beauty and goodness to the Ab-

solute. All these grander conceptions, distinct from j udgments of

the understanding in their scope, their creation, and the princt-

ples which underlie them, are the products of reason, the queen

of the intellectual trinity and the vivifier of intellectual activity.

e lower animals have the power of sense, their perceptive

faculties being often better developed than those of man, thoug

usually not in so great a variety. They also have the power of

understanding, to a variable extent; can learn from experience,

reason from cause to effect, and by association of ideas; in some

cases the memory is capable of considerable development. It 1s

freely granted by all unprejudiced thinkers, I believe, that there

is a possibility for the irresponsible animals to reach the ail §

highest attainments of the understanding, though in every ™

stance yet recorded they fall immeasurably below them. But

beyond this limit they can never go; they are a part of nature

and amenable to natural laws, mentally as well as physically ; t°

modify Hamilton’s famous conclusion, “the animal mind ¢

never know the unconditioned.” The animal mind can discovet

but can never invent; it can utilize and explain, but can never

originate. It can have none of those thoughts commonly

ascribed to morality, no appreciation of the beautiful, no know-

ledge of truth, no conception of the infinite and the absolute.

1881.] Editor’: Table. 791

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

We publish to-day a short critique, by Mr. Harley Barnes,

on Mr. James’ article on animal reason, which appeared in the

August Naturaist. This gentleman maintains the characters

of reason as distinct from the understanding. He defines the

former as the power of invention as distinguished from discovery.

The understanding “can utilize and explain, but not originate.

It can have none of those thoughts commonly ascribed to moral-

ity, no appreciation of the beautiful, no knowledge of truth, no

conception of the infinite and the absolute.” All these qualities

are ascribed to reason. We think that if this be the definition of

reason, that we can show that the latter has no existence what-

ever. Thus we deny that man has any conception of “absolute”

and “‘ infinite.’ They are words which do not represent ideas,

just as the statement “ twice two equals six,” relates to nothing

either objective or subjective. They belong to Spencer's class of

“ pseudideas.” As to the “knowledge of truth,” anything cor-

tectly known by animal or man is truth, and animals know a

good deal of it. The “appreciation of the beautiful” is well

developed in many animals, more, it seems to us, than in some

men, “Thoughts commonly ascribed to morality” apparently

€xist in some animals, especially the dog; while they are feebly

developed in some races of savage men. The superiority of men

is to be conceded here, but if morality be an attribute of reason,

then traces of this reason are discoverable among some lower

animals. The powers of origination and invention here ascribed

to man and to reason, as distinguished from the “ understanding”

of the lower animals, even when most orignal, are of doubtful

€xistence. They consist generally of combinations of a few first

principles already learned through experience or confirmed by

€xperience. Musical composition is probably derived from rhyth-

mical movements of certain brain elements, which are favored by

feeble vitality of the parts, and which are combined by the subject

in selected ways.—C.

—— North America, from the Sierra Nevada to the Rocky

Mountains, inclusive, will doubtless lead the world in the produc-

tion of silver and gold for a considerable time. Although the

aggregate of the precious metals, hitherto abstracted, reaches an

792 Editors’ Table. [ October,

enormous figure,! much more remains in the earth than has been

taken out of it. Many good mines are only commencing their

yield, while new ones are being discovered. Of course in a busi-

ness where the profits are large, and the risks considerable, there

will be numerous attempts to defraud the public. This may be

done in various ways, and one of these is by so-called reports of

would-be scientific experts. It is of first importance to persons

desirous of investing in mining enterprises, that they should

examine into the characters of the authors of these alleged “ sci-

entific” reports. In the investigation of the nature and value of

mineral deposits, the most skillful specialists are liable to error,

such are the difficulties of the subject. Yet there are companies

who will publish statements from persons without knowledge or

experience, and which are absolutely worthless, and often

supremely ridiculous. Two notable examples of such publica-

tions have recently come under our notice. One of these, made

to the Iowa Gulch Mining Co., on their property in Leadville, is

a tissue of absurdities. Its author goes so far as to state that the

strata dip at an angle of so many degrees “F” (? Fahrenheit).

Another is the prospectus of ‘The Arizona and New Mexico

Mining Co.,” of which the Hon. E. Joy Morris is the alleged

which are of little or no value, while the descriptive part of the

“report” is confined to an enumeration of the productiveness of

the mines of Mexico a century ago. The publication is flimsy

in the highest degree, and no person of ordinary intelligence

need be induced by it to part with any money.

Equally absurd, although with good intention, are the compre

hensive denunciations of silver mining enterprises indulged in by

a number of the newspapers of Philadelphia. On their side they

display an ignorance of the subject equal to that of the so-called

“experts ” in question, and are in marked contrast to the press ¥

New York and Boston, which are generally intelligent in their

treatment of the business. As well denounce agriculture because

some man could not raise potatoes on the Sahara, as repudiate

silver and gold mining because some newspaper man has lost his

_ money in a “ wild cat.” ;

! For the fiscal year 1879-80, the amount produced in this region was $75,206,000 >

see report of Supt. of U. S, Mint,

1881. ] Recent Literature. 793

RECENT LITERATURE.

- Hyatt’s GENESIS OF THE TERTIARY SPECIES OF PLANORBIS AT

STEINHEIM.—It sometimes occurs to the active student of biol-

ogy, when wearied. with the multiplicity of details, the almost

endless species and varieties of the groups he may be making his

specialty, to inquire what is the use of this great expenditure of

time and mental effort, when the actual result of years of labor

and research may be to add but one stone to the foundation of

facts underlying the superstructure which others abler than he

or his successors, may build up; or if he be synthetic in mental

disposition, and capable of adding a well founded, sound gener-

alization as the fruit of the years of his labors as a collector and

discoverer of facts, what a slight contribution after all is his new

“Jaw” or induction to what is really needed to establish a phil-

osophy of life! The earnest naturalist who desires to make a

permanent solid contribution to his science, is animated with the

wish to attempt, at least, a solution of two problems: What is

life? and second, How did life originate? These problems are or

should be the sources of inspiration, the goal to which all his ef-

fort tends. The first question may never be solved, though the

attempt has been and always will be made; the second may be

within the scope of the human intellect, and we may, with some

confidence, hope for a solution which will appeal to the under-

standing of every candid naturalist, and ultimately command the

assent of every philosophical mind,

The obvious method of inquiry in the discovery of the laws of

evolution is to ascertain the effect upon organisms of nature and

life about them, and the mutual relations of the organisms them-

Selves. This is beginning at the bottom of the matter; and the

attempts in this direction will in the long run, it seems to us,

bring deeper-reaching, truer and more logical results, than by

confining the attention alone to the secondary, more superficial

study of variations and effects of natural selection. Mr. Darwin

has, by his genius, industry and simple, popular mode of presen-

tation of the doctrine of natural selection, produced a revolution

in scientific thought. He has sowed the seed and prepared the

way for more profound, thorough going views as to the origin of

life-forms,

The work of Professor Hyatt before us, as well as his earlier

Papers on the origin of forms among the Ammonites, which have

been noticed in the earlier volumes of this journal, are important

Contributions to the evolution hypothesis. These ‘essays, to-

gether with those of Professor Cope on the origin of genera

(1861), and his later papers on the law of acceleration and retar-

dation, with the briefer, more fragmentary writings of other Ameri-

eet Genesis of the Tertiary Species of Planorbis at Steinheim. By A\PHEUS

ATT. (From the Anniversary Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural His-

tory. Boston, published by the Society, 1880, 4to, pp. 114, with 9 plates.) ;

VOL. XV.—NO. xX. $5 : : :

794 Recent Literature. 3 [ October,

can naturalists, have resulted in a distinctive American school of

evolutionists, if we may venture so to style it. Cope and Hyatt each

working quite independently of the other, and in different branches

of the animal kingdom, have arrived at the conclusion that spe-

cies and genera may be both slowly, and sometimes suddenly

produced through the action of the environment upon the animal

or plant, producing a tendency to variation, after which the action

of the laws of heredity, checked by natural selection, legitimately

produced their results.

It is not our present purpose to make an exposition of Cope and

Hyatt’s views, but referring the reader to their essays and articles,

to give in this review the results of Professor Hyatt’s studies on

the evolution of the Steinheim fossil snail-shells. These Tertiary

fresh water shells occur in great abundance and variety of form

and individuals in clay pits at Steinheim, near Stuttgartt. The

shells lived ina Miocene pond or lake more or less shut in from any

other waters. Attention was first called in 1866, in a brief papet

by Dr. Hilgendorf, to the shells in these beds, and the light they

threw upon the evolution theory, which led Professor Hyatt,

1872, to collect these shells in large numbers, and to make an 1-

dependent examination of them. The shells all belong to the

genus Planorbis, and the numberless varieties and forms taken

from the beds, appear to be lineal descendants of four varieties of

a single ancestral species (Vanorbis devis ), found in the lowermost

beds deposited at the bottom of the Jake. The inhabitants of

these beds were not necessarily evolved through a vast period of

time (as in general demanded by Darwinians) but Hyatt states

that Professor Cope’s researches among fishes and reptiles, his

own among Ammonites, and at a later date Mivart’s work on ~

“ Genesis of Species,” have all given a large amount of evidence,

which tends to the conclusion “that vast periods of time are not

necessarily essential to the production of new species, OF cues

new generic or family forms,”

t considers that the normal, smooth, primordial form

(Planorbis levis) lived in neighboring Miocene lakes, and, before

its migrations into the Steinheim lake, had four varieties, and

subsequently reproduced these or their immediate descendants in

the Steinheim lake. Four principal series were developed from

these four varieties after their migration into the Steinhet

and while the original forms in the first series or line of descent

had the closest relationship with each other, their descendants

gradually diverged, until finally no hybrids connected the differ-

ent series with each other. The first series culminated in vari

1881. ] Recent Literature. 795

Planorbis and more like a Paludina in its general shape. It should

be borne in mind that the forms belonging to the first series were

connected by hybrids, and the whole series “ presents to the or-

dinary observer a chaos of similarities and differences.”

Referring our readers to the paper itself for details and illus-

trations, we may, without further delay and without criticising

the author’s mode of research, except to say that the time and

patience spent upon the work, and the author’s evident candor

and accuracy, lead us to accept his results as sound inductions,

now quote the conclusions of this elaborate memoir.

(1) The extraordinary modifications and series of shells found

at Steinheim are in one way exceptional, and owe their existence

to exceptional conditions.

2) These conditions appear to be the isolation of the modified

descendants of Planorbis Zevis, due to the absence of competing

types, and the character of the environment.

his environment was suitable for the propagation and per-

petuation of the distinctive peculiarities of their series, and unfavor-

able in various degrees to those of the sub-series of the first

Series,

(4) That while the perpetuation and survival of the differential

characteristics can be thus accounted for, we must look to other

Causes for the production of the parallel forms and the regularity

of succession of these forms, as shown in the arrangement in the

different series, and in the development of the individual.

lanorbis levis.

(6) That while the influence of the environment must be ad-

mitted as paramount in exceptional instances, it for the most part

Produces these exceptions in extreme cases of parasitism, and the

Steinheim shells are not parasites

Under the same laws as other forms occurring in other localities.

(7) That this appears to be the case except in so far as they are

that and other reasons.

Professor Hyatt next inquires, “what is this law of heredity

and growth which maintains the type, causes parallelisms and

constrains variation under ordinary conditions, but still, in certain

fases, is forced to give way to physical influences.

796 Recent Literature. [ October,

“Ruling out the lost or transient forms which are not perpet-

uated, we see that the fundamental law here, as elsewhere, is, that

all the characteristics are inherited after they are once introduced.

“In former essays, especially written for this purpose, I have

tried to show that there was such a general law which is so plain

and simple that I have wondered that no authors have made it

the basis of investigation except Professor Cope and myself. In

every series of animals which I have studied, the same fact

appears, namely, that in a given number of generations, inherited

characteristics of every kind tend to appear in the descendants at

earlier stages than that at which they first occurred in the ances-

tral forms. Whether characteristics are normal or abnormal,

provided they are fixed in the race either by the action of natural

selection or by the direct working of physical causes, they are

inherited according to this law.

“The law of acceleration appears to me, at present, to show

the manner in which characteristics, which are perpetuated, finally

either disappear or become fixed in the young, or even in embryo.

This conclusion may be followed out by any one who will arrange

a series of animals or their shells, according to their adult affini-

ties and their developmental characteristics. He will then see

that adult characteristics which are introduced in ancestral forms,

tend to reappear at earlier and earlier stages, as he travels along

the series.”

Marey’s Anrmat Mecuanism1—Although the main principles

and facts contained in this interesting volume have been already

given to the public by way of abstracts in scientific journals, yet

it is not too late to call the attention of zodlogists to the value of

this work in their studies. Animal mechanics has been much

while if we knew exactly at what pace an animal does the best

work, whether he be required for speed or for drawing loads, we

could all be Mr. Bergs and prevent much suffering in our no lest

of animals, the horse, and that only less useful creature, the 0%;

motive power instead of steam, animal mechanics will reach its

apotheosis in a flying machine adapted to the wants of our every”

day life, as well as of the traveler, soldier, and all whose calling

ey impel them to seek a means of locomotion in rapid aerl@

ansit.

1 The International Scientific Series. Vol. xi. Animal Mechanism: ® Loss

on terrestrial and aerial Locomotion. By E. J. MAREY, Professor at the Colleg Pe

France, etc., with 117 illustrations, New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1879 Ms

Pp. 283. $1.75.

1881. ] Recent Literature. 797

Our more immediate purpose in noticing this book, has been to

call the attention of our zodlogical readers to the chapters on

animal motion and electricity in animals, on the harmony between

the organ and the function, involving the acceptance of the devel-

opment hypothesis, and finally the excellent and suggestive chap-

ter on the variability of the skeleton.

After discussing the origin of heat, of mechanical work, and of

electricity in the animal kingdom, in order to establish clearly that

these forces are the same as those which are seen in the organic

world, the author proceeds to study mechanical force, and more

especially to follow it through all it applications to work of differ-

ent kinds which it executes in an animal. Marey adopts the old

comparison between an ordinary machine and the animal, the

organs of the latter corresponding to the parts of the machine,

and then he insists on the strict relations existing between the

form of the organs and the character of their functions ; he farther

maintains that this correspondence is regulated by the ordinary

aws of mechanics, “so that when we see the muscular and bony

Structure of an animal, we may deduce from their form all the

characters of ‘the functions which they possess.” He notices the

fact that in the kangaroo, essentially a leaping animal, there is an

enormous development of the muscles of leaping, the g/s/ez, the

triceps extensor cruris, and the gastrocnemial muscles. In birds

the function of flight is exercised under very different conditions

in different species ; so also the pectoral muscles, which move the

wings vary greatly in different birds. For example, birds which

have a large surface of wing, as the eagle, gull, tern, &c., give

strokes of only a slight extent; that depends on the great resis-

tance which a wing of so large a surface meets with in the air.

Those birds, however, which have small wings, as the guillemot

and the pigeon, move them toa great extent. “If it be admitted

that the first mentioned birds must make energetic but restricted

movements, and that the second must move with less energy, but

with greater amplitude of stroke, the conclusion arrived at must

necessarily be that the first ought to have large and short pec-

toral muscles, while in the second, these muscles should be long

and slender.” This is proved, says Marey, by a simple inspection

of the sternum in different species; “for this bone measures in

Some degree the length of the pectoral muscles which are lodged

In its lateral cavities. Thus birds with long wings have a wide

ri short sternum ; the others have one which is long and slen-

e WwW

”

r. ae

€xtent of movement, as in the examples which we have just

798 Recent Literature. [ October,

cited.” Now, inquires Marey, is this harmony preéstablished, or

rather is it formed under the influence of function in different

creatures? Just as we see muscles increase in volume by use, so

we may observe them, under the influence of more extended

movements, acquire a greater length. “Can we see a displace-

ment of the tendinous attachments of the muscles to the skele-

ton, under the influence of changes in the force of muscular trac-

tion? This problem he proposes to settle by experiment, but

before doing so he feels obliged to invoke the pagiirnn e

theory, and to show that all through nature, and even in medica

science, when an organism, as also an organ, is placed under new

circumstances it must change in form, and that “ function makes

the organ.” His philosophy is a substratum of Lante

2. é., change in the environment ensuring change in the organ ~

in the organism; with a superstructure of Darwinism, or —

selection, acting after a change or variation has bead a

The application of these views is seen in chapter 1x, Variability = ¢

the Skeletgn, an essay of great interest from the point of view ‘

the laws underlying the sciences of comparative anatomy an

palzontology. te ae

Professor Marey shows in this chapter how yielding 1n ‘ :

nature is the bony system of the vertebrates during life; t a

pressure or tension, however slight, will produce the stranges

changes of form; the bone, he goes so far to say, is “like soft Kee

which yields to all external forces,” and we may say of the skele

ton, that “its form is that which the soft parts with which . 1s

surrounded permit it to assume.” He cites cases in surgery 4"

medicine, as well as comparative anatomy, in proof of the shee

sition “that in the form of the bony structure, everything bea

the trace of some external influence, and particularly of the fans:

tion of the muscles. There is not a single depression oF projec

tion in the skeleton, the cause of which cannot be found 1 re

external force, which has acted on the bony matter, either to

indent it, or draw it forward.” : ‘mals

The great variety of forms in the skeletons of different age"

corresponds with the diversity of their muscular systems. ~* .

if the muscles modify the bones, what brings about the betes

changes in form of the muscles? Marey attempts to demonstra .

that the power to which the muscular system is subjected ene

to the nervous system. “The nature of the acts which peretiev

commands the muscles to perform, modifies the muscles then

selves, in their volume and their form, so as to render them se

ble of performing these acts in the best possible manner. ve

author, from facts in medicine and surgery, shows that it 1S peor

ment or use which maintains the existence of the muscle; 4

paralysis or dislocation of bones rendering muscles pouemtst

muscle may wholly disappear, undergoing either fatty degen

tion or fibrous transformation. ne

1881.] Recent Literature. 799

With these principles in view, and guided by them, our author

then discusses with great originality, and chiefly by the experi-

mental method, locomotion in general, that of man and the horse,

and finally the flight of insects and of birds.

researches of the biologist, who is concerned with the elusive and

subtle laws of life and the mental and spiritual forces of man. No

Wonder, for example, that the thinking world is profoundly moved

by the ideas suggested by evolutionists, and by the study of the

origin of things material, for these problems touch upon the deep-

est, most insoluble problems of man’s nature.

he general student of geology and biology will also read this

fascinating volume for the sake of the author's views regarding

the nebular hypothesis and general cosmogony. Professor Peirce »

may be regarded as one of the founders of the nebular hypothesis

in its modern form. In this book he guides us through the snc-

cessive steps in nebular history—from chaos to nebula, from neb-

ula to star, and from star to planet.

The author in beginning his exposition of the nebular hypoth-

€sis, regards the first chapter of Genesis, rightly interpreted, as “a

Profound cosmogony. It may not be the revelation of an actual

fact, but it teaches where that revelation is to be found ; that it is

engraved on stone by the all-wise Author; that it is written in

the sun, moon and planets; that it is inscribed on the sidereal

"niverse, and that every star is an oracle of God.” Coming to

the nebular theory, the author treats of nebulosity, of a nebula

Proper, a cluster, the Milky Way, the Magellanic cloud, of an

annular nebula and a spiral nebula; then of the star, and finally

€ planet, comet and meteor. Geologists will be interested in

this Philosopher’s views as to the cooling of the earth and the

& ideality in the Physical Sciences. By BENJAMIN PEIRCE. Boston, Little, Brown

9., 1881, 12mo, pp. 211.

800 recent Literature. : [ October,

sun. After a discussion of Thompson’s views upon the cooling

of the earth, the author gives his reasons for not accepting his

explanation of the process of solidification, with its corresponding

limitation of the geological ages. Peirce believed that there was

a permanent superficial solidification at an exceedingly early

stage of the process, together with the formation of an interior

solid nucleus. “ These interior and exterior solid portions will

be separated by a liquid stratum, which is ever decreasing in

bility of an increased duration of organic life.”

Turning then to the current view that the sun is not more than

20,000,000 years old, our author believed that by computation

the age of the sun may have been twenty-five times greater than

the estimates of some distinguished astronomers and physicists.

The concluding chapter on potentiality is replete with sugges

tions by a Christian philosopher for arguments for the existence

of a Creator and the immortality of the soul; and the volume 1s

well worth reading, not only for the invaluable exposition of the

nebular hypothesis, but as a proof that the legitimate results of

speculative evolutionary science tends to demonstrate the exis

tence, outside of the material world, of a Creator and of a spirit-

ual world, where the soul of man, “ whose only life is action,

freed of its physical scaffolding, however important in the begin-

ning, may hereafter engage in ceaseless intellectual as well as

spiritual activities. :

New Encianp Birp Lire.\—There has never been published

anything like a complete exhibition of New England bird-life.

Samuels’ work,? the first attempt at it, was very successful as 4

popular ornithology, but was hardly worthy of its success ; while

Minot’s later volume,? meant for a substitute, was incomplete, de-

signedly omitting all the water-birds, and seemed to many beer

ing in precision and authority. The last work, just publish

(its title is given below), is by Mr. Winfrid A. Stearns, son of the

late President of Amherst College. It should be welcomed as 4

concise, clear and careful summary of our knowledge of one

England birds. In freshness, and individuality, and fullness it may

seem wanting, though not in cccasional picturesqueness. Sa

1 New England Bird Li | rnithology. By WIN:

FRID A, Srenene. Rovied Gia saad be Der Eke Cte Published by Lee

& Shepard of Boston, and Charles T. Dillingham of New York. Part 1, Os-ine®

‘Ornithology and Odlogy of New England.” By Edward A. Samuels. (1867-)

* Land-birds and Game-birds of New England. By H. D. Minot. (1876-77-)

1881. ] Recent Literature. 801

gest and a manual it has no equal. How much of its value is due

to its very able editor, does not appear. His interpolations, how-

ever, are too often personal rather than ornithological. The physi-

cal features of the volume are all satisfactory, except the numerous

illustrations, all borrowed, and many of them too old for further

use. The contents are: an introduction, with suitable informa-

water-birds, are again animated. Why cannot Mr. Stearns fulfill

them, with additional credit to himself, and pleasure to the pub-

lic?P—H. D.M °

Bronn’s Ciasses AND ORDERS OF THE ANIMAL Kincpom, Crus-

TACEA.—Geistaecker’s great work on the Crustacea has reached

the first three numbers of the second part, on the Malacostraca,

and begins with the Isopods, treating of them in the same general

Manner as the Entomostraca and other lower Crustacea. Some

ninety pages are devoted to an account of the organization of this

group, the subject not being completed at the end of the third

number. The eight closely crowded plates are well drawn.

When this series is completed it will form a library in itself.

INDEX To RILEY’s NINE REPORTS ON THE INSECTS OF MissourI!

—The nine reports of Professor Riley on the injurious insects of

Missouri, were perhaps the most valuable series of State entomo-

logical reports ever issued, consisting largely of original matter

w:th most excellent illustrations ; and as they have long been out

of print, this index and supplement will be useful for reference, as

all of the descriptions of new species are reproduced with notes

and additions.

Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS.—On the Cynipodous galls of Florida. By

William H. Ashmead. From the Monthly Proceedings Entomological Section

nag Natural Sciences Philadelphia, 1881. Paper No. 1, pp. IX-XIV; Paper

* 2, pp. XV-xx. From the author.

On the number of molts of butterflies, with some history of the moth Callosamia

prthen By William H. Edwards. From Psyche, Vol. 3, No. 81, pp. 159-161.

rom the author.

Annual Report of the Entomological Society of the Province of Ontario for the

ay aoe, E oronto, 1881, 8vo, pp. 89. From the society.

ion — deux Sociétés Phorticulture aux Etats-Unis. Par M. V.-Ch. ays pein

ica e la Soc. nation. d Hortic., 3¢ série, 111, 1881, p. 261-271. From

a Department of the Interior, U.S. Entomelogical Commission. Bulletin No. 6.

C Neral Index and Supplement to the nine reports on the Insects of Missouri. By

“HARLES V. Ritey, V ashington, March 24, 1881. 8vo, pp. 177.

802 Recent Literature. [ October,

Berliner pee eee ee ft. Herausgegeben von don. pro 5

Fro

Verein in Berlin. 25ter Band (1881), erstes Heft. om the so

characters sel bs the study of the Sphecide. By W ee Patton. From

the Bioceedifi ngs Bos Society Natural History, Vol. xx, January 21, 1880, pp.

378-385. From ate or

List of the North Saat Larridz, By W. H. Patton. L. c. pp. 385-397. From

the author

Notes on the Philanthine. By W. H. Patton. L.c. pp. 397-405. From the

uthor.

Synopsis of the Lampyride of the United States. By John L. LeConte, M.D.

From the Treeertione American Entomological Society, Vol. 1x, 1881, pp. 15-72.

From the autho

On Pieris bryonic OSes. and its derivative forms in Europe and As

By W. H. Edw From Papilio, Vol. 1, No. 6, pp. 83-99. y aaleal

Revision of ia species of Polyphyita of the United States. By Geor, if Hoa

M.D. From Trans. Am. Entom. Soc., Vol. 1x, 1881, pp. 73-76, From one ‘author.

Notes on Elateridz, So die: aie and Dascyllide. By George :

Horn, M.D. From Trans. Am. Entom, Soc., Vol. 1x, 1881, pp. 76-90, tables 1 and

I. From the author

Geological Survey of Alabama. Reports of Progress for 1879 and 1880. By

Eugene A, Smith, Ph.D., State Geologist. 8vo, pp. 158. Montgomery, Ala., 1881.

F fan the a thor

Catalogue of the Phseticiyiesbies and Vascular Cryptogamous Plants of Mine

as ee ceeeliaed and Adventive. By Cha a. F. Abas eler and Erw

mith. Lansing, 1881. 8vo, pp. 105. From Erwin F, Sm

Description of the preparatory stages of Papilio eter Dray (calchas Fa eh

By W. H. Edwards. From Can. Entom., Vol. x1, No, 6, pp. 119-123. From the

author.

La hg sf cold agg to paki: of Limenitis disippus. By William H. Ed-

wa m Psyche, Vol. 111. No. 82, p. 174. From the author

Ageicalerat Be waent’ in the United States. By C. V Ri ley, M.A.,

An address read at the organization of the American Agricultural Associativas

author,

Descriptions of some new Tortricidae, by C. V. Riley, M.A., Ph.D. Trans. ~

Louis Ac. of Sc., Vol, 1v., No. 2, April 28, 1881.

re Ga oa Palaontoto ogie von Osterreich-Ungarn end den Angrenzenden oa :

ten (V. Uhlig. Die Jurabildungen in der Umgebung von Briinn, Zweite Abt

lung mit XVI-XVII. Alo ois v. Alth. Die Versteinerangen st leer“ we

Ka Ssahinag: Erste Abtheilung mit Tafel xvmi-xx1. Herausgegebe la ae

Mojsisovics und M. Neum bs Ausgegeben am 20 Juli, 1881. 4to, pp- "68, 7 Be

ien, I From the edito

Palzeontographica. ettiteed zur Naturgeschichte der Vorzeit. Achtundzwanzigs

ter Band oder dritte Folge Vierte Band. Erste Liefer erung. stesso in neh chen,

Wilhelm Dunker, Professor in Marbur urg, und Karl A. Zittel, gn in Mii

unter Mitwirkung von W. Benecke ,E. Beyrich, Freiherrn von Fritsch, M. New eee

und Ferd. Romer, als Vertretern d Ges ellschalt. t. Inbal’ ih

Edmund Naumann, iiber Ja panische Elephanten der Vorzeit, S. 1-40,

4to, pp. 40, 7 plates. Cassel, 1881. From the editor.

Pal aphica. Beitrige zur Naturgeschichte der asian Actin

ter Band. Pa ry dritte Folge Vierter Band. Zweite Lieferung. Hera a eperee® n

Wilhelm Dunker, Professor in Marburg, und Karl A. ae Professor in Miinchen,

unter mitwirkung von W, fete E. Beyrich, Freiherrn v ritsch, M. Ne ——

und Ferd. Romer, als Vertretern der deutschen agate ty Gesellschaft. ee

Dr. Max Schlosser, die Fauna des Kelheimer Diceras-Kalkes. 1. Abtheilun

tebrata, Nainwngag: ‘Cephalopoda und bebe da. S,. 41-110, Tafel vi-xul 2

pp. 64, 6 plate assel, 1881. From t etitins.

_Mitheuge Des Vereins Fiir EE zm Halle a. $. 1877-8-9-80. 8v0, PP»

2 plates. Halle, 1881. From the soci society, “

1881.] Botany. 803

Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, 2 nw reaper

dargestellt in Wort und Bild. Fortgesetzt von Dr. A. Gerstaecker, Profes

Universitat zu Greifswald, Mit auf Stein sbvekenyoles epee. Ai ea Finfter Band,

t Abtheilung. Gliederfissler: Arthr rapes I, 2, und 3 Lieferung. Roy. 8vo, pp.

96, 8 plates. _ g und Heidelberg, 1881, From the edito

Dr,

G. n’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier Reichs, ae 3488 nschaft-

lich dargeei in n Wet und Bild. Fortgesetzt von Fre Hoff , Doctor der

Medici Philosophie, Professor in Leiden. Mit a f Stein Yoselelineren Ab-

bildun sige) vaiaua tee Band. 1 Abtheilung. Reptilien 18: 19, 20 und 21, Lieferung.

Roy ee in 127, 8 plates, Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1881. From the editor,

Bulle de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, Tome Troisiéme (II fais ze

Rescate. Avril @ Juillet, 1880. 8vo, pp. 159. Paris, 1850. From the society,

eos Gane us de Wonens Procés-Verbal oe A agar g 3 Nao 1880.

Séance du 2 Octobre, 1880. 8vo 0, pp. 50. 1881. Fro

Sur ‘et Pelvien Shall des Dinosauriens de Berit sere . Boulenger.

ma de M. P.-J. Van Beneden. 8vo, pp. 8. Br haley rei: From the

Pe ah des a: Bight Fe on uatiag einer de France. Au siege

de ia een 8vo, pp. 38. 1881.

woe cigey de 2 Soci bie de piu e pour v soe 1881. 1re & 2¢ Porties

Séances de Janvier—Avril. 8vo, pp. 80, 1 plate. Paris, 1881. From the society.

Note sur es Poind Fossils D’eusse-Drome. Clupea Fontannesi, n. sp. Par

M. H. E. Sau ge. Roy. 8vo, pp. 6, 1 plate. Paris, 1881. From the ie.

Di Nuovo alias del geologico nelle Alpi Apuane. C. De Stefani. Estratto

del processo prt della Societa di Scienze Neweall Aduranga del di 13 Marzo,

1881. 8vo, pp. 8. 1881, From ihe author.

Anales del Museo Nacional de México. at 1. Entrega 4a. Sumario

Cédic at ce ; Ensayo de descifracion georgifica. Por el Sr. D. Manuel

Orozcay Berra. Uckicibnuatton:

; La Pete de Sol; Estudio argueologico. Por el Sr. D. Alfredo Chavero. (Con.

nua

ologio, deem geologicas de algunos Caminos Nacionales. Por el Sr. D.

Mariano Bar

Mitos di ‘on es Por el Director del Museo

p Os antiguos monumentos de AERO ACKELS: f i iioatat TIlustrados aes e) £:

€dro Jose Marquez. ‘I'raducido pora los “ Anales del Museo.” Por F. P.T. 8vo,

Pp. 80, 3 plates. Mexico, 1881, From the director of the National se

ean the Structure and Development of the Skull in the Batrachia. vig By

- illiam Kite a Parker, F.R.S. 4to, pp. 268, 44 plates, colored, and cu rin: the

i” Transactions of the Royal Socretys Part 1, 1881. Landon, 1881.

‘ A Blastoid bana i in the Devonian Rocks of Ontario. By Henry Montgomery.

YO, pp. 4, cuts. Extract from the Canadian Naturalist, Vol. x, No. 2. Montreal,

_ 1881. From the author

:0:

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY.!

Carvet’s New Sysrem or Prants.—In the last number of

his Giornale Botanico Italiano, Caruel proposes a system of plants

which contains so many interesting points that it will be profitable

to reproduce it here in a condensed form. He recognizes five

8rand divisions, viz: Gymnogame, Bryogame, Schistogame,

* Edited by Pror. C. E. Bessey, Ames, Iowa.

804 General Notes. [ October,

Prothallogame and Phanerogame. The first is equivalent to the

Thallophyta of many German botanists, but is treated very differ-

ently by the author. The Myxomycetes are very properly placed at

the lower end of the division, in a separate class, the Plasmodiez.

In accordance with the rapidly growing idea first brought out by

Cohn, the chlorophyll-bearing and chlorophyll free plants are not

separated as Algz and Fungi; and the lichéns are considered an

order constituting with the Sphzridez and Gymnoascidee the

cohort Angiosporate, the latter very nearly equivalent to the

Ascomycetes of botanists. The radical error, as it appears to Us,

one.

tantly to the ferns to warrant placing them between the Bryogam®

and Prothallogame. ;

The separation of the Phanerogame into three classes will

strike every one as an innovation of doubtful value. Why the

orthography of Gymnospermze should be changed to Gyno-

spermz:, is also to be questioned, It will be observed that the

cohorts and orders of the Angiosperme rank higher respectively

than do the groups bearing these names in the system most 1)

vogue in this country: the families (omitted for want of ee

Bentham and Hooker, while Caruel’s orders are nearly equivalent

to Bentham and Hooker’s cohorts.

Division GYMNOGAM 4.

Class PLASMODIE#.

Cohort Plusmodiate.

Order Myxomycetes; Fam. Ceratiacee, Trichiacex.

Cc THALLODEA.

Sub-class SCHIZOSPOROPHOR.

Cohort Schizosporate.

Order Nostochidezx; Fam. Chroococcacex, Oscillariacee, Nostocace®,

lariacez, Scytonemacezx.

Sub-class CONIDIOPHOR&.

Cohort Gymnosporate.

Order Puccinidez; Fam. Sporotrichaceze, Fusariacez,

macez, Ustilaginacez, Pucciniacee. ; :

Order Agaricidez; Fam. Exobasidiacee, Tremellacee, Agaricacee,

perdonacez.

Rivu-

Stilbacee, Trichodet-

Lyco-

Cohort Angiosporate.

Order Gymnoascidex; Fam. Gymnoascacez.

} Order Spheridex; Fam. Helvellacez, Spheriacex, Erysiphace, Tuberace®. —

Order Lichenidew; Fam. Myriangiacea, Verrucariacex, Parmeliacee.

1881.] Bowany. 805

Sub-class ZOOSPOROPHOR&.

Cohort Zuzoosporate.

Order Ulvidezx; Fam. rire hathnes wera Sphacelariacez, Sporochnacee.

rt Zygospora

Order Pandorinidez; Fam. palpated ex, se aie Ulotrichacez.

Order Zygnemidee; Hai: Diatomaceze, Desmidiacez,

ygnemacee.

rder Peronospori d ez; Fam. Mucoracex, Chytri iacez, Peronosporaceze,

Saprolegniaceie,

Cohort Oosporate

Order Vaucheride am. cblepharidacee, Volvocacez, Vaucheriacez,

Spheropleacez, CGBiowennisiclal: Colescli aetacese

Order Fucidex; Fam. Ectocarpaceze, Fucacez.

~ Sub-class TETRASPOROPHORA.

ort Zetrasporate.

Order Pseudofloridee; eee Porphyracez, Dictyot

Order Florid ee permeate sore Gilecoencek. Sphezerococca-

cee, Mcibkictek ‘Rhodome lac

Division BRYOGAM 4.

Class MUSCINE.

ohort Afuseci

Order * ae ; Fam Asdideneiacen pete Targioniaceze, Monoclea-

Digi beak Fel pes Saka aceae.

Order i usci; Fam, Andrezacexz, Phascacee, Sphagnacez, Bryacez.

Division SCHISTOGAM&.

Class PUTER.

Cohort Pusere.

Order Puterw; Fam. Characez,

: Division PROTHALLOGAMA.

Class IsosPORE. -

hort Lsosporea.

Order hata Ba (1) Sub-order Chimie, sy ee Fam. Hymenophyllacex,

Polypodiacez, ’Gleicheniacex, Osm

(2) Sub-order wo Fam. BF GRR

(3) Sub-order Ophiospo : Fam

Order Calamariz; Fam. Wage cae.

Order Conariz; Faw: Lycopodiaceze.

. Ophioglossacez.

Class HETEROSPORE®.

Cohort Heterosporee.

Order Phylloc arpariz; Fam. Selaginacee, ecetaceee.

Order Rhizocar parizx; Fam, Salviniacez, Marsiliacex.

Division PHANEROGAM 4,

Class GYNOSPERM.

Cohort Conifere.

Order Strobiliflor ze; Fam, Cyca —— Pinacez, Taxacee, Gnetacee.

Order Conifl ore; Fam. Welwitschia

Class eek

Cohort Dendroica.

Order Spermiflore ; Fam. Viscacez, Loranthacez.

806 General Notes. [ October,

Class ANGIOSPERMA.

Sub-class DICOTYLEDONES.

Cohort Dimorphanthe.

Orders Julifloree, Globiflorze, Claviflorze, Urticiflorze, Euphorbifloree, Begoniflore.

Cohort Monochlamydanthe.

Orders Nudiflore, Involucrifloree, Raniflore, Cactiflore, Cytinifloree, Daphniflore.

Cohort Dichlamydanthe.

Orders Cirrifloree, Myrtifloree, Lythriflorze, Rosiflore, Tiliifloree, Cruciflore, Ruti-

flore, Ericiflorze, Primuliflore, Celastriflore, Umbelliflorze, Oleiflore, Cam-

paniflorze, Asteriflora, Corolliflorze

Sub-class MONOCOTYLEDONES.

Cohort Centranthe.

Order Centriflore.

Cohort Aydranthe.

Orders Fluviiflorze, Alismiflorze.

Cohort Lirianthe.

Orders Glumiflorz, Spadiciflorz, Liliifloree, Labelliflore.

INFLUENCE OF SEVERE WINTERS ON VEGETATION.—The Botant-

cal Society of France had its annual gathering at Fontainebleau

this year, in the end of June. Among other matters that came

up for study (we learn from Revue des Deux Mondes) was the

modification of the flora of that district in recent times. A num-

of rocks have succumbed. Evergreens have suffered more than

others, and the general destruction of the maritime pine in the

country. Among other plants which have been frozen out, Mis

nearly so, in the center of France, are the broom heather, holly,

ivy and box. Among species with caducous leaves, the elder,

’

the oil-mills of that part of France. The Fontainebleau flora has

Botanica Notes.—Professor Goodale, of Harvard University,

Sails for Germany soon, to remain a year. Dr. Gray intends to

return from his sojourn in Europe early in the autumn.—— €

Cincinnati meeting of the American Association for the Advance

1881. ] Zoology. SOF

ment of Science did not yield much in the way of botanical

papers. A half dozen papers, some scarcely passable, consti-

tuted the whole contribution from the botanists of the Associa-

tion. What are our botanists doing? Doubtless they are busy ;

but it is not creditable to American science that so few papers were

presented by them, especially when we bear in mind the length

of the list of American botanists. A movement is under way to

make a better showing in botany at the Montreal meeting.

One of the best botanical papers presented at Cincinnati was by

Dr. Beal on the “ Movements of Roots in germinating Indian

Corn.” Darwin’s statement that “in whatever direction the pri-

mary radicle first protrudes from the seed, geotropism guides it

perpendicularly downwards,” was shown to require modification.

ver four hundred kernels of sprouted Indian corn were placed

over a large pan of water and set in the dark. No gummed

Papers were placed on the radicle-tips of these, yet they took

many different directions. In all the lots, one coil or more was a

very common thing; some coiling over and some under. Many

went downwards, some in nearly a horizontal position, several

directly upward where two of them made three coils each. No

roots were tested in soil. An abstract cannot do this paper jus-

tice, since it was much condensed as it was presented. The results

were quite remarkable. At another time some seeds were

it produced no effect. Professor Penhallow’s paper on the

“ Phenomena of Growth in Plants,” dealt with the movements of

the stem and tendrils of the Mammoth squash. Professor

Meehan contributed ‘‘ Additional facts on the Fertilization of

ucca.” By artificial self-fertilization of pistils of Yucca angusti-

folia, fruit was obtained, although the pollen was applied to the

external lobes of the stigma. The August number of the

merican Monthly Microscopical ¥ournal contains half a dozen

formule for preservative media for use in mounting microscopi-

Cal preparations of vegetable tissues. Rand, McNally & Co.,

of Chicago, have just issued “The American Encyclopedia of

Agriculture,” by Jonathan Periam. An examination of the bo-

tanical part of the work shows that unusual care has been taken

in its preparation.

ZOOLOGY.

_ RECENT ZootocicaL WorK IN France.— Among the most

;Mportant zodlogical memoirs published in France, are those to

be found in Lacaze-Duthier’s Archives de Zoologie expériment-

ale et générale. The eighth volume, for 1879-’80, contains an

elaborate essay, with most excellent plates, some of them printed

®n stone in colors, by L. C. Cosmorici, on the anatomy of the

808 General Notes. [ October,

polychete Annelids. This is followed by a similar paper on a

leech (Batracobdella latastii), by Dr. C. Viguier, which is suc-

ceeded by an abstract of Professor W. K. Brooks’ essay on the

development of Lingula, a compliment to American science.

Then follows a valuable essay on the existence of the saiga in

France in the Quaternary epoch, by Professor A. Gaudry. The

reproduction of sponges by external budding is discussed by G.

de Merejkowsky. This subject has heretofore been treated only in

a fragmentary way. It is known to take place only in one family

(Suberitidinz, in the genera Suberites, Tetilla, Tethya and Rinalda).

The buds are always produced under the form of an expansion

at the extremity of a stem or peduncle which arises from the

surface of the body of the sponge. The peduncle supporting the

bud or enlargement, is always solid and composed of spicules

and of the syncytium without canal and without pores; while the

bud itself is produced by the syncytium alone and its spicules,

without any participation by the entoderm; and its cavities, at

’ first entirely wanting, are formed independently of the maternal

cavity. In an abstract of the author’s views as to the morphol-

ogy of the sponges and hydroids, he believes that the hydroid as

well as the sponge, is the product-of the multiplication of this

primitive individual, but while the hydroid is a polymorphous

colony composed of completely distinct and separate individuals.

regularly disposed in a determinate order, the sponge is formed

of a colony of individuals irregularly dispersed, without any

arrangement, and forming a single compact mass. In his re

searches on the histology and development of Campanularia, M.

J. Fraipont makes a valuable contribution to the literature of the

history of the origin of the genital glands in this hydroid.

The Monera of Central Russia are described by A. Korotnoff,

who has rediscovered Haeckel’s Protameba primordialis, which

he regards as occupying the lowest place in the class of Rhizo-

podes. Other Amceboid forms are described, as well as the devel-

opment of Pelomyxa, to which a plate is devoted. Professor

Patrick Geddes publishes in these archives his observations 0?

the perivisceral fluid of the sea urchin and the corpuscles com

tained in this fluid. The viviparity of Helix studieriana engag®

the attention of Professor Viguier, while the last paper of the vol-

ume is by the editor, on Laura geradie, elsewhere noticed 1

journal. : ‘

Evo.ution anp Hysrrpism In OrxirHotocy.—In a review 17

Nature, of the British Museum Catalogue of Birds, volume reas

containing the family Zurdide, by Henry Seebohm, it 1s stated

that one great feature of the work is the courage which t eo

author has shown in applying the doctrine of the evolution °

Species to the birds as they exist at the present day. The gre@

risk that the reviewer sees in Mr. Seebohm’s method lies

the fact that it affords too easy a solution for otherwise difficult ?

A om

1881. } Zoblogy. 809

problems, but we must remember that the author was himself wit-

ness to the inter-breeding of the carrion crow and the hooded

crow in Siberia, and it is known that this also takes place in cer-

tain parts of Great Britain. Having seen this with his own eyes,

and brought back to England a large series of the hybrids, it was

only reasonable for him to suppose that other birds are also capa-

ble of hybridizing, and the reviewer thinks that the author proves

his case with regard to the two blue rock thrushes (Jonticola cy-

anus and M. solitarius), which in certain parts of China interbreed ;

and it is most curious that the vast majority of the birds found in

the winter quarters of the Eastern blue rock thrush, from Burmah :

and Malaisia to the Mollucca islands, appear to be hybrids. Ac-

canians minuta, a reintroduction of trinomial nomenclature which

the reviewer does not at all like. The intermediate form, too, ap-

pears to be principally found in the Island of Formosa, though

also met with at Chefoo, on the mainland opposite Japan, while

one of the other forms is an inhabitant of Japan, with the excep-

tion of one Formosan skin in the author’s collection, and the

other is said to breed in South China and Hainan. Of these three

forms, then, we should suppose that the Formosan was the oldest

bird from which the other two had developed themselves, but that

they had not as yet become entirely separated as distinct species.

€ must wait for more evidence with regard to the South Afri-

can chats, to some of which Mr. Seebohm has applied his princi-

ple of hybridization, as the reviewer is not yet satisfied that the

changes of plumage cannot be accounted for by the more natural

Process due to age or the season of the year.

Breepinc Hasits oF THE Fish Hawk.—On the 28th of April

I visited, in the southern part of Rhode Island, what could be

called a colony of these birds, for from my position at a nest in

the top of a buttonwood tree, I could count no less than twelve

of their massive structures, all in a radius of halfa mile. In one

tree I saw what appeared to be two nests, but on closer examina-

tion found that a nest had fallen and lodged in the lower branches,

the birds using the old site for a new home, ‘ee

‘S One approaches their nest the bird stands up, whistling a

shrill Peep, on coming nearer it rises, and after a circle or two

Sometimes re-alights, inspects its eggs, and if the intruder does

not withdraw, the cries of distress bring the male, after which

both birds circle over the nest, the male higher and showing less

anxiety than the female.

n one case, on ascending to the nest of an old pair, I was

attacked by the birds and forced to descend; but I think it is sel-

dom that they manifest so much courage. The bird at other

times is extremely cowardly, allowing crows to chase it, and once

Saw a crow blackbird, whether Quiscalus versicolor or @neus, 1

VOL. XV.—No. x, 56

810 General Notes. [ October,

do not know, that had its nest in the basement of a fish hawk’s,

attack and drive its host from home.

The nests of the fish hawks were by no means shabby. The

sticks, of which they were composed, were short and crooked and

so firmly held together by turf and eelgrass, that it was a diffi-

cult undertaking to obtain the eggs by tunneling from the bottom.

The top is very shallow ; in the nests that I examined it was not

more than two inches deep, but averaging fifty-four inches in diame-

ter. I noticed that the female sits during the day for a long period

before the eggs are laid; more than two weeks in one case.

During the night she leaves the nest and roosts on a neighboring

limb, where she is very indifferent to all about her, even allowing 4

person to throw stones at her without flying off. If the nest be

disturbed during the night, when there are young or eggs, the

bird flies off only uttering a few cries, and does not return while

its nest is being robbed. .

I examined more than twenty trees in which nests were placed,

and found them all alive, but in a few cases the limb on which the

nest was placed, was dead.—H.. C. Bumpus.

BLaAcKBiIRDs CaTCHING FisH.—A mill-dam is in process of repair,

near my residence, on Boone river. Visiting the spot to-day, I was

much amused to see some crow blackbirds catching minnows ! a

one end of the dam the water was forcing its way through in asm

down stream. In this swift, shallow water, three or four ihe

blackbirds (doubtless Quiscalus eneus Ridgway) were W &

: = hea

young blades were a couple of inches high, but I have

nothing of:the kind in recent years—Charles Aldrich, Ware

881.

_ Hasrts or tue Rocky mountain AxorotL.—Mr. W. E. i

in an article in the Proceedings of the U. S. National ee him

on Siredon lichenoides, the larva of Amblystoma, observ — -

1881.] Loblogy. SII

in Lake Como, Wyoming Territory, states that they never enter

the stream of fresh water, preferring the alkali water of the lake.

The change from alkali to fresh water undoubtedly hastens the

metamorphosis into the Amblystoma form. “In two cases the

change in external appearance was so abrupt that I would have

been almost certain that another salamander had been substituted

for the one in the jar, had I not had him so completely under ob-

servation that it was impossible. The gills had assumed a stubby

form about half the length that they were the night before, and

the gill on the back of the body was nearly half gone; it took air

quite often, and I removed it from the jar and placed it in a box

‘with some lake grass around it to keep it moist. It completed

the metamorphosis in a few days. I did not feed it any during

this time. While it was in the jar it was well fed with flies.” Mr.

Carlin found that the axolotl late in July and during August,

leaves the lake in large numbers on rainy days and transform.

“While catching Siredon, I have seen and caught a namber of

Amblystoma in the lake, with the metamorphosis, as far as I

could see, as complete as those we find half a mile from the lake.

They cover the ground by thousands during a warm summer

rain, coming from every conceivable place where they could have

found shelter, from under rocks, boards, old ties, and out of go-

Pher holes. I have a cat that eats them greedily,and I am told by

a resident that the numerous skunks that live around the lake

live principally on them.” After the first frost they completely

disappear.

* Systematic Postrion or BALanocLossus.—Elias Metschnikoff

has returned to the view which he expressed twelve years ago

with regard to the close affinity between this curious “worm”

and the Echinoderms. The larvze of the two types are identical,

Since the differences insisted on by A. Agassiz as regards the

water-vascular system have been shown by Goette to be errone-

Sus. Metschnikoff claims that the water-vascular system, which

1S So eminently characteristic of the Echinoderms, is represented

In Balanoglossus by the proboscis-sac, which he regards as a sin-

Balanoglossus, and is lined by just the kind of membrane as in

derms is very similar to that of Balanoglossus. He regards the

Sills as rudimentary water-vessels delayed in development and

ra, with the two sub-types of Radiata and Bilateralia, the type

of the latter group being Balanoglossus, :

812 General Notes. [ October,

OUnusuat Actions oF A Hen Turkey.—While visiting in the

southern part of Indiana, this spring, my attention was called to

the strange proceedings of a young hen turkey. She was on her

first “ setting” of eggs, and was doing her best apparently, but

nothing came of it. For two months she kept her place steadily

and at the end of that time an attempt was made to break up the

nest. It was found there were but two eggs left of the seven she

began with. It was a complete disappearance, not even a trace

of the five missing eggs being left. The next day an egg was

accidentally discovered in a woody pasture, a quarter of a mile

from the nest, having been apparently dropped there. It was

very light, being almost empty. On the following day, while

half a dozen of the family were sitting under the trees within

twenty yards of the nest, the turkey rose, flying high over the

house and off towards the pasture, and in her mouth was an ¢gg-

A visit to the nest showed but one egg left. In a short time the

hen came walking back and took her place on the nest. It was

evident that six eggs had been carried off in this way at different

times and dropped in different places. Whether this proceeding

showed a feeling of disgust on the part of the turkey, or was

merely an instinctive clearing of the nest, I cannot say.—Fohn

M. Coulter.

CHANGE oF CoLoR IN CRABS AND Prawns.—Dr. Fritz Miller

contributes some instances of this phenomenon—already discov-

ered by Kréyer—from the Brazilian fauna. A shrimp ( Atyouda

potimirim) has a female which, when adult and living among

water-plants, is usually dark green, sometimes inclined to blue oF

brown, occasionally of a pure blue with a pale brown streak down

the back; when put into a glass vessel it fades to an increasingly

transparent in the course of a few days; a dark brown specimen

placed with a number of others which had the usual greenish hue

assumed their color in a few minutes. A black Palamo

from deep water became first dark, then pale blue, and th

losing its even distribution, became accumulated in many coer

e color,

lost all color, with the exception of the caudal swimmeret,

remained blue. The male of a small land crab (Gelasimus),

carapace is marked with pure white and light green, loses

colors when captured, and they are replaced by a uniform gray.

Fournal of the Royal Microscopical Society.

Tue Biue Gutt.—During some of our wet seasons a little path |

gull stays with us all through the summer. I believe they alway

come here in the spring, but if the water dries out of the pone

sloughs, they do not remain—probably retiring to the lakes, whe om

open water is always to be found in warm weather. They are oT

tame, flying often very close to men and teams. They sel pin |

alight upon the ground, and it is a popular notion that they @~

these

1881.] Zoology. 813

never seen except on the wing. I have, however, occasionally

seen them sitting upon the muskrat ponds out in the sloughs.

They often follow a plowman, greedily devouring the worms and

bugs which are turned up to the surface. Fluttering down very

gracefully, they pick up their game without setting a foot upon

the ground! In this manner they requently follow the plow for

hours, so intent upon their work that they might easily be killed

with a blow from the plowman’s whip.—Charles Aldrich, Webster

City, Lowa, May 11, 1881.

Mate Crustacea PropucinG Eoos.—In the course of his stud-

ies on the Amphipods of the Adriatic, Herr Neteski found that

eggs are developed in the testes of the males. These organs are

in the form of simple tubes, consisting of a germ-gland and an ef-

ferent portion. Only the hinder half of the tubes produce male

products, the anterior quite constantly developing eggs, but for

these there is no special duct. The egg-producing portion has

much the same microscopic structure as that in which the sper-

Matozoa are developed, and the rudimentary eggs are only dis-

tinguished from the spermatoblasts by developing into eggs. The_

eggs developed in the male differ from those of the female in the

Structure of their protoplasm, for the yolk-spheres are not in them

So distinctly developed, and it would appear that they never be-

come fully matured. This remarkable phenomenon has not, there-

fore, any physiological significance, and in structure the organ is

truly a testis. The author reminds us that Phalangium stands in

a similar condition.

Anima Pests In GREENWOOD CEMETERY.—The New York

Sun, citing the report of the trustees of Greenwood Cemetery for

1880, says: “ It is noted that chipmunks made their appearance

in the cemetery during the last year for the first time. The injury

done by them has been deemed a sufficient cause for their exter-

number of 375, 148 cats, 40 dogs, 133 snakes, 24 moles and 54

rats have also been killed.

Zootocicat Nores.—A nervous system has been discovered by

Dr. Chun in the Veledlide, a family of Siphonophores; it consists

fishes has been investigated by Professor McKendrick, who finds

that it consists of little irregular particles scattered through the

his work forms a volume of Bronn’s Classen und Ordnungen des

Thierreichs, The author believes that Bessel’s account of Bathy-

bius is worthy of all confidence, while he inclines to the view that

Eozoon is inorganic, he sexual organs of the harvest men

(Phalangida) have been critically examined by Dr. Blanc, who,

after describing the testes and ovary, states that in young males

814 General Notes. [ October,

eggs often occur on the surface of the testes; so that here there is

a rudimentary hermaphroditism, the structural arrangement, how-

ever, not permitting self-fertilization. Whether the shells of

Planorbis are dextral or sinistral, Mr. R. E. C. Stearns discusses

in a very interesting and suggestive paper in the Proceedings of

the Academy of Natural Sciences, of Philadelphia. He believes

that they are sinistral. The variations in the shells of certain

species are then described in a way to be of much value from an

evolutionary standpoint. The publication of the Bulletin of the

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences has been resumed by the is-

sue of the first number of Volume rv, the most interesting article

in which is Mr. E. E. Fish’s on the imitative and ventriloquial

power of birds, containing original observations of merit.

third paper on American spiders, by Count Keyserling, appears

in Verhandlungen der K. K. Zodl.-bot. Gesellschaft in Wien.

Among the new species are Epeira cavatica from caves in Ken-

tucky, and Ce/lotes juvenilis from Mammoth cave. We glean

Museum, June-August: Capt. Bendire has shown that the sup-

family Centrarchide are reviewed by Mr. C. L. McKay. The

detailed review of the genus Centurus will interest ornithologists,

panying illustration (Fig. 1, 4) will, we believe, convey the desired

information even better than could words.

- Having, in 1876, reared Hydrophilus triangularis from the gs

to the perfect state, and made a number of notes upon it, We

would take this occasion to supplement Mr. Garman’s article with

a few facts that may interest the general reader. The asymmetry

in the jaws, noted by Mr. Garman, is constant so far

observed, and is, in fact, quite common in Carabide generally:

The egg-case of H. triangularis, described by Mr. Garman, pied

fers materially from that of the European H. piceus, according ri

descriptions of this last. We found the former to consist virtually

of three distinct parts, and the subsidiary figure (2) will, perhaps,

more fully indicate these parts than did Mr. Garman’s reer

There is, first, what may be called the floater (Fig. 2, peor

communications, books for notice, etc., should be sent.

1881.] Entomology. 815

itself is composed of two parts, viz: (1) a hard spatulate piece of

compact brown silk, smooth externally and with the two edges of

the tapering end curled inside and welded at tip so as to form a

Fic, 1.—Hydrophilus: a, larva of H. piceus; c, pupa of same; d, opened ege-

case showing arrangement of eggs; ¢, closed do; after Blanchard ; b, S of &. tri-

angularis * f, antenna of same; g, front tarsus 2; 4, do of '; z, stout sternal

Spine, side view; after Riley.

Stout point (Fig. 2, ¢), and (2) a somewhat cuneiform air-chamber

1g. 2, d, h). ere is, second, the egg-case proper (Fig. 2, 2),

and, ¢hird, the outer bag or covering (Fig. 2, . The air-

chamber has an external, slightly bulging covering (@) of the same

character as the outer bag of which it forms a part, but of some-

what darker silk, while the inside (4) consists of loose brown

silk forming large cells and connecting with the spine, the hollow

Parts of which are in fact filled more or less compactly with these

Ah Fic. 2.—Egg-case of Hydrophilus triangularis : a, fall side view ; c floater ; d,

ar-chamber ; Jf, outer bag; e, opening; g, floater detached, showing inner side; 4,

silken fibers. The egg-case proper, which is of a white, rather

flimsy or paper-like silk is partially suspended posteriorly from

the roof of the outer bag by white loose silk, but is principally

attached to the inferior side of the air-chamber, which so narrows

toward the broad end of the spatulate piece that this last is vir-

816 General Notes. [ October,

tually attached to the anterior part of the egg-case, its attach-

ment to the outer bag being so slight as to admit of the frontal

rent (Fig. 2, é).

The young larve generally break through the back part of the

egg-case proper and remain for a day or two, and until they have

visibly increased in size, within the outer bag, issuing finally

through the frontal rent through which the water is easily admitted.

When floating freely the floater is always mostly out of water, the

point upward and obliquing slightly forward. The eggs are thus

bathed in water but freely aérated. The spike seems to be essen-

tial to their well-being, as Mr. A. G. Laker! found that those of

H. piceus failed to hatch when it was cut off, yet the somewhat

similar case of the common Aydrobius fuscipes has no such

point, but in its place the silk is extended from beneath the leaf

to which the case is attached to the upper surface over which it 1s

spread, and according to Mr. Laker they will hatch if kept en-

tirely under water. ee

We conclude that the curious contrivance in Hydrophilus 1s

intended not only to secure an ample supply of air to the eggs

and to protect them, but also to protect the newly hatched young

from their numerous enemies until their jaws have strengthened

and they are better able to begin the struggle for existence.

We have often been curious to know whether or not the sternal

spine of the bectle was used to form the point of the floater. It

seems useful for such a purpose and yet occurs in both sexes. I

the first one had gone through its transformations, and issued a5

a beetle. The molt takes place in all sorts of situations, and ern

while the larva is floating on the surface of the water. he color

becomes paler toward each molt but dark afterwards, the rae

teristic dark and sordid-white mottlings, especially the wavy wis

along the back, being most conspicuous just after the molt. They

fed on everything with which they came in contact, as ~—

Ephemerid and Libellulid larve, other aquatic animals, and eve

raw beef which we gave them. lled

The pupa, which was readily formed in a large flower pot fille

1 The Entomologist (London, Eng.), XIV, p. 83.

1881.] Entomology. 817

with earth kept well moistened, closely resembles that of JZ.

piceus of Europe, so that the figure of that species here given (Fig:

I, ¢) will very well illustrate its appearance. The anal appendages

are much longer in our species, very stout and parallel in their

basal third, thence suddenly narrowed and slightly divergent.

They are annulated and their length seems to vary according to

the specimens. In the middle of the anal joint there is ventrally a

triangular tubercle, and on the apical margin of the penultimate

joint are two more prominent, connected, cone-like protuberances.

The anal joint dorsally terminates in two stout, short tubercles,

each bearing a spine. The pupa is chiefly characterized by the

sternal process or spine, and by having on each abdominal joint

behind each spiracle, a filamentous, curved, tapering process,

minutely annulate and with a seta issuing from tip. n eac

side of the anterior border of the prothorax is a set of three of

these processes largely developed. Their function has not been

critically studied, but they undoubtedly act as secondary trach-

aley. ,

Tue CuLtivation oF PyRETHRUM AND MANUFACTURE OF THE

PowpDErR1—2., Application of Pyrethrum in Fumes.—The powder

burns freely giving off considerable smoke and an odor which is

Not unpleasant. It will burn more slowly when made into cones

by wetting and molding. In aclosed room the fumes from a small

quantity will soon kill or render inactive ordinary flies and mos-

quitoes, and will be found a most convenient protection against

these last where no bars are available. A series of experiments

made under our direction, indicates that the fumes affect all in-

Sects, but most quickly those of soft and delicate structure.

This method is impracticable on a large scale in the field, but

will be found very effective against insects infesting furs, feathers,

herbaria, books, etc. Such can easily be got rid of by enclosing

the infested objects in a tight box or case and then fumigating

them. This method will also prove useful in greenhouses, and,

with suitable instruments we see no reason why it should not be

applied to underground pests that attack the roots of plants.

3. Alcoholic Extract of Pyrethrum powder—The extract is easily

obtained by taking a flask fitted with a cork and a long and ver-

tical glass tube. Into this flask the alcohol and Pyrethrum are

troduced and heated over a steam tank or other apparatus.

The destillate, condensing in the vertical tube, runs back, and, at

the end of an hour or two the alcohol may be drained off and the

extract is ready for use. Another method of obtaining the ex-

tract is by repercolation after the manner prescribed in the Amer-

ican Pharmacopceia. The former method seems to more thoroughly

€xtract the oil than the latter; at least we found that the residuum

of a quantity of Pyrethrum from which the extract was obtained

»Y repercolation had not lost a great deal of its power. The first

* Concluded from September number.

818 General Notes. [October,

method is apparently more expensive than the other, but the ex-

tract is in either case more expensive than the other preparations,

though very conveniently preserved and handled.

The extract may be greatly diluted with water and then applied

by means of any atomizer. Professcr E. A. Smith of Tuscaloosa,

Ala., found that, diluted with water, at the rate of one part of the

extract to 15 of water, and sprayed on the leaves, it kills cotton

worms that have come in contact with the solution in a few min-

utes. The mixture in the proportion of one part of the extract

to 20 parts of water was equally efficacious, and even at the rate

of 1 to 40 it killed two-thirds of the worms upon which it was

sprayed in 15 or 20 minutes, and the remainder were subsequently

disabled. In still weaker solution or at the rate of 1 to 50 it loses

in efficacy, but still kills some of the worms and disables others.

Professor Smith experimented with the extract obtained by dis-

tillation, and another series of experiments with the same method

was carried on last year by Professor R. W. Jones of Oxford,

Miss. He diluted his extract with twenty times its volume of

water and applied it by means of an atomizer on the cotton worm

and the boll worm with perfect success. Mr. E. A. Schwarz tried,

worms. .

4. Pyrethrum in simple water solution—So far as our ate

ments go, this method is by far the simplest, most economica

and efficient. The bulk of the powder is most easily dissolved in

water, to which it at once imparts the insecticide power. No con-

stant stirring is necessary and the liquid is to be applied in per

same manner as the diluted extract. The finer the spray 10 whic

the fluid is applied the more economical is its use and the greater

the chance of reaching every insect on the plant. Experiments

with Pyrethrum in this form show that 200 grains of the power

stirred up in two gallons of water is amply sufficient to kill ee

cotton worms, except a very few full-grown ones, but that te

same mixture is not sufficiently strong for many other insects.

the boll worm, the larva of the Zerias nicippe and such species

are protected by dense, long hairs. Young cotton worms can ,

water,

The Pyrethrum water is most efficacious when firs

loses power the longer it is kept. The powder gives the w a

a light greenish color which, after several hours, changes %

1Vide American ’ Ke

* From one tok cing et Red po Fags aia was made, each drop of the

! a ct

extract representing one grain of the powder. The actual cost of making the extra

was 50 cent

t made and

ater

1881.] Entomology. 819

light brown: On the third day a luxuriant growth of fungus gen-

erally develops in the vessel containing the liquid, and its efficacy

is then considerably lessened.

5. Lhe Tea or Decoction—Professor E. W. Hilgard of Berkeley,

Cal., is the only one who has experimented with Pyrethrum in

this form and expresses himself most favorably as to the result.

He says:

“TI think, from my experiments, that the fea or infusion, prepared from the flow-

ers (which need not be ground up for the purpose) is the most convenient and effica-

cious form of using this insecticide in the open air; provided that it is zsed at times

when the water will not evaporate too rapidly, and that it is applied, not by pouring

over In a stream, or even in drops, but z2 the form of a j , ,

Jine holes in its rose. In this case, the fluid will reach the insect despite of its

water-shedding surfaces, hairs, etc., and stay long enough to kill. Thus applied, I

have found it to be efficient even against the armored scale-bug of the orange and

lemon, which falls off in the course of two or three days after the application, while

most tender growth, it is preferable on that score alone; and in the future it can

hardly fail also to be the cheaper of the two, This is the more likely, as the tea

made of the leaves and stems has similar, although considerably weaker, effects ;

and if the farmer or fruit grower were to grow the plants, he would save all the ex-

pense of harvesting and grinding the flower-heads, by simply using the header, cur-

ves woulc making

; ly bo

water, but then simply covered over closely, so as to allow of as little evaporation

as possible. The details of its most economical and effectual use on the large scale

remains, of course, to be worked out by practice.”

The method of applying Pyrethrum in either of the three last-

mentioned forms is evidently far more economical in the open

eld and on a large scale than the application of the dry powder,

and, moreover, gives us more chance of reaching every insect liv-

mg upon the plant to which the fluid is applied. The relative

merits of the three methods can be established only by future ex-

perience, :

Micration oF PLant LIcE FROM ONE PLANT TO ANOTHER —M. -

J. Lichtenstein of Montpellier, France, whose important entomo-

logical writings are known here as well as in his own country,

has been appointed by his Government to especially study all

questions relating to the habits of the Aphidide. M. Lichtenstein

as lor some years fully believed that most of our Aphids, and

especially the gall-making Pemphigini, habitually migrate, in the

winged, parthenogenic, female form, from one plant to another, and

that the species must necessarily inhabit two different plants before

it passes through its full cycle of development. That it is the rule

for most of the insects of this family to so migrate is evident from

"the fact, patent to all who have observed them, that there is a pe-

tiod in mid-summer when most of the species abandon the plants

which they so seriously affect in spring and early summer. This

‘sappearance, emphasized already in 1829, hy Joshua Major, in

820 General Notes. [ October,

treating of the apple tree plant louse,! has usually been attribued

to natural enemies of the Aphids, but these play only a part in

causing it. The fact of migration rests, moreover, on repeated di-

rect observations, and all spring gall-inhabiting species have us-

ually vacated their galls by mid-summer. The air has often been

seen to swarm with Aphids, and Reaumur observes that in migra-

ting they sometimes actually darken the air. In fact it is now

coming to be well understood, that in this family the habit of the

same species in spring is quite different to its habit in the fall, and

that in the study of the insects of this family there is opened up

to us a new and interesting field for observation comparable to

that of late years developed by the discovery of dimorphism in the

Cynipide. e have for some time since recognized this fact of

migration, but have been led to believe from the known facts in

the case that the migration was necessarily from one plant to

another of the same gezus. M. Lichtenstein, on the contrary, be-

lieves that the change is still more wonderful and that many tree-

inhabiting and gall-making species actually have a mid-summer

life on the roots of grasses and herbaceous plants. He has re-

cently communicated to us some discoveries that certainly justify

his views. In the genuine Ap/idini he has ascertained that ApMs

(Phorodon) humuli migrates from Prunus to Humulus, and that

Aphis (Myzus) asclepiadis Passerini (nerii Boyé) migrates from

Asclepias to Nerium. ‘

Tue Cuinca Buc.—The connection of meteorological condi-

tions, especially the amount of rain-fall, with the increase OF de-

crease of this notorious pest has long been recognized by entomo

ogical writers. From a résumé of the chronological history of

bad chinch bug years and the effect which temperature may ave

on the insect, Professor Cyrus Thomas showed a year ago ( Amer-

ican Entomologist, Oct., 1880) that the insect would probably be

bad in 1881. How disastrous it really has been in the Westem

States, especially in Kansas, may be gathered from the fact that a

chinch bug convention, the first ever held in the U. S., was held

recently at Windsor, Kansas. A large number of farmers partic

pated in the discussion, and a- resolution to exclude wheat ron

the growing crops was unanimously adopted—the length of time

not being mentioned. It is understood, however, that the plant-

ing will be resumed at the earliest possible practicable pertoe

Anticipating that this would be a bad chinch bug year, Pr ——

omas recommended the sowing of a larger area of oats, a0

had this advice been more generally adopted it would have been

of great benefit to the farmers of that region. The insect has been

quite common in all parts of the country the present year. It at

tacked and injured, during the month of August, the rice fields eee

_ the vicinity of Savannah, Ga., and was noticed in July in great

' Treatise on Insects most prevalent on Fruit Trees and Garden Produce. Lon-

don, England, 1829. . .

1881. | Entomology. 821

numbers on “sand-oats” and other grasses growing on the dunes

at Fortress Monroe, Va.

PHYLLOXERA Laws.—The existing laws regulating the traffic in

plants with a view of preventing the introduction of the (rape

Phylloxera, are thus summarized in the annual report of the

Syndical Chamber of Nurserymen at Ghent.

“Introduction of living plants is wholly forbidden in Italy, °

Spain, Turkey, Roumania, Algeria, Cape of Good Hope.

“Introduction of living plants is permitted as usual, except in

the case of vines, which are prohibited—Germany.

“Introduction of living plants packed as usual, is permitted,

but with a certificate of origin, in Switzerland; and a similar

certificate attested by a consul in Austria-Hungary.

“Introduction under ordinary conditions if provided with a

consular certificate, viséed, is allowed in Portugal and its colonies.”

ONE HALF THE VINE AREA OF FRANCE AFFECTED BY PuHyL-

LOXERA.—The British Consul at Bordeaux, in a recent report,

States that of the 2,200,000 hectares [one hectare = 2% acres

nearly| of vineyards in France, about 500,000, or nearly one-

fourth are destroyed by the grape Phylloxera, while as many

More are attacked. He states that the only sure remedy is sub-

mersion, which is resorted to with invariable success wherever

possible. The only available preventive is by the use of our

resisting American stocks.

Lonpon PurpLe AND Paris GreEN.—Professor C. E. Thorne, .

of the Ohio State University, has found by experience, during the

Past two years, that weight for weight London purple is more

efficacious than Paris green as an insecticide. There is really no

need of using it weight for weight, as one half a pound of the

purple goes as far as one pound of the green and costs very much

less. Though from the cheapness of the former there is less

temptation to adulterate it than with the latter, yet there are still

cheaper powders with which it may be and has been adulterated.

If not carefully ground it is less effectual and apt to form lumps

in mixing with water. Hemingway & Co., of New York, the

originators of this insecticide, are taking particular pains to grind

jnely, experience having taught that increased care is warranted

in the increased satisfaction which their article gives. Another

purple poison is now being advertised as Paris purple. The base

1S a purple refuse obtained by A. Pourrier, of Paris, extensively

used for coloring sugar paper, for the very reason that there is no

arsenic or other poison in it. But as it costs but $1.75 per ton in

Paris, enterprising parties are using it in imitation of London

purple by adding the arsenic to it.

Entomotocisr FoR THE PactFic Coast.—At the recent well-

attended meeting of the California Viticultural Commission, the

desirability of having a state entomologist was discussed, and a

822 General Notes. [ October,

report submitted of the efforts hitherto made to create a chair of

entomology in the State university. The people of the Pacific

coast are evidently alive to the importance of studying their

insect enemies, and we may expect soon to see some definite action

taken by the State government.

Driar 1n Nortu America.—Mr. R. McLachlan describes in the

August number of the Extomologist’s Monthly Magazine (p. 55);

under the name of Dilar americanus, the first species of this very

singular (Neuropterous) genus known from North America. The

typical specimen (a female) was collected by Mr. F. G. Sanborn at

Bee Spring, Ky., in June, 1874.

Locusts 1n Nevapa.—The Reno (Nevada) Fournal reports that

the countless locusts that hatched in Western Nevada this spring

did not do any damage, but emigrated in great swarms after

having acquired wings, towards the Sierra Nevada, failing,

seems, to cross the mountains.

Opor tn BurrerFiies.—Dr. Fritz Miiller read a paper before

the London Entomological Society, June 5, 1878, on the peculiar

odor emitted by the males of some Brazilian butterflies. .Miss

Mary E, Murtfeldt calls attention, in the April number of Psyche,

to the fact that some years before the publication of Dr. Millers

paper she observed, while spreading fresh male specimens of Cal-

lidryas eubule, a delicate, violet-like odor emitted from the spect

mens, and which was retained, to some extent, for several days;

the females being not at all fragrant.

ENTOMOLOGY AT THE RECENT MEETING oF THE A. A. A. S—

Our report of the meeting of the permanent sub-section of Ento-

mology of the A. A. A. S. is crowded out of this number.

ANTHROPOLOGY.'

Tue InpIAns oF Berks county, Pa.—In our bibliographical

Berks county, Pennsylvania, by Mr. D. B. Brunner. The volume

consists of 110 pages of printed matter and 34 plates, containing

176 figures of stone implements and pottery. The people

and the Minsis, or Wolves. The Wolf tribe extended Ve

south-eastern part of Pennsylvania, including Berks county. al

greater part of the matter in the volume is of the highest loc i

interest, but there are several sections invaluable to the anther

ogist. We notice on page 65 a very sensible and sufficient sat?

assigned for the Indian massacres and the expulsion of the De a-

wares from Berks county. Some allusions to aboriginal writing

will be found at page 68, to cemeteries on page 73, to collections

_ Edited by Prof. Oris T. Mason, 1305 Q Street, N. W., Washing ton, D. C.

1881.] Anthropology. 823

of relics, page 76, followed by-quite an elaborate description of

the principal types.

It needs only a little observation to remark what kinds of

books and information students of our day are most eager to

procure relative to the centuries that are gone. It is doing no

violence to the rules of logic to infer that the men of the coming

centuries will laugh at our vain speculations and pay enormous

prices for old books which contain solid, local information. We

never read a work of this character without wishing to take

the author by the hand. The greatest scrupulosity should be

exercised in compiling such records, for in most cases they be-

come the court of last appeal.

Tue ANTHROPOLOGICAL INsTITUTE OF GREAT BriTain.—Vol-

ume x, No. 111, issued in Feb., 1881, is at hand. The contents

are as follows :

Brabrook, E. W.—Memoir of the late Paul Broca, honorary member, with a por-

trait, pp. 242—260.

Sen, Rev. Robert Henry—Religious beliefs and practices in Melanesia, pp.

261-314. -

Lubbock, Sir John—Notes on a stone implement of Palzeolithic type found in Al-

Seria, pp. 316-319. ;

Price, F. G. Hilton—Camps on the Malvern hills, pp. 319-330.

Fison, Rev, Lorimer—Land Tenure in Fiji, pp. 332-351.

Gooch, William D,—Notes on the occurrence of stone implements in South Russia,

PP- 352-357. ;

_ One is not astonished to find stone implements anywhere in

our day, and these belonging to the various classes set up by spe-

Cialists. Sir John Lubbock lays before us a specimen of palao-

lithic type from Algeria. In the same paper he denies objécts of

this class to Russia. The edge is quite taken from this assertion,

however, by the paper of Mr, Gooch, in the same number, wherein

appears the drawing of one very rude implement from that quarter.

f more general interest are the papers of Messrs. Codrington

and Fison.

To begin with the former, the observations of beliefs were con-

fined principally to the Banks, New Hebrides, and Solomon

8toups. The beliefs of the Banks group are first worked up with

care and those of the other two are then compared with these.

Some very just observations are made. upon the two difficulties

in the path of the observer of religious phenomena among lower

races, viz: the difficulty of sympathizing with the people and the

want of a vocabulary. ;

The author also endeavors to trace the evidences of mixture in

blood between the Negritos and pure Polynesians by the changes

Wrought in their beliefs. This is dangerous ground. The truth

'S, regulative ideas give place before a different civilization slowly,

and so far as yet known capriciously. Again, we are constant y

824 General Notes. [ October,

former are the disembodied spirits of men, the latter including

beings corporeal and incorporeal, but never human. The reader

will be highly interested in the slight step which this theology

has made above fetichism,, as, for instance, on page 275, ‘‘ These

Vuis are very generally associated with stones. It is not that the

stone is a Vuz, or that the Vu is in the stone, but that there is a

connection between the Vu and. the stone, that the stone is the

spirit’s outward part or organ. To a certain extent the same con-

nection exists between Vuzs and snakes, owls and sharks.”

r. Lorimer Fison’s paper touches most interestingly upon one

of our own difficulties. Time and again we have been told, after

paying a round sum to extinguish some Indian title: Those men

had no right to make that treaty; according to the usage of our

tribe the Council were the proper parties. So in Fiji, “ an inves-

tigator who will listen to that only which the chiefs have to say

about it, may easily come to the settled conviction that they, and

they alone, are the owners of the land, and indeed of everything

else ; while another who takes the statement of the commoners

only, may easily satisfy himself beyond all doubt that it is they

who are the real proprietors of the soil. Both of these inquiries

would be right to a certain extent, and both of them would also

be wrong. The statement of the commoners I believe to repre-

sent the ancient custom. That of the chiefs sets forth the extent

to which they have been able to override the custom.”

Harvarp University BuLLETIN—One must have many ey€s

to keep the run of anthropology. Mr. Justin Winsor, the libra-

rian of Harvard University, is issuing monthly bulletins of the

University in continuation of the Library Bulletin. The ee

an account of explorations at Madisonville, Ohio, by Professor

F. W. Putnam.

containing 133 pages and eleven plates, It is the report Cae:

. F. Bandelier upon his researches among the Pueblos, |

sists of two distinct portions: 1, Historical introduction to stud-

ies among the sedentary Indians of New Mexico; and 2. it

port on the ruins of the Pueblo of Pecos. As our praise will. De

much longer than our censure, it were better to administer the

latter first. Well, here is a handsome book with neither table °

contents nor index to guide the eager seeker after truth.

however, is a venial offence compared with the reckless snes

in which the excellent plates are scattered about the volume. * :

we conscientiously hunted them all out, a list with their localitie

is appended: Plate x1, front; vi, page 41; Vil, page 42; |} efi

1881. ] Anthropology. 825

45; IX, page 47; ll, page 52; 111, page 58; Iv, page 67; x, page

70; V, page 78; vill, page 81.

Both chapters are among the very best of Mr. Bandelier’s

Writings, the latter especially meriting our unqualified praise. It

shows what an enthusiastic man can do who adds to a profound

knowledge of what has been accomplished, a clear apprehension

of what remains to be done, The present volume is also free from

that overburdening of foot-notes, which renders Mr. Bandelier’s

former treatises difficult to read, and lays him open to the charge

of pedantry.

In the Historical Introduction the author not only utilizes the

very latest authorities, but has enjoyed rare opportunities of

examining unpublished manuscripts through the courtesy of his

friends in Mexico and New Mexico.

The description of the Pecos ruins occupies the greater part of

the book. About thirty miles south-east of Santa Fé, the valley

of the Rio Pecos widens into a triangular space, in the center of

Which rises a table land on whose southern end are located the

old church of Pecos and directly north the ruins of the ancient

Pueblos. The church was erected about 250 years ago by the

Indians, under the direction of the Catholic fathers. It is nowa

total ruin, even the roof having been used for building outhouses,

There were two grand edifices upon the mesilla besides numerous

smaller ones. From the walls now standing, Mr. Bandelier was

able to secure enough measurements to recover the ground plans

of the two ancient Pueblos, one of which was an oblong building,

the other a hollow square partly open on the south ; the area was

enclosed by a wall of circumvallation. It will be impossible to

° more than to allude to the excessive care exercised in securing

the measurements of the hundreds of rooms in detail.

documentary, commences at an epoch unknown, but marked by

glazed pottery and pueblo structures, and extends to 1598. The

- S0cumentary period covers the remaining time up to the present

day, although we are indebted to modern vandalism for the loss:

®t Precious material. The explosion of the Montezuma myth, p-

"I, is done in Mr. Bandelier’s best manner.

ANTHROPOLOGY IN New ZEALAND.—There is no foreign journal

of scientific work more prompt in its appearance than the Trans-

actions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, the thir-

teenth volume of which, issued April, 1881, is now before us, —

VOL, XV.—wNo, x, 57 “

826 General Notes. [ October,

The papers will be noticed under the title of their authors for the

convenience of the bibliography :

Colenso, W.—On the Vegetable Food of the ancient New Zealanders before Cook’s

visit, pp. 3-38.

Historical Incidents and Traditions of the olden times translated from old

Maori writings and recitals, 38-57. :

Contributions to a better knowledge of the Maori race, pp. 57-84.

Kirk, T. W.—Description of Maori comb and arrow-heads, 436.

Hocken, Dr.—Lectures on the early history of New Zealand, 452.

ZUNI AND THE ZUNIANS.—A very handsome quarto pamphlet

of thirty pages, with the foregoing title, bearing the name of Mrs.

Tilly E. Stevenson, has come into our hands. Although there ts

no title page, one is not long in ascertaining that Mrs. S. is the

accomplished wife of Col. James Stevenson, the explorer, of

Major Powell’s Bureau. The lady accompanied her husband to

the Pueblo country in 1879, and gives us, in the work before us,

the benefit of her own observations, some of which are entirely

with the upper stories. The grinding of meal and the baking of

bread are better described than we remember to have read else

where.

The most important part of the pamphlet and that which ts ef

lasting value, is the description of pottery making. We did no

know before that lignite is used as a degraissant, that eek

ware is made of strings of clay, while other varieties are built up

by means of ribbon-like strips, that a surface wash is ma Fe

rubbing down sticks of dried white clay on a fine stone, t <<

brushes made from the Spanish bayonet are used in the se

tion, that the baking is done with sheep and goats’ dung; ae

finally, that the beautiful black gloss is imparted to some VESsE d

by rubbing them down with the utmost care before baking, a

by suffocating them with a fresh supply of dried dung Ie he:

they are done baking, in order to compel them to suck in ee

smoke as they cool. Really this last mentioned fact, to be

familiar phrase, is worth the price of the book. A feast of Joe

things must be in store in the voluminous report which Col.

venson is preparing in reference to his collections. ;

Tue Inprans or Canapa.—Professor J. Campbell, of pect

read a paper before the Literary and Historical Society 0? od in

_bec, December 17, 1880, which has since been publish task

pamphlet form. The object of the lecture was no less. 3).

(881. ] Anthropology. 827

than tracing the origin of the Indians of Canada. Of the eleven

families within the area of the Dominion—Algonkin, Wyandot-

Iroquois, Dakota, Tinné, Thlinkit, Innuit, Haida, Chimsyan,

Hailtzukh, Nutka and Selish—the four families of British Colum-

bia and the Algonkin are held to be of insular origin, or Malayo-

Polynesian. The Iroquois, Dakota and Tinné are, on the con-

trary, derived from Tungusic and Koriak-Japanese stocks respec-

tivel

Professor Campbell, relying upon linguistic evidence mainly,

and believing that no classification of peoples can proceed on the

basis of such an accident as polysynthetism, erects a new crite-

rium in the using or not using of prepositions, as ollows :

Postpositional languages place the mark of relation after the

noun, the temporal index after the verbal root, the active verb

after its regimen, the nominative after its genitive, the noun after

its adjective,

Prepositional languages place the mark of relation before the

noun, the temporal index before the verbal root, the active verb

before its regimen, the nominative before its genitive, the noun

before its adjective.

Nine comparative vocabularies between Indian, Polynesian and

Asiatic languages close the volume.

0 be candid, it has never occurred to us that there is much in

the method of inquiry pursued in this pamphlet ; but it is due to

the author to say, that what good it possesses cannot fail to be ex-

tracted by the immense amount of time and patience which Pro-

fessor Campbell is expending upon it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY !

ALBy, CHR.—Der Bronchialbaum der Saiigethiere und des Menschen nebst Bemer-

kungen iiber den Bronchialbaum der Végel und Reptilien. Leipzig, 1880, W.

Engelmann. Roy. 8vo, pp. 98, 10 pl.

Aston, W, G.—Proposed arrangement of the Korean alphabet. 77. As, Soe.

Japan, vin, 1,

ssa abe F. S.—Superstitions and Legends of the Sea. United Service Mag., May,

une,

BENEDIKT, M.—Das Mathematische Constructions und Orientirungsgesetz des Schi-

dels der Primaten und Saiigethiere. Centralbl. f.d. Med. Wissensch., Berlin,

1881, xix,

Borpirr, A.—Aptitude spécial des races blondes de l'Europe pour la suette. ¥. de

therap., Paris, 1881, VIII, 169-172. : ,

Brunner, D. B.—The Indians of Berks county, Pa.; being a summary of all the

di Ss tendent

Schools of the city of Reading. Reading, Pa. The “Spirit of Berks” Book

and Job Printing Office, 1881.

ee G.—La psicologia fiseologia in Italia, rassegna. Rev. sper. di freniat,

gee 38 :

828 General Notes. [ October,

CHASSAGNE, A., et E. DALLY—Influence précise de r le developpe-

oa de la : portrine rey musc ig a - la oii ‘ae P nite étude fondée sur

» 330 ervations, pesées rations, essais dynamométriques faits a

Pécoks A uth de coisaartiine es mea ites le-Pont. Pari s, 1881.

DuvaL, M.—La doctrine du transformisme considérée dans les rapports avec

Cimicuione i partly ogie. Presse Med., Paris, 1880-1, I, 52, 66.

Dwicut, T.—The sternum as an index of sex and age. % Anat. and Physiol.,

London, 1880-1, xv, 327-330.

EpKIns, J.—On the Japanese letters “Chi” and “Tsu.” 77. As. Soc. Fapan,

VII. I. ;

Farr (e¢ a/.)—Report of the Anthropometric Committee, Rep. Brit. Assoc., Lon-

on, 1880, XV, 120-159

FIsKE, J.—What is Mythology? Atlantic Month., July.

FRIDOLIN, J.—Studien iiber oe Wachsthum ar Extermitaten beim Menschen nach

der Geburt. Arch. f. Anat., Gc. Leipzig, 1881, 79-88.

GILL, THEODORE—Modern pee tk review of Tylor’s “ Anthropology ”

ce Powell’s “ Abstract from Proc. of Anthrop. of Washington.” ] Zhe Critic,

Y., July 16, 1881.

cat Hirisew Claw ities de los conocimentos humanos. Barcelona, 1880.

8vo, pp. 8, 1 tab.

Howarb, H.—Man’s two Natures; man created by evolution; ace how pro-

duced; neurology. Canada Med. Record, Montreal, 1880-1, 97-107.

LEsLots, P.—Etude sur la volonté et le libre arbitre; suivie de alan biolo-

giques. Angers, 1881, 18mo. :

MANOuVRIER, L,—L’anthropologie de l’Algérie. Rev. Scient., Paris, 1881, 35) 1

468-474.

gets ais Ps ~ S. SOMMIER.—Studii anthropologici sui Lapponi. Milano,

1880, 4 a 12

_ MILNE, Gace pe bee from Otaru and Hakodate. Zr. As. Soc. Fapans

Vrs ft:

Morris, C.—Man and the vertebrate series. Pog. Sc. Month,, N. VY» 1880-1,

XVIII, 783-797.

Prerce, M. P.—The Indian Problem. Stoddart’s Rev., June. 1

Ripe ae and his relation to the theory of development. The Lake Dwell-

Cosmos, May

Peeve, W. cbayth oielieaie ve development of the ge mind in the years

of life. [From the German.] Am. ¥. Oést., ot , 1881, XIV, 461-454-

Recius, E.—The Zulu og International Rev., June. 2

SATow, E antes Sepulchral mounds in Pambecke Trans. As. Soc. of Fapa"

VIII,

ScHURZ, Present aspect of the Indian Problem. Mo. Am. Rev., Ju uly. —

Sit, J. A, uae oo te to the knowledge of the Hottentot '

_ [From toe Dutch.] Brain, London, 1881-2, 1v, 147-159.

TyLor, E, B.—The races of ETE Ill, Pop. Sc. Month, July

Wyatt-EpGELL, E.—Some remarks on ie ed influence. Rep. Conse See,

1. Brit., cia Tinaoe: os 1880, I, 105-1 Lon-

WymA_The ental ser ata of the infant of to-day. # Psych. Med.,

don, 1881, ; Nn. S. VII,

Inst.,

.. VII. ACTION KANSAS ACAD. oF Sc., eeesagen 1881—

Savage, SS gE a unds of Southern Kan

Adams, Hon. F, G.—Phonetic Representa Hotis of Indian languages.

Thompeon, D r. A. H.—On a recent Indian find near Topeka ka, Ks.

Mudge, B. F-—Mound-builders in Davis and Riley counties.

1881. ] Geology and Paleontology. 829

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY.

Creodont genera Periptychus, Triisodon and Deltatherium, and

probably the Saurian Champsosaurus. 1 now add the genera

Hyracotherium, Meniscotherium and Mesonyx, and a number of

new forms of considerable interest. These are a new genus allied

to Esthonyx, and a series of genera and species with a suilline

type of dentition, but whose affinities are by no means certain.

This point cannot be determined until the characters of the feet

are known

Conoryctes comma, gen. et sp. nov. Char. gen—Allied to Esth-

onyx. Inferior canines not rodent-like, with conic crowns. Mo-

lars 3-3, the first one-rooted, the second two-rooted, the third

With an anterior conic cusp and a posterior grinding heel. True

molars consisting of two lobes, of subcylindric section, separated

by deep vertical grooves. Enamel developed on internal and

external faces of crowns. Char. specif-—Founded on a mandibu-

lar ramus which lacks the last molar, and has the crowns of the

others worn. The external faces of the molars are much more

exposed than the internal, and are somewhat contracted inwards.

n the unworn crown there is a distinct anterior inner cusp,

which is soon confounded on attrition. The heel of the last pre-

of do., 0065. Anteroposterior diameter of base of crown of

canine, .o1o. Depth of ramus at first true molar, .023 ; width of

0. at do.,.013. This genus differs from Zsthonyx in the form of

the fourth premolar. In the latter the anterior lobe is com-

Pressed and trenchant. The species is longer than any of that

genus, and nearly equal to the Actoganus gliriformis.

ap? rhabdodon, gen. et sp.nov. Char gen.—With this

dentition, which has some resemblance to that of some of the

hogs. The one above named, with Miaclenus, remind one of

"April and August, 1881.

830 General Notes. [ October,

Tetraconodon Falc. and Lydd., in the enlarged proportions of their

premolar teeth. I compare the genera as follows:

I. Third and fourth superior premolars one or two-lobed externally, and with

internal lobes,

a. Superior premolars with two external lobes; inferior fourth with two median

cusps.

PPR WOlATS NOt ONIBIIAd s b clea o sine Mped oie de anand aus eepe ak Phenacodus.

Superior premolars with one external cusp, enlarged.

Inferior fourth premolar with internal crest and cusp......e+.-+eeee Catathleus .

Inferior fourth premolar without internal crest or cusp......... eee Mioclenus.

Superior premolars 1, 2 and 3 without inner lobe; third with three externa}

lobes (Pictet).

CP OTN ae ec ecb aesbee caine ses ba ves cewhe bet eut Dichobune.

In the genus Catath/eus the development of the premolars 1s

remarkable, while the true molars are relatively small. The last

three superior premolars have an elevated internal crescentic cin-

gulum, homologous with the inner lobe of the fourth superior

premolar of the ruminants. The general character of the true

molars is that of Phenacodus. Parts of two or three individuals

of this species have come into my possession, one of which in-

cludes nearly all of the molar dentition of both jaws. The exter-

nal cusp of the superior premolars is compressed conic, and the

internal cingulum extends to its anterior base in the second, third,

and fourth, The crown of the last true molar is about as long aS

wide, while that of the first is wider than long. Each supports

seven cusps ; two subconic external; one large median internal,

which is connected by ridges with a small anterior and posterior

median. Then there.are a small anterior and posterior internal,

making three internal. The internal crest is distinct from the

principal cusp in the inferior premolars 111 and Iv, but unites with

it in the 11; it supports on the 1v, an anterior,a median and a

posterior cusp, the latter forming part of the rather narrow heel.

true molor, .009; length of do., .o10. Length of base of fourth

inferior premolar, .012; width do., .012; of third true molar, .O! 15 ¢

the peccary,

Mioclenus turgidus, gen. et sp. nov. This genus differs ee

Catathleus in the greater simplicity of the structure of the inle-

rior premolars, which are without internal crest or cusp. “and

ner lobe of the superior premolars is less developed ae pa

genus. In the MM. turgidus the characters of Mioclenu

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. 831

best seen in the subconical tubercles of the premolars, particularly

that of the heel of the fourth inferior premolar. In the other

three species this heel is more of a crest, and is connected with

the principal cusp by a low ridge. The four species may be

characterized as follows:

_, 4+ Cusps of last premolars conical in both jaws. ;

Size medium. ast lower molar disproportionately small ; cusps low, two anterior

inner distinct; true molars, .018............+ M. turgidus.

aa. Cusps of last premolars compressed in both jaws.

Least. Second and third lower true molars subequal ; cusps, especially the internal,

elevated; anterior inner confluent into an edge; true molars, .013

M. angustus.

Medium. Last inferior molar larger than penultimate; true molars, .014; p. m. III

7. sectorius.

]

Largest, Cusps of inferior molars obtuse; p. m. II 008, its heel short and smal

M. mandibularis.

Of MW. turgidus there are two specimens; of JZ. sectortus three,

and of WZ. angustus and M. mandibularis one each.

GEoLocy oF THE Lake VaLiey Mininc Districr.—This dis-

trict lies in the Eastern foothills of the Mimbres mountains, New

Mexico, at the western border of a plain which extends from the

Rio Grande. Several cuttings of the Atchison, Topeka and

Santa Fé R. R. disclose the formation of the surface of the plain,

while the shafts at the mines, and various monoclinal hills exhibit

the general structure of the country.

€ more elevated hills are dikes of trachyte-porphyry, and

the directions of their axes are various. It partly decomposes into a

reddish soil, and partly breaks down into gravel-like fragments.

The lowest sedimentary rock I have seen in place is a quartzite,

frequently not very hard, and often perforated by irregular cavi-

€s. This material forms low hills, and is overlaid by one or two

hundred feet of a fine carbonaceous shale from which most of the

valleys are eroded. I was unable to determine the age of either

this bed or the quartzite. Overlying the shale are from 150 to

200 feet of more or less siliceous limestone, the upper part of

Which is very fossiliferous. Professor White finds the fossils to

demonstrate the age of this formation to be the Middle Carbon-

Herous ; see July, 1881, NATURALIST.

€ only formation found covering the limestone is drift. In

the foothills this is composed of worn fragments of limestone and

trachyte ; on the plain it mostly consists of fragments of basalt,

with some trachyte, which are more or less coated with lime.

_The rich silver deposit which is now attracting attention to this

district, is found in the limestone, which forms low monoclinal

hills between the higher trachyte ridges and the still lower hills

S.S.W. from 12° to 30°. The silver-bearing rock form numerous

veins which traverse the limestone from N.W. by W. to S.E. by

» Or at right angles to the dips. The veins are of various

832 General Notes, [ October,

widths, from a few inches to a hundred and more feet, and they

are nearly uninterrupted for a length of 4000 feet along the

sloping surface of the hill. They are probably outflows from an

ore body which is bedded with the limestone. Ata depth of

thirty or forty feet, in some of the shafts, the veins change direc-

tion so as to be conformable to the limestone, and many of the

not recognizable by the eye. The green embolite is easily seen

in specimens from all parts of this outcrop, and in some larger

bodies of gangue it colors the entire rock—E&. D. Cope.

A Fossit Tertiary CRAYFISH.—In a late number of this jour-

nal, we described, under the name of Caméarus prima@vus, a fossil

crayfish from the Lower Tertiary shales of Western Wyoming.

The accompanying illustrations are kindly loaned by Professor

F. V, Hayden; they appear in an account of this fossil published

in the Bulletin of the U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories.

The Cambarus primevus is exceedingly interesting from the fac

that it represents a period in which heretofore no fossil cray fish

has been found. The soft, fine, fissile, clayey shales of the Bear

river tertiaries contain not only a good many herrin -like fish,

but also genuine skates. The presence of land plants mingled

with marine animals, shows that the waters were fresh, but com

municated with the sea; the conditions were apparently those of

a deep estuary into which fresh water streams ran, and in these

rivers lived the crayfish. The deposits were probably lowet se

Green river, if these divisions are to be retained for the Tertiary

deposits of the West. At any rate, it is safe to say that the oct

jarus primevus existed in the Bear river basin in early Tertaty

times (the Green river epoch), while the Idaho Astac! were.

much later age, possibly of the so-called Pliocene or transition

period which connected the Tertiary with the Quaternary pene’

The Cambarus primevus may therefore be regarded as @ PF abe:

ble Eocene crayfish.

It thus appears that there is a tolerably complete set of forms

of the modern type of crayfish, beginning with the Cr

1881.] Geology and Palecntology.

Cambarus primevus, a fossil Tertiary Crayfish.

833

834 General Notes. [ October,

It was the intention of the writer to examine into the geologi-

cal succession of the crayfishes, but since the specimens were

received for examination, the excellent and thorough work of

Professor Huxley, entitled “ The Crayfish,” has appeared, and his

inquiries into the geological succession and probable genealogy

of the existing crayfish, completely cover the ground. We wi

condense the statements of Professor Huxley, in order that the

reader may see the interest to.be attached to the discovery of the

Wyoming fossils.

While the shrimps or Macrura date back to the Carboniferous,

fresh-water types existed in the fresh-water beds of the Wealden.

n the marine deposits of the Cretaceous epoch, however, astaco-

morphous forms, which are known by the generic names of Hop-

loparia and Enoploclytia, are abundant.

“In the chalk of Westphalia (also a marine deposit) a single

specimen of another Astacomorph has been discovered, which pos-

sesses an especial interest, as it is a true Astacus (A. politus yon

der Marck and Schluter), provided with the characteristic trans-

versely divided telson which is found in the majority of the

Potamobiide. * * * }

‘If an astacomorphous crustacean, having characters interme:

diate between those of Eryma and those of Pseudastacus, existed

in the Jurassic epoch or earlier; if it gradually diverged into

Pseudastacine and Erymoid forms; if these again took on 4 se

cine and Homarine characters, and finally ended in the existing

Potamobiidz and Homarina, the fossil forms left in the track 0

this process of evolution would be very much what they actually

all the

known facts are in harmony with the requirements of the wher

primitive astacomorphous form.”—(The Crayfish, p. 341-340 ~

It will thus be seen that the discovery of an apparently ire

water Cambarus in the Green River beds of Western Wyom!ng»

1881.] Geography and Travels. 835

GroLocicaL Notes.—Professor E. W. Hilgard summarizes in

the American Fournal of Science for July the facts for a hypothe-

sis of a temporary and partial isolation of the Gulf of Mexico from

the Atlantic ocean during the later portion of the Tertiary period.

In the same journal Professor R. P. Whitfield refers a group of

supposed fossil vegetables, named Dictyophyton, to the sponges,

and in this view he is confirmed by Dr. J. W. Dawson.

fessor G. H. Stone publishes in the Proceedings of the Boston

Society of Natural History, an elaborate discussion of the kames

of Maine and the northern States, and in the same publication

Dr. M. E. Wadsworth treats of the origin of the iron ores of the

Marquette district, Lake Superior, endeavoring to prove that they

are eruptive rather than sedimentary. Two other contributions

to lithology are comprised in Dr. G. W. Hawe’s paper on normal

mesozoic diabase upon the Atlantic border, and on the determi-

nation of feldspar in thin sections of rocks, in the Proceedings of

the National Museum.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS:

THE IMPERIAL GAZETTEER OF InDIA2.—The six volumes of this

§azetteer of the province, the whole being under the supervision

of Dr. Hunter, as Director-General of Statistics to. the Govern-

Ment of India. Thus, in the space of twelve years an elaborate

account of the 240 districts into which British India is divided

was completed, and formed the statistical survey. Such a work,

intended as it is to furnish full information to administrators, must

PL Sees by Evtis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia. a

t on-Genéralof & Gazetteer of India. By W. Ww. Hunter, C. I. E., LL.D., Direc-

tatistics to the Government of India. London, 1881.

836 General Notes. { October,

be at once comprehensive and minute. Hence the provincial ga-

zetteers or accounts occupy about a hundred printed volumes,

aggregating 36,000 pages. A gigantic task has been completed

at last, such as had hitherto baffled the efforts of all former gov-

ernments. At length that central supervision and that methodi-

cal arrangement were brought to bear for the want of which so

much able and conscientious work had on former occasions be-

come labors in vain. But Dr. Hunter’s services did not end here.

Although the hundred volumes of information on all that relates

to British India were by no means too elaborate for administra-

tive requirements, they were not calculated for general use, and

it was necessary to condense their information into an Jmperial

Gazetteer for the use of the public.”

“In the Imperial Gazetteer of India great pains have been taken

to secure uniformity and due proportion as well as completeness.

It was necessary that every place which deserved mention should

be recorded; while it was almost equally desirable that each

place should receive neither less nor more space than its relative

importance demanded. On this principle, about eight thousand

places were selected from the statistical survey for treatment in

the Imperial Gazetteer. Dr. Hunter then drew up model articles

showing the exact order of subject and method of treatment; and

thus, although there were several contributors, complete uniform:

ity was secured alike in the preparation of the Gazetteer and in

the method of preparing the survey.”

“The principal feature of the six volumes that have now been

published, is the article on India, which occupies 515 pages 40

is a complete work in itself. The arrangement of this admirable

treatise is made in accordance with sound principles. The three

bases of all statistics are space, number and time. Space 1S the

abstract of all relations of co-existence, number of all relations of

comparison, time of all relations of sequence. Under the ee

head Dr. Hunter gives a masterly and most interesting sketch 0

the geography and physical aspects of British India; under a

second he furnishes details of the population; and under the ie

he has drawn up a condensed history of the people of India, 4!

vided into clearly marked periods, from that of the early ae

Aryan races to the days of British rule. The value of this exXc®

lent historical summary is very much enhanced by the vce

in foot-notes of lists of the principal authorities for each periO®

and each reign.” .

_ It supplies a brief but complete history of India from the sci

inal sources, Sanskrit, Mohammedan and Hindu, show!ns :

growth of the Hindu race and religion and giving also 4

account of the present system of government. oe

0 The three bases of statistics are naturally followed by - se

nomic statistics of production and distribution ; and in the impo

: e

ant section on agriculture and products Dr. Hunter discusses th ee

clear

1881.] Geography and Travels. 837

questions of improved husbandry, of irrigation and of famines.

Then follow sections on commerce and trade, arts and manufac-

tures, mines and minerals, and on vital statistics, the whole being

illustrated by a series of tables.” A similar treatment is observed

in the articles on Bengal and other provinces, or districts and

towns.

_In concluding his review Mr. Markham remarks: “ The Impe-

rial Gazetteer is the crowning work which brings the results of

the great statistical survey within reach of the general public. It

represents twelve years of incessant labor demanding many high

qualities for its efficient execution and natural gifts such as are

rarely combined in one man, Learning, experience and scholarly

research were no less essential than habits of accurate thought,

administrative talent, and orderly, methodical arrangement.

bove all, imagination was needed—that quality without which

work cannot be endued with life and movement, but remains dead,

a mere receptacle of lifeless facts. It is to the rare combination

of literary skill and the imaginative faculty, with the qualifications

of an able and energetic administrator, that we owe the comple-

tion of this great and difficult task.” ;

This great achievement is a model for our own people. Such

a Gazetteer of the United States should be the final result of the

explorations, observations and collections that have been and are

yet being made under the authority of the National and State

Governments.

THE Arctic CAMPAIGN OF 1881.—The U. S. steamer Feannette

sailed from San Francisco on an exploring voyage through Behr-

Ings Straits on July 8, 1879. She was supplied for three years’

voyage in the Arctic regions and Captain De Long's instructions

do not require him to return until the expiration of that period.

he Feannette was last heard from by a letter from Captain De

Long, dated August 27, 1879, off Cape Serdze on the north-east

Coast of Siberia. She was last seen on September 2d of that year

y the American whaler Sea Breeze about fifty miles south of

Herald Island, and on the following day several whalers in lat.

70” 51’ N.,, long. 174° 30’ W., saw the smoke of a steamer go-

‘ng north a little east of due south of the island. As no news

has since been received of her safety, several vessels have been

ordered by the Government to visit the Arctic seas for her relief

iM necessary,

The U.S. revenue steamer Corwin sailed on May 4, 1881, from

San Francisco, and has already made investigations along the Si-

berian coast, resulting in the discovery of relics of one of the two

Missing whalers in the possession of the natives, who had obtained

them in November, 1880, from a wreck northward of Cape Serdze.

Captain Hooper expected to sail on July 8th from St. Michaels

and proceed along the American shore as far as the ice would

Permit and then attempt to reach Wrangell Land.

338 General Notes. [ October,

The U. S. steamer Rodgers sailed from San Francisco on June

16th to search for and relieve the ¥eannette. She is a full-rigged

bark of 420 tons, heavily sheathed with three-inch oak plank.

She is supplied with stores for four years, including large quanti-

ties of pemmican and lime juice. She is commanded by Lieu-

tenant R. M. Berry and has a company of 35 officers and men.

The paymaster is W. H. Gilder, formerly of the Schwatka expe-

dition. She is to proceed to the coast of Siberia and thence to

Herald Island and Wrangell Land, where Lieut. Berry hopes to

winter,

The U. S. frigate A//iance has been ordered to cruise in the

northern Atlantic, visiting the coast of Spitzbergen, in view of the

possible return of the ¥cannette by the east coast of Greenland or

the shores of Franz-Josef Land. The A//iance sailed from Not-

folk on June 16th, arrived at Reikiavik, Iceland, on July 9th, and

at Hammerfest on the 25th.

Congress having appropriated the sum of $25,000 to the estab-

lishment of two stations within the Arctic circle, at Lady Frank-

lin Bay and Point Barrow, in accordance with the plan adopted

two other officers, sixteen soldiers, four observers, one naturalist,

two surgeons and one photographer. They sailed in the steamer

Proteus from St. Johns, N. F., on July 7th. They go first to

Disco to procure Eskimo guides, dogs and furs, and expect to be

joined there by Dr. Pavey and Mr. H. Clay, who were left there

by the Gulnare last year. The Proteus will then visit Lancaster

Sound to see if any traces of the ¥eannette are to be found, as =

"After

erecting the dwelling house and observatories, a Slee ae

as Bb the 7é@ :

0 visit Cape Joseph Henry to seek for tidings 0 for the form

ing of collections and taking of observations of all kinds, as ae

ommended by the Hamburg Conference. It is expected that

1883, if not previously visited, and retreat southward by gern

following the east coast of Grinnell Land until the relieving a

sel is met or Littleton island reached. ae

1881. ] Microscopy. 839

The Point Barrow party sailed on July 18th, from San Francisco

on the schooner Golden Fleece. It consists of ten men, including

the commander, Lieutenant P. H. Ray, a surgeon, astronomer,

three observers, interpreter, etc. They take 16,0co feet of lum-

ber, for the erection of a building thirty by forty feet and astro-

nomical and magnetic observatories. The party is excellently

equipped with instruments and is provisioned for two years. 4

vessel is expected to reach them annually. They are to remain

for three years. '

Many of the outlets from the Arctic sea are this year reported

unusually obstructed by icé. Jeavy ice floes are reported along

the Labrador coast, and the pack ice is unusually heavy and far

south in the European Arctic sea—Spitzbergen being at last ad-

vices entirely inaccessible. The past winter was unusually severe

in Iceland. Owing to the large flow of ice it is thought that later

in the season the seas in the higher latitude will be left unusually

free and navigable. :

The weather on the south-west coast of Greenland during the

winter of 1880-1, is stated, however, to have been the mildest

€ver experienced in that vicinity. No ice formed in the bays or

fiords and but little snow fell. The prevalence of south-west gales

. 1S assigned as one cause of this unusual climate.

Mr. Leigh Smith sailed from Peterhead in the third week of

June. On reaching Eira Harbor in Franz-Josef Land, he pur-

poses to construct a house from materials taken with him and

then explore as far north as possible. He has a company of

twenty-five sailors and assistants and provisions for fifteen months.

Besides Lady Franklin Bay and Point Barrow, the stations rec-

ommended to be established by the Hamburg Conference are

Upernavik by Denmark, in Northern Finnmarken by Norway, on

an Mayen and western coast of Greenland by Austria, on Spitz-

bergen by Sweden, on Novaya Zemlya [already opened] and at

the mouth of the Lena by Russia.

The Nazure states that the Swedish Government has decided to

send a scientific expedition to Mossel Bay in the course of next

year, for the purpose of collecting meteorological information.

The expedition will be directed by Capt. Malmberg and will have

to remain during the summer of 1882 and the winter of 1883, in

order to obtain the observations of an entire year. Mossel Bay is

Situated to the north of Spitzbergen, lat. 79° 54’, long. 16° 15’.

he locality is well known to the Swedes. Professor Nordens-

kidld stayed there in the winter of 1872-3 with three ships.

MICROSOCOPY.'

Merroric Dust.—From time to time fine dust, having nearly

the same composition as certain meteorites, has fallen upon vari-

"This department is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y.

840 General Notes. [ October,

of Catonia, recently collected some dust which fell in Sicily, and

found it to contain not only metallic iron, but also nickel and

various silicates and phosphates, such as are commonly found in

meteoric stones. He is, therefore, inclined to believe either that

the dust has been abraded from meteorites, or that it circulates in

space, and is attracted to the earth’s surface when it penetrates

within the atmosphere.

Professor Tacchini, who has exchanged the observatory of

Palermo for that of the Collegio Romano, in Rome, has recently

published a lengthy memoir entitled “ Sulle polveri meteoriche

di Scirocco raccolte in Italia e segnatamente in Sicilia.” He was

assisted in his researches by Professors Macagno and Ricco, and

a résumé of the results at which they arrived; was recently read

before the meteorological section of the French Association for

the Advancement of Science at Algiers. The memoir contains

some beautifully-executed microscopic drawings of the appeat-

ance of the meteoric dust when highly magnified, and by a series

of small maps showing the barometric curves for the periods

during which the dust fell. * * * A notable feature revealed

by the analysis, was the similarity of the composition of the dust

collected from various localities and at different epochs. =

A microscopic analysis revealed the presence of transparent ahr

opaque polygonal crystals, black granules of metallic iron, and Pe

magnetic oxide of iron, feldspar, carbonate of calcium and sane;

various vegetable substances and spores were observed, Palmella

cruenta, Protococcus nivalis v. pluvialis and Discerea purpurea

Professor Tacchini considers that the dust is of terrestrial orig!”

and that it is brought from the Sahara, being raised into the

higher regions of the atmosphere by cyclones and whirlwinds,

where it may remain suspended during transport for several oa

A barometric depression invariably accompanies the fall of the

dust.—G. F, Rodwell in Science Gossip.

MIcRoscopy IN THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVAN

MENT OF SCIENCE.—At the meeting of the American Aasshcio

for the Advancement of Science, held recently in Cincinnati, Me

sub-section of microscopy had several important and interes

sessions, at which a number of valuable papers pertaining oe

science of histology and the zechnique of microscopy were aa

sented. Rev. A.B. Hervey, of Taunton, Mass., was chairman, an

Professor Wm. H. Seaman, of Washington, was secretary. ai

In the reorganization of the American Association, which "

perfected at the Cincinnati meeting, the full section of “ Histology

and Microscopy” was established, by which this was put se

footing of equality with the other departments of science repr of

sented in the Association. By this arrangement the chairman ¢

the section becomes a vice-president of the Association, and in

together with the secretary and a fellow elected by the yas

represent the section in the standing committee. It 1s belie

NCE-

1881. ] Microscopy. : 841

that this action on the part of the Association will be gratifying

to every student of histological and microscopical science in the

country. It can hardly fail to furnish the most favorable and con-

siderable advantage to all who care to enjoy the privileges of a

national microscopical society. Professor A. H. Tuttle, of Col-

umbus, was elected chairman, and Robert Brown, Jr., of Cincin-

nati, secretary of the section for the Montreal meeting —A. B. H.

New Freezinc Microrome—At the microscopical section A.

A. A. S., Mr. Thomas Taylor, Microscopist of the Department of

Agriculture at Washington, presented a model of a new freezing

microtome of his invention. Mr. Taylor described his invention

as consisting essentially of a thin brass tube about one inch anda

half in length by one inch in diameter. A 4 inch brass tube is

secured within the large cylinder. This tube enters the bottom

Mounting Cuick Empryos wHote.—Dr. C. S. Minot recom-

mended the following method, for embryos under 40 hours. The

€gg is opened in the usual manner in warm 0.5 per cent. salt so-

lution, the blastoderm freed from the yolk membrane, then swayed

With pincers to and fro in the liquid to remove the superfluous

yolk, and then floated out on a glass slide, on which it is to re-

Main permanently. It is next treated with several fluids; a// of

which should be dropped on the center of the germ disc so as to

Spread out the blastoderm evenly by their centrifugal flow. Wash

off thoroughly with distilled water. Remove the water as fully

as possible by bibulous paper, and allow the specimen to remain

fully spread out until the edges are dried. The embryo will then

VOL, XV.—No, x,

842 . Scientific News. [ October,

escape distortion during the further treatment. Care must be

taken that the embryonic area remains moist. Drop on two drops

three minutes until a slight browning is produced, wash off again

with distilled water, strain with picrocarmine, which dyes the blas-

toderm after a variable time according to the intensity of the

osmic acid action. The next step is important because it stops the

further darkening by the osmium, which otherwise injures or

ruins the specimen. Pour Miiller’s fluid, or 0.5 per cent. chromic

acid solution on the slide and leave it over night. The next

morning the blastoderm is ready for dehydration by alcohol, and

mounting in the usual manner in balsam, or better in three parts

pure Canada baisam mixed with one part d’Ammar varnish, as

furnished by the microscopical dealers,

Embryos mounted in this way make very perfect preparations,

surpassing, indeed, those otherwise treated.

vat

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— The method of teaching elementary botany at the Michigan

Agricultural College, by Professor W. J. Beal, seems to us to D&

so excellent, that we extract the following reference to it in his

“ Before the first lesson each pupil is given some specimen to

study. If flowers or growing specimens cannot be had, 4

each a branch of a tree or shrub, which branch may be two fee

long. The examination of these is made during the usual time

for preparing lessons, and not in the class room. Without ye)

the specimen in sight, they are to tell what they can about t Pid

for the next recitation. They can use books if they pres”

and the hour is mostly spent in hearing different members rep -

their discoveries, until all have had a chance to add anything ne

noticed by any other member. The teacher suggests a few ere

points for study. The pupils are not told about things ban

they can see for themselves. An effort is made to keep fue

working after something which they have not discovered. I '

members disagree on a point, on the next day, after further ree a

ey are requested to bring in all the proofs they can to sus

their separate conclusions. ‘ d by

“It is often astonishing to notice how much is discovere@

so many good eyes. For the next lesson the students revie™,

first lesson, report on a branch of another kind of pea soni

they have studied, and notice the points of difference an sis

1881.] Scientific News. 843

larity between the two, In like manner new branches are studied

and new comparisons made.

“For some weeks but little use is made of microscopes or

text-books, In nearly all important cases specimens are exam-

ined, and a need felt for a name or a definition before these are

given. After a few lessons answers to the following points are

brought out:

“Is there any definite. proportion of active to dormant buds in

any year? Where do branches appear? Is there any agreement

in growth as to length of branch and size of the annular ring

each year? Is there any similarity of rapid or slow growth of

all the limbs on a branch in each year? Is there any certain

number of leaves ona year’s growth, or any definite proportion

between the length of internodes? Can the smallest, old, dor-

mant buds be made to grow? Is there any order as to what buds

grow and what remain dormant? How much and on what years

theses or compositions. I usually give each student one or more

“ Pp Ss:

The arrangement and development of parts of the flower,

844 Scientific News. [ October,

with reference to its self-fertilization, or fertilization by insects,

birds, winds, or by other means. elow are samples: Moth-

mullein, dog-bane, common sage, thyme, red clover, plantain,

milkweed, mallow, thistle, cleistogamous flowers of violet, cam-

panula, iris, lobelia, martynia, Indian corn, wild balsam. One

student may study the vines of dodder; one, the climbing of Vir-

ginia creeper; one, the twining of the wild morning-glory ; one,

cucumber tendrils; one unequal-lobed leaves; one, the time of

opening and closing of flowers ; several, the development of some

irregular flowers; one, the order of dehiscence among anthers of

a flower; one, the honey-glands of some flower; glands in other

parts of plants than flowers; growing beans in all sorts of soil

and with more or less light; the germinating power of weevil-

eaten peas; the relative order of development of stamens and

pistils of many plants of Indian corn; for what do ants visit

plants ?

“The theses were made up of original investigation and ex-

periments, and were read in class. Students use stage mucro-

scopes. Later in the course, each is supplied with a good com-

aterm. Pupils prepare their own slides, make notes and draw-

ings, which are preserved at the college. Most of the time for

the term is spent on one plant, a favorite of which is the com-

mon pumpkin.”

— The British Association began its meetings Wednesday,

Aug. 31, at York, when Professor A. C. Ramsay, Director-Gen-

eral of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and of the

Museum of Practical Geology, resigned the chair; and Sir John

vered

sor Huxley discoursed on the “Rise and Progress of Palaon-

tology.” On Saturday evening Professor Osborne Reynolds,

F.R.S., delivered a popular lecture to the working classes.

Monday evening Mr. Spottiswoode, president of the Royal 5

ciety, gave an address on the “Electric Discharge, its forms a0

its functions.” On Tuesday evening there was a soiree.

_ Wednesday, September 7, the concluding general meeting was

held at 2.30 p.m. :

—The Penn Monthly for August contains an excellent biographt

cal notice of the late Professor S. S. Haldeman, by Professot zs

H. Hart. Among recent deaths of scientists we have to pak

cle that of Dr. Ferdinand Keller, the distinguished Swiss arche-

ologist and author of a well known work on Lake Hiebagn

He died at Zurich, July 21, aged 80 years. A prominent Eve eh

botanist, H. C. Watson, born in 1804, and author of several work»

including “Cybele Britannnica,” died in July. Dr.

Rougemont died at Neuchatel, May 27.

O-

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 845

— Among recent Bulletins of the Census are the statistics of

the fisheries of the Great Lakes for 1879, prepared by Mr. F.

True from notes furnished by Mr. Ludwig Kumlien; the total

value is $1,784,050. The production of anthracite coal in Penn-

sylvania for 1880 was 27,433,329 tons,a gain of 75.9 per cent.

over 1870. The production of salt was a little less in 1880 than

in 1870. Of cotton 5,737,257 bales were produced in 1880, Mis-

nee producing most, Georgia being the next heaviest pro-

ucer,

— Professor Snow of the University of Kansas and his party,

recently had a narrow escape from death, at the hands of the

hostile Apache Indians, in New Mexico. They were besieged

for three days in the water cafion of the Magdalena mountains,

and made their escape on foot to Socorro, after concealing their

Personal property. On the road they passed a party of freighters

lying dead beside their wagons, victims of the Indians’ murderous

propensities.

— Two of the parties of the U.S. Geological Survey under Major

J. W. Powell, are at Fort Wingate, N. Mex. These are under the

immediate direction of Messrs. Thompson and Gore. Mr. and

rs. James Stevenson, of the same survey, are also there, pre-

Paring for an investigation into the archeology and ethnology of

the Surrounding region. There is some risk that the operations

of these parties will be interfered with by the hostile Apaches.

Carlile P. Patterson, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast Sur-

vey, is dead. His successor has not yet been appointed, but it is

anticipated that it will be Julius E. Hilgard, for a long time the

able second officer of the s rvey.

— Mr. G. Brown Goode has been appointed, by Professor

Baird, Curator of the National Museum, Washington. An ex-

cellent appointment.

— The German Association of Naturalists and Physicians was

to hold its meetings at Salzburg from Sept. 17 to 24.

20;

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.—

The thirtieth meeting was held at Cincinnati, Aug. 17-23, 1881.

he meeting was as largely attended as any ever held except the

last (Boston) meeting, and everything was done by the hospitable

“tizens of Cincinnati to render the session pleasant and profitable.

of Montreal, was elected president, and William Saunders, Esq.,

of London, Canada, general secretary, for the next year.

846 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ October,

Following are the titles of papers read on biology, geology and

kindred sciences

On the poigne egal eae bells. Edw. S. Mor

On chang and Lunatia since the Septanien. of the New England Shell-

hea "Edw, 8. Mtns:

On diva shells in New England Shell-heaps. Edw. S, Mors

uke 9 and Stoica history of the White Pine in Michigan. Wm. Hosea

Ballou

recibilean of growth in plants. D. enhallow

On the life duration of the Fae secre ante. J. A. Lintner.

On the length of life of Butterflies. W.H. Edwards.

How does the Bee extend its tongue. A. J. Cook.

. Co

ok.

Carbolic acid as a preventive of Insect ravages. A. J. Cook.

On certain habits of Heliconia charitonia. eh Hy; ot

Historic notes on Cos mic Physiology. T.Sterry Hun r

The uncivilized mind in the presence of pet Be ahi of civilization. Otis T-

The best method of eran whole se ie embryos. Charles eG Minot.

Note on whether man is the highest animal. Charles Sedgwick Minot.

ote on the segmentation of the Werebeatc body. Charles Se oo Minot.

‘The motion of roots in germinating Indian corn. W. J. Beal

+ ear capa —-* some archzeological specimens from pra qee S. H. Trowbridge.

Animal myths the Iro of eas Mrs. Erminnie A. Sm

gti abodes J. A. Lintner.

Recent eae measurements and tdtbseratiide observations made in Mammoth

H C. Hove

A ronal case of retention of heat by the earth. H. C. Hovey. ie tee

Coal dust as an element of danger in raed Be tn by the late explosion in

sr ay mines in Nova Scotia Ci Allen

A revision of the anatomy of the ethmoid ‘etn in 1 the Mammalia, Harrison :

The life unit in plants. Byron D. Halsted.

Gopyrus manhattensis from the gill-cavity of Palemonetes vulgaris Stimpson.

Carl F. Gissler,

The stone images and idols of the mound-builders. Wm. McAdams.

some remarkable relics from ee mounds of mig ee beh McAdams.

Watson C. Holi

an im tel the drift, hades ge C Holbrook.

-rehistoric hieroglyphics, Watson C. Holbro Gee

A contribution v8 ba s theory of secular citar s w.jJ.M

Influence of forests u treams. me D. Thom

ineralogical Noles. Beaiaist n Sillim

On the influence of the seticiute of eng nerve-fibres upon the pro

uction of nerve-force. H. D. Schmidt. Wi lliams.

The recurrence of faunas in the Devsnlan rocks of New York. H,S. W! nH. Ss

PI UD ow 17: CW

+ Be

tad

wi,

som]

duction and con-

cue some remains from the Upper Devonian of New York.

enom ae

eo phenomena in the conjugation of the infusorium Actinophrys sol. J

Wil-

on specimens of Ptilophyton and associated fossils collected by Dr. H. S.

eons in the Chemung shales of Ithaca, N. Sess awson oa di sed

A contribution to the study of Bacterial 1 Organisms, as commonly foun Geo. M.

mone surfaces and in the alimentary canal of an iy individuals.

erg. e U.

On recent deep-sea soundings in at Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean sea, by the

» Coast Survey. J. E. Hilgard

A new and improved freezing Microtot rotome. Thomas T aylor.

Bacteria and eco and their relations to plant culture. Thomas Taylor.

1881.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 847

The Berea Grit of Ohio. Edward Ort

On the amount o Bs erosion | in Oho, peirior and Illinois, with some deduc-

tio Gi thesdina, E. W.

On the disc covery of an sacishevecifeiean Tenestellid in the Upper Silurian rocks of

hio. W. Claypole.

Life-history of the Buckeye S sagen borer (Sericoris sys Clem.) E. W. Sone darse:

Some needed reforms in the use of Botanical Terms. Charles E. roe

The excavation of the Chae ¢ cafion of the Co he river, C, E, D

On the cause of the arid climate of the far West. . C. E. 2d gag

i ward S.

e evidence from the Drift of Ohio in regard to the ogi. ‘of Lake Erie. E. W.

Claypole,

A short itis of the ee of the region of Lower Great Lakes during the Great

Riv Nios or n n the origin of the Great Lakes of North America. J.

W. Spen ,

On the inhabitants of N. E. Siberia, commonly called Chukchis and Namollo. W.

- Dall.

A lawgiver of vied Re gh age. Horatio Hale.

flex cassina, the black drink of the Sonthers ‘Indians. John G. Henderson.

Was the a etige | aed by the Indians on the ie ries of Illinois? John G, Hen-

derson.

Agriculture and ne aig of the aiieu inhabitants of the Mississippi

valley. ohn

Houses of the ancient aheosh of the Mississippi valley. John G. Henderson.

es A Fe al in the Iroquois group of dialects. Mrs. Erminnie A.

a thin pp ome: of the rocks of the Cupriferous series in Minnesota. N. H.

The limited biologie importance of synthetic achievements in organic chemistry.

Albert B, P:

Retarded dev. sopra’ in Insects. C. V. Riley.

an Insects injurious to Ameri rican agriculture, — Riley.

é :

nt.

On the oviposition of Prodoxus decipieus. C, V. Riley.

00 ah. CV, RI

On the disposition of whlopsselaikin of domestic animals. W

cusp of the Sins fp atest ular canine of the domestic pany | Felis

Suit G. Wilder. A

on the classitication and distribution of Producti. S. H. Trowbri ge.

The hate Ser pda of North German Traps at the time of their extrusion. Car-

ichae

Recees existence of sword-fish, ow: tpn dolphin in the fresh-water pond near

uflalo, N. VY, Wm. Zim

erica. Ww. De Haas

Progress of Archeological Research. W. De Haas. bs Ok

ound Builders; an inquiry int oe sige southern origin. W. De Haas.

Additional facts on the fertilization of Yue Thomas Meehan wy.

Ont = interpretation of Pictographs by the application of gesture- signs, J.

man,

ag nents abnormal peculiarity in the history of Avgynnis myrina. W..A.

tds,

On a convenient form of slide case. Robt. Brown, Jr.

On some relations of Birds and Insects S. A. Forbes -

mparison of Maya dates with those of the Christian era Cyrus Thom :

Bayne i * Fern indigenous to California, but _ retofore considered as ak intro-

d hothouse rs. Leander Sto

Fossil teeth of “ara from the Drift of Tllinows. Wm. McAdams.

The Unification of g Be RgreenGER Richard Owen.

MIppLEsex Institute, Malden, Mass., June 17—The my

field meeting of the institute was ala on aie! hill, in the -

848 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Oct., 1881.

dlesex Fells, Stoneham. A large number of guests were present,

and the day passed enjoyably. Many plants not previously col-

lected were added to the list of our county flora, and Mrs. P. D

Richards found that rare plant, Hadenaria hookert.

June 22.—An exhibition of native plants from Malden, Medford

and other parts of the county, was held in Institute Hall, an

attracted a large number of visitors.

July 27.—A special exhibition of the native ferns of Middle-

sex county was given with gratifying success. Mr. Frohock

exhibited Woodwardia angustifolia from Medford, Mass., found

for the first time within the limits of Middlesex county, an Mr.

Dame exhibited Botrychium matricariefolium from Stoneham.

Arrangements are partially completed for a course of scientific

lectures to be delivered during the winter months.

702

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPICAL SciENcE,July.—On the

lymphatic system of the skin and mucous membranes, by E.

Klein. The development of the water glands in the leaf of Sat-

Jraga crustata, by W. Gardiner. The development of the Sper-

matozoa, Part 11. Helix and Rana, by J. E. Blomfield. On ee

early development of the anterior part of the wolffan duct an

‘mesenteric glands of the cat, by V. Harris. Limulus an Arach-

nid, by E. R. Lankester.

THE GEOLOGICAL Macazine, August.—On the Archean ar

by C. Callaway. The Megaceros in Ireland, by W. Williams.

The glaciation of the Shetlands, by B. N. Peach and J. Horne.

_ANNALES DEs Sciences NATURELLES, June—Monograph a

birds of the family Megapodiide, by E. Oustalet, 2d part. by

researches on the organization and development of Gordiacea,

M. Villot. Description of macrurous Crustacea from great

_of the seas of the Antilles, by A. Milne Edwards.

JENAISCHE ZEITSCHRIFT FUR NATURWISSENSCHAFT, joy The

On the muscles of the eye of Ganoids, by H. Schneider. 0.

mouth-arms of Rhizostomz and their appended icity i

amann. The development of the middle germ-layer °

_brates, by O. Hertwig. ) -

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vor. xv. — VOVEMBER, 1881. — No. 11.

ON THE MICROSCOPIC AND GENERAL CHARAC-

TERS OF THE PEACH TREE AFFECTED

WITH THE “YELLOWS.”

BY W. K. HIGLEY.

SYMPTOMS OF THE YELLOWS,

1. Premature Ripening —This symptom is one of the most

common, although it is not by any means always noticed. In

many cases it is very marked. During my investigation I have

Corresponded freely with persons upon this subject, and many

have stated that this is only a marked symptom in certain varie~

ties, prominent among which is “Stanlie’s late.’ Mr. John

Williams, of South Haven, sent me specimens of this variety that

ripened three weeks before the proper time. This symptom is

not wholly confined to the peach affected with the yellows, as it

1s also said to be produced by the borer. and curculio, but from

all the evidence that I have been able to glean, I think that it can

be safely stated that it is an infallible symptom when noticed in

Some localities. I cannot agree with those who state that this

symptom is only noticed in certain varieties, but think that

although it may not always happen, yet when it does it is just as

liable to be on one variety as another. It is, at all events, a thing

to be looked after when the presence of this disease is feared.

2. Color of the Peach—I have noticed particularly that affected

Peaches, when opened, presented a very abnormal appearance as

to the position, extent and size of the pigment spots. In the

- Normal fruit bright red spots are often present near the pit and,

perhaps, even toward the outer portions of the cellular part,

VOL, XV.—No, XI. . 59

850 On the Microscopic and General Characters of (November,

while in the diseased fruit, especiaily that which has prematurely

ripened, near the pit considerable red coloring matter may be

noticed, often in a conglomerate mass, and scattered through the

remainder of the fleshy portions many oblong or rounded masses

of the same color. Under the microscope these appear to be

simply cells filled with a coloring matter that may be removed by

treating with strong potassic hydrate, acetic acid, or alcohol. The

skin of the peach also shows a highly abnormal color, generally

simply spotted with red, but in some specimens that I have had

the opportunity of examining, this red color assumed an oblong

shape, the spots being arranged in bands. This symptom seems

to be of the highest importance, as there is no other disease, so

far as I am able to ascertain, that will produce the above results.

3. Production of Abnormal Branches—Perhaps one of the most

marked symptoms of the yellows is the abnormal production of

branches, or rather branchlets. But the pomologist must guard

against one important fact in diagnosing the yellows from

this symptom, viz., the production of numerous twigs. Non-culti-

vation of any domesticated tree will often cause a great abundance

of small twigs or shoots to grow from the secondary branches ;

they may continue as high as the sixth division into branches.

Again a great proficiency of twigs may be produced by the use

of much rich manure year after year. However, to return to the

discussion of branchlets as an indication of the yellows, let it be

remembered that it is the branchlets and not the twigs that are of

importance. These are produced on the main or larger branches

from lateral buds, and in some cases even from the trunk of the

tree. They are slender wire-like shoots, often no larger than a

needle, from two to eight inches long, and not seldom showing 4

tendency to throw out lateral or secondary shoots. They may

attain to a much greater length, but, as far as I can ascertain, the

above measurements form a good average. This peculiar feature

of the disease is easily explained. A spore of the fungus falling

upon some part of the branch, finds the conditions favorable for

development and sends out its mycelium which ramifies throvey —

the tissues of the limb and soon fills up the passages, crowding

the vessels and cells so that the flow of sap to the parts beyond

this point is nearly stopped; thus the ends of the growing :

branches being choked, the sap is caused to flow to the later -

buds, and these having so plentiful a supply of nutriment, grom,

1881. ] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows,” 851

rapidly and throw out these wire-like shoots. This symptom,

with the one previous, are sure and infallible guides to the detec-

tion of the yellows; they often occur together, but more often

the former is the second stage, only appearing after the latter has

been present the year previous. I examined carefully several

specimens of these branchlets, and in two-thirds of them I found

the mycelium of a fungus in the tissue. Those in which the

fungus was present were from South Haven, the remainder from

other localities showed no signs of mycelial growth. It is very

probable, however, had time permitted extended sectional exam-

inations, that I should have found, even in these, evidences of

parasitical forms.

4. Microscopical Symptoms.—There are many marked peculiari-

ties noticed when sections of the different parts of a tree are

studied, but whether or not some of these will be produced by

other causes than the yellows, is a subject too patent to need any

discussion. One of the most important points noticed in micro-

Scopical examination, is the /oose character of the cells and other

parts of the section, both transverse and longitudinal. This

would only be noticed by one who has carefully compared both

Sections of the healthy and unhealthy tree. I was very much

Surprised when I first noticed this condition of things, and hoping

that it might give me some clue to the cause of the disease, I

examined several more specimens, but with no important results,

€xcept that it was a constant character of the diseased specimens

that I had; it appeared in sections of the root as well as in those

of the aérial portions. Attention may be called also to the

sheets of mycelia that are sometimes found between the layers of

wood as probably another symptom. Some of the many investi-

gators who attribute the yellows to a fungoid growth, consider

this as very marked evidence of the yellows, but it is not near so

marked as is the abnormal coloring matter noticed in the pith.

In the specimens of the wood of diseased trees that I have been

permitted to examine, the most prominent microscopical symptom

was the decided separation of the annual growths of wood; in

the space thus formed no structure was visible, although appar-

€ntly filled with some material, perhaps the ends of mycelia. I

found it quite difficult to make sections of the diseased limbs and

other parts of the aérial portions of diseased trees, for, on account

of this loose structure, the cells, especially of the bark, were

852 On the Microscopic and General Characters of » [November,

easily displaced, thus showing that one effect of the disease is a

tendency toward disorganization. How far this character may

extend, I am unable to say, but it was very marked in all the

specimens sent me. I was unable to make thin sections for study

until the parts were soaked in strong alcohol or chromate solution

for some time. I am informed that a gentleman, whose name I

am not able to obtain, claims that in nearly all the sections of dis-

eased specimens that he examined, he noticed that a great num-

ber of the cells of the pith and inner bark and many of those of

the woody portions were ruptured and completely disorganized.

Although I: have examined a number of sections, looking care-

fully in each for ruptured cells, I have not been able to find any.

Therefore I can only give the above statement on authority not

being able to sanction it by my own work. I have no doubt that

some one or more very important microscopical symptoms may

be found, on the comparison of more specimens from many locali-

ties, that are not enumerated above.

5. Appearance of the unmagnified Section—A section of the

trunk of a tree, well along in years, shows peculiarities to @

marked degree. One first notices the yellowish color which pet

vades the whole section, with the rings marking the annual

growths of a darker color, perhaps a light brown, and then the

dark spots scattered through the woody portion. It very forcibly

reminds one of a bilious state of the system. A section of the

root presented nothing abnormal to the naked eye.

6. Appearance of the Leaves—The leaves upon the diseased

branches have a general sickly appearance, are of a pale color and

more or less dried. Especially are the leaves of the abnormal

shoots or branchlets characteristic; these are pale and often more

or less curled. There seems to be a greater number of leaves

than is normal, upon diseased trees, especially before it has lost

the greater part of its vitality. This is not to be wondered at, as

the leaves are really the lungs of the tree, the green matter acting

the part of an absorbent. If now several of the branches become

diseased and the leaves lose their power to act, it seems natural

that in order to obtain that nutriment necessary for vitality, 25°

signed to the leaves, more leaves would be formed upon ace

healthy portions of the tree. Soon there has been so much of

the nutriment of the tree used to overcome this gasping caused

: by the diseased branches, whose trouble is steadily advancing t —

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the“ Yellows.” 853

other branches, that but little is left to form the fruit, and thus the

‘peaches grow smaller and fewer in numbers after the first prema-

ture ripening until the tree dies!

As so many other causes, as a direct effect, produce a diseased

condition of the leaves, they can hardly be accepted as a true

symptom of the yellows, unless in connection with other marked.

indications.

Perhaps I have said more upon the symptoms of the yellows

than many would consider necessary, but it is well known that

the physician diagnoses a disease from the symptoms, and then

looks for that which will produce the cure. In plain words, the

indications give him a clue to the cause and what will afterwards

be essential for the cure. To this end I desire to call forth from

the practical and scientific fruit growers a report of what they have

noticed, whenever it has been their privilege to observe the symp-

toms and action of this disease, hoping that I may glean from

these reports something that may guide us in our work.

Nearly every species of parasitical fungi has its special host,

often carrying this so far as to refuse to grow upon a closely-

allied species or variety. Many others will grow upon allied

hosts provided the true host is removed. But this does not seem

to be the case with the fungus that we are dealing with at pres-

€nt; it is characteristic of the peach alone. Hill’s Chili seems to

Suffer the most, but still it clings to other varieties just as tena-

Ciously when once introduced into an orchard. There is no

doubt but that we can safely say “no variety is exempt.”

SOIL AND PREVENTIVES.

Does the soil have any effect upon the yellows? In answer to

this question, I should say, directly no; but indirectly it does.

I am quite positive that if the orchard is kept in the proper

State of cultivation it will not be as apt to contract the disease,

although I cannot say that this is a preventive in the face of all

the evidence to the contrary. It is a well known fact, however,

that if the digestive, circulatory and respiratory organs in man

are in their proper state, there is not near as much danger of the

body contracting a disease. I believe that this is, to a great extent,

also characteristic of the vegetable kingdom. Thus the right

0od and care, or in plain words the right cu!tivation, fertilization

and pruning, may, to a great extent, aid the pomologist in his

834 On the Microscopic and General Characters of (November,

warfare against the yellows. On the other hand, lack of care in

cultivation, etc., may reduce the tree to such a condition that it

becomes susceptible to disease, and is more liable than in the

first case to catch this troublesome malady.

Downing says,! “ Let us look for a moment into the history of

the peach culture in the United States. For almost an hundred

years after this tree was introduced into this country, it was

largely cultivated, especially in Virginia, Maryland and New Jer

sey, as we have already stated, in perfect freedom from such dis-

ease [the yellows], and with the least possible care. The great

natural fertility of the soil was unexhausted, and the land occu-

pied by orchards was seldom or never cropped. Most of the soil

of the States, however, though at first naturally rich, was light

and sandy, and in course of time became comparatively exhausted.

The peach tree, always productive to an excess in this climate, 1m

the impoverished soil was no longer able to recruit its energies

by annual growth, and gradually became more and more enfee-

bled and short lived.”

I have great regard for the opinion of practical experimenters

and investigators—the horticulturists of our country—but look-

ing at the matter from a scientific standpoint, I must confess that

I firmly believe that if great care be exercised in cultivation,

pruning, etc., the fruit grower will be greatly aided in reducing

the spread of this disease. sci

I can but agree with Professor Kedzie when he says, “T think

the trees lack potash and phosphoric acid.” These may be ap-

plied in cultivation by mixing them, either separately or com

bined, with the earth around the base of the tree where they can

be absorbed by the roots; or superphosphate of lime and ashes

may be used.

The subjects of cultivation and the preservation of th

and the prevention of this disease by this means, belong

to the practical investigator than to the microscopist or ch f

for we, working with our microscope and test-tube, can only ue

gest and theorize, while the experiments must be left with a ‘5

who raise the trees. In concluding these remarks, I am eee

be able to say that many are carefully experimenting and noting

their observations and results.

e trees

rather

emist,

1“ Fruits and Frait Trees of America,” eighth edition, p- 464-

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows.” 855

HISTORY.

A few of the statements made above led me at this point to

consider the history of this disease.

It is one of the oldest tree diseases on record in this country.

It seems to have first appeared in the Atlantic States, or near

that region. It does not seem to have been imported, as therevis

no record, as far as I can ascertain, of its ever occurring in the

old world before its presence was detected here; and, moreover,

the only note that I have noticed of its presence in Europe,

stated that it was brought from this country in the pits, and the

trees raised from them showed symptoms of the yellows and

soon died.

“ About 1800, or a few years before, attention was attracted in

the neighborhood of Philadelphia to the sudden decay and death

of orchards without apparent cause. From Philadelphia and Dela-

ware the disease gradually extended to New-Jersey, where, in

1844, it was so prevalent as to destroy a considerable part of all

the orchards. About three or four years later it appeared on the

banks of the Hudson (or from 1812 to 1815), gradually and

slowly extending northward and westward, to the remainder of

the State. Its progress to Connecticut was taking place at the

Same time, a few trees here and there showing the disease until

It became well known (though not yet generally prevalent) —

throughout most of the warmer parts of New England.”

Downing continues with many remarks confirming further

what has been said under the action of the soil and preventives,

For this reason I shall quote still further from his work:

“It should be here remarked that, though the disease had

cen considerably noticed in Maryland and Middle States pre-

viously, yet it was by no means general until about the close of

the last war, At this time wheat and other grain crops bore very

high prices, and the failing fertility of the peach orchard soils of

those States was suddenly still more lowered by a heavy system

of cropping between the trees, without returning anything to the

soil. Still the peach was planted, produced a few heavy crops,

and declined, from sheer feebleness and want of sustenance. As

‘ was the custom with many orchardists to raise their own seed-

ling trees, and as almost all nurserymen gathered the stones

indiscriminately for stocks, it is evident that the constitutional

debility of the parent tree would naturally be inherited to a

Sreater or less degree by the seedlings. Still the system of

allowing the tree to exhaust itself by heavy and repeated crops in

. Fruit and Fruit Trees of America,” p- 464.

Page 464. :

856 Ox the Microscopic and General Characters, etc. [November,

a light soil was adhered to, and generation after generation of

seedlings, each more enfeebled than the former, at last pro-

duced a completely sickly and feeble stock of peach trees in those

districts.

“The great abundance of this fruit caused it to find its way,

more or less into all the markets on the sea-coast. The stones of

the enfeebled southern trees were thus carried north, and, being

esteemed by many better than those of home growth, were every-

where more or less planted. They brought with them the enfee-

bled and tainted constitution derived from the parent stock.

They reproduced almost always the same disease in the new soil

and thus, little by little, the yellows spread from its original

neighborhood, below Philadelphia, to the whole northern and

eastern sections of the Union. At this moment it is slowly but

gradually moving west, though the rich and deep soils of the

western alluvial bottoms will, perhaps, for a considerable time,

even without care, overpower the original taint of the trees and

stones received from the east.”

As to the appearance of the yellows in New Jersey, I will

quote again:!

“A gentleman to the peach ‘manor born,’ —in Monmouth

county, N. J.—but who has resided in this vicinity during the

past ten years, informs us that he has witnessed the destruction

of the peach orchards in these localities during the past thirty

llows made

he peach

orchards about 1856. Monmouth county and vicinity were

markets

with peaches. Driven from the Atlantic coast counties by fur

yellows, the prominent peach growers of New Jersey lore

Morris and other counties in the north of the State, W

peaches were grown successfully until about 1867, when h

Jersey peach growers were again driven by the yellows to fres

fields,’ favorable localities in Delaware and Maryland bems

chosen, from whence the eastern markets have received their,

principal supplies during the past few years. Incipient signs 3

yellows have appeared in Delaware and Maryland, and it 1s evr

dent that a ‘change of base’ will soon become necessary-

In the same volume it says: “The first record of the peach

yellows is found in the Genesee Farmer, and was published en

forty-five years ago. The disease as it now exists was accurately

described. The Farmers’ Book, which was compiled and printed

at Chambersburgh, Penn,, Sept. 16, 1845, contains a commune?

tion from Sidney Weller, Halifax county, North Carolina. So

1 Michigan Pomological Report, 1878, p. 256.

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. 857

it seems that previous to 1845 it had been detected in North

Carolina,

The disease appeared in Michigan about 1857; the exact time

is not known, nor by what method it was introduced. To my

knowledge it has not been reported in Ohio or Indiana. If this

be true it isa query how it got to Michigan unless imported in

the fruit or young trees brought from nurseries in infected dis-

tricts. This I believe to be the case, and have a faint recollection

of seeing a published statement to that effect.

The orchards of the South Haven district seem to have been

the first to suffer,

From the above facts of history, it will be seen that this disease

is one that progresses slowly, and yet in one sense rapidly, and is

as sure in its results as is pulmonary consumption. It is to be

hoped that such active measures shall be taken that its future his-

tory shall not cover near as much territory as at the present time.

t is a disease that, unless checked in its progress, will follow

wherever civilization advances.

| Zo be continued.}

:O}

ON THE SO-CALLED CHUKCHI AND NAMOLLO

PEOPLE OF EASTERN SIBERIA;

BY W. H, DALL,

Tr natives of that portion of Asia lying east of the meridian

of 180° from Greenwich, and between Behring sea and strait

and the Arctic ocean, have always been regarded with particular

interest. This interest arises partly from the fact that they alone

of all the Siberian tribes have maintained their independence of

Russian authority, and partly from the idea that these people

form a link between the races of Asia and America; a thorough

knowledge of their ethnological position being supposed to be

all that was required to confirm or disprove certain theories of

Migration,

Another source of interest is the confusion that has always

€xisted in regard to their division into different stocks, and which

S still far from being cleared away. The forthcoming work of.

Lieut, Nordqvist, of the Vega Expedition, will doubtless afford

1 ; vee

Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Cincin-

‘Tati, 1881.

858 Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia, [November,

means of rightly locating a part of these people and the rest will

doubtless be cleared up before many years by new investigations.

F. von Stein, in Petermann’s Mittheilungenj has recently given

an interesting résumé of the information in regard to these people

contained in articles by Nordqvist and Hovgaard in the Isvestia”

of the Russian Geographical Society ; among others who have

contributed some information on the subject, most of whom are

referred to by Stein, are Wrangell,? Neumann, Maydell® (or Mai-

del), Kennan,® Bush,’ Stimpson,’ Professor Asaph Hall’ and Dall.”

Others, to whom I have seen no reference made, are Shismareff"™

and an unknown writer in the Journal of the Interior Depart-

ment” of Russia, both articles being in the Russian language.

In a summary of our work for the season of 1880 (being an

abstract of a letter from me describing my third visit to the coast

of Northeast Siberia), contained in the January number of the

Royal Geographical Society’s Proceedings, this paragraph oc

curred :

“Tt was remarked that the proper name of the people on the

Asiatic side described by Nordenskiold and his companions, and

previously by Hooper® and Mr. Dall, is Ya’-it, a corruption oF

shortening of In-ni-it (Eskimo), of which they merely form one

tribe. They are totally distinct in language, race and manners

from the so-called Reindeer Chukchis ( Zsa’ ~yit-al), who are a

mere tribe of the Korak nation.”

To this somewhat ambiguous and not literally exact statement,

Lieut. Nordqvist has taken exception in a communication to the

11881, Heft 11, pp. 41-45.

*Band xvi, Heft 11, 1880.

* Narrative of an expedition to the Polar sea (Sabine’s ed.). 8vo. London,

(p. 126). Cf. also The Telescope, 1835, No. 26.

* Hist. Ubers. Tschuktschen Exp.; Isv. Sib. Abth. Russ. Geogr. Soc. Vol. 15

4-5, 1, No. 3, 1871.

*Antworten der Tschuktschen Exp.; Isv. 1. c. 1, Nos. 1 and 2, pp- 60-793

® Tent Life in Siberia, etc. 12mo. New York and London, 1870. (P- 120.)

"Reindeer, dogs and snowshoes. 8vo. Harper Bros., 1871. (p- 420.)

8-9 Cf, Alaska and its Resources, PP- 549-554-

” Alaska and its Resources, Boston, 1870, pp. 374-385. Also,

1840

Nos.

1871.

Contr. to Am. Eth-

nology (J. W. Powell), 1, pp. 12-15, 93-106, 1877. Also Proc. Roy. Geogr. 50%

Jan., 1881, pp. 47-49; Sept., 1881, pp. 568-570.

1 Zapiski Hydr. Dept., x, pp. 178-200, 1852. ‘Nos.

” Zhurnal Minist. Vautr. Diel, 8vo, St. Peterbuorg, 1835, XVI, 5» and 1851,

7. é

* Ten months among the tents of the Tuski, etc., 8vo, London, J. Murray, ¥ 2 oe

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. 859

Imperial Geographical Society of St. Petersburg! which I have

not seen, but which is summarized in a note in the Royal Geo-

graphical Society’s Proceedings for June, 1881.2 According to

‘the editor, Lieut. Nordqvist’s observations are as follows:

“According to Lieut. Nordqvist the stationary and nomad

Chukchis both belong to the same race, and call themselves in

the singular ‘Chau-chau,’ and in the plural ‘Chau-chau-ate.’

These people, he says, live to the north of Cape Chukotsky, and

must not be confounded with the true Eskimo who live to the

south of it, chiefly on the shores of the Gulf of Anadyrsk, as far

as Cape Oliutorsky, a fact which Lieut. Nordqvist urges, is incon-

testably proved by a comparison of the idioms in the languages

of the two peoples.”

While not holding Lieut. Nordqvist responsible for the literal

words of the above note, it was evident that some misapprehen-

sions entered into his suppositions concerning the people on the

coast referred to, as well as some errors of my own to be cor-

rected. This called my attention to the subject, and induced me

to overhaul my notes and look up the Russian literature of the

Subject, trusting that to Lieut. Nordqvist’s valuable investigations

in regard to the people on the north coast of Siberia, west of

East cape, some facts might be added in regard to those on the

fastern and southern shore of the same great peninsula.

On the Siberian coast south and west from East cape, the

Vega spent less than a day at St. Lawrence bay, and little more

than a day and a half at Konyam bay, a length of time insuffi-

cient to give to the members of the party more than a cursory

glimpse of the people, without affording any ground for positive

Statements; as indeed is frankly admitted by these gentlemen

(according to Stein’s digest of their publications), who express

themselves with due reserve in regard to the ethnological prob-

lems of this section of the coast.

The summary of the season’s work was written by me while

on the voyage home, having then seen only Palander’s narrative,

which appeared in the Scientific American Supplement, Nos. 231

and 232: There being little doubt that at some former time the

Eskimo had occupied the north coast of Siberia as far west as

Koliuchin bay ; the description of the manners and customs given

by Palander of the dwellers on that coast agreeing precisely with

* Published in its Bull. fascic. 11 of 1881.

*L.' ce. p. 36,

860 Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia, [November,

those of the Eskimo tribes further south; and the few words

given of their language belonging, at least in part, to the jargon

spoken by both Eskimo and Korak (or Chukchi) in communica-

tion with the whites and with each other, it was not all unnatural -

to suppose that the winter neighbors of the Vega were Eskimo

(or, as formerly distinguished, sedentary Chukchis) similar to

those with whom I had had personal intercourse.)

The observations of Lieut. Nordqvist must be taken as conclu-

sive in relation to the people with whom he was brought in con-

tact. Hence we must conclude that at the present day the inhab-

itants of the region on the north coast of Siberia, west from East

cape and as far as Cape Shelagskoi, belong to that branch of the

Korak nation which form the original genuine Chukchi of the

early Russian explorers. They are, however, not the wandering

or reindeer Chukchi, but that part of the nation which gain their

living by sealing and fishing. The Vega party were visited by

reindeer Chukchi, during the winter, repeatedly ; some from the

vicinity of Behring sea appearing on two occasions, but in Stein's

paper no reference is made to any comparison between them and

the fishing Chukchi, by which the differences in life and manners

might be made clear. The names Chukchi, sedentary Chukchi,

etc., have been used in such a confused manner that they no lon-

ger have any clear signification, and it is desirable that they

should be discarded entirely. For instance, in speaking of

sedentary Chukchi, I should refer to the Eskimo of N. E. Siber!@,

to whom that appellation has generally been misapplied, but

Lieut. Nordqvist would understand the north coast people of his

wintering place, to whom it more properly belongs. It will,

therefore, be advantageous to preface any discussion of the differ-

ent branches by a synonymy which will show what is meant by

any particular name. For, the real, original wandering Chale

who live by their reindeer and by summer fishing, the name"

1 Of the twenty-three words given in Palander’s account (as printed in the oe

work) three were Eskimo or corrupted Eskimo; seven were recognized as aaea :

to words having the same meaning of the Chukchi (reindeer men) pf the Moga

of Plover bay; one (certainly, and probably two) is of Hawaiian origin, and pit

use on both sides of Behring sea among all the people who have had interco! f

_ with whalers and traders from the Sandwich islands; another is a corru

sian word ; the rest were not recognized, but were pretty certainly not ‘

origin. Several apparently were roots reduplicated in a manner character!

jargon, but, to the best of my belief, not so formed in the language 4

spoken among themselves.

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. 861

Tsau-ya’ may be adopted ;. at least there is no doubt that such as

live near Plover bay so call themselves.

Tsau-yu’.

Reindeer Chukchis of authors.

Chukchis (variously spelled) of authors, in part.

Reindeer men of the adjacent coast dwellers in conversation with the traders and

whalers who know them best by this name.

Tsau-cha of Erman, in part.

Tschekto of Matiushkin, in Wrangell, Sabine’s edition, p. 120 (meaning “ people ’’).

Tsu-tsin of Stimpson, quoted in Alaska and its Resources.

Tchukchus of Bush, 1. c

Tsau’-yii-at, Dall in R. Geogr. Soc. Proc., 1. c.

Kugh-ukh-tiz-i-mat of the Diomede Islanders.

Wandering Chukchis of authors.

Aoy-ee’-khit of the Asiatic Eskimo (Cape Chaplin).

Lieut. Nordqvist tells us that the termination af or ate is

merely a plural inflection, and that the first part of the word has

the collective signification, and in this I have no doubt he is correct,

though until his criticism was made I had not looked thoroughly

into the matter.

There is, I presume, little doubt that these people adopt slight

distinctive changes in their national name according to their

Native habitat, or that they are in some way divided into clans or

tribes, since competent explorers give slightly different names as

the tribal name, yet all with a fundamental similarity. Thus

Matiushkin on the Kolyma found Chek-to; Erman from some

Source derived Zsau-cha; Stimpson, on Seniavine strait, near

Konyam bay, obtained 7Zsa#-tstz,; the writer, near Plover bay,

Tsau-ya ; Nordqvist. for the “sedentary” branch on the north

Coast, Chau-chau, and Shishmareff for the same at Mechigme and

St. Lawrence bays, Chau-chi, for the term “people,” meaning

themselves collectively. I am inclined to doubt if the (t should

Not be more properly 7s, as in many American tribes, for instance,

Chinook and Chehalis, which we know should be written and pro-

Nounced Tsinwk and Tsihalis, but which have become per-

Manently crystallized in the language under the former erroneous

Spelling, Nevertheless, as no one is better qualified to pronounce

on this subject than Lieut. Nordqvist, his spelling will be here

adopted for the people of the Korak race allied closely to the

Sau-yii, but who live as the Eskimo do, along the shores, and

Possess no reindeer, but derive their subsistence from the sea.

eal

862 Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. [November,

CHAU-CHAU.

Chau-chau, Nordqvist 1. c. (north coast).

Chau-chi, Shishmareff 1. c. (St. Lawrence and ing bays).

Sedentary or Fishing Chukchis of authors, in part o

Namollos, Pritchard and other authors, in part.

Ciwkct of Lieut. Bove,

These people, according to Nordqvist, live along the Arctic

coast from Cape Shelagskoi to East cape, and are of the only

race represented by living inhabitants on that stretch of coast.

So far as the accounts yet published extend, their mode of life,

manners, customs (except some of those relating to religious

matters), dwellings and implements, differ in no distinguishable

manner from those of the Eskimo of Plover bay or the Asiatic

shore of Behring sea. The full account which Lieut. Nordqvist

will doubtless publish in time, may afford some discriminating

features.

In regard to the people at and south-west from East cape

Lieut. Nordqvist seems to be in some doubt as to their exact

status, while maintaining, so far as we learn from Stein, a certain

reserve on this point, he nevertheless is represented as asserting

that they are not Eskimo and that these Eskimo do not occut

north of Cape Chukotsky, but reside chiefly about the Gulf of

Anadyr. On the other hand he seems to hold that these people

on the west coast of Behring strait are composed of a hybrid

mixture of Chau-chau and Eskimo blood which is not recognized

as their own race by the former, at least not by such as dwell on

the Arctic coast.

The synonymy of the Eskimo tribe or race found on the

Asiatic shore is the most complicated of all: |

Yu-IT. ;

Yuit ate their own name for themselves, a corruption or shortening of Jay :

niitt, the universal name of the Eskimo stock except of the Aleut.

Namolio - Pritchart and other older writers,

Tchouktchi Asiatigues, Balbi, Atlas Ethn. : ication

Tushi, moe er, Markham and Dall, |. c. provisionally. Perhaps a ™ms@ tal

and corruption of This jos which belongs to the Zsau-ya# race.

Chab'chi Bastia spelled) of nah es authors, erroneously. ‘tocal

Chaklak’ mut, Stimpson MSS., Dall, 1. c. This is a local name of the qaacger :

population of Chaklik oo (Ittygrane or aay Said of Rodgers 1870

Seniavine strait, and has been so used by me; cf. Contr. Ethn., 1, P- Mes

only). od

? Onkilon, Wrangell Journey . the Polar sea. This is, according to Nea a

aidel, a corruption o: ae = es

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. 863

Ang-hali or sitzende Tschukschen, or

Ang-kadli, meaning dwellers by the sea, cf. Neumann, l. c., or Stein’s article.

Aiguan, Nordqvist, according to Stein, 1. c.

Aigwan, Maidel, |. c., pp. 67-68 ; all of the five preceding being names stated to be

pplied to the Yu-it by the Chau-chaz, and meaning dwellers by the sea.

Kbkh'-lit-inain, partly, of the American Innuit, according to Dr. Stimpson.

U-a-ait of the St. Lawrence bay Chau-chi, according to Shishmareff (? corruption

of Innuit).

Em-niin-ka, Kilia-ing-wir, Rlia-rlia-at and Un-wee-ven (= Inniin ?) of the

Mechigme bay Chau-chw according to Shismareff. The third of these names

has a local Eskimo termination and the fourth is probably a corruption of the

l form of Jundait.

“Matsinka”’ men of the trading jargon, meaning “ good” men.

Those living at East cape (awikh) are called by the Diomede

Islanders No-gwah-mit'. Those living at the Chiklik village in

Seniavine strait call themselves Chak-lak-mit.

We have then four groups of people to consider and refer to

their true relations, namely, the Zsau-ya, the Chau-chau, the Ya-it

and the dwellers between Cape Chukotsky and East cape.

With regard to the 7: sau-yi' and Chau-chau we may accept

Lieut. Nordgqvist’s decision that they are mere branches of one

people, the differences between which, it is to be hoped, he will

€ventually make clear. Both are, without doubt, branches of the

Korak (or Kariak) stock, and correspond essentially to the

divisions of settled and wandering Koraks described by Wran-

gell, Erman, Bush and Kennan, the last two of whom—having

had more intercourse with both the Koraks and “ Tchukchi”

than any other explorers for many years—unite in the opinion

that there is no essential difference of any kind between the two

People, either in life or speech.

As to the region occupied by them, it extends from the Koly-

ma to Behring strait. Even the Chau-chau, or sedentary branch,

as attested by Nordqvist, resemble the Innuit in their more or,

€ss constant movement, to and fro, between different points, as

well as in almost every other respect except language and race.

Only the Tsau-ya, by reason of their self-transporting susten-

ance, the reindeer, are able to make long interior journeys.

The relations of the Yu-z¢ to the Zunuit are not doubtful. No

ne questions their identity in race and language, though their

Manners have changed in many respects since they migrated from

America to Asia. :

_ Their hunting grounds are confined to the coast like those of the

864 Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. | November,

Chau-chau, and about the south-west limit of them, at least, there

is little or no doubt. They are slowly migrating southward along

the Kamchatkan coast. In 1865, and for many years previously,

their visits to the Anadyr river mouth were few and far between,

probably not more than once a year on the average, and they had

no village there up to 1866. In 1879 a colony had reached Cape

Oliutorsk (according to Capt. Owen of the steam whaler Mary

and Helen), and planted themselves and sent word for more to

follow them as they “ had found a good place.” These migrants

came from Plover bay, where seal were no longer plenty, and had

paddled some five hundred miles.

- The northern limit is more uncertain, Lieut. Nordqvist puts it

at Cape Chukotsky, which is too far south. On the authority of

Capts. Redfield and Smith, traders of many years’ experience and

who understand perfectly the difference between the races, their

languages and the trading jargon in use by both, I placed it at

Cape Serdze. .

The Chau-cha of Mechigme and St. Lawrence bays informed

Shishmareff, in 1821, that an Eskimo tribe were living on the

Arctic coast who wore labrets. One old man at St. Lawrence

bay told how he had traveled to the River Amiluk not far from

Cape Chavaka (Shelagskoi), from a point beyond Koliuchin

island, without seeing any people. At the cape and on this river

were people whom he.called Chavaki, who wore labrets like the

Americans. At Mechigme bay the same people were alluded vf

as existing on the Arctic coast, and were called Eg-lit-nok.

Shishmareff saw at both St. Lawrence and Mechigme bays, P°

ple of the Yait race; whom the Chau-chit said, lived by them-

selves along the sea coast, obtaining their living from gene

kept to themselves, spoke a different language and knew nothing

about reindeer keeping. Stimpson, in 1856, obtained a regi’

pure Innuit vocabulary at Chaklak village in Seniavine strait. 48

nearly every year from 1870 to 1880, Capt. Owen and other

whaling masters have obtained Innuit whale fishers from SE Law-

rence bay, who stayed by the vessel until she left the aa :

when they were landed at their homes rich with accumulat |

during the winter. In 1880 Innuit came off to my vessel =

Cape Chaplin where they have a large village. Their pa

was almost identical with the Mahlemut of Norton sound.

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia, 865

of them spoke English well. He said, in response to questions,

that they had little intercourse with the Chau-chi except in trade,

that their languages were entirely different, but that they com-

municated by the trading jargon: that the “ deer men” were

rich and the “ matsinka men ” ( Ya#-it) were poor. They did not

intermarry as arule; sometimes an Innuit girl would marry a

“deer man” chiefly because she would always have plenty to. eat

and little or nothing to do; but the Ciau-ch@ women never mar-

ried Yat, “they would have to work too hard and submit to sea-

sons of semi-starvation.” On the other hand, Cornelius, a native

of Plover bay belonging to the Eskimo stock, speaking English

with great fluency and correctness, informed me that his people

had only a commercial intercourse with the Zsav-y#, that the

shamans of the former had different practices from their own, and

that they never intermarried. I asked him what the “deer men”

called themselves. He said 7sau-yu'-at. But, said I, at Cape Chaplin

they said Koy-ce’-khit. “Ihave heard many names given to the

“deer men,’”’ he said, ‘‘ but the only name I have ever heard them

call themselves is 7sau-yi’-at. The name you say is for making

fun of them, it is not their own name.” I tried to find out what

the meaning was, but he evidently was unwilling to explain, and

it is evidently some contemptuous appellation, such as_ the

merican Jana@it give the Indians (/n’-ka-4k) which means

“children of louse eggs.” This Cornelius had lived a number of

years in the United States, had been in Washington as well as

New Bedford. The native of Cape Chaplin who boarded me in

the strait had also spent a winter in San Francisco, and was very

outspoken in his disgust at the white men who were willing to

eat turtle, which he had seen at the restaurants, and which he

described as “ American devil.” Their travels are made as mem-

bers of the crews of whaleships, where they do efficient duty, but

I have yet to hear of a Chau-chau who has left his native shores.

I have shown that Vait (Eskimo) extend to St. Lawrence bay.

For their extension to East cape, beside the authority of several

Whalers and traders of great experience, I had a pure Eskimo

vocabulary, obtained for me at the Nawitkh village on East cape,

by Capt. Smith, about 1872, which is now in the collection of the

National Bureau of Ethnology. This, I think, settles the fact of

the existence of Znnuit at that point as late as 1872, and I see no

' Feason for doubting that they still exist there. That occasional

VOL, XV.—no. x1, 60

866 Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Siberia. [November,

parties at the time of the walrus hunt (June) proceed along the

coast as far as Cape Serdze, I believe, though the only informa-

tion I have is derived from several whalers, notably Capt. Owen,

who was boarded by them in the autumn of 1879, at nearly the

time that the ga was frozen in, and not over fifty miles from

that vessel, which was reported to Capt. Owen in such a way

that he suspected it to be the /vga, and sent a letter by the first

party (whom he paid with a large quantity of hard bread, etc.)

offering assistance if needed. This letter, however, some time

afterward was brought on board his own vessel by a second party

of /nnitit, who demanded large pay for its safe delivery.

The possibility, or probability, of parties of Jnait making

their way along the Arctic coast at certain seasons does not affect

the fact asserted by Lieut. Nordqvist, that the generality of the

inhabitants, and perhaps the only permanent inhabitants of that

coast, are Chau-chau. We know that there are large numbers of

the latter at St. Lawrence bay, and doubtless there are also at

other harbors on the west shore of Behring strait, including that

at East cape, living on perfectly amiable terms with the Ya-it.

At Plover bay they do not inhabit the same spot, though near

neighbors. I saw an old 7sau-ya# shaman in 1866, who had coms

all the way from Anadyr bay to perform certain rites of sacrifice

on some of the ovals of upright stones on the hill near the.. al

chorage. He was accompanied by several of his compatriots,

while the Y#-c¢ clustered round, interested spectators of a rite

they did not join in.

n, though

Several Chau-chau were residents of Cape Chapli

most of the natives there were Ya-it. Old “ Enoch” was mal

who received each year until his death, a number of casks of

strong liquor from the traders, for which he faithfully accounted

the following spring,

A word may be said as to the jargon of which I have spoken.

It is similar in some of its constituents to a jargon used on

shores of Norton sound and at Kotzebue sound. That 'S oF

corrupted Russian, Hawaiian and English words are much t a :

same, but on the Asiatic side there is a large admixture of wort =

of Korak (Chukchi) extraction. au-kau, corrupted aa

for food, “grub,” eatables generally, is in common use “ _ a

coasts. Shawak or Chopak, corrupted Russian for dog (sabak) oe

_ in-use on both coasts, Many of the words consists of afCC™

1881.] Chukchi and Namollo People of Eastern Stberia. 867

cated Korak or Innuit root which is used with little or no inflec-

tion, while in the original tongues reduplication is extremely rare

and the roots are always inflected. Many of these words have

an abstract meaning which does not exist in the native dialects,

as for instance “ kau-kau,’ food. In the dialect of Chau-chau and

/nniit alike, there is no abstract word for food known, but there

are special names for each kind of food, which are always used

in speaking among the speaker’s own people. This jargon was

in use, I have reason to believe, in some shape between the

Innit and Tsau-yi, long before the advent of the whites, but

when traders came it was soon amplified by new words for things

previously unknown, almost always modified from their original

Pronunciation by the unaccustomed native tongues (as ’Myr-kan

for American ; chopak for sabak; tawa’ka for tobacco, etc).

The confusion can only be cleared up by trained linguists.

Ordinary explorers cannot be expected to be qualified for the

task. The vocabularies obtained by them will almost certainly

be infected by jargon, if indeed not wholly composed of it. Even

with the great care doubtless exercised by Lieut. Nordqvist and

his companions, I should feel little hesitation in predicting that

their vocabularies will be found to contain a certain admixture of

Eskimo words, which could be picked out by an expert.

Now if this be the case (and we shall doubtless learn in good

time about it), since the mode of life, the general features of

Physique and the jargon used by both races differ but very little,

according to the reports from the Vega and the experience of |

others, how can we say dogmatically that the Innuit are not at

any time to be found on the Arctic Siberian coast, until the sev-

eral villages and their inhabitants have been examined in greater

detail than has yet been possible ?

T will conclude by noting that the Zuvaait of the American and

Asiatic shores of Behring strait are not on good terms with each

other, They are not actually at war,as in the time of their dis-

covery by Popoff and Deshneff, but they cherish a mutual con-

tempt. The ‘“ Matsin'ka men” of Asia despise the “ Naka'ruk

men” of America. The inhabitants of the Diomedes, who do

Most of the intertrading, warned us, in 1880, against the “ bad

men” of East cape. The Plover bay natives (Yuit) were out-

spoken in their contempt for the American Juniit.

The long journeys from Asia to America formerly performed

868 The Length of Jafe of Butterfites. [ November,

by the natives, are now unnecessary on account of the visits of

traders to both shores, and are seldom or never undertaken.

The Diomede people, however, visit both shores and carry liquor

from Asia to America. The increasing scarcity of food is im-

pelling a southward migration as previously mentioned, and it

may not be many years before the native Eskimo population of

Asia may be located where Lieut. Nordqvist at present has some-

what prematurely placed them, namely, to the south and west of

Cape Chukotsky.

“ry\e

THE LENGTH OF LIFE OF BUTTERFLIES.

BY W. H. EDWARDS.

ns inquiries on the subject led me to investigate the mat-

ter, and to refer to my note books, in which are recorded

everything that has come under my observation relating to butter-

flies for the past fifteen years.

Boisduval, and Kirby, and Spence allege that the life of the

summer butterflies is brief, the male expiring soon after copula-

tion, the female after oviposition. On the other hand, Mr. Scud-

der has spoken of butterflies living two to three months. Mr.

Edwards expressed the opinion as to the hibernating butterflies,

that they lived from about the 1st of September to the end of the

following May, or eight to nine months at the outside. Whereas

Mr. Scudder asserts that D. archippus lives from a year to fifteen

or sixteen months. :

Observations show that one brood follows another in rapid

Succession in many species at the South, a month sufficing —

the complete duration of the generation. As the emergence :

individuals from the chrysalis is not all at once, but is ce .

through several days or weeks, it follows that the life of any ™¢r

vidual butterfly must be much less than the duration of its genera-

tion; certainly not over one-half to two-thirds that of the ae

tion. In the case of polymorphic species like Papilio ajax, 1 18

difficult to fix the duration with some definiteness. Mr. Edwa

gave from his note books dates of the first and last appeat ie

Coalburgh, W. Va., of the form Ajax walshii and of the =

' Abstract of a paper read at the Cincinnati Meeting of the American Associ? a =

_ for Advancement of Science.

rance at

1881.) . ‘The Length of Life of Butterflies. 869

Ajax telamonides, and showed that an individual life could hardly

be more than two to three weeks. It was stated that not only in

this species but in most or all which had come under observa-

tion, it is the old males which mate with the young female as

soon, or nearly as soon, as she emerges from the chrysalis. These

old males are on the watch, flying about everywhere, and seize

the young female, often before her wings are dry, and hence

before the young male, if emerging at the same time with the

female, would be strong enough to take part in the copulation.

Consequently it happens that many of the males are unable to

find mates, and these males are the longest lived. The last butter-

flies of the generation are often seen to be old males, who prob-

ably have never mated.

Similar conclusions as to the duration of life were drawn from

observations on the polymorphic species, Lyce@na pseudargiolus

of which Z. wiclacea is the early form.

For an example of the hibernating species, the . history of D.

archippus was detailed. It is three or four brooded in West Vir-

inia ; the old females die in May after laying their eggs. These

€ggs produce the first generation of butterflies of the year, and

the females of this lay eggs which produce the second genera-

tion, and so on to the end. The eggs are always laid. by females

plainly not long from the chrysalis. We have carefully watched this

Species all through the year 1878, and had given the results as

briefly stated here in Psyche, Dec., 1878. This was because Mr.

Scudder, in Psyche, July, 1875, had represented Archippus as

having habits unlike any other butterfly, in that it was single-

brooded over North America, and not double brooded ; that it

left its winter quarters late and continued on the wing the rest of

the season, laying eggs all the time, so that the caterpillars to be

found all along through the season were produced by its eggs,

stead of coming from the eggs of young females. The young

females in fact could not lay until they had passed hibernation.

It will be seen that such behavior involves a radical change of

habits of the race, wherein this butterfly, laying eggs at intervals

for months, approaches the mammals.

Mr. Scudder recently repeats this story in his “ Butterflies,”

1881, without note or comment or any additional data, or any

Verification at all, and hence Mr. Edward's paper.

870 Notes on the Migrations of Birds. [ November,

NOTES ON THE MIGRATIONS OF BIRDS.

BY H. D. MINOT.

ITCHFIELD is in the highland of Western Connecticut,

from nine hundred’to twelve hundred feet above the sea,

somewhat sparsely wooded, though well watered by southerly

streams, running either into the Naugatuck valley or into the

system of Bantam lake (the largest body of fresh water in Con-

necticut, with an area of about twelve hundred acres). My

observations there extended from October, 1880, to May, 1881,

inclusive of both months, and suggested to me, concerning :*

(1) Pioneer migrants: that the single temporary forerunners

of a species, so often observed among early non-gregarious

migrants before the arrival of their fellows in numbers, may serve

more than a purely individual purpose. A single record will

illustrate: April rst I observed by a particular bridge the first

pewee, dejected, silent or petulant, and hurried, soon flying out of

sight southward ; for a week no pewees were to be seen or heard

there or anywhere about; April 8th was pewee-day, bringing these

birds in numbers, and at the bridge appeared a triumphant pewee

with his mate. :

(2) Local differences of time—Migrant cat-birds appeared in

outlying swamps a week or more before the resident cat-birds

returned to their village home; and king-birds appeared down

‘ Before remarking on migrations here, I append the following dates of arrival é

March 12, blue birds (in numbers) ; 15, song sparrow, snow bird, fox sparrow, red-

winged blackbird and rusty grakle; 25, meadow lark; April 1, the first pewees

3, horned lirks; 9, downy woodpecker; 20, white-breasted swallow, Savannah

sparrow, bay-winged sparrow, cow bird and kingfisher; 22, hermit thrush ; 23; red-

poll warbler, martins, swamp, field and chipping sparrows, yellow-bellied woodpecker

(among hemlocks) and golden-crowned kinglet (absent latterly in winter) 5 24

ruby-crowned kinglet (singing), yellow-rumped warbler, barn swallow, pee

morning), “night hawk” (in the village) and wood thrush (probably) ; 9» es

warbler, “ blue yellow-back,” etc., red-eyed vireo, rose-breasted- grosbeak, bo : 13)

and Traill’s flycatcher; 10, wood pewee and whippoorwill; 12, cedar-birds; de

yellow-throated vireo and black-and-yellow warbler (or earlier) ; 14, scarlet Pil .

15, black-billed cuckoo, and so on, Blue birds had eggs in the last week of APF?

robins and pewees began to lay about May Ist.

1881.] Notes on the Migrations of Birds. 871

by the lake, three miles off, several days before advancing to the

outskirts of the much higher village. Zhe most favorable haunts

are the first revisited. Local differences of season, too, are very

considerable: April 30, a visit to Bethlehem, nine miles south-

ward, showed a week’s advance.

(3) The great influence of season and the comparatively little

influence of temporary weather (except on water fowl)—Crows

moving southward in large bodies in the latter part of Octo-

ber, predicted to me a severe winter. It proved one of ex-

traordinary and almost uninterrupted severity, without any

midwinter thaw. In the first week of March these crows re-

turned (three hundred debating one afternoon whether to roost in

Litchfield woods or to pass on), our first spring weather forthwith

followed, and real winter did not reappear. Snow-birds (/uxco

hyemalis) were absent all winter, following southward the unu-

Sually extended and steady line of frost and snow; and nut-

hatches and most of their kindred were absent during the latter

or stormy part, marked especially by ice-storms. On the other

hand, some warblers, after a month of bright, lovely weather,

waited to appear in the face of the cold, blustering, lasting north-

easter that set in May 16. In spring, moonlight is taken advan-

tage of by birds like water-fowl, that make long voyages in long

flights; but it affects little our insessorial birds, who, however

much they may profit by the harvest moon in autumn, in spring

are More strongly impelled to migrate, and reappear pretty regu-

larly, independently of the lunar calendar. For instance, at home

T have noted the arrival of a particular pair of Wilson’s thrushes

year after year, between the sth and the roth of May, often

Coming apparently in the night, however young or old the moon

might be. No doubt, however, as I have even detected some-

times, migrants that seem to have come in the night, often arrive

in the evening, simply traveling till a late hour of the day before

resting, and the next morning may linger for refreshment before

resuming their journey. In building, on the contrary, activity is

in the morning.

(4) The uncertain order of species.—In spite of pretty regular

habits of migration among the later comers, accidental circum-

Stances produce such variations that there is no certain order or

Procedure among the different kinds, even near relations. Whether

the chipping or the field sparrow (Spizellas) will appear first in a

_ Siven locality where both are common, who can safely predict ?

872 Notes on the Migrations of Birds. (November,

(5) The routes of New England migrants.—In visiting Lenox,

Berkshire county, Massachusetts, several years in April, I have

-been astonished to find that though so high (1200-1300 feet

above the sea), and in spring so bleak and backward, it gets some

of its birds (for instance, bay-winged and chipping sparrows) be-

fore either Boston on the coast or Litchfield, lower and over forty

miles more south—as I have determined by returning to these

places from Lenox, and making immediate comparison. 18381—

Bay-winged sparrows in full song at Lenox, April 16; I returned

to Litchfield two days later, but found none till the 2oth. The

configuration of the country, in connection with such observa-

tions, seems to show that many birds follow the coast and rivers,

ascend broad valleys sooner than narrow, and thence spread up

the slopes and hills, perhaps escaping occasionally through gaps

where water-courses nearly meet, from one basin to another.

Therefore migrants, especially those hurrying, are comparatively

few, or wanting, along high ridges—as exemplified at Litchfield

_by the scarcity in spring of warblers of the Canadian fauna.

(6) The effects of elevation on the ornithological calendar.—

Though comparisons of full value should be based upon simul-

taneous and repeated observations, I venture the conclusions

(illustrated by my list of dates, based upon daily search) that

itchfield, as compared with Boston, is, from its elevation, back-

ward in its spring, and in getting the earlier migrants, but that

when, after a few hot days, it suddenly gets its summer with won

derful rapidity, it gains from being nearer the south-west sources

of migration, and gets its later resident birds—for instance, the

wood pewee—sooner. :

(7) Local variations —Such are the autumn congregation of

over a dozen golden-winged woodpeckers in a flock, and the

singing of field sparrows and of redstarts here often with a fall-

ing instead of a rising inflection. Such specific variations as "~

winged blackbirds, in their spring chorus, congregating come

monly in one tree, while the rusty grakels often each take @

tree top or limb for himself, and such individual variations as 4

nuthatch cracking open a hard nut (probably for a maggot) are

also curious. .

I subjoin here, though the evidence is not complete, the records

of a Tennessee warbler, May 6, 1881, and of a black-and-yellow

warbler nesting. Martins, a gentleman here tells me, kill inter ae

lopers of their own species, cracking the skull. a

1881. ] : Sotol. : 873

SOTOL,

BY DR. V. HAVARD, U. S. ARMY.

Name.—This interesting member of the Liliacee has been

described under different names; it is the Dasylirton texanum

Theele, of Watson’s “ Revision of the Liliacez,” and the Dasy-

rion graminifolium Zucc., of Torrey’s Botany of the Mexican

Boundary Survey. It appears to me that the D. wheelert Watson,

may not be specifically distinct from it.

Sotol is the Mexican name under which it is well known along

the Upper Rio Grande, and bear-grass its common, meaningless

Texan appellation.

Description.—Perennial, characterized by a thick tuft or cluster

of long, green, armed leaves, from the midst of which rises,

periodically, a stout stem ten or twelve feet high, bearing a long,

close panicle; caudex none or rarely, in old plants, six to eighteen

inches high; leaves very numerous, roughly estimated at four or

five hundred, erect in the center, thence gradually spreading to

the ground, their expanded, white, ladle-shaped bases four or five

inches long, three or four inches wide and two lines thick, ending

rather abruptly into the long, narrow body of the leaf with which

it contrasts sharply in color; at the point of transition is a pair of

thin, coriaceous wings; leaf, exclusive of the base, three to four

and a half feet long, seven to ten lines wide below, gradually

tapering to a point which is split into coarse fibers; armed on

both sides with teeth hooked downwards, very variable in shape,

Size and relative distance mostly two lines long and six lines

apart, often tinged with violet at apex or throughout; edges

between the teeth finely serrated; panicle two or three feet long ;

Partial ‘panicles three to four inches long, erect in the female

Plant, flexuous and pendant in the male, subtended and often

four, staminate racemes only one to two inches long; fruit three-

Winged, broadly oval or subcordate, three lines long, on pedicels

hardly one line long; the narrow wings less than one line wide,

Sometimes free, generally more or less adnate to the style, straight

md diverging but seldom rising above it; seed triangular pyram-

idal with obtuse apex, 1 line long and broad, minutely rugulose

under a lens; embryo slender, cylindrical, in the center of a

horny albumen as long as the seed.

874 Sotol. [ November,

It may be seen that this description differs from that of authors

in some particulars, such as the absence of any conspicuous cau-

dex, the larger size of the leaves and hooks, and the variable

degree of adnation of the wings to the style in the fruit.

The bear-grass produces a fructiferous stem every three or four

years, when sufficient material has been accumulated in the suc-

culent leaves. It is mainly propagated by seeds shaken off their

stately support by the wind and carried away in various direc-

tions; the young plant grows rapidly and shoots its first stem

when four or five years old. It blossoms late in summer and

the seeds ripen in the fall; most of them remain on the stalk all

winter, and many persist until late in the ensuing year.

Habitat.—The home of the sotol is Western Texas, South-

eastern New Mexico and Northern Chihuahua. Proceeding

westward from San Antonio, I first met it after crossing the San

Pedro or Devil’s river; beyond the Rio Pecos it becomes abun-

dant, covering almost exclusively square miles of arid aad stony

slopes, beyond question the most striking botanical feature of ne

country. It extends west, probably to the Colorado. If specifi-

cally it includes the D. wheeler’ Watson, it is the prevalent Dasy-

lirion of Southern Arizona.

The sotol grows best at a certain altitude, five or six hundred

feet above the level of the Rio Grande, that is to say, above the

region of the Yucca baccata and the lower line of the Agave

lechuguilla, on nearly all the foot-hills of Western Texas. It

thrives in dry, rocky soil where no grass can grow, and some-

times, insinuating its long, filamentous roots into invisible fissures,

seems to spring from the living rock. |

Uses.—The first experience of the traveler with the bear-grass

whose hooks scratch and tear everything they touch, is a disagree”

able one; but further acquaintance with frontier life makes him :

consider it one of the beneficent provisions of nature. In some

of our camps, where other fuel could not be procured, we made

good fires of the old stems of this plant. These are sufficiently

strong and long for use in building the walls and roofs of waren

Mexican jacals. As a fiber plant the sotol is worthless; even #!

were possible, with the defiant hooks, to scrape off the fibers, maid

are too few and weak to be serviceable. : E me

The base of the leaves and the young stems are full of a ee a

_Tefreshing and nourishing saccharine matter which supplies mae

1881.] Sotol. 875

and drink; no one need suffer from thirst or hunger who finds a

tuft of bear-grass and has along handled knife or an axe with

which to overcome it and cut off, as low as possible, some of the

central leaves; often these can be torn off by pulling them with

a twist at the unarmed apex. The nutritive saccharine substance

lies mostly in the white, expanded bases which always give to the

test a large proportion of glucose. These bases are closely and

compactly imbricated into a bulby expansion or “ head,” from

which the leaves proper seem to grow; this head, trimmed down

to the white, fleshy moss, is ready for use either on the road, in

the Mexican kitchen or by the mescal manufacturer. For eating,

it can be boiled, broiled or baked, previously, if convenient, cut-

ting an axial hole through it to render the cooking more rapid

and thorough. Broiling on coals takes an hour or Jess. Baking,

the usual mode of preparing it for food, is done in an oven or, if

in the field, in a small heated pit where it is kept about twenty-four

hours, or until it has acquired a rich brown color. The scales are

detached and eaten as needed after pealing off the thin epidermis

covering both sides, or again they may be ground into atole.

Their sweet taste, not unlike that of molasses, reminds one of the

“mescal” of the Arizona Apaches, that is, the baked head of the

Agave palmeri and Agave parryi. This, however, differs from

the sotol head in being much smaller and consisting mostly of

the thickened top of the rootstock, so that its solid, homogene-

ous mass can be cut in slices like a cake,

Sotol mescal—The main and paramount use of sotol is in the

Making of a spirituous liquor known as “ mescal” along the bor-

der, but in the interior of Mexico, to avoid mistaking it for a

Similar product from maguey, called soto] mescal. This fabrica-

tion is carried on mostly in the Mexican States of Chihuahua,

Cohuihuila and Sonora, and sotol mescal is the ordinary alcoholic

beverage of the native population. It is precluded in Texas by

€ high duties laid on this class of industry.

‘ The distillery, or vinata, is located in foot-hills, near water, and

in the midst of a perennial crop of bear-grass. Trains of burros

bring in every evening their loads of heads; these as trimmed by

the axe of the peon and ready for the oven, are subconical in

Shape, twelve or fifteen inches high and broad, and weigh from

twenty to, twenty-five pounds; they attain much larger dimen-

_ “l0ns in favorable localities, and a vinata proprietor has even

876 Sotol. | November,

assured me that it is not uncommon to find them measuring two

feet or more in diameter and weighing as much as seventy-five

pounds. All heads seem to be good for the purpose, even those

with a growing stem are not spared, though they douttless con-

tain less sugar, and the cutting is only suspended by the floods of

the rainy season, from June to September, during which period

the vinata is closed, and the mescal bibber constrained to reform,

now also is the time to shift the establishment, if needs be, toa

more abundant field of sotol.

The oven in which the heads are baked is a circular pit about

ten feet in diameter and depth, and lined with rough stones. Into

it combustibles are thrown and a brisk fire kept up for one day; it

is then cleaned, filled with heads and lastly covered with a roof

of hay and earth well trodden down. In three days the baking

is through; the heads are now chopped with hatchets and the

fragments pounded into a coarse, shreddy pulp, which is thrown

into vats four or five feet square, to undergo fermentation; in cold

weather warm water is added, otherwise it does not appear to be

necessary. During the first few days bare-legged men tread in

the vats to stir and mix the pulp. In from six to ten days, accord-

ing to season, the fermentation ceases and the contents of the

vats, solid and liquid, are transferred to the still. The first liquor

obtained, being richer in alcohol and possessing to a higher de- .

gree the peculiar aroma of sotol mescal, is considered of better

quality. The used-up leaves, still sweet to the taste, are fed ups

with relish by the donkeys, hogs, dogs and chickens of the

vinata.

A rough calculation makes me estimate at one pint the quam

tity of liquor obtained from one average head; the yield would

doubtless be much greater if, instead of roughly pounding the

baked heads, they were crushed into a fine pulp by appropriate

machinery. A vinata in good running order will turn oy

Mexican barrel a day (about twenty-eight gallons), sold at an

average price of fifteen dollars, and retailing for thirty or forty

cents a quart. The revenue laws of Mexico, exceedingly Severe

on articles of prime necessity, are very lenient on the vinatas,

which, if first-class, are only taxed fifty dollars a year.

The liquor obtained from the sotol is limpid and color!

Smell penetrating and its taste, sud generis, somewhat raw, P

_ gent and bitter, but with a pleasant aroma not unlike the sm@O°"

ess, tS ,

1881.] The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. 877

flavor of Scotch whisky. Its percentage of alcohol is about that

of whisky, perhaps a little higher; it burns readily with a yellow-

ish, purple flame, leaving an intensely bitter residue, and gives an

acid reaction with litmus paper. |

Sotol mescal is a pure, wholesome alcoholic drink; if the best

brand be kept long enough to lose its sharp edge, it compares

favorably with good whisky ; Mexicans prefer it, and with reason,

to the ordinary frontier whisky, and the American toper takes

kindly to it if the latter be not readily accessible. On account

of its cheapness and characteristic taste, mescal is very seldom

adulterated. As far as I have observed, it has no peculiar effect

upon the system; stomach, liver and kidney troubles, which

might be referred to its action, are very rare, nor do the acid,

pungent and bitter elements, contained in it, seem to affect any

of the organs unfavorably. In the parlance of the toper, and to

his thinking no mean advantage, tnere is much less headache in

it than in whisky.

This sotol mescal should not be confounded with maguey mes-

cal, or tayuile, the product of the maguey plant, Agave amert-

ana, and the liquor perhaps more generally known under the

name of mescal in the United States; it is extensively manufac-

tured in the interior Mexican States from the abundant sap col-

lected in the cavity made by removing the young central leaves.

Although much like it in taste and effects, it is a finer article

than the former and commands a higher price.

:0:-——

THE FAUNA OF THE NICKAJACK CAVE.

BY E. D. COPE AND A. S. PACKARD, JR.

f leas cave is situated near that point of the southern boundary

of Tennesse where it is joined by the line which separates

the States of Georgia and Alabama. In dimensions it ranges

with the Mammoth and Wyandotte caves of Kentucky and Indi-

ana, whose faunz have already been described in earlier volumes

of the Naruratist. Many miles of galleries have been explored,

and no end has yet been reached. The entrance is in the north-

€rn side of a hill, not far from the road that passes on the south

side of the bottom of the Tennessee river. It is of much more

imposing proportions than that of either of the caves already

Mentioned, The visitor climbs the hill from the road, following —

878 The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. —[November,

a path which leads along,the high bank of a considerable creek.

The entrance has a wide floor which is cut by a gorge at one side,

through which the stream just mentioned, issues. The roof

is flat and is overhung by vegetation. The following pages

record the results of two collecting expeditions made there by

Professor Cope.

Near the mouth of the cave a salamander of the genus Pletho-

don was found, which is very peculiar. Instead of the black

color with or without pale bluish dots, of the P. g/utinosus, the

sides and back are thickly spotted with large irregular yellowish-

green blotches of irregular form, producing an effect something

like the coloration of the Mexican Spelerpes leprosus. The dor-

sal spots are much larger than the lateral, and are often confluent.

On the head they almost exclude the ground color. In addition

to this color peculiarity, the feet differ from those of the ?. glu-

tinosus, in the rudimental character of the inner digit, both ante-

riorly and posteriorly. It is represented by metapodial bones

only, having no phalanges. There are thirteen costal foids, one

less than in P. g/utinosus, and the vomerine teeth do not extend

beyond, or even to, the internal nares. The tail is round and

rather slender. Length to axilla, .020; to groin, .051; to end of

tail, m..122. This species is about the size of the P. g/uinosus,

and as it is distinct from it, we propose that it be called Plethodon

@neus Cope.

In company with it was found the smaller P. ezwereus. Thea

there was a small scorpion; a Polydesmus, and some other centi-

pedes, and a beetle like Scarites, but larger than the common

northern species. Snails, as in other limestone regions, at

abundant.

On entering the mouth of the cave abundant tr

human habitation are found. These consist principally of ¢

coal and remains of shells—as Ios and Unios from the Teanesse®

river, brought there by the Indians as food. The creek was a :

merly dammed at this point and supplied water to a eo

the mouth of the cave. This was grinding the grain ot

neighborhood at the time of the first visit, but had disap} gee

by the second. Fishing was attempted from this point ee

the depths of the cave. The results were chiefly. oe i

_ which are described below. No blind fishes were seen oF f°

but some fishes of the outer world were caught at a pow: os

aces of former

har-

ret

1881. ] The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. 79

a very little light from the mouth was distinguishable. These

were the common blob, Potamocottus meridionalis, and sucker,

Catostomus teres.

At a distance of a mile from the mouth, the blind crawfish,

Orconectes hamulatus, began to be abundant; their snowy white

forms being readily distinguished by candle light in the clear

water.

On the land the Spirostrephon cavernarum proved to be com-

mon in some places, especially near to bat excrement, where were

also found a number of Pselaphid beetles.

On examination of the aquatic cave life, it appears that of the

five kinds of animals found living in the waters of the cave, all but

one differ decidedly from those of the caves of Kentucky, Indi-

ana or Virginia. This is a matter of considerable interest from an

evolutional point of view, as it shows that these cave forms are

the descendants of different out-of-door species from those of the

Caves to the northward. The Nickajack cave may be in a different

faunal region from the Mammoth or Wyandotte caves, and thus

the blind crawfish has perhaps originated from a different species

of Cambarus than that which gave origin to Orconectes pellucidus,

Thus while the conditions, such as dryness and temperature, of

Cave life are much the same throughout the United States, the

ancestors of the different cave animals were, in most cases, sine

since they belonged to somewhat different zod-geographical areas.

The first animal to notice, and one not uncommon in the waters

of the cave, is a little Isopod Crustacean which is evidently a modi-

fied Asellus, or water wood-louse, of the same genus as that so

abundant in the caves, subterranean streams and wells of Indiana

and Kentucky. We originally described the Mammoth cave

orm as Cecidotea stygia Packard; our new species may be called

Cecidotea nickajackensis Packard.

‘It is eyeless, and the body is longer, narrower and slenderer than in C, stygia.

The first antennz are very long and reach to the end of the third joint of the second

antennze ; they are nearly twice as long as in C. s¢ygia, and are purplish white, while

the flagellum is provided with long hairs. The second antenne are as long as the

head and extend backwards as far as the base of the abdomen. The legs are much

longer and slenderer than in C. stygia, The abdomen is long and narrow, and ee

Snadal appendages are moderately long in one specimen and short in another; in

One individual the outer branch is much shorter and smaller than in the others, and

in most it is as long as the basal joint. On the whole the caudal appendages are no

longer than the telson or terminal segment of the abdomen, while in C. s¢ygia they

are half as long‘as the entire body, Length 6 mm.

880 The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. [| November,

This species forms, in the antennz and slightly purplish color

and the proportions of the leg-joints, perhaps a nearer approach

to the genus Asellus than that of Mammoth and Wyandotte

caves; on the other hand C. stygia approaches Asellus more in

its shorter, broader body, with the shorter, broader abdomen. It

seems quite evident that the two species must have descended

from different species of Asellus. Thus far we know of but one

species of Asellus, A. communis of Say, from the Middle and

Northern States; whether there is an additional species in the

Gulf States from which the present species may have been de-

rived, remains to be seen.

The genus Cecidotea differs from Asellus in the larger and —

much longer head, the longer claw of the first pair of feet, the

much longer telson, and in the rami of the caudal appendages

being of nearly equal size, while in Asellus one is minute ; it 1S

also eyeless. The Asellus borelii of the Swiss lakes belongs to

Cecidotea.

The second crustacean discovered. swimming about in the sub-

terranean stream, was a species of Amphipod belonging to the

genus Crangonyx, and which may be called Crangonyx anten-

natum Packard! It is a large purplish species with very long

antennz, and distinct, well developed black eyes. This genus

occurs in caves and” subterranean wells in Europe and this

country. ; :

The form of most decided interest, however, is the blind craw-

the flagellum with

two-thirds as long

‘It is a larger and purplish species ; the first antenna very long;

20-24 joints; the entire antenna being over one-half, and nearly

as the body; the last joint of the peduncle being slightly more than half as long sf

the penultimate joint. Compared with C. gracilis Smith, from Lake Superior, tt

differs in the form of the eyes, the longer and stouter first antenne, the flagellum

having a greater number of joints, and in the different proportions of the joints of

the peduncle; the second joint of the latter being much longer than jn C, gracills,

while the first joint of the scape is much longer, and the second and third joints one

third longer in proportion than in C. gracifis. The fourth pair of epimera are unl

sually large and nearly square. The telson, together with the caudal stylets is much

as in C. gractlis, but the rami are slightly stouter and more polished, and the spinules

a little stouter. It probably is a little larger species than C. gracilis, the specimen’.

being 6-7 mm, in length; the eyes are not so distinct and are only one-fourth as

large as in C. gracilis, It is very different from C. vitreus Cope, of Mammoth cav®s

and from C. packardii Smith, differing in its distinct eyes, and larger, more numer

ously jointed antenne. es ee

PLATE VII.

THE FAUNA OF NICKAJACK Cave

1881.] The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. 881

fish (Orconectes hamulatus Cope'). It is quite different from O.

_ pellucidus of Mammoth and Wyandotte caves, in the rostrum, the

slender hands, the much broader antennal scale, and in the form

of the gonopods, while the whole creature is slightly slenderer

than O. pe//ucidus, though the rudimentary eyes are of the same

proportion to the neighboring parts as in the other species.

It is obvious that the form from which O. hamu/latus has been

derived, is quite different from that which has given origin to the

blind crawfish of the Kentucky and Indiana caves. The most

common species in Northern Georgia is Cambarus latimanus, it

having been found at Athens and Milledgeville, Georgia, and

probably being abundant in the northern limestone region of

Alabama. At any rate it is perhaps to Cambarus latimanus that

1In this species the teeth of the mandibles are usually much sharper than in the

other blind species, there being three well marked sharp posterior teeth in O. hamu-

latus, which in O. pooner are represented by low, obtuse, nearly obsolete teeth ;

though in different specimens the obtuseness of the teeth vary. The epistoma is

much as that of C. dartonii, se shorter and broader; while the median terminal

tooth is less marked than in C. Pe and the sides fall away rapidly from the

front margin. It is entirely different in shape frora that of. O. pellucidus. The an-

tennal lamina is shorter, broader and much more rounded on the inner edge than in

O. pellucidus, and in this respect differs from C. /atimanus, The rostrum is nar-

rower than in in O. pellucidus, while the first pair of (large) claws are niuch slenderer,

and the telson narrower than in O. pellucidus. The most obvious difference is

seen in the modified first and second pairs of abdominal feet of the male, to which

we may apply the term gonopod, for it is not properly an intromittent organ. he

first and second pair of gonopods differ decidedly from those of O. — and

Closely resemble those of Form I of Cambarus Jatimanus (from Athens, Georgia,

figured b y Hagen), those of the first pair being shorter, thicker and a last joint:

being oak bent, hock or sickle-shaped, whence the specific name Aamulatus. The

first gonopods differ in the proportion of parts from those of C. latimanus, but the —

joint is much more acute than in C. /etimanus.

The first pair of gonopods, compared with the /atimanus form of odesus from

and, given me by Mr. Uhler, are much like it in general form, but the sinuous

ratio is longer and iba he while the hook is much slenderer. In the second

Pair of accessory gonopods the knob is proportionately smaller. In other more

important characters O. hamulatus is quite unlike the /atimanus form of C. aide,

eing ape

ote on the Senction of the i sas es ted b Milne ec aig and others,.

the Ju anh the n of the Go are pt icone but : simply ru soe for the

Passage of the fertilizing fluid to the eggs. It is obvious ‘that in the 1 € gon-

es simply a rude tube or gutter to t the seminal fluid t she eggs a

they pass backward from the oviducts to the swimming feet of the female. During

kk lization o} e the hout dow in ;

olds the female by the claws, she resting on k. et

: gonopod is ap-

ee for convenience in descriptive carcinology to the external reproductive organs.

* crustaces, since they are-omly modified limbs.—(A. S. PACKARD, JR.)

‘oe

882 The Fauna of the Nickajack Cave. [November, '

we are to look for the ancestors of Orconectes hamulatus, On the

other hand, in the form of the body, of the scale and rostrum, as

well as of the upper lip and the chelz (though not of the gqno-

pods), Orconectes hamulatus approaches Cambarus affinis. Now of

all our North American crawfishes, it would appear, as Mr, Uhler

has told the writer, and as seems evident to us upon an examina-

tion of several types and the excellent figures of Dr. Hagen, that

C. affinis is the more generalized form, and this is tantamount to

saying that it is the ancestral form of our North American craw-

fishes. So while our Nickajack blind crawfish may have been an

immediate derivative of C. Zatimanus of the Gulf States, it probably

ultimately originated from C. affinis, a more wide-spread species.

It is also of interest to note that O. hamulatus presents the

same generic characters as O. pellucidus, the eyes being rudi-

mentary, functionless, the body long and the appendages slender;

we thus feel justified in separating the genus from Cambarus.

Of the two crickets found in Nickajack cave, there were three

small specimens of Hadenacus subterraneus Scudder, which only

differed from Mammoth cave individuals in having rather shorter,

thicker maxillary palpi; but this is not even a varietal difference,

as the antenne and legs have the same proportions. The other

cricket is a new species of Ceuthophilus, and may be called Ceu-

thophilus ensifer Packard.' It is very nearly allied to C. stygus

of Mammoth cave, but may be distinguished by the characters

given below.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.

Fic. 1.—Orconectes hamulatus Cope, twice nat. size. 1 @, antennal scale, enlarged;

4, first gonopod. Po

Fic. 2.—Crangonyx antennatus Packard. 2a, end of abdomen and appentsee “i

2 6, head with base of upper, and entire lower antenna and eyes; ? % ane

all enlarged,

Fic. 3.—Cecidotea nickajackensis Packard (only one pair of an s . a

upper or smaller antennz ; 3 4, end of telson with the caudal appendages 5 *°

e . ith the

Fic. 4.—Ceuthophilus ensifer Packard, nat. size. 44, end of abdomen, baie ee

outer rhabdite or blade of the ovipositor bent up to show the sham ad

toothed ovipositor, the six teeth are not well shown by the artist; 4 4, : -

_of the body with the ovipositor. J.S.Kingsley,dele

pies AALS can by the much >

tenn drawn). 34 —

‘This species differs from C. stygius Scudder, of Mammoth cay curved

more pointed sabre-shaped cuinaninans its tip being long, slender and acutely ich

with six smaller teeth, there bei ve in large individuals of C. styg7#*» “2 :

ovipositor is blunt, and the tip obliquely truncate, while the hind fem ee

little longer. The e as well developed as i US. ‘plack-

ing are much t e in the two species, both being thickly spotte

—— ength of ov | :

20mm. It differs from C. dafeus Scudder and C. sloanii Packard in”

_and can only be confounded with C. stygius. = .

area

1881.] Editors’ Table. 883

EDITORS’: TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

The International Geological Congress and the Zodlogi-

cal Society of France have recently adopted rules for the regula-

tion of nomenclature in the systematic biological seiences. These

resemble, in most respects, those previously adopted by the Brit-

ish and American Associations for the Advancement of Science.

After reading them, we wish to signify our approval of them,

with one slight modification in each.

The gist of the whole matter lies in the interpretation of the

law of priority. “The above-mentioned rules all agree that priority

rests on definition, both for generic and specific names, but the

tules of the congress and of the zodlogical society add some con-

ditions which we wish to note. The rules of the former body

Say (p. 121): “ For specific names priority shall not be irrevocably

acquired until the species shall have been not only described but

figured.” Our objections to this doctrine have been fully set

forth in an editorial in the July Narurauist. They are two. The

first is, that anything which may be taken as a substitute for a

characteristic and analytical description is objectionable. Intelli-

gent and intelligible descriptions are more needed than figures, and

they are entitled to especial recognition when they are produced.

Second, illustration is not always within the reach of naturalists,

especially out of Europe. We do not. wish, however, to be

understood as detracting from the importance of iconography.

The rules of the zodlogical society say: “ The name used for

€ach genus and each species can be no other than that by which

it was first designated, on condition: @. That it shall have been’

issued in a publication where it shall have been clearly and sufh-

' Ciently defined; and 4, that the author employs the binominal

nomenclature.’ Our criticism is here directed against the lan-

Suage “clearly and sufficiently defined.” While insisting on

description as a basis of nomenclature, we cannot be very exact-

ing as to the quality of the description. “ Sufficiently” described,

that is without defect or excess, is a perfection which few specific

°r generic descriptions can present in that stage of a science in

Which they first appear. This requirement is impracticable.

diagnosis may be imperfect, but who is to decide when the degree

; of clearness is sufficient to satisfy this rule? This requirement =

884 L:hitors’ Table. { November,

also cannot be carried into practice, however much we may desire

the reverse were true. othing temains but that we accept any

description and diagnosis, and when these fall below the standard

set by our French colleagues, let the critic and reviewer use their

best endeavors that such defects be made as odious as possible.

In the Proceedings of the U.S. National Museum, Professor

Gill insists on the adoption of a generic name proposed by him-

self without description, in preference to a name proposed later,

by another author, whose description contains some errors. Ihe

opposite course had been pursued by Professors Jordan and Gil-

bert, a circumstance which gives rise to the criticism in question.

Professor Gill admits the facts to be as above stated, and there-

upon makes the following remarks: “ What is the advantage of

any description? According to the rules of the British and

American Associations for the Advancement of Science, a de-

Scription is necessary as the basis of permanent nomenclature,

but like many of the other rules propounded in those codes, ie

is no proper logical basis therefor.” Professor Gill then proceeds

to make the usual statements about the inadequacy of the ear oi

generic descriptions, etc., a mode of reasoning generally resorte

to under similar circumstances. d hi

In taking his position, it is evident that Professor Gill and ‘a

school (for he is not alone in his views) have to contend not nes, 4

with the wisdom of the American and British Associations, but w!

that of the other bodies above mentioned. It would seem ps

fluous for us to defend a fortification so strongly held, but ¢ “

heresy in question has had considerable run in America, and 4d

fitting that said linen should be washed where it has been soi a

In brief then, one reason why a description is necessary

jl page : jence 1S

adding a new name to scientific nomenclature, is, that scien

1881.) Recent Literature. 885

RECENT LITERATURE.

ScuppER’s BUTTERFLIES: THEIR STRUCTURE, CHANGES AND LIFE-

HISTORIES.'—In this book we have a very successful attempt at a

thorough study of the butterflies of a limited region, New Eng-

land, not only from the point of view of the structure of the

winged insects, but also of their transformations ; and the author

does not stop here, where many books on butterflies would natu-

rally end, but in the light of modern biological science, he leads

the student to observe their habits, their seasonal changes and his-

tories, their styles of coloration, the sexual differences in coloring

and structure, and the probable reasons for such diversity ; then

he speculates on the origin and development of ornamentation,

on the ancestry of butterflies, and presents a genealogical table

which also serves, as it naturally should, as a tabular view of the

classification of butterflies in general, and finally he discusses the

geographical distribution of butterflies, and in a few last words

points out to the student how such a diversified region as New

gland received its butterfly population, especially how an Al-

pine summit, such as that of Mt. Washington, was peopled with

its Arctic-like forms, the Gexets semidea.

n the preparation of these chapters, the author has evidently

drawn very largely on knowledge acquired through his individual

observations pursued for a number of years. So far from being

in any sense a compilation, it is a fresh and original treatment of

a most interesting theme, replete with many facts heretofore un-

published and unknown to the scientific public. The presenta-

tion of the subject is nearly always clear and simple, and the

illustrations are, in many cases, original, and adds materially to the

interest and value of the text. There is a good deal of inequality

in the figures, the woodcuts, particularly those borrowed from the

works of Harris and Riley, have been well printed ; but by a false

€conomy a number of figures prepared for photographic repro-

duction, however originally well prepared by the artist, do not

print well, and we do not see how shaded drawings of this kind

€ver can-be made to present a respectable appearance by the side

°f good woodcuts, though simple outline sketches print well

enough. .

together with its good paper, neat typography and its general

usefulness to the student, we will only say that it is a matter of

Congratulation that so original and stimulating a book has ap- —

Peared ; that it is a credit to American science, and that it 1s

Unique in its nature, no such work, so far as we know, being in

existence in England, France or Germany. — :

* Buiterflies : thei 4 Life-histories, with special reference to

Dag hls Toate poe yg rometinn oa age

Of Butterflies, with an appendix of practical instructions. By SamuxL H. ScuDDER.

ee New York, Henry Holt & Co., 1881. 12mo, pp. 322, with 201 figures. —

886 Recent Literature. [ November,

The special student of butterflies, and the general student of

Lepidoptera, will doubtless find fault with some statements and

conclusions in the book. The author divides the butterflies into

four “ families,’ which we should regard as sub-families ; he splits

up: genera to what seems to us to be a most extreme degree, and

quite unnecessary in a book designed for popular use, where only

the leading groups need to be emphasized, and the subordinate

groups may be suppressed ; why should the old name Papilio be

given to what every one knows by the name of Vanessa antiopa,

and the genus Papi/zo cut up into a genus for nearly each species;

the rule of priority is an excellent one, but in rare cases, and

especially such as this, need not be relentlessly followed. The

old genus Hesperia has been also remorselessly subdivided. If

this was done in the lower families of moths, as it could be on

the same grounds, it would result in a burdensome and useless

list of generic names. Is it not better to indicate such subdi-

visions rather by numbers than names; and cannot the system-

atist leave a little margin for the movements of nature in what at

best is a direful straight jacket ? We deplore the present extreme

tendency to analytical views in classification; and believe that the

results of catholic, extended study over different orders and

classes of animals, and especially of variations in species and

genera, induces more conservative and synthetical methods.

mong minor points which we should indicate, is the account

of the development of the embryo on p. 11, which does not seem

to us to be either clear or exact; on p. 14 in his account of the

mouth-parts of the caterpillar, the author needlessly bewilders

the student by speaking of the “ astonishing number of moveable

organs,” when there are primarily but three pairs of such organs,

it seems to us that this portion is less clear and simple than the

succeeding chapters. It has been pretty well shown by embry-

ologists that there are four segments in the head of winged

insects corresponding to the four pairs of jointed appendages, v!z.,

the antennze, mandibles, and first and second maxilla. Where

are we to look for more? This is the view which has been pre-

1881. ] Recent Literature. 887

the butterfly mind of to-day differs in some respects from the

mental traits of primeval butterflies, which had a different envi-

ronment, different food plants and different enemies, and which

must have practiced different arts and stratagems in their strug-

gles for life from those of their descendants ?

7, Departmeut of the Interior. U. S. Geographical and G “ih é

Rocky Mraussie adie J. W. PowELt in charge. Re on the Geology and

rees of the .,

888 Recent Literature. [November,

work of the geologist at any one time or season is but a part,

and commonly a very small part, of a great system that extends

over vast areas of country. Thus, in explorations in the Rocky

mountains, the most assiduous labor of the geologist can cover

thoroughly, in one season, but a small part of the great range,

and his discussion of results cannot be complete in itself, but

must depend largely upon work in the adjoining regions. Rarely

then, does the geologist find his work so admirably circumscribed

by nature as did those to whom the exploration of the Black Hills

was committed. * * * Generally and simply the geological

structure of the Black Hills is as follows: Around a nucleal area

of metamorphic slates and chists, containing masses of granite,

the various members of the sedimentary series of rocks, the Pots-

dam, Carboniferous, Trias or red-beds, Jura, Cretaceous and Ter-

tiary, lie in rudely concentric belts or zones of varying width,

dipping on all sides away from the elevatory axis or region of the

Hills. From the Hills outward the inclination of the beds grad-

ually diminishes until all evidence of the elevation is lost in the

usual roiling configuration of the plains. At numerous points,

also, within the area of the Hills, are centers of volcanic aes

tion of an age probably coincident with that of the elevation °

the mountains themselves.” ;

The chapters by Mr. Newton, who died of typhoid fever a

Deadwood, in 1877, were revised and prepared for the press by

Mr. G. K. Gilbert, while the report is preceded by an appreciative

biographical sketch prepared by Professor J. S. Newberry.

he palzontology of the report, accompanied by sixteen

orate plates of fossils, is by Mr. R. P. Whitfield; an essay 0” Fi

microscopic petrography of the Black Hills, with two fine colore

plates, is by John H. Caswell; while Professor Asa Gray offers

brief enumeration of the plants, and Mr. Horace P. Tuttle eh

upon the astronomy and barometric hypsometry of the Black Hills.

A Memoir on THe LoxotopHopon AND UINTATHERIUM, e

Henry F. Osborn, Sc.D..—This fine memoir opens auspicious y

the quarto series of Contributions from the E. M. Museum ai

A Me ScD.

A Memoir upon Loxolophodon and Uintatherium. By Henry F. Osbon™ Se. Y

Accompanied by a Stratigraphical Report on the Bridger beds in the Washakie basi.

py the

\CH McMaster, C.E. to, pp. 54, IV plates, 11 maps. Published Mf, ‘e

elab- -

nal BS

889

Recent Literature,

1881. ]

- ween

Loxolophodon cornutus Cope. One-eighth nat. size.

Loxolophodon cornutus Cope; from below. One-eighth nat. size.

890 Recent Literature. [ November,

Hervey’s Sea Mosses.\—In the September NaTuRALIST we

had the pleasure of calling attention to the publication of a much

needed help to the student of sea-weeds in Dr. Farlow’s “ Marine

Algz of New England and the Adjacent Coast.” It is gratify-

ing to be able now to add another book to the list of those de-

voted to the beautiful inhabitants of the sea, the ‘“ sea-mosses,”

as they are popularly called. The Rev. A. B. Hervey, long a

student and admirer of these plants, has just brought out his

“Sea Mosses,” in which he has attempted to make “a book which

should be a real and helpful guide to those who, though not ex-

pert botanists, and not having or using any aids to a good pair of

eyes other than a simple pocket magnifier, desire to begin the

collection and study of marine plants.” The book is thus, toa

great extent, designed for amateurs, and for those who, spending

a few weeks at the sea-side, want to know somewhat about the

pretty plants which are washed up by the waves.

- The introductory chapter includes somewhat about scientific

names, classification, geographical distribution, times and places

for collecting, mounting and preserving, methods of study, clubs

and classes, and an historical sketch. This chapter alone 1s well

worth the price of the book to the sea-side visitor, that portion treat-

ing of mounting and preserving: being especially well treated. A

chapter each is given to the Bright green Algz, the Olive-colored

Algae and the Red Alge. The general order followed is that

North American Alge.” Keys are given which readily lead the

student to the genera. The species are described in simple lan-

guage, and many little interesting items are thrown in which add

much to the value of the book. Twenty colored plates, most of

which are very good, representing twenty-four species, are bound

into the book. These are engraved from photographs of spect

mens in the author’s herbarium, so that they represent real plants.

A short glossary and an index of genera and species close at

pretty book, which is tastefully gotten up by both printer an

binder. We trust that both author and publisher will be amply

repaid for their venture in trying to give to Americans a popular

ook on a scientific subject—C. E. B

_ 1 Sea Mosses : a Collector's Guide, and an Introduction to the study of Marine —

Alge. By A. B. Hervey, A.M. S. E. Cassino, Boston, 1 yine

The Botanical Collector's Handbook. By WW. WHITMAN BAILEY, ripe: fa

‘ee Professor of Natural History (Botany) in Brown University. Natural

oe Se les. Geo. A. Bates, Salem, Mass., 188.

inn 2

. 2 a

1881. ] Recent Literature. 891

such topics as the collector’s outfit, the vasculum, portfolio, map,

lens, trowel, note-book and pocket-knife. The instructions are

clearly given in an attractive manner. Inthe second chapter,

under Fieldwork, and How to use the Portfolio, very many excel-

lent hints are given. The section on Cactace is especially valu-

able. Mosses (from notes by T. P. James), Lichens and Alge

are treated of in the succeeding sections. Professor Peck’s sec-

rved. It is, however, entirely optional with later naturalists

whether they do this or not, and as in this case it was not done

until several other good names had been given, there is no neces-

Sity for adopting this inelegant sobriquet.

Norra American Mesozoic AND Canozorc GEoLocy AND PAL-

ONTOLOGY, by S. A. Miller.2—This is an octavo volume of 338

Pages, which contains, in Mr. Miller’s language, “an abridged

of Tools, Tackle and Implements. By | :

. s. Bound. Published by Robert Clark & Co. Cincinnati, 1851,

i ak - hk American Mesowic and Canowic Geology and Paleontology. By S. A.

(Gea Published by the Cincinnati Society of Natural History. 8vo, pp. Te.

thet, 218i) Ciena, WIL I PN

892 Recent Literature. [ November,

history of our knowledge of the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous

and Tertiary formations of this continent.” This description

consists in part of extracts compiled from the writings of Ameri-

can geologists, and in part of the author's own observations. It

forms a valuable synopsis of the subject, and the references to

the palzontology will be especially welcome, since it is the only

compilation of this work in existence. Such a work deserves

especial commendation, since American naturalists are generally

precluded from taking it up owing to the pressure of new work.

It is to be hoped that “Mr. Miller will be able to accomplish for the

extinct vertebrates what he has already done for the invertebrates,

in his synopsis of the described generaand species, Mr. Miller's

views as to the glacial period are very pronounced. He does not

find any evidence of the existence of such a period in North Amer-

ica, either in the stratigraphy or the fossils.

ON THE STRUCTURE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE SKULL IN THE

much value. The study of the morphology of the vertebrate

skull has always possessed a high interest, and Professor Parker's

contributions have added much to our knowledge of it dhe

present part refers to the Axwura, au includes descriptions of

numerous species and genera. Of the anatomical work we can

speak in terms of high. praise. Ua tininately Professor Parker

has not been able to learn, from his researches, the true relations

of the contents of the order of Anura. This is seen in his adher-

ence to the system of Ginther, which is, in every respect, W orth-

less; and in his entire ignorance ‘of the work of American naturalists

on the subject. In this country the osteology of the Aura was

understood sixteen years ago, and the classification was then

placed upon a positive foundation. Professor Parker's knowledge

of the literature is evidently not what it should be. The memoir

is illustrated by forty-four beautifully executed plates.

Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS.—Notes on the Vertebrata of the Preglacial et

T. Newto .R.S.

ar Bie he Vertebrata of the Pre-glacial Forest ee Series of East of England.

: roboscidze and Cretacea, By E. T. Newton, F.R.S. 8vo, pp. 8: Fre

the Ceotogia Magazine, fare and 7 ‘dy, 1881. Dantes #881, From the author.

cata of the United States National Museum. 8vo, pp. 34- W ashing!0”

sina of the Academy of Sciences, Philadelphia, July 1881. pp- 15- Phila-

ement of Sciences

Twenty-ninth Yaga ime deo talge , geoti hag 0, PP- 800, plates,

a Baie by the society, Salem, 1881. From the society.

1 On the Rr an and Development of the Skull in the ae By WILLIAM

Kitcuen Parker, F.R.S. Part 111 she: Eales

ae - 4to, pp. 266, 44 plates. From

‘ cal Transactions 0 of the eer Society. Published by the Society. Lon don,

1881.] Recent Literature. 893

Further PPh on the Sabet of Yueca and on Pronuba and Prodoxus. By C.

V.R Riley. 0, pp. 34, From the Proceedings of the glates ‘Association

for the lvaeeans of aebclige, jes 1880, 1881. From the author.

Tra a. of Planorbis = Stemheim, with remarks on ae effects of gravity

upon the forms of shells and animals. By Alpheus Hyatt.- 8vo, rp. 28, 2 plates,

cuts. ait, ract sic m the Prceddlave of the American Association for the ’Advance-

ment of Science, Avis s 1881. Boston, 1881. From the author.

On the ae of the Iron Ores of the vi rquette Pile of Lake Superior. By

M. E. Wadsworth. From the Proceeding of the Boston Society of Natural His-

tory. 8vo, to 12; Sessesk 1 1881. From the aut a

The Glacial Phenomena of North Aika re their relation to the question of

Man’s Antiquity in the Valley of the Delaware. By Rev. Frederick G. Wright.

8vo, pp. 8, seg ga 1881. From the qethiot.

Census Bulletin 22352 Pren ney Report on the Production of Anthracite

Coal. By Ra eat uaa, Director. pp. 6.

Census Bulletin No. 245. Preliminary Report upon the Salt tce 4 of the

United ee By W. L. Rowland, Special Agent for Chemical Indus pp 2

Cen Bulletin No. 246, Statement of nen J dness and aps ie the out-

standing Bonded Debt of the Cities and Towns of the United States containing a

Population of 7500 and — rds. By Reber: P. Porter, Special Agent on Wealth,

Debt and Taxation. . 10

Census Bulletin No. 251. Cotton Produce. By Eug. W. Hilgard, Special Agent

in charge of et ton vibe ion. pp. ;

Census Bulle . 261, Statistics Bf the Fisheries of ia pon Lakes. By G.

Browne book Heian Agent in charge of Fisheries Divi Department

of the Interior, Census Office, oe Government Preweg Office, Washing-

ton, D. C., 1881 From the Sec. Int

m de or ntleige Levinger af en ‘tok pemessig, med Cariama, besltet, ud-

dod od Fugl fra Heasitiens Knoglehuler. Af. J. Reinhardt. 8vo, pp. 13. (Aftryk af

Vidensk. Medd. fra den Naturh. Foren. 1, Kjobenhavn, 1881. From the author.

Vogle Bewzrkniger om Gumlesnes, iser Beltedyrenes, Bekken. Af. J. Rein-

hardt. 8vo, pp. 11, 1 plate. Aftryk af Vidensk. me eddl. fra den Natur. Foren, I,

Kjobenhavn, 1881, From the author.

Notes on the habits of the Manatees (Manatus: australis) in ae in the Brigh-

ton Aquarium. By Agnes Crane. 8vo, pp. 6, cut. From the ni eedings of the

Zoolo logical Society of — Lo ndon, ~ From the author

Public Gardens and Plan Hints and suggestions for eee Cinchona

Plants from the seed and aseabtis bing Chaetielke plantations. By Morris, Direc-

Pr of Public oaiagatig and Plantations. 4to, pp. 4. Kingston, oie 1881.

_ *fom the direc

Ge — Caivaton : SS peneian 4to, pp. 2. (Kingston) juni 1881. From

orate ce a = Sociedad Medico- desig ag Redactor en oad

Le Jaun Dondé. Tomo 1v, numeros 475. Administrador, J. R. Sauri. Merida,

From the Gama thleiralor:

Primitive Industry ; or Illustrations of the handiwork in Stone, Bone and Clay of

_ the Native Races ofthe Northern Atlantic seaboard of America. By Charles C

Abbott, M.D. Ro oy. 8vo, pp. 560, cuts, bound. Salem, Mass., 1881. From the

‘Horses’ Teeth ; a treatise on their mode of development, a pi rncepisined

ves va my, microsco opical character, patholo and dentistry; based well-know

_ SSentologists and veterinary surgeons ie, which is added a paso a the aaah:

. hnical sed. By William H. Clark. 12mo, pp. 262, cuts, bow nd.

as 1881, From the author.

hv smallest of living organisms. By Dr. Vabtwand Cohn, Trans- —

es S. Dalley. ea or * I pate.” aa ie N.Y., Laake From

894 General Notes. : [November,

The Journal of the Cincinnati Society of Natural pare Vol. Ie No. 3, Oct.,

1881. 8vo, pp. 80, 1 plate, cuts. Cincinnati, 1881. n the soc

Tenth Report of the State vig: abst on she ‘iets and Pole AF Insects of

the State of Illinois. By Cyr bod fe BI Sisig " Eaton 8vo, pp.

232, cuts. Springtield, 1881. From raiy £8 oe

Notes upon the genus ew with aac riptions of new varieties and species.

By Henry Edwards. 8vo, p- 8. From the Bulletin of the Brooklyn Entomologi-

cal Society, November, 1880. hooky: 1880. From the author.

Palze te he Bulletin, No. 33- On some Mammalia of the Lowest Eocene

Sh of New Mexico. By E. DC ope. 8vo, pp. 12. Ext. Am. Phil. Soc. Phila-

delphia, ‘aie Poi 1881. From the author

entury Plant. By Joseph F, lowes. 8vo, pp. 2. Ext. from ime jou of

the mas re sane s of N rural History. Cincinnati, 1881. From t

Fourteenth Annual Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum 4 Alcea

ice, Aa Pehedlogy, Vol. 11, No. 1. 8vo, pp. 42. Cambridge, 1881. From

the curator.

Geology of Washtenaw county, Michigan. By Alexander Winchell. 8vo, ta

30. Ext. from the History of Washtenaw county. Chicago, 1881, From the

author.

Cinsic of Michigan. By Alexander W pour 8vo, pp. 12. From ae Annual

Report of the Horticultural Society, 1880. Chicago, 1881. From the a

Proceedings of the gee lane! de ately Acti August, 30, 1881, "be PP.

30. Washington, 1881. ciety 3.

The nature of ne existence sk Wc By Edward Randall Knowles. pp-

atti se ia

es in AStronoty. A lecture elaborated for general readers. By Arthur

Bartlett. 12mo, pp. 56. Battle Creek, Mich., 1881, From the author. i

Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Vol. = aah 4, 5, 6—April, May, June, 1991.

8vo, pp. 76. Salem, 1881. From the s iP

Circulars of Information of the eS, of Education, No. 6, 1881. AR Wi goo

the teachings of Chemistry and Physics in the United States. By Frank Wieser

rth Clark, $.B. 8vo, pp. 220. Government shh Office, Washington, 1

From the Sec, of Interior.

Charter and By-Laws of the caren Copper Mining and Manufacturing pins ®

A History of the Company. A Letter from the Devernates< of the In pig ae

Joseph S. Wilson, ag, Dead Profes sor Wm. DeRyees’ Geologica we

i pp- 16. Dallas, Texas, 1880. From the company. Beat

Mining World, Sept. 15, "188, Vol. 11, No. 2. sei pp. 16. Los Vegas, ae

. Report to his oo the Governor. The Thirty-ninth Missouri Unive as

Catalogue, 4880-81. 8vo, pp. 172, 5 plates, Jefervon City, er

university. Atlas.

Report on the Geol logy, and gules of the Black Hills of Dakota, wi My Waele

B - Newton, M. Sa and Walter Jenney, M.E. Department of the niet well

ington, U. S. Geog. and ene Survey oF the Rocky Mountain region, J-

in charge. 4to, se: eles

“rT

GENERAL NOTES.

acs of Chicago, rms has and figures, ina ie nt pee

Egist, ge ladys

Slipper Cypripedium s ipectable J; which he found Mile ‘hea |

5 leat June in the region at the southern end of Lake Mi |

- Edited oo Paor. C. E. Bessey, —_ Towa.

1881. | Botany. 895

One flower was of the normal form, but the other was almost

perfectly regular. “It had all three sepals distinct, and of equal

size; it had no ‘slipper’ or lip, but the three nearly equal petals

were shaped alike, differing from the sepals only in being a little

narrower, and, of course, alternating with them. The ovary,

which in most Orchidacez, and all other Cypripediums, is twisted

through half a revolution, in this case was not twisted at all, and

it was only slightly, instead of conspicuously bent to one side, so

that the flower faced more nearly upward than in the ordinary

form. The column, as usual, consisted of united stamens and

pistils, but it was much less bent to one side, and the union of

parts was not nearly so complete. There were three distinct an-

thers instead of two, alternating with the lobes of the distinctly

three-lobed stigma. Instead of one Jarge, dilated, triangular,

fleshy body, apparently occupying the place of the third stamen

in the ordinary form, and heretofore supposed in fact to be homol-

ogous with the third stamen, there were two of these bodies

alternating with the petals, and evidently belonging to a distinct

whorl. They may really be the homologues of stamens, but if

so, the plan of the flower contemplates two distinct sets of sta-

mens, with three in each set. Or we may, perhaps, with better

ason, regard them as petals belonging to an inner whorl that —

alternates with the first.

_ Tue Contrers or JaPAN.—Dr. Maxwell T. Masters publishes

in the Fournal of the Linnean Society for July, a valuable paper

on the Conifers of Japan. Thirteen genera are represented, and

of these one, Sciadopitys, is peculiar to Japan; two, viz: Crypto-

meria and Cephalotaxus are peculiar to Japan and China. Ginkgo

iS Supposed not to be a native of Japan, although often cultivated,

Of the forty-one species enumerated, no less than twenty-two

(which are indicated by an asterisk in the subjoined list) are —

Peculiar to Japan, and this fact leads Dr. Masters to infer “ that

apan may have formed a special center whence Conifers have

migrated elsewhere.” The species given, omitting varieties, are

orientalis L.. ( Biota orientalis Endl., the Chinese arbor vita of the

gardens), *T. pisifera Masters ( Retinospora pisifera Seib. et Zucc.),

/. obtusa Masters (Retinospora obtusa Seib. et Zucc.), Funiperus

“igida Seib. et Zucc., *¥. nipponica Maxim., ¥. littoralis Maxim.,

F. taxifolia Hook. et Arn., % chinensis L., Cryptomeria Japonica

n., *Cephalotaxus pedunculata Seib. et Zuce., C. drupacea Seib.

Mg Zucc., C. umbraculifera Seib., * Taxus cuspidata Seib. et Zucc.,

Sake lardiva Laws., *Torreya nucifera Seib. et Zucc., *Podocarpus

_ Nageia R. Br., *P. casia Maxim., *P. appressa Maxim., P. macro-

2 an “a Don., * Sctadopitys verticillata Seib. et Zucc., Pinus denst-

ora Seib. et. Zucc., P. Thunbergit Parl., P. parviflora Seib. et Zuce.,

£, horaiensis Seib, et Zucc., P. cembra L., var. pumila Parl., Picea

a ““exmowiczii Regel, *P. polita Carr., *P. Alcockiana Carr, 2. :

896 General Notes. | [ November,

ajanensis Fischer, P. Glehnii Fr. Schmidt, *7suga Sieboldi Carr.,

*T, diversifolia Masters, Abies firma Seib. et Zucc. (includes also

the forms hitherto known as A. difida Seib. et Zucc.), *A. brachy-

phylla Maxim., A. Veitchii Lind., A. Sachaliensis Masters, *A.

homolepis Seib. et Zucc., *A. Mariesii Masters, *Larix leptolepis

Endl. The value of this paper is greatly enhanced by numerous

excellent figures, and by what appears to be a full list of the

numerous synonyms under which these plants have been known.

It cannot fail to receive attention from the growers of Japanese

Conifers in this country, and it is to be hoped that it will serve to

better the nomenclature of these trees in the gardens and cata-

logues of our nurserymen, to say nothing of its use among hot-

anists themselves.

A Pocket Manuat oF Botany WantTED.—Why has not some

enterprising book-publishing house given the army of collecting

botanists in this country a neat little pocket manual of botany 2

Every one who has ever collected at all (and what botanist has

not ?) has felt the need of carrying a manual with him to enable

him to call to mind certain peculiarities which require rene

tion in the field; but the burden of carrying a rather large ai

somewhat heavy book on a long jaunt, is often too much in addi-

DeE-

LEMNA POLYRRHIZA AGAIN DISCOVERED IN FLOWER ON THE I

TROIT RIVER.—On July 24, 188t, after an interval of ten fee Pe

have again found Lemna polyrrhiza L, in flower, in great Michi-

ance, in the same pond on Belle Isle, in the Detroit river, ; i ne

gan, in which my first discovery (of July 30, 1871) was M4 S tia

specimens at that time determining the fact, which had aor

puted, that the flower contained two ovules. (See pec

Naroratist, Vol. 5, p. 652.) The flowers were in every stag*

of development, some being in bud (the stamens still encl x

to seed. The shade of overhanging growths, such as WI ’

thus situated, the frond, as I have observed, being

__ time reduced in size. As might be expected, in clusters Tr

senting fronds of various stages of growth, the older cece bate

the flowering ones, oe

1881.] Botany. 897

erless L. polyrrhiza and L. minor, the latter two being greatly in

the minoritv. At the present time Z. minor has totally disap-

books, above all others, should not b

ne a

_ in this country, as they are abroad, i

898 General Notes, { November,

New Mexican,” describes Astragalus Gilensis, A. mogollonicus,

Potentilla subviscosa, Megarrhiza Gilensis, Senecio cardamine,

Howellii and Polygonum Parryi; Professor Eaton continues his

valuable notes ‘‘ New or little known Ferns of the United States,’

and describes a fern from Florida (discovered by A. H. Curtiss),

Aspidium trifoliatum Swartz, not hitherto known in the United

States; G. E. Davenport’s note on “ Vernation in Botrychia,” is

interesting as recording the case of “two Botrychiums whose

buds have thrown a doubt, for the first time in my experience, on

the reliability of the bud-form as a test for the determination of

the smaller species of the genus;” W. H. Leggett describes the

curious bellows-like structure of the anthers of Rhexia Virginica,

by means of which the pollen is actually blown out upon te

body of a visiting insect! The September Gardener's Menthly

contains an interesting account, by Thomas Meehan, of the snow

plant (Sarcodes sanguinea) of the Sierras. As a result of many

examinations it is determined to be “an annual, germinating on

small pine roots, and subsequently obtaining subsistence from the

earth, as Aphyllon and Epiphegus do.”. In the same number Mr.

Meehan records the receipt of specimens of horseradish seeds,

which are very rarely seen; these came from Maine. new

tree fern, Cyathea monstrabilia, from Jamaica, is described by G. S.

Jenman, in the September Yournal of Botany. The trunk is four

or more feet in height, and three inches in diameter ——C. M

Vorce, in the Am, Mo. Microscopical Fournal, describes, ae

whic

one compact 16mo volume, the morphology and physiology, :

the outlines of classification which composed the two ook of

the English edition. In introducing it to American students !P

second or middle class schools, the editor hopes “ that It may

serve to direct attention to the study of plants as living things

rather than to their bare analysis and classification.” ——Geo- A.

Bates, of Salem, Mass., offers for sale bound copies of Dr. Far-

low’s new book, “The Marine Alge of New England and the

Adjacent Coast.” Joseph F. James’ short paper on “ The Cen-

tury Plant,” read before the Cincinnati Society of Nat. History,

contains a number of interesting facts about this valuable plant.

E. Lamson Scribner, of Girard College, Philadelphia, nee

America 1

undertaken to publish sets of the grasses of North Am

fascicles of about one hundred species each. Specimens 1n quan-

__ tity are solicited from all parts of the country, especially from :

. for this:

sed for January next. It is sincerely to be hoped - vat is i

1881.] Zoology. 899

Scribner will receive such encouragement as will enable him to

carry to a successful conclusion a work of so much importance.

——Dr. N. L. Britton has compiled for the Geological Survey a

“Preliminary Catalogue of the Flora of New Jersey. Ie: is

printed on alternate pages, the blank pages being intended for

notes, additions and corrections. J. B. Ellis furnished the list of

Fungi, A. B. Hervey the marine Alga, and Francis Wolle, the

fresh-water Algz, and T. F. Allen the Characeze. The notes are

valuable, and in many cases are quite full. Copies (to be returned

in 1882) may be obtained by addressing the State geologist, Pro-

fessor Geo. H. Cook, New Brunswick, N. J

ZOOLOGY.

Tur Resemsiances AND DIFERENCES OF THE TWO SEXES, by

M. G, Delaunay.—This is the title of a paper published in the

Revue Scientifique for September 3, 1881. It has special interest

as presenting the most complete review of the differential charac-

ters of the sexes of the human species which has appeared. The

author's conclusions are curious and instructive. We give a

necessarily much abbreviated synopsis.

€ author commences by showing that the female is much

"iversally the case among Mammalia. This superiority of the

ale sex consists in the following points: In the male the phe-

_ 4nd redder, and contains more red corpuscles and hzemoglobine,

and fewer white corpuscles and less water. Malassez has proven

that man has a million more red corpuscles in a cubic millemeter of |

blood than woman. Man eats more than woman. The public

Charities know that it costs more to feed a boy than a girl,

Nevertheless though she eats less, woman eats more frequently. |

In the asylums the women take food from the table, thus doub-

ing the number of their meals. | De

Respiration is more intense in man than in woman. Inaman

- and woman of equal size, the man has a demilitre more pulmonary-

. n absorbs more oxygen, though he breathes less frequently.

a According to Quetelet, between the ages of fifteen and fifty, wo-

_ ‘Man has one inspiration per minute more than man. At all ages

_ Man excretes more carbonic acid than woman. The temperature

_ 4 Man is more elevated than that of woman. In the circulation,

the blood-pressure is stronger in man than in woman, but the

_ Pulse is less frequent. The differences in several animals areas

: His conclusions are as follows:

OO General Notes. [ November, |

follows: in the lion 18 pulsations per minute ; the ox, 10; the

sheep, 12; and 10-14 in man. The anatomical preéminence of

the male is especially in the functions of animal life.

The skeleton of woman is lighter in proportion to her total

‘weight than that of man. It has been discovered that the male

skeleton contains more inorganic matter than that of woman,

and more carbonate of lime and less phosphate of lime. The

woman uses the right side less than the man. According to

Livon the left shoulder blade is larger than the right in woman,

as in the inferior races. Broca found that the length of the clavi-

cle as compared with the humerus is greater in woman than in

man, as it is greater in the negro than in the white race. Man as

is well known, is larger than woman, and a!so more heavily built,

although the adipose coat of woman frequently gives an opposite

impression to the observer. Among the Indo-European nations,

woman is more prognathous than man. |

The difference between the voices of man and women are pér-

ceptible among many of the higher animals. The inferiority in

€

1000. Morselli compares the capacities as 85 .

ing to Broca the difference in favor of man is 150 centi r

the French and 211 for the Parisians. In woman the skull ts

generally more elongate and less elevated.

The brain of man is: heavier than that of woman, not

absolutely but relatively. The size of woman to that of man

being as 927 to 1000, the weight of her brain is to t

as 909 to 1000.. When of equal size, the brain of woma

less heavy than that of man, The mean weight of se’

males of ge —

s of conforma-

— Huschke),

hke foun

the frontal lobes are less developed in woman. usc n the

_. After a discussion of the metaphysical qualities of the — i

_the author presents a view of their peculiarities in different race’ 4

certain infe--

ot +s ee : eek

__ “The preéminence of the female sex, only seen in

1881. ] Zoology. gor |

rior races of men, and in the infants of the higher races, marks

an inferior stage of evolution.

“It is the same with the equality of the sexes, which is only

Seen in little developed individuals, as inferior races and species,

young persons, the aged, and in inferior classes of society.

“On the contrary, the preéminence of the male over the female

represents a superior phase of evolution, since it characterizes

Superior species and races, adult age and the superior classes of

Society.

“From the moral as from the piysical side, evolution appears

to have progressed from a state of superiority of the female to

that of the male sex; and the stage of equality represents an

intermediate stage.”

ON THE MorPuotocy oF THE CORBULA OF CERTAIN PLUMULAR-

IDE —The specialized portion of the stem of the Plumularide

which bears the sexual organs and which, from its likeness to a

hasket, is known as the corbula, has been compared by the great-

€st authority on the hydroids, Professor Allman, to a metamor-

Phosed pinna, while the ribs of the same have been likened to

the changed mesial nematophores of the pinna. Although this

comparison has much to recommend it in Ag/aophenia spinosa

ll, and some others, it is certainly not the homology of the

corbula in all genera, as I have shown in my report on the deep

sea hydroids of the Blake (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. vits, No.

7). The true morphology of the corbula in these new genera,

and the facts which support it, may be stated briefly as follows :

In the new genus Pleurocarpa, collected off St. Vincent by

Mr, Agassiz, we have a true corbula homologous with a hydroid

branch, and not with a modified pinna. In it the so-called cor-

bula ribs are modified pinnz and not comparable with metamor-

-phosed nematophores. Showing that such is the case, we find in

this genus that the proximal end of a branch which bears the

Corbula assumes the normal form of a corbula, while the distal

extremity retains the true character of a branch with pinnz un-

changed. ” This venus seems to me to indicate, without doubt,

that the corbula is a modified branch, bearing as ribs metamor-

Phosed pinnz instead of being, as taught by Allman, the homo-

gue of a pinna with developed nematophores forming corbula _

T1Ds,

._ When now we come to study another genus of Plumularide,

in which the protection of the sexual organs also assumes the

orm of a corbulz, we find verifications of the same morphology

which has been shown to be true in Pleurocarpa. The distal ends

Of the branches in Hippurella are true corbula, while the prox-

mal portions are normal branches and bear prime regularly

| boatsed, imparting to the whole an unquestionable likeness to a

Fanch. Indeed, no one can for a moment question that here ae

go2 General Notes. : [ November,

these organs are metamorphosed branches, although some doubt:

may arise as to whether the distal ends are true corbule or not.

If we compare Hippurella with Callicarpa Fewkes, all question

as to the latter point is silenced, for in Callicarpa we have a struc-

ture which is undoubtedly a true corbula similar to that of Hip-

purella.

In Callicarpa we have a hydroid with simple stem, bearing

pinne arranged regularly and alternately along its whole extent.

On the main stem from which these pinne spring, there also arise

corbule which closely resemble in shape spikes of wheat or bar-

ley. At that point on the main stem from which these arise there

is no variation in the normal arrangement of the pinne, and no

omission of a single pinna such as would be expected if the spikes

were modified pinne. The corbule arise like any branch, and in

their arrangement on the stem, no less than in their shape, bear

every resemblance to metamorphosed branches.

The genus Callicarpa has still another interesting resemblance

to Hippurella bearing on this homology. While the latter genus

has the distal extremity of the branch modified into a corbula,

and the proximal end remains normal with true pinnae, Callicarpa—

has the whole branch changed in the same way, and it Is desti-

tute of those proximally placed pinna which characterize the

corbula of Hippurella.

In conclusion, considering the corbula of the three generé,

Pleurocarpa, Callicarpa and Hippurella, we are led to give to it

a different homology from that which has been suggested for the

same structure, as I believe, in some species of Agalophema.

The strongest evidence in support of my theory is foun Ss

Pleurocarpa, where the corbula is undoubtedly a modified branc™®

Are we to suppose that the corbula is not homologous 1n differ-

ent genera, or that in one genus it is a modified pinna, while 1

another a metamorphosed branch ?—¥. Walter Fewkes, Cam-

bridge, September, 1881.

Micration oF Birps ar Nicut.—The vexed questions oa

garding the migrations of birds and whether they fly by night ate

at great elevations have been elucidated by Mr. W. E. D. eh

the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club for April. While,

. with some friends, looking through the 9% inch equatoria’ @

birds, among which were plainly recognized warblers, apnea 2

woodpeckers, and blackbirds, the relative numbers being i

order of kinds given. Among the finches Mr. Scott ident

Chrysomitris tristis, and the blackbird was the Quiscalus purpureus

With tare execeptions, the birds were seen to be flying” ‘

oo rth-west to south-east. By observing the height of the mo os

1) -

og foes

1881.] Zoology. | 903

above the horizon in degrees and the two limits of the area of

observation—that is, how near or how far the birds noted were

from the glass—it was found, with the aid of Professor C. A.

Young, that the birds flew at the great elevation of nearly 10,000

feet, and that the average number of birds passing through the

field of observation per minute was four and a half. In comment-

ing on these fact, Mr. J. A. Allen remarks that Mr. Scott’s novel

and important observations definitely establish several points in

relation to the migration of birds that have heretofore rested al-

most wholly on conjecture and probability. ‘We have, first,

the fact that the nearest birds seen through the telescope must

have been at least one mile above the earth and may have ranged

in elevation from one mile to four miles. It has been held that

birds, when migrating, may fly at a sufficient height to be able to

distinguish such prominent features of the landscape as coast-

lines, the principal water-courses, and movntain-chains over a

wide area. Of this, thanks to Mr. Scott, we now have proof. It,

therefore, follows that during clear nights birds are not without

guidance during their long migratory journeys, while the state of

bewilderment they exhibit during dark nights and thick weather

becomes explainable on the ground of their inability to discern

their usual landmarks—points that have been assumed as prob-

able, but heretofore not actually proven.”

BRaviNG THE “ Brizzarps.”—On the last day of March I visited

the Iowa Agricultural College, at Ames, Story county. I walked

Over from the station and back, and while returning my path lay

across a little knoll, from which the snow had disappeared, though

It still covered half the country around. Near the top of this

Knoll a little bird flew up from the dry grass at my feet. Through

a “survival” of the old habit of boyhood, of searching for the

nest on the spot whence a bird rises in this way, I instinctively .

Stopped and looked, and there, on the ground, was a neat little

nest, in the bleached prairie grass, containing three small speckled

€ggs! Great patches of snow and ice lay in all the hollows near

at hand, while a most terribly cold wind was blowing from the

north! It was a dreary, bitter day, and March was really going

Sut like a roaring lion! Really, it did not seem to me that the

*20w could have disappeared from the knoll more than three or

four days before. Later still more snow fell, and to-day, as I °

_ Write this item, I am ‘snow-bound” seventy miles west of my

_ home! That little winter snow-bird (Plectrophanes nivalis, as I

;tPPose) no doubt understands her business, but I should say she

: ha Set about rearing a family under circumstances of extreme |

roe difficulty | It would seem that the younglings must perish from

904 General Notes. [ November,

SNAKES CLIMBING TREES.—It seems to be in order, just now,

for any person who has ever seen a snake “ up a tree,” to narrate

the happening in some of the natural history papers. In 1863,

while our regiment was stationed at Columbus, Ky., several of us

made an excursion to the battle-field of Belmont, just over the

river. While riding along through the woods, I heard a slight

rustling just over my head. I was under a pawpaw tree, and

looking up I was not a little surprised to see a small grass-green

snake resting confidently upon the twigs and leaves not a foot

from my face! The reptile was up seven or eight feet above tae

ground; but how it got there I had no means of knowing. Of

course it climbed” by some means. This tree was about Six

inches in diameter, and the bark was quite smooth. The timber,

however, was very thick at this place, and the snake may have

ascended some other tree better adapted to the purpose of a road-

way. These little snakes were quite plenty in that portion of

Dixie, and are often found in this vicinity. They are eighteen to

twenty or twenty-four inches in length, grass-green on the back,

and greenish-white on the under side. I do not know any name

for them, either popular or scientific, but I suppose any herpetol-

ogist would readily identify them from the above description.—

Charles Aldrich, Webster City, Iowa, May, 1881.

were Only receiving the care they would seem still to need. —

would seem hardly possible that the old bird had been taking

care of this one all winter, else we should have seen re

of the kind before. It is an unusual thing, I think, for old bires

to be seen feeding young ones at this season, when most specie?

are building their nests—Charles Aldrich, Webster City, fowa,

May 12, 1881.

Does tne Crow Bracksirp EAT CrayrisH ?—One of my St"

_ dents, who has during the past summer been making so ee

servations upon the nature of the food of the “crow * blackbi

( Quiscalus purpureus), brought me to-day the contents of one

their stomachs, and wished to know what kind of seeds they —

_ that were mixed with the remains of insects, &c. Upon examina”

tion I found that the so-called “seeds” were gastroliths, or were sae

_ ach stones of the crayfish. There were twenty-six of these Stone”

1881. ] Zoology. 905

in the stomach of that one bird, with no other traces of crayfish

remains. JI can hardly believe that the bird had eaten thirteen

crayfishes, or if it had, that the gastroliths should be all that re-

mained of them in the stomach. Can it be that the bird finds

these objects so plenty about the water’s edge that it swallows

them to serve as general stones in the “gizzard?” Since Mr.

Aldrich has shown (see the October NATURALIST) that this bird

feeds upon live fish, it may be that it also eats the crayfish, but

even that supposition would hardly account for the presence in

its stomach of so many of these peculiar bodies, with none of the

_ other parts. —F. E. LZ. Beal.

Avian Ripers.—Dr. Merrill’s interesting account of the belief

of the Crow Indians that a small bird, probably a grebe, performs

its migration on the back of the sandhill crane, was no doubt new

to our readers. It appears, however, that a similar belief is widely

spread among various tribes of North American Indians. Dr.

errill’s account referred to the Crows, but he mentioned also

that the Crees entertained the same belief in reference to the

white or whooping crane. Recently, in the London Nature, Mr.

John Rae gives an account of the supposed passage of certain

small birds on the back of the Canada geese, as related by the

Northern Indians, which he apparently believes in.

It is generally asserted by the Naskegon Cree Indians, who

dwell about the south-western part of Hudson’s bay, that a small

ird, one-of the Fringillidze, performs its northward migration in

spring on the back of the Canada goose (Bernicla canadensis).

| en a Movement towards warmer regions. 4th. That the return

of birds to their breeding stations, which are their only true homes,

_ ‘8S prompted by the recurrence of the season of procreation and

go6 General Notes. [ November,

strong home affection. 5th. That they usually pursue definite

routes, and are guided in part by prominent landmarks, or by

memory, and in part by “instinct” or inherited experience. 6th.

That erratic movements are the result of transportation by storms.

7th. That birds discern approaching meteorological changes.

Tue Craw on THE INDeEx Dicit oF THE CATHARTID.—Birds

form such an eminently distinct group in the present age—one so

thoroughly isolated from any of the other natural divisions, that

the discovery of any new factor in their anatomy, belong to what

system it may, that tends to bring them nearer, by structural

affinities, to one or the other of the great classes in nature, must

always be regarded with peculiar interest by comparative anato-

mists. A prominent example, of this, familiar to all of us, pre-

sents itself in the discussions and special attention that the re-

mains of Archeopteryx macrura has always received from such of

"us as are interested in special homologies, and by naturalists gen-

erally.

The writer has been recently engaged in collecting together,

from various sources, material from which he hopes, at no distant

day, to produce a monograph upon the osteology of the Cathar-

tide. Not long ago a skeleton of Catharista atrata was obtained,

through the kindness of Mr. Robert Ridgway, from a friend in

Florida—after it had been received at the Smithsonian Institu-

tion. Mr. Ridgway and myself were examining it together, dis-

cussing in a casual way some of the bird’s osteological bearings,

and features, when my ornithological friend called my attention

to an appendage at the extremity of the index digit—an addition

to this vulture’s skeleton, that was at once recognized as a deli-

cate and freely articulated c/aw. Our surprise was mutual, and

an examination of the many specimens of vulturine birds, skins

and skeletons, that the Museum afforded, and which were within

our easy reach, was at once inaugurated. The results of this and

overs,

* pur

attached to the manus below the carpal joint, usually, I believe,

on the metacarpal bone. This is also the case in Parra Ugice

and Palamedea, and others, but in these birds, as I have ie ‘

Stated, it is essentially an immovable spur, the counterpart of

Same appendage as found on the posterior aspect of the ee

_ Metatarsus in the common barn-yard fowl and game cock as

_ asin these birds, often used as a weapon of attack during the —

breeding season. | ne

1881.] - Zo0logy. 907

So we must regard these spurs as nothing more than weapons

possessed by a limited number of favored genera, given to them

for a definite purpose, as hard as it is for us to conceive why some

birds should wear them, to the exclusion of others—but claws,

particularly as they occur in the Cathartida, have a very differ-

ent significance,—they may mean a great deal more. They are

to all intents and purposes, useless to their owners—and the prob-

lem simply presents itself to us, as to how they came by them—

when did they first appear, and how? what are they the rudi-

mentary remains of ? and much more that may forever be purely

conjectural ground for us, but certainly constituting a view of the

Subject that lies beyond the scope of such an essay as this, to

treat or enter into.

_ _ the only authority that comes to my mind at present, who de-

Scribes these affairs in any general way, is Professor Owen, and

this writer dismisses the subject in the following manner :

“The index digit in Struthio and the medius digit in Apteryx,

Support each their claw. The claw or spur, when present in other

irds, e.g. Syrian Blackbird (Merula dactyloptera ), spur-winged

§00se (Anser gambensis), knob-winged dove (Didunculus), jacana

(Parra jacana ), mound-bird(Megapodius), screamer (Palamedea),

18 developed from the radial side of the metacarpus, or from the

index digit. The screamer has two spurs, the homotypes of the

metatarsal ones in Pavo bicalcaratus, The claw upon the index

of Archeopteryx was curved and sharp; and the remains of the

"nique example of this ancient fossil bird make it probable that

the hand had a second free unguiculate digit, perhaps the homo-

lodge of the pollex. Although the instances of these weapons,

and the occasional use of the wings in birds not so armed, ¢. g.

the swan, show them in the light of means of attack, the bones

=e pectoral limb in birds are modified mainly for volant

ction,”’

At the present writing there are two rather imperfect skeletons

of Pseudogryphus californianus, and two mounted specimens, the

latter being unquestionably “ birds of the year,” in the Smithso-

‘Alan Institution. In the younger, or at any rate the smaller of

these last, we find this claw present and very prominent, though

it occurs in both birds. It can be immediately brought into view

of the curved anterior surface, something over a centime-

ut 1.3 centimeters), being grasped about its base by the

enon integuments of the upper extremity. Its horny sheath —

Ng removed, it leaves an osseous claw, such as we find in the

ote i

Mis

908 General Notes. [ November,

distal or ungual points of the feet ; this has a transverse facet at

its base, that articulates with a similarly placed surface at the ex-

tremity of the index digit, rather towards its outer side. It is

supported in addition to the aid the common skin affords, by lig-

aments attached to the bone above. It is not uncommon to find

a slight inequality in size, when the claws of the two sides are

compared in the same specimen—this remark holds good for

other individuals of the family. No doubt, when we come to ex-

amine a larger series of specimens, this appendage will be found

to differ in size according to the age, or perhaps in some cases

the idiosyncrasy of the individual. In Sarcorhamphus gryphus,

it was seen to possess all of the characteristics just described as

they occur in our Californian Condor, only that in the first it was

not found to be nearly so large,nor so much curved. It doesnot

appear to attain any very great size in Sarcorhamphus papa,

where also it becomes still less curved. :

In a specimen of Catharista atrata that I have before me, this

claw is subcompressed from side to side, sharp behind, rounded

anteriorly, slightly curved from before, backwards, and occupies

a facet on the anterior third of the extremity of the index digit.

In other birds examined of this species, this rule was departed

from, in the claw being apparently less curved, and flatter ; in this

seemed to be its constant condition in Cathartes aura.

Turning to the vultures of the Old World, which we are aware

have been placed with the Falconide, this:claw could in no in-

Stance be found; neither Neophron, nor Gypogeranus serpenta-

rius exhibit any such feature, in short, it seems to be confined, as

far as the vultures are concerned, to our family of Cathartide,

and as here developed, constitutes an additional character, refera-

ble both to external features and internal structure, for deferen-—

tial diagnosis, separating these birds from the Old World vultures.

—K. W. Shufeldi, M. D., Washington, D. C.

Tue Paper Navritus aGatn in New Jersey.—I have to report

for the third time, the discovery of an Argonauta on the ew

Jersey coast. It was found in September at Long Branch,

and the other at Point Pleasant, about fifteen miles south.

too, was a fresh shell. Thus, beginning with the summer,

the marine

is a native of the Tropics—* in up!” Has the Gulf Strea

got a new kink ?—S. Lockwood, Freehold, N. ¥., Oct. 12, 1881-

. _ Zootocicat Notrs.—The ty f family of fresh-water

oe tae ES, pe of a new family of fresh"

_ Worms, remotely allied to the Lumbriculida and Tubificide eas.

1881. ] Entomology. 909

been discovered by G, Eisen in a small rapidly flowing spring

among the snowy peaks of the Sierra Nevada in California. The

worm is described in a memoir, with two colored plates, in the

Transactions of the Royal Society of Sciences in Upsala, for 1881.

The worm is named Ecdipidrilus frigidus, and the family Eclipi-

drilidee. The second part of M. Jules Macleod’s contribution

to the study of the structure of the ovary of Mammals refers to

that of Primates. Me has also published in the Bulletin of the

Academy of Sciences of Belgium, abstracts of the results of his

Investigations on the reproductive apparatus of bony fishes, espe-

cially the ovary of Hippocampus and of Sygnathus. It will be

remembered that elephantiasis and other diseases allied to leprosy

Puscle. Seeing this, and the frequency with which the presence of

the parasite is associated with lymphatic fever, elephantoid and

other disabling affections, I have sometimes thought it would be

Worth the trouble for the government in India to institute the sys-

tematic examination of the blood of native recruits by their medi-

cal officers.”—_In the same periodical Mr. J. G. Waller argues

that the so-called boring sponge (Cliona) does not make the bur-

_ Tows in which it is found growing, but that an Annelid is the factor.

to this Mr. Priest demurs, who claims what is generally accepted

by zoologists, that the Cliona does the work. He thinks the pro-

toplasm of the sponge acts on the surrounding parts, and eats its

Way into them, as the protoplasm of necrosis eats into bone.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

Tue Permanent SupsEcTion oF ENTOMOLOGY AT THE RECENT

_ MEETING of THE A. A. A. S—The Entomological Club of the

A. 4A. A. S., which has had several most interesting and instruc-

a tive Meetings, was made a permanent subsection of the Associa-

: This department is edited by Pror. C. V. Ritey, Washington, D.C.,to whom

Sommunications, books for notice, etc., should be sent. — GE

g10 General Notes. [ November,

duties as general secretary, was induced to change his mind, upon

this discouraging showing. The distinctive feature of the club

was its meeting a day in advance of the Association, when e€Xx-

cellent opportunity was offered for the interchange of views and

the exhibition and exchange of specimens. After the business

of the Association once begins, there is so much to interest and

occupy members that it is more difficult for the specialists to get

together. In this one respect the merging of the club into the

Association—the loss of its independence, so to speak—is és

drawback ; but we hope that it will not lessen the enthusiasm oF

interest of the entomologists of the country, who still have in the

Association an incentive to annual reunions that cannot but

prove both pleasant and profitable. is

mong those in attendance were the chairman, Jno. G. Morris,

the secretary, B. Pickman Mann, and Messrs. J. A. Lintner, ne

Saunders, Wm. H. Edwards, J. D. Putnam, Cyrus Thomas, V. i.

Chambers, S. H. Peabody, H. S. Jewett, Charles Dury, A. W.

Cook, C. G. Siewers, Jno. A. Warder, C. D, Zimmermann, E. W,

-Claypole. |

The following is a list of the papers entered and read:

Life-history of the Buckeye stem-borer, Sericoris instrutana Clem. E. W. Clay-

ole.

Retarded Development in Insects. C. V. Riley.

New Insects injurious to American Agriculture. C. V. Riley.

The Egg-case of Hydrophilus triangularis. C. V. Riley.

On certain habits of Heliconia charitonia. W.H. Edwards.

On the Oviposition of Prodoxus decipiens. C. V. Riley.

The Cocoon of Gyrinus. C. V. Riley.

On the length of life of Butterflies. W. H. Edwards.

On tke life duration of the Heterocera (moths). J. A. Lintner. Lae

A remarkable invasion of Northern New York by a Pyralid insect, Crambus

gtvagellus. J. A. Lintner : w. H.

On an alleged abnormal peculiarity in the history of Argynnis myrina "'*

Edwards.

How does the Bee extend its Tongue. A. J. Cook.

The Syrian Bees. Cook.

Carbolic acid as a preventive of Insect Ravages. A. J. Cook. Pickman

ego of codperation in furthering the study of entomology. Mates ne

ann,

The subsection was opened by the reading of Mr.

paper ona singular habit of He/conia charitonia Lint, .

observed by Dr. Wm. Wittfeld, near Indian river, Fla. 4"

1881. ] Entomology. git

Dr. M. also gave a sketch of the condition of entomology as it

Was 40 years ago, when there were not known to be more than.

enumerated. At present, there are 436 names reported in last

year's Naturalists’ Directory of persons who are designated as

entomologists. There is no other distinct branch of zoology that

has so many representatives in that book except geology and

tany. The lists of all contributions to entomology for the last

numbered 330, and of writers 80. :

: Mr. Edwards's paper “On the length of life of butterflies,” showed,

rom his own experience of fifteen years, that the life in the

ee cm eS as

: Citing Danats archippus as an illustration, he criticised the state-

| t work on butterflies,

gl2 General Notes. [ November,

wards, and expressed the belief that it did not hibernate at all in

the Northern States but migrated to the South in autumn, and

dispersed northward the ensuing spring and summer, and sug-

gested that this fact, not appreciated by Mr. Scudder, would

throw light on the history of the species in New England.

Mr. Lintner'’s paper on a somewhat similar subject, viz., the life

duration in Heterocera, gave a long series of careful notes of

collectings, from which he concluded that the average duration of

moths is from two to three weeks in summer. The paper gave

rise to some extended remarks from Messrs. Thomas, Mann,

Riley and others. Mr. Thomas thought that the knowledge of

the term of life in the imago was of less value, from an economic

standpoint, than that of the individual in all its states. In en-

deavoring to ascertain this duration in Leucania unipuncta, he had

come to the conclusion that it was about seventy-seven days.

days. In fact, all our experience as to the summer duration

of life in this species shows that each state of egg, larva,

chrysalis and imago will average ten days. Mr. Thomas ar

gued that insects in confinement develop more rapidly than

in freedom. Mr. Riley gave his experience as opposed to

the statement: insects reared in confinement during the sum

mer are likely to develop more slowly than in freedom, for

the obvious reason that those in freedom get more sunlight, and

constantly have a supply of fresh food at hand, and this will hold

equally true with the changes that take place underground, or

the mean temperature of the soil, during summer, is evidently

greater outdoors than indoors. Experience shows, moreover,

that in this question everything depends on the time of yea,

character of the weather and other surrounding conditions, there

being a wide range in the duration of life in the same specie>—

(Lo be continued.)

Tue New Importep Crover Enemy.—In the September num-

ber we gave a brief record of the appearance in injurious nine

of Phytonomus punctatus Fabr., a common European Curculion

hitherto unknown in this country. In looking up the literatur’

_ on the habits of the insects of this genus in Europe, we find mue

written on the history of the earlier states of several species.

From what is known in Europe, it appears that the species ~

the genus show a unity of habit and mode of development.

_ greenish larve (recalling in general appearance those of

or of some Tenthredinid larvae), feed in May and June OB 7

_ leaves and flowers of the plants they infest, and spin 10 July 35

_ nét-like cocoon on various parts of the plant, changing

1881.] Entomology. 913

pupee within eight to twelve days, the beetle issuing in July or

August. Only one annual generation is recorded, the beetle

hibernating. Phytonomus murinus Fabr., oviposits on the young

shoots of Lucern (Medicago sativa); Ph. meles Fabr., feeds as

larva and beetle on 7rifolium pratense and Lucern, and proves in-

jurious to the latter plant in some parts of Germany; /%. nigrt-

rostris Fabr. (which, by the way, occurs also, though rarely in

the United States, from Canada and Massachusetts westward to

Michigan), feeds as larva on 7rifolium pratense and Buphthalimum

Salicifolium; Ph. pollux Gy\lh. on Silene inflata and Polygonum

hydropiper ; Ph. rumicis Fabr., on various species of Rumex an

also on Polygonum aviculare ; Ph. vicie Gy\\h. on Vicia sylvatica ;

Ph, plantaginis DeG. on Platago lanceolata and Lychnis dwica ;

Ph, polygoni Linn., on young shoots of Dianthus and on Polygonuim

aviculare, the larve feeding on the leaves as well as on the

blossoms and also boring in the stems; /%. suspictosus Hbst.,

on Lotus uliginosus and Lathyrus pratensis; Ph. palumbanus

Germ., on Mentha aguatica and Salvia glutinosa, So far as

known, the habits of the genus in this country conform to the

above experience in ._ We have reared Ph. comptus Say,

from Polygonum nodosum upon which the larva and pupz may

be found in July, the cocoon having the usual net-work ap-

pearance. Of the nine species known to occur in this country

(exclusive of Ph. punctatus) this is the only one whose habits

ve been observed, though, as above shown, those of Ph. nigri-

vostris have been recorded by European observers. :

We had the pleasure of spending some time about the middle

of August with Mr. L. D. Snook at Barrington, N. Y., who has

: suffered materially from the attacks of Pytonomus punctalus, and

_ SiMce—though it is so common abroad—little or nothing is on

_ fecord of its habits, and since it has certainly never before been

Feported as injurious to agriculture, we give Mr. Snook’s experi-

_ _€Nce up to the time of our visit. In the latter part of April, he

_ -Btst noticed on a field of clover here and there, small patches

: where the leaves were badly eaten. The damage increased rap-

ae idly in extent, and by the end of July, the whole field {about

Ke gibkirs ok> (Aas Bees Tait Seabee Enno

= ce

sg. 4

52)

VOU. Xv.—no. xr, 63

914 General Notes. [ November,

cocoons which had generally been washed by the rains on to the

ground and more or less embedded. Judging from European

experience we anticipated no further multiplication the present

year; but, to our surprise, the beetles have been continuously

laying eggs from that time to the present writing (October 3d), and

what is more singular, while some of the eggs have been laid ex-

ternally to the plant either siagly or in little groups, most 0

them have been secreted and thrust into the old and hollow

stems. A few of the larve which hatched externally are now

nearly full-grown, but those which hatched within the stalk, have

fed but little and are evidently preparing for hibernation. Is this

a normal habit in Europe, or is it a departure therefrom conse-

quent upon the introduction of the species here? The latter

seems quite probable since the habit of attacking clover injurious-

ly is certainly new, if we may judge from the failure to indicate it

by European entomologists. The probability is that the insect

with us will hibernate both in the larva state within the stem and

in the beetle state. In either event the larvae will doubtless be

found most numerous in northern New York in the month of

May, and we recommend that clover fields in which it is foune

be heavily rolled at that season, as the best means of decreasing

its injuries,

low, and smooth when first laid, but becoming greenish-yellow,

and roughened with hexagonal depression before hatching. he

average length is 1"" and in most cases the larva has hatched

in about one week from the time the egg was_ laid. The

young larva is pale with a dark head, but subsequently be-

comes greenish with a distinct whitish medio-dorsal line relieved

by darker shades each side. The body is deeply wrinkled, with

prominent substigmatal and ventral swellings, the latter so W

developed and so extensile that they perform the function "

Tenthredinidz, and enabling it to easily crawl or clasp the edge

of a leaf. When at rest it clings sidewise and in a curve per

‘tion to the leaf, usually on the underside, grasping the leaf eat

between the ventral swellings but especially in the transverse fol

ole

about as Syrphid larve are known to do. The surface 0

body is sparsely beset with short stiff hairs, varying in 1

at different stages of growth. The largest specimen, evidently

about full-grown, has up to this writing (October 3d) experien¢

three molts.—C. V. Riley.

CRAMBUS VULGIVAGELLUS.—This common moth which, as stated

on page 750, is the parent of the worms that did so muc at

age to meadows in parts of New York. (See pp. 574 and ees ;

_ has been excessively abundant all over the Eastern States "°°

1881.] Entomology. 915

year, and as Mr. Henry Edwards informed us, proved a positive

Nuisance in collecting in the neighborhood of New York city.

Professor Lintner has published a full account of it in the Admzra

Husbandman for Sept. 14, 1881, in a paper presented to the N. Y.

State Agricultural Society. He has also obtained the eggs, and

from them a second brood of larve. We found the egg-shells —

quite common in the earth from some sward sent September 12th,

by Mr. Adams, from a field that had been devastated by: the larva,

and we have since readily obtained fresh eggs from moths cap-

tured in Washington. The eggs are pale yellow when laid, but

become orange afterward; they are elongate-oval, very slightly

broader at base than at top, and ribbed as in those of various but-

terflies, there being about twenty longitudinal, rather sharp ridges

and about thirty less marked transverse ones. The average length

80.7" and diameter 0.3". They are dropped singly among

the grass and on the ground —C. V. R.

LarvaL Hasits oF SPHENOPHORI THAT ATTACK Corn.—For

Many years several species of the genus Sphenophorus have dam-

aged the corn crop in various parts of the United States, more

particularly at the south, where they are all known as “bill

5 iS Glover, in 1855, spoke of their injuries, but did not deter-

mine the species. Walsh, in 1867 (Pract. Ent., II, 117), described

@ species damaging corn in New York as S. ze@, but which sub-

Sequently proved to be S, sculptilis of Uhler. SS. sculptilis also

Occurs in the South and West, being common in Illinois and Mis-

Souri. It has also been received at the Department of Agricul-

ture from Florida and Alabama, S. redustus from South Carolina,

and S. parvulus from Missouri, all as injuring corn. The larva

habits of all these species are unknown. Walsh surmised that S.

Seulptilis would be found to breed in,decaying driftwood washed

Y water, the adults migrating to neighboring corn-fields, and

Some subsequent facts that have come to our knowledge lend

eee to his hypothesis so far as this particular species is con-_

red,

base of the stalk, and also burrowing slightly under the surface

of the earth, they pierce the stalk and kili many plants outright,

leaving others to grow up dwarfed and distorted. The whole

has frequently to be plowed over and replanted. The eggs are

Probably laid at this time or a little later, at or near the surface of

the ground. The young larva, hatching, works downwards, and

May be found at almost any age in the tap-root.

A few individ- bs

916 General Notes. [ November,

uals work upwards into the first section of the stalk, but only, it

would seem, after having consumed all available pith below

ground.

At full growth the larva will have consumed the pith of the

stalk for from four to five inches, dwarfing the stalk, preventing

the make of the ear, and causing the lower leaves to turn brown

and wither. The larva has the general characters of other de-

scribed -larve of the genus. The pupz are found in cavities op-

posite the first suckers, surrounded by excrement compactly

pressed so as to form a sort of cell, E

The beetles make their appearance in the fall (one specimen

issued as early as August 30), and hibernate as adults mainly in

the stalks. The remedy then of cutting the stalks in fall or early

winter and of plowing up and burning the stubble is obvious.—

C. V. Riley.

ture seems essential to the well-being of the larva. The preju:

dicial effect of drought has not hitherto been observed, that we are

aware of, but was very noticeable the present year in parts of Ohio,

where the puparia literally dried up. Our attention was

called to the fact of the general death of the insect in the pase

seed” state by Mr. E. W. Claypole, of Yellow Springs, 0, ee

our observations subsequently confirmed his experience. “s

intense heat had not only desiccated the Cecidomyia, but,

‘still more remarkable, in most cases the parasites also.

like to hear from Prof. Cook, of Michigan, and others, whether 4

like result followed the severe heat and drought in other parts al

the West. The presumption is that the mortality was gener’

and that farmers may expect immunity from injury for some years

to come.

SIMULIUM FROM Lake Superior.—lIn regard to t

from Lake Superior, which we mentioned on p. 313, CU" fae

ume of this magazine, Dr. Hagen remarks in the Canadian re a 3

mologist (Vol. Xt, pp. 150-151), that upon examination “7 ack ie

and pup, sent to him by Mr. H. G. Hubbard, they di the S

appear to differ materially from those of S. pictipes, but jer ae

imagines from Lake Superior (which were not raised green oe

pupz coliected by Mr. Hubbard) differ from S. pectipes 9

much smaller size and in the color of the legs.

CoLroprerous Cave Fauna oF Kentucxy.—M

bard has carried on during the past summer a carefu

tion of the insect fauna of the different caves in Kentucky. Oe :

cially near Cave City, and it is now pretty safe to say tha rae

Coleopterous cave fauna of Kentucky comprises but two gem”

-H.G. Hub

“fal investiga?

1881. ] Anthropology. 917

species has been found which seems to be equally common in all

caves in that State, but Mr. Hubbard thinks that in Anophthalmus

we may expect considerable increase in the number of species

when all our caves shall have been explored.

HEMIPTEROLOGICAL Stupies.—Dr. V. Signoret kindly sends us

the first part of his “ Revision du groupe des Cydnides de la

famille des Pentatomides,” from the Annales de la Société Ento-

mologique de France for 1881. It contains a review of what has:

been done in the classification of this family by former authors, a

characterization of the family, table of genera (forty-three in

number) and the beginning of the description of the species from

all parts of the globe. Two plates accompany this part.

EnTomotocy 1n Burraro, N. Y.—We are very glad to see that

the publication of the Bulletin of the Buffalo Society of Natural

Sciences has beea resumed after a lapse of several years. Vol.

Iv, No. 1, has just been issued and contains the following ento-

mological apers: List of Coleoptera observed and collected in

the vicinity of Buffalo, by F. Zesch and O. Reinecke; New Col-

coptera, by John L. LeConte, M.D. (Elaphidion tmbelle, Oeme

gracilis, both from Poway, Cala., and Myodites zeschit, from Buf. ,

alo); Observations and Notes (on Eudryas unio, Smerinthus mo-

desta, Hylesinus trifolit, Cossus robinie, Papilio thoas, Thyreus

abboti). One plate accompanies this number, but we must con-

fess that figures 111 and rv thereof are quite poor and inaccurate.

Lampyripa.—Dr. LeConte has been kind enough to send us a

Copy of his long-expected “ Revision of the N. A. Lampyride.”

This paper will no doubt be very welcome to every coleopterist

in our country, as it renders determinations possible in a some-

what neglected but interesting group of beetles. We hope that

It will serve to call attention to the many interesting points in the

life-history of the Lampyridz proper, yet to be made out.

SEVERE Cotp anp HiserNaTinc AppLe-worms.—Prof. A. J.

Cook records having found that the larve of Corpocapsa pomon-

ella, which hibernated under natural conditions, 2. ¢., in their silken

Cocoons in the cracks and crevices of the trees, had succumbed

to the severe cold of last winter, while those hibernating in cellars

and kitchens survived. :

ANTHROPOLOGY."

Temporat Process OF THE Matar BoNE IN ANCIENT HuMAN

Cranta2—A noteworthy anatomical and possibly anthropological

feature of a large proportion of the crania from the well-known

ancient cemetery near Madisonville, Ohio, is the presence of a

: Edited by Prof. Oris T. MASON, I 305 Q Street, N. W., Washington, D. C.

“The Temporal Process of the Malar Bone in the ancient human crania from

Madisonville, Ohio, by F. W. Langdon, M.D. Read before Am. Assoc. for the Adv.

of Science, at Cincinnati, Aug. 22, 1881. ; ae

1 The dotted line indicates the ordinary contour of the posterior border. of the — a

918 General Notes. [ November,

spine-like or occasionally unciform process, situated on the pos-

terior border of the malar bone and partially covering in the

ten:poral fossa.

This projection, for which the writer proposes the name /em-

poral process, is somewhat triangular in form, its base, which is

froin 7 to 18™™ in length, being continuous with the middle third

of the posterior border of the bone; it tapers somewhat rapidly

to its rather obtuse apex, its average length being a little

over

A similar process is of occasional occurrence in negroes and

mulattoes, and further observations as to its distribution and fre-

quency in various races would doubtless be of interest. The

accompanying figure illus-

trates a fairly developed spe

cimen as seen in many of the

eee ee of the Army Medical Museum,

. belonging to many tribes and

Fic.—Temporal Process of Malar Bone. both sexes. It is not men-

tioned in any work with which we are familiar, and is worthy of

further notice since it has been observed in such a large homoge

D. ous group as the Madisonville find—£d. Am. Nat. Anthrop.

ept. |

A PREHISTORIC CUP MADE FROM A HuMAN Cranium.—A Soot

what remarkable and possibly unique specimen of aborigi

handicraft has been recently exhumed by some curiosity-seekilg

boys, near Cedar Grove, Indiana, a small town situated on the

Vhitewater, about thirty-seven miles north-west 0 .

On the roth of October, 1880, they discovered a human skeletons

and with it, instead of the earthen pot so often found with suc

remains, was a cup or bowl made from a child's skull. ain

The skeleton, as described to the writer by one who assiste ‘Ne

taking it out, was in a sitting position, facing north-west, with ke

vessel at the left side on a level with the hips. The bones ” th

right hand and arm were missing, but I think had fallen ld

earth into a gully which had washed out on that side. fair

State of preservation.

The vessel, or drinking cup, is, evidently, from its small a 3

1881.] Anthropology. 919

and plainly marked sutures, the skull of a child. The base of

the skull has been roughly cut away and scraped smooth, leaving

an irregular margin or rim to the vessel. Both the inner and

outer surface has been scraped with some rough-edged tool,

€aving numerous scratches. Two holes were drilled through

the side, near the upper part of the cup, for the purpose of mend-

ing a crack by tying the fractured parts together. A portion of

the frontal bone was accidentally broken away by a stroke of the

spade. This curious relic of barbarism is now in the collection

of the writer, as is also the well-preserved skull with which it

was found, Along the gully before mentioned, and within a few

eet of these remains, were found parts of three other skeletons.

It may be added that the place where they were found, has, for

Many years, been known to be an aboriginal cemetery.

he situation is on the highest terrace formation, about one

hundred feet above and immediately overlooking the Whitewater.

The soil is compact clay about two feet thick, overlying clean,

white sand, in which the bones were found.—Zdgar R. Quick in

Four. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist.

ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE AMERICAN Association.—Although

the dread of a terribly hot wave deterred many of the older

members from going to Cincinnati, the meeting was very largely

attended. The department of anthropology, inspired by the

€nvironment, drifted into archeology. It is to be hoped that the

hext meeting will witness a greater diversity of subjects. All the

Papers read are given below, with the name and address of the

author, so that the readers of the NaTuRALIst may, if desired,

Put themselves in correspondence with them:

Mason, Otis T. (Washington, D. C.) — The uncivilized mind in the presence of

higher phases of civilization.

Horatio Hale—A lawgiver of the Stone age.

PRs a ri

McAdams, Wm. (Otterville, Ill.)—The stone images and idols of the mound-

builders,

~———Some remarkable relics from the mounds in Illinois.

Pall, Wm. H. (Washington, D. C.)—On the inhabitants of N. E. Siberia, commonly

called Chukchis and Namollo.

Henderson, Hon. J. G. (Winchester, Ill.) —Houses of the ancient inhabitants of the

Mississippi valley.

“—>—Was the antelope hunted by the Indians on the prairies of Illinois ?

——— Mex cassina, the black drink of the Southern Indians.

———Agriculture and agricultural implements of the ancient inhabitants of the

Mississippi valley,

Smith, Mrs. Erminnie A. (Jersey City, N. J.) —Comparative differences in the Iro-

q4Ols group of dialects. ey

920 General Notes. [ November,

———Animal myths of the Iroquois.

Morse, Edw. S. (Salem, Mass.)—On the ancient Japanese bronze bells.

On worked shells in New England Shell-heaps.

Langdon, Frank W. (Cincinnati, O.)—The temporal process of the malar bone in

he ancient human crania from Madisonville, Ohio.

Peet, Stephen D. (Clinton, Wis.)—The emblematic mounds on the four lakes of -

Wisconsin.

Buffalo drives on the Rock river in Wisconsin. ‘

De Haas, Wills (Washington, D. C.)—The Mound-Builders; an inquiry into their

assumed southern origin.

an excursion by train to Madisonville, a few miles north of Cin-

cinnati. The readers of the Naturatist had been.told so much

concerning this wonderful Jocality, that about three hundred per-

sons went to the ground to examine for themselves. There, in

brief, they witnessed what a few determined gentlemen can do

with limited resources. Ona long tongue of land, bounded on

all sides but one by deep and precipitous ravines, is the ancient

cemetery. Beginning at the top end of the bench, the explorers

have excavated about two acres to a depth of six feet, throwing

But into the great his pupils throw themselves, and the g°

work goes on. The July pothbt of Revue d’ Anthropologie, after

an opening article by Dr. Broca, passes on to give us the pegpt

tomed rich and varied feast, the list of whose good things

be found below:

Broca, Pau!—La Torsion de l’Humérus et le tropométre, 386-425.

_ Betz, Wladimir (Professor a ?Universitié de Kiew)—Sur la structure

* ¢€rebrale, A la Mémoire de Paul Broca, ;

de Vécorce

1381.] Geology and Paleontology. 921

Chassagne, Amédée—Contribution a l’Ethnographie de la Basse-Bretagne, avec

cartes, 439-447. .

Maget, Dr. G.—Sur les moeurs des Japonais.

Féré, Ch,—Nouvelles recherches sur la topographie cranio-cérébrale, 468-487.

Deniker, Mi—A review of Weisbach’s “* Kérpermessungen verschiedener Men-

schemassen,”” Berlin, 1878, pp. 448-502. [This is a very minute and valuable

review of a work not in the hands of many American anthropologists. ]

eee Review of the following works: [Ernest Chantre, “ Premier Age du

.—Necropoles et tumulus” (1 vol. gr. in 4to, pp. §7, with album in folio,

50 plates.——Baron J. de Baye, “ L’Archéologie préhistorique. Epoque ter-

tiaire. Epoque quaternaire. Transition entre les deux ep de la prerr

Epoque néolithique. Grottes artificielles de la Marne. Grottes & sculptures

Sépultures. Trepanation préhistorique. Fleches a tranchant transversal, etc.”

1 vol. gr. 8vo, pp. 412, figs., Paris, 1880.——Urban & Virchow, Cemeteries of

Gross-Lichterfeld, at Berlin,’? Zedschr., 1879, P- 342.——Dr.

mixed cemetery of the plain of Neustadt near Elbing,” Zeiéschr., 1880, 1, p.

PP. 503-516

Paul—Review of Tylor’s “ Anthropology.”

Manouvrier—Review of the following: Enrico Morsalli, ‘Critique and reform of

the methods of anthropology, founded upon laws Statistical and biological, and

pon experience,’’ Rome 188o.

Lesson, H. and L. Martinet—Les Polynesiens, leur origine, leurs migrations, leur

langage. Paris, E. Leroux, 1880. Reviewed in Rev. d’ Anthrop., \V, 1881, 524.

Zabarowski— Association francaise pour l’avancement des sciences. Session d’Al-

ger, 1881. Section d’Anthropologie.”” pp. 530-539.

Manouvrier—Reviews the following : [Ettore Regalia, ‘‘ I.es anomalies num ériques

des vertébres chez homme et leur interprétation.”’ ser-

Sing.]

Cesare Taruff, ‘* Obs

Ten Kate—Review of Gegenbauer’s “ Discussion of the lachrymal bone in man, in

Morphologisches Fahrbuch.

Kuhfl, G.—Review of Dr. E. Schmidt’s Kraniologische Untersuchungen,

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY.

Jaw of the Zriisodon quivirensis (NATURALIST, for August; 1881),

and consists of a single tooth of the lower jaw. It is the charac-

teristic obliquely ridged cutting tooth well known in Plagiaulax.

It presents the following differences from those of Plagiaulax and

Ctenacodon, which I regard for the present as generic.

Char. gen. Cutting edge convex and continuous with the an-

terior edge of the crown, and serrate from the union of ridges

Which ascend on each side. Ridges curved backwards, all reach-

ing the edge excepting above the posterior root of the tooth,

where they are discontinued, leaving a smooth edge. In Pagiau-

922 General Notes. [ November,

lax the ridges are continued to the posterior edge of the crown,

and in Ctenacodon the ridges do not extend on the sides of the

crown. In Hypsiprymuus the ridges are vertical.

Char. spectf. The tooth is much larger than that of any of the

Plagiaulacide yet known, exceeding the corresponding one of the

kangaroo-rat of Australia. There are twelve ridges on the side

of the crown, extending from the base. They are crowded an-

teriorly and become more widely spaced posteriorly. The ante-

rior margin is acute from near the base; the latter projects a little

beyond the root. The most elevated point of the crown is be-

tween the roots. Ridges fine, enamel smooth. Length of base

of sculptured part of crown, .0062; elevation of do., .0047; thick-

ness of do. at base, .0025. The genus and species may be called

Ftilodus medievus.—E. D. Cope. ,

Betopon 1n New Mexico.—Some years ago! I identified cer-

tain fossils discovered in North Carolina by Emmons as Belodons;

and later,? referred a species found by Wheatley in Pennsylvania,

to the same genus. I am now ina position to prove that the

genus ranged over the Rocky mountains, and that there, as i

other parts of the world, it haunted the shores of the Triassic seas

and lakes. In the same region a related form, the Typothorax

coccinarum, existed at the same period.’ There are two species

of Belodon in my New Mexican collections, one as large as the

gavial of India, the other smaller. In the former the muzzle 1s

keeled above, and rises into a crest in front of the nares. In the

other spécies the muzzle is subcylindric, and does not rise ante-

rior to the septum of the nostrils. The larger species I call Belo-

don buceros ; the smaller one B. scolopax, and define them as fol-

Belodon buceros—Size of the gavial. Muzzle slender, com-

pressed, with a narrow median superior ridge, rising at the middle

of the length into a compressed crest, whose summit is 10 the

plane of the frontal region. Nostrils a little further anterior to

the orbits than the diameter of the latter, longer than wide, an

Separated by a thin septum. Orbits round, looking a little up-

wards, the interorbital region a little narrower than each eine

Preorbital region compressed ; preorbital foramen large, inferior.

The quadrate bones are directed forwards, and their articular ces

are in the transverse line of the two rather narrow notches of the

posterior outline of the parietal bone. The auricular meatus sh

: e

tions Amer, Philos. Soc., xIV

1 Proceed

® Transac .y

port G. M. Wheeler, U. S. Surv. W. of tooth Mer., 1V-> 1877+

ings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, 1866.

1881. ] Geclogy and Paleontology. 923

compressed denticulate crowns. Tip of muzzle lost. Total length

preserved, M. .700; length of muzzle to posterior edge of nares,

.420; do. from latter to lines of anterior edge of orbits, .060; do.

from do. to posterior parietal notch, .160. Width at posterior bor-

der of quadrate condyles, .240; interorbital do., .048; do. at slen-

der part of muzzle, .045.. Depth of slender part of muzzle, .o50;

do. of elevated part, .120; do. at parietal region, .140.

This species is of the size of the B. apfi Meyer, and is, in the

form of the muzzle, intermediate between that species and the #.

plieningeri.

_ Belodon scolopax. This species is represented by a snout, which

includes the anterior border of the nares; it is broken into five

pieces, which should be cotinected with intermediate fragments,

which are lost, This muzzle is a little shorter than that of B.

_ plieningeri, but is a good deal more slender, the distal part having

only half-the diameter of the latter. Besides this character, it

differs from that of B. plieningeri in three others. The extremity

of the muzzle is not so much decurved. All the alveole have a

more lateral exposure, and the lateral ridges of the palate are thus

more distinctly seen from the side. The two teeth on the ex-

tremity of the muzzle are closely crowded together, and their

large alveolz are scarcely distinct.

The surface of the muzzle is distantly and weakly grooved and

punctate. The anterior alveola are round, the posterior ones

oval. Diameters an inch anterior to nares; transverse, .0230,

» 023 Diameters three inches from extremity; trans-

verse, .019; vertical, .o145.

borhood of Brinn, by V. Uhlig; and the fossils of the Nizniow

The Paleontographica, for June,

first part of a memoir on the fauna of the Kelheim Diceras lime~

Stone, Mr. Hulke, in the Quarterly Journal of the Geological

Society of London, for 1879 and 1880, has described two new

Dinosauria of the Iguanodontide, under the names of Vectisaurus

valdensis,and Iguanodon prestwichii. The Revue Scientifique, of

Paris, gives a review of the last year’s progress in vertebrate palz-

ontology. It covers five pages and a half, of which one page 1s

given to South American and four pages to North American

_ Works on the subject. Prof. Cope’s Palzontological Bulletin,

0. 33, contains descriptions of fourteen new species of Mammalia

from the Lowest Eocene beds of New Mexico. Eight new genera

are characterized. In the Bulletin of the Geological Society of

France, M. Fischer describes a new Eocene Creodont under the

924 General Notes. [ November,

name Afpterodon gaudryi. Dr. H. G. Seeley: has recently re-

examined the vertebrate fossils found at Neue Welt, near Vienna,

and has made a number of important rectifications in the deter-

minations,

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS!

THE Ocowé anp Conco Routes to STANLEY Poot. — The

Royal Geographical Society’s Proceedings, for August, gives

some interesting details concerning M. de Brazza’s expedition up

the Ogowé. The ulterior object of this expedition was to open

a route from the Ogowé to the Congo above the cataracts, and

launch steam vessels on the navigable part of the latter stream.

“ The station founded at Ntamo [Stanley Pool] is intended as the

Starting point of the steam vessels which are shortly to be placed

on the Congo, while that on the Passa affluent of the Upper

Ogowé is the nearest point to the Congo which could be placed

in direct communication by water with the Atlantic Ocean, some

435 miles distant. On his first expedition it took M. de Brazza

two whole years to reach the Passa, which was previously un-

known, and the obstacles to free commercial intercourse on the

Ogowé were great, as the river was divided into three distinct

sections, held respectively by the Inenga and Galoa tribes, the

Okandas, and lastly the Adumas, each of whom exercised absolute

control over their own section, so that three changes of porters

and canoes were necessary, and the value of merchandise was

thus enormously enhanced. But during his last journey M. de

Brazza put an end to this arrangement which had existed from

time immemorial, and made the navigation of the river free as far

as Franceville, his station on the Passa. With regard to the 180

miles of land journey thence to Ntamo on the Congo, porters

will be found as easily along the road as on the banks of the

Ogowé, for the population is very dense and peaceable, and the

surface of the country presents no serious difficulty ; indeed ha

it not for some obstacles in the first three days’ march, a wheele

vehicle might pass along the road without any preliminary pee

being necessary. The country, moreover, is very healthy, as d

consists of a plateau at an elevation of 2625 feet, and this altitude

affects the vegetation beneficially, so that the banana and maize

flourish there. But this line of land communication from one

. Edited by Extis H. YARNALL, Philadelphia.

1881.] Geography and Travels. 925

expended on it. Having traversed it five times already, M. de

Brazza is able to speak confidently on the subject. The country

is not wooded and the vegetation is sparse, the hills have a gen-

tle slope and a wheeled vehicle could pass everywhere.”

“M de Brazza justly prides himself on having been able to

accomplish, without violence of any sort, the total abolition of

the slave trade in the basin of the Ogowé. Franceville has

already become a place of refuge for escaped slaves, and M. de

Brazza states that all the tribes along the river recognize this

right of asylum and admit that all slaves who place themselves

under his protection are thereby made free,” He speaks dis-

couragingly of Mr. Stanley’s operations, believing that his road

on the north bank of the Congo will never become a practicable

highway. “Ina former geological age an immense plateau, at

an elevation of more than 2000 feet above the level of the sea,

Separ.ited the Upper Congo from the Atlantic; the river wore a

bed for itself through this plateau, which at last, by the action of

constant and continuous drainage, became furrowed into as many

valleys as there were torrents rushing down into the great river.

In following the line of the Congo, therefore, it becomes neces-

sary to cross all these chains of mountains, which are the remains

of the ancient plateau.” * * * * “By the line of the

Ogowé, the river is made use of as far as it is navigable for

canoes, from which point it is but forty or forty five miles through

al easy country to a point where the Alima is navigable for steam

vessels. On this line, too, labor and provisions are drawn from

the country itself, while on the Congo nothing but rocks and dry

grass are to be found. Not only are the men of Mr. Stanley's

€xpedition fed on rice from Europe transported on the backs of

porters and mules, but the animals themselves are fed on hay and

Oats obtained from Europe at heavy cost.’ Mr. Stanley is com-

out any works between Franceville and the coast as well as be-

tween the Ogowé and the Alima, and this essential difference

between the two routes is due to the Ogowé region being well

peopled and the country fertile and new to European mer-

chandise.”

The French Government has organized another expedition,

supplied with steam launches, to ascend the Ogoweé to assist M.

_ de Brazza, which, at last advices, had arrived on the coast.

926 General Notes. [ November,

THE GREAT ANDES OF THE Equator.—Mr. Edward Whymper

has recently read a most interesting account of his journey in

Ecuador before the Royal Geographical Society. It is given in

full in the Proceedings for August. We have space here for only

two extracts, the first relating to one of the principal objects of

his journey ; the comparison of the working of aneroid against

mercurial barometers at great elevations, and also the value of

calculations based on the boiling point of water; and the second

regarding the glaciers of the Ecuadorian Andes. To test the

value of the aneroid barometer, Mr. Whymper took with him

eight instruments carefully selected, after a trial of twelve months,

from a number of ‘others.

“Upon leaving England they were well together, the greatest

difference between them being about the eighth of an inch, or

more exactly, .13. The value of this difference at the level of

the sea amounts to about 100 feet; and if the mean of the whole

had been taken, there would have been an infinitesimal difference

between it and the reading of a standard mercurial. But by the

time I arrived at Guayaquil this difference had increased to .35;

on arrival at Guaranda | 8900] it had still further risen to .74; at

our first camp on Chimborazo [14,300] it had mounted to 88,

and at our third camp [17,200] to 1.2 inch. These were the dif-

at starting to the extent of 100 feet, and by the time we had

risen to 17,000 feet, this difference had increased to about /w

thousand feet. If you consider that these were not aneroids

selected at random, but .were the pick of a number which had

been expressly constructed for the journey, I think you will

that this experiment conclusively demonstrated the uselessness of

expecting to obtain absolute determinations of altitude from any

not consider it dearly gained, as it decided that matter so far as I

desire to pursue it, for once and all. The best of all ways to ah

tle whether altitudes can be deduced with accuracy from the indi-

cations afforded by the boiling-point of water, would of course

be to conduct a series of experiments on the boiling-point at

positions the height of which had been determined with scrupu-

lous accuracy trigonometrically ; but the opportunities of doing

» this at great elevations are not numerous, and such experiments

can be performed at heights exceeding 16,000 feet in India alone.

The next best way is to compare them against the mercurial barom-

eter and, as we had mercurials almost always with us, took the

opportunity to make experiments, with the result of finding that

the boiling-point observations consistently yielded lower altitudes

than the mercurial barometer, and I quote in illustration three 0

_ the highest stations at which water was boiled, namely, the sum-

mits of Cotopaxi, Antisana and Cayambe: :

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 927

The elevation of Cotopaxi by merc. bar, WaS....+-++eeseeeeeeess 19,650

26 - boiling water........ 19,090

e ‘« Antisana by merc. bar... ....0e eee eee e erences 19,335

e ne ‘ Oiling water. ..ccceeeceseces esters 18,714

y “« Cayambe by merc, bar... .. 60 cere rece ee eee ees 19,200

ri M6 6¢ boiling water. .....sseereeeeeceees 18,600”

Of the glaciers he remarks: ‘“ As travelers of eminence have

14,000 and 15,000 feet. Moraines are scarce upon them, for the

reason that few rocks rise above them and the evidences which

Moraines frequently afford of former great extensions of glaciers

1S Consequently wanting. Roches moutonnées are rare, more per-

aps on account of the ease with which most of the rocks disin-

tegrate than from any other cause. On the south side of Chim-

razo, in a valley in which there is now no glacier at all, was

the only place in which I was certain of roches moutonnées, but

this single instance proved that glaciers on that mountain have

formerly extended lower down than they do now. It may be

stated, as a general rule, that crevasses in the lower parts of the

Ecuadorian Andes are both smaller and less numerous than in

Corresponding situations in the Alps, and this I take to be an in-

dication that in the inferior parts of these glaciers the rate of

motion is less rapid than in the Alps. But in the higher regions

they are frequently of enormous size, and we never anywhere had

Seen greater—if indeed so large—crevasses as We encountered on

the upper part of Antisana, where some were at least from one-

fourth to one-third mile long, 300 feet deep, and 50 to 60 feet

across,

“Upon the whole I think that the glaciers are least extensive

On the western sides of the mountains which have been enumer-

ated, but I speak on this point with some hesitation, as I have not

in several cases seen completely around them. It is only what

might be expected in a country where vapor-laden easterly wind

So largely preponderates. True east wind is, however, rare |

comparison with north-east and south-east, which outweigh all

the rest. Charged with vapor from the Amazonian cauldron,

928 General Notes. [ November,

these winds are almost ceaselessly blowing against the opposing

sides of the Great Andes and depositing their moisture in the

form of fine snow or hail. In the frequency with which it will

be remarked that our ascents were made from the west, there 1s

an illustration of our frequent inability to see anything through

the clouds which enveloped the other sides. In force the winds

were not remarkable.”

GrocrapuicaL News.—At a recent meeting of the Paris Geo-

graphical Society a letter from M. Rabot, now travelling in Nor-

way, was read, which stated that the last two winters, “though

very rigorous, have not had any great influence on the opening or

closing of the passages because the summers have been remark-

ably warm. This year, on the other hand, navigation will be

stopped very early, as the summer is reported to be a very cold

one in the extreme north. M. Broek, formerly a minister of the

Norwegian Government, thought there was confirmation of his

expectations in the fact that vast numbers of birds, driven out by

the rigor of the climate, are now alighting on the shores of Nor-

way. They are arriving in such a state of starvation that they

swallow the bait whilst the fishermen are casting their lines.

Three English gentlemen, Messrs. Delmar Morgan, Peek

and Coles, have undertaken an exploration of the east-central and

south-east portions of Iceland this summer. They take with

them a valuable set of scientific instruments loaned by the Royal

Geographical Society. The Willem Barents of the Dutch

North Polar Expedition, has not been able to reach Spitzbergen

this year. She found the ice extended in a compact mass from

68° 30’ N. lat. and 6° W. long. to 73° 30’ N. lat. and 14 E.

long., some twelve geographical miles north of Vardo. There

was ice also thirty miles south of Bear Island. The steamer

Oscar Dickson was frozen in at the mouth of the Yenisei baie

ast win-

made last year by Commander Boulton, R.N., of th

portion of Hudson’s Straits and the exact position 0

lands and islands ascertained. During August ice formed :

night. Between Koksoak River, the extreme point reached, an

Cape Chudleigh and thence also to Nachvak Bay [N- lat. 59),

Eskimo are the sole inhabitants. The last number of the Bul-

letin of the Berlin Geographical Society contains a paper 0” a

Climate of the Glacial Period, by Dr. Woeikoff. For the forma

tion of glaciers a certain amount of moisture in the ate

_ as well as a low temperature is necessary. In the Woznesensky

_ gold mine, at a height of 920 meters, the mean temperature 1S ee

1881.] Microscopy. 929

Celsius, but the climate is rather dry and there are no glaciers.

Dr. Woeikoff shows by examples that the difference of mean

temperatures at the lower ends, of glaciers reaches as much as

fully 20°. Provided the quantity of rain and snow is great, gla-

ciers descend as low as 212 meters above the sea-level, as in New

Zealand, which has the latitude of Nice and the mean tempera-

ture of Vienna and Brussels. He also discusses the decided in-

Dr. Kirk, the English Consul-general at Zanzibar is

Preparing a work on the tsetse fly. he Portuguese propose

to establish four great stations in Central Africa from which the

exploration of the surrounding districts can be carried on.—

he missionaries at the University’s Mission Station at. Masasi,

state that the River Lujenda is believed to rise from a great lake

fast of Nyassa, and it is probable that a good sized lake still

remains to be discovered to the north or north-east of Shirwa.

~——The Italian travelers Dr. P. Matteucci and Lieut. Alfonso.

Massari reached Liverpool on August 5th, from a journey across

Africa. They left Suakin, on the Red Sea, on March 5, 1880,

and proceeded by way of Khartum and the province of Kordofan

to El Fasher, the capital of Darfur. After wearisome negotia-

tions they were allowed to go to Abeshr, the chief town of

Wadai. They then visited Lake Chad, and after traversing

Bornu, Baghirmi, Sokoto, &c., they arrived at Egga on June

4 scale of 1 : 250,000.

arrived at Sydney from New Britain early in May last. During

his visit of eight months in that island he made large collections,

cluding 12,000 geological specimens.

land, and goes afterwards to North Australia and thence to New

Guinea, making ‘careful observations of the character and habits

of the natives of these regions.

_ MICROSCOPY.!

: Examination oF CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE FLUID CAVITIES OF

Minerars.—Mr. Alexis A. Julien thus describes the method em-

_ Ployed in his investigations : Bee sgt f

a the qualitative identification of carbon dioxide in the cavi-

_-* This departm

i irtment is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N.Y. —

vou, XV.—NO, XI, te. =

930 Gencral Notes. | November,

ties of a mounted thin section of a mineral, may be determined,

at least with probability, after some experience, through various

optical appearances and physical characteristics which have been

often described. It is usually effected with certainty and ease,

through the rapid and enormous expansion and ultimate disap-

pearance, either of the liquid or of the gaseous bubble, on the appli-

cation of a gentle heat for a few seconds, such as that of a cigar,

the heated end of a rod, or jet of hot air, or even a jet of the

warm breath conveyed through a flexible rubber tube. When

the slide and the thin section are thin, even the heat (37° C.) of

the tip of one’s finger, applied for a few seconds to the bottom of

the slide without removal from the stage of the microscope, May

be sufficient to produce the characteristic phenomena, ¢. g., the

contraction and disappearance of a bubble whose size is relatively

small to that of the liquid in which it floats.

“For the determination of the temperature of disappearance of

the bubble, which may vary from 20° to 32° C., several forms of

stage heating apparatus may be employed. * * * In place

of all these, a simple and inexpensive apparatus may be substi-

tuted, consisting of a miniature water bath in which are immersed

the entire section and slide, the bulb of the thermometer, and the

nose of the objective. It consists of a box of tinned copper

(tinned iron is liable to rust), of length sufficient to project a few

centimeters on either side of the stage of the microscope em-

ployed ; the one I use being twenty-three centimeters in length,

4 centimeters in width, and three centimeters in depth. This 1s

laid across the stage of the microscope, separated from the metal

by thin plates of cork, and is heated by a short wax taper (night-

light) underneath either extremity. The slide may rest upon the

The preparation is then covered yA

any pure and clear water, preferably filtered (distilled is unneces:

sary), to a depth of about two centimeters. A circular apertur

in the bottom of the box, eighteen millimeters in diameter,

covered with glass attached by cement, and through this :

light is thrown up from the mirror. The cavity to be examine’

is then carefully adjusted and focussed, a taper is lit, and the ey

_ glass tube with its point terminating just below the edge 0 4

slide, is connected with the mouth during the experiment by t

_ small rubber tube. As the temperature slowly rises, 2 constan

a Current of small bubbles of the warm breath (whose temperature,

1881. ] 7 Microscopy. 931

32°, only assists the operation) may be blown up with little

fatigue through the tube, to effect a thorough intermixture of un-

equally heated layers in the water stratum. The determination

of the temperature of the disappearance of the bubble is easily

obtained within five minutes, and that of its reappearance in about

the same time. A low-power objective may be carefully wiped

if its anterior lens is dimmed by flying drops or by rising vapor,

when a high temperature is being attained ; but it is best to in-

sert the whole objective in a small, narrow glass beaker floating

upon the surface of the bath over the preparation. * ie

place of the flowing tube a little agitator or churn at the end of

the box had been previously tried, to produce the intermixture of

the contents of the bath, but was given up on account of the in-

convenient vibration and frequent dislodgment of the slide.”

A still simpler apparatus was found to be more convenient

when high temperatures were not required. In this case a plate

of copper or brass 23 centimeters long, 6.5 centimeters wide, and

I millimeter thick, with a central aperture of 2.5 centimeters,

partly wrapped in pasteboard to prevent radiation, was laid upon

the stage of the microscope. Over the central aperture was

cool water to the bath, while the eye remains at the eye-piece, and

a steady current of air is blown through the glass tube; with this

apparatus, which may be called the immersion warm bath, it mat-

ters little, for most purposes, what liquid, stand or objective 1s

€mployed; and there is no difficulty in obtaining, satisfactorily,

the two determinations within ten minutes, to an approximation

of about one-twentieth of a degree. These forms of apparatus

May be of service in other branches of thermal microscopy where

an exact determination of the temperature applied is desirable.

- Deatn or Cuartes A. Spencer.—Those who work with the

Microscope, or enjoy its teachings, will not soon forget that they

have lost a friend in the death of this remarkable man, whic

ccurred at Geneva, N. Y., on the 28th of September. Almost

Without preliminary education, he undertook the manufacture of

_ Microscopes, with little knowledge of the experience of others in —

_ westward, A part of this arctic current, as it moves

932 Scientific News. [ November,

the same work, and but little qualification except his individual

industry, intelligence and ingenuity. Apprehending the value of

aperture as a means of resolution, far in advance of the rest of

the world he produced objectives that were not only unequaled,

but fora time quite unintelligible. The position so suddenly

acquired was worthily occupied; and for nearly half a century

Mr. Spencer has maintained a place, by his extraordinary genius

for original contrivance and his tact in accomplishing extremely

ne work, among the first of the manufacturing opticians in the

world. His life was spent at Canastota, N. Y., except the last

few years, which were spent at Geneva. From his shop at Can-

astota he sent out Mr. Tolles, who has since divided the honors

with his instructor as a maker of extremely fine and really orig-

inal microscopical work; and during recent years, as superintend-

ent of the Geneva optical works, while feeble from age and fail-

ing health, he has proved so good an organizer and instructor,

that his sons have been enabled to produce lenses that would not

suffer by comparison with the best work of their father. Among

the first and oldest of the original circle of microscopists in this

country, and not more skillful as an optician than genial and

friendly as a man, he will be greatly missed by his friends, and

remembered and honored by all who are interested in his branch

of science.

:0:

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

_ — The results obtained in the recent deep sea explorations by

the Coast Survey steamer Blake are of special interest a5 afford-

ing new data for mapping down the floor of the Atlantic. Since

May last the B/ake, under command of Commander Bartlett, re-

ports having run lines of soundings across the Gulf stream from

the Florida straits to Cape Hatteras, at the same time making

an examination of the great ocean current. The new data

tained show that the Bahama Banks extend in an almost level

submarine plateau nearly two hundred miles in width off the

ly twenty-

s to about

of the

The average depth of water on this long plateau was foun

the Blake to be but little over four hundred fathoms, and it seems

evident, therefore, that it must serve as a vast submarine wall to

divert from the Carolina coasts the major part of the g

dercurrent setting from the Newfoundland Banks t

_ the surface, on reaching Cape Hatteras no doubt ae

___ between the shore and the prolonged Bahama Bank, even 00F

Florida coast, but only a small part. The effect of this aera

1881.] Scientific News. 933

rine elevation running almost up to Hatteras, it would seem, is

virtually to extend the Gulf stream basin of superheated water

up to the North Carolina coast, thus giving the stream much

and every investigation which enables the hydrologist more ac-

curately to gauge its thermal power is important.

If the view we have here taken, suggested by the preliminary

report of the Blake's recent work, is sustained, the agency o

Arctic stream in cooling down the Gulf stream south of Hatteras,

which figures as a very considerable factor in Dr. Carpenter’s com-

putations of Gulf stream heat, must be regarded as much feebler

than it is generally supposed. It is to be hoped that when the

details of the late exploration are reduced the results will be

fully published. Surveys of this kind are of great value to navi-

gation and science, but they ought to include each summer exact

determinations of the temperature of certain sections of the Gulf

Stream. If we could ascertain every season the temperature,

th surface and sub-surface, of this great oceanic artery at fixed

points, it would be easy to deduce therefrom the great anomalous”

changes in the temperature and resultant weather of the northern

hemisphere, as General Sabine years ago proposed to do, and

thus be in position to forecast the general features of approach-

ing seasons.— New York Herald.

— The following process is recommended by Abbass for pro-

ducing metallic castings of flowers, leaves, insects, etc.:

The object, a dead beetle, for example, is first arranged in a

natural position, and the feet are connected with an oval rim of

wax. It is then fixed in the center of a paper or wooden box by

means of pieces of fine wire, so that it is perfectly free, and thick-

er wires are run from the sides of the box to the object, which

subsequently serve to form air channels in the mould by their re-

moval. A wooden stick, tapering toward the bottom, is place

upon the back of the insect to produce a runner for casting. The

box is then filled up with a paste of three parts of plaster of paris

and one of brickdust, made up with a solution of alum and sal

ammoniac. It is also well first to brush the object with this

paste to prevent the formation of air bubbles. After the mould

thus formed has set, the object is removed from the interior by

first reducing it to ashes. It is therefore dried slowly, and finally

eated gradually to a red heat, and then allowed to cool slowly

to prevent the formation of flaws or cracks. The ashes are re-

Moved by pouring mercury into the cold mould and shaking it

thoroughly before pouring it out, and repeating this operation

934 | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [November,

mould needs simply to be thoroughly heated before it is filled

with metal in order that the latter may flow into all portions of

it. After it has become cold it is softened and carefully broken

away from the casting.

— Capt. G. J. Belknap, of the U. S. steamer, A/aska, has been

taking soundings in the Pacific ocean off Callao bay during a

run of 112 miles. Ata distance of 102 miles from the shore he .

found a depth of 3368 fathoms, of nearly four statute miles. That

was the deepest depression he could find. The casts brought ~

clay and greenish sand, the bottom temperature being about 34

Fahr.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Soctety oF Narurat History, Oct. 5.—A paper on

the species of Orangs, by Mr. F. A. Lucas, was read, and Mr.

Burgess described the true mouth structure of the “ water-tiger

{Dytiscus).

Acapemy or Naturat Sciences or Parrapetrsta, March 8,

1881.—Professor Angelo Heilprin delivered the introductory »

his course of lectures on invertebrate paleontology. A paper en

titled “Structure, affinities and species of Scolopendrella, by

John A. Ryder, was presented for publication. :

" March 15.—Professor Henry Carvill Lewis delivered the intro-

of minerals. Professor Lewis spoke’ of a specimen 0 wie

quartz containing water. Professor Heilprin made some Spe .

on Nummulites raymondiopsis and Opercularia rotilla. Mr. Reu eS

Haines made a communication on impurities in drinking wat

and the modes of determining them. Remarks on the same su

ject were made by Messrs. McCook, Heilprin and Morris. fis

March 22.—Mr. J. A. Ryder gave some of the results a H

investigations on the development of the oyster. ea

Horn spoke of the larva of a beetle, Goes perverulentes.

April 5.—Professor Angelo Heilprin called attention to ee?

cial characters in a specimen of Spirifer. Mr. J. A- Ryder m cate

a statement with regard to certain disputed points in the org

zation of embryo fishes. = dis-

_ April t9.—Dr. Henry C. Chapman gave the results of his ee

section of two hippopotami. Mr, Ryder spoke of the deve é

ment of the nucleus in the ova of fishes and Mollusca. hill

Tryon read extracts from a letter received from Mr _ Heme

relating to the habits of west coast limpets. Dr. G.A. Konig ca -

attention to Reinsch’s work on the micro-structure of pe hares

and Triassic coal. The subject was farther discussed by Fro by

sor Heilprin. A paper entitled “Observations on Planorbis,

__R.E.C. Stearns, was presented for publication.

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. | 935

April 26—Mr. Ryder spoke of the development of the Ameri- .

can four-spined stickleback. A paper entitled “ List of the fishes

collected by Mr. W. J. Fisher upon the coasts of Lower Califor-

nia, 1876-77, with descriptions of new species,” by W. N. Lock-

ington, was presented for publication.

ay 3.—Mr. Ryder described the spinning organ of the male

stickleback. Dr. G. H. Horn made remarks on the classification

of the Carabide.

May 10.—Professor H. C. Lewis called attention to a collec-

tion of beautiful concretions, and considered the mode of forma-

tion. Mr. Tryon read an extract froma letter by Henry Hemphill

describing the arrival of a species of Glycimeris fron: Washing-

ton Territory. Mr. Thomas Meehan spoke of the numerical

branching of Ampelopsis. Rev. Henry C. McCook made a com-

munication on the spinning work of spiders, its nomenclature and

classification, . ;

May 17.— Papers on Quercus rubra, Q: durandii and Rhus

colinoides, by S. B. Buckley, were presented for publication. Pro-

€ssor Heilprin described certain unique specimens of Ammonite

and Trigonia. Professor Lewis made further remarks on the

concretions presented at a former meeting. Mr. Edw. Potts ex-

ibited a specimen of Stapélia illustrating cleistogamous fertili-

zation. ;

vay 24.—A paper entitled as follows, was presented for publi-

Cation: “ Revision of the Palzocrinoide—Part 1. Family Sphe-

certain European naturalists regarding his genus Ourameeba. Rev.

Dr. McCook spoke of the stridulating sound made by ants and

Otts exhibited a beautiful living specimen of Pyrophorus.

une 14.—A paper entitled “ Notes on the Tertiary Geology of

the Southern United States,” by Angelo Heilprin, was presented

for publication. Dr. Horn made some remarks on the entomo-

gical work of the late Baron Chaudoir, and then spoke of his,

Dr, Horn’s, arrangement of the Carabide. Mr. Potts defined the

8enera Heteromeinia and Carterella, and asked for material for

illustration of the history of fresh-water sponges. Dr. /inders

Spoke of his observations on the evaporation of moisture from

_ Vegetation, the soil and water. : : :

_ June 21~—Mr. Meehan spoke of the sudden appearance of

936 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Nov., 1881.

modifications in plants, illustrating his remarks. by special refer-

- ence to the presence or absence of the thorns of roses.

July 5.—A paper entitled “ The snare of the ray spider, Apeera

vadiosa, anew form of orb-web,” by Rev. H. C. McCook, D.D.,

was presented for publication. Mr. Meehan noted the discovery

of Lilium martagon for the first time in the United States, and

also spoke of the parasitic character of the Rocky mountain

snow plant.. In continuation he made some remarks on what

might be called “floral clock-work,” with special reference to the

opening and closing of the flowers of Zalinum teretifolum. |

July 19.—A paper entitled “A revision of the Cis-Mississipp!

Tertiary Pectens of the United States,’ by Angelo Heilprin, was

presented for publication. :

uly 26.—A note from Edw. Potts was read defining a new

species of fresh-water sponge of the genus Carterella.

Aug. 2.—A paper entitled “ Remarks on the molluscan genera

Hippagus, Verticordia and Pecchiola,” by Angelo Heilprin, was

presented for publication. : Sue

embryo oysters. ot

ept. 20.—A paper entitled ‘‘ Note on the approximate position

of the Eocene deposits of Maryland,” by Angelo Heilprin, was

presented for publication.

Sept. 27—Mr. Ryder spoke of the anatomy of Arca net

and also considered Balfour's and His and Rauber’s views regare

ing the growth of embryo fishes. ;

Oct. 4.—The Rev. Dr. McCook explained how the ee

spiders prepared their webs. Mr. Ryder spoke of a genie

cavity in the germinal disc of fishes, and its connection with th

blood-vessel system.

-_ SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

heet

at any latitude, by W. J. McGee. Marine fauna ie as Laut af

st 19.-

_ Locomotion and organ of locomotion of Cyclostoma elegans, an

On the development

On the allantois °

—_

“y

te}

ea)

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vou. xv. — DECEMBER, 1881.— No. 12,

DEMERARA.,

BY F, M. ENDEICH:

dh as northern portion of South America, known as Guyana,

Gyana or Guiana, has been, in the course of time, separated

into several provinces, one of which fell to Great Britain. British

Guiana, or Demerara, was-ceded to the Crown by Holland in 1814,

and since then has been one of England's important colonies.

Located within‘the equatorial zone, the country. affords no induce-

ments for extensive white settlement ; only those: who are accus-

tomed to such climate can be employed in the prosecution of

various industries and enterprises. European civilization and

energy have wrested from the fertile soil golden fruits, and the

flourishing colony has seen a long period of uninterrupted pros-

perity.

While the country bordering upon the sea is low and flat, it

becomes more broken and even mountainous towards the interior,

Complete explorations of the southerly portions of the colony

have not been made as yet, and, in consequence, strange legends.

and rumors are afloat concerning the hidden mysteries and well- —

Suarded treasures of the terra incognita. Gold is reported to:

have been found at various places, sometimes as nuggets and

again imbedded inthe rock. Traditions of unsurpassed mountain

Scenery, the Alps and the equator combined, tempt the spirit of

venturesome travelers. Within accessible distance, the Kaiteur

falls, renowned for their picturesqueness, _ have received the

Aomage due them, at the hands of those who braved’ alike cli-

Mate and fatigue to enjoy their refreshing thunder,

Dense, tangled “bush,” the frequency of swamps-and. marshes,

«WOR, xV.—no, x11.

938 Demerara. [ December,

both abounding in creatures of decidedly anti-domestic tenden-

cies, render exploration difficult, and turn even a so-called pleas-

ure trip into arduous labor. So far as plantations and isolated

settlements extend, transportation is a matter of no difficulty,

even steam being employed for the convenience of passengers

and freight. Beyond these limits, however, only great endurance

and immunity from climatal influences, will enable the stranger

to satisfy his thirst for knowledge of a region but little known to

the civilized world.

Almost involuntarily the comparison obtrudes itself between

exploration in arctic and tropical regions. On the one hand a

temperature which would seem to congeal every impulse, benumb

every physical and mental capacity; on the other, a degree of

heat which renders alike exercise and rest a matter of positive

danger, and produces conditions of mental indolence and apathy

similar to the first. Passing over rugged, broken fields of ice and

snow, where every individual force is brought into requisition,

may be compared to the struggle through densely matted forests,

through treacherous marshes,

« Where at each step the stranger fears to wake

The rattling terrors of the vengeful snake.”

Unequal, however, would seem the reward. While atmospheric

phenomena alone beautify the field of the arctic explorer, ck a08

to him the midnight sun is but a weird shadow of the 9.40

longs for, and while the fitful gleams of an aurora bring to persue

the indestructible forces of nature, every step in the tropica

country, unless it be a desert, calls forth admiration and ene

at the vigor and fullness of animal and vegetable life. eas

the most profound interest rise up before him, forms of which

finds but the stony record of bygone eras in his own es

The marvelous vitality of plant life, too, affords hima _

into the sealed book of geological age, where time appears 12

annihilated. : the

Approaching by sea from the northward, a dark line along é

horizon denotes the presence of land. As the water 1s a

the vicinity of the coast, all ships of heavy draught are ob * ae

to wait for high tide before entering the harbor of Co oe

_ Demerara’s capital. “A chapter on the gradual accretion of | es

- and on the hydrographi ditions of the northern coast of 5° k

_ America, would here be out of place, so it may suffice to ser

1881.] Demerara. 939

that the coastline of British Guiana is subject to serious changes

in consequence of marine currents, unless such changes be antici-

_ pated and avoided by artificial means. In order to protect plan-

tations and settlements of the lowlands, the Dutch Government

caused an extensive “sea-wall” to be built. The experience

gained by them in their native country was here successfully ap-

plied, and the profits accruing from this tremendous undertaking

have shown the wisdom of its inception. Repairs to this means

of defense require annually large sums, which are borne by estate

Owners and the British Government, in order to secure cultivation

and returns from lands which otherwise would be submerged at

high tide.

Georgetown is certainly a most beautiful place. As the center

of enterprise, from which is directed the utilization of resources

afforded by the colony, it has a busy appearance. Immediately

beyond the business quarters of the town, however, are the de-

lightful habitations and luxuriant gardens of its citizens. A wel-

come sight is that of the Stars and Stripes, floating over the resi-

dence of our consular representative, Col. Figyelmesy; his

Courteous thoughtfulness and hearty reception will ever render

the visit to his tropical home a most grateful memory.

The construction of houses, which permits free circulation of

air, is thoroughly well adapted to the exigencies of the climate.

A sea-breeze keeps the air in motion and makes life very endura-

ble. No pen can do justice to the brilliancy of the tastefully

arranged gardens by which nearly every house is surrounded.

Magnificent flowering trees, and shrubs exhaling fragrant per-

fumes, are cultivated in abundance. Hospitality is a leading fea-

ture of the citizens, and the stranger finds every opportunity offered

him for admiring their sense of the beautiful. !

In our northern climes, where nearly one-half of the year seems

devoted to the apparent dying and death of all plant life, we are

driven to bestow an adequate portion of cur affections upon more un-

changeable objects. Thus it is hardly surprising that blue-colored

Plates, hideous ornaments of days gone by, and chairs, quaint to

look at, but also quaint to sit upon, claims so much of our atten-

tion. When climatal changes interrupt the enjoyment of nature's

exhibits, it seems necessary to find other subjects upon which the

‘Superfluous sentimentality demanded by reigning fashion can be

_ &Xpended, - er bee

hs | ‘

940 Demerara. [ December,

It would require the eyes of Argus to take in all the floral

beauty, and at the same time do justice to the picturesque appear-

ance of the streets. Famous for its arrangement and the care be- |

stowed upon it, is the public garden of Georgetown, and it can

readily be imagined how flourishing any undertaking of this kind

must be, in a climate so propitious to the highest and most

speedy development of vegetable life.

While the commerce of the colony is largely in the hands of

Englishmen, a goodly number of Portuguese have acquired promi-

nence in the mechanical and domestic arts. Negroes, Indians,

Chinese and East Indians, all of them, more or less—generally

less—fantastically attired, mingle with the bright colored uni-

forms of British soldiery. On market days, the scene is one of

great interest. Large trees shelter the space devoted to this pur-

pose, and beneath them, may be seen stretched the dusky forms of

Africans, Americans and Asiatics, in peaceful contemplation.

Groups of chattering coolies, of more silent Indians, and of exhila-

rated darkies are scattered everywhere. Shouts and cries, partly

of recognition, partly to attract customers, are heard on every

side. Fruits and other produce, as well as articles prepared by

the skillful hands of natives, are exposed for sale.

Passing along we may meet a bronze-colored girl, clad in a

short petticoat, boddice and breast cloth of flaring hues, gold and

silver armlets, wristbands and anklets, which worn in profusion,

show a pleasing contrast to the soft, dusky skin. Hair, black as jet,

falls from under a head-gear composed of a single cloth, which 1s

draped with inimitable grace and ornamented with gold and silver

spangles and rings. Dark, piercing eyes are deeply set beneath

finely developed eyebrows. The flattened, somewhat broad ee

is supplied with a curiously fashioned button, fastened into 1

side. Earrings of liberal proportions and sometimes elaborate

workmanship adorn the members for which they are intended,

Small hands and feet denote purity of race, and the girl proves

to be one of the imported East Indian coolies. Her entire wealt

consists in the trinkets with which she bedecks her person, and

_ the consciousness of her superior charms is visible in every MOV

ment. From a dark olive tint, the color of these coolies varie>

9 almost blach >| tic I ly among the males. Of medium height,

ae thin, but very muscular, their bodies and limbs exposed by. *

. “minimum of clothing, these people pre: ent a striking type adding '

PLATE _I.

EsEQuiso INDIANS.

1881.] Demerara, 94I

Sreatly to the fantastic character of the scene. Upon occasions

of more elaborate toilet, they drape themselves in a burnous-like

cloak of white or striped material, and wear turbans. Long staffs

of Yakka-wood, hard and tough, serve manifold purposes. They

assist in the carrying of burdens and give employment to

hands and arms. It is stated that during one of the more recent

insurrections the laborers did terrible execution with these Yakka

Sticks. :

The native Indians have adapted their costumes to the require-

ments of the climaté. While selling their produce, they walk

the streets in a costume that would create consternation in

the drawing-room. Negroes have found the place allotted to

them throughout the world, although a few have shown an

enterprising spirit, and consequently have risen in wealth and im-

portance. ;

Chinamen follow the calling which elsewhere serves to make

them conspicuous. Their intimate relation to soap and wash-

boards proves them to be a very useful factor in social economy,

Wherever they go. At Georgetown, a special quarter is assigned

to them, and they live as though sheltered by their own native

Country. Stores, kept by Chinamen, supply them with food and

utensils from the celestial empire, and they worship their own

Particular deities with the same regularity and observances as at

ome, Frugal habits and the never-dying desire to spend the

last days of their lives in the land of their ancestors, impel them

to labor earnestly for the pittance, which, for their wants, consti-

tutes a fortune. As workmen on sugar estates they are highly

Prized. Their sagacity and industry make them indispensable

to their owners.

Leaving Georgetown by rail, the route lies through low marshy

fountry; a large portion of this would be flooded at high tide

Were it not for the protecting sea-wall. Advantage has been

taken of this fact, and narrow canals, connected with the bay,

Supply the place of roads on plantations. The first glance dis-

Closes the main staple of the colony, sugar-cane. Extensive

Works are visible in many directions, and immense fields are

“overed with the growing cane. Demerara sugar production

4s kept pace with the improvements devoted to the industry.

Visiting an estate of perhaps several thousand acres, the traveler

finds himself within a small, well regulated commonwealth. : .

942 | Demerara. [ December,

Coolies, negroes and Chinamen, perform the labor. Dozens of

working-men and women may be seen cutting the cane, and trans-

ferring it to iron punts on the small canals. By way of the latter,

the sugar-house is reached and the extraction of cane-juice begins.

Machinery of ponderous dimensions, is employed to crush the

cane, and the juice resulting therefrom undergoes the usual pro-

cess of boiling. Evaporation of moisture at the right time is an

important item in the manufacture of sugar, and much ingenuity

as well as money has been expended in producing the most

satisfactory appliances for this purpose. Without entering into

details it may be stated that the sugars of Demerara are prepared

under exceptionally favorable auspices. Excellent workmen,

carefully trained by their superiors, the supervision of expert

chemists, and the deep interest taken by all in the production of

this staple, ensure an article which need rank second to none.

The interior of a sugar-house shows a motley assemblage:

negroes and coolies chanting their monotonous song, attend to —

the feeding of the crusher. Dark figures almost naked, flit

through the clouds of steam rising from the boiling pans. What

with the noise from machinery, the weird half-light and the impish

looking creatures stirring the boiling masses, a vision of the Lnfer-

no is readily suggested.

For this colonial industry the influx of East Indian coolies has

proved a blessing. The matter has received due attention from

the British Government, and the immigration of these people, as

well as their subsequent stay is admirably managed. Estate

_ Owners are obliged to provide them with suitable habitations and

the necessaries of life, besides paying stipulated wages. Hospita

are established on the premises, and resident physicians have

charge of patients. In every way the workmen and their fami-

lies are satisfactorily cared for. Often they even prefer to remain

after the five years of their contracted time have expired. Shoul

_ any occasion for complaint arise, there is at handa special bureat

created for this purpose, and causes of abuse are removed with

rigorous justice. Upon departure from the scene of his serv’

tude the coolie has guaranteed to him the passage to his own

home, and the few hundreds of dollars which he has saved by

economizing, enable him to live in comparative comfort and eas

among his countrymen. oe es

__ A coolie village is an attractive sight, Trim huts, placed with!

1881. ] Demerara, — 943

small gardens, stand in rows along the road. Numerous chil-

dren, often elaborately clad in only a bead necklace, play around

the street and garden. Old men and women seek the shade and

enjoy their smoke, while the younger ones are at work in the

fields or in the sugar-house. Certain clans seem to band together,

indicating their character by hanging out a flag, and to all appear-

ances the people are happy. On gala-days, or when a visit is

made to the town, all available ornaments are brought into requi-

sition for personal adornment, and great is the pride of their

wearers.

Beyond the estates are found tracts of “bush.” Difficult of

access on account of intervening swamps, these remnants of

Original forest present an almost impenetrable front. Densely

intertwined plants, one clinging to the other in emulation of the

traditional ivy and oak, ferm an effective barrier, and nothing but

a long machete will be of any avail in traversing

«Those matted woods, where birds begin to sing.”’

Occasional swampy clearings harbor flocks of white herons and

other birds.

Living along the Esequibo river and its tributaries, we encounter

the native Indians (Plate 1). They are separated into tribes, bearing

similar relations to each other as of our own Indians. Here they

follow hunting and fishing, basket making, the production of pot-

tery and netting of grass hammocks. For shelter they build rude

huts, generally protected on one side by trees and other growing

plants, while three sides are open. Thatched palm leaves form

the roof, which protects the inmates from heavy dews and period-

ical rains. Hammocks of twisted grass are swung between the poles

which support the roof, and serve as resting places by day and night

(Plate 11). An Indian nature requires much rest. These-ham-

mocks have acquired a well merited reputation and are prized on

account of their lightness and durability. Physically the Indians

Present a strong, healthy appearance. They are of medium

height, well knit, muscular, and rarely show any superfluous tis-

sue. Thick black hair covers their heads and protects them

from the rays of a trupical sun. Sometimes this is worn long,

falling over the shoulders. Square, massive features characterize.

the face, which would have a stupid expression were it not for the

bright, black eyes. The men wear few or no ornaments, and

usually no clothing except a loin-cloth. Generally the women —

944 Demerara. [ December,

are well developed, muscular, and appear more agile than the men.

Both are able to endure great bodily hardships. Necklaces made

of beads, teeth, feathers, the lustrous wings of bugs and other

materials of personal decoration in use among savages, are the

never-failing adornments of these squaws, although all othes

wearing apparel may be dispensed with. Short aprons, worked

in attractive patterns and trimmed with beads and feathers, are

worn. Long tassels, interwoven with fur, feathers and grass are

attached thereto, Anklets, either of metal or plaited grasses are

almost invariably used, and appear to answer, in some way, the pur-

pose of protecting and strengthening the lower portion of the leg

(Plate 111). The female Indian is not beautiful, far from it, butin ap-

pearance she compares favorably with our North American squaw.

As usual the women perform the greater portion of the manual

labor, although the “lords of creation” will sometimes conde-

scend to assist. Hunting, fishing, the search for valuable timber

or medicinal plants, with an ample allowance of peaceful repose,

fully occupy the man’s time. Rum, obtained ata ridiculously

low price, furnishes restful oblivion and freedom from care, This,

together with tobacco, serves to smooth the native’s path and

gently hurry him along on his journey through mundane scenes:

_ Spears and arrows are used in fishing. Generally the spear-

heads are three-pronged and sharply barbed, but for smaller fish

one prong suffices. Often these are made of a poisonous wood,

which is said to paralyze the motions of the animal, so-that it

may easily be taken. Long arrows with iron points are shot into

the fish, which then are speedily secured. Fishing, by hook and

line, or net, provides a large portion of the Indians with bodily sus-

tenance, Quadrupeds, birds and snakes are likewise hunted with

Spear and arrow. The former isa sort of javelin with poisoned

tips. For long distances a bow is used measuring nearly seven

__ feet in length, arrows in proportion. Beautiful workmanship and

_ taste in decoration make these weapons very conspicuous. Bird-

_ arrows and those destined for larger game are prepared with soe

_ cial reference to the distances of their flight and the animals OF.

_ are aimed at, For hunting inthe bush a short bow, about three

or four feet long, is employed. An ingenious contrivance saves

the hunter from losing his arrows in case the game be on?

_ wounded ; at the same time it enables him to do a great deal -

execution with only a small supply of weapons. For this pur

PLATE Iii.

4 i)

EsEQuiso INDIANS,

1881.] Demerara. 945

pose the point-end of the arrow is made blunt, and a narrow

longitudinal slit cut into one side. The end is tightly wound

with cord made of wood fiber. A number of points about the

size of matches are cut from the siliceous rind of reeds and are

Prepared with ourare. Inserting one of these points into the

slit, it is held there firmly enough to enter the body of an ani-

mal, while the arrow drops off and can be recovered.

Ourare is a very important factor in the hunting equipment of

Guiana Indians. It is prepared by them from a variety of poi-.

sonous woods, barks and fruits, is placed in small calabashes and

carefully Wrapped in leaves. When required for use, cassava

juice is employed to soften it. The deadly effect of this poison

is too well known to require further mention. Inasmuch as it is

used not only for purposes of the chase, but also in warfare, the

Indians have recourse to what thev claim as an effective antidote.

In appearance this is a black powder, resembling charcoal. Any

Person desiring to make himself ourare proof, inoculates himself

at several places of his body. By taking this precaution he is

Supposed to be insured against the deadly action of the poison

for a number of years. In case no previous inoculation has

taken place, an immediate introduction of this substance into the

blood is said to neutralize the effect of ourare.!

Apart from the more warlike propensities of the chase, the

Guiana Indians are no strangers to the soothing influences ; they

have invented flutes to beguile the hours when not resting. Two

kinds are especially noticeable, the one made of reeds, the other

of suitable bones. Of the latter the leopard furnishes the most _

frequent specimens. Whether it is merely a matter of preference

or whether the possession of such a flute recalls reminiscences of

Successful encounters, cannot be told. Limited as to scope and

volume, yet the sounds produced by these instruments, orna-

mented as they are with bright feathers and tassels, show that =~

“* * * music for the time doth change his nature.”

In their domestic relations the Demerara Indians resemble their

North American brethren. Contact with the whites has had the

Same influence upon them. Living in a zone where clothing can

be dispensed with, where the sustenance of life is rendered easy by

"I have been assured by a gentleman that this was a fact, he having seen the ex-

Pcriment of ourare poisoning and the administering of the antidote, successfully per-

formed upon dogs,

946 ; Demerara. _ [December,

the bountiful provision of nature, they have but few wants. Rum,

beads, and trinkets comprise their ambition. In exchange for

these they furnish rude pottery, handsomely wrought baskets and

the hammocks above mentioned. Farther towards the interior

these people have hardly been disturbed as yet, and live on with-

out being affected by extraneous influences. Their haunts are

difficult of access, and it is but rarely that any venturesome trav-

eler penetrates to their homes.

Traveling by water is perhaps the most available method, but

even then many obstacles confront the explorer. It is owing to

these facts that comparatively little is known of the Guiana In-

dians, and it may be a long time before complete information can

be obtained regarding their distribution, manners and customs. A

praiseworthy spirit has been shown at Georgetown, by the estab-

lishment of a Colonial Museum, where archeological specimens

and products of the present day are carefully preserved. The

great interest taken at this time in matters pertaining to ethnol-

ogy and anthropology has pervaded all countries and all classes,

so that we may hope ere long to see the correlations of races 4”

tribes, now obscure, more fully established.

The tropical flora and tropical fauna are too well known to re

quire any special mention. The rich, strong colors, the evidence

of exuberant life and the unaccustomed forms exhibited by the

vegetation must make a profound impression upon the stranger

from northern climes. Where every step, every turn reveals SO

much that elicits sympathetic response, it is natural that the ad-

miration of nature’s most lovely products should become an inte-

gral part of the appreciative mind.

Demerara has made great strides in development during the

past few decades. Sanitary measures, well adapted regulations

as to non-European inhabitants, and good gover nment have

brought the colony to a condition of flourishing welfare. The

comforts of home-life have been combined with the advantages °!

tropical residence, and few places, indeed, may be visited, we

will so amply repay the trouble. Staples for which there is com”

stant demand are the basis of colonial wealth, and the enterprise

heretofore shown by planters and manufacturers, gives assuratis

that in its own productions Demerara will never be found laggins

behind its.competitors. ,

1885.] Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. 947

A SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF BOTANY IN THE

UNITED STATES IN 188o.

BY PROFESSOR C; E. BESSEY.

A. Anatomy and Pipleistory 2k valuable paper appeared in

the Botanical Gazette for November, on “The Stem of the

Pumpkin for illustrating Plant Histology,” by J. C. Arthur. The

disposition of the various tissues, with notes upon some of their

peculiarities, and suggestions as to the best methods of preparing

them for observation, make up the bulk of the paper. Finally a

classified list of the tissues is given, as follows:

Epidermal System : fibro-vascular System :

Epidermis. (Cambium.)

Stomata. Phiuém ;

Hairs. Sieve-tubes.

. Fundamental System: Phloém parenchyma,

Interfascicular parenchyma. Xylem ;

Hypoderma ; Vessels ;

Cortical Annular

Cortical decchtipis Spiral.

Collenchyma, Reticulated.

Scalariform.

Pitted.

Wood parenchyma.

“ To these should pei be added Laticiferous tissue, some-

times detected in the phloé

W. K. Higley, in two papers is published in the Naturatist for

Oct. and Nov., added somewhat to our knowledge of the “ Micro-

Scopic Crystals contained in Plants.” Many crystal-containing

plants are noted, and a useful list is given of all the natural orders

_ of plants in which these structures have been observed.

Dr. Engelmann’s paper on “The Acorns and their Germina-

tion,” published in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy of

Sciences, Vol. 1v, records the results of his careful study of the

germination of the acorns of many species. In addition to a

definite statement of the structure of the embryo in the species

examined, the author describes the tuber-like enlargement of the _

radicle in the live-oak, caused by the transfer to the latter of the

food from the cotyledons.

In a paper on “The Supposed Dimorphism of Lithospermum

_longifiorum,” by C. E. Bessey, published in the June number of

the Naruratist, the writer showed by means of many measure-

ments that this species is not dimorphic (heterostylous), but that

{

fusca; Coniothyrium minutulum, Leptothyrium chro

948 Pregress of Botany in the United States in 1880, [December,

its large flowers are exceedingly variable as to length of corolla

and style.

Thomas Meehan’s “ Dimorphic Flowers in Houstonia” and

“ Cleistogamy in Oxalis acetosella,” and I. C. Martindale’s “ Sex-

ual Variation in Castanea Americana,’ published in the Proceed-

ings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, should

be noted here as interesting contributions to this department oF

botany. The “ Notes on the Flowering of Sazifraga sarmentosa,

by Professor J. E. Todd, in the August Narura cist, are some-

what more extended than the preceding, and accompanied by

several wood-cuts.

“ Nectar and its Uses,” published by Wm. Trelease in the Re-

port upon Cotton Insects, issued by the Department of Agricul-

ture, is a carefully prepared essay, bringing together what !s

known as to the production and uses of the nectar of plants. om

plate and an excellent list of the books and papers treating of |

nectar, add to the usefulness of the essay.

Professor W. J. Beal published in the March number of the

NATURALIST, some notes on the “ Agency of Insects in Fertilizae

tion.” These notes were made by students under the guidance

of the professor, and many of them are admirable.

Wm. Barbeck, in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, published a paper on “ The Devers

ment of Lemna,” in which he concludes that in Lemie i

have an interesting instance of parthenogenesis, there being Bh

(produced in autumn by a sexual process) from which, during t f

course of the summer, generation after generation is propagate

without any further fertilization.” .

Here should be mentioned Dr. Gray’s note on the . Automat’

Movement of the Frond of Asplenium trichomanes,” published .

the Botanical Gazette for March, and W. K. Higley’s notes =

“ Carnivorous Plants” (Drosera rotundifolia) in the Deveiare

number of the same journal. ar

B. Systematic Botany.—a. Fungi. In the March number ve

the Botanical Gazette, C. H. Peck described nineteen new SAPS!

of fungi, mostly from the Eastern United erecal pa we S$.’

= ee : . is closely ret

interesting Stemonitis (S$. Morgani) which is c y sa erm oe

Phoma albistrata, Phoma colorata, Septoria consocia, no / some? ae ba

ulare, Discella variabilis, Sporidesmium minutissimum, LOO

1881.] Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. 949

macrosora, Aicidium Y¥amesianuim, Sorosporium atrum ona Carex,

from Pennsylvania and Colorado, Cheiromyces tinctus, Pesiza

spongiosa, Phacidium sparsum, Stictis fulva, Diatrype angulare,

Spheria altipeta, Spheria lichenols.

Twenty-nine new species of fungi, collected in California by

Dr. Harkness, were described by M. C. Cooke in the September

number of Grevillea. The descriptions are mere Latin diagnoses,

and are by no means satisfactory. The species described are

Phoma hosackiea, Chetophoma atriella, Vermicularia subglabra,

Septoria helianthicola, Discella olivacea, D. tenuispora, Diplodia

microscopica, D. rhuina, Hendersonia galiorum, Dichomera phacelia,

D. compositarum, Gleosporium leguminis, Torula glutinosa, Coleo-

Sporium baccharidis, Macrosporum culmorum, Trichaégum atrum

Preuss., 7: opacum, Fusarium gallinaceum, Leotia ochroleuca, Stic-

lis decipiens Karst., S. radiala, var. pumila, S. annulata C. and

Phil., Ascomyces fulgens, Spheria labiatarum, S. epiptertdis, Sphe-

rella brachytheca, S. aralie, S. dendromeconis, S. acacie, All, with

three exceptions indicated above, are described as by Cooke

and Harkness, who are therefore to be quoted as the joint authors

of the specific names.

M. C. Cooke enumerated thirty-one species of “ New York

Fungi,” of which seven were new, in the March number of Gre-

villea, The new species which are described are the following:

Coniothyrium rubellum, Diplodia celastri, D. compressa, Massaria

Gerardi, Psilospheria melasperma, Conispheria peniophora, Sphe-

rella ilicella. Ss

Two new species of Septoria were described by Baron F, De

-Theumen in the October Botanical Gazette, one (5. Albaniensis)

on Salix from New York, and the other (S. Querceti) on Quer-

cus from South Carolina. a

An interesting addition to the Phalloidei was made in an arti-

cle on “A New Fungus,” by W. R. Gerard, in the January Bul-

letin of the Ti orrey Botanical Clud. The new species, Simblum

rubescens, was discovered on Long Island. A full and satisfac-_

tory description is given, and two good plates are added. Ap-

pended to the paper is a valuable “List of United States Phal-_

loidei,” including all “ which have been detected in the United — :

States up to the present time.”

The “ Catalogue of Pacific Coast Fungi,” by Dr. Harkness and a

J. P. Moore, first read before the California Academy of Sciences,

950 Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. [ December,

Feb. 2, 1880, and afterwards published in a pamphlet of forty-

six pages, enumerates nearly g00 species. Localities and habitat

are given for the greater number of the species. One new spe-

cies, Agaricus tridens Moore, from a drift 400 feet below the sur-

face, is described.

valuable article on “ The White-grub Fungus,” appeared in

the June number of the American Entomologist. The writer (C.

V. Riley) appended a list of papers containing references (mostly

popular) to this fungus. Two wood-cuts accompany the article.

Professor Prentiss’ paper in the August and September NATU-

RALIsT, on the “ Destruction of Obnoxious Insects by means of

Fungoid Growths,” recorded the results of a series of experiments

with yeast as an insecticide. The results were plainly adverse.

Professor Burrill’s paper on “ Anthrax of F ruit-trees,” read be-

fore the Boston meeting of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, did not reach the public, through the

tardy publication of the “ Proceedings,” until about a year later.

Abstracts appeared in various journals, one of which, viz., that in

the American Monthly Microscopical Fournal, is selected for none

here. The disease called blight is held, by Professor Burrill, to

be due to “a living organism which produces butyric fermenta=

tion of the material stored in the cells, especially those the

liber. This organism is allied to, if not identical with the butyn®

vibrione of Pasteur, and the Bacillus amylobacter of Van Tieghem.

Experiments were made by inoculating healthy trees, and a

results appeared to sustain the theory of the bacterial nature #

the disease. The bacteria observed were described, and carefu

measurements given.

Century rv of Ellis’ now well-known “ North American Fung},

was issued during the year. |

6. Alge. Francis Wolle’s paper on “ Fresh-water Alga, :

April Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, contained a “list

upwards of one hundred plants, at least ninety of which are ne ;

to the United States, and of which eighteen were wholly

known.” The new species described are the following: SP —

ayga saccaia, Tolypothrix bombycina, Euastrum Donnellt, : .

formosum, Micrasterias Kitchelli, Staurastrum aes o

_ Nova-Cesaree, St. tricornutum, St. macrocerum, St. fascicul sig

St. subarcuatum, St. comptum, St. pusillum, Arthrodesmus fra viiad =

Pleurocarpus tenuis, Glogonium Donnelli. In the August BNC”

’ in the

1881.] Frogress of Botany in the United States in 1880. 951

ber of the same journal the same author publishes a plate con-

taining good figures of all the new desmids in the preceding list.

Dr. Farlow’s paper “On some Impurities of Drinking-water

caused by Vegetable Growths,” published in the First Annual

Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Health, contributed

to our knowledge of the economic relations of the fresh-water

alge to ourselves. Two plates accompany this valuable paper.

Dr. T. F. Allen’s “ Characeze Americane Exsiccatz,” consist-

ing of dried specimens of ten species of Characea, was issued

late in the year. The species are Witella tenuissima Desv., N. in-

termedia Nordst., NV. megacarpa Allen, Chara intermedia A, Br., Ch.

intermedia A. Br., var. Americana A. Br., Ch. contraria A. Br., Ch.

sejuncta, A. Br., Ch. coronata A. Br., var. Schweiniteit A. Br., Ch.

Syinopus A. Br., var. Michauxit A. Br.. Ch. hydropitys A. Br.,

var. septentrionalis, Nordst.

¢. Lichenes. Our lichenologists appear to have published

nothing during the year.

a. Bryophytes. A severely critical paper entitled “ Bivalogical

Notes and Criticisms,” by the lamented Coe F. Austin, appeared

in the January Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. It was sug-

gested by the study of a paper by Lesquereux, James and Schim-

per containing descriptions of new species of North American

Mosses, Mr. Austin challenged many of the new species de-

Scribed in the paper under review.

Mr. Austin published a paper, Bryological Notes, in the Feb-

Tuary number of the Bulletin, consisting of critical notes upon

Several species of mosses and several descriptions. The new

genera Donnellia and Rauia were announced (but not described)

and descriptions were given of Donnellia Floridana and Thuidium

Alleni.

The “ Catalogue of North American Musci,” by E. A. Bie and

A. B. Hervey, enumerates 1237 species. Localities are given for

all the species.

e. Pteridophytes. Professor D. C. Eaton's magnificent work,

“The Ferns of North America,” was brought to a close early in

the year. ‘[he beautiful plates, by Emerton and Faxon, and the

clear and satisfactory descriptions are notable features in this

great contribution to our knowledge of the ferns of this country.

In the June Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Professor

Eaton, under the title of “ New or Little-known Ferns of the United a .

952 Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. [December,

States,” notices several species, and describes one new one, Wotho-

lena Lemmoni, from Arizona. The same author’s “Systematic

Fern List,” a twelve page pamphlet, appeared in September. It

consists of “a classified list of the known ferns of the United

States of America, with the geographical range of the species.” One

hundred and fifty-one species and sixteen varieties are included.

In “A New Fern,” by G. E. Davenport, in the Bulletin of the

Torrey Botanical Club, the author describes a new species (Votho-

lena Grayi) from Southeastern Arizona. A fine plate by Faxon

accompanies the paper.

f. Phanerogams. Dr. Gray’s “Contributions to North Ameri-

can Botany,” published in the Proceedings of the American

Academy of Arts and Sciences, Vol. xv1, is principally devoted

to “ Notes on some Composite.” Synopses of species are given

for the genera Aphanostephus, Chatopappa, Townsendia and

Erigeron, and important notes are included under Vernonia, Soli-

dago and Aster. Two new genera, Greenella and Grundlachia,

and a number of species are described. Six new species of As-

clepias are noted, and a new genus (Geniostemon) with two spe-

cies of Gentianaceze are described. Descriptions of miscellane-

ous species, and of a new genus of Euphorbiacee (Revercho-

nia) complete this valuable contribution.

Dr. Gray also published a synopsis of the species of the

Leavenworthia, in the March Botanical Gazette.

A most important paper from Dr, Geo. Engelmann, entitled 2

“ Revision of the genus Pinus, and Description of Pinus Elliott,

was’published in the Transactions of the Academy of Sciences of

St. Louis, Vol. iv. The characters of pines are carefully de-

scribed zz extenso, and upon these a new arrangement of the spe-

cies is proposed. The characters of the fruit scale serve to. sepa

rate the genus into two sections, viz: 1. Strobus e Apophys's

with a marginal unarmed umbo, generally thinner”), and 1. Pine

aster (‘‘ Apophysis with a dorsal umbo, mostly armed, generally

thicker”), “The subsections are distinguished by the pe ones

of the ducts within the leaf.” The description of Pinus Eloi

a south-eastern species, is all that could be desired, and this 1s

supplemented by three large and most excellent plates. as

i In the January Botanical Gazette, Dr. Engelmann described, if |

full, the northern Catalpa, Catalpa speciosa, which had-previously

been considered to be C. biguonicides. — | 7 :

gen us

tled a

1881.] Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. 953

Several new species of the genus Potamogeton were described

by Thomas Morong, in the May Botanical Gazette. The new

species are P. [/linoensis, P. Mysticus, P. lateralis, and P. gemmit-

parus (the latter by Robbins). Notes are added upon several

other species.

I. C. Martindale, in a pamphlet entitled “ Notes on the Bartram

Oak, Quercus heterophylla Michx.” reviewed the whole history of

this much discussed and doubted species, and concluded that it

should be restored as a true species.

Professor Sargent’s “Preliminary Catalogue of the Forest

Trees of North America,” contained 342 species, with notes as to

size, range, economic uses, etc.

Mention should be made here of H. W. Patterson’s “ Check

List of N. A. Gamopetale after Composite,” designed for use in

making exchanges, marking desiderata, etc.

Robinson’s “Flora of Essex county, Massachusetts,” Smith

and Mohr’s “ Preliminary List of the Plants growing without cul-

tivation in Alabama,” Peck’s “Plants of the Summit of Mt.

Marcy” (from the 7th Rept. of the Adirondack Survey), the list

of “Ballast Plants in and near New York city,’ by Addison

_ Brown, in the December Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, are

valuable additions to our knowledge of local floras. Here may

be noted the beginning, in the last named journal, of an import-

ant List of the State and local floras of the United States, by W.

R. Gerard and N. L. Britton. -

_ C. Geographical and Geological—Dr. T. F. Allen, in a paper ¢n-

titled Similarity between the Characeze of America and Asia,” in

the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, pointed out the resem-

_ blance between the Asiatic and American Characez. “ A Summer

~— inRoan mountain,” by J. W. Chickering in the December Botanical

Gazette ; “ A Botanist in Southern California,” by J. F. James, in

_ the July Naruratist; “ Botanizing on the Colorado desert,” by

__E. L. Greene, in the November Naturauist; “ The imber —

: Line of High Mountains,’ by Thomas Meehan, in the Proceed-

ings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, and

| The Geological History of the North American Flora,” by Pro-

fessor Newbury, in the July Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club —

(abstract of a lecture) are the other important qontributions under’

‘Ais section. ; a 24

_D. Historical—The conclusion of Frederick Brendel’s. “ His~

| sy | | ae

_ ‘VOL, XV.—No. xin, :

954 Progress of Botany in the United States in 1880. [December,

torical Sketch of the Science of Botany in North America, from

1840 to 1858,” in the January Natura ist, and the “Sketch of

the Progress of Botany in the United States in the year 1879,”

by C. E. Bessey, in the December Natura.ist, are the only his-

torical papers published during the year.

E. Text Books, etc.—Dr. Killebrew’s little book “ Grasses,

Meadows and Pastures,” and Dr. Sturtevant’s pamphlet on “ In-

dian Corn” (reprinted from the 38th Rept. of the N. Y. State

Agricultural Society) deserve mention here on account of their

botanical interest, in addition to their high agricultural value.

“ Botany for High Schools and Colleges,” Holt & Co., N. ¥.,

by C. E. Bessey, appeared early in August. It consists of two

hundred pages of general anatomy and physiology of plants, fol-

lowed by three hundred and seventy-five pages devoted to the

special anatomy and physiology of plants, and outlines of their

classification. Under the first, protoplasm, the ‘plant-cell, cell-

wall, formation of new cells, products of the cell, tissues, tissue

systems, intercellular spaces, plant-body, chemical constituents of

plants, chemical processes in the plant, relations of plants to ¢X

ternal agents, are successively discussed. In the second part the

characters of the seven grand divisions (sub-kingdoms) of the

vegetable kingdom are described; the limits of the classes,

cohorts and orders are briefly outlined, and their structure illus-

trated by selected examples.

A second revised and enlarged edition of Voln

“ Popular California Flora,” was issued about the middle of the

year from the publishing house of Bancroft & Co., San Prat”

cisco. As enlarged, it consists of a hundred and fifty-six pas®*

including twenty-four pages of introductory matter, followed by

ey Rattan ’s

simple descriptions of the less difficult plants selected from the

flora of West-central California. |

By far the most important botanical book of the year, vee

» including

Sereno Watson's Vol. 1 of the “ Botany of California,

Apetalz, Gymnospermz, Monocotyledones, Vascular i se EE |

Musci and Sphagnacee. Dr. Engelmann elaborated the 0a»

the pines and their allies, and the Loranthacee ; M. 5. Bebb, ce

willows; Wm. Boott, the Carices; Dr. Thurbur, the grasses, al cs

Professor Eaton, tlre vascular cryptogams. A valuable oo

_ Persons who have made Botanical Collections in Californ% i

_ appended, by Professor Brewer. The two volumes of this ea oo.

5 tte gaa NGA Peed oR ee ee SS CURR eee et ee

AE Pet Peat pea te ee ee te Peres eee

arnt

Eee Re

1881. ] Lifects of Reversion to the Wild State, etc. RS

- completed work, aggregating nearly twelve hundred pages, stand

as a most pleasing monument to the ability of the authors on the

one hand, and on the other to the generosity of the business men

of California, who voluntarily defrayed all the expenses of prepa-

ration and publication.

F. Periodical Publications —The Bulletin of the Torrey Botani-

cal Club and the Botanical Gazette continued throughout the year

as our only exclusively botanical journals, Each gave good evi-

dence of substantial growth. The botanical departments of the

American Y¥ournal of Science and the NATURALIST were main-

tained as usual. Botanical articles frequently appeared also in

the Gardener's Monthl ly, American Agriculturist, American

Monthly Microscopical Yournal and the American Y¥ournal of

Microscopy,

-O:

EFFECTS OF REVERSION TO THE WILD STATE IN

res OUR DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

BY HON. J. D. CATON,

UNIFORMITY of form, color and habit in individuals

among the various species of wild animals, is almost uni-

versa‘ly observed, and the loss of this uniformity under the influ-

€nce of domestication, if less universal, is very general. How

long it took to produce these changes in the horse and the ox,

the sheep and the goat, we cannot know, for these were subdued

_ to domestication before events were recorded which might tell us

of the struggle. That some animals were more readily influenced

by domestication than others, we know. How readily the wild

turkey changes in form, color and habits under the influence

Of domestication I have demonstrated by my own careful ex-

Periments, an account of which I gave in the AMERICAN NATu- —

RAList for June, 1877. That the domesticated reindeer of Lap-

land have become parti-colored, while their wild brethren of the

Mountains all about. them retain a uniform color, I have shown

a in “The Antelope and Deer of America,” p. 330, and in “A

Summer in Norway,” p. 223. The deer in the parks of England

and Ireland have become unstable in color, although they have been

_ Subjected to the influence of domestication for a much shorter

_ Period than have the reindeer of Lapland. These are the most

_ Striking instances among the qua rumana, which occur to me, to

956 Effects of Reversion to the Wild State [December,

enable us to compare the wild with the domesticated animals, —

although the wild horse and the wild ass are still met with in

Asia, and the wild ox still existed in Scotland till within very

recent times at least, but it may be well doubted whether the wild

cattle of Scotland are the progenitors of our domestic ox. The

domesticated buffalo, as seen in Southern Europe and Asia, and

in Northern Africa, has degenerated less in both color and form

than most other quadrupeds under domestication, and his wild

habit still possesses him to a certain extent.

he wild boar submits to domestication with remarkable docil-

ity, and human care changes its form, color and habit in a very

short time and in a remarkable degree. Human care, by judi-

cious selection, may fix varieties of all these domesticated anl-

mals with persistent characteristics, but immediately his super-

vising care is withdrawn, all these peculiarities disappear.

Of the birds, perhaps the peacock resists the influence of

domestication with the most persistence, though the guinea fowl

undergoes no perceptible change from generation to generation,

with rare exceptions. :

While all have had opportunity to observe the changes which

have been wrought in our domesticated animals by human care and

supervision, opportunities have not been so general for observing

the effects upon our domesticated animals when allowed to return

to the wild state. My observations lead me to the conclusion

that the tendency is not only to return to the wild habit, but to

the original form and coloring of the remote wild ancestor. That

there is some law governing this reversion we may well believe,

though we may not be able to fully understand it yet.

_ My own observations tend to show not only a tendency

_ least in some species, to revert to the original form and color ¢

the wild ancestor, but they also suggest the possibility that ae

tendency is the strongest in those cases where the domesticat

animal has most recently been reclaimed from the wild state, se

in those cases where the change produced by domestication was

the most rapid. ese RE

I have had the best opportunities for studying this sOnee =

the Hawaiian islands. With the exception of the goose and: en

duck, nearly all of the animals which have been introduced aoe .

those islands since their discovery, as well as those which ae ce

then held in domestication! have reverted to the wild Oe

ae "They had the hog and common fowl when discovered by Cook.

, at

r of

1881.] in our Domestic Animals. 957

Among these I may mention the ox, the horse, the goat, the

sheep, the hog, the dog, the cat, the turkey, the peacock and the

barnyard fowl. Where I had not the opportunity of studying

these personally, I spared no pains to gather the facts from the

most reliable sources.

The greatest physical degeneracy was observed in the wild

horse and the wild sheep. The ox was introduced by Vancouver,

less than a century since, upon the island of Kauai, from Califor-

nia, whence it was introduced upon the other islands. At most it

has been subject to the new influences scarcely three quarters of

acentury. During that time no appreciable change has taken

Place in the coloring of the ox, nor much in his form, but his

habit is wild and wary, fleeing from man in alarm; and he has

acquired great fleetness over the lava beds in the mountainous

tegions which he selects for his home. While he is terrified at

the approach of man; when wounded or hard pressed he becomes

bold and aggressive, and isa dangerous enemy. In some parts

of the islands they have become so numerous that the scarcity of

sustenance has forced them down into the lower regions, where

it is feared that they may destroy the forests upon which it is

Supposed much of the rain-fall depends. Indeed, on the Island

of Ouahu a large district of country was pointed out to me

which was said to have been once a forest, and was now entirely

destitute of arborcous vegetation. This change was attributed to

the wild cattle. They are hunted for their hides alone.

I saw none of the wild horses or wild sheep, neither of which

are numerous. I was told that the former are much more degen-

erated in size, form and vigor than those on our western plains,

Which may be attributed to the want of an abundance of food

adapted to their requirements in the elevated regions which they

affect, but in habit they are as wild as the cattle. —

The wild sheep, which are very limited in number, and I met

with few who had seen them, were small, gaunt and long-legged,

_ With a scant and coarse pelage. | ae

The wild goats are very numerous, especially in the mountain-

ous regions of the eastern islands. During the afternoon which

I'spent viewing the wonderful sights from the rim of the great

extinct crater, Haleakala, I saw two bands of wild goats within

the crater, I sat ten thousand feet above the sea. The chasm

before me was seven miles across and two thousand feet deep. - Its

958 Lifects of Reversion to the Wild State [ December,

_ vertical walls in a few places had been partially broken down, so

that bunches of grass had taken root on the shelves or steps

formed in the disintegrated lava, and the goats were clambering

about, leaping from shelf to shelf, seeking food. Towards even-

ing they descended to the floor of the crater and-disappeared in

its eastern arm, With the naked eye they could not be identified,

although one band was directly beneath me, but a good field

glass revealed them very plainly. A large majority were snow

white, some were parti-colored, and one appeared to be black.

Their natural capacity for climbing has no doubt been improved

by their reversion to the wild state. They are very wild and cau-

tious, and difficult of approach by the hunter, They, too, are

hunted for their skins.

The most marked and rapid change is produced in the hog by

his emancipation from the restraints of domestication and the

care of man. Ina single generation he changes in form, color

and habit from the staid and quiet porker to the fleet and fierce

wild boar. The latter is the character as described to me by all

who had been interested to make observations on the subject, of

the numerous wild hogs now roaming in those islands. Col. Chas.

Judd assured me that many years before a lot of hogs escaped

from his ranch on the easterly side of Ouahu and went into os

mountain which bordered the ranch, Among them was an an

ported boar. Before he could find them they had become So wild

that he could not reclaim them from their mountain fastnesses-

He got sight of this boar many times during several succeeding

years. He was so marked that he could readily identify him.

The change in form and habit were almost immediate. He soon

became wild and almost as fleet as a deer. His body became

thin, his back arched and his legs appeared to be much longer

than when he escaped. Much slower was the change of coer :

but this finally occurred to a very appreciable extent, SO that cf

a few years he had distinctly assumed the dark sandy shade .

the wild boar. He wisely forbore to shoot him that he id o

study the developments which he saw going on. In the thir ane se

fourth generation the pigs showed very distinctly the sandy sha ay

and stripes observed on the side of the young of the wild ae S

From these and similar observations, I should infer that it yal =

_ not take very many generations, with proper care, to completely ae

_ domesticate the wild boar. | :

1881. ] Be in our Domestic Antimals. 959

I heard of but two places where the pea fowl had gone wild.

The first was at the plantation of Col. Judd, before mentioned, and

the other was the plantation of Capt. McKee, on the Island of

Maui, whence the birds had escaped and gone into the mount-

ain above. No change was observed except that they had be-

come wild, but not excessively so, and I did not learn that they

had been much hunted in either case.

At what time the domestic turkey was first taken to the islands,

I'did not learn, but probably not very long after their discovery,

or certainly soon after the arrival of the first missionary, which

occurred in 1820. We may safely assume that soon after, some

of them wandered away and reverted to the wild state, and now

they are found, more or less abundant, in the forest regions of

most of the islands. They have not yet beome as wary and diffi-

cult of approach as are the wild turkeys here. The natives trap

them with some success. At Haiku I found two hens in confine-

ment which Mr. Dickey had purchased from a native who had

caught them. I studied them with great interest. They were

in a large poultry house, the front of which was closed with slats.

On approaching them they showed about as much alarm as our

wild turkey would, similarly situated. A very decided tendency

Was shown to revert to the color of our wild turkey. The legs had

already assumed a lightish color with a pink shade, though not

so brilliant as in the wild ancestor, but quite unlike the black leg

of the black tame turkey. The color of the plumage had also

undergone a marked change. The ends of the tail feathers and

of the tail coverts had assumed a tawny or russet shade, hardly so

Pronounced as in our wild turkey, but a great departure from all

tame turkeys. My observations in domesticating the wild tur-

_ key show that they first degenerate in their coloring in these two

points, The white bars on the wing feathers were there, but they

are not always absent on the domesticated turkey.

In form, too, a change was manifest; the legs were longer and

the body was longer and more erect than in the tame bird. Al-

together the tendency to revert to the form, coloring and habit

of their wild ancestors was very marked. I say their wild ances-

tors, for I think I showed ‘satisfactorily, in a paper published in

_ this journal for June, 1877, that the domestic turkey of this

country is descended from our wild turkey. |

I heard of the barnyard fowl which had gone wild in several

960 — Effects of Reversion to the Wild State, etc. {.December,

parts of the island, but I did not see any of them. I obtained

the most satisfactory account from Mr. Emerson, a son of one of

the early missionaries who was located at the north-west end of

the Island of Ouahu, where the son still resides, The domestic

birds escaped from his father’s place at least fifty years ago, and

occupy an extensive elevated or mountainous wooded country.

They still nest on the ground, and are quite numerous, in spite of

the depredations of the wild cats. Although he has often seen

them they are the most wild and wary of any animal he had ever

attempted to approach, and he was very rarely able to shoot one.

At the approach of day the whole forest would be vocal with the

crowing of the cock, and although secreted right among them,

when daylight came not one could be seen, and all was as still as

if nothing had ever disturbed the quiet of the wilderness. How

they managed to disappear so quietly in the gray of the morning

he could not explain, for he never heard them fly from their

perches in the trees.

They had diminished appreciably in size, and had assumed a

uniform buff color. Now I confess that I do not know the color

of the wild bird from which our barnyard fowl, or that which

was common in the States sixty years ago, is descended, but if,

as I have ventured to suggest, there is a tendency, when domes-

ticated animals revert to the wild state, to return, not only to the

wild habit but to take on other peculiarities of their wild ances-

tors, from which they had departed under the influence of domes-

tication, then we may infer that the original wild stock was of a

buff color.

I do not know that this subject has been deemed worthy of

observation by naturalists, at least I have not been so fortunate

as to meet with any discussion of it, but I hope an amateur eG

be allowed to so far depart from precedent as to make sides

_ vations in out-of-the-way directions. It may be that my inclina ?

tions have too much of a practical tendency for strictly scientite

studies. I study the bones but little, for practical utilitarian fea-

tures interest me more.

1881.] Peach Tree affected with the “Yellows.” 961

ON THE MICROSCOPIC AND GENERAL CHARAC-

TERS OF THE PEACH TREE AFFECTED

WITH THE “YELLOWS.”

BY W. K. HIGLEY.

{ Continued. |

METHODS OF DISSEMINATION.

| DESIRE under this head to simply discuss the views of

others, and in doing this to present my own views upon

the subject. First, then, I will consider the belief of some

that the yellows may be transmitted from one tree to another

by the agency of insects, especially the honey bee, by carrying

the pollen from one flower to others. Believing, as I do, that

this disease is due to a fungoid growth in the aérial portions of the

tree, this theory appears to me very absurd, more so, perhaps, be-

cause there are no facts or experiments to support it. Consider

fora moment, If this disease is due to a fungus, then it must be

disseminated by the passage of the spores or living mycelia from

the diseased tree to other trees, either in the immediate neighbor-

hood, or perhaps to some distant tree if the conditions are favor-

able for their transportation. If this is the case, and all, I think,

that have carefully considered the facts, must know that it is,

why should the fruit of the fungus be concentrated in the pollen?

Why is it that young orchards that have never borne become

contaminated with this disease? Why is it that orchards in close

relation with other orchards that are affected with the yellows do

Not become diseased? We cannot assume that the bees will not

Visit both orchards! And finally, why is it that in the same

orchard with healthy trees only one or two trees catch the yel-

lows, showing all the symptoms, and the second year only one or

two, or at the greatest only a few in the immediate neigh-

borhood become diseased? Are we to assume that the bees in

their search after their food are limited and not allowed to

approach only certain trees ?

Perhaps this is strong language to u

has been claimed, but until the above questions are satisfact

answered, I shall refuse to believe that insects have anything to

do with the dissemination of this disease. :

In concluding the discussion upon this point I will quote from

the Michigan Pomologica! Report for 1878. On page 255, #

se in the face of all that

orily

962 Ox the Microscopic and General Characters of [December,

says: “ Those who believe in the propagation of the disease by the

agency of insects, maintain that the disease is never manifested up-

on healthy stock until after the young tree casts its first blossoms,

and experiments for the purpose of testing their theory will be

made by enveloping the young tree with netting, in such a man-

ner as to exclude all insects during the period of bloom.” How-

ever, the disease does appear very often on trees that have not

blossomed !

On page 250 0f the same volume, referring to the abnormal

branching, it says:

“ This growth ts the only means of detecting the disease in young

trees or those not bearing.” (The italics are mine.

In the Pomological Report for 1873, under this head, the first

and second methods of dissemination given, are as follows:

1. “ By the intermingling of healthy roots with those of dis-

eased trees, :

2. “‘ By planting a healthy tree in a hole whence a diseased

tree has been removed.”

As I have stated before, all the roots that were examined by

me, presented no abnormal appearance except the looseness of

the cells; in no case were any filaments of a fungus found in the

tissues, nor any spores, nor any indications that a fungus had ever

been present. Those that claim that the disease is caused =

root fungus, have never, to my knowledge, found any pres :

fungi that is peculiar to the peach root, which is not found in many

other roots as well. In my examinations I have found Mie

growing upon the outside of the larger roots, but in every case

have turned immediately to the oak root and found the nee

condition of things there, and the oak did not have the yellows, °,

and as far as could be seen, no disease of any sort. Not yeh ,

found any signs of a fungoid growth in or on the root that is no

found on the roots of most any tree, I do not believe t

disease can be transmitted from one tree to another by th oe

means given above. se

As to the second, if the fungus that causes the disease has _ -

time to mature and give off its spores, it is probable that sm . S

_ of them would fall upon the ground round about he :

_ tree, and thus, if the tree is removed and another put in its geen

_ the spores may, by some means, get upon the bark of ath ae

__ tree and there, germinating, push their filaments into the tssue

hat this

e first

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows.” 963

But this can not often be the case, as cases are on record where

orchards have been planted on the same ground from whence

diseased trees have been removed, and remained healthy. _

Fic. 1.—Healthy limb of peach tree.

I have no doubt that by using the buds of diseased trees in

budding, the yellows may be carried from tree to tree; for living

mycelia or some of the fruit-bearing filaments may be present in

a the subject, that I have included what is generally plac

964 On the Microscopic and General Characters of December,

the bud and thus when placed in the new tree the fungus con-

tinues to grow and the spores to germinate, and soon the tree

succumbs to the disease.

The transmitting of the spores or mycelia by the pruning

knife, is still an obscure method of dissemination. There is no

doubt, however, that the disease is carried in this way very often.

Another and very important method of dissemination, is the

transplanting of trees from diseased districts. Perhaps and prob-

ably, the yellows is introduced into new localities as often in this

way as in any other. We can not accuse any one of dishonesty

in selling plants which are diseased, fer many do not know what

the symptoms are, and still others honestly believe that it 1s

nothing of importance.

I have left what I consider the most important method until

the last. It is the spreading of the disease by the germs OF

spores being carried by the wind. It seems to me that the

appearance of the yellows in isolated places and localities 1S

strong evidence of this. Some may ask, why is not the disease

more general if this is the case? I think that it can be affirme

that the disease is already general. It has been reported from all

the leading peach districts and new localities are found every

season. Especially is its sudden appearance in orchards at @

short distance from infected districts to be taken into account. It

is well known that no matter what the conditions of the atmos-

phere may be, the spores of fungi are always floating about,

wafted hither and thither, lighting upon various organic individ-

uals, until the true host is found, and then remaining only to send

into the tissues its filaments, forming its mycelia, and finally

throwing off other spores to be transported in a like mannet i

were those of their parent. If this trouble has its origin 1" pe

fungoid growth, the spores are just as certain to be carried ie

place to place by the wind as are those of any other species th

grow upon other plants.

‘ ; i : econ Ge

It will be seen from the above discussion upon this division

ed unde r

a Pe ‘ : ne ‘tt isnot

_ the head, “ Is this disease contagious?” Believing that it - oe

a constitutional disease, but one due to a parasitical veget®™ =

_ growth, I think that it is more proper to say that the —

disseminated in this way or that, rather than to say that it! pat

gious and may be caught by the healthy tree. oe

re + Sy eee ee eee ae

1881.| the Peach Tree affected with the “Yellows.” 965

CAUSE.

The most important part of the discussion we now have to

consider; for, knowing the cause, we can then suggest a remedy

much more easily,

Fic. 2,—Unhealthy limb, showing the abnormal branchlets.

The yellows have been attributed to both animal and vegetable

Origin as well as to exhaustion of the system of the tree. The

former has had many advocates, but these are becoming fewer

as to what occurred in receiver No. 2, I have careful

966 On the Microscopic and General Characters of [December,

every season. As no facts in support of this theory have ever

been published to my knowledge, I shall consider it no further.

The weight of the evidence is in favor of the vegetable origin,

and, from my observations, I firmly believe that it is due to a

fungoid growth. Thos. Taylor, of the Department of Agricul-

ture at Washington, claims that he may have discovered the

cause of the disease in a species of Ncemaspora. But the same

form is reported as occurring on other trees that received no

harm from its presence. Spores of this genus are known to be

in the air, and may as often light on other trees as on the peach;

and it has been demonstrated that they will develop upon the oak

bark as well as on that of the peach, when the conditions are

favorable. Some may wish to ask: “Is not that upon the oak a

different species?” This is-a j@st and_ scientific question that

immediately arises when such a fact is reported in an investigation

like this; my answer will be apparent soon. First, however, let

us see how Mr. Taylor proceeds to experiment : 1 On the Ist of

July last I commenced a series of experiments, by the moist pro-

cess, with the bark of a peach tree affected with the yellows.

water, just sufficient to form a moist atmosphere in each. Into

No. 1 I put a piece of bark affected with the yellows; into No. 2

a piece of bark from a healthy peach tree; into No. 34 handful

of peach leaves from the unhealthy tree; into No. 4 4 similar

quantity from the healthy tree ; and into No. 5 portions of bark

from the healthy and unhealthy trees mentioned. All the spect

mens were secured from the outward atmosphere. The tempera= —

ture of the room in which the specimens were kept was fre-

quently at 90° F. These conditions were highly favorable to the

development of such fungous germs as mature under excess of heat

and motsture.” (The italics are mine.)

_ After due time has elapsed, he finds mycelia and spores - ,

_ Noemaspora on specimens in receivers Nos. 1 and 5, and say$

_ that seemingly the healthy bark in No. 5 was not affected by the

_ contact with the unhealthy bark. We are left entirely in doubt a

ly followed

es his experiments in my own work, and am able to report so

_ Same forms of Noemaspora may be found on the healthy peri

melt as on the unhealthy, and further, that the same forms | ee

* Mich. Pomological Report, 1872, p. 593.

that the

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows.” 967

also fotind upon and may be developed on the oak bark. I tried

the experiment with two specimens each of the healthy and un-

healthy peach bark, and also two specimens of the oak bark.

The directions given above, from Mr. Taylor, were closely and

carefully followed. The healthy bark used was from vigorous

~— ,and drawn with

b, filaments of

rhaps the tty jue forming ee

Fic. 3.—Filaments of a fungus found in the tissues of the

camera lucida (x 406). * _ of the fleshy igiacrm of the peac

the fungus, showing the glob

Portion of the hair of the ceeek

trees growing at my home in Ann Arbor, while the unhealthy .

_ Specimens were from South Haven, Mich.

_ Some, and perhaps I might say many, think that the disease is : .

_— ae a -. in the Heoues § on ae spot stro ‘agege to oe —

cell was disclosed in the leaves ; but whatever may bet

968 On the Microscopic and General Characters of _[December,

knowledge, has ever been recorded as occurring there. ° I have

already sufficiently discussed this theory under the head Ditsem-

nation of the Yellows, and think that nothing further can be said

about it unless more facts are brought to light. Nevertheless, I

wish to quote a passage—a statement concerning this matter

which my observations strongly confirm: 1 The fungus found

upon the roots of decayed peach trees is indigenous to all dead

and decaying woods, and is the effect, and not the cause of such

decay. Many thousands of trees which have been stricken by

the disease, have been removed by ‘drawing out;’ the crowns,

and roots of such trees invariably show a sound and healthy

appearance.”

Some have suggested that the disease might be zymotic in

its nature. Mr. C. H. Peck, State,Botanist of N. Y., has examined

diseased specimens with this idea before him, and his results I

give in full:? “The juice of an affected peach was carefully

examined, but a power of four hundred diameters failed to reveal

any spores or ferment cells. Thin sections of the leaves were

made, and the leaf cells examined. A marked difference was

observed between the cells of leaves from healthy trees and those

of leaves from diseased trees. In the former the cells were well

filled with a uniform mass of green chlorophyl, in the latter the

chlorophyl was badly disorganized, very much broken up,

shrunken and discolored. Many of the cells appeared to be

nearly empty, and one or more minute, globose, shining bodies

were seen among the fragments of the chlorophyl. An import

ant step seemed now to have been taken in the investigation, but

farther examination convinced me that these shining bodies were

only the altered nuclei of the chlorophyl. It is scarcely possible

that they could be foreign organic bodies, for how could they

enter the walls of the unruptured cells? It was found that

_ leaves discolored by the attacks of insects had the chlorophy! of

the faded cells in a similar shriveled and abnormal condition.

Various autumnal leaves, colored by nature’s process, show similar

_ shining nuclei in their cells, which also sometimes have thee 2

_ endochrome ina collapsed condition. Nothing like a ferment

: : of this peculiar condition of the chlorophy! in leaves from affecte?e =

— *Michigan Pomological Report, 1878, p. 254.

Guitioator, amd Country Gentleman, Oct. 30, 1879.

he cause

1881. ] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows,” 969

| trees, it is easy to see that it must be a serious matter to the tree.

| The leaves are its lungs and its stomach. Respiration and

digestion are carried on through them. If, then, the active vivify-

ing power of the chlorophyl is-impaired, as it must be in such a

disorganized condition, the sap must cease to be properly elabo-

B33 OR

_ Fic. 4.—Same as Fig. 3.

_ tated, and the tree must suffer. It is very much as if a man were ~

afflicted at one time with both hi Shi ani stain No

_ Wonder that the tree at length dies.”

To observe the action, method af growth, position ine: the |

_ Character of this intruder, has been the object of my work since

VOL, XV.—No, XII, ; 67

_ Matter; and in the inner bark of the larger specimens

970 On the Microscopic and General Characters of (December,

the 1st of August, 1878. I have endeavored to do my work

carefully, microscope in hand as a constant companion, and will

now give the results of my labors, and present what I verily be-

lieve to be the cause of the disease.

From the start I have worked with this idea before me; that if

the disease was caused by a fungus, this particular fungus must

be present in the tissues of the tree as it stands in nature, or, in

other words, the conditions natural to the growth of the tree must

also be natural to the development of the fungus. Making this the

basis of my observations and experiments, I did not produce the

conditions favorable for the growth of most fungi, viz., a moist

atmosphere or a high degree of warmth, but simply examined

the specimens as they were gathered from the diseased trees and

sent tome. The specimens, when I examined them, were all in :

good condition ; the fruit was not in the least decayed, but in all

particulars perfectly natural. Some of the peaches were imme-

diately sliced and placed in alcohol on their arrival, and others

were examined while fresh. The results were the same in both

cases.

- For the sake of convenience I will give the results of the ex-

amination of each part of the tree in the order of succession of

those parts.

1. Roots—First, a specimen four inches long and about one-

eighth of an inch thick was examined; sections being made one-

fourth inch distant from each other. Second, a root four inches

long and one-half inch in diameter, sections being made as before.

Third, a root of the same length and one inch thick was exam-

ined as in the first specimen. Fourth, sections cut in no regular

order from roots of various sizes and trees. All of the ent oo

sections were examined with objectives varying in their magn'y”

ing power between 75 and 625 diameters, and in no case was es -

fungoid growth seen in the tissues nor anything in the least aby

normal except the loose structure which has been men

before.

2. Trunk.—Many sections were made from various sized ee ne

S will be given under the head Fruit. The smaller specimen

tioned

Bealls ott oe aT Sea a a is

eA Lae Pe get oe ae,

sate” RS aR Ey og eR SRR Ae ak amare Oe Pare eS Abbe Min ka) antes) Ss een

1881. ] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows.” g7I

not show near as much of the fungoid growth as did the larger,

and, indeed, I examined several sections before I found any my-

celia at all. In both cases it was situated on the under side of the

inner bark, next to the cambium layer, and many of the filaments

penetrated and ramified through this layer. I also noticed, in the

larger specimens, mycelia between the layers of wood. An exam-

ination of the abnormal pigment spots, scattered through the pith

and woody portions, revealed nothing but cells filled with the

coloring matter. The outer bark in no case showed signs of any

fungoid forms.

3. Branches.—An examination of the larger branches revealed

nothing at all different from that given above for the trunk of the

tree; but some of the smaller branches and the growing ends of

the larger or main branches, showed marked peculiarities indeed.

In these the tissues seemed to be completely filled with mycelia,

and in one case the bark was apparently split... The branches

from which these specimens were taken had many abnormal

branchlets, and hence the theory advanced in the first part of this

Paper that these abnormal shocts were caused by the filling up

of the tissues of the growing ends, thus turning the flow of sap

to the lateral buds.

he filament found in the branches was in all respects identi-

cal with that found in the trunk of the trees, and will be described

further on,

4. Leaves—Those examined were mostly from the abnormal

branchlets. The chlorophy! in all was completely disorganized,

and in general the appearance was the same referred to by Mr. .

Peck. It seemed at first that this must be caused by dry weather

or lack of cultivation, but on further examination filaments of a

fungus were found to be present, to a greater or less extent, in

Nearly all the leaves examined. I noticed but two spores of any

Sort in the tissues, these were teleuto-spores and without doubt —

belonged to some leaf fungus other than the one the filaments of —

Which were found in the tissues. On a few of the leaves sent me

I found the fungus Ascomyces deformans, which causes the “ curl

leaf” disease so common at the present time in many localities.

The filaments of the fungus alluded to first, were of the

_ Same character as those that will be described under the next

1A friend to whom I showed this, suggested that this splitting might have been

‘caused by the pressure of the growing mycelia within the tissues.

972 On the Microscopic and General Characters of |December,

Mr. Thos. Taylor says, that ‘it is evident that the healthy

leaves possess an antiseptic substance which prevents the growth

of the common moulds on them.” The results of my experi-

ments have led me to the same conclusion. An analysis of the

S a“

nigh eae

X 406

Fic. 5—A, fruit of a fungus found just beneath the skin of the peach. pigs -

resembles a portionrof the fruit of the Saprolegniese (x 406); B, spores form

' the peach rawn with the camera lucida (x 406).

leaves show that there is a much larger proportion of moisture we

the diseased leaves than in the healthy. I analyzed several per ie

mens of each and found a greater difference between them poset

Mr. Taylor reports.1_ However, this is not important, as the a :

cent. may and does vary much. The average of my 7

was as follows:

HEALTHY LEAVES.

Moisture . . Sha Ukabewees® seer

“Ash., : eo eee aged

‘Mich, Pomological Report, 1872, p. 597.

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the “Yellows.” 973

UNHEALTHY LEAVES,

get SS ere tees AES ab Pee ered CE MeNe be bas ic 0 GO46

Rormuntic matter 2 0, oo hae ee 57.08

MR hER an ele pe acs bere eee ae 3.76

100.00

There is a small per cent. of volatile matter in the leaves that

in the estimation would raise the per cent. of moisture slightly.

It will be seen from the above results that the unhealthy

leaves are much better fitted to become the host of a parasitic

fungus than are the healthy ones.

As to what causes this abnormal amount of moisture, I have

already formed an opinion, but desire to confirm it by further

experiment, the results of which I hope to include in a future

Paper devoted entirely to this subject.

5. Fruit—I found that the most satisfactory results were to be

obtained from an examination of the fruit, and therefore spent the

treater part of my time upon that portion of the tree. Mycelia

in abundance were found just beneath the skin, extending into

the fleshy parenchyma a short distance. This fungus—identical

with that found in the other parts of the tree—was unicellular,

branching, and much enlarged in places. In some places the

filaments were apparently filled with small oil globules and bodies

closely resembling spores. In only a single instance did I find a

distinct fruiting filament. That I did not find more of the fruit

I regret very much, for in order to know fully the characters of a_

fungus, its fruiting system must be carefully studied.

The single specimen of the fruit I examined is shown on Fig.

5. Tt was found beneath the skin of a prematurely ripened

_ Peach, detached from the remaining filaments present with it, and

yet evidently it belonged to-the same growth.

Several peaches were examined, and in no case did I fail to

find the same branching form. , | :

The method of branching and the form of the filament (shown

on Figs, 3 and 4), as wellas the oil globules which they contained,

: ne Lone

fal rf J ene reminds

and the fruiting system of th goid g 1, 7

one of Saprolegniez, to which division of fungi this form seems

to belong. And as the final result of my investigation uptothe =

_ Present time, I believe this parasitical vegetable form to be at

__ least a part of, and probably the whole cause of this disease.

oe Many modes of procedure have been’ gg : S dt or ta cure

_ ducing a satisfactory cure, for many of the temporary 1M,

974 On the Microscopic and General Characters of (December,

and thus save the trees. Those persons advancing some of them

claim that their modus operandi is a sure and active agent in

bringing about the desired end. But most of the modes are

simply theoretical and always fail. In most cases when a cure

has been reported, it has afterwards been proven that the tree did

not have the yellows at ail. For example, one who attributed

the yellows to an animal origin, used Paris green, throwing it

over the tree with a pump, and the next year the trees that he

supposed to be diseased were in a healthy bearing condition. It

was afterwards shown that the symptoms of the yellows were

X 406

_ Fic. 6.—Hairs on the skin of the peach (x 405). Drawn with camera lucida.

produced indeed by an animal, but that animal was simply Whi -

plant louse! The tree being covered with them, the Paris bie 2

was an effective agent in ridding the orchard of its pest. ; ine

Some have used hot or boiligg water, pouring it ie a)

roots of the trees, and in many cases they have reported the . a a a

ease reduced; but in every case that has come under my obset-

vation it has failed, . ciel

_ It is not at all surprising that the means used—including a

whole category of remedies—have often been reported ne ae

yjuries liable

10 come upon a tree, will, in most instances, produce many yé x

ae of the yellows ; these are the cases ‘that ae

1881.] the Peach Tree affected with the “ Yellows.” 975

cured. If they had been left alone nature’s physician would have

cured them also. Mature does not cure the yellows. A severe

frost will kill the heart wood of a tree, producing some of the

characters of this disease, but the exterior—the vital part—

remaining unharmed, it will soon return to its healthy condition.

Disinfectants have been recommended. Mr. A. G. Gulley says

upon this subject:! “But I look with hope in another direction,

that of preventives by which we can disinfect the trees or enable

them to resist or throw off the disease. This idea is strengthened

by the evidence that a fungus may be the cause. We know that

the low forms of vegetable life are destroyed by various sub-

stances and cannot exist in their presence. If the disease is of

that nature, by the introduction of some of those materials we

shall disinfect the trees, destroy the germs or prevent its growth.”

We agree with Mr. Gulley in this, but as far as experiments

have been tried, the right substance has, as yet, not been found,

and it is a query whether or not the very agent that may be de-

structive to the fungus may not also, being unnatural in the cir-

culation of the tree, destroy it also.

Mr. Taylor? recommends the use of sulphates and alkalies as a

Wash to be used on the bark and roots of the trees. It must be

borne in mind, however, that he is inclined to attribute the dis-

€ase to the agency of a species of Noemaspora, which I think has

been clearly shown is not the cause, but that the fungus that pro-

duces the yellows, both fruit and mycelia, is more internal than

he claims, and would thus necessitate the introduction of the

acid, alkali or any disinfectant into the circulation, which would

Produce an abnormal condition of things physiologically, and

_ injure the tree itself I have no doubt, however, that if enough

of these reagents were used the fungus would be destroyed.

Dr. Kedzie’s recommendation! of the use of potash and phos-

Phoric acid or superphosphate of lime as an experiment, we con-

Sider as simply a good preventive, and have discussed it under

that head. |

From my work and observations, and from, I think, a scientific

Standpoint, letting theories alone, the only cure that I can recom-

mend, is, that the fruit grower, when he notices that any tree in

his orchard has become diseased, root it out carefully and burn

‘Mich. Pomological Report, 1878, p. 252.

* Mich, Pomological Report, 1872, p. 596.

_ appears to have done.

976 Intelligence in a Snail. { December,

every part. If each one takes this care and is also careful to

keep the orchard up to the standard cultivation, this malady,

which is troubling our orchardists to such an extent at present,

will surely fall and soon become a thing of the past.’

—-:

INTELLIGENCE IN A SNAIL.

BY W. H. DALL.

OME time since a relative told mea remarkable story about

a child who had pet snails which recognized her voice and

distinguished it from that of others. As such a development of

intelligence has not hitherto been reported among mollusks, I

was much interested. By the kindness of the lady from whom

the story was first heard, and the intervention of Mrs. Lay, wife

of Bishop Lay, formerly of Arkansas and now of Maryland,

one of the family, who was cognizant of the facts, was reached,

and an extract from her letter is appended. I may add that Mrs.

Lay speaks in the highest terms of the accuracy and clearhead-

edness of her correspondent (then and now a resident of Arkansas),

and remarks that both she and her sister were remarkable for the

ease with which they established friendly and confidential rela-

tions with the birds and animals about them. The father of these

ladies, whose name I suppress merely because I have not their

authority to print it, was chief clerk in the State Department

under the secretaryship of Daniel Webster. wie

_ The malacologist, familiar with pulmonates, will recognize ™

_ the following quotation many facts which indicate the accuracy

and unusual powers of observation of the writer. It is probable

that the snail was one of the group to which /. a/bolabris belongs,

at all events it was a native of Arkansas and one of the larger

species. It would be highly interesting if some of our lady :

friends would repeat the experiment with different kinds of snails, =

and determine by additional evidence whether they are capable 2

Ist. OF recognizing a call or sound; and 2d. Of distinguishing *

from other similar calls or sounds; which the snail in scams ae

___* Mr. David De Tarr, of the Zoological Department of the State 0

_ Albany, and Mr. A. B. Covert, of Ann Arbor, Mich., were, during 2 pat ° * ce

of the above investigation, associated with me, To Mr. De Tarr may be chet”

the finding and drawing of the fungoid form figured on Fig. 4-

f New York at

of the time

1881,] Intelligence in a Snail, 977

The lady, after stating that her sister Georgie was, from the

age of three years, quite an invalid and remarkable for her power

of putting herself ex rapport with all living things, continues:

“Before she could say more than a few words, she had formed

an acquaintance with a toad, which used to come from behind the

log where it lived, and sit winking before her in answer to her

call, and waddle back when she grew tired and told it to go

away. When she was between five and six years of age, I found

a snail shell, as I thought, which I gave her to amuse her, on my

return from a picnic, The snail soon crawled out, to her delight,

and after night disappeared, causing great lamentation. A large,

old-fashioned sofa in the front hall was moved in a day or two,

and on it we found the snail glued fast; it had crawled down

stairs. I took a plant jar of violets and placing the snail in it

Carried it to her, and sunk a small toy cup even with the soil, fill-

ing it with meal. This was because I had read that French peo-

ple feed snails on meal. The creature soon found it, and we ob-

served it with interest for awhile, as we found it had a mouth

which looked pink inside and appeared to us to have tiny teeth

also. We grew tired of it, but Georgie’s interest never flagged,

and she surprised me one day by telling us that her snail knew

her and would come to her when she talked to it, but would

withdraw into its shell if any one else spoke. This was really so,

as I saw her prove to one and another, time after time. At one

time she found a number of eggs. To the best of my recollec-

tion they resembled mistletoe berries, though much whiter. They

hatched, and she had fifteen or twenty little snails which used to —

assemble round the cup of meal which had to be frequently

teplenished. The old snail once fell down on toa brick pave-

ment and its shell was fractured and a small piece lost, but Geor-

gie pasted a piece of calico over the hole and it seemed to do —

very well, What became of the happy family I do not remem-

ber, nor can I tell how long my sister had them. I do not know

of any more easily kept pet. If there is anything else which I

have forgotten, I shall be happy to write further particulars if I

Can recollect them.” : , . :

“ Georgie,” my correspondent adds, “d

An observer, who noticed and remembered the pink buccal

mass, the lingu 1 teeth and the translucent mistletoe-ber like |

978 Botanical Notes from Tucson, [ December,

eggs, and after such an interval of time could so accurately de-

scribe them, is entitled to the fullest credence in other details of

the story, and I have no doubt of its substantial accuracy, in

spite of its surprising nature.

“rT

BOTANICAL NOTES FROM TUCSON.

BY JOS. F. JAMES.

T is not very many years since the Territories of Arizona and

New Mexico were regarded as the most forbidding countries

in the world. Every one who went there carried his life in his

hand, and if he escaped the fierce Apaches and returned home

with his scalp and a whole skin, he was among the favored of

mortals. Within the past five years much of-this has changed,

and the civilization brought about by the advent of railroads and

the influx of determined miners, has been remarkable. A sojourn

of some weeks in Arizona, gave me an opportunity to see some

of the life of that quarter, and in this paper I purpose speaking

of some things to be seen and found there.

The city of Tucson is the largest and most important settle-

ment in Arizona. It is essentially Mexican ; settled as long 28°

as the end of the seventeenth century, it is one of the oldest towns

in our country, and from its foundation to the present time, it has

continued to be the center of the trade of the Territory. Situated in

the midst of the mining regions, it furnishes supplies to mines on

the north, east and south, and for the State of Sonora especially,

is a depot of supplies. It is estimated that at certain seasons of

the year the trade between Tucson and Sonora amounts ee

much as a million dollars per month, the imports to the United

States consisting of fruits, tobacco and whisky, and the exports

of calicoes and other dry goods. These are carried for a als

of 300 or 400 miles on the backs of mules through passes 19 ~

mountains, and on account of the extreme duties into M :

much smuggling is constantly going on. af. _

The streets of Tucson are narrow and unpaved; many =

them are a foot deep in finely powdered dust, and a sudden ae

of wind, such as frequently arises, sweeping along the Oe

_ Taises a whirling cloud so thick that it is impossible to s¢¢ bees

ae the street. _ All of the houses are built of “adobe,” the Meena

Custodian Cincinnati Soc. Nat, Hist. : xe

distance

exico, me :

1881. ] Botanical Notes from Tucson. 979

name for sun-dried mud bricks, are generally but one story high,

and have flat roofs. This kind of a house, with walls often two

feet in thickness, is said to be much cooler in summer and warmer

in winter than any other, and the thickness of the walls ought

surely to keep out both heat and cold. To keep out the heat,

however, is a much more important consideration than the cold,

in a climate where the mercury often rises to 120° in the shade,

and sometimes to 125°. In the summer the heat is something

fearful to think of, but the air is so dry and so pure, that a degree of

heat unbearable in our climate, can be easily endured in that one.

During the summer many of the people take their cots into the

yard, on to the sidewalk, or on the house tops, and sleep with the

sky for a roof. In Yuma it isa common sight to see, early in

the morning, people getting up and making their toilets in the

Open air.

The bricks of the houses are about twenty inches long, eight

inches wide and three inches thick. They are fastened together

with a mortar made of earth mixed with water, the sidewalk often

being dug up to furnish the principal ingredient. The houses are

built in the form of a square or oblong, with a court in the cen-

ter, thus allowing a free circulation of air and making the house

much cooler. The better class have a covered porch, or “ re-

mada,” round the court, and here the people sit and work during

the day, and sleep during the hot weather.

There are many curious sights to be seen in and about Tucson,

Curious at least to Eastern eyes, but it is not my intention to

Speak of them here. During a stay of some six weeks in the

city, I collected the plants of the immediate vicinity, and it is to

them I shall refer at present.

The commonest plant of all the country about Tucson is known

_ locally as the mesquite. Under this general name there are included

several very distinct trees, but with the same general habit, which

are all grouped under the name of mesquite. Sometimes they are

Scattered singly over the desert ; and sometimes they are clustered

together in a dense thicket. The trees are low and scraggley,

with the branches sweeping the ground on all sides. They have

handsome acacia-like leaves, and long branches of bright yellow

flowers, succeeded by the pods which serve some of the Indian

tribes as food. Concealed by the leaves are myriads of thorns in -

all stages of growth, but all hard, sharp and tough. Inattempt-

980 Botanical Notes from Tucson. | December,

ing to penetrate this brush, a gentle tickling at the back of the

neck makes you aware of something in store for you, and as you

turn to investigate, a branch seizes you by the sleeve, and another

is prepared to enter your eye. Something sticking in your flesh

Fic. — Fouquiera splenden 5 Engelm.

actus

calls your attention in another direction, and you find a ae

has fastened itself to your pantaloons. Devoting your asi

__ to it, you finally succeed in detaching one thorn from yout

eo ; ' to

__ and stick ten in your fingers, transferring them from one hand t :

1881. | - Botanical Notes Jrom Tucson. 98

the other with the greatest ease. Then your hat will be scraped

off, your face will be scratched, and you will feel like saying

something wicked. You think you see a bird sitting ona nest

in one of the trees, and at the risk of your neck climb up to it,

only to find it empty. When you reach the ground again, it is

with a dozen thorns in your leg, more in your hands, and your

face and neck bleeding from scratches. Should you try to sit

down, you will find yourself located on a patch of ground already

occupied by thousands of the sharpest kind of thorns; by this

time you will probably have come to the conclusion that a mes-

quite patch is no place for a picnic and you vacate the premises. .

_ Associated with the Acacia greggii, with yellow flowers in

racemes, and long and crooked pods, is the Acacia farnesiana, a

shrub from six to ten feet high, bearing great numbers of small

yellow balls of flowers, which are very sweet scented. It is

largely cultivated in China for the sake of the flowers, for out of

them is made a delicious perfume. The creosote plant, Larrea

mexicana, is very abundant on the deserts about Tucson, but a

more worthless plant it would probably be difficult to find. Tor-

rey says it is used externally for rheumatism; but no animal

Seems to feed upon it, and it is useless for fuel, for it can scarcely

_ be made to burn! It has been the subject of much discussion in

- California, and papers read before the Academy of Natural Sci-

ences say that it produces such quantities of “lac dye,” that a

profitable business could be carried on by collecting and export-

ing it, As far as I have observed in examining a large number

of bushes, a very small proportion only produces the material for

the dye, and these in such small quantities as to make it hardly

worth the trouble of gathering. :

Still another very common and at the same time a very curious

plant is the Fouguiera splendens, one of the Tamariscinez, and

known to the Mexicans as “ochotilla.” It grows all over the deserts —

of Arizona and among the rocks on the mountains. The branches

are long and whip-like, armed with innumerable sharp, curved :

thorns an inch or more long. The flowers are of a bright scarlet, —

and form racemes at the ends of the branches. The leaves are three-

Parted, sessile, and generally appear after the flowers have gone.

It is used very extensively by the Mexicans for fences, and often-

times one sees a fence of this plant, the pieces stuck into the

: Torrey’s Report in Emory’s Reconnoissance of N. Mex. and Cal., p. 138.

982 Botanical Notes from Tucson. [ December,

ground and bound together with raw hide and bunches of the

bright scarlet flowers at the top of the stalk. The plant is cer-

Fic. 2.—Flowers of Fouguiera (spinosa) splendens Engeim.

tainly one of the most striking of all found on the deserts of

Arizona.

Another form is the “Palo erde” of the Mexicans. It is the

Parkinsonia torreyana, one of the Leguminose. It grows to be

some fifteen or twenty feet high, and all the branches are of a

light-greea color. The flowers are of a bright yellow, in long

racemes, and quite sweet-scented. Those trees noticed on the

Colorado desert were surrounded by swarms of bees, apparently

finding excellent food among the blossoms. When in flower,

no leaves are to be seen, and when these come out they are very

small and inconspicuous,

The cacti form a most conspicuous feature of m

desert. By far the most conspicuous and remarkable form is the

Cereus giganteus, locally known as the “ saguara” cactus. It was

first brought to the notice of the scientific world by Emory’s Ex-

pedition from Fort Leavenworth to San Diego, in 1848, and in

his report was given its present name. It is an upright fluted oF

ribbed pillar, each rib covered from bottom to top with a mass of i

sharp, straight thorns. At the top of the stem are the long

tubular white flowers, with the petals just peeping from the calyx, :

_ and with the interior filled with an innumerable mass of stamens:

ountain and

After the fruit is formed the flower, in drying, has the pleasant

_ odor of Calycanthus. When ripe the fruit splits open at the 1s 2

displaying the bright red scarlet of the interior, dotted with : oo

1831. ] Botanical Notes from Tucson. 983

numerous small black seeds. It is much relished by the Mexi-

cans, but to me has a mucilaginous and sweet, but insipid taste,

SSS

\N 2

> ~ :

‘4

__ Birds are very fond of it and often secure it before any one else

_ ¢an get it, The bright red color of the inside of the fruit can be

a ( Opuntia arborescens ) grows sometimes to be almost a tr ae

_ covered with a mass of the most awful looking, and feeling thom

984 Botanical Notes from Tucson, [ December,

seen a long way, and doubtless serves to attract birds who can

thus disseminate the seeds.

There is no more striking and conspicuous form of vegetation

than this Cereus giganteus. It often grows to the height of thirty

feet, straight as an arrow and of nearly the same size from bot-

tom to top. The internal framework is made up of a number of

hard woody cylinders, the spaces between being filled up by

pithy matter; sometimes it is branched, but in a stiff and un-

graceful manner, the branches jutting out almost at right angles

and then turning and ascending parallel to the parent stem. Sit-

ting on the rocks near some of these plants, when the wind was

blowing strongly, the sound of it passing between the spines

resembled strikingly the soughing of the wind through the

branches of a pine tree; and shutting the eyes it required but

little imagination to be transported to a northern pine forest, lis-

tening to the wind blowing through the branches. It is strange

that the action of the wind in two such different localities as the

hot deserts of the South and the cool mountains of the North;

and playing upon two such different types of vegetation as a cac-

tus and a pine tree, should produce sounds so similar to each

other.

Another species of the family is one commonly called the

“nigger-head” or “barrel” cactus, a Mammalaria. This often

grows four feet high, sometimes only half as much, and almost

globular in shape. It has many ribs converging to the top, and

each bears innumerable clusters of spines. The lower ones are

long, straight and horizontal; some of the central ones stand

form a sharp hook. These are very tough, and while the crooked

ones serve the Indians for fish hooks, the straight ones are

used as needles. The flowers of this species are generally se

A much smaller species of this form, also a Mammalaria, 1s eee

common among the rocks on the mountains near the city. The

spines are black and very small, but sharp. Still another species

ee, and is

__ These seem to be covered witha sort of sheath, easily removed, an

ee _€asily sticking into one’s fingers. The thorns are sharp enone

: long enough to go through pantaloons and boot top, and stick ¥

Ciously in be

into the skin. The Mexicans call this the “ochoya” cae: :

1881. | Botanical Notes from Tucson. 8s

and often finding a straight plant and about the right size, will clean

off the thorns, and then by much labor clean out the pith from

the stem, leaving a stick which is full of holes of all sizes, and

which makes a useful and ornamental cane. Then the common

prickly pear (Opuntia) forms immense patches, covering acres of

ground, and sometimes forming hedges eight and ten feet high.

The fruit is known as a “tuni,” and is eaten by the Indians and

: Mexicans. It is of a very mucilaginous nature, sweet and in-

sipid, but not very palatable to ordinary tastes.

It is characteristic of many of the plants of the desert to be

; provided with thorns, and where there are many thorns there is

; relatively a small amount of leaf surface. The immense number

of cacti are by no means the only spine-bearing plants, and one

of the most remarkable, outside of that family, is the Holacantha

emoryi. This grows in the dryest and most barren spots of the

desert, and forms a large mass of what appears to be nearly all

branches and thorns, but it is intermixed with innumerable clus-

ters of small yellow flowers. The small leaves are not apparent

when the plant is in bloom, but come out soon afterward. An-

other plant of a peculiar character, common at Tombstone, sev-

enty-five miles south-east of Tucson, is the Molina terana, It

has a long branching spike of white flowers, intermixed with

; linear, sharp-pointed leaves. At the base of the stem great num-

; bers uf long sharp leaves spring in all directions, some being

eighteen inches or more long, and presenting a formidable appear-

ance. It abounds in the dryest localities.

Besides the desert itself, with its peculiar flora, there are one

or two other places in the vicinity of Tucson which are excel-

lent for plant gathering. One is in a patch of low ground where

a small stream has been dammed up forming a pond which

serves to keep the ground in the vicinity quite moist. Here

Se ae SS ee fet ek eee Peer ley

: entirely unfamiliar. Among the former, growing very luxu-

_tiantly, is the Aspelopsis guinguefolia, apparently the same as the

eastern form, Cephalanthus occidentalis, Apocynum cannabinuin,

Samolus valerandi var. americanus, Medicago sativa, Scirpus olneyi,

Similar to S. pungens, and Funcus balticus, a native of Europe as

Well as of the Eastern United States. Among the unfamiliar forms —

is Amorpha californica, a small shrub with pinnate leaves and long |

-Tacemes of purple flowers, very similar in appearance to A. fruti- .

. Oe ee

VOL, XV.—No, XI,

some few familiar forms are to be found, mixed with others — :

986 Botanical Notes from Tucson. [ December,

cosa. Another is the Antirrhinum maurandioides, a pretty climb-

ing plant, with large blue flowers and sagittate leaves. It is very

common, and climbs over all plants within its reach. The Cws-

cuta californica grows in such profusion as to completely over-

whelm many other plants, and gives a peculiar yellowish appear-

ance to all, while Convolvulus occidentals, with large white flow-

ers, covers large patches of ground with its trailing stems. Cas-

tilleta linariefolia is very common in patches, and is tall and slen-

der, with bright red flowers and linear leaves.

Almost the only other locality in the neighborhood of Tucson

favorable for the growth of plants, is along the Santa Cruz river,

a small stream which rises to the south of the city, flows past it,

sinks into the ground some ten miles on the other side, rises

again to the surface, and finally empties into the Gila river. For

some distance along its banks the Mexican women use it as a

wash tub, and along a special part of it can be seen, at all times,

numbers of women washing clothes. They beat them on the

stones and wear out the clothes as much as take out the dirt.

Near the stream, climbing extensively over the bushes, grows

Clematis drummondii, with three-parted leaves and large clusters

of white flowers. Here also is found the Philabertia cynanchoides,

one of the Asclepiadacee. It has extensively twining stems,

arrow-shaped leaves and small clusters of greenish yellow flow-

ers. A mile further up the stream we come to where it has been

run into a sort of canal to run a mill, and along the side of the

mountain, below the canal, where the ground is always moist, 15

a good growth of vegetation. Here is found Aster pauciflorus,

with long linear leaves, and flowers with blue rays in branched

corymbs. The larger growth consists principally of willows and

poplars, Populus fremonti, var. Wislizeni, being the most com

mon. The Zessaria borealis is another tree with the aspect of a

Baccharis and a willow. It has small, linear, silky leaves and

rose-colored flowers in dense clusters. The down of the seeds 15

used extensively by the birds for lining their nests. :

Along the banks of the stream is a little Hydrocotyle, - Li- :

a Susticum, Eleocharis palustris and other plants loving damp ocali- Poe

tes, and in the water Ceratophyllum demersum, Potamogeton

, Hatans and P. pectinatus. At the other side of the city, but ee

_ Within the influence of the river, grows Tribulus grandiflorus,

S of the Zygop a llacez. It has large, beautiful, orange-colored

1881.] Editors’ Table. 987

flowers, with pinnate leaves, hairy and procumbent stem, and is

one of the most attractive flowers of the region. The %uglans

rupestris grows sparingly along the roads, aad a tall Acacia (A.

hirta ?) with a straight branching stem, round bunches of white

flowers and finely pinnate leaves, is quite common.

These are some of the plants which, in a short period of time,

and at an unfavorable season of the year, can be found in the

vicinity of this, one of the oldest settlements of America. I have

by no means noticed all the species collected there, for I have not

yet had an opportunity to identify them, and there are no doubt

Many more species to be found by one spending a year at the

place. I have been informed by those who know, that during the

Summer rains many plants spring up, bloom for a short time and

disappear for the remainder of the year. Among the species to be

found here are doubtless many which are Mexican forms; but

this is nothing strange, for the whole of the flora of Southern

California, Arizona and New Mexico belongs to the Mexican

region. The climate and geographical features of all are very

Sirailar ; dry and barren plateaus and mountains, where little rain

ever falls and where the heat in summer is very intense; with few

Streams to water the soil, and these few having an uncertain ex-

istence, the beds being nearly dry the greater part. of the year.

Cloud bursts, waterspouts and sand storms are characteristic of

the whole country, and any division which can be made will

place Upper Mexico, Arizona, New Mexico and Southern Cali-

fornia in the same zodlogical and botanical region.

ot 9 Oe

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: A. S. PACKARD, JR., AND E. D. COPE.

—— The scope and aim of the biological sciences are em-

braced by their two great primary divisions, phylogeny and physi-

ology. Phylogeny states the history and manner of the creation

of beings possessed of life, while physiology exposes the forces

which are active in creation and other functions of life, and sets

forth their modus operandi.

All biological research contributes to one or the other of these

departments. There are two branches essential to the develop-

ment of phylogeny, viz: embryology and paleontology. The

_ €ssential preliminary to both of these sciences is, of course, —

988 Fditors’ Table. [ December,

anatomy (including histology), or in other words, analysis of

structure. A rational résumé of anatomy is taxonomy, or sys-

tematic zodlogy and botany. For the great department of physi-

ology, knowledge of both physics and chemistry is necessary ;

and here the biological and physical sciences have their natural

inosculation.

The student who is desirous of making a life-work of biologi-

cal science, will often be at a loss to decide as to the best line of

research for him to undertake. Circumstances of an incidental

character generally determine his course for him, Such circum-

stance is the influence of a scientific friend; or the brilliant work

of some able man who renders a department attractive. Fashion,

which is seen in scientific as in other fields, wil sometimes give

the direction; but the most usual determining agent is the mate-

rial for study which may lie most conveniently near the students

hand. Every department has its attractions, and nature presents

to the appreciative intellect an emdarras des richesses, in whatever

direction it turns its view. ;

The science of physiology is the most difficult of prosecution,

and has, on this account, made less progress than some of the

gently, he must have a preliminary idea of the character . ae

animal or plant he investigates. This is first determined by :

consideration of the external anatomy of large numbers of .<“

cies, which is the work of the systematic biologist. Of wae S

the full expression of the relationships, as shown by the resen®

blances and differences of species, cannot be had until the ~ :

anatomy is known. The first work of the taxonomist is pee ra

necessarily imperfect, and partly on this account it is the fas he

_in some quarters to speak lightly of his labors. It is, howe rire

_ true that taxonomy cannot be done without ;' also, that when ins

anatomy, as in the higher animals, develops a great many ter aie

whose relations are to be properly expressed, it requires no ™ ee

_ order of intellect to solve the problem thus presented we er

_1Linneeus says (Philososophia Botanica, p. 202): “ Botanicus tyro novit classe

cand omnia, era; magister plurimas species. Quo plures ‘nis solida eru-

Species, €o etiam pr-e-tantior est. Co gnitione specierum innititur oma’ aS:

-ditio physica, ceconumi::, metica; immo omnis vera cognitio humana.— eee

1881, ] Editors’ Table. 989

Judging from results in this field, this kind of ability is not com-

mon, for the most admirable observers are frequently quite unable

to appreciate the taxonomic bearings of the facts they have

brought to light.

The sciences of paleontology and embryology contribute

equally to a true phylogeny, which is already indicated by taxon-

omy. It is difficult to decide which of these departments is the

More attractive. The naturalist who lives in a region where well

Preserved fossils are abundant, will not weary of exploring the

horizons within his reach, and of tracing the structure and affini-

ties of the forms he discovers. A few feet of rock will often

Separate faunz more distinct in their characters than those which

now inhabit the most widely separated regions of the earth. An

€xpedition of a few miles will yield results of greater importance

than the exploration of the fauna of entirely new regions of the

earth’s surface. ,

The disadvantages of this pursuit are the generally imperfect

character of the remains of ancient life; and secondly, in the

a of the vertebrate animals, the expense involved in obtaining

_ Lhe student of embryology, like the anatomist, has his mate-

rial on every hand. If he take the pains, he can observe the

Most wonderful phenomenon the world affords, the development

of a complex being from a single cell. In the successive stages

of growth he will trace the impress of ancient environments,

and will read the outlines of the history of descent only less

perfectly than the paleontologist. Although embryological study

IS possible everywhere, it involves much patient and laborious

Manipulation; more so than any other department, excepting

Physiology. Its rewards are, however, great.

n the outset of their career, naturalists are often perplexed as

to the question of ways and means. To those who must seek a

tinguished many a promising biologist. So long as financial

_ Prosperity, rather than intellectual accomplishments and ability,

Sives position, this will continue to be the case.

We hope and

990 Recent Literature. [ December,

order of precedence in the estimation of the general public, and

that it will give to the man who produces knowledge, the high

position he has always held in the minds of the thoughtful of the

human race.

"rye.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Tytor’s AnrHRopo.ocy.'—It is only within some twenty years

or a little over a generation, that under the enlarged mode of

studying nature for which we are indebted to Darwin and others,

as well as to German embryologists and _histologists, particularly

those who have worked from an evolutional point of view, that the

science of biology has become well established. Modern physics

has recently discovered the law of the conservation of force and

other doctrines which have so enlarged the sphere of the phys!-

cist. Hand in hand with the genesis of biology went on the devel-

opment and perfection of the nebular hypothesis, and the rise of a

new school in geology, the uniformitarian; while at only a late date

has the science of meteorology assumed a definite shape, and later

stiil the science of comparative psychology and sociology. +h€

youngest of the sciences, of which this book is an exposition, 1s @

logical outcome of all the sciences bearing upon life and the phys-

ics of the earth, the residence of man. In the fullness of time there

has arisen a science of man, or anthropology, the synthesis oF

flower of all the sciences. Such a science could not have come

into existence were not the keystone of the arch supportilg it

the doctrine of evolution. Old-fashioned ethnologists could g°

on indefinitely, measuring skulls and classifying the races of man-

kind, archeologists could industriously unearth forgotten grave"

yards and buried cities, till every foot of soil on the ¢g obe had

told its tale of dead dynasties and forgotten cities, but unless 4

working theory of development from the general to the special,

from the crude and unfinished to the perfected ; unless different

and successive early stages were looked upon as initiatory, %:

only existing to give rise to something more composite, highly

finished and enduring, we could not have had the science of an-

thropology.

It is from the point of view of progress and growth, of elabo-

ration from simple beginnings, and the origin of the compost

manners and customs of modern civilization from the aboot

arts and habits of savage life, that the new science of anthropo!-

ogy is to be built up and perfected. te

Just as the study of the embryology of Ascidians and of Ae .

Amphioxus has well nigh revolutionized our conceptions yy :

vertebrate type, and man’s structure can only be under a ie oe

1 Tylor’s ‘ . : . n and Civilization

By Ebwano B. Trrow DCL. EIS. With illastrations. New York D- APP

_ ton & Co,, 1881. 8vo, pp. 448. ; :

f the. -

1881.] Recent Literature. 99!

study of the lower invertebrate as well as vertebrate organisms,

so our modern civilization can only be analyzed and clearly un-

derstood by reference to the social structures of savage life and

the developmental steps by which the savage became a barbarian,

and the barbarian threw aside the features of savagery, and after a

series of changes, paralleled by the metamorphoses of the butter-

fly or starfish, assumed the advanced forms and environment of

civilized life. Nay, a tolerably exact parallelism may be made be-

tween the premature civilization of certain races of mankind and

those which more slowly and surely developed into modern and

probably permanent types of civilization. The prematuritive type

of pseudo-civilization of Peru and Mexico, of Babylon and Assyria,

So strikingly suggestive of later and specialized types of civilized

life, may be compared to the prematuritive, generalized, prophetic

types of Silurian ganoids and Selachian fishes, which flourished as

€xceptionally perfect forms amid the multitudes of lower organ-

isms about them, and which sank, as it were, and died under the

weight of the ill-assorted and unequally perfected assemblage of

Organs composing their bodies. Anomalous and unintelligible

would be the premature and comparatively short-lived pseudo-

Civilizations of the infancy of our race, were it not written in the

rocks that the idea has been worked out again and again in pale-

0zoic history.

Such reflections and considerations as these are provoked by

any course of biological study, and by reading Herbert Spencer's

writings on sociology and more particularly the modest and able

work before us of Mr. Tylor. In the present book the science of

anthropology has been, perhaps for the first time, reduced to co-

herent and intelligible shape. Ina simple and yet masterly way

the subject is outlined and put into the briefest form. The aim of

the author has evidently been to simply sketch out a subject vast

and intricate in its details.

We will now give a synopsis of the subject, to enable our readers

to form a slight idea of what anthropology is, and it should be

premised that the science has been largely built up and promoted

by geologists and biologists, who established the fact of the high

antiquity of man, which led them to investigate the habits and

arts of the prehistoric races, and thus to utilize the results of eth-

nologists and archeologists, until the missing links between the

prehistoric and historic races of mankind could be with tolerable

certainty supplied.

ginning with the fact that man may be divided into races

rather than species, our author remarks that: “ Altogether, the

evidence of ancient monuments, geography and history goes to

prove that the great race-divisions of mankind are of no recent

growth, but were already settled before the beginning of the his-

torical period. Since then their changes seem to have been com-

paratively slight, except in the forming of mixed races by inter-

992 Recent Literature. ' [December,

marriage.” These races, Tylor believes, have descended from a

common ancestry, however distinct, while the different races, such

as the black, brown, yellow and white, “are living records of the

remote past, every Chinese and Negro bearing in his face evi-

dence of the antiquity of man.” So the study of philology

shows that one family of languages, now spoken in Asia and

Europe has descended from a common ancestral language, which

is now theoretically called the Aryan, though “ of an original

primitive language, the most patient research has found no traces.

Also when we consider the arts and customs of mankind, “it ap-

pears, says our author, “that whenever there are found elaborate

arts, abstract knowledge, complex institutions, these are the

results of gradual development from an earlier, simpler and ruder

———— SS

Fic. 1.—South Australian (Man).

state of life. No stage of civilization comes into existence spon-

taneously, but grows or is developed out of the stage before "e

his is the great principle which every scholar must lay firm ho

of, if he intends to understand either the world he live

history of the past.” h

After sketching what history, archeology and geology eee

as to man’s age and course on the earth, he considers per

place in the animal world, and maintains that man’s ine

development “ must have been in no small degree gained at Se

use of his hands.”

As to the distinctions between man and the apes, Ty ah ie

marks that “ whereas the lobes of the ape’s brain has ea the | is

simpler convolutions than in the human brain,” as reg

1881. ] Recent Literature. 993

the latter, “both size and complexity mean mind-power.”

then attempts to answer the question, How far do their minds

Work like ours? and falls back on the power of speech as giving

“about the clearest distinction that can be drawn between the

action of mind in beast and man,” and he thinks it safe to con-

clude that the “ mental machinery of the lower animals is roughly

similar to our own, up to a limit.”

The author then discusses the races of mankind, and states what

arace is. Perhaps the lowest are the Australian (Figs. 1, 2,) and

also the Andaman islanders (Fig. 3), the latter thought, by Flower,

to be a remnant of a very early human stock, perhaps the best rep-

resentative of the primitive Negro type. Tylor regards the native

American, from the Arctic regions to Patagonia, as constituting

Fic. 2.—South Australian (Woman).

a single race. He thinks it “ probable that man had appeared

there, as in the old world, in an earlier geological period than the

Present, so that the first kinship between the Mongols and the

North American Indians may go back to a time when there was

no ocean between them. What looks like later communication

between the two continents is, that the stunted Eskimo, with

their narrow roof-topped skulls, may be a branch of the Japanese

Stock, while there are signs of the comparatively civilized Mexi-

cans and Peruvians having in some way received arts and ideas

from Asiatic nations.”

In the chapter on language; sign-writing, gesture language,

Sound-gestures or interjections, are regarded as steps leading to

the origin of language, which form what Tylor calls natural lan-

994 Recent Literature. [ December,

guage, which may be used by peoples of different spoken lan-

guages. As to the origin of language, it was not, in the author's

view, “an event which took place long ago once for all, and then

ceased entirely.” ‘‘So far as language can be traced to its actual

source, that source does not lie in some lost gifts or powers of

man, but in a state of mind still acting, and not above the level of

children and savages.’*

The act of writing is traced from the pictures of savage hunters

to Egyptian hieroglyphics or pictures used to represent the sound

of their name, then to tie breaking down of the picture into a mere

sound-sign, till the Phoenician alphabet arose from the Egyptian

Fic. 3.—Andaman Isianders.!

hieratic and the Greek alphabet from the Phoenician, which ag

life, of pleasure, of the sciences, is discussed in a most suggest

way, and finally the notions of mankind concerning the spirl

world, the origin of history and mythology, and lastly the ones

civilization is not only a matter of scientific interest, but at once

passes into the practical business of life. We have in it the

i e world,

clearly

rse of

: : e

excellence of the illustrations.

1881. ] Recent Literature. 995

life, from the remote past to the present, will not only help us to

forecast the future, but may guide us in our duty of leaving the

world better than we found it.”

Here our exposition of this able work must end; anthropolo-

gists may not agree with all of the author’s conclusions; the science

is in its infancy, and its center of gravity is not yet settled, but it

must prove an invaluable manual of the subject. Few errors

appear in it; a rather saber’ one is the author’s statement on

p. 30, that the musk o may still be hunted in the Rocky

mountains with the siicaly bear.” This is an evident slip of the

pen

Know.epce!,—Under this title comes to us the first number

of a popular scientific magazine. We welcome as many such

Journals as there is room for; whether there is for this one, time

will show, Judging from the first number, “ Knowledge,” will be

more than usually popular. We can anticipate that the depart-

ment of astronomy will be very well conducted. There are

several valuable articles, ¢. ¢., “On science and Religion,” by the

editor, of a mediatory character, and one on The Relation of

Food to Muscular Work, by Dr. Carpenter ; also one on Illusions,

by Thomas Foster, and a review of Darwin on Earth Worms. Of

less value is a review of Delaunay’s paper on the relative charac-

teristics of men and women, which from the style of its logic,

appears to have been written by one of the sex it seeks to defend

from Dr. Delaunay’s definitions, We hope for Knowledge a large

. Share of usefulness and patronage.

Recent Ses AND PAMPHLETS.—Notes on Sciomyzidz with descriptions of new

Species, f. in T, Day, ee Haven, Conn. From the Canadian Entomologist,

Vol. XU, ‘No. pp. 85-89. From the author

of N. American Sarcophagide, eainmed by R. H. Meade, Esq., Bradford,

Engla nd. By Dr. H. A. ae nse Cambridge, Mass. From the Canadian Entomol-

ogist, Vol. xin, 881, pp. 146-15 From the author

n Simuliu Dr. preg Cambridge, Mass. From the Canadian

teri ‘Vol. xl, 1881, Pp. 150-151. From the aut thor

or,

Tye of the species of a of the United States. By George H. Horn,

M.D. om es American Entomological Society, Vol. 1x, 1881, pp.

73-76. F rom the

Die Seca (abyrntodonte) aus dem Rothliegenden des. Plasieciacien

Grund = bei Dresden.’ Von Herman Credner, in Lei ipzig. 1 Theil. 1 Einleitung. 2

Branchiosaurus gracilis Cred. (Tafel xv bis XVII. Svo, PP- 32, 3 quarto plates,

col, % Berlin, 1881.

On the e Petrel called Thalassidroma nereis by Gould, and its oy ta By W. A.

Forbes, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.S., Prosector to the Zoological Societ 8vo, pp. 3.

Extract from ‘the Proceedings ok the Zoological Society of London, "Jane 21, 1881,

London, 1881. From the author.

eet nomledge. —An Illustrated Magazine of Science. Plainly worded, exactly des.

cribed. Conducted by R. A. re, B.A. dees n & Sons, 745 Great —

Street, London, ce =

996 Recent Literature. [ December,

Notes on the anatomy and aysiomene Oph of ae facanes (Parridz). By W

A. Parties, B.A., Prosector to the Soc 8vo cuts. Extract from the

Proceedings of the Zoological Society of Landon Bay 7 1881. From the author.

The Pipes of all Peoples. By William Bragge. 8vo, pp. 16. or from =

ee Daily Post, Dec. 16, 1870. Binghampton, 1880. E.

ne tence and Art Department, Edinburgh acne of Science and Art. Guide to

the Loan Collection of objects connected with the use of tobacco and other narcot-

ics. 8vo, pp. 20, Edinburgh, 1880, From VE. A. Barber,

The Bragge Collection. Reprint from “ Cope’s Tobacco Plant.’? December,

1889. 4to, pp. 4. Liverpool, 1

On the Conformation of the thoracic end of the Trachea in the “ rae ‘3 se

By W. A. Forbes, B.A., F.L.S., Prosector to the Societ vo, pp. I s. Ex-

tract from ih Ppiocee lings of the Zoological Society of London, Tau ae 1831.

London, 1881, From the author

Succes of the North American ppebecsnen By Dr. R. W. Schufeldt, U.S.A.

8vo, pp. 40, 8 plates. Department of the Interior, United States ee al =

Geographical Survey. Extract. fit the Bulleen of the Survey, Vol. vi, No.

Washington, Sept. 19, 1881. From the author

Osteology of Lanieu’s Ludovicanus excubitoroides. By R. W. Schufeldt, M.D.,

First ten t. Med. Dept. U.S. Army. 8vo, pp. 1 plate. Department of ‘the In-

ge United States Geological and Geographical Survey. ‘Extract from Bulletin V1,

No. Vashington 1881. From the author

iauhaini. the Hippo mira By Henry C. Chapman, M.D. 8vo

24, 4 plates, cuts. ae Extract os pag pestis: of a eaten of Natural Sci

ences of Awash elphia. phar vod heer From the

Problems in Entomology. address by Simuel H. "Souder before the Ento-

motogical. Club (afterwards ue cae section of Entomology) of the American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement Science, Boston meeting, Manes 24, 1880 8vo, pp.

10, Salem wees From the author.

The Tettiacy Lake Basin of vice: Colorado. By Samuel H. Scudder. _

pp. 20, map. Department of oe Interior, United States Geological and Geograp

cal Epi Washington, 1 uthor.

Report of Professor Spencer * Baird, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for

the Sete: 1880. 8vo, pp. 84. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1881.

e aut

Gene rar Index and Supplement to Nine Reports on the Insects of roumgiret Fe

Charles V. Riley, M.A., Ph.D. 8vo 0, pp 178. Department of the Interior, Un

States Entomological Commission, Bulletin No. 6. Government Printing me

Chinch Bug, its aie character and habits, and means of destroying it or cou

teracting its injuries, Cyrus Thoma s, Ph.D. 8vo, pp. 44, cuts. Depart — -

the Interior, United =. i Bhheiasligien’ Commission, Bulletin No. 5. Gove

ment Printing Office, Washington, 1879. From the author. :

he Hessian Fly, its ravages, — enemies, and means of preventing its i ee

By A.S, Packard, Jr., M. D. 0, pp. 40, map. Department of the Interior, 5 Office

es Entomological Camitiiaan, Bulletin No. 4. Government Printin cs

Washington, 1880. From the author

_ First Annual Report of the United States Geological ona og ~ —

_ Schurz, Secretary of the Interior. By Clarence King, “tls

_ bound. Government Printing Office, Washington, 1880. From aohor No

ss * the tel — Geological and Geographical ‘ea ae Vol Rot ae

New

of t

ae 1881. remind mapas ra

— Cassell’s” Natural Histo: » Parts gees 4to, PP. Boa II a. Cuts.

otek Spel ae Duncan, M. D., F. R. S.).

ella and its positio at g ‘Deen ae 8 vo. pp

rhea see sat Natur i meres 1881. Philadelphia, 1881,

1881.] Botany. , 997

Hrs the Early Larval Stages of the Fiddler Crab, and of Alpheus. By A.

. Packard, Jr. 8vo,pp.10. Cuts. Extract from the American Naturalist, October.

Paden 1881. From the author.

On Pgh Big Rs: a ae a? oe 2 ee Wyomin By A. S;

ied te O, pp. Departmen e Interior, Ghited ‘States Geo-

logical and Gengeaphicel’ Saver. Gover nana panes Office, Washington, Sep-

tember 19, 1881. From the author

Annotated List of Birds of yiads. by W. J. Hoffman M. D, 8vo, pp. 50. De

partment of the Interior, eon d States, Geological 8 _Geographical Survey.

fice 18 Fr

Government Printing O Washington, 1881. From the

Giinther’s eS sae _Morphography mh Fishes. ei Paige of Dr. Giinther’s

introduction to the Stu udy Fishes. By eodor ill, i: M.

I2mo, Pp. 16, rear es the.‘ coi ioc Sream?” New York, 1881. From the

autho

The New cag ae pee on Past best method of Teaching. By W. J. Beale,

M. D., Ph.D. Fro e Transactions of the Twenty-ninth annual

Meeting of the Micthixes pet Teaches? s Association, Lansing, 1881. From the

Mivart on the Cat, Review of by Prof. George Macloskie. 8vo, pp. 4. From the

October number of the Presbyterian Review. New York, 1881. From the author.

The Journal (Formerly Archives) of Comparative Medicine and Surgery. A

sales ee of the Anatomy, Paint get and Therapeutics of the Lower Animals,

ew York, I. From the publishers

rial - a Kraniologie der europaischen hegre Von Professor J. Koll.

4to, pp. 120. 4 plates, colored, Aus dem “ nee

fir Anibeisonee it Band XiIl, tes 4. janie 1881. From the au

Essai sur Le Classement des Animaux qui vivent sur la Plage sag envi-

tons de Dunkerque. “Proiniecie deseloull, Par M. O. Terquem, ancien Pharma-

cien. 8vo, pp. 54. 5 plates. 1881.

SRN Ante of remains of Batrachia of the Coal Measures of Nova Scotia. By J.

W. Dawson. Montreal 1881.

—— :0:——

GENERAL NOTES.

BOTANY .'

DimorpPuisM IN Brack Mustarp.—It may not be generally

known that there are two forms of flowers in the common mus-

tard Lorre nigra), which differ mainly in the length of the pis-

til. In the short-styled form, the top of the stigma does not

quite reach to the bases of the higher anthers, and is about even _

with the tips of the lower ones. The long-styled has the stigma —

reaching to the middle of the higher anthers. ere dimensions of

€ stamens are nearly identical in the two for

In each flower, they may be naturally divided into two sets,

each set consisting of two long stamens and one short. Those of

the same set face toward each other, that is, toward the nectary of

the set, which is surrounded by them and the pistil. There are —

two nectaries, therefore in each flower, and on opposite sides of

the pistil. Two advantages of this arrangement should be men-—

tioned: first, the anthers near the pistil turn away from it, so that

cba pollen does not ed reach it, but rather the bill ofthe

nee eke cn reaches down to is nde and euros r as oe .

ae eee 4 - / ‘

998 General Notes. [ December,

insect passes from one nectary to the other, its bill is likely to

carry pollen to the stigma.

As in other cases of dimorphism, all flowers on the same root

have the same form. Much care should be taken in verifying

this statement, for, as in both forms the pistil soon elongates,

after the flower has passed its prime, it is easy to mistake older

flowers of the short-styled form for long-styled ones. But com-

paring flowers which have just opened, or before they have been

fertilized, the facts stated above will be clearly seen. The styles

in the two forms differ in length a little less than one millimetre.

The dimorphism in this case seems to be imperfect. There

are two lengths of stamens, and two lengths of pistils to corre-

spond, but while the different pistils are distributed to different

plants just as in Houstonia, Lithospermum, etc., the different

stamens are not even distributed to different flowers, Moreover,

the longer stamens are twice as numerous as the shorter. These

facts suggest the following queries: .

1. May we not have in this case two plans for cross-fertiliza-

tion coéxisting, viz., one more or less analogous to other cases of

heterostylism, and the other like that in the Rosacee, etc., where

stamens and pistils are equally prominent, to profit by the hap-

hazard movements of insects visiting the flowers ?

2. Do similar relations exist, in all the Cruciferae, or are these

variations which indicate a transition stage in the development of

dimorphism ?

To direct observation and obtain an answer, especially to the

latter question, has been one purpose in publishing the facts given

above.— ¥. E. Todd, Tabor, lowa.,

Motion oF THE Fruit oF TILIA WHILE IN THE Air.—Every

one is familiar with the singular inflorescence of the genus Tilia,

in which the long peduncle, really axillary to the large papery

bract, is so adnate to this for about half its length, as to appear to

spring from its middle, Well known as are these lindens oF

limes, and especially the Zilia Europea, I do not recall having

seen any mention of the use that the plant makes of this scale in

distributing its fruit. As the globular nuts ripen, the scale be-

comes more dry and papery. Italso bends back upon itself from

the point where the peduncle becomes free. It is weighted, as

it were, by the fruit balls below. Sometimes moreover, there 1S

a lateral twist to the wing, making it not unlike the fluke of a

propeller. Now, when a breeze disengages this apparatus, it falls

by its own weight, but, through the influence of the wing, at once

begins to revolve rapidly upon its axis, looking like the governot

_ ofa steam-engine in rapid motion. I take it there is here a¢ a

_ for mathematical research, but that is unfortunately out of BY

- .

i line. Will not some botanist of a mechanical turn, if such a be-

ing exists, study into this matter a little? I take it that the pt :

1881. ] Botany. 999

fruit outside of the immediate radius of the tree. So like butter-

ies do these scale-borne nuts in the air appear, that I have been

repeatedly deceived by them. It seenis to me that the subject

would reward the diligent study of one who combined good

powers of observation with certain mathematical attainments.

“ Fic. 1.—Bract, with its cluster of ripened nuts ; Fic. 2—A more frequent condi-

on,

I would add that usually, the nuts more or less break off before

the disarticulation of the scale from the tree, one or two only

remaining, and these standing somewhat at right angles to the

main peduncle. May not this throwing of the weight to one

Side, itself induce the revolution?—W. W. Bailey, Brown Univer-

sity, Oct. 15, 1881.

Tue SENSITIVENEsS OF TENDRILS.—Some years since, in order

to measure the sensitiveness of the very fine and slender tendrils

of Cobea scandens, I placed one evening at seven o'clock, a human

hair about two inches in length upon an expanded tendril. ‘This

Was done with the greatest care, so as not to produce any other

Irritation than that due to the weight of the hair itself. Upon

€xamination the next morning at seven o'clock, the tendril was

found to have tightly clasped around the hair, and coiled itself

into a tight knot. Every precaution had been taken to prevent

interference with the experiment, so that it may be considered as

certain that the contact of the hair was the exciting cause of the

_ twining of the tendril.

1000 General Notes. [ December,

THE SUPERABUNDANCE OF PoLLEN IN INDIAN Corn.—Nature

evidently intends to secure the fertilization of the young ovules

in the Indian Corn (Zg@ Mais) beyond all chance of failure. In

the autumn of 1875, I made a large number of careful counts and

estimates which resulted in fixing upon twenty-five hundred as

the average number of pollen grains in each anther. Each pani-

cle of male flowers (the “tassel ’’) was found by careful estimates,

to contain about 7200 stamens, so that the number of pollen

grains produced by each plant is about eighteen millions. Allow-

ing two ears of one thousand kernels each, to each plant (a very

high estimate), there are still nine thousand pollen grains for every

ovule to be fertilized !

Tur Common Names OF our PLants.—An effort is now mak-

ing to collect and arrange the common names now borne by the

plants of the United States, somewhat as has been done for

English plants by Prior in his “ Popular Names of British Plants,

and Messrs. Britten and Holland, in the “ Dictionary of English

Plant Names.” Whatever may be said against common names

on account of their frequently objectionable form, their common

application to several entirely different plants, besides other ob-

jectionable features, not to mention their little value to the prac-

tical botanist, it yet remains that plants are known to a very —

large portion of our people by common names only. We must

confess to a rather kindly feeling for these popular names, 10

spite of their many faults and sometimes exasperating inconstancy

and inconsistency, and so we hail, with delight the announcement

made by W. R. Gerard, one of the editors of the Zorrey Bullenn,

of his intention to undertake to record the names under which the

same plants are known in different parts of the country. As this

is a movement in the right direction, undertaken by one eminently.

qualified to complete it, we have no hesitation in urging readers 0

the Narura.ist, to render aid “ by collecting lists of the popular

names by which our plants are known in their neighborhoods,

and sending them to Mr. Gerard (g Waverly Place, New Your

City), accompanied of course by the scientific equivalents. It is

books are merely book-names, having no usage except in botanr —

cal classes in schools, and with those whose knowledge of plants

is derived mainly from books; it is desirable that such be care- —

fully distinguished from those in use by people who have no

_ knowledge of the botany of the books. The names.given

_ by the Indians, are also of interest, and should be preserved."

to plants

1881. | Botany. IOOI

receptacle is distinctly conical, and as my 1859 edition of Gray says,

under the generic title, “receptacle flat,” I must acknowledge

the kindness of Dr. Daniels, in identifying the plant from Nuttall’s

description.—£, Lewis Sturtevant, South Framingham, Mass., Oct.

Ig, 1881.

CERATOPHYLLUM DEMERSUM IN Fruit.—Gray, in his Manual,

Says that Ceratophyllum demersum L. is “ common but rarely seen

in fruit.” I have to-day the pleasure of finding the plant in this

somewhat uncommon condition.—Dr. Alfred C. Stokes, Trenton,

Aug. 30, 1887.

Botanica Nores.—The opening address before the Geographi-

cil Section of the British Association for the Advancement of

Science, was given this year, by Dr. J. D. Hooker. Very natur-

ally the address was principally concerned with the geographical

distribution of plants, which was reviewed historically. A

Briggs calls attention, in the Yourzal of Botany, to the fact, that

hybrids occur between some of the species of Apilobium, and de-

scribes one between &. hirsutum and E. montanum. WHave our

Species been observed to hybridize ? De Bary is publishing in

the current numbers of the Botanische Zeitung, an important paper,

on the Peronosporee. If possible a summary will be given in these

columns before long. The “ Catalogue of the Plants of Indiana,”

which has been publishing in parts as extra sheets in the Botant-

cal Gazette, has appeared in pamphlet form. In all there are re-

corded 1432 species of flowering plants and vascular cryptogams.

Valuable notes are appended to many of the species. The

“characteristic forest trees are the poplar (Liriodendron ), maple,

ash, elm, black and white walnuts, oak, hickory, beach, syca-

more.” The authors (Professors, J. M. and M. S. Coulter, and

C. R. Barnes) further state in their preface that “the flora of the

State is readily divided into four groups, each marked by the

named order from the Uredinee, her

them.. The reviews of Pfeffer’s new book on the Physiology

: of Plants ( Pflanzen ph rysiologie, Ein Handbuch des Stoffwechsels

und Kraftwechsels inder Pflanze. Band 1. Leipsig, 1881) indicate

__ that when completed, it will be a most valuable acquisition to:

1002 General Notes. [ December,

the literature of this department of botany. Why cannot some

of our publishers secure the translation of this work? The

late Professor Parlatore, before his death, had planned a work on

the Comparative Anatomy of Aquatic Plants, which unfortu-

nately was left unfinished. The fragmentary work consisting of

nine fine plates showing figures of cross and longitudinal sec-

tions of different organs, together with explanatory text, has been

published in Florence under the title of Zavole per una “ Ana-

tomia della piante acquatiche.’ Species of Alisma, Callitriche,

Ceratophyllum, Hippuris, Myriophyllum, Naias, Nelumbium, Nu-

phar, Nymphea, Potamogeton, Trapa, Vallisneria. Victoria, and

many other phanerogams, and of J/series, Marsilia and Pilularia

Dr.

ery tissue of others. Even collenchyma may serve as a Con-

ducting tissue. Mature vessels (tracheary) conduct no sap, and

parenchyma does so only when sap is exceedingly abundant.

ZOOLOGY.

Tue Caroma Turory—Since Haeckel’s publication of his

Gastraea theory, the most important generalization in embryology

is the Cceloma theory of the brothers Hertwig.1 It is an expres

sion of the history of the nature and changes of the middle layer

of the blastoderm.

They define two types of middle layer as foliows : In the ex

it is formed of separate cells which wander from the epiblast an

hypoblast, which in some instances appear round the mouth of the

this form they restrict the name mesoblast. Moreover 10 the

animals which present the mesenchym, there is a cavi

the epiblast and hypoblast, which is not the true

Such are the Plathelminths (flat worms) Bryozoa and Mollusca.

To this series they give the name of Pseudocalia.

oderms, brachiopods, round worms, arthropods and vertebrates

possess a mesoblast. Here the two layers of the mesoblast me

rate and form the walls of the body cavity, which is divided y

name of the Enterocelia. Animals are thus divided into tWO

divisions, those in which the blastoderm consists of two

and those in which it is formed of four layers. ‘ a

a The consequences of these modes of origin are seen 1n chara¢

cD * Jenaische Medicinische Zeitung. 1881,

ity between o

1881.] | Loology. 1003

teristic structures of the adult. Thus in the Ao//usca the vessels

of the circulatory system are diverticula of the general body-cavity

with which they freely communicate. n the other hand the

circulating vessels of the Axterocela never communicate with

the body-cavity, but originate from the digestive system, or inde-

pendently. In the Psexdocelia the nervous system is derived from

the mesenchym, except perhaps the supracesophageal ganglia

of Mollusca. In the Azterocela, on the other hand, the central

system is developed from the epiblast, and the peripheral system

from the epiblast and external layer of the mesoblast.

THE Tortotses oF Tucson.—There are two land tortoises and

a fresh-water turtle found here that are not given in the list of

reptiles for Southern California, by Dunn and Fisher, published

in the April number of AMERICAN NATURALIST.

One of the terrestrial tortoises! resembles at first glance the

common box tortoises, Cistudo virginiana, but differs in the orna-

mentation of the plates on the carapax and on the sternum. The

whole exoskeleton is marked with brown and yellow stripes and

spots; brown predominating on the carapax and yellow on the

sternum

immediate want of water.

_--) Cistudo ornata Agass.

— ® Xerobates agassizi Cooper.

1004 General Notes. [ December,

The fresh-water turtle! is found in the .Santa Cruz river at

Tucson. This is a small stream about twenty feet wide at low

water ; it rises in Arizona, on the east side of Patagonia moun-

tains, flows southerly into Sonora, Mexico, then turns northward

and again enters Arizona between the Santa Rita and Oro Blanco

mountains. The water sinks beneath the surface for the greater

part of its course, except in the rainy season, and is only a flow-

ing stream for a short distance at this place, and is supposed to

empty into the Gila river, near Maricopa wells.—£. 7. Cox.

tens and how eager she is to carry them back whien removed

from their bed, so it seems altogether out of the usual course

when one, of her own accord, removes, as this one did, knowing

undoubtedly that they were to be taken away.—JN. H. Hurd.

houses and lightships, it appears certain that many

of birds must perish at sea i

the greater number of birds, the mortality at mga de Le

e white fixed lights attract: ie

1881. ] Zoology. 1005

thrushes, and swallows, were seen around the light, and of these

there struck the glass and killed themselves, one land-rail, one

water-rail, four ring-ousels, and no fewer than 100 swallows.

The larger birds do not often strike the glass in the revolving

lights, but follow the rays. So far the observations show that all

birds, with few exceptions, are migatory-——-even sparrows, which

invariably leave Heligoland before the end of September.

SuDDEN INTEREST IN JAPANESE OrntTHOLOGY.—In the report of

.some difficulties encountered by a well known library in New

York, in their efforts to meet the public taste, we find a reference

to an ornithological work which is as new to us as the reported

interest in that science is surprising. The Heradd says:

“President P. said that the management has spent three dol-

lars for standard works to every dollar that bas been expended

on novels. The demand for the ‘ Birds of Japan’ was so great

that the directors had to buy sixty copies; and for other costly

works the demand exceeded the directors’ ability.”

Perhaps one of the readers of “ Unbeaten Tracks ” may give us

the means of properly classifying the ornithological specimen

referred to.—W. H. Dall.

AsiLus AND LiBELLULA.—So far as I am aware, robber-flies are

not credited with capturing prey larger than themselves. But

last August my attention was attracted, one day, by a medium

sized dragon-fly fluttering on the ground, and looking closely I

saw a robber-fly, about three-fourths of an inch in length, quietly

clinging to his body just under the right fore-wing, and sucking

his blood. Haste forbade my waiting for the end of the struggle,

but the issue was not uncertain—¥ EZ. Todd, Tabor College, Lowa.

SPECIMENS OF MELANTHO WANTED.—Sets of from five to ten

specimens each, of all the species of the genus Melantho, from .

every available locality. Please correspond with R. Ellsworth

Call, 172214 Woodland avenue, Des Moines, Iowa. Liberal ex-

changes will be given in Strepomatide or Unionidz. Material is

wanted af once. Any specimens with the animal either dried or

in alcohol especially desired.

ZootocicaL Nores.—Some of the causes affecting the decrease

in the number of our birds are discussed by Mr. H. W. Henshaw,

in the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club for October.

Besides the effects of disease, accident, the attacks of other

animals, which probably act as but a slight check in the increase —

1006 General Notes. [ December,

of birds, Mr. Henshaw mentions telegraph wires, and storms, the

effects of which are pretty well known. Foggy and tempestuous

weather, during which birds are dashed against lighthouses or

are carried out to sea and drowned, cause widespread destruction

among birds, and this occurs on the great lakes as well as on the

ocean, and Mr Henshaw concludes that the “ ocean’s victims

annually reach such figures as to affect the numerical relation of

species over extensive areas.” In the same journal, Dr. Shu-

feldt records the discovery of a supposed new bone in the wing

of a hawk (Circus hudsonius) which he calls the os prominens, but’

would not consider as a carpal bone. A supposed new boring

Annelid found injuring the iron wire of a submarine cable off Singa-

pore, is described and figured by C. Stewart, in the Journal of the

Royal Microscopical Society, for October. The vinegar worm

(Anguillula aceti) and its allies have been treated monographi-

cally, by Dr. L. Oerley; to show how little these animals need a

special respiratory apparatus, a number of the vinegar worms

were placed in a vessel and covered by a layer of oil an inch

thick ; after two months the greater number were still alive ——

The development of the liver fluke has been studied by Mr. A.

P. Thomas, who states that the embryo can only develop ata

temperature lower than that of the mammalian body. The num-

ber of eggs produced by a single fluke “ may be safely estimated

The sea-urchins are being, 1m

part, revised by F. J. Bell, in the Proceedings of the Zoological

Society of London. The one-celled animals, or Infusoria,

especially, have been examined by C. Robin, to see whether the

notion of a cell is sufficient to include everything in both elemen-

tary anatomy and physiology, and thinks that one-celled organ

isms “ possess other things than those which occur under the form

of cells.” For example, Podophrya lyngbyei, in the larval stage, 1

a good example of both an anatomical and physiological unit. But

it is certain that by virtue of their peduncle, of their theca which

is separable from it, and of the body, which is separable from the

theca, the adults of Podophyra, and the Acinete, in general, are —

_ Protozoa in which are found at least two kinds of anatomical an

physiological units, the one of these, ‘namely the non-contractile

- theca and its peduncle, is subordinate to the others, the sarcode

body, and it remains essentially different from it in anatomical an

A very full account of the Protozoa

edition of his

ms as constl-

tive to light, to vibrations of any solid

1881.] Entomology. 1007

with which they may be in contact, that ee can smell natural

food, have a sense of taste for food, but that the sense of touch is

most highly developed. Worms are omnivorous, eating meat as

well as leaves. How great quantities of leaves they drag under

the ground, and how they undermine stones, and triturate in their

stomachs small particles of stone, and thus act as geological

agents is shown in this remarkable book.

ENTOMOLOGY.’

RETARDED DEVELOPMENT IN Insects.2—In this paper the

author records several interesting cases of retarded development in

insects, whether as summer coma or dormancy of a certain portion

of a given brood of caterpillars, the belated issuing of certain ima-

gines from the pupa or the deferred hatching of eggs. One of the

most remarkable cases of this last to which he calls attention, is the

hatching this year of the eggs of the Rocky Mountain locust, or

western grasshopper ( Caloptenus spretus) that were laid, in Sih

around the Agricultural College at Manhattan, Kans. T

egos were buried some ten inches below the surface in the fall a

1876, in grading the ground around the chemical laboratory.

he superincumbent material was clay, old mortar and bits of

Stone, and a plank sidewalk was laid above all. In removing and

regrading the soil last spring, Mr. J. D. Graham noticed that the

eggs looked sound and fresh,‘and they readily hatched upon expo-

sure to normal influences, the species being determined by Pro-

fessor Riley from specimens submitted by Mr. Graham. Re-

markable as the facts are, there can be no question as to their

accuracy, so that the eggs actually remained unhatched during

nearly four years and a half, or four years longer than is their

wont, and this suggests the significant question: How much lon-

ger could the eggs of this species, under favoring conditions of

dryness and reduced temperature, retain their vitality and power

of hatching ?

Putting all the facts together, Mr. Riley concludes that we are,

as yet, unable to offer any very satisfactory explanation, based

On experiment, of the causes which induce exceptional retarda- |

tion in development among insects. It is a very general rule

exceptions to the rule. The eggs of crustaceans, as ; Apus and

Cypris, are known to have the power of resisting drouth for

Six, ten or more years without losing vitality, while in some

1 This department is pase by Pror. C. V. Ritey, Washington, D. C., to whom —

_ €ommunications, books for notice, etc., should be sent.

? Abstract of a paper nih before the Ene Section of the A. A. A. S. at

Cincinnati.

Rep. Ins. Mo, ; gs ist Rep. U. S. Ent. Com. .

1008 7 General Notes. [ December,

cases they seem actually to require a certain amount of desic-

cation before they will hatch. Yet the fact remains that dif

ferent species act differently in this respect. In short, nothing is

more patent to the observing naturalist than that species, and even

individuals of the same species, or the progeny of one and the

same individual act very differently under like external conditions

of existence ; or in other words, that temperature, moisture, food,

etc., influence them differently. Hence—as has been shown by

Semper to be the case with other animals, so it is with insects—

changes in the external conditions of existence will not affect the

fauna as a whole equally, but will act on individuals. We can

understand how this great latitude in susceptibility to like condi-

tions may and does in the case of exceptional seasons prove

beneficial to the species by preserving the exceptional individuals

that display the power to resist the unusual change, but we shall

find ourselves baffled when we come to seek a demonstrable ex-

planation of the cause or causes of such retardation, while the

principles of evolution afford us the only hypothetical one at all

satisfactory.

In the innate property of organism to vary and in the complex

phenomena of heredity, we get a glimpse at the cause—a partial

explanation—of the facts of retarded development, for the excep-

tional tendency in the present may be looked upon as a manifes-

tation, through atavism, of traits which in the past had been

more commonly possessed and more essential to the species.

This hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that the period of

two, three or more years occupied in full development by excep-

tional individuals of a species which normally goes through its

transformations within one year, is at the present day the normal

period in other species belonging to the same natural order.

PREPARATION OF Diprera.—Prof. Joseph Mik, of Vienna,has, 1n

the Verhandlungen der K. K. zcologisch-botanischen gesellschaft td

Wien for 1880 (reprinted in Katter’s Entomologische Nachrichten,

1881, pp. 189-206) an elaborate article on the Preparation of Dip-

tera for cabinets, and we recommend a perusal of it to our dipter-

ists, whether beginners or advanced students. It is evident from

the paper that the proper preparation of Diptera for a cabinet, so

as to render the specimens fit for ‘scientific determination and

study, requires more care and delicate manipulation than in any

other order of insects. It is an art which can only be acquired

by long practice, and we are glad that Professor Mik gives us the

nefit of his life-long experience. 2

Tue PERMANENT SuBsecTION oF ENTOMOLOGY AT THE siete 2

A. A.S.1—Mr. Lintner’s paper “on 2 Tre

1881. ] Entomology. | 1009

tent, in various counties of New York, of the larva of Crambus

vulgivagellus, reciting the facts that have already appeared in our

columns, in reference to this species and ephelodes violans, but

giving, in addition, very careful records of observations as to the

habits of the former. On an island onthe Roquette river, which

had been absolutely denuded of grass, the worms had so thickly

congregated under the shade of a solitary oak tree, that its base

for about 18 inches was covered with a fine layer of silken web.

The worms had evidently been forced, from sheer lack of food

and shade, to migrate, and they naturally congregated under the

first shade in their way, constantly spinning, as is their nature,

until the compact web was formed. The term “ invasion” as ap-

,Plied to the exceptional increase of this species seems to us un-

fortunate and to convey a wrong impression.

Mr. Edwards’s paper “ on an alleged abnormal peculiarity in the

history of Argynnis myrina,” gave a number of facts from his own

observations, which go to show that the history of this species, as

well as that of de//ona, as related by Mr. Scudder, in his recent

ome was quite incorrect.

insect ravages,” gave his experience with carbolic acid as an

insecticide. By mixing two quarts of soft soap with two gallons

of water, and adding one pint of carbolic acid in the crude state,

and then diluting one part of this mixture to fifty parts of water,

he found that he could. protect his radishes from maggots, the

flies being thereby kept away from them. He made the applica-

tion once a week. He also found carbolic acid a good substitute

for soft soap in protecting his apple orchard from borers. He

gave further experiments to show the value of London purple as

a preventive of the work of the apple-worm. In the discussion

of this paper, Mr. Riley expressed his belief in the efficacy of

London purple, for this purpose, but objected, on general princi-

ples, to its use on fruits, and particularly on the more mature

apples as against the second brood of worms. He believed that

knowledge of its use, would prejudice purchasers. Mr. Claypole

coincided with these view. Mr. Coo

_ Mr. Claypole’s paper on Sericoris instrutana, gave an interest-

ing experience with the insect, showing how its larva destroys

the leaf stem of the buckeye. In the vicinity of Yellow Springs,

Ohio, it is a common annual occurrence that shortly after the

leaves of the buckeye (sculus glabra) have unfolded in the

spring, many of the leaves begin to droop and wither, and become

conspicuous enough to catch the eye of ordinary observers. This

results from the work of the larva of the Sericoris, which after

burrowing in the leaf-stem lives in the faded and rolled-up leaf.

__ Mr. Claypole’s observations indicate but one annual brood, as no

1010 General Notes. [ December,

trace of injury is observable after the beginning of May. The

work of this insect is exactly like that of Proteoteras esculana

Riley, on maple and buckeye, but as Mr. Claypole’s specimens

were determined by Professor Fernald, there can be no doubt

about the species, notwithstanding zzstrwfana is known to feed

also on clover. The food-habit in the species is thus as diverse

as it is, for instance, in Psy//a tripunctata (in Homoptera), which

breeds alike on the tips of Pinus and in the crimped leaves of

Rubus.

In his paper on Syrian bees, Mr. Cook told how D. A. Jones,

of Canada, and Frank Benton, of Michigan, went to Europe in

search of new varieties of bees. They brought from Larnaca,

Cyprus, both the Cyprian bee and the Syrian bee, and Mr. Ben-

ton went to Ceylon and Java, in search of other varieties. From"

Java bee.” With the Syrian bee, Mr. Cook has Syrianized the

apiaries of the Michigan Agricultural College. The Syrians are

of yellow type, closely allied to the Italian bee, which latter 1s

probably a modified offspring of the Cyprians, which, in their

turn, are also probable descendants of the Syrians. The Syrian

bees are indefatigable workers, no matter what the clime to which

they are exposed, or the season of the year. They are more irr”

table than other bees, especially when queenless, but Mr. Cook

believes they are a great acquisition to American apiculture. —

: Mr. Mann’s communication on “suggestions of cooperations

in furthering the study of entomology,” contained some remar 1

suggestive of the title and urging the foundation of libraries and

indices to the contents of periodicals and society transactions, but

was mainly a plea for the support of the Cambridge Entomo-

logical Club, and the organ of the club, Psyche. He set forth

of its library, as far as practicable, a national loan library of ento-

mology , for which members of the club, and other persons show- :

ing a sufficient interest in entomology, should be entitled to bor-

bibliographic

sbericht

on Mr.

1881.] Entomology. IOI

Mann’s part. He severely (and in our opinion, unjustly) criti-

cized the managers of the American Entomological Society in

Philadelphia, but we fear that no amount of criticism of other

institutions, will make of the Cambridge Club the national insti-

tution Mr. Mann would desire, for the elements of nationality

have so far been lacking.

Mr. Cook’s paper entitled “How the Bee extends its tongue”

was an illustration by means of diagrams of the manner in which

the mouth-parts are first straightened by muscular action, and the

ligula then protruded by the injection of liquids from ramose

glands situated in the head and thorax.

Of Mr. Riley’s papers, an abstract is given in this number of

that on retarded development, and we hope to give abstracts of

the others shortly.

_ ANOTHER HERBIVOROUS GROUND-BEETLE.—Complaint is made

in Californian agricultural papers of the damage done to straw-

berry plants by a Carabid beetle. The beetle has been deter-

mined, by Mr. J. J. Rivers, curator of the University Museum,

Berkeley, Cal., as Anisodactylus confusus. Jf this determination

and the observations be correct, we shall have to add another

Carabid to the list of species injurious to vegetation. We may

remark here, by the way, that already in the Agricultural Report

for 1868, Professor Glover records that Harpalus caliginosus had

been taken in great numbers under wheat stacks in Maryland, and

in open fields on timothy grass apparently feeding on the seeds.

_ A Disastrous SHeep ParasiTE.—Reports come to us of great

injury to flocks in parts of Illinois by a parasite that is new to

sheep raisers in that region. We have not yet seen specimens,

but from the accounts and descriptions given, it is evidently what

is known as the red-headed sheep louse ( Trichodectes ovis).

Mr. Daniel Kelly, of Wheaton, Illinois, an old time correspondent,

found that by dipping the sheep in a wash made by Little’s

Chemical Dip, the animals were freed from the pest.

_ PayLtoxera NoT AT THE CAPE.—The commission appointed to

inquire into vine diseases have concluded their labors and em-

bodied their researches in a valuable and voluminous report, ihe

commission are, however, anxious to say that their work is not

yet completed, and that the present report is published mainly to

Satisfy the public mind on the question of the Phylloxera.

Having heard positively that the Phylloxera existed on certain

farms, the commission at once visited those places, and after

painstaking examination have come to the conclusion that this

isease does not exist in any of the places stated to contain it, nor

have they discovered it on any of the farms they visited. In

order to confirm their judgment they sent home through the in-

_ Strumentality of the Government, specimens of rootlets, leaves

and parts of the vines to Dr. Cornu, who is admittedly the first

1012 General Notes. { December,

authority on the subject in Europe, and his opinion confirms the

views of the commission in the amplest manner. Dr. Cornu

says: “I made the most minute and careful survey of the vines

said to be so affected, and came to the decided conviction that the

Phylfoxera did not exist on the vines in question.”—Zastern

Province Herald, Port Elizabeth, Cape of Good Hope.

RESISTANCE OF GRAPE-VINES TO PHYLLOXERA IN SANDY SOIL.—

The immunity from the attacks of Phylloxera enjoyed by grape-

vines when planted in sandy soil has long been known, and has

been attributed to various causes. M. Saint-André, of Mont-

pellier, France, discusses this subject in the Messager Agricole for

May 10, 1881, and believes that neither the mobility nor the an-

gulosity of the particles of sand, nor the absence of cavities, nor

the chemical composition of: sandy soil are sufficient reasons.

Nor is the presence of a subterranean current of water in sandy

soil an admissible reason, since it has been proven that the quan-

tity of water contained in such soils at different depths and at

different seasons is always smaller than that contained at the

same period in other soils where the presence of Phylloxera ren-

ders the culture of the grape-vine impossible. He believes, how-

ever, that the circulation of water in the soil is a matter of the

first importance in regard to the presence of Phylloxera, and that

disappearing under the attacks of the insect. Between the two

limits above given, the plants suffer more or less. Exact peor

oe)

___ While there is some plausibility in the theory advanced by si ae

__ Saint-André, we believe there are sufficient reasons to poe -

with both

1881.] Entomology. 1013

Phylloxera and many other insects in sand, prove conclusively

that it is more difficult for such small, soft-bodied insects to make

headway or to exist in sandy soil, not only because of the mechan-

ical action of the particles adhering to all parts of the body, but

because of the mobility of these particles and the absence of

cracks, interstices and galleries which are formed in loamy or

clayey soil, either by the penetration of roots, the effects of con-

traction during drought, or the action of the insects themselves.—

C. V. Riley in Farmers’ Review.

Locusts 1n THE West.—Mr. Uriah Bruner wrote us in Sep-

tember from the region of Denver, Colorado, that a few speci-

mens of Caloptenus spretus were observed through that part of

the country, but that they attracted no particular attention. The

Clifton (Kansas) Review reports that they were seen flying south-

ward over that town the last week of August, while other reports

show that, just as we predicted would be the case, the pest was

generally scarce in the West and did no damage. It was some-

what different on the Pacific coast. The Pacific migratory species

(Camnula pellucida) was reported from Fresno as having been

very thick on the plains and as doing much damage to vegetation

about the middle of July, and we clip the following from the Pacific

Rural Press of August 27th:

‘‘ For the past three years this section has been afflicted by the grasshoppers. _ As

a consequence the farmers have lost all their crops and got heavily in debt. From

affluence several have been reduced to poverty. Last year the pestiferous insects laid

immense num of eggs—in fact the earth was alive with them, and the outlook

was very bad for this year, and many did not plant, preferring to let their land lie

way in clouds across the Sierras toward California. Only a few are left behind and

po ney

nesses and perish miserably. If our California friends find them ns

their fields, they may expect to see desolation and ruin left in their track.”—Reno

Journal.

Locusts were also very destructive this year in many parts of

South America, and we have had several requests from that quar-

ter for the publications of the U. S. Entomological Commission

In Europe, judging from reports, Turkey seems to have been

overrun by what is evidently the common migratoria, the whole

population of Smyrna being employed to combat them, At An-

gora, report says, “all business was suspended for three days by

order of the Governor General, and all the inhabitants were or-

dered to march out into the fields to destroy the grasshoppers.

_ Every inhabitant was compelled to deliver twenty oka (about fifty-

six pounds) of dead locusts to the officials.” The swarms are

Said to emanate principally from Persia.

STRUCTURE OF THE CLAW IN Psocina.—Dr. H. A. Hagen ae

Psyche for April, 1881, the first part of a paper entitled “Some =

IOI4 General Notes. [ December,

Psocina of the United States,” in which he calls attention to the

curious structure of the claws possessed by many Psocina. The

basis of the claw is enlarged beneath in the manner of a blunt

projection with what appear to be two strong bristles of unequal

length. Under a strong magnifying power it appears, however,

that the longer of these bristles is in reality a kind of hose or

funnel, open at tip and finely striate. In a few instances Dr.

Hagen observed in the interior of the funnel a large number of

very fine threads ending in a little knob. The functional charac-

ter of this structure remains unexplained.

Insecr Co.Lection FoR SALE.—The collection of Coleoptera of

the late Mr. C. Trabant of New Orleans, who was a zealous an

careful collector and student of insects, is offered for sale by his

widow. We are informed that this collection consists of nearly

10,000 specimens, representing about 2000 species, and, from a

sample box sent us, we can attest that the specimens are in fair

condition and that the collection is well worth the low price

($200) asked for it, and which includes the cabinet. The whole

cabinet consists of 40 large drawers, 26 of which are filled with

North American beetles (chiefly from Louisiana, Mississipp! and

Texas), and 10 with Coleoptera from Europe. For further pat-

ticulars apply to H. D, Schmidt, M. D., 263% Canal street, New

Orleans, La.

ANTHROPOLOGY .'

Proressor Barrp’s Report ror 1880—Owing to the great

strain on the Government Printing Office at Washington, matter

prepared for the press is compelled to lie for months before on

sonian Publications in archeology and ethnology, Vol. xxi of

Contributions to Knowledge (containing Jones’ “ Explorations of

the aboriginal remains of Tennessee ;’ Habel's “ Sculptures Of

Santa Lucia Cosumalwhuapa in Guatemala;” Charles Rau’s

“ Archeological collection of the United States National ae

_seum;” Charles Rau’s “ Palenque Tablet,” and W. H. Dall's

“Remains of later prehistoric Man obtained from the caves"

_ the Catharine archipelago ”). Further notes will be found Bae 3

the antiquities of Antigua and Guadaloupe, and upon the Annual

Report of 1879. _ ia

___ Peasopy Museum or American ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY, —

—The fourteenth annual report of this famous institution, Maree

a by Professor Orts T, Mason, 1305 Q. street, N. W., Washington, Di es

1881. ] Anthropology. IOI5

also Vol. 111, No. 1, contains the reports of the curator, Professor

F, W. Putnam, and that of the treasurer, together with a list of

donations to the museum. In this notice the last shall be first.

The authorities of the museum could do no wiser thing than to

practice the most scrupulous care in giving credit to its benefac-

tors. It is astonishing what an amount of hard work many indi-

viduals will perform merely to see their name in print in honora-

ble connections. To put it in their language: “I want my chil-

dren or my friends to see what I have done for science.” In this

matter of credit the Peabody is not only scrupulous, but is very

wise in being so. The amount charged to the curator for the year’s

work is $11,295.44, which no doubt has been properly audited,

though we have not much talent in detecting errors in that direc-

tion. The useful part of the report is the account of the year’s

work by the curator.

CHANGES IN Mya AnD LUNATIA SINCE THE DEPOSITION OF THE

New Encianp SHELL-HEApPS, by Edward S. Morse, before the A.

A. A. S. in Cincinnati—This communication embraced a compari-

son between the shells peculiar to the ancient deposits made by

the Indians along the coast of New England and similar species

living on the coast at the present time. He referred to similar

comparisons which he had made in Japan, wherein he had found

marked changes to have taken place; changes which showed

that the proportions of the shells had greatly altered. He had

made a large number of measurements of shells from a few shell

heaps of Maine and Massachusetts, and had obtained very inter-

esting results. The common clam (Mya) from the shell heaps of

Goose island, Maine, Ipswich, Mass., and Marblehead, Mass., in

comparison with recent forms of the same species, collected in the

immediate vicinity of these ancient deposits, showed that the an-

cient specimens were higher in comparison with their length than

the recent specimens.

A comparison of the common beach cockle (Lunatia) from the

shell-heaps of Marblehead, Mass., showed that the present form

had a more depressed spire than the recent form living on the

shore to-day, and this variation was in accordance with observa-

tions he had made on a similar species in Japan.

ANCIENT JAPANESE Bronze Betts, by Edward S. Morse, /did.—

Mr. Morse described the so-called Japanese bronze bells which are

dug up in Japan. These bells had been described and figured by

Professor Monroe, in the Proceedings of N. Y. Acad. of Sciences.

Mr. Kanda, an eminent Japanese archeologist, had questioned

their being bells, from their peculiar structure. r. :

seen a number of different kinds of bells, some of considerable

antiquity, but none of them approaching these so-called bronze

bell . Kanda had suggested that they were the ornaments

which were formerly hung from the corners of pagoda roofs, but —

1016 Gencral Notes. [ December,

the fact that none of them showed signs of wear at the point of

support, rendered this supposition untenable. Mr. John Robin-

son, of Salem, the author of a work on Ferns, has given the first

suggestion as to the possible use of these objects. He has asked

why they may not have been covers to incense burners. Curi-

ously enough old incense burners are dug up which have the

same oval shape that a section of the bell shows. The bell has

openings at the base and also at the sides and top, so that the

smoke of burning incense might escape. It is quite evident that

these objects are neither bells nor pagoda ornaments, and this

suggestion of Mr. Robinson’s may possibly lead to some clue

regarding their origin.

WorkeEp SHELLS In New ENGLAND SHELL-HEAPS, by Edw. S.

Morse, /é¢d.—Mr. Morse called attention to the fact that hereto-

fore no worked shells had been discovered in the New England

shell-heaps. A similar absence of worked shells had been noticed

in the Japanese shell-heaps. Worked shells were not uncommon

in the shell heaps of Florida and California. Mr. Morse then ei

hibited specimens of the large beach cockle (Lunatia) mnie

showed unmistakable signs of having been worked. The ee

consisted in cutting outa portion of the outer whorl near the

suture. To show that this portion could not be artificially broken,

he exhibited naturally broken specimens of the same spel

both recent and ancient, in which the fractures were entirely

unlike the worked shells.

Concres ET Missions ETHNOGRAPHIQUES. — From sci

John T. Short, of Columbus, Ohio, we are in receipt of a circu ai

stating the programme and list of delegates for the second ge

sion of this body to be held at Geneva, in 1882, on the 1ot

April. The labors will be divided into seven sections:

I, Ethnogeny: Origin and migrations of races. :

J ‘ i ition.

11, Ethnology: Development of nations by environment, geographic postion, |

climate and aliment.

ce MRA aoe Sale tions.

it, Descriptive ethnography: Distribution and classification of peoples, nations

nationalities over the earth. ee

: ee i ities.

Iv. Theoretic ethnography : The conditions of the development of nation

_ V. Ethic. Manners and customs of nations. a

—F : : ions rests: —

Vi. Political ethnography: The bases on which the existence of pase ht or

Motives which have induced them to group themselves into gre

to subdivide to secure the advantages of centralization.

| ctetol SNe ae

vil. Ethnodicy. International law. The comparative study of legislations mn |

an ethnographic point of view.

___ The delegates for our country are Professor John Ty ener ae

ee < olumbus, Ohio, and Dr. Francis Parkman, Boston, vafare

__ Either of which gentlemen will be glad to furnish further 1n00""

mation respecting the congress.

Mass.

1881.] Geology and Paleontology. IOI7

ITattan ANTHROPOLOGY.—Two original memoirs appear in the

Archivio, Vol. x1, Fasc. 1:

Maestrelli, Dr.— The exponent of vital capacity.

Amadeé, Dr. Giuseppe—Numerical anomalies in the human dental system.

GEOLOGY AND PALAONTOLOGY.

A NEW TYPE OF PerissopaActyLa.—In a paper on the “homol-

Ogies and origin of the molar teeth of the Mammalia Educabilia,

published in March, 1874, I ventured the generalization that

the primitive types of the Ungulata would be discovered to be

characterized by the possession of five-toed plantigrade feet,

and tubercular teeth. No Perissodactyle or Artiodactyle mam-

mal was known at that time to possess such feet, nor was

any Perissodactyle known to possess tubercular teeth. Shortly

after advancing the above hypothesis, I discovered the foot struc-

ture of Coryphodon, which is five-toed and plantigrade, but the

teeth are not of the tubercular type. For this and allied genera,

I defined a new order, the Amblypoda, and I have published the

confident anticipation that genera would be discovered which

should possess tubercular (bunodont) teeth. This prediction has

not yet been realized. I now, however, record a discovery, which

goes far towards satisfying the generalization first mentioned,

and indicates that the realization of the prophecy respecting the

Amblypoda, is only a question of time.

In 1873,? I described from teeth alone, a genus under the name

of Phenacodus, and although a good many specimens of the

dentition have come into my possession since that date, I

have never been able to assign the genus its true position in the

mammalian class. The teeth resemble those of suilline Ungu-

lates, but I have never had sufficient evidence to permit its refer-

€nce to that group. Allied genera recently discovered by me,

have been stated to have a hog-like dentition, but that their posi-

tion could not be determined until the structure of the feet shall

have been ascertained.

In his recent explorations in the Wasatch Eocene of Wyoming,

Mr. J. L. Wortman was fortunate enough to discover a nearly

entire skeleton of a Phenacodus very near the typical P. primevus,

which presents all the characters essential to a full determination

of its place in the system. The unexpected result is, that this

genus must be referred to the order Perissodactyla, and that, with

its allies, it must form a special division of that order correspond-

ing in the tubercular characters of its teeth with the bunodont or

Suilline division of the Artiodactyla. In this character, however,

there is a closer gradation than in the case of the Artiodactyla,

1 Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences Philadelphia.

* Paleontological Bulletin No. 17, Oct., 1873, p. 3; also, Report G. M. Wheeler,

U..S. Engineers Expl. W. 100 Mer., iv, p. 174—1877.

VOL, XV.—No. XIT, ee

1018 General Notes. [ December,

and it would scarcely be necessary to create such a group on that

character alone. But the genus differs further from the Pertsso-

dactyla and approaches the Frobvoscidia, in the fact that the astrag-

alus articulates with the navicular only, and by a universally

convex surface, as in the Carnivora. .

The astragalus resembles that of the latter order very closely,and

differs from that of Hyracotherium and the nearest forms among

the Perissodactyla. Phenacodus has moreover five well developed

toes on all the feet, and was probably not entirely plantigrade.

The cast of the brain case shows that the celebral hemispheres

were quite small and nearly smooth, and that the very large cere-

bellum and olfactory lobes were entirely uncovered by them.

The bones of the two carpal rows alternate with each other, and

there is a large third trochanter of the femur. The cervical

vertebrae are opisthoccelous. The systematic position of the

genus may be schematically represented as follows:

Order PerissopAcTYLA; ungulate; digits of unequal lengths;

carpal bones alternating; a postglenoid process. Astragalus

with proximal trochlea, and without distal double ginglymus. |

Suborder Diplarthra; astragalus distally plane or concave in

one direction, and uniting with both navicular and cuboid bones;

a third trochanter of the femur. The known families belong

here.

Suborder Condylarthra; astragalus convex in all directions

ees only uniting with navicular bone; a third trochanter of

emur.

Family Phenacodontide. Molar teeth tubercular ; the premolar

teeth different from the molars ; five digits on all the feet. is

Genera; Phenacodus Cope, and very probably Catathleus, Mio-

clenus, and Protogonia® Cope, and perhaps also Anisonchus Cope:

hese genera include fifteen species, all from the lower Eocene

beds. The Condylarthra are then the ancestral type of the

known FPerissodactyla, that is of the horses, tapirs and rhinoce-

roses, and of the numerous extinct forms.—£. D. Cope.

NEW GENUS OF PERISSODACTYLA DIPLARTHRA.—Good specimens

of the Hyracotherium tapirinum Cope, show that the Asay:

dentition is uninterrupted from the canine inclusive. It thus dil-

fourth inferior premolar is like the third premolar. The if, —

tum may then be referred to a new genus under the name ir

temodon.—E. D. Cope. ;

_ Nores on Creoponra.—A fine series of specimens of ere

myx demonstrates the following points: (1) Pachyena Mere

founded on a superior molar of Mesonyx, and must be suppress eo

(2) Apterodon Fischer, is the same as Mesonyx. (3) Meson) a

oe fe AMERICAN NATURALIST, October, 1880. iS

___ * Proceedings Amer. Philosoph, Soc., September, 1881.

1881.] Geology and Palecntology. IOI9

navajovius Cope must be separated as a distinct genus, since the

apices of the crowns of the last two molars have two cusps. This

genus may he called Drssacus. (4) It results that there are four

species of Mesonyx: M. ossifragus Cope, M. lanius Cope, M.

obtusidens Cope, and WZ. gaudryi Fisch. MV. ossifragus was the

largest Creodont of the Eocene, equaling the largest grizzly

bear in the size of its skull.

The number of possible combinations of tubercular and tuber-

cular-sectorial molar teeth is considerable, and many of them

are represented in the genera of the Creodonta. A new one

must now be added, in a genus which has, in the lower jaw, two

tubercular sectorials, and one tubercular: posterior to them. The

genus thus stands between Stypolophus and Didymictis, but is

nearer the former than the latter, since it has three true molars. It

differs further from both in having but three premolars and a wide

diastema. The canine is well developed. I call the genus Lifo-

dectes, and describe two species, both from the Lowest Eocene,

probably Puerco, of New Mexico.

Lipodectes penetrans, sp. nov., represented by a left mandib-

ular ramus with three of the molars preserved. The last has

along heel; the first and second true molars are alike, an

cusp. The posterior border rises into an acute cusp, which

is internal to the middle line. The internal border of the

heel is not elevated, and the surface is the oblique inner face of

the external cusp. The anterior cusps are only moderately ele-

vated and the cusps are acute. The enamel is smooth, and there

is a low cingulum on the external base. The first (second) pre-

molar is two-rooted, and has a large base. The second (third)

consists principally of an elevated cusp with a subtriangular sec-

tion. The heel is very small and acute, and there is no anterior

basal tubercle. The internal face is strongly grooved in front.

Canines directed upwards, with robust base. Symphysis short. —

Length of molar series, .043; of premolars, .o19; of diastema,

012; length of base of last molar, .o10; do of canine, .007;

depth of ramus at last molar, .018; of diastema, .o15. As large

as, but more robust, than the red fox.

Lipodectes pelvidens. This species is about the size of L. pene-

trans, and differs from it in the less carnassial character of the

inferior molars. The anterior cusps are relatively smaller in

every way, and are more distinctly separated by deeper emargina-

tions. The heel is wider, and has a less elongated external mar-

ginal cusp. The inner margin of the heel is elevated, enclosing

a basin-like fossa, and rises into a flat cusp posteriorly. There is

_ 1 Paleontological Bulletin, No. 33, p. 454. ss

1020 General Notes. [ December,

a small median posterior marginal tubercle, which runs into a

posterior cingulum, and is wanting from the Z. penetrans. The

tubercular has the three anterior cusps distinct as in Didymictis

sp., while the heel is longer than in the known species of that ge-

nus. Its external border rises into a prominent cusp with trian-

gular base. The fourth premolar has a small heel on the inner

posterior side, and an acute anterior basal cusp. The principal

cusp is robust and the basal portion is widely grooved posterior-

ly (apex lost). True molars with an external cingulum. Ename

obsoletely wrinkled. Length of true molar series, .024; of fourth

premolar, .0075; length of last molar, .oo8; width of heel of

second true molar, .005; length of crown of do., .007.—E. D. Cope.

Tue PERMIAN Formation oF New Mexico.—This formation is

richly fossiliferous in New Mexico, and the vertebrates include

several of the types already known from Texas and Illinois.

Such are, among reptiles, the genera Diadectes, Dimetrodon and

probably Clepsydrops. Of batrachians there are two genera, Z7y-

ops, and what is probably Zatrachys. Diplodus represents the

fishes. All the individuals, and hence, probably, the species, are

of smaller size than those of the Texan Permian, resembling 1:

this respect those found in Illinois. Two species of batrachians

of the genera above mentioned, are new, and may be described

as follows: :

Eryops reticulatus—The most prominent peculiarity of this

Species is seen in the neural spines, which are not expanded at

the summit as in &. megacephalus, but have rather contracted

apices.. Another character is the sharply reticulate sculpture of

the maxillary bones. The species is much smaller than the EE.

.007 ; fi

__ LZatrachys apicalis—Represented by vertebr and dermal bones.

-nence is a keel,

spi

1881. ] Geology and Paleontology. 1021

crowded small fossz, giving a delicate reticulate relief. Length

of an intercentrum, .013; width of do., .014; width of the sum-

mit of a neural spine, .020; length of do., .o14; width of a sec-

ond do, .025; length of do., 015; width of a third (two unite),

.034; length of do., .039. The reference of this species is pro-

visional only. It is much larger than the Z. serratus ——£, D.

ope.

NEw CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS IN SCOTLAND.—In a recent number

of Nature, Professor Geikie describes a remarkable discovery of

fossils in Scotland. The present hoard has been found among

that range of hills or uplands familiar to travelers who enter

Scotland from the south, which forma barrier between the valleys

of the border on the one hand and the Scottish lowlands on the

other. This belt of pastoral high grounds has a special interest

for the geologist; he can trace it back to its origin about the

close of the Silurian period; and since the old red sandstone,

notwithstanding submergence, elevation, and denudation, the

ridge has continued to form a barrier between the basins on its

northern and southern margin. During every part of the carbon-

iferous period these southern uplands of Scotland formed a barrier

between the lagoons of the lowlands and the more open waters to

the south which spread over the north and centre of England.

For some years past the Geological Survey of Scotland, has been

engaged in the detailed investigation of the carboniferous rocks

between the Silurian uplands and the English border. In the

course of the work, one particular zone of shale on the banks of

the River Esk, has been found to possess extraordinary palzeon-

tological value. From this stratum, where exposed for a few

square yards by the edge of the river, a larger number of new

organisms has been exhumed by the Survey than has been ob-

tained from the entire carboniferous system of Scotland for years

past. Asa whole, the remains are in an excellent state of preser-

16 genera in which these species are comprised, five are now for

the first time added to science, of which one (Tarrasius) is

altogether so peculiar that no place can be found for it in any —

known family. Thecommon forms of the Lothians are conspicu- —

ous by their absence in Eskdale and Liddesdale. These facts

- suggest interesting problems in carboniferous geography and in

1022 General Notes. [ December,

ancient zoological distribution. Associated with the skeletons

of the fishes are the remains of some new phyllopod and decapod

crustaceans, which have been worked out by Mr. B. N. Peach, the

acting palzontologist to the society. One of the most interesting

features of this great find, however, is the abundant and often ad-

mirably preserved specimens of scorpions, which have enabled

Mr. Peach to work out in detail the structure of this interesting

creature, doubtless the father of all spiders. In anticipation

of the publication of Mr. Peach’s descriptions, Professor

Geikie gives some notes on the subject. Mr. Peach finds

has not been certainly observed, but that it existed may be 1n-

ferred from the presence of the poison-gland which Mr. Peach

has detected in the fossil state. The chief difference between the

living scorpion and its ancient progenitors, lies in the fact that in

the fossil forms the mesial eyes are much larger in proportion to

the lateral ones, and also to the size of the whole animal. Thetwo

mesial eyes are placed on an eminence near the anterior margin

of the carapace formed by two converging tubes, and so arranged

that the creature could look with them upwards, outwards and

forwards. There are at least four lateral eyes on each side. The

mandibles, palpi and four pairs of walking legs are beautifully

distinct on many specimens. The combs are much like those of

the modern scorpion, but with a very remarkable sculpturing

which at once recalls that so characteristic of the Eurypterics-

As regards theories of descent, these fossils afford no more help

in tracing the pedigree of the scorpion than is furnished by the

living form. There can be little doubt that the scorpion is the

most ancient type of arachnid, whence the others have been

derived.—London Times.

STEGOCEPHALI IN SAXoNy.—Fossil remains of several species of

Stegecephali have been discovered in the neighborhood of Dres-

en, Germany. Professor Credner, of Leipzic, publishes in a

Zeitschrift of the Deutschen Geologischen Gesselschaft for 1881,

a first installment of descriptions of the species. This includes

the Branchiosaurus gracilis Credner, which is represented by sev"

eral well preserved skeletons. Branchiosaurus belongs t0 the

_“ Microsaurian” subdivision.

_ Fosstt Orcanisms 1n Merrorires—Dr. O. Hahn, who will 9s

remembered for the part he took in the “ Eozodn” controversy,

_ ¢laims to have established the existence of fossil organism® ier

have been confi ni

2 ae

1881. ] Geclogy and Paleontology. 1023

the preparations made by Dr. Hahn, 32 photo-lithographic plates

are given of 142 transparent sections. Dr. Weinland estimates

that there are fifty various species of polyps, crinoids and alge in

Dr. Hahn’s preparations.

“These ‘celestial fossils’ tell us of a planet on which aquatic

life was sufficiently developed to produce them and to preserve

them after death by a process of infiltration with siliceous mate-

rial which dissolved the lime of which their structure must have

consisted, as far as their inorganic constituents are concerned, and

supplanted it by the various kinds of siliceous materials, filling up

also the interstices and openings which had formerly contained

organic substance. This planet, therefore, must have had a

comparatively long period of existence; it must have had an

atmosphere, and its surface must in whole or in part have been

covered by water. Since bacteria are known to be able to with-

stand a temperature of 100° C., without losing vitality, the Thom-

son-Richter hypothesis of the propagation of life through the

universe becomes almost a tangible reality.”

It is nevertheless extremely probable that Dr. Hahn and friends

have been deceived, and a great deal more evidence will be re-

quired by biologists before crediting these alleged discoveries.

—Eds.

new species from the Ticholeptus beds. :

of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, ‘Dr.

H. G. Seeley described the characteristics of the Plesiosauroid

that the genus represents a transition between terrestrial and

aquatic s, and that the origin of Plesiosaurus from a land rep-

tile is thus clearly indicated. This reminds us of the Neustosau-

rus gigondarum of Raspail, described in 1842, which was said to

have a similar structure, and which, Professor Bronn remarked in

”

Lethza Geognostica, “‘ist nicht zu glauben ohne zu sehen!” |

1024 General Notes. [ December,

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.!

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL SECTION OF THE BRITISH

AssociaTion.—The fifty-first meeting of the British Association

for the Advancement of Science, held at York from the 31st of

August to the 7th of September, was chiefly occupied in review-

ing the progress of science in the various departments during the

fifty years of the society’s existence. The address of the presi-

dent of the geographical section, Sir J. D. Hooker was devoted

to the growth of our knowledge of the Geographical Distribu-

tion of Organic Beings. He briefly alluded to the unprecedently

great advance made in the last fifty years in our knowledge of the

unknown regions of the earth.

“The veil has been withdrawn from the sources of the Nile

and the lake systems of Central Africa have been approximately

localized and outlined. Australia, never previously traversed,

has been crossed and recrossed in various directions. New Guinea

has had its coasts surveyed, and its previously utterly unknown

interior has been here and there visited. The topography of

Western China and Central Asia, which had been sealed books

since the days of Marco Polo, has been explored in-many quarters.

The ‘elevations of the highest mountains of both hemispheres have

been accurately determined, and themselves ascended to heights

ocean of the Arctic pole.” F

_ our geographical knowledge of Asia during the last fifty years.

_ “The area of Asia contains seventeen millions of English square

_ miles. Out of this about two-thirds consists of mountains an

_ table-lands whereof a large part is desert; and one-third of low-

__ lands, wherein a small part is desert; the rest of the sent

__ being arable, of which again a considerable portion is eT ;

: Thus out of the whole area not more than one-sixth is under —

ed by Exuis H. YarNaLt, Philadelphia. :

1881. ] Geography and Travels. 1025

cultivation; among the populated tracts, however, some are the

most densely peopled in the world.”

“In the midst of the continent is a great central plateau, more

than two millions of English square miles in area, rising to great

altitudes, which dominates the river systems and the drainage of

the greater part of Asia and which is bounded by the Himalayas

towards the Indian Ocean, by the Yun-ling and the Inshan

Mountains towards the Pacific Ocean, by the Altai and Yablonoi

ranges towards the Arctic Ocean, and by the Pamir Mountains

towards the inland seas, the Aral and the Caspian: The Pamir

Mountains constitute a group connecting the great ranges of

Himalaya and Altai. Branching off from this central plateau is

another extensive plateau with an average altitude of 5000 feet

above the sea, which includes Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia,

Armenia, and Asia Minor, and from a small part of which the

drainage is towards the Atlantic Ocean through the Black Sea

and the Mediterranean, It is through Asia Minor and the Cau-

casus that the Asiatic Mountains are connected with the ranges

of southern Europe. It is remarkable that from within this

central plateau, walled round as it is by mountain ranges, there

rise most of the greatest Asiatic rivers which burst through the

mountains in order to make a passage towards the sea. Such,

for instance, are the Indus with its affluent the Satlej, the Brah-

maputra, the Ganges, the Irawady, the Salwen, the Cambodia or

Mekong, flowing into the Indian Ocean; the Yang-tsze Kiang,

the Hoang-Ho, the Amur, flowing into the Pacific Ocean; the

Lena, the Yenisei, and the Ob flowing into the Arctic Ocean;

the Jaxartes and the Oxus flowing into the inland sea of Aral.

Many other rivers which though lesser are still very great, take

their sources from the outer slopes of the mountains which sur-

round the central plateau. : :

Next after the oceanic drainage, the inland Asiatic drainage,

which finds no vent towards the ocean, may claim attention as

being the largest in the world, and as occupying nearly four

millions of English square miles or nearly one-fourth

the Asiatic continent. This extraordinary drainage area may

be divided into the following categories :—1st, the Caspian; 2d,

the Aral; 3d, the Balkash [Siberian]; 4th, Lake Lob [Yarkand];

5th, Koko-Nor; 6th, the lesser lake of Tibet; 7th, the lesser

lakes of Altai; 8th, the Helmand draining nearly all Afghanistan |

into the Seistan swamps; gth, the Kavir or saline deserts in

Eastern Persia; oth, the lake of Urumiya in Northwestern

Persia; 11th, Lake Van in Kurdistan; 12th,the Dead Sea.

different altitudes. The highest is that of Tibet, on the average

15,000 feet above the sea, the loftiest in the world; next, that of

Pamir, 13,000 feet; then that of Koko-Nor, 10,000 feet. Next

1026 General Notes. [ December,

Western Gobi, only 3000 feet above the sea; then there follow two

steps upwards, namely, that of Eastern Gobi, 4000 feet; an

lastly that of Altai, 5000 feet.

The central plateau has been the home of most of the nomad and

pastoral tribes which have successfully overrun the rest of Asia.

It now belongs [with the exception of one tract] to the Chinese

empire.

Dividing the continent into eight political divisions Sir Richard

Temple gives a condensed, but satisfactory review of the work

accomplished in them since 1830, and mention is made of all the

principal explorers and writers. In conclusion he says, “ The

greater part of Asia has not yet been touched by scientific opera-

tions on a complete scale. In the whole of Asia only India,

Ceylon, Cyprus, Western Palestine, Caucasia, the Caspian basin,

part of Western Siberia, and part of Japan, also many points in

the Asiatic coastline, have been subjected to trigonometrical ob-

servation. The altitudes of mountains have been determined

i §

ascertained by the barometer. Professional surveys in detail have

been completed only in India, Ceylon, Western Palestine, Caucasia,

parts of Western and Eastern Siberia, the Tian-Shan region, the

greater part of Western Turkistan, Cambodia, parts of Cochin

China, parts of Afghanistan, also on certain lines of Persia, Me-

sopotamia, and Asia Minor. i

ven in the professionally surveyed territories many defects an

imperfections are acknowledged to remain. Non-professiona

surveys have been carried out in Japan, in China proper, In parts

of Arabia, on the frontiers of Tibet, China, and Burma, and on

certain lines in Afghanistan and Beluchistan.” __ mare

“ OF geological surveys, the largest example is that in India

which, though far advanced, is far from complete. Very pte

remains to be done in this respect for the Himalayas. Geologica

surveys have been made in the Caucasus, the Urals, the d

Shan and Altai ranges, Kamchatka, many parts of China =

Japan, Cambodia, Ceylon, some parts of Arabia and Persia, — ‘

of Asia Minor and Palestine. But there remain unexplored, eer 7

of the Himalayas, of Afghanistan and Beluchistan, of Arabia,

nearly the whole Kuen-Lun region north of Tibet in the very

heart of Asia.

F Caubul, near to the culminating region of the entire cont

1881.] Geography and Travels. 1027

Papers were read as follows: The equipment of exploring

expeditions now and fifty years ago, by Francis Galton, F. R. S.;

On the survey of Western Palestine, by the Palestine Explora-

tion Fund, by Trelawny Saunders; A review of Oceanic or

Maritime discovery, exploration and research, during the half-

century, 1831-81, by Captain Sir Frederick Evans, R. N., F. R.S.,

Hydrographer of the Admiralty.

Hupson’s Bay.—Dr. Robert Bell, Assistant Director of the

Geoloyical Survey of Canada, recently read before the Royal Geo-

graphical Society a paper on the Commercial Importance of Hud-

son’s Bay. He gave an interesting account of that great North

American sea. “In the popular mind Hudson’s Bay is apt to be

associated with the polar regions, yet no part of it comes within

the Arctic circle, and the southern extremity is south of the lati-

tude of London. Few people have any adequate conception of

the extent of this great American sea. Including its southern

prolongation, James’ Bay, it measures about 1000 miles in length

and it is more than 600 miles in width at its northern part. Its total

area is approximately 500,000 square miles, or upwards of half

that of the Mediterranean Sea of the old world. It is enclosed by

the land on all sides except the northeast, where it communicates

by several channels with the outer ocean. The principal or best

known of these is Hudson’s Strait, which is about 500 miles in

length, and has an average width of about 100 miles,

“ Hudson’s Bay, which might have been more appropriately

called Hudson’s Sea, is the central basin of the drainage of North

America. The limits of this basin extend to the centre of the

Labrador peninsula, or some 500 miles inland on the east side and

to the Rocky Mountains, or a distance of 1300 miles on the west.

The Winnipeg Basin constitutes a sort of outlier of the region

more immediately under notice, since the waters drain into it

from north, south, east and west, and discharge themselves by one

great trunk—the Nelson river—into Hudson’s Bay. The south-

ernmost portion of this basin, namely, the source of the Red River,

extends down nearly to latitude 45°. The headwaters of the

southern rivers of James’ Bay are not far to the north of Lake

Huron; while one of the branches of the Albany rises within 25

miles of the north shore of Lake Superior. Including the Win-

nipeg system, the basin of Hudson’s Bay has a width of about

2100 miles from east to west,and a length of about 1500 miles

from north to south, and its dimensions approach the enormous

area of 3,000,000 square miles.” * * * “Both the bay and

strait are remarkably free from rock and shoals which might inter-

fere with their free navigation.” i

Churchill Harbor on the west side can be entered by vessels of

the largest size, and is thought likely to be the future shipping

port for the agricultural and mineral products of the vast North-

west Territory. The shortest route between this territory and

1028 General Notes. [ December,

England is through Hudson’s Bay. Even the city of Winnipeg,

near the southeastern extremity, is at least 800 miles nearer to

Liverpool by the Hudson’s Bay route than by the St. Lawrence.

- As regards the difficulties caused by ice, Dr. Bell believes that

the strait and bay may be navigated and the land approached by

steamer dung an average of four and a-half months each year,

or from the middle of June to the end of October. The bay itself

and probably the straits are open all the year round—it is only

the harbors that are closed.

MICROSCOPY .'

AMERICAN Society oF MIcRroscopists.—The executive com-

mittee of this society has decided to accept the invitation of the

Elmira Microscopical Society, and to convene the next annual

meeting of the society at that city, Elmira, N. Y., on Tuesday,

Aug. 17, 1882, at 10 A. M. It is expected that the meetings will

occupy four days, the final adjournment occurring Friday evening —

or Saturday morning, leaving ample time for those who wish to

attend the Montreal meeting of the A. A. A. S.to reach Montreal

by Tuesday, Aug. 24th. Many important papers have already

been promised, and there is every reason to believe that the

attendance will be large and the proceedings important. The

local society at Elmira has taken up the work of preparing for

the reception and entertainment of the society, with great enthu-

siasm, and will doubtless carry it out with marked success.

The committee appointed to consider and report upon the

possibility of securing greater uniformity in the sizes of oculars

produced by different makers, and some definite and uniform ,

nomenclature in regard to their amplifying powers, has issued a

circular to all manufacturers in this country asking info 4

and co-operation. In the interest of the future convemience er

satisfaction of all parties concerned, it is hoped that makers ae |

dealers will cordially unite with the society in attempting by

reasonable means to secure so desirable an object. Those makers

who may have failed to receive the circular can obtain copies fri see

any member of the committee which consists of the inl

Ex-Presidents and present President of the Society: R. H. Wa :

Troy, N. Y., H. L. Smith, Geneva, N. Y., J. D. Hyatt, Morrisan®

N. Y., Ge i

This degartment is edited by Dr. R. H. Warp, Troy, N. Y-

1881. ] Microscopy. 1029

award. Persons intending to become members of the Society at

the coming meeting can compete on the same terms as present

members. Circulars giving particulars as to the required method

of competition can be obtained from the Secretary, Professor

D. S. Kellicott, Buffalo, N. Y.

VERIFICATION OF OBJECTIVES.—The editor of the orthern

Microscopist (Manchester, England), announces the opening of a

verification department, in which it is proposed to publish, for a

fee of eighteen pence to cover expenses, information in regard to

any objective sent for examination. The following measurements

will be given :—focal length and angular aperture as estimated by

maker; linear amplifying power, working focal distance, and

absolute size of field, at ten inches from front lens of objective to

plane surface of eye-lens of ocular (which is a Ross A, with

diaphragm aperture of 0.75 inch, and approximate magnifying

power of 5 diameters); numerical aperture by Professor Abbe’s

apertometer, and calculated equivalent air angle. Though not

likely to work without some friction, this department will, if per-

manently successful, be a great convenience to those owners or

intended purchasers of lenses, who have not the experience or

apparatus requisite to test them for themselves. It would be still

more satisfactory, and would probably conduce to the increased

success of such as might adopt the plan, if makers and dealers

would have their lenses similarly examined and certified to by

competent and impartial authority, before offering them for sale.

MovuntTinG on SQuareE Surps.—Mr. J. Fenner proposes, in the

English Mechanic, to mount microscope objects on glass one or

Square instead of the standard 3x1 slips. These are to be pla

in shallow circular paper boxes, just large enough to ate

them, which may be obtained cheaply i in large quantities at the

wholesale drug stores. The slide is to be covered with a card-

board diaphragm snugly fitted into the box, perforated by a

central opening through which to view the object, and covered

with a gummed label. The bottom of the box has a central

opening (previously punched through it) for the transmission of

light ; and the cover is labeled and numbered to correspond with

the box and with the owner’s register-book. As none of the

the stage in any position, and rotated by the hand. They are

evidently not suitable for delicate work or for use with high

powers.

Sehescignobic TEsT FOR Porson. ate: test fluids for such minute

. of certain alkaloids as —_— not answer to a

1030 Scientific News. [ December,

procedure, Professor Rossbach places, uncovered, on a slide, a

drop of water containing Infusoria, to which, being carefully

examined, a little of the suspected fluid is applied. If organic

poison be present the Infusoria become a formless sediment.

I-15 ,000,000 of a grain of atropine may be thus detected.—Sczence

Gossip,

Syrpes or Marine Atca#.—Rev. A. B. Hervey of Taunton,

Mass., will mail to any address, for two dollars, a set of six slides

showing the characteristic fruit of the six great groups into

which Professor Agardh divides the Red Alge.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— A number of final reports of the Norwegian North Atlantic

Expedition have recently appeared. It has been found, says the

New York Nation, that free carbonic acid does not exist in ordi-

nary sea-water, which indeed has an alkaline reaction, but that it

is present in the form of carbonates, and in a_less degree of bi-

carbonates. In regard to saltness, a remarkable fact was deter-

mined, which has a most important bearing on various theories of

oceanic circulation—namely, that the excess of salt noticeable

and expected in the warm Atlantic current water was not con ned

to it, but almost equally characterized the deep strata, which were

reduced to the freezing point. This water is, therefore, not 4

Polar indraught, as has been supposed, Arctic or Antarctic, but 1s

tropical surface water, which has been cooled; while the Polar

vater continues equally distinguished from it by its deficient salt-

ness, and appears to allow the cooled salt water of the surface to

sink through it without mixing, and to form on the bottom cet

tain portions of what has been called the “ cold-area.” i

Six or seven new species of fishes, a ray, a sucking pout ( Li

paris), several species of Lycodes, were discovered, together with

a translucent “ghost,” with ventral fins reduced to long biped fila-

ments attached to the throat, and with no scales, which was called nie

Rhodichthys regina. It was brought up from a depth of a mile =)

and a half in the open sea between Jan Mayen and Finmark.

port laws. It appears that in 1877, in two months, 15,000 er

were killed in Michigan, of which, at least, 8,500 were exported.

_ from the State. In 1878, a grand total of 1,000,000 pounds be

Venison, or about 21,000 deer were slaughtered, of which 13,5¢

1881. ] : Scientific News. 1031

were killed by still hunters, 3,000 of these being killed for the

hides alone, and the balance shipped out of the State to Eastern,

Southern and Western markets. In 1880, the destruction of

eer was greater than ever before in the history of the State,

10,000 deer being shipped from fifteen stations alone, and the

total number of deer killed being 70,000, or about 10,000,000

pounds of venison. This shocking destruction of deer is paralleled

by the wanton destruction of game farther west. Organized so-

cieties, which demand and create proper legislation to prevent

this evil, are doing a great work for civilization.

_ — Prof. S. A. Forbes has spent the last two months exploring,

with sounding line, dredges and beam trawl, the small lakes of

Northeastern Illinois, Geneva lake in Wisconsin and some parts

of Lake Michigan, viz.: the southwest part, off Chicago, from the

shore to seven miles out, and the regions of Grand Traverse bay

in Michigan. Inthe latter he dredged and hauled the trawl in

105 fathoms. He also used the towing net everywhere, with very

interesting results. The most important collections made are

those of mollusks, deep-water crustaceans, entomostracans and

Cottoid fishes. The species collected in Lake Michigan by Stimpson

and Miller, and afterwards lost in the Chicago fire, were obtained in

abundance, and some were found not reported by previous collec-

tors. The greatest novelties occur among the entomostraca.

The beam trawl was found admirably adapted to the collection

of Cottoids, but few other fishes were taken by it. In the smaller

lakes it took nothing not obtainable by the use of the dredge.

Full notes were kept of the vertical range of plant and animal

life, and of the relative -abundance of species at various depths.

The results will be reported in detail in the bulletins of the TIlli-

nois State Laboratory of Natural History. :

— The bread tistributed on a recent occasion to a cavalry de-

tachment in a garrison at Oran, in Algeria, was moldy, covered

with dark and orange cryptogamic vegetation, though made only

48 hours previously. The men refused to eat it, and mostly threw

it away; but some offered it to their horses, who scarcely touched

it, with exception of two, which ate each about-half a kilogramme.

The consequence was a true poisoning, not followed by death,

but seriously injuring one of the horses. (Such poisoning of ani-

mals has been known to occur before.) M, Megnin was led to

study the substances developed on the bread, and he found there

were two kinds of mold, one Ascophora nigricans forming a flaky

cover of sooty-color; the other, Ozdium aurantiacum, forming

spots of salmon-color, and with great power of multiplication.

M. Megnin believes the sporules of these molds existed in the

flour before the bread was made. He cultivated the molds spe-

cially and experimented on dogs with them. The sickness

and vomiting were much more violent with the Ascophora nigri- -

_ cans, but the other had considerable action,

1032 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. { December,

— Dr. Chavanne has published a hypsometrical map of

mic, and has calculated, from 8000 hypsometrical measure-

ments, the average height of the whole continent, which he finds

to be no less than 661.8 metres (with a probable error of + me-

tres). This very high figure obviously, says ature, is the result

of the very great extension of Fes Je plateaux, which we do not find

to such an extent even in Asi

— The glacier of eee, which is sixteen miles long, has

beh explored throughout its whole length; it has thirteen sec-

ondary glaciers. The Ala-taon mountains, in Asia, are also

covered with ste glaciers; these mountains are from 10,000

to 16,000 feet hi

— Texas is to ee a State university. The governor has

called the regents to meet at Austin to make a permanent organi-

zation preparatory to the establishment of the university.

Gustaf Linnarson, the well-known paleontologist of

the Swedish Geological Survey, died in September last at the age

of 40 years,

*r\*

‘PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Nationa, AcapEMy oF Screncrs.—Titles of papers read at

aE aaren ee. commencing November 15, pie 2

ans Pr O. C, .

Succession in time of the Allotheria. By Professor O, C, Marsh

Distribution of the Corals of Tortugas. ' Professor A. Agass

The Porpitidz and Velellidz of’ so _ Stream. By Frotustiat A. Agassiz.

Complex Organic Acids. By Professor ug Gibbs. :

The theory of Dying. tlecer ric Machine By Professor W. Gib D, Co

The Phenacodontide, a new group of Peridiodacty le: By eae E. 0s

Second day, Nov. 16: pas

A ess. 2 oa between the shells of the Kjockkmédings of the coast = peli ng S

land and the present shells of the same species. By Professor E. a

The eephtitien to Mount Whitney, with observations on solarenergy. By Professo

angiey. k

A Peon vein containing gold ne ee found in the Sierra Negretta or Blac

By Professor B. Sillim P. Lesley.’

On the’ Life ina Labors of Rowuor ‘Ss Ss. oT By Professor J.

rof

ogic of Nw Pie

Chinoline Synthesis for Medical Uses. By Protesae Henry Morton.

Hydrometer Scales, By Professor C. F, Chandler

The Velocity of Light. By Profaaes Simon 'Newrediihs

Third day, Nov. 18:

Sorghum and some conclusions as to its value as a source of sugar. Rea

Colli

oe tation y Peter ier.

oe Maschart’s oer and its use as a meteorological instrument. By — :

d by invi-

er. ane

The Fossil oe ag Faunz of the Oregon and Idaho deserts in relation to a

tiquity of eine Professor E. D. Cope. :

1881. ] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 1033

PROCEEDINGS OF THE AMERICAN PaHILosopHicaL Society,

March 18, 1881.—A memoir On the Preglacial drainage of Lake

Erie and other great lakes, by Dr. J. W. Spencer, was read and

illustrated by the secretary. A paper on a geological section at

St. Marys, in Elk county, Pa., was read by Mr. Ashburner.

April 1.—Prof. W. M. Fontaine offered for publication in the

Transactions of the Society, a memoir on the Rhetic flora and

the formation to which they belong, in Virginia and North Caro-

lina. Mr. Mansfield, of Connelton, Beaver county, Pa., communi-

cated by letter a drawing, life size, of a fine fossil, Eurypterus, found

by him in the shale immediately beneath the Darlington cannel

beds, lower productive coal measures. Mr. E. B. Harden presented

two models in plaster, one geologically colored, the other un-

colored, of a large portion of Blair county, Pa., on a scale of

8000’ 1’’, vertical scale exaggerated two and a-half times. Cap-

tain E. Y. McCauley, U.S.N., communicated for publication in the

Proceedings, An alphabet ‘and syllabary of the Egyptian lan-

guage for the use of students.

April 15.—A drawing and a description of his improved “Centi-

grad Photometer,” was received from D. Coglievina of Vienna. Pro-

fessor P. E. Chase explained certain relations of the spectrum line

F with other lines and data, suggesting the probable identity of

hydrogen and the luminiferous zther, Professor E. D. Cope

read a paper on the classification of the Perissodactyla. Dr. Konig

made remarks on Dr. P. F, Reinsch's plates of the BtigfORCOD I

lithology of the Anthracite and other coals. Mr. Lesley com-

municated an appendix to Dr. Spencer’s paper on the Lake Erie

former water-basin, suggesting the probable course of the upper

Ohio from Pittsburgh to Butler, thence via New Castle, up the

present Mahoning valley, and down the grand valley of the Ohio

to Lake Erie.

May 6.—Mr. Frazer exhibited coins, also specimens of granite,

cement, lead, bronze and steel, used by the Egyptians in erecting the

obelisk, now in New York, and sections of the granite under the mi-

croscope. Mr. Ashburner exhibited a suite of maps of one of the —

British coal fields. Dr. Chance communicated a paper, entitled

“An analysis of the fire damp explosions in the Anthracite coal

mines from 1876 to 1880.’’

June 17,—Communications were made as follows, viz.: 1. Note

on the Geology of West Virginia, by J. C. White. 2. A Series

of Standard Units, by Pliny E. Chase. 3. On Alaska, by Prof.

George A. Konig.

July 15.—The following communications were read: 1. On the

Argilliferous Gravels of North Carolina, by H. M. Chance, M. D.

2. The Brain of the Cat, Fels domesticus, with four plates, by

Burt G. Wilder, Prof. Anatomy in Cornell University. 3. The

_ Vagus Nerve of the Cat, with four plates, by T. B. Stowell. _

VOL, XY.—No. xtt, no:

1034 Proceedings of Scientific Societies. [ December,

eptember 17.—Professor Cope communicated a paper, entitled

“On Some Mammalia of the Lowest Eocene of New Mexico.”

October 7.—Professor J. J. Stevenson communicated through the

Secretary as follows: “ Notes on the Coal-field near Cafion City,

Colorado. Notes on the Quinnimont coal group in Mercer Co., W.

Va., and Tazewell Co., Va. By John J. Stevenson, Professor of Geol-

ogy in the University of the City of New York. Professor Cope ex-

hibited a very perfect lower jaw of a marsupialoid type with carniv-

orous characters from New Mexico. On splitting the jaw he found

beneath a genuine and perfect marsupial fourth premolar, a con-

cealed perfect successional tooth of carnivorous type. In front of it

was another and smaller concealed successional tooth of the same

type. Henamed the animal 77tisodon quivirensis. Professor Cope

exhibited, also, a tooth of an animal from the Lower Eocene of New

Mexico, the importance of which lay in the fact that proved the con-

tinued existence of the Jurassic (Purbeck) Plagiaulax type through

the Cretaceous to Tertiary times. He names the Lower Eocene

form Ptilodus mediavus.

October 21.—Professor Haupt exhibited specimens of natural

terra cotta produced by spontaneous combustion in the lignite

of the Badlands, and used for ballasting the Northern Pacific .

R. Mr. Lesley exhibited a recent completed map of the Bal

Eagle mountain and Birmingham hills in Blair and Boating’

counties, Pa., drawn by E. B. & O. B. Harden, for the dead Se 4

explaining the difficult structure of the Sinking Valley fau ‘i

anticlinal, &c. Mr. Lesley read “ Notes on a possible Adite ele-

ment in the early history of Egypt.”

Minpesex InstituTeE, Mass., Sept. 7,—A free public exhibition

of native autumn flowers was given. Among the novelties ari

was Solidago bicolor, var. concolor from Malden, collected | y

Henty L. Moody, who was also fortunate enough to find, Sia

over the county line and in Essex county, Pedicularis lanceola is

Michx., a most interesting discovery for this region. r. ie 2

hock exhibited Echium vulgare from Summerville. The co the

tion of Asters and golden rods was particularly fine, cone .

unfortunately hot weather prevailing at the time, and the ee a

exhibition creditable to the Institute and to the ladies who ¢o

tributed so much towards its success. Taternal

Sept. 14.—Mr. Davenport read a paper on “Some Inte dis

Visual Phenomena,” which was followed bya itibst inteees ea

cussion in which Messrs. Moody, Gleason, Dame, Frohock,

lins and others participated.

_Bosron Society or Naturat History, October 19.—Pr poe

_ Hyatt discussed the formation through disease of movable Lith oe

_ in lobster claws; Mr. N. F. Merrill read a paper on the 4 re K

ig ‘

E. Wadsworth gave some items relating to the Geology ° -

™ Mass ssachuse : :

oe i

1881. ] Procecdings of Scientific Societies. 1035

November 2.—Mr. W. O. Crosby discussed the Classification

of the textures and structures of rocks; Dr. M. E. Wadsworth

spoke of the Trachyte of Marblehead Neck ; and Mr. William

Trelease described the Nectar-glands in the peduncle of the Cow-

pea.

APPALACHIAN Mountain Crus, October 12.—Mr. W. H. Pick-

ering spoke of a trip made this summer over Passaconaway and

Whiteface, and Prof. C. E. Fay spoke of the discovery of a nat-

ural camp in King’s Ravine. Other informal reports of summer

excursions were made, and on the 15th, the Club made an au-

tumn excursion, visiting the Uncanoonucs, near Manchester, N. H.

Nov. 9.—The Councillors presented their reports ot work done

during the summer. Mr. F. W. Parker spoke of a recent. trip

through the region north of Moosehead lake, and Mrs. R.A

Bradford read a paper entitled, “A sketch of the ascents of Bald

and Berlin mountains.”

New York Acapemy oF Sciences, October 17.—The following

papers were read: Geological facts recently observed in Idaho,

Utah, Nevada and Colorado, by J. S. Newberry. Outlines of the

geology of the Northeastern West India islands, by Professor P.

T. Cleve (of Sweden).

ct. 24.—Notes on the physiology of vision, with par

in the ordinary theory of the stereoscope, were read by M

Le Conte Stevens.

Oct. 31.—The following paper was read: The Geology of the

Copper region of Northern Texas and the Indian Territory, by

John H. Furman.

CatiFoRNIA ACADEMY OF Sciences, Nov. 4.—Hon. B. B. Red-

ding, president of the board of trustees, announced the very, gen-

erous and welcome donation of $20,000 to the Academy by

Charles Crocker. Charles Wolcott Brooks, secretary of the

board, then read the following letter of presentation, and the

acknowledgment forwarded to Mr. Crocker by the trustees:

SAN FRANcIsco, NOVEMBER I, 1881.

To the Trustees of the California Academy of Sciences, San

Francisco, Cal—Gentlemen: Desiring to make an acknowledg-

ment of my appreciation of the benefits conferred upon society

through the labors of students and investigators in those branches

of science that are popularly supposed not to be practically profit-

able, I herewith send you $20,000 in Southern Pacific Railroad

bonds.

The income from said fund of $20,000 I desire you shall annu-

ally expend in assisting in their investigations in California, Ore-

gon, Nevada and Arizona, such worthy and studious investigators,

in any branch of science, as have, by their devotion to scientific

investigations ns and experiments, ried and necessarily excluded

1036 Selected Articles in Scientific Serials. [Dec., 1881.

themselves from acquiring support through the ordinary avoca-

tions of current industrial life. Very respectfully,

CHARLES CROCKER.

Toronto Naturat History Society, Nov. 7.—Henry Mont-

gomery, the president, gave a lengthy address upon “ The Rela-

tions of the Blastoidea,” copiously illustrated by specimens of

existing and extinct sea-urchins of various genera, star-fishes,

brittle-stars, crinoids, trepangs and Blastoidea of the genera Pen-

tremites and Nucleocrinus. Of the last-named genus the lecturer

exhibited the specimen recently described by him in his paper on

“A Blastoid found in the Devonian rocks of Ontario.” Mr.

William Brodie then showed specimens of fiber from the upper

sheaths of the “broom” grass, Adropogon scoparius, well adapted

for the manufacture of cordage and paper. In his address Mr.

Brodie claimed that this grass can be utilized to reclaim dry, sandy,

waste land. The samples shown were remarkably tenacious.

SELECTED ARTICLES IN SCIENTIFIC SERIALS.

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF ScIENCE, November.— Jurassic birds

and their allies, by O. C. Marsh. Local subsidence produced by

an ice-sheet, by J. W. McGee. Note on the Laramie group of

Southern New Mexico, by J. J. Stevenson, The nature of Cya-

thophycus, by C. D. Walcott.

_ Tue Georocicat Macazine, October.—On some points in the

morphology of the Rhabdophora, by J. Hopkinson. The glacia-

tion of the Shetlands, by D. M. Home. Differences between the

London and Berlin Archzopteryx, by H. G. Seeley.

THE SIXTEENTH VoLUME oF THE AMERICAN NATURALIST.—

Although no promises of enlargement were made to our sub-

scribers at the beginning of the year, we beg to call attention to

the fact that Vol. xv contains 1042 pages, or 116 pages more than

the preceding volume. The number and variety of illustrations

is also greater than in the last volume. : d

We can assure our readers that from the papers now 1 han

and those promised, Vol. xvi will certainly not be inferior he

variety and interest to any of its predecessors. There 1s oe

eee probability that a department of mineralogy will be shortly

added.

We would respectfully invite the contributions of one

notes and articles, and items of scientific news, and would ae"

our friends to call the attention of those in any way ine

‘in natural history to our magazine, as an aid and stimulus int os o

studies and field work. We want to so enlarge our subscription

list, that we can offer more illustrations to our patrons. tice

_. We would respectfully ask our exchanges to specially — ee

_ the December NaTuRAList, and to send marked copies stare

ing such notices to the editors, a

INDEX.

Aboriginal stone drilling, 536-

Acacia farnesiana, 981,

hirta 987.

Adjustment, rea mete 346.

4Egeria acerni,

African explo: vert ey 78, 165, 166, 417, 590, 672,

alma, 186.

‘Apacs. 195.

Apis dorsata, 1010.

florez, 1010,

Aid to nies .

Alaska, — s of, 2

see ca

Aldrich, C shed ‘out ‘of place, 476.

oy ing fish, 810.

igcrimination ne sound, 563.

of red clov:

birds, 653.

intelligence i ina cat, 14

varia

sae: ag prs wild gottg fh domesti-

cated cattle, 563.

woodchuck climbs a tree, 737.

orth A: igo does

t, Landa’s,

» Pepes

a t-2

Fas

'» 249.

ere wag dn 234.

_Balanoglossus, 811.

ciara Peconic Aland 734-

ino, St ig

buses sige ti "ei rileyi, 149.

Bath

Dactrceis Koide. + 7

Batrachia, skull of, 892.

al, ee does the crow blackbird eat cray-

904

migration of sandhill crane, 142.

shower of Cyclops quadricornis,

Beal, W. J., the m ethod of distin uishing species

of Po ices We lans by the young naked

Bee, endocranium a5

flies — Tabi of, 143, 438.

Bee’s ona

Beetles, burying, = 128.

change in nervous system of, during

elaauuchad is, 58.

Belodon buceros, 922.

olopax, 923.

Bessey, rom E. , evaporation of water from leaves,

progress of botany in U.S. in 1880,

47+

Bezoar stones, 479.

Biol —.* 663.

Bird, ossil, 2

li e . Wow England, 801.

Birds, 6

Seats — — in, 283,

flight of,

hybrid,

migrating on back of pednicd birds, gos.

migration o} of, 870, 1004

Rag nes of, at ak t, 902

Bison exico, 658.

Sack. aes sae

, uf

Black Hills o Pinto

ooh nie dimorghiam in, 997.

Blind ind crayfish,

Blood ibernation, 677.

Blue bird, a

—_

Ball rtm Sy bituary of, _

Benbyihoe. larve of, 1

Botany of Califor of teaching, 842.

rogress of in U.S S. in 1880, 947-

Brain as'an organ of mi d, 48.

rigin and af decseek of 513.

eca,

D. 6. notes on the Codex Troano and

7 chronology, io

age in Germany, 3:

et mg shells oe —— 56.

sinianus var. pacificus, 209

Bugs, number Ps ‘dy sooo of, 60.

Bumpus, H. eding™ habits of fish-hawk,

wea sora ci

Burrill, T. J., bacteria the oie of disease in

plants, 2)

Buteo ns 478,

Butterflies, Hudson bay, :

: "jengeh of life Xe, grr.

migrations of, 577.

odors in, 822.

ionapeatne lr ii 885.

attractive ea

Calamintha nepeta, Cee it,

| oe

1038

Callimorpha fulvicusta, 751

Callosamia angulifera, 752

hears us spretus, retarded development of,

Call, R. E. tonsils of Towa loess, 585.

oess in Iowa, 782.

new Sica Unio » 390.

Succinea campestris aurea, 391.

Cambarus vlicienre: 832,

Campbell, D. H., de velopment of stomata of

et og and Indian

Campylorhyncus brunneicapilfus, 2It.

Canker worm, 751

Carcinology, Asmerlean record of, for 1880, 532.

Cardinal bird, 21

Cardinalis virg 215.

paedae.tad Fale. “138.

pes orgie rontalis, 213

Catathlaeus thabacdok. 829.

Castilleia linarieefolia, 986.

Cat, a eer’ ret 140, 475, 1004.

Cato of “es to the wild state

in our Aaa animals,

sei domesticated, surviva wild habits in,

Cave animals, 877.

g16.

in bagasse 679.

reer, 2 i

spid

etidoten: rickafackenss, 879.

Crecopia moth

Cedar apples, 471

Cellular irritabilit

Cephalanthus vel at 1985.

Ceratophyllum demersum, 986.

in fruit, 1001.

Cerebellum, 682.

oth on 983.

rag!

Celana ren renigera,

Ceuthophilus ens’

See! lon er 215.

‘os, mounting whole, 841.

Chicken xine le in, 261,

Chimpanzee, 448,

Cicada people 857 479.

poe

nger, S. V., on coaipaneive neurology, 16,

_ ori ne and her i of human

lidastes conodon, 588.

= Cole Event agra tpcabe id bso 812,

| Cro

Index.

Conoryctes comma,

Convolvulus cceldentals, 9 86.

Cook, A. J., r ns of eoleniase to science,

Cope

.D., and A.S. Packard, Jr., fauna of

Nickajack o — 877.

2B. Diy w genus of pre 59.

Rasdon! in New

cl syste fs "Perissodacesin,

effect of impacts and strains on the

feet of Mammalia, 542.

Eocene Plagiaulacidz, 921

geology of ee bc Valley mining

district,

Le Saurlaits in the re 669.

Low

Miocene dogs, 4!

Pr cae stes

new pe nus of etme gk" dip-

larthra

new type of Perisodactya, 1017.

Gen rat Wind

y Lae New was

in,

ot apanese lap legs

roe of ys ppc ng at the ungu-

Teaves

chart oral of New Mexico,

Rodentia of American Miocene,

587.

eiapoaty dentition of a new Creo-

dont, 667.

opepod Crustacean, variations in, 689.

ete of Plumularidz, gor

Coulter. turkey,

Crab, “fddler: early stages of, 784.

vlor in, 812.

bie gp nce | gt4, 1008.

ee , 14t.

7O$

cpap antenna

Crayfish, blin 4, 881,

ertiary, 832.

Creodonta, ge

pee bush, 2

of,

Crustacea, er ulf of Mexico, 742

male, producing eggs, 8

m heart of,

ra apelicale in 180, 5 532+

Crustacean, fos ‘Phyllopod, 49

ogams, 5

Cuscuta californica, 986.

Cuttle fish

an Ww. H., Intellieen ee ee a snail maby ok 910. asia

merican Moll aa: Nai No :

é tern ‘

sudden interest in Japanese ga

nithology, 1095+

Das: T te a 3+ ‘

4 Same archippus, 33: 868, 869. :

anim: 5 =

he Bay Biseay , 23°

Deltatkerium al 669.

937)

Lndex.

peak a Phe ary, of a new eaasininay 667.

Diapto sanguineus, 68

Dilar, ey . dks

Dimetr biradiatus, 164,

imorphism of gall flies 566.

Diptera, prepara a 8

Dog burying a lam

Dog’s discrimination pe re ane 563.

og, e lap dog, 233.

Jap

Demunion: "heel 2 of, 56,

Dove, a —

hie. Sines. 2I

Dott, = Dog to ee ‘buffalo, TIg.

Dra;

Dredging in Lake —— 236.

Drugs, adultera

Dynastes eceuls ee

Eclipidrilus frigidus, 909.

Edwards, liad HH. car of life of butterflies,

Egypt, ‘Aint implements i in, 759-

stone age in, 488.

Eleocharis palustris, 986.

Elephant, leu et of, 659.

En, — bee tle,

Endlich’ F F M., Demerara, 937

Entomolo gical Commission, U us.

2d Re ook. 554+

Entomophthora musce, 52.

ser on, 813.

eira cavatic ca, phe re

Kr remophila alpestris

Erie, lake, ceaineat | malas into Lake Ontario,

Ernst,

Estheria 7 fers 99

paper gee ng 136, 280,

Eye

us, 558.

trus comstockii 61.

Retienia radix

Evolution of otiesy one of Planorbis at

Steinheim, 793.

Evolution theory, saa,

Felsites, 589,

An pening 3 t., oviposition in Tortricidz, 63.

Fertilization seg means of pollen tubes, 168,

Fewkes, J. W —— phot, meduses, 59.

onophores, 186, 772

Filaria in een ul oo 6

gpm Arka

Fiabe ms ea bat ion i

Fou cticat ot Me

eyelica’ ‘cue in ‘skin of, 657.

pace eae 7, 565.

5 rs

rent ts recing habits of, 809.

ip ers, re elevation to. ee of color

in, 52.

Fly, black a ee

Flycatcher, Arkansas, 215.

- -_ ash-throated, 217,

black-crested, a3 214.

601,

Forbes, S. ries s in Illinois, 392.

5 on bed in.

Fossete in in — S.,

hasireg ical, 451.

ertebrata ee ‘Wind River basin, 74.

ade lens, 980.

1039

Gall flies, — in, 566.

Ww. a nl rg ng i 660.

Gatschet, A. S., wild rice in Eur

Geikie, A., on ancient FF ent Of che Rocky

mountains

Gelasimus pu

na, lar one 784.

and D. S. Jordan, on Pacific sal-

n, 17 .

Gillman, Hi, r Lemna polyrhiz

on English s sarin 129.

Gissler, C. F., — bass chen Physical influ-

ces the evolution of

Ersechiped in 280,

on hermaphrodite of Eu branchi-

pus vernalis, 136,

bile vp a Cocveal Crusta-

Glacial — in Valle pa "Drift in Main ne, 251,

mena in ual Yellowstone Herhs 203.

Glaciers, ancient, of Roc ntains

Guitcatcher, ns 214.

Goat, wild, 957.

ped of Paras 315.

Gorilla, wechty

sem sO Ee escent on Colorado desert, 24.

Coat ard, 9)

Grand: bees, Rerbivorous, 1OLr.

Gulf a 1, 933.

cymes 471.

Haldeman, S. S., on — ws 248,

Har ee crisalis, 2 2

be hein eve 209.

ern — ak 2 ‘a 2

Hay, O. Pe, Carp ophi elenze in Indiana, 7

. utzenia rai in Indiana, 738.

lix wegen in California, 744.

fen wild, 9.

H=rbivo eng AS am roIr,

Hermaphrodtism in Eubranchipus ose: * oe .

Hessian ‘a5, 750, 916.

Hick 22

a w. Kk. » peach-tree yellows, 849, 968.

a, glacial phenomena jn the Ye

Holter E., Je. ma or oe, Biecding habits hole west- : :

Horse, eh :

Horsey wily 957. prehistoric _ 9x8,

embryo meee I 395, 7

Hiusehicye, J. ge fs on minerals ek North Caro-

the

ing snake en a

in, 56t. ;

1040

Pissing corn, 736.

movement of roots in germinating,

stomata of, 7

Indie bie, 394. 4, 6536

» 463.

— nervous system in, 741.

Insectarium,

Insect boxes, or.

be stroying fungi,

emies of rice Sicva, 148,

lac 2356

cale on ser fat ie 487.

fonsess nerves of, 23

— rded development in, 1007,

‘ition ata of,

nte ioe in a snail

lowa, birds of, 653 Z 196.

loess of, sa,

Island life, 305.

James, J. F., botainical notes rout Tucson, 978.

reasoning faculties of animals, 604.

Japanese lap dog,

bronze hefic, Tors.

mounds and customs of, 406.

—

tae

1 7

sis, 651.

, of Zygadenus paniculatus,

sige ag a and é ‘H. Gilbert, on Pacific sal-

Jualans, he

uglans rupestris, 987,

Kerr, W. C., on frost dri

Kingsley, A discoveries in the sasbinig of

Crustacea, 564.

effects of different colored light

on growth of animals, 564.

record — American Carcin-

King snake, 56r.

er cise » 965-

von, on gorilla, 447.

Lac insect, 235.

Land and sea, relative elevation of, 162.

Landa’s alphabet, 404.

yrhiza, 896.

optera, ventral age. of, 352.

Lichens, gonidia of, 315.

Light, effect of, on n eggs of pega fish, 174.

imals, 564.

oreo s bredowi ,15I.

Limnocodium, 264, 759.

weyeri, 232.

= of, arb

zzia oct netata,

Lobster, spenctat

Lockwood, 5, cane kee bird, 518.

elm leaf beetle, 242.

mussel and insect climbers, 739:

paper Nautilus again in New tent

-exzinany wee te

: "Sica

os ane =a in, 748, 749, 1007.

fe 54 A ae. West, ae

‘own,

Index.

London purple, 82r

Toxolophodon, 888.

Lycosa, 396.

Macloskie, G., the endocranium and maxillary

suspensorium of the bee, 353.

Malar bone, sa taee process of, in ancient hu-

man Crania, 9

Male Crustacea producing eggs, 813

Phalangide — eggs, Bes.

Mammalia, Eocene, 829.

feet of, 542.

— in Siberia, 176.

Man,

os ity

pee in y teats 15

Ps yy ee eae fotaey; 33%.

‘0S

stdeitten Tens 0, 625

Marine tiacthce que ine of New England, 171.

Marsh, J. W., on the relati tion of elevation to

change of color in flowers, 52.

Marx, G , new tube-constructing spiders, 396. \

sage es ra an progress of ——— peed ropol-

80, 616.

Miva "ealendar, 767.

nology, 719+

Med

985.

Medus, goer es in fi wa Hs

Mee ne, T., hardiness a ucalyptus, 558.

Micrographie tracings 757+

roscope, a

tebe

rp ica of Aiede 870, — go5, TOO4.

Milde cotton goods,

Milne, i a on shell hea: aps in Japan, 43+

Minot, H vp Baigtatio® so mt 3 870.

Miocene, J roden! 586.

Miocl deus, 47.

Miasours, anthropele Pars 7245.

Mistletoe of Colorado desert, 29-

pnd 77-

ocassin, water, 56r.

pr pecan in the rep et nish in 1880, 704-

a organ n of smell i

Mol s, 283.

Monera,

or is, Resale pt ‘on dragon fly, 1

n green lizard, Ok

Morris, G. K., on one leaf-cutting ant, 100-

isonous,

uilders, 684.

uare slips, 1029-

a mt

Namollo ple, 85

Nautilus roi in ie Jersey, 9°08.

entral, 50.

Neurology, comparative 16, 103-

Newberry, o Ss. yn 3 Utah, 410-

Night! ihe wk. Stic renee =

texana, 995

Index.

Nomenclature, 219, 88

Norse m ythology, tig

North Cacclinn, iron parenente in an ancient

min

‘athooate of, 75, 380.

Nyassa multiflora in Maine, 134.

Objectives hbo 9 sag 1029.

Ohio, archz of, 7

Canoneier ihecebrosa, 367.

a ce

Ophi 319-

» 984

ang, 655.

Orang ou

Orch Oe 316.

Osborn, He hamulatus, 88r.

. Herbert, tood habits of Saperda cretata, -

Os Sore , Ne hie ie squid, 366.

arta vitality of, 3

Owl, b bea

an se 209.

eet 209.

Oyster, breeding habits of, 57.

Packard, A. S., Jr., and E. D. Cope, fauna of

Nickajack’ cave, 897

Packard, A. S. Jr., bain - locust, 285, 372.

arval stages ad fiddler

ge and Alpheus, 784.

fossil Perea’ Crustacean,

fossil Tertiary crayfish, 832.

locusts in Mexico, 1 S78 re

fauna of Luray a ew

Market caves, eee a,

pro rebabe cause of the

gevity of turtles, on

Sco —— rella its posi-

in na’ ante s

et nasag. et ied A ae a Seats in 1880, ae

Palmer, E , cial stone of the City 0 Mex-

ico, 752.

Paltostoma —— 567.

Papilio philenor, 327.

Parasite, sheep, Torr,

Parasites in viscera of birds, etc., 143.

Regt green, 82r:

‘arkinsonia torreyana, 82.

Paroides flaviceps, 217. ,

—— , 849.

Penicillium, 133.

Pennsylvania, geol

Puccedes ts tree sa eg

diplarthra, new gents of, tors.

Perkins, G. H., on arc of Vermont, 425.

Permian formation - New ag oom

tes, catalogue of, 162.

Phanopepia n = aa ucing eggs, 8

A te ja cy hes, oe me

mae 5 29

Pholicned shires . 496

Phylloxera, 238, 483, 82x, 1011, 1012.

hy mus punctat

Pieris monuste, 577-

Pinus banksiana, 316.

aberti, 221.

fuscus, 212,

Pe serpin oe 212"

cher plant,

As "cotati of i

Plants, bacteria the pea age ye? a. in, 527.

Caruel’s system of, 803.

mans OG

fossil, 22:

number of existing species, 173.

of movements in, 729.

104I

Plethodon zneus, 878.

Poison, microscopic ‘est for, 1029.

mbea

Polistotrema down 320.

A: ollen ~ — rabundance of in Indian corn, 1000,

opu

—— ‘eemont y86.

eae 28.

39-

amelus, , S47-

Prony ulin 29.

pub = 39.

Protohippus, 5

Psaltriparus reader 2I

Psocina, structure of eet in, 1013.

Ptilodus ees g22.

Pueblo IAdians, 824.

potte

wo! ko ne Rg 754-

Pyohagoniiss, 34

Pyrethrum, 245, $569, 7445 om

— 177-

scalus zeneus, 810.

au, ache iy ay stone drilling, 536.

sooo

Red pei st

Renilla,

Retarded development in insects, 1007.

—— to wild state, effects of in domestic

animals

Reynolds, A. Mt, breeding habits of blue bird,

478.

loonie virginica, 898.

Spree 4 merki

izo . 237, 596.

Rhubarb, 82.

Rice ea : enemies of, 148, 751- ,

Ril ro Vv. * Cramps vulgivagell

ey, rambns vagellus, gt4.

atid al habits of bee flies, 438.

on Pyrethrum, aor

paadiok ier army worm in New York,

Ric iw fly, 150.

Roc! y moinains, ancient ge a as :

Rodent of

ng Indian

Rubbe: prodicog tre

Rusby, > By etme Bp of tree growth, 550.

Sacrificial stone of Mexico, 752.

land-l ked li ttle red, 8r4.

oc Ertilization of by birds, 26s.

i a tangs 1022,

1042

ot its position in nature, 698.

Scotland, new Carboniferous fossils in, 1027.

Sea mosses, rig

piders, 658.

Seedling. sensitiveness of the = a Ad os 228.

Seeds pene e of rg respiratio

vit wats

Sericoris sonata ag 1009

Sexes, resemblances and. differences of, 899.

Sharks, deep cp 6

embryol of, 3

Shedd, W. G., on nthe Leadville mines, 338.

Sheep ir ras wt

Shell Sins | ft 4

Shells, comet of Dominica,

orke d, in New Bigland, ro16,

S, 1

hrike, lees mped, 2

Shufelae R, W. fone of i index age of the Ca-

hartidz, 906

dscumss and injuries in birds,

283.

Silk culture, in California, 749.

Sim ered F. W.,

nt mine in N

Seautiuien: 330, 916.

Siphonophores, 186, 772.

nervous sires in, 813.

Skin furrows of the hand, 1

on iron implements in an an-

orth Carolina, 7.

mell in, 655

Suake’ Buabing a tree, ssc:

Snow bird, eastern, 519.

Soko, 448.

Sotol, 873

—— A ald

out! mera serene discovery in, 500.

Sparrow ics “A 139: 9

ish in llinois, aa

Spaulding sb on bee’s tongue,

Sphenophorus, g15.

_ Sphinx larva, an aquatic, 1

Spider, hymenopterous ivksite in, 394.

Spiders, poison apparatus of, 236.

tiie pba ket

pirostrephon copei, 23

Sponge, ag ais 909.

Sponges, budding in, 808.

roe water, 935.

eee ii orian nature of, 465.

Squid, 366.

nent

_ Starch grains, growth of, 556

‘Starling, red-winged, 394.

_ Stearns, R. E.C., Myaarenaria in San Francisco

”

Index.

| Theology, —s ive

Thomas, C., MS. Pe ‘ ‘62 25.

nrg gi ca alendar, 767.

Thrush, nas?

ve- ite, Jes ¢

ba Co nte’s e

s Pogo Californian; 210.

Rta

tiberias lake, aap dredgings in, 236.

Pininoase: least bush

ellow- see ae

Todd, J. E., - and Libeltu la

morphism in black masta, 997:

as flycatchers, 1005.

Tomocerus FF db omed 232.

Ee gem. ot. gponigys in, 63.

owhee, brow

Tradescantia, stomata of,

Tree growth, curiosities of, 5 ai

Treat, Mrs. eas ry, the great-crested flycatcher,

60r.

Trelease, W., sages oaghr of Salvia splendens by

birds,

fertilization = Calamintha nepeta,

‘on gravels a d early man, 333-

Tribulus Seecditnek. o

‘richina, 7

d irensis, 667.

riodites mus, a

a MS.,

Troglodytes yori, I og

EM ee 216,

Tucson, botanical! notes —— 978.

tortoises of,

Tu 1 :

urt. es, 8.

Twitchell, Td, evaporation of water from leaves,

a ae , 888

Ungulates, origin of the foot structure of, he

Unio spss

Utah, iron ores Schs

Ve soit: ‘hens at severe winters on,

Velellide, 813.

aac ‘archeology <¥ 425.

Vireo, belli,

806.

gi ay 26. ;

Virginia cree :

Vitrinella wit sieng pike aru

Vultures, claw of index hae of, 906.

Warbl llow, 2 ‘

Ward “LL 2 ar ‘seipiaplets adaptation as illus

nt trated “a whee of sex in plants, 89-

ot .

Webster, F. M., on habits of hairy woodpecker,

Web wo eto sf lant, 482 ae

White, i, c aie, % pad aie invertebrate palzontol- —

the U, 5. th 1880, 273-

Wi elite, breeding ge . oyster, 57+

Wola bei m3 salamander,

Woodpecker, ee wii al oa

Xylotrechus

Yellows of peach, 849, 962

peac » 96t-

Yellowstone park, glacial pheno’

Zooph: h, 83. z

Zuni Tadians, 826. eee te lt ok

Zygadenus paniculatus, poison of, 05%

phenomena in, 203.