CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX.

Tak Pine Snake or New Jersey. By Rev. Samuel Lockwood. p. 1.

BoranicaL OBSERVATIONS IN Soutnern Uran, 1x 1874. By Dr. C. C.

Party. pp. 14, 139. 199, 267, 346.

Tit CoLossar Cepiatopops oF THE Nortu ATLANTIC. By Prof. A. E.

Verrill. Illustrated. pp. 21, 78.

Lire Paginas: oF THE Prorozua. By A. S. Packard, Jr. SANOIN

Tun sees ER GEOLOGICAL Survey OF New Mexico ror 1874. By Prof.

E. D. Cope. p 49

ON Tite CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL Kinapom. By Prof. T. I. Mux-

ley. p. 65.

Tuk Soxe or TUE Cicapa. By F. C. Clark.. M.D.

Ox tHe BREEDING or Certain Bmps. By Dr. R y Coues; U. S. A.

p. 9. -

Lire Iltstories oF Tue Prorozoa axp SponGes. By A. S. Packard, Jr.

Illustrated. 87.

Reb Sxow. By F C Clark, M. D. p. 1

Tue Sisco or LAKE TIPPECANOE. ira of. D. 5. rari is 135.

Tue Pram Gopner. By Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S -D

Stare Survey ror Massacuvusetrts. By Prof. Ags ove p. 156.

Tuk Mope or Growtn oy THE Raviares. By A. S. Packard, Jr. Zl-

lustrated. z

Asour Strancu. By Prof. M. W. Harrirgton. JHustrated. pp. 193. 339.

Tuk INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE Gruta Das MUMIAS, SOUTHENN MINAS

Geraers. Brazil. By Prof. Ch. Fred. Hartt. JHlustretd. p. 205

Tun Mope or Growrtu oF THE Rapiatrks. By A. S. Packard, i Illus-

trated. p. 218

Tuk Law or Expkrosie DEVELOPMENT TIE SAME IN PLANTS AS IN ss a

ats. By I. A. Lapham, LL. D. /Jlustrated. p. 257.

Ox THE PHYSICAL AND GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GREAT Dis-

MAL SWAMP, AND THE EASTERN Counties uF Vinaginia. By Prof. N.

B. Webster, p 260.

Tue FERTILIZATION OF CERTAIN FLOWERS THROUGH INSECT AGENCY. By

Thomas G. Gentry. p. 263.

Tuk INverteprate CavéE Fauna OF KENTUCKY AND ADJOINING STATES.

By A. S. Packard, Jr. p. 274.

Notes ON SPIDERS FROM CAVES IN EE VIRGINIA AND INDIANA.

By James II. Emerton. With Plate. p. 273

Lire sekop OF THE MOLLUSCA. E A. S. Packard, Jr. Illustrated.

Tur Porren oF TUE Mounp BrtiILDERS. By F. W. Putnam. Jilustrated.

1 i

pp-

(ili)

lv CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX.

Brocrapnies oF sOME “Worms. By A. S. Packard, Jr. Illustrated. pp.

52, 441, 553

Tue VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LowLanps. By Prof. George I. Per-

kins. p. 385.

Ancn2ZoLoGicaL EXPLORATIONS IN INDIANA AND Kentucky. By F. We

Putnam. p. 410.

ALAsKAN Mummies. By W. M. Dall. p. 433.

On Ercor. By William Carruthers, F. R. S. Illustrated. p. 450.

ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT OF THK AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE

ADVANCEMENT OF Screxce. By Dr. John L. LeConte. p. 481.

Tur CrocoviLe 1N Fioripa. By Wiliam T. Hsia. Illustrated.

p. 498.

ADDRESS OF J. W. Dawson, VICE PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIA-

TION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. p. 529.

Apprress or Pror. H. A. Newton, Vice PRESIDENT For SECTION A. OF

THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. p 577.

Lire-Hisronies OF THE CRUSTACEA AND Insects. By Dr. A. 5. Packard,

r. Illustrated. p. 583.

ODONTORNITHES, on Birds witu Teetn. By Prof. O. C. Marsh. With

Two Plates. p. 625.

Lirr-Historms OF THE LOWER Virreira. By A. S. Packard, Jr.

Illustrated. p. 632.

Prants THAT Ear ANIMALS. By Mrs. Mary Treat. Illustrated. p. 658.

i REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Embryology of the Ctenophore, p. 52. Entomology in Illinois, p. 53.

Polarization of Light, p. 53. The Spiders of France, p. 108. Wheelers

Survey of the Territories, p. 109. Embryology of the Pill-bugs, p. 110.

The Entomostraca, p. 110. Hayden’s Geology of Colorado, Lilus*rated, pe

173. The Geological Survey of Missouri, p. 240. Relations of British

Wild Flowers to Insects, p. 245. Elements of Magnetism and Electricity,

p- 246. The Herpetology of Europe, p. 308. The Distribution of Insects

in New Hampshire, p. 309. Principles of Metal Mining, P. 309. Sulli-

vant’s Icones Muscorum, or Figures and Descriptions of most of those

Mosses peculiar to North America which have not yet been adie p.

373. Chemical and Geological Essays. p. 416. Check List ť North

American Ferns, p 417. Dr. Coues’ Birds of the Northwest, p. oi «ae

ographical Variation in Color among ‘Squirrels, p. 504. A Late Paper on

Birds, p. 570. Morse’s First Book of Zoology, p- 571. Tenney’s Elements :

of Zoology, p. 623. Alleu’s Studies in the Facial Region, p. 662.

BOTANY.

Do Varieties wear out or tend to wear out? p. 53. Cypripedium specta-

bile, p. 54. A New Material for Paper, p. 110. The Movement of Water a

in Plants, p. 110. The Resurrection Fern, p. 111. The True Process of n 4

Respiration in Plants, p. 111. Martenia proboscides, p- 112. ‘The Lotus —

eta tea O AEEA ea

CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX. »

in the Detroit River, p. 178. Geographical Distribution of North Ameri-

can Ferns, p. 246. -Fucus serratus and Fucus anceps, p. 309. Gentiana

Andrewsii, p. 310. Stenogramma interrupta, p. 311. A Directory of .

American Botanists, p. 311. Preserved Fungi. p. 311. Volvox, p. 31l.

North American Fungi, p. 811. Introduction of Ulex Europzeus in the

Bermudas, p. 374. The Law of Embryonic Development in Animals and

Plants. p. 419. Coreopsis discoidea spontaneous in Connecticut, p. 421.

Fertilization of Alpine Flowers by Buttertlies, p. 421. sa 8 sim-

plex, with pinnated divisions to the sterile frond, p. 468. Fucus serratus,

p. 468. Menyanthes trifoliata, p. 468. The Starch of Zamia, p. 509. Se-

quoia sempervirens, p. 571. Sullivantia Ohionis, p. 572. Puccinca mal-

vacearuin, p. 572.

ZOOLOGY.

Note on Sterna longipennis. p. 54. An Additional Character for the

Definition of ee re Coleoptera, p. 112. Note on Telea poly-

phemus, p. 113. Notes on California sr rider p. 114. Ascending Pro-

cess of tie Astragalus in Birds, p. 116. The span id Moths. Jilustrated.

p. 179. A Double Headed Larva of a Fly, p. 179. Influence of Elevation

and Latitude gies the Distribution of Species, p. 181. Flight of Vanessa

Antiopa, Feb. 16th, p. 247. Snails in Winter, p. 247. Filaria in the House

Fly, p. 247. fits Phyllopod Crustaceans. p. 311. Artificial Hatching of

Grasshoppers, p. 312. Dendroica dominica in Indiana, p. 813. The

Whistling Swan, p. 313. Habits of Snails, p. 318. Mr. Gentry’s paper

on Fertilization through Insect Agency, p. 374. Colorado Bectle de-

stroyed by the Rose-breasted Grosbeak, p. 375. The Umbellula, p. 375,

Cigars destroyed by Insects, p.375. On the Development of the Nervous

System in Limulus, p. 422. The Pine Snake, p. 424. A Literary Gem, p.

425. The European Cabbage ee p. 426. The Lark Bunting, p. 426.

Description of a New Wren from Eastern Florida, p. 469. The Frigate

Bird and White Ibis in ie RCI p. 470. New Birds in Kansas, p. 470.

Nematoids in Plants, p. 470. On an Undescribed Organ in Limulus sup-

posed to be renal in its Nature, p. 511. Birds Breeding on Penikese

Island, p. 514. Prairie Mice, p. 515. Bears, etc., in Arizona, p. 516.

Albino Fishes, p. 517. Chloral as a Preservative, p. 518. Extraorslinary.

Alternation of Generations, p. 519. A Tachina Parasite of the Squash

Bug, p. 519. Double Monsters, p. 519. Importation of Useful Insects,

. 520. Nesting of the Prairie Warbler in New Hampshire, p. 520.

Oporornis formosus breeding in Eastern New York, p. 573. Tue Purple

Gallinule, p. 573. Caloptenus spretus in Massachusetts, p. 573. Cave-

iauabiting Spiders, p. 663. Digestion in Insects, p. 664. Horny Crest on

the Mandible of the Female White Pelican, as well as the Maule, p. 665.

The Western Nonpareil in Michigan, p. 665,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 7

New forms of Elasmosauridæ, p. 55. American Types in the Creta-

ceous of New Zealand, p. 55. A New Mastodon, p. 56. Return of Prof.

Marsh’s Expedition, p. 117. Summer School of Geology, p. 118. Ancient

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME IX.

Lake Bas‘ns of the Rocky Mountains, p. 119. Copper as a Preservative

of Animal and Vegetable Substances, p. 119. New Order of Eocene

Mammals, p. 182. The Musk Sheep fossil in Silesia, p. 247. A Tertiary

Gar Pike in France, p. 248. Fall of Cosmical Dust on the Earth, p. 248.

Fossil Batrachia in Ohio, p. 313. The Prospect of Volcanic Eruptions in

the West, p. 314. Glacial Phenomena in Utah, p. 314. The Sand Dunes

of the San Luis Valley, p. 375. On the Order Amblypoda, p. 427. The

Disintegration of Rocks and its Geological Significance, p. 471. Elden

Hole, Derbyshire, p. 520. Interesting Fossils from Illinois, p. 573.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Cremation among North American Indians, p. 56. Clay-balls as Slung

Shot or Cooking Stones, p. 183. An Indian Mil! seen in the Museum of

Nassau. New Providence, p. 248. Clay “ Munting-whistles,” //lustrated,

p. 314. The Bronze Age in Switzerland, p. 315. Perforation of the

Humerus conjoined with Platycnemism, p. 427. Artificial Dict psi of

the Cranium, p. 473.

MICROSCOPY.

Angular Aperture, J1lustrated, p. 59. Tolles’ New one-tenth vs. Old one-

fiftieth, p. 62. Remarks on Mr. Morehouse’s Papers, p. 63. Ross’ New

Microscopes, p. 120. Very thin Covering Glass, p. 120. False-light Ex-

cluder for Objectives, p. 121. Staining Vegetable Tissues, p. 121.

Method of lreparing and Mounting suitable Insects for Microscopical

Examination, p. 122. _ Distinguishing Blood Corpuscles, p. 124. Embed- -

- ding Tissues, p. 124. Spheraphides, p. 125 Spiders’ Webs, p. 125.

Coarse Lines on Diatoms, p. 126. American aieeerer ne Societies. p.

18+. New Slit for, Testing Angular Aperture, p. 185. ©“ 180°” Angular

Aperture, p. 186. Caps for Mounting Opaque Objects, p. 186. Rogers’

Micrometers and Test Plates, p. 186. The Argand Burner. p. 187. Mono-

chromatic Sunlight. p. 1837. Amphipleura pellucida, p. 187. Postal Micro-

cabinet Club, p. 249. A new spring Clamp for mounting objects, JUus-

trated, p. 251. Preserving Algæ, p. 251. Mounting Selected Diatoms, p.

252. A Tinted Condensing Lens, p. 253. Wide-angled Objectives, p. 253.

Freezing applied to Histology, p. 254. Embedding in Elder Pith. p. 254.

A Section Cutter for hard objects, p. 315. Recent Objectives, p. 316.

Personal Equation in Microscopy, p. 317. Pigment particles, p. 317.

Double Staining of Wood and other Vegetable Sections, p. 376. Atlas

der Diatomaceenkunde, p. 428. Measurement of Möllers Probe Platte,

28. American Association, p. 430. A New Self-centring Turn-table,

p. 477. Atmospheric Micrography, p. 521, Spencer Microscopes, p. 575.

Mounting Stained Leaves, p. 575. Coloring Matter of ** Red Snow,” p. 575.

The “ Reflex Illuminator” for Direct Hlumination, p. 623. Reliability of 2

the Microscope, p. 623. A concentrated method of mounting, p- 624. A

new warm stage for the microscope, p. 665 Cox's Turntable, p. 667.

Norrs.—Pages 64, 126, 187, 255, 318, 379, 431, 478, 524, 576, 624, 667.

Excuances.— Pages 64, 191.

Books RECEIVED.—Pages 191, 256, 320, 384, 480, 523, 668.

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.—JANUARY, 1875.—No. 1.

—CSPFORDOOD >

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

BY REV. SAMUEL LOCKWOOD, PH.D.

In the “ pines” of southern New Jersey, which probably is the

northern limit of the species, is a notable serpent, reputed to

attain the great length of nearly twelve feet, and whose body is

then, in common parlance, ‘as thick as your arm,” or in more

moderate speech, from three and, a half to four inches in diameter.

Not that the writer has seen any of such dimensions, but he gives

what may be called the mean of popular observations. This rep-

tile has a shiny coat of a soft creamy white, upon which is laid,

much in the Dolly Varden mode, showy mottlings or blotches,

which, beginning at the neck, are of an intensely dark brown or

chocolate color, but which toward the tail lighten up into a pale

bright chestnut. Such is the pine snake; and its habitat and

traits are well expressed in the beautifully significant name which

science has given it — Pituophis melanoleucus, which literally

means, ‘the black and white serpent of the pines.” If one con-

sider the formidable size it is said to reach, together with its

notably harmless nature, and the splendid adornings of its scaly

armature, distinguished mention must be made of this reptile, as —

the most remarkable serpent of the Eastern States.

The first time I saw the pine snake alive was eighteen years

ago. Iwas on the steamboat going from Keyport to New York.

It was the berry season, and persons from the pines were on

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. ee

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. (1)

2 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

board taking their eggs and “ huckleberries” to the city market. |

The Pines, so called, had not up to that time been visited by me.

“ Forrard” of the boat, being the place where the hucksters,

farmers and fishermen most did congregate, was a sudden and

unusual commotion. One solitary woman held her own in this

crowd of men. She was from the Pines, and in her way was an

intensely thorough-going business body. She had a wagon-load

of eggs and berries, which latter she had bought of the pickers,

and on them she expected to ‘‘ realize” handsomely. The assist-

ant captain, an elderly and corpulent man, was collecting the fare.

Approaching the female huckster, whom he knew well, he accosted

her with “ Come, Peggy, your fare.” ‘Yes, Cap’en, but jist hold

my comforter till I git my pus out.” And in a trice a pair of pine

snakes, concealed beneath the woman’s shawl, were slung around

the captain’s neck. The old man’s example was electric! Such

accelerated evolutions! It seemed neck or nothing with every-

body but the huckster woman, who sat shaking with laughter.

She had retained hold of the reptiles by the tails, so that they

were left in her hands. She was taking them to Barnum, who

probably would give her a few shillings, and a few tickets to his

show. Prof. Baird had just before requested me to get a pair of

these reptiles for the Smithsonian. My mind was made up that

these should go to the Professor. At this juncture a fisherman

_ whispered into the woman’s ear, “ Keep your eyes. skinned, Aunty,

a science man’s around.” The woman became at.once very exact- -

ing. I bought the pair at an unreasonable price; but an acci-

dent prevented their ever seeing Washington. They were of

both sexes, I think, and were about three and a half feet long.

Their harmlessness surprised me. Even my little children played —

with them. Indeed the late Prof. Torrey, a good many years ago,

had a pair that were allowed the freedom of his study floor. The

female of my pair laid seven eggs, each about five-eighths of an

inch long. From their size they must have been premature.

Three summers ago a friend captured a fine female specimen

and sent me. It was in good condition, nearly six feet in length,

and as thick as my wrist. To my surprise the beast was incorri- _

gibly irritable; and kept up a vicious blowing, and darting at me,

each time hitting her nose against the glass cover of her box, 80 —

that, much to my grief, she knocked off the hard scale on the tip

of her snout. The cause of this unexpected conduct was not f

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. >

to seek. The poor thing had the cares of maternity coming upon

her. On the 18th of July she laid twelve white eggs; and a

beautiful sight did they present.. There were two clusters, the

eggs adhering to one another. Two of the eggs were under the

average size. These seemed to have been laid first. There was

one still smaller which seemed to have been laid the last. In one

of these clusters were seven eggs and in the other five. I was

astonished at their size. A single egg measured twenty-two lines

in length, and sixteen in width. They were in fact as large as

the eggs of an ordinary bantam fowl. One of them weighed 543

grs., and the whole weighed about fifteen ounces avoirdupois.

They were of nearly the same form and size at each end, except

that at the upper end, or the end last evicted, was a little cusp, or

teat-like prominence, precisely such as characterizes the fossil cop-

rolites, and due to the same cause, the nipping off, or closing up

of the cloaca, as the egg in its soft condition passed out. The

eggs at this precise moment must be quite soft, as they were

agglutinated together side by side. An attempt to separate a

pair succeeded in pulling off a portion of the shell which adhered

to the other egg. In this regard the resemblance to insect eggs

was striking. The shell had a fine and pretty marking, as of

reticulation.

An attempt was made to hatch the eggs, but without success.

They were put in a box of sand, which was moistened, and every

effort made to preserve the proper temperature by keeping it

warm ; but the eggs perished. It is curious that in all my inquiry

of the old settlers in the Pines, I have learned nothing about the

eggs of the pine snake, — no one, so far as I could ascertain, had

ever seen them

It is interesting to observe the pine snake drink. It lays its

head usually flat upon the water, letting the lower jaw just sink a

little below the surface, when with a very uniform movement, the _

water is drawn up into the mouth and passed into its throat. It —

is the same as the drinking of a horse; that is, it is a true drink-

ing. With a snake, lapping is an impossibility; the form rat

position of the tongue are unsuited for such an act. The ton

of a serpent is like a flattened cord, divided at the forward re

into two pointed threads as soft and flexible as silken fibres. This

delicate organ is projected from a round orifice in the middle, and

somewhat forward of the trough or hollow of the lower jaw. And

4 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

a very beautiful functional arrangement all this is; for as might

be conjectured, when swallowing its prey entire, the tongue must

be put out of the way. In this emergency it actually disappears

from the mouth altogether, being withdrawn at the orifice men-

tioned. Drinking, with the pine snake, is a slow affair. I have

several times watched it by the clock. Once it drank exactly five

minutes without taking breath. It then paused, looked about for

three minutes, and went at drinking again, occupying precisely

five minutes as before, thus making ten minutes. The amount of

water drank was a little over a gill. Previous to this drinking

sle had been without water four weeks

The reptiles have seemed to me specially to be capricious and

fastidious about feeding in confinement. The pair of small pine

snakes mentioned at the outset ate young chickens just from the

nest, but would not touch mice. My large one for a whole month

after laying her eggs had not eaten anything. A young chimney

swallow was given her, but, though the little thing fluttered and

cried, she took no notice of it. A young chick three days old was

offered, nor would she notice it. Both birds were removed unhurt,

in fact, untouched. A rat with a limb broken by the trap was

next putin her box. Her attention was at once aroused. After

looking intently at it for a minute, she made a sudden dart, strik-

ing the rat on its side with her nose. With a squeak, the poor

thing turned its face towards its grim assailant. The latter with

head erect, but motionless, and tongue quivering, kept its eyes

steadily on its victim. There was a sudden spring, and the rat’s

nose was in the grip of the monster’s mouth. Quickly, but delib-

erately, the snake held its victim against the side of the box ; then

setting the sharp edge of each of the long scuta or abdominal —

scales on the floor, as a fulcrum, brought a part of its body, like _

the convex side of a strong bow, against its prey, forcing it to the

side of the box with a compression that made the bones of the rat

give a crackling sound. The suffering of the victim was but for

a moment, as I have no doubt that the spine was broken instantly.

Although the prey was quite dead, there was still that singular

deliberation, and several minutes elapsed before that compression :

was relaxed. Quietly now the snake began the act of swallowing

its prey. It commenced with the head. The action of the crea-

ture is very interesting. It is not by a uniform movement of the

entire prey that the swallowing is performed. The snake opens ©

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. 5

its mouth widely on one side, and then gives a slight hitch with its

outer teeth, or the teeth on the opened side of the mouth. This

done the mouth is kept closed on that side of its prey, and the

other side of the mouth is now opened, and the same hitching gone

through; and so the action is alternated, the hitching being about

two minutes on each side by turn. It is pretty much as if the fin-

ger of a tight thread glove should be drawn on by using the nails

of a thumb and finger successively on the sides. This is a beau-

tiful mechanical movement, by which the force applied is admi-

rably economized, a prime consideration when food in a mass much

larger than the head and neck of the snake is to be passed entire

through the gullet. The swallowing is so extremely slow that the

movement is practically imperceptible. With watch in hand I

found when the hind legs of the rat disappeared twenty minutes

had elapsed since the swallowing began. The tail of the prey is

the last to disappear. But in the final movement the mouth of the

snake takes no part. The body having passed the gullet there is

a vigorous muscular action along the long thorax. To our aston-

ishment we now heard again that singular crepitating sound which

resembled the breaking of the bones; could it be the breaking of

the ribs? In slowness of eating and drinking our ophidian fulfils

strictly the precept of the most exacting hygienist.- But what

bout the breathing for those twenty minutes during which the

entire throat was closed as tightly as the wadding stops up a gun?

Surely for the time being respiration was absolutely checked. As

if to make up for this estoppel of its breath, the creature is now

gaping so widely that a fine opportunity is afforded to inspect the

interior of its mouth.

A fact observed here, as also when I fed the smaller ones with

birds, was that the snake did not beslime or lubricate its victim

before swallowing. I had expected to see this, for I once caught

a large black snake, Bascanion constrictor, robbing a nest of young

birds. The nest was in a hummock of grass in a swamp. It had

two birds on the ground, one of which was literally enveloped in

white slime, like a fly in a cobweb, and the other was in process

of lubrication. Unfortunately the snake saw me, and the process

was stopped, as the animal now tried to escape.

By the old settlers in the Pines, this reptile is often called the

bull snake, because of the remarkable sound it makes when blow-

ing. A case was told me of a large pine snake being captured by

6 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

a farmer’s boy, who tied a string around its tail, and having ~ :

taken it home, tied the string to a small bush near the kitchen

door. Not intending anything, the boy said nothing about it.

As the family were at supper, the snake commenced blowing.

This was heard by the good mother, who cried out, ‘‘ There, that

bull’s got into the corn field again!” The boy broke into laugh-

ter, and then told what he had done. And well do I remember

my boyish terror at hearing a similar sound. It was the restrained

bellowing of a bull, which came upon me suddenly in a field.

There is nothing sibilant in this blowing of the pine snake, not

the slightest hiss about it. The animal slowly fills its long thorax

with air, and then expels it YUR a bellowing which is really for-

midable.

Observations made on an animal in ppr should be

weighed accordingly. A fact given me by an old resident in the

“ Pines” would indicate that the pine snake is a great feeder. He

said he saw one killed, out of which were taken two young rabbits a

and twelve quail eggs (the eggs may have been her own). This

snake likes to get under barns, without doubt in quest of rats and

mice. But for the above statement, I might have inferred from

my specimen that the species is a moderate feeder, as it often

refused foad offered it. About a week after the swallowing of the-

two rats I put a live one into the snakes box. She was not ~

hungry, and was evidently annoyed by the rat’s presence. So she —

made a dart, striking it on its side. The rat, plucky in its terror,

turned upon and bit its assailant. This was a new experience to ©

the reptile, and momentarily dazed with incomprehension of the :

‘situation, it recoiled upon itself. It was, however, beside itself —

but for a moment, for it instantly became alive with subtle action.

The tongue quivered with excitement, and that living cable, which ©

made up those fearful coils, began a rapid thickening. The-

creature seemed to be inhaling air down its whole length. Now

began that fearful blowing. It was truly a bellowing of snakish —

rage, and was followed up by a savage dart at the innocent in- —

truder, which gallantly returned the compliment with another nip —

of its sharp teeth, sending the snake back in haste to the farther —

. corner of the box. I noticed that the rat was in nowise stupe- —

fied, or affected in any way corresponding to the so-called fasci-

nation of serpents. Keeping its head raised, eyes fixed” and :

tongue quivering, the snake filled with air again; then sani

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. 7

came that appalling sound, and another dart, with the same re-

sponse from the rat. I cannot depict the seeming tussle of each

round. It was not so much on either part an effort to close in, as

it was to deliver its own shot, and then get out of the way, so that

on the part of the snake each charge received caused a squirming

that looked like a wild beating of the air. She went at the poor

rodent again and again. Matters were waxing desperate. The

rounds were quicker and more severe. There was less blowing and

harder fighting. Iwas now desirous to separate them, but knew

not how to bring it about. The truth told, I was getting to be

somewhat nervous about the personal appearance of my beautiful

serpent, which seemed in great peril of bodily damage. At last

both combatants seemed sick of their bargain. So there was a

temporary truce, which intermission of hostilities, as it often is

with wiser bodies, was made the opportunity of a mutual effort to

escape, the rat inspecting every part of the box, and gnawing at

every crevice; the snake butting her nose in vain attempts to

break through the glass. The truce lasted ten minutes. The rat

was sitting quietly in a corner cleaning its face with its paws.

The snake had ceased its vain darting at the glass cover, and, as

if for rest, had spread itself over two-thirds. of the floor of the

pox. It seemed as if a fair understanding had been reached, and

that hostilities were really at an end. It was a treacherous calm.

Incited by some cause the rat made a run for the opposite side of

the box. Alas! this movement was the one fatal error of this

little hero’s life. In attempting this, it had to cross over a por-

tion of its enemy’s body. It was the merest touch, but that

touch was death. Instantly every particle of the serpent’s body

flashed into activity, as if the whole had been powder, and a spark

of fire had fallen on it. In the merest fraction of a second of

time, the reptile that seemed to be lying so languid was trans-

formed into an inverted nest, under which was the poor rat. I

looked for the head of the snake. It was under this living nest,

holding at the hinder part its victim, which was doubled up in this

strange compression. And stranger still was the wonderful ad-

justment that a half minute of time sufficed to accomplish. The

inverted nest of coils opened at its upper or convex end, like the

crater of a miniature volcano. Out of this was evolved the head

and front feet of the little rodent, whose dark lustrous eyes stood

out and neck grew thick from the fearful compression. As the

8 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

pretty little flesh-colored hands lay upon that fatal upper coil, it

did so look like the intercession of helpless suffering with pitiless

power! This terrible constrictor, although the act was done in an

instant, had fully exhausted all her ingenuity in throwing up this :

fearful engine of strangulation. It was not merely a series of

nest-like constricting coils, but one great coil went transversely

over all the others; as when the hand squeezes a lemon, and the

other hand is made to help the compression. One could hear the

bones crack! All this time the head of the serpent is underneath,

holding its little captive in place, while that spiral vise squeezes

out the brave little life that has so stoutly held its own against

such odds in a mortal combat of two long hours. Happily death

is almost instantaneous, for it is a literal crushing out of life.

Eight minutes have elapsed, and that spiral coil is still wound

up, rigid and motionless as a rope of iron. How patient the crea-

ture is! So still, so quiet, one would hardly think it was alive.

Now it withdraws its head from underneath the coils. This re-

leases a part of the transverse fold, and gives to the head ten

inches of free movement. That head is raised above its prey, and

is there set at the extremity of an impending and motionless curve.

Nor is there the least aspect of snakishness about the act, but a

certain quiet air, as though the reptile was conscious that the

thing was done. A change comes at last. The head is still aloft,

the eyes are fixed on its victim, the neck and part of the long tho-

rax swell with inspiration ; then comes that indescribable blowing.

It is evidently taking a good long breath after a tough job. There

may be in it a relief to its nervous excitement. -Is there in it any

exultation? Who can tell? Now comes a slow, but general

slackening, or relaxing of the coils. The head, however, is still

kept aloft with the eyes set upon the little mangled body. As the

upper coil opens the victim lies on one side, as if inanest. The

snake lowers its head and touches it with that delicate bifid

tongue, which is doubtless an organ of acute feeling. Then it

rubs its head against the dead little hero, pushing the head into,

and moving it all round the coil for that purpose. This toying

with its victim lasts about four minutes. At length the coils all

slacken, and Pituophis stretches herself out for repose. She is ae

now utterly indifferent about her conquest. We left the rat in the

box until next day, when it was removed and subjected to a pot

mortem. I found the vertebre dislocated in three places, one

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. 9

place just back of the neck, and two places in the dorsal re-

ion. .

Early in the second summer a splendid male Pituophis was sent

me. Itwas seen swimming across a stream, and was captured

after landing. It was about six feet in length. But a few min-

utes before an equally fine specimen was killed in the same place,

and the belief was that this was its mate. The coloring was very

bright, showy splashes of pale chestnut predominating. I put it

with my female specimen. They took no notice of each other,

though kept together until May of the next year, when the male

died. I think it got some rough handling ‘in its capture, from

which it never recovered.

Old charcoal burners in the Pines entertain the belief that the

pine snake destroys the rattlesnake; but I have never found the

-man that had seen the pine snake kill a rattlesnake. They say

that generally they can tell if a rattlesnake is around by the smell,

which is like that of a cucumber. That the pine snake can emit

an odor of a far more powerful character than the rattlesnake, is

well known tothese men. Their notion is that the smell is thrown

out with the breath when blowing. This I think is a mistake, ex-

cept the fact that it may occur during the blowing, which is itself

‘an act or manifestation of rage or other high emotion. There

was a man in the Pines who kept up an objectionable familiarity

with the snakes. He would put a black snake inside his hat, then

go into the hostelry and banter some of the loungers to knock off.

his hat, an accommodation which was soon granted, when a dis-

play of Gorgon locks of raven hue would result, that constituted

him, for the nonce, sole occupant of the premises. Such coolness

would make any one a good observer. This man said he fell in

with a very large pine snake in the woods. His words very nearly

were, “ You can tease a pine snake with a stick, and instead of

trying to get away, it will coil itself, and give up. So I took a

long stick and began teasing it. It reared itself, and began blow-

ing (bellowing) fearfully, and there fell on me a stench so sicken-

ing, that I could not stand it. It seemed to rain on me! I turned

and ran away as hard as [ could! That the adult snake has this

singular power must be accepted. The same experience has been

given me by many others, and I have myself experienced it,

though in a faint degree. I am not disposed to believe that it

‘comes from the animal’s mouth, however, and think that it can be

10 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

determined only by dissections of the posterior parts. This facul-

ty may be compensatory — a means of defence for an animal nat-

urally timid. And may it not be also for sexual attraction? In

this particular it is probable the pine snake is not singular, and it

is likely that where this function is feeble in the other snakes, it

is strong enough for the latter purpose. A man very much beyond

the average intelligence and education, a teacher in the Pines,

said to me “ I once saw a black snake come out of the woods into

the soft sandy road; and it acted precisely as a dog does that is

nosing out a scent. The snake came to a snake’s track in the —

sand. It at once put itself in the track, and began to follow it;

when, seeing me, it turned off to the woods and got away.”

As is well known, the capacity of abstinence from food is

remarkable among the serpents. Late in September, 1874, I

killed a mouse, and gave to the female Pituophis. She seized it,

gave it the usual squeeze, then swallowed it, taking just five min-

utes for the latter task. The next day I gave her another dead

mouse, with exactly the same results. This was the first time

that she had broken fast since September, 1873, — just one year

before !

She had in the previous year on one occasion eaten a good-sized

rat, that was given her dead, taking eighteen minutes for the oper-

ation. And I must mention here that I have known the Flat-head

Adder or Blowing Viper, Heterodon platyrhinos, to eat the heads

of the common eel, left on the shore by the fisherman. So that

the assertion that snakes will not take food that they have not

killed themselves, is not in all cases correct.

Late in August, 1873, I noticed that the snake seemed sickly-

The dim, horny look of the eyes told the reason. She was nearly,

if not quite, blind; and was about to cast off her old skin. To

me, this was a time of anxiety, I was so anxious to witness an-

operation which I had never seen. On the 30th, owing to a rest-

less night from illness, I rose later than usual. Went directly to.

the snake box— what a disappointment ! The snake had cast her

skin, and was now all aglow in her new winter dress. I was struck

with the wonderful clearness of the eyes, and was reminded of

the shoreman’s slang, as previously given. I now saw a new sig-

nificance in their vulgar speech; and it occurred to me that many

a poor ophthalmic sufferer would rejoice if he could thus exuviate

his optics. re | ae

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. 11

But the desire came at last. Near the close of September,

1873, at 1 p.m., looking into the box, I saw that the snake had

started the skin from her head. It was a little torn at the snout,

and I found that the head and neck were denuded for about two

inches. The denuding process was going on, but very slowly.

Doubtless the chief difficulty was in starting the skin, and I felt

sorry that I did not see the start. The neck was slowly becoming

divested of the old cuticle, which, at first glance, had a sort of

rolling aspect. What surprised me was the fact that there was

not the least friction in the act; that is, there was no rubbing

against any exterior object. As the old skin at this time is very

moist and soft, any swelling of the body stretches and loosens it.

- So soon as the exuviation has reached the part of the body con-

taining the larger ribs, this doffing of the old suit proceeds more

rapidly, and with a singular system. It is done just in this way.

Exactly at the place where the skin seems to be moving backward,

a pair of ribs expands. This action enlarges the body and loos-

ens the skin at that place. In this movement both ribs in the pair

act at the same time, just as the two blades of the scissors open

together. Now comes in a second movement of this pair of ribs.

One of them — say the one on the right side —is pushed forward,

and made to slip out of the constriction, when it is immediately

drawn backward, that is, against the neck of the old skin. Now

the left rib makes a like advance, and in a like manner presses

backward. Thus the final action of the ribs is not synchronous,

but alternate. And how notable becomes the sameness of result

in this action with that of the alternate hitching of each side of

the mouth when swallowing. Indeed, swallowing by a serpent is

a misnomer; for that laborious hitching is not a pushing of the

prey down the gullet, but a drawing of the body over it. The

western man said, he always felt better after getting himself ,

around a two-pound steak. With the serpent, this is a literal fact ;

it puts itself outside of its victim. And so with the singular action

of the ribs—it seems to push the skin backwards; but this is an ~

illusion, for it actually pushes itself forward, and advances out of

the skin, thus with each movement or advance, lengthening the

double cylinder behind; that is, the old hose evolves from itself

forward, though it appears to be rolled on itself backward.

The ribs of a serpent, which extend very nearly throughout its

whole length, are very much smaller in the neck and tail.

12 THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY.

these parts exuviation is much slower than when the larger ribs

have play. This rib action produced a singular automatic move-

ment of the serpent on the floor of its box, and even across the

folds of its companion, which kept as still as if it were dead. The

movement of the snake’s body, as the skin did not follow it, gave

the creature the appearance of crawling out of a tubular case. The

skin of course was presented inside out, so that every scale showed

its concave side, which was true also of the scales of the eyes.

To all this was one exception. The last scale of the tail is a hol-

low pyramidal, or four-sided spike. It is fully half an inch in

length. This, for plain reasons,'was not inverted. The entire

process of exuviation, allowing five minutes for the part that I did

not witness, took thirty-five minutes.

There was a great contrast of color and brilliancy between the —

old and the new attire! Unversed in serpentine psychology, we

are not able to say what went on in the caput of this creature,

which the adage has made so famous for wisdom. With a dress

of such a rich creamy glow, and such adornings of brown, and

chocolate, and chestnut, what blame if it were proud of its new at-

tire? She certainly seemed to show her feelings in a feline way,

for she rubbed her head, with a seeming cat-like complacency,

against that of her companion. As for him, poor fellow, he had

been ten weeks trying to get his trousers off, and after this panting

time, had only succeeded in tearing the garment. He seemed now

to be acting like that human, who, after a vain tussle with his

tight boots, retired to allow his mind time to regain its composure.

The truth told, it took Mr. Pituophis exactly three months to get

off his pantaloons. It would only come off in bits at a time, and

by painful friction, which, as shown above, is not the normal way

of a snake’s undressing. Indeed, it looked as if a valet would —

have to be provided. But on the 13th of October, a warm Indian

summer day, he was successful in doffing his old vestment. Hav-

ing got out of those dilapidated tights, he looked more comfortable,

and in his new suit appeared a very presentable fellow. :

Even in its excrementing, it observes a singular method, which,

however, is perhaps not peculiar to itself. In every instance —

and I have made a number of observations —the first voiding is 2

clear liquid. This would make a circular spread on the floor of

the box, about as large as one’s hand. ‘In the middle of this was —

immediately voided a heap of a uniform granular powder, of a

THE PINE SNAKE OF NEW JERSEY. 13

deep straw color. This was about as wide as a dollar. On top of

this was asmaller mass composed entirely of hair, unchanged from

its natural color. This was the indigested portion of its last meal.

This excrement was made three weeks after its meal of two rats.

It is to be remarked, there was not the smallest bit of indigested

bone. I regret that my intention to secure chemical analyses was

not carried out.

When the summer was advanced I put into the box a fresh sod

of grass. After a while the snake became very fond of it, but its

first acquaintance with it was the occasion of a singular demon-

stration. The stupid thing at once assumed an attitude of threat- _

ening inquiry. It raised its head aloft, and in the direction of the

strange object, vibrating its tongue, and keeping its eyes intently

. fixed upon it. That head, and the part of the body thus elevated

looked as rigid as if cast in brass. And for a full hour was that

statuesque rigidity of posture sustained. How much longer I

know not, as I was called away. This singular command of the

muscles is probably peculiar to all the constrictors. The common

black snake can be taken in the hand by the lower part of the

body, and the rest of the animal be projected forward, of its own

will, in a straight rigid line. Owing to this command of the mus-

cles the pine snake is capable of performing some evolutions,

which are not only beautiful, but so intricate and delicate as to

make them seem imbued with the nature we call spiritual. I have

often seen the Pituophis spread out in loose coils with its head in

the central one, wake up after a long repose and begin a movement

in every curve, the entire body engaged in the mazy movement,

with no going out, of deviation from the complicated pattern

marked on the floor, Observing this intricate harmoniousness of

movement, I thought of the Seer’s vision of the mystic wheels.

Those revolving coils—‘As for their appearances, they four had

one likeness, as if a wheel had been in the midst of a wheel.”

In the popular pictorial tablets of Natural History in Japan, their

generic idea of a snake is given in the words Kuchi Nawa, *‘ Rope

with mouth at end.” And this is pretty much the crude popular

conception of an ophidian the whole world over. But the move-

ments of a serpent are never started rope-like at one end, and

thus transmitted to the other; nor is the movement like the

force-waves sent through a ribbon vibrating in the air. The move-

ment consists of numberless units of individual activities, all reg-

14 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

ulated by and under the perfect control of one will, that is felt in

every curve and line. There is some likeness to the thousand per-

sonal activities of a regiment seen on their “ winding way.” An

all this perfection of control of so many and complicated activities

is true, whether a serpent like an ogre be crushing its victim’s

bones, or as a limbless posturist be going through its inimitable

evolutions. In our thinking a serpent ranks as a paradox among

animals. There is so much seeming contradiction. At one time

encoiling its prey as in iron bands; again assuming the immov-

able posturing of a statue; then melting into movements so intri-

.cate and delicate that the lithe or limbless thing looks like gossa-

mer incarnate. In this creature all the unities seem to be set aside.

Such weakness, and such strength p such gentleness, and such vin-

dictiveness ; so much of beauty, and yet so repulsive ; fascination

and terror :— what need of wonder that whether snake or python,

the serpent should so figure in the myths of all the ages, and the

literature of the whole world! Yes, in the best, and the worst a

thinkings of men!

itl SE

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN

UTAH, IN 1874. I.

BY DR. C. COC. PARRY.

Tue hastily gathered collection of plants made by Fremont on 3 a

his adventurous return trip from California, in the spring of 1844,

contained quite a number of remarkable new forms, from the little eo

known district adjoining the valley of the Virgen, then included

in the Mexican Territory of Upper California. Several of these —

newly discovered plants, as far as the imperfect material allowed, |

were described by Dr. Torrey and Prof. Gray, in Fremont’s Re-

port, ‘*Plante Fremontianz,” and other scientific publications. —

Subsequently the inaccessibility of the country, and the hostile

character of the Indian tribes occupying this district, prevented | -

for a time farther botanical researches. With the growth of Mor- |

mon settlement gradually extending southward from Salt Lake, ~

the obstacles to exploration were in great measure removed and- —

the valley of the Virgen lay along the line of one of the travelled

routes to southern California. During this period, late in the year

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 15

1855, a French naturalist, named J. Remy, passed over this route

from Salt Lake to Los Angeles, and made a scanty collection of

plants on the journey, which were afterwards deposited in the

Paris Museum. His published narrative, entitled “Pays des

Mormons,” contained only very general allusions to the botany of

the region traversed, and no scientific account was given of his

collections, the material being apparently imperfect and fragment-

ary. Since then, up to the year 1870, we have no account of any

botanical collector visiting this district. At the latter date (1870),

at the suggestion of the writer, Dr. E. Palmer, then in the joint-

service of the Department of Agriculture, in Washington, and the

Smithsonian Institution, was induced to visit this section on a

collecting tour, extending to the mouth of the Colorado and the

Pacific coast. Leaving Salt Lake in the latter part of May, he

spent about three weeks in the vicinity of St. George, collecting

in that vicinity a number of new species of plants which were

mainly described in Mr. Watson’s Botanical Report of the geolog-

ical exploration, 40° parallel, vol. v.

In the following years (1871-2), the expeditions of Lt. Wheeler

- and Major Powell, both touched on this district, and small collec-

tions of plants, made by Mrs. E. P. Thompson, Capt. Bishop and

others connected with these surveys, added several new species to

the flora of this district, being described by Mr. Watson in the

American Naturauist (Vol. vii, pp. 299-303).

In addition to these published sources, several local collectors

have at different times aided materially in extending our knowl-

edge of the plants of this region, among whom may be mentioned

as especially worthy of notice, Mr. A. L. Siler, and J. E. Johnson,

Esq., both resifents of southern Utah.

Being desirous of obtaining a more complete view of the botan-

ical features of this district, and especially of securing the evan-

escent spring plants, which on account of the late season of

gathering or hasty mode of travel, other collectors had mainly

neglected, the writer undertook a botanical collecting tour, early in

the present season (1874). It seemed like anything but a prom-

ising prospect for the success of this enterprise, to encounter on

my arrival at Salt Lake, March 20th, a snowfall of nearly two

feet, interfering seriously with the ordinary means of travel, and

rendering the journey over the high intervening country, between

Salt Lake and St. George, a distance of 350 miles, exceedingly

tedious and disagreeable.

16 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

Not before passing over the rim of the great basin, within a

short day’s travel of my destination, was there any appearance of a |

advancing vegetation; but on dropping down suddenly into the

valley of the Virgen, on April 5th, the whole floral aspect assumed

a change almost magical ; orchards in full bloom including peach,

almond, and apricot, marked at a distance by a perfect blaze of —

blossoms the scattered settlements, while the lucerne fields with

their deep green foliage were nearly ready for a first forage crop.

Over the intervening desert table-land the aspects of advanced —

spring were evidenced in rainbow-colored patches of Phacelia Fre- —

montii Torr. and bright yellow clusters of Hunanus Bigelovii Gray —

(No. 147). The approach to St. George, which I had previously —

selected as the central point of my explorations, was at this

season, and under the circumstances of the case in contrast with

the bleak country just passed over, peculiarly attractive. The va-

riety of rock exposure in the form of steep mural cliffs of red —

. sandstone, and high basaltic mesas, with their slopes of broken —

talus, gave promise of a rich harvest, which the result of my

labors fully realized.

From the 5th of April up to June 1st, there was a continuous

succession of interesting forms, almost bewildering in their singu-

lar botanical features. Early in the season, the chief attr action

centred on the evanescent annuals, which were scattered in great

profusion over every bare knoll, in rock crevices, or under the

scant shelter of the dull colored desert shrubbery. Largely rep-

resented among these is the genus Phacelia, including P. Fre-

montii Torr. (No 177), whose showy spikes continue to unfold a

succession of blossoms for four weeks or more. Hardly l

showy is the Phacelia crassifolia Torr. (No. 182), ‘with flowers of

an intense blue shade, thickly scattered over gypseous clay knoll

This latter species frequently becoraes dwarfed in exposed places,

associated with P. rotundifolia (No. 183), while later in the

season, P. crenulata Torr. (No. 180), P. curvipes n. sp. ? (No. 179),

and the biennial P. Palmeri Torr. (No. 176), keep up the series.

Hardly inferior to the above noted omnipresent forms of early

spring vegetation, must be reckoned the different species of Gilia,

which, though generally less showy, vie with them in variety :

abundance. These latter include, besides the widely distributed

and very variable Gilia inconspicua Dougl. (No. 199), the rarer

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 17

forms of G. leptomeria Gray (No. 197), G. demissa Gray (No.

196), G. Bigelovii Gray (No. 189), -G. flocosa Gray (No. 192), GŒ

P Torr. (No. 191), @. setosissima Gray (No. 190), and

very delicate species with light yellow flowers, looking like flax,

G. filiformis n. sp. (No. 187

Among other interesting doart forms characterizing the early

spring flora, may be noted Thysanocarpus curvipes Hook., Malvas-

trum exile Gray, Lupinus Sileri Watson, Actinolepis Wallacei Gray,

Actinolepis lanosa Gray, Syntrichopappus Fremontii Gray, Layia

glandulosa H. & A., Styloclyne micropoides Gray, Nemacladus

ramosissimus Nutt., Nama demissa Gray, Pterostegia drymari-

oides F. &

Somewhat intari the season, as we shall have occasion to note

farther on, a different class of annuals, largely represented by

Eriogonez and Boraginez, come forward to continue the series of

evanescent forms.

Of perennial plants the early spring gave abundant promise, in

the opening leaf and developing bud, of many strange forms.

Among these the first to attract attention is a very common bushy

shrub, with small inconspicuous flowers, crowded along the slen-

der branches, almost hidden from view in the densely fasciculate

leaves. This, which is readily recognized in its habit and pecu-

liar peach-leaf odor, as belonging to the Amygdalee group of Ro-

sacewe, was characterized by Dr. Torrey in ** Plante Fremontiane”’

fig. 10), from imperfect material under the name of E’mplectocla-

dus fasciculatus Torr. The more complete material now collected

shows it to be not generically distinct from Prunus, being indeed

closely allied to the Prunus minutiflora Engel. ; it has accordingly

been reduced by Prof. Gray to a section of Prunus, viz.: P. (Em-

plectocladus) fasciculata Gray (No. 56). By the inhabitants of

the country it is known under the appropriate name of ‘ wild

almond,” its small fruit, though bitter, being occasionally eaten.

Among other early flowering shrubs of this district, may be

enumerated Rhus aromatica Ait., and one of the numerous forms

of the variable Amelanchier Cianicdennls T. &G. Quite commonly

met with in deep sandstone ravines and on rocky slopes is the

singular one-leaved ash, Fraxinus anomala Torr. (No. 210).

This forms a clumpy bush eight to twelve feet in height, with

bright green foliage, set off later in the season by pendent fasci-

cles of fruit, of which the separate seeds are not unfrequently —

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL, IX.

18 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

3-angled. From the mature seed somewhat copiously collected, it —

is to be hoped that this singular species may be introduced into —

our gardens. i

Of early bulbous plants edmi breviflorum Watson

(No. 223) is quite common on all gravelly hills, succeeded some- —

`- what later in the season by Milla capitata (No. 256), which latter —

exhibits an equally well-marked corona subtending the stamens, —

thus apparently invalidating the distinctions whigh have been —

relied on for separating the allied genera of Millee. : |

Early in May, Culochortus fleayosus Watson (No. 254) is con- —

spicuous on hill-sides, with its showy tulip-like blossoms, which, 4

on account of its prolonged branching flower stem, continues to —

flower for a longer period than most species of this attractive

genus. The general Indian name of “Sego” is applied indiscrim-

inately to all the edible bulbs of this region. Apparently quite —

out of place in this arid climate, we notice quite frequently on

the perpendicular face of moist sandstone rocks, Adiantum, Capil-

lus venesis L. (No. 262). Still more interesting is a common

fern growing in dry rock crevices, resembling Cheilanthes, which

Prof. Eaton on a critical examination determines to be a new

species of Notholena characterized by him as N. Parryi n. e

(See appendix No. 263).

With the disappearance of late spring frosts, which frequently

continue to the latter part of April, and occasionally as late

early May, the intense heat of the lengthening days, rarely ob-

scured by clouds, or tempered by showers, brings forward a rapid

development of the more characteristic forms of vegetation.

May ist orchards had mostly dropped their blossoms; the fruit of

the apricot and almond were developing, and strawberries begin-

ning to ripen, giving to fields and gardens a summer aspect. In

the open country an analogous feature is brought to view in the

native vegetation. We accordingly note the appearance of sev- $

eral species of Œnothera, conspicuous among which is a large

yellow-flowered one, which being undescribed, I take pleasure 1 in |

dedicating to my esteemed friend, J. E. Johnson, Esq., as Œno-

thera Johnsonii n. sp. (See appendix No. 64). Mr. Johnson, who

has had this plant for many years in his garden, called my atten- -

tion to the regularity and suddenness of its opening, from fifteen

to twenty minutes after sunset. This opening process, as fi

PEY observed by both of us, is —— by a shrin

ise

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 19

downward of the valvular calyx, the accumulated tension at a

certain point suddenly releasing the segments from below up-

wards, which, becoming reflexed, allows the closely-confined con-

volute corolla to unfold visibly, its petals expanding in about

thirty seconds, to a horizontal position. Quite constantly, just

at this time, a small bee, apparently on the watch, darts in an

loads itself with the stringy, adhesive pollen, to be carried, prob-

ably, to another flower. Generally, soon after, another bee on

the same quest lands on the same flower, and finding the pollen

gone, travels quickly over the stigmatic arms and soon flies away.

This process frequently repeated ensures cross-fertilization.

Other Gnothere include a large white-flowered variety of the

polymorphous Œ. albicaulis (No. 63); as a rarity we also meet

with the very neat Œ. primiveris. Gray (No. 65).

Of the group belonging to the Chylisma section, we have three

well-marked forms represented. Of these, Nos. 73—74 are referred

by Mr. Watson to Œnothera brevipes Gray ; both have yellow flow-

ers, of which those of No. 73 are most conspicuous. No. 74 is dis-

tinguished by a more branching habit, smaller light-yellow flowers,

longer pedicels, and more conspicuous pinnatisect radical leaves.

A third species of this section is characterized by Mr. Watson

as Œnothera Parryi n. sp. (See appendix No. 72). This lat-

ter is of a singularly graceful habit, generally much branched,

its prolonged spike of small yellow flowers being succeeded by

distinctly clavate capsules, curving upwards from a slender divar-

icate pedicel. Quite constantly associated with this latter spe-

cies, occupying dry gypseous clay knolls, is a very neat and showy

Mentzelia (No. 78). This, though closely allied to the common

M. multiflora Nutt., seems to present characters sufficient to dis-

tinguish it as a new species. Observing the two growing often

side by side, the differences in habit, time of flowering and floral

characters seem sufficiently distinct, nor were there any interme-

diate forms noticed. In the meantime it may be well to wait for

a more full revision of this genus before venturing to add to the

number of doubtful species.

= Common at this season upon all sandstone or gravelly knolls, is

the charming Dalea Johnsoni Watson (No. 40), with its deep

indigo blue spikes. Now also comes forward Coleogyne ramosis-

-sima Torr. (No. 57), its dull green foliage being relieved by a pro-

fasion of light-yellow blossoms. Aster tortifolius Gray (No. 91),

20 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

with its large pale-blue heads, adds an unwonted brilliancy to the

clefts of dark basaltic rocks. Aydibertia incana Benth. (No. —

159) is conspicuous along the line of dry ravines, with its dense —

blue spikes, and silvery foliage, exhaling a most pungent perfume.

Other varieties include Lepidium Fremontii Watson, Hymenoclea

salsola T. & G., Franseria dumosa Gray, Salazaria Mexicana

Torr., Lycium Torreyi Gray. a

Not least among the attractions of this flowering season are —

the Cacti, which include Opuntia rutilla Nutt., presenting 4 —

perfect mass of delicate pink rosettes, set in a bed of spines.

Cereus Engelmanni Parry exhibits flowers of a deeper purple |

shade, which are succeeded by a delicious fruit, when it can be

safely extracted from its thorny envelope. Mammillaria phel-

osperma Engel., or ‘‘ the fish-hook cactus,” is found as a rarity in —

rocky clefts, at this season adorned with its bright red fruit. On —

all gravelly knolls in this section a common arborescent Opuntia

is met with (O. Echinocarpa Engel.). This species has an incon-

spicuous yellowish green flower nearly buried in a mass of barbed

_ spines ; otherwise its usually repulsive features are partly utilized

by birds, who find in their spiny recesses, nesting places secu

from the attack of snakes.

~ Chenopodiacee are everywhere largely represented by the fole

lowing, viz., Atriplex expansa Watson, A. confertifolia Watson,

A, Nuttallii Watson, A. canescens Watson, Kochia Americana

Watson, Suæœda diffusa Watson, Eurotia lanata Moquin, and

Grayia polygalvides H. & A., the latter with much more graceful

foliage than noticed farther north, lalmost reconciles one to the im-

position of this honored botanical name to a *‘ grease wood.”

The undergrowth comprises quite a number of singular Cichora-

ceous Compositee, including Malacothrix Coulteri Gray, M. Torrey?

Gray, Rafinesquia Man PATE Gray, Calycoseris Wrightii Gray,

Microseris macrocheta Gray, M. linearifolia Gray, Stephanomeria.

Thurberi Gray, S. exigua Nutt., Lygodesmia exigua Gray. To

these must be added as especially worthy of notice, the charming

Glyptopleura setulosa Gray (No. 129), with its pure white blossoms,

and cut fringed leaves, pressed close to the ground. This growing

abundantly everywhere on gravelly soil, or dry bottom land, pre-

sents a succession of flowers opening in bright sunshine. Not un-

frequently on gravelly slopes we meet with the rare Composite®,

Monoptilon bellidiformis Gray (No. 100), heretofore only known

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 2i

from a single Fremontian specimen. The large class of annual

and perennial Hriogonee come forward in the latter part of May,

allusion to which must be deferred to a succeeding paper, together

with some more detailed notices of excursions to the higher moun-

tains and alpine districts, south and west of St. George.

NOTE. The nu mbers affixed to species in the foregoing paper, correspond to the

numbered sets, in the distributed collection.

THE COLOSSAL so eget OF THE NORTH

NTIC.

BY PROF. A. E. VERRILL:

PE TPL

In a former article published in the Naturatist (vol. viii, p.

167, March, 1874) the writer gave a brief account of several

gigantic cuttle-fishes, or ‘‘squids,” which have been observed or

captured at or near Newfoundland,! and in an earlier volume (vii,

p- 91) Dr. Packard gave an account of previous captures of

similar huge Cephalopods on the coasts of North America and

Europe. The existence of several distinct species of these colos-

sal ten-armed Cephalopods has been satisfactorily demonstrated

in the various papers that have been written upon the subject

both in Europe and America. Most of the specimens hitherto

obtained have been taken in the Atlantic Ocean, but at least one

gigantic species (Hnoploteuthis unguiculata) inhabits the Indian

Ocean, while the origin of some of the described specimens is not

known.

In this article I propose to describe portions of five different

specimens of these monsters, now in my possession, and also to

give some account of five other specimens that have been observed

on our side of the Atlantic.

The five specimens that I have been able to study evidently

belong to two quite distinct species, both of which belong to the

, genus Architeuthis of Steenstrup (or Megaloteuthis of Kent).

The largest of these is represented only by the jaws of two

1See also an article on this subject by the writer, in the “American Journal of Sci-

ence,” vol. vii, p. 158, Feb., 1874; and letters from Mr. Alexander Murray in the NATUR-

ALIST, vol. 8, p. 120, Feb., 1874.

22 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

. specimens, one of which (No. 1 in my former articles) was found

floating at the Banks of Newfoundland, and the other (which we — :

will designate as No. 10) was taken from the stomach of a sperm a

whale. The upper jaw of the latter was imperfectly figured by a

Dr. Packard in his article referred to above, and it is the largest —

jaw yet known. These belong to an apparently undescribed spe-

cies, which I propose to name Architeuthis princeps? and shall e]

describe more fully farther on. It is readily distinguished from

the following by the blacker, thicker, stronger and more incurved

beaks, and especially by the large and very prominent tooth or

projection, arising from the margin of the cutting edges of the

alze, on the lower jaw. The body appears to have been relatively

much longer than in the following species. :

The second species, which I consider identical with the Archi-

teuthis monachus of Steenstrup, is more fully represented by parts

of three individuals, and seems to be the species most commonly

met with on the coasts of Newfoundland-and Labrador. .

The most complete specimen (fig. 1) that has ever come under

scientific observation was captured in November, 1873, at Logie

Bay, near St. John’s, Newfoundland. It became entangled in ~

herring-nets and was secured by the fishermen with some difficulty

and only after quite a struggle, during which ifs head was badl

mutilated and severed from the body, and the eyes, most of the

siphon-tube, and the front edge of the mantle were destroyed.

Fortunately this specimen was secured by the Rev. M. Harvey of

St. John’s. After it had been photographed and measured, he

attempted to preserve it entire in brine, but this was found to be

ineffectual, and after decomposition had begun to destroy some of

the most perishable parts, he took it from the brine and, dividing

it into several portions, preserved such parts as were still unde-

composed in strong alcohol. These various portions are now |

my possession, and with the photographs have enabled me to

sent a restoration, believed to be quite accurate, of the en

creature (fig. 1). In this figure the eyes, ears, siphon-tube, and

front edge of the mantle have been restored from a small squid

(Loligo pallida) to which this gigantic species seems to be nea! y

2 THis species was named and characterized in a communication made to the Con-

necticut Academy of Sciences, Nov. 18, 1874, and will be described in greater detail in

its Transactions. w

Fig. 1.

Architeuthis monachus (No. 5),

one twenty-second natural size, from Logie Bay, N. F.

(23)

24 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

allied in many respects. The other parts have been drawn f

directly from the photographs and specimens. a

Mr. Harvey has published popular accounts of this specimen —

and the previously captured arm of a still larger one, in an inter-

esting article in the Maritime Monthly Magazine of St. John, N.

' B., for March, 1874, and in several newspapers.4 These articles,

and extracts from them, have been widely copied in the news-

papers and magazines. To him we are, therefore, mainly indebted

for these latest and most important additions to our knowledge E

of these remarkable animals. The preserved parts of this speci-

men (No. 5) which I have been able to examine are as follows:

the anterior part of the head, with the bases of the arms, the

beak, lingual ribbon, etc. ; the eight shorter arms, but without

the suckers, which dropped off in the brine, and are now repre-

sented only by the strong marginal rings; the two long tentacular

arms, which are well pene with all the suckers in place; the

tail; portions of the “pen” or internal shell; the ink-bag and

pieces of the body.

Since this is the most complete specimen hitherto Spe it

will be first described as a standard for comparison with the other

less complete ones.

The general appearance and form of this species,’ which appears:

cok ag oe

igure was originally made, from the photographs only, by Mr. P. Roetter "s of

the aa ed of Comparative Zoology, but after the arrival of the specimens it had to

red in many parts. These necessary changes were made by mo wiley after a

careful oe of the parts preserved, in comparison wit gini

measu

npea are also ie o ME AIORRI Murray, Provincial Geologist,

who coöperated with Mr. Hary and preservation of th esè. epee:

mens, “aad who kaps also writte f th t

See the . eps l. viii, p. 122, ch vig 1874; “American Jour nal tot 3

Science,” vo vol. xi, Pi and ‘ iiiad m ix

r. W.S:

and described by Steenstrup.

of that specimen when he said Wont AZ p. so ape A, monachus “was in

for the reception of two gigantic Cephalopods, cast on is shores of Jutland in the —

_ years 1639 and 1790, and of which cae record alone remains.” i

His statement that Architeuthis dux Steenstrup is known from the beak alone

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 25

to be the Architeuthis monachus of Steenstrup, is well shown by

fig. 1. From the great size of the large suckers on the long arms,

I judge it to be amale. The body was relatively stout, and ac-

cording to the statement of Mr. Harvey, it was, when fresh, about

seven feet long and five and one-half feet in circumference. The

portion of the body shown in the photograph appears to have been

only about five and one-half feet long, Fig. 2.

and is badly mutilated anteriorly, so

that it is possible that Mr. Harvey has

allowed too much for the missing parts.

In restoring the figure here presented,

the length of the body was reckoned

at seven feet, and reduced twenty-two

times. The ‘‘tail” or caudal fin (fig.

2) is said by Mr. Harvey to have been

twenty-two inches across, but the pre-

served specimen is considerably small-

er, owing, undoubtedly, to shrinkage in

the brine and alcohol. It is remark-

able for its peculiar spear-shaped or

broad sagitate form. The posterior

termination is unusually acute and the

lateral lobes extend forward consider-

ably beyond their insertion. In the

preserved specimen the total length,

from the anterior end of the lateral lobes to the tip of the tail, is

twenty-three inches ; from the lateral insertions to the tip nineteen

inches ; from the dorsal insertion thirteen and five-tenths inches;

total breadth about fifteen inches; width of lateral lobes six

inches. The body, as seen in the photograph, is badly collapsed

and it must be a matter of great difficulty to obtain the true

diameter ox the body in any of these large squids, owing to the

Tail of No. 5, one-tenth nat. size.

erroneous, for Steenstrup, Harting, and Dr. Packard, in their articles on this subject,

by Prof,

re of re lower Jaw. Steens siup TETS ities the Panera andvzbningen),

am anur enaciesa

koali. the Architeuthis dux prove to belong to a genus distinct from this and all

would then be called Megaloteut monachus and M. princeps, if my identification of

‘the former species be correct.

26 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

oy tees

ee a ey er

fact that they collapse greatly when taken from the water. The

circumference of the body given above may, therefore, be con-

siderably too small. In that case the figure represents the body

more slender than it should be. The head was probably at least

equal to one-fifth the length of the body. The eight shorter —

arms, when fresh, were, according to Mr. Harvey’s measure- —

ments, six feet long and all of equal length, but those of the

different pairs were respectively ten, nine, eight and seven inches

in circumference. In alcohol they have shrunk considerably, both

in length and diameter. They are three-cornered or triquetral in ;

form and taper very gradually to slender acute tips. Their inner —

faces are occupied by two alternating rows of large obliquely —

campanulate suckers, with contracted apertures surrounded by 4

broad, oblique, marginal rings, armed with strong, acute teeth —

Fig. 3. around their entire circumference, but 4

largest and most oblique on the outside —

(fig. 8). These suckers gradually di-

P) minish in size to the tips of the arms, —

£ where they become very small, but are —

all similar in form and structure. The —

yee largest of these suckers are said by Mr. qj

Ring of f sucker from short Harvey to have been about an inch in —

wa. NO: B diameter, when fresh. The largest of —

their marginal rings in my possession are °65 of an inch in

diameter, at the serrated edge, and -75 beneath. The rings of T

the smaller suckers are more oblique and more contracted at

the aperture, with the teeth more inclined inward, those on the —

outside margin being largest. The two long tentacular arms are —

remarkable for their slenderness and great length when com- —

pared with the length of the body. Mr. Harvey states that they

were each 24 feet long and 2-75 inches in circumference when —

fresh. In the brine and alcohol they have shrunk greatly, and

now measure only 13-5 feet in length, while the circumference of —

the slender portion varies from 2°25 to 3:25 inches. These arms _

were evidently highly contractile, like those of many small spè-

cies, and consequently the length and diameter would vary greatly —

according to the state of contraction or relaxation. The length i

given (24 feet) probably represents the extreme length in an ex-

tended or flaccid condition, such as usually occurs in these animals

soon after death. The slender portion is three-cornered or go

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 27

tral in form, with the outer angle round, the sides slightly con-

cave, the marginal angles prominent, and the inner face a little

convex and generally smooth, except toward the end, where it

begins to enlarge. Although so slender, these arms are ver

strong and elastic. The terminal portion, bearing the suckers, is

30 inches in length and expands gradually to the middle, where it

is 4:5 to 5 inches in circumference (6 inches when fresh), and 1°5

to 1:6 across the inner face. The sucker-bearing portion may be

divided into three parts. The first region occupies about 7 inches,

in which the arm is triquetral, with margined lateral angles, and

gradually increases up to the maximum size, the inner face being

convex and bearing about forty irregularly scattered, small, flat-

tened, saucer-shaped suckers, attached by very short pedicels, and

so placed in depressions as to rise but little above the general sur-

face. These suckers have narrow marginal rings, with the thin

edges nearly smooth, or minutely denticulate, and +10 to ‘12 of an

inch in diameter, surrounded by a thick and prominent marginal

membrane. ‘These suckers are at first distantly scattered, but be-

come more crowded as the arm increases in breadth, until they form

five or six very irregular rows, covering the whole width of the

inner face, which becomes herg 1°6 inches broad. Scattered among

these suckers are about as many low, broad, conical, smooth, cal-

lous verruce, or wart-like prominences, rising above the general

surface, their central elevation corresponding in form and size to

the apertures of the adjacent suckers. These, without doubt, are

intended to furnish secure points of adhesion for the correspond-

ing suckers of the opposite arm, so that, as in some other genera, ~

these two arms can be fastened together at this wrist-like portion,

and thus they can be used unitedly. By this means they must be-

come far more efficient organs for capturing their prey than if used

separately. Between these smooth suckers and the rows of large

ones there is a cluster of about a dozen small suckers, with ser-

rate margins, mostly less than a quarter of an inch in diameter,

attached by slender pedicels, and with an oblique marginal ring,

strongly and sharply serrate on the outer margin.

The second division of the sucker-bearing part of the arm suc-

ceeds the small suckers. Here the arm is well rounded on the

back and flattened on the face, where it bears two alternating rows —

of very large serrate suckers, and an outer row of small ones on

each side, alternating with the large ones. The inner edge is bor-

28 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

dered by a rather broad, regularly scalloped, marginal membrane,

the scallops corresponding to the large suckers. On the other

edge there is a narrower and thinner membrane, which runs all

the way to the tip of the arm, just outside the suckers. In one of

the rows of large suckers there are eleven, and in the other ten,

above half an inch in diameter, but each row has at either end one

or two smaller ones, from a half an inch to a quarter of an inch in

diameter, so that either twelve or

thirteen might be counted as be-

ers. The largest of these (fig. 4;

a) are from 1 to 1°15 inches in di-

ameter at the margin. These are

pedicels, so that their margins are

R elevated about an inch above the- 3

Suckers non arms of No.5. surface of the arm. Each one 18

atural size. $ : H

situated in the centre of a pentag

onal depressed area, about an inch across, bounded by ridges,

longing to the rows of large suck-

attached by strong, though slender, a

which alternate regularly, and interlock on the two sides, so.as to à

form a zigzag line along the middle of the arm. These large

suckers are campanulate, and somewhat oblique; the marginal

ring is strong, and sharply serrate all around. The small marginal —

suckers (fig. 4, b) are similar in structure, but more oblique, and

mostly only -3 to -4 of an inch in diameter; they are attached by

much longer and more slender pedicels, and their marginal teeth

are relatively larger and more incurved, especially on the outer

margin. By reason of their longer pedicels they rise to the same

height as the large ones. The third, or terminal division of the

arm, gradually becomes much compressed laterally, and tapers

regularly to the tip, which is flat, blunt, and slightly incurved. :

Just beyond the large suckers, where this region begins, the Ci-

cumference is 3-5 inches. The face is narrow and bears a large”

number of small serrate and pedicellate suckers, arranged in four

regular alternating rows, and gradually diminishing in size to the ;

tip of the arm, where the rows expand into a small cluster. These

suckers are much like the marginal ones of the previous division,

and at first are about -25 of an inch in diameter, but decrease ae :

about 10 of an inch near the tip of the arm. The lateral mem-

brane or fold of skin, of the preceding divisions, recedes farther a

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 29

from the margin near the commencement of this division, and

gradually passes around to the back side, where it forms a broad,

thick wing or keel, extending to the tip. The color, where pre-

served, is pale reddish, with thickly scattered small spots of

brownish red.

The form of the jaws of this specimen is well shown by figs. 5

and 6. When in place, these jaws constitute a powerful beak,

looking something like that of a parrot or hawk, except that the

Fig. 5.

Upper jaw of Architeuthis monachus, No.5. Natural size.

upper jaw shuts into the lower, instead of the reverse, as in birds.

In life the great spaces behind and between the large, thin, lateral _

and posterior processes and expansions are filled with firm muscles

and cartilage, which support and give great strength to the beak. :

The color is dark brown, becoming almost black toward the tip,

r where its substance is thicker and firmer, and smoothly polished

externally. The upper jaw (fig. 5) measures 3-85 inches in total

length; 1 inch in greatest breadth; and 2-50 from front to back.

the alæ or wings; d, the frontal aki i in the upper jaw, or > a wens (mentum)

the lower jaw; e, the palatine lamina in the opo jaw, or gular lamina in the lo lower

30 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

The lower jaw (fig. 6) is 3 inches long ; 2°75 broad ; and 2°65 from a

front to back. .

Fig. 6.

Lower jaw of Architeuthis monachus, No. 5. Natural size.

The small squids of our coast have a very similar pair of jaws.

Those of Loligo pallida (figs. 7, 8), are here figured, twice the

Fig. 7. Fig. 8. natural size, for comparison and Ho

z l explain the terms used in describ-

ing the large jaws. The lower jaws

of the large squids are more char-

acteristic than the upper ones. In

the one under consideration the

; ep to be particularly noticed

TANS Or tame DAIA are, first, the narrow, but decided

notch at the base of the nearly straight cutting edge; second, the

broad, low, rounded projection or tooth on the anterior edge of

the ale; third, the angle between the edges of the ale and the A

rostrum is nearly a right angle, and the tip of the jaw is slightly -

incurved. |

€ Figure 7, upper jaw, and 8, ethos jaw of Loligo pallida ue eee oe two diameters;

a, the rostrum ôr beak; ab, the cutting edge, with a notch at b; be, eee

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 31

The most remarkable anatomical character observed in this spec-

imen is found in the form and arrangement of the teeth on the

“ lingual ribbon,” or odontophore, for in this respect it differs

widely from all other known Cephalopods.

The ordinary squids and cuttle-fishes all have these teeth

arranged in seven regular longitudinal rows; those of the three

middle rows being generally two or three-pronged, as in Loligo

Fig. 9.

Teeth of Loligo pallida, much enlarged.

pallida (fig. 9), while the lateral rows have long, simple, fang-like

teeth. But in this species (fig. 10), the teeth are very irregularly —

scattered over the surface of the broad thin membrane, and it is

difficult to trace the rows, if such they can be called, for the

arrangement seems to be somewhat in irregular quincunx. The

number of rows, however, cannot be less than twenty. These

Fig. 10.

Lingual teeth of Architeuthis monachus, No. 5.

teeth are all simple, but vary considerably in size and form. They

are all attached by a more or less rounded, flattened base, and all

are considerably curved ; some are broad and tapering; others are

slender and acute; but the different forms and sizes are irregu-

larly intermingled across the whole breadth of the membrane.” —

TIrregular granules of silica are scattered in great numbers over the membrane

among the teeth, and similar grains are embedded in the membrane lining the mouth. —

“82 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

This peculiar type of dentition must be regarded as an extremely

generalized one. Whether it be also an embryonic type, or one

that prevailed in ancient geological periods must be left for future

determination. The character of these teeth indicates that this

genus should hold low rank among the related genera. This con-

clusion is confirmed both by the structure of the caudal-fin, or

tail, which somewhat resembles the early condition of the fins in

the young Loligo, soon after it haschpa, and by the form and struct-

ure of the internal shell or “pen,” which is also very simple in

structure, and but little differentiated or specialize

The portions of the pen in my possession alia mostly to the

two ends, with fragments from the middle region, so that although

neither the actual length nor the greatest breadth can be given, we

can yet judge very well what its general form and character must

have been. It was a broad and extremely thin structure, of a yel-

lowish brown color, and translucent. Its anterior portion resem-

. to a point at the posterior end, as in Loligo, it expands and thins

out toward the posterior end, which is very broadly rounded or

irregularly truncate, fading out insensibly both at the edges and

end into soft membrane. The anterior end, for about an inch and

a half, was rapidly narrowed to a pen-like point, as in Loligo;

from this portion backward the width gradually increases from 1'2

inches to 5 inches, at a point 25 inches from the end, where our

specimen is broken off; at this place the marginal strips are

wanting, but the width is 5 inches between the lateral midribs,

which were, perhaps, half an inch from the margin. Along the

centre of the shell, there is a strong, raised, rounded midrib,

_ which fades out a short distance from the posterior end, but is

very conspicuous in the middle and anterior sections. On each

side of the midrib is a lateral rib of smaller size. These at first

diverge rapidly from the central one, and then run along nearly

parallel with the outer margin and about +4 of an inch from it, but

beyond 11 inches from the point the margins are torn off. “Like

the midrib the lateral ribs gradually fade out before reaching the

posterior end; near the place where they finally disappear, they

are about 6 inches apart.

From the above description it will be seen that the most impor-

tant and most characteristic features of this species, or rather of

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. í 89

the genus to which it belongs, are to be found in the lingual den-

tition, in the internal shell, in the form of the caudal-fins, and in the

- Cluster of small. suckers and tubercles on the long arms. As

already stated, the first three of these peculiarities indicate a low,

or generalized structure, and therefore a low rank in our system of

classification, unless it should be found to have some other char-

acters not yet known and of greater'importance, which might out-

weigh those here given. It will appear, therefore, that this genus

of huge squids should be classed below Loligo, which, in its turn,

would go below Ommastr eplies, to which genus the common small

squids of our northern coasts belong, for the latter genus has dis-

tinct eyelids, which are not found in Loligo, and the internal shell

is also more specialized. ;

The pen of our Architeuthis seems to resemble that of the

ancient genus Teudopsis, found fossil in the Jurassic formations,

and contemporaneous with the huge marine saurians, Jethyosaurus,

Plesiosaurus, etc., the ‘sea-serpents” of those ancient seas.

May there not also be huge marine saurians still living in the

North Atlantic, in company with the giant squids, but not yet

known to naturalists?

Such a belief seems quite reasonable when we consider how

many species of great marine animals, both among Cephalopods

and Cetaceans, are still known only from single specimens, or even

mere fragments, generally obtained only by chance. The speci-

men above described, is, however, not the only specimen. of its

kind that has been observed on the American coast.

I have received through Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian

Institution, a pair of jaws and two large suckers of the long arms,

which were taken from+a specimen (No. 4), Fig. 11. ;

cast ashore in Bonavista Bay, N ovetoundland. tre were Ay

These jaws agree precisely in form and size }

with those described above, so that the size of

these two individuals must have been about the

same. The suckers (fig. 11), had been dried, Sucker of lon Geese, i

Architeuthi mona-

and have lost their true form, but the marginal chus, No.4. Natural

size. :

rings are perfect, and only ‘92 of an inch in

diameter, and though somewhat smaller than in the specimen just fe

described, they have the samé kind of denticulation around the

margin. Their smaller size may indicate that the specimen was a

female, = they may not have been the ein of those on the arm.

MER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. ` ;

34 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

Accounts of an attack made upon two men by another specimen,

in Conception Bay, Oct. 27, 1873, have been published in the

Naturauist,® and in many other magazines, as well as in the news-

papers. In the encounter the monster lost two of his arms by

amputation with a hatchet. A portion of one of these arms, meas-

uring nineteen feet in length, was preserved by Rev. M. Harvey

and Mr. Alexander Murray for the museum at St. John’s, New-

foundland. It has been photographed, and cuts copied from the

photograph have been published in some of the English maga-

zines.’ :

It is stated that six feet of this arm had been destroyed before

it was preserved, and the captors estimated that they left from 6

to 10 feet attached to the creature, which would make the total

length between 31 and 35 feet. According to Mr. Murray the

portion preserved measured but 17 feet in length, when he exam-

ined it, Oct. 31, 1873, after it had been a few days in strong brine ;

the circumference of the slender portion was 3-5 to 4 inches; of

the enlarged sucker-bearing part, 6 inches; length of the part

bearing suckers, 30 inches; diameter of largest suckers, 1:25

inches. Calculating from the photograph, the portion bearing

the larger suckers was about 18 inches in length, and about 2'4

inches broad, across the face; distance between attachments of

large suckers, 1°68; outside diameter of larger suckers, 1°16 to

1:28; inside diameter, -74 to 1 inch; diameter of small suckers

= of the outside rows, -40 to +48 of an inch. Comparing all these

dimensions with those of the Logie Bay specimen, and caleulating

_ the proportions as nearly as possible, it follows that this specimen

was very nearly one-third larger than the latter, but the large

suckers appear to have been relatively smaller, for they were

iardly one-twelfth larger than in the Logie Bay specimen. As

the relative size of the large suckers is a good sexual character

among squids, it is probable that this individual was a female.

In form, proportions and structure, it agrees very closely with the

- specimen first described, and therefore I do not hesitate to refer it

to the same species. The lack of denticles on the margins of the

_ large suckers is probably due to accidental injury, either before or

8 Vol. viii, No. 2, p. 120, February, 1874, in a letter from Mr. Alexander Mie. f

9See “Annals and Magazine of Natural History,” vol, xiii, p. 68; wa T a ;

Dee. 13, 18 1873. ‘The cen tral line of

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 35

after death,!° but this may possibly be a sexual character. The

fishermen estimated the body of this individual to have been

about 60 feet in length and 5 feet in diameter, but if the above

proportions be correct, as I believe, then the body could not have

been more than about 10 feet long, and 2-5 feet in diameter, and .

the long arms should have been about 32 feet in length. Allowing’

2 feet for the head, the total length would, therefore, be 44 feet.

Another specimen (No. 3), probably of the same species, and

similar in size to the last, was captured at Coombs’ Cove, New- —

foundland. The following account has ‘been extracted from a

newspaper article of which I do not know the precise date, for-

warded to me by Professor Baird, together with a letter, dated

June 15, 1873, from T. R. Bennett, Esq., of English Harbor, N. F.,

who states that he wrote the article, and that the measurements

were made by him, and are perfectly reliable.

“Three days ago, there was quite a large squid ran almost

ashore at Coombs’ “Cove; a nd some of the inhabitants secured it.

near the extremity of the long arm, and each cup was surrounded

by a serrated edge, almost like the teeth of a hand-saw.

sume it made use of this arm for a cable, and the cups for Rusher:

when it wanted to come to, as well as to secure its prey, for this

individual, finding a heavy sea was drivin g it ashore, tail first,

seized hold of a rock and moored itself quite safely until the men

_ pulled it on shore.

It would appear from this description, that one of the long arms .

had been lost before the capture. The large diameter of the short —

arms, compared with their length, and with the size of the long

arms, is the only point in which this specimen apparently differed

essentially from those described above. Possibly the circum-

erence was intended,!! which would make the proportion agree , e

well with those of the other specimens oF

In a letter from Mr. Harvey, dated Des 10, 1873, he ans that

10 The photograph shows that the suckers had been much injored, and only | six of

se Meals ticle ones remained.

a Mr. manr, published in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for pr February, 1 1873, p ma

U was very oby

36 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

the speaker of the House of Assembly stated to him that he had

measured a specimen cast ashore in Fortune Bay, which was be-

tween 42 and 43 feet in length, the body and head together being

between 12 and 13 feet, and the two long arms each 30 feet. This

we may designate as No. 6

‘ Dr. Honeyman, Geologist of Nova Scotia, has published in a

Halifax paper, a statement made to him by a gentleman who

claims to have been present at the capture of another specimen

(No. 7) in the Straits of Belle Isle, at West St. Modent, on the

Labrador side. ‘It was lying peacefully in the water when it

was provoked by the push of an oar. It looked fierce and ejected

much water from its funnel; it did not seem to consider it neces-

sary to discharge its sepia, as mollusca of this kind generally

do, in order to cover their escape.” * * * * ‘The length

its arms or feet, by which it lays hold, about 2 inches in diameter.

The monster was cut up, salted, and barrelled for dog’s meat.”

In this account the length given for the “ body” evidently includes

the head also. This creature was probably disabled, and perhaps

nearly dead, when discovered at the surface, and this seems to

have been the case with most, if not all, of the specimens hitherto |

seen living. Animals of this sort probably never float or lie

quietly at the surface when in good health. The specimen last

described (No. 7) may, possibly, have belonged to A. princeps, if

the length of the body be correctly stated.

r. Harvey also refers to a statement made to him by a clergy-

man, Rey. M. Gabriel, that two specimens (Nos. 8 and 9), meas- _

. uring respectively 40 and 45 feet in total length, were cast ashore

at Lamaline, on the southern coast of Newfoundland, in the win-

ter of 1870-71. These may also have been of the same species

as those described above, all of which I now refer to Architeuthis

monachus of Steenstrup.

ferea .—Since the T has been in type, Mr. Kent’s paper, referred to on page 24

receiv e editors of the “ American Journal of Science,” and will be

vente noticed in our Sas article.

[To be continued.)

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

pean rena

IV. THE LABYRINTHULE

We would not pass over certain forms doubtfully referred to

the Protozoa, by Cienkowski, the only one who has studied them,

and placed by Heckel near the Diatoms and Desmids, in his

Fig. 12.

Labyrinthula.

kingdom ‘ Protista,” but which may be provisionally located near

the Rhizopods. These organisms were found by Cienkowski at

Odessa beneath the seaweeds growing on the piles in the harbor.

They are minute, orange-colored organisms, forming reticulated

threads which enclose spindle-shaped nucleated bodies. Fig. 12,

represents Labyrinthula macrocystis, highly magnified, with the

single spindle-shaped bodies starting out from the mass on the

left, and gliding over the “rope walk,” or framework of threads.

Cienkowski gives the following results of his investigations on the

nature of these singular organisms, which we hope may be discov-

ered in this country:

1. They present masses of cells which enclose a nucleus, ged

which increase in number by division; they possess a certain de-

gree of contractility, and now and then are covered with a cortical

substance.

(87)

38 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

2. These cells exude a fibrous substance, which makes a stiff,

ia network, forming a branching framework.

The cells leave the mass and glide in different directions

along the framework to the periphery of the mass. The Laby-

rinthula cells can only continue their peregrinations when sup-

ported by this line of threads.

Development. The moving cells unite in a new mass and be-

come cysts, in which each cell is surrounded by a hard covering,

the whole being held together by a rind-like substance.

fter some time four small granules are formed from each cyst,

which most likely become young Labyrinthula cells.

He concludes that “these peculiar organisms bear no relation

to any known group of beings of either of the organic kingdoms.

They cannot be classed with the sponges, Rhizopoda, Gregarine,

or ciliated Infusoria, or with the alge or fungi.”

LITERATURE.

Cienkowski. Ueber die Bau und E Labyrinthul (Schultze’s Ar-

chiv, pine Abstract EEO Journ. Micr. Science, 1867.) f

V. THE FLAGELLATA.

As with the Ameeba-stage of the lower Protozoa, so we have had

styled, in the zoospores of the lower Protozoa and Monera. The

monads in point of structure are scarcely more highly organized

in their lowest forms than the spores of the algæ and the zoo-

spores of the other Protozoa, for which they are often mistaken.

They are exceedingly minute, oval bodies, with a nucleus and

contractile vesicle and one or two long whip-like cilia, whence the

term Flagellata.

The true monads have been studied by the late Professor H. J.

Clark with more success than by any one else. Monas termo Ehr.?

is much like single individuals of Urella glauconia Ehr.? (Fig. 13),

though the body is shorter and more regularly oval. It is faint olive :

-in color. The monads are provided with one or more flagella, or -

bristletke cilia, situated in M. termo on the front near the beak-

dike prolongation of the body. In swimming the monad stretches

out the flagellum, which “vibrates ‚with an undulating, whirling

_ motion, which is most especially observable at its tip, and pro-

duces by this mode of propulsion the peculiar rolling of the body,

~ which at times lends so much grace to its movements as it glides

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 39

from place to place” (Clark). When the monad is fixed the flagel-

lum is used to convey food to the mouth, which lies between the

base of the flagellum and beak, or “lip,” as Clark calls it. The

food is thrown by a sudden jerk and with precision, directly

against the mouth. ‘If acceptable for food, the flagellum presses

its base down upon the morsel, and at the same time the lip is

thrown back so as to disclose the mouth, and then bent over the

particle as it sinks into the latter. When the lip has obtained a

fair hold upon the food, the flagellum withdraws from its incum-

bent position and returns to its former rigid, watchful condition.

The process of deglutition is then carried on by the help of the lip

alone, which expands latterly until it completely overlies the par-

ticle. All this is done quite rapidly, in a few seconds, and then

the food glides quickly into the depths of the body, and is envel-

oped in a digestive vacuole, whilst the lip assumes its usual con-

ical shape and proportions.’

All the monads have a contractile vesicle. In Monas termo,

Clark observes that it is ‘so large and conspicuous that its globu-

lar form may be readily seen, even through the greatest diameter

of the body; and ‘contracts so vigorously and abruptly, at the

rate of six times a minute, that there seems to be a quite sensible

shock over that side of the body in which it is embedded.” Th

contractile vesicle is thought to represent the heart of the higher

animals. The reproductive organ may possibly, says Clark, be

represented in Monas termo, by

a “very conspicuous, bright,

highly Aa colorless oil-

like glo’ ich is enclose

in a clear more called the nu-

cleus. This and other monads

live either free, or attached by

a slender stalk. As an example

of the compound or aggregated

monads may be cited Urella

(Fig. 13), probably glauconia of Ehrenberg, of which an sacadat, a

with accompanying figures, here reproduced, was published by

Prof. A. H. Tuttle in the Amertcan Naturais, vi, 286. Figs. 13,

Fig. 13.

‘Urella,

14 and 15 represent two, five, and about forty monads of this spe-

cies, magnified 1000 diameters. Fig. 16 is an ideal section through _

a colony of this monad. Urella, as Tuttle observes, “ probably

40 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

Fig. 14.

A group of five Monads (Urella).

Fig. 15.

A colony of about forty Monads (Urella).

Fig. 16.

Ideal section through a colony of Urelle. *

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 41

finds its nearest ally in Anthophysa, differing from that genus

principally in being free swimming instead of fixed upon a stalk.”

The genera Chlamydomonas: And: Colpodella are represented at

Fig. 20, B. <A higher form: than Mohas is Codosiga (Fig. 17) in

which the oval body is stalked and. continued in front into a very

high membranous bell-shaped collar... Other monads are certain

human parasites, i.e., oe are C. intestinalis and

Trichomonas vaginalis. :

The second family of monadi a are`the Astasiæa. Here belong

Astasia and Euglena (Fig. 18). = The`former genus is somewhat

ameeba-like in the changes which it.undergoes, its body, according

to Clark, during its ameeboid retroy érsions becoming ‘ contorted

into a shapeless, writhing mass.” = They have a conspicuous, red

so-called “‘eye-spot.” A similar npm occurs in the zoospores of

some algæ.

The third family of Poa the ‘Peridinea, is represented by

Heteromastix, Dysteria, Pleuronema, Peridinium and Ceratium.

Clark observes that Heteromastix -is a transitional form connect-

ing the Flagellata with the Ciliata or true Infusoria. Dysteria is _

still nearer to the Infusoria. : Clark describes it as a two-shelled

infusorian, with the open space «between the shells provided with

‘a row of closely set, large vibratile cilia,” with one larger than

the others, the true flagellum. » After a careful description of this

organism he concludes that “in: all the organization of this animal

there’is nothing which is not strictly infusorian in character. The

jaw-like bodies are not confined,to this alone, for there are quite a

number of others which possess:a similar apparatus at or near the

mouth. Chilodon has a complete circle of straight rods around

the mouth. As for the pivot it is nothing but a kind of stem, such

as exists on a larger scale in Stentor, or is more particularly spe-

cialized in the pedestals of Epistylis, Zoothamnitm, or Podo-

phrya; and as counter to what we see in these last, I would state

_ that there are certain of the Vorticellians closely related to Epis-

tylis, which have no stem whatever, and swim about as freely as

Dysteria.”

The Monads are divided into three families, thus characterized

by Claus in his ** Grundzuge der Zoologie :” .

1. Monadina. Body small, rounded, naked or with a tough |

membrane; resembling the zoospores of algæ, ete.

2, Astasiea. Body naked and changeable like the monads,

only bearing flagella.

42 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

3. Peridinea. Body having, besides the flagellum, a row of

cilia.

Development. The common form of reproduction is by simple

self-division. Clark describes this as he observed it in Codosiga

pulcherrimus (Fig.17,A). The act requires forty

minutes. The first sign of fission is a bulging

out of the collar, which becomes still more bell-

shaped. The flagellum next disappears. Then

marks of self-division appear in a narrow,

slight furrow (Fig. 17, B, e), extending from

the front half-way back along the middle of the

body. Meanwhile the collar, which had become

conical, expands, and, most striking change of

all, two new flagella appear. Then the collar

splits into two (Fig. 17), and soon the two new

Codosigze become perfected, when they split

asunder, and become like the original Codosiga.

Such is the usual mode of multiplication of the

species in the monads.

A second aa that of becoming encysted,

has been rarely observed. Carter, so far as we

are aware, was the first to attempt to trace the

life history of a monad. We copy the fo!low-

ing figures from his memoir. Fig. A represents

two Euglena viridis in conjunction; n, the nu-

cleus, c, contractile vesicle, and 7, the red body ;

B and C the same after the breaking up of the

contents into the embryonic zoospores. The two Euglenz finally

Fig. 18.

Fission of Codosiga.

Development of Euglena viridis.

separate and each becomes spherical, encysted as at D. Fig. 18

illustrates the mode of development in Euglena agilis. A repre-

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 43

sents the adult Euglena, taken from the brackish water of marshes

at Bombay ; B, the resting stage, transverse division having taken

place, and showing that the red body is not developed in the lower

Fig. 19.

Development of Euglena agilis.

half; D, the same, with a quadruple longitudinal division, showing

that the red body is equally multiplied; E, linear development,

probably by longitudinal division, as the red body is present in

each cell.

= We copy a portion of the figures and account of the devel-

opment of Colpodella pugnaw as given by Cienkowski. Figure

Fig. 20.

Development of Colpodella.

20, A, represents this monad before taking food; B represents

three Colpodellz in the act of absorbing the nucleus of a Chlamy-

domonas; at C is a single Colpodella, without the nucleus, and

much swollen anteriorly. Finally the Chlamydomonas is, as it

were, eviscerated, nothing but the body walls being left. After

this wholesalé“prandering of the contents of the Chlamydomonas,

it then passes into a “cell” or encysted state, as at D (a, the mass

of food, colored red). The contents of the cell then break up into |

a number of masses, as at E, which finally, as at F (the masses

destined to change into zoospores), issue from the cyst in a mass

surrounded by a thin membrane, which gradually disappears, when

the free zoospores make off in every direction. G represents the

encysted body of the monad, without the ball of food. He also

shows that another unknown monad, a species of Bodo, and three

species of Pseudospora also develop by becoming encysted. °

44 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

Messrs. Dallinger and Drysdale describe in two unknown mo-

nads the process of encysting and the development of zoospores,

the sarcode mass passing through a process resembling the seg-

mentation of the egg into four, eight and many spheres, each

sphere ultimately becoming a-monad. The changes were noticed

with greater fulness of detail in another unknown monad, Fig.

21, A. When about to pass into the encysted stage it became

amoeboid in its form, but still very active; at the stage B, how-

ever, it became spherical and quiet, and finally lost the flagellum,

~—

Development of a Monad.

and the contents suddenly divided into four portions, separated

by a white cruciform mark or furrow. Then an intense activity

pervaded the sarcode mass, ‘‘a sort of interior whirling motion”

like the rushing of water “round the interior of a hollow glass

sphere on its way to the jet of a fountain,’ as indicated at C.

This action lasted from ten to seventy minutes, when it stopped

embryonic zoospores, as at D,

pool

and the mass broke up into smal

which began a “quick writhing motion upon each other, like a

knot of eels.” After remaining in this state from seven to thirty

minutes, they separated and swam away. Thus far they had

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 45

passed through the ordinary mode of formation of young monads,

but the authors noticed among the swarm of monads some much

larger, and differing from the others in being very granular towards

the flagellate end. These fastened themselves upon one of the

smaller common forms, Fig. 21, E, and finally absorbed it, a proc-

ess certainly analogous to, if not identical with, conjugation. It

then assumed a resting condition, as at F. The sphere then

“opened slowly and a glairy looking fluid poured out. On careful

examination of this fluid, with powers of 2500 to 5000 diameters,

seven hours after emission tiny dots, semitransparent and yellow-

ish, appeared as at G. In an hour and ten minutes the dots ap-

peared as at H; after two hours more as at I. The sharp-pointed

bodies at I became rounder, and from the pointed end a flagellum

developed as at J, when they were ninety minutes older than at I.

At this time ‘motion first showed itself; this, however, was not.

the motion usual to the monad, but a motion of horizontal vibra-

tion ide a through b and c, to d, and then back again.” It then

swam away, became plump as in K and then was followed into

the stages from A to E, the last figure (L) representing the com-

plete monad, thus passing through two cycles of existence.

hree modes of development in the Flagellata seem therefore

established, as follows :—

1. Simple fission.

2.- The production of monads by encysting.

3. The production of monads by encysting and conjugation,

with a resting stage and the production of excessively minute

zoospores which grow, finally becoming normal monads.

It will be seen that these methods of increase are paralleled by

those observed ‘in the Monera, the Gregarinida and the Rhizopoda.

It appears that there is here nothing like a sexual development,

unless we have something analogous to it in the conjugation (?)

_ of the monads described by Dallinger and Drysdale, but which

they themselves do not call conjugation, merely confining them-

selves to a statement of the facts observed by them.

LITERATURE. i

Carter h Water rriei pa the Island of PE (Annals and

Magazine of of Natural History, Aug. and Sept., 1

Ciens eitrage zur Kenntniss der M eae (Schultze’s Assy.

easy aks ngiæ æ Ciliatæ as Infusoria Flagellata. (Memoirs Boston Society of Nat.

Dallinger and Drysdcle. rapa es into the L’fe History of the Monads. (Monthly

is prey Journa’, Jan: ary and February, 1874.)

= what relations they bore to the former. It was, how-

46 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

VI. THE NOCTILUCÆ:

Tossed from one place to another among the Protozoa, we have

now, thanks to the researches of Cienkowski, certain grounds for

placing the Noctilucæ near, if not among the Flagellata, from the

resemblance of the zoospores to the monads; while they seem to

form a more highly developed type. It thus appears that by a

study of the mode of growth of the Protozoa, as in the rest of the

animal world, we can alone optag correct ideas as to the affinities

of the respective groups.

The Noctiluca (Fig. 22) is a highly phosphorescent organism,

so small as scarcely to be seen with the naked eye, being from ‘01

Fig. 22. to ‘04 inch in diameter. It occurs in great

PPT numbers on the surface of the sea. It has a

LA nearly spherical jelly-like body, with-a groove

Af } on one side from which issues a curved filament,

j used in locomotion. Near the base of this fila-

ment is the mouth, having on one side a tooth-

like projection. Connecting with the mouth is

~ an esophagus which passes into the digestive

\ cavity, in front of which lies an oval nucleus.

Beneath the outer skin or firm membrane sur-

Noctiluca miliaris. rounding the body is a gelatinous layer, con-

taining numerous granules. A network of granular fibres arises

from the granular layer; these fibres pass into the middle of the

body to the nucleus and digestive cavity.

Development. Baddely had noticed a PEREGUN by division

and reproduction by internal buds, and Busch

observed round, transparent disks, of the same size,

consistence and optical properties as the Noctilucæ

occurring among them, but could not determine

ever, reserved for Cienkowski to trace the develop-

ment of monad-like zoospores in these reproductive

dies. Fig. 23 represents these zoospores. They

process (s) is thought by Cienkowski to be a rudi-

oe 3 Zoospores of

mentary condition of the “whip” near the mouth.of Noctiluca.

_ the adult Noctiluca. By keeping specimens in a drop of water on

oo thin glass which was placed over a moist chamber so as to ex-

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 47

clude all access of dry air to the water in which the animals were

living, he was enabled to observe them for twelve hours. The

stages he observed were —

“ist. Noctiluca-like bodies, but without mouth or lash, and

having a doubly spherical or so-called biscuit form, each partial

sphere having a granular protoplasmic mass with fine pep

rays, the two masses being connected more or less. 2d.

toplasm connects so as to form a disk on one pole of the irr oie

double spheroid, which gradually becomes spherical, exhibiting

three or four depressions at one pole. 3d. The formation of the

disk is preceded by a segmentation of the entire mass of the pro-

toplasm of the Noctiluca into two, four, eight, sixteen, etc. parts,

after which the disk begins to grow up on the surface of the Noc-

tiluca. 4th. e protoplasmic disk sends out stumpy processes

which project from the surface of the spheroid and exhibit pecu-

liar wriggling movements. 5th. The mass commences to divide

into smaller pieces, the vesicle being now quite spheri¢al. The

commencement of this division was not directly observed, but e

stages, in which clumps of protoplasmic matter were seen arran

at first in groups of eight; these, then, were followed pawa

through their division into groups of sixteen irregular, oblong

particles. These products of division appear like denser, sharply-

defined masses or nuclei, lying in a less dense surrounding gran-

ular plasma. 6th. The next stage was one of the first and most

ommonly observed, in which the protoplasmic disk, formed as

above described, has become entirely split up into small oval bod-

ies, each ‘016 millimetre long. The aggregated mass of these oval

spores sometimes appears as a disk at one pole of a, Noctiluca-

like vesicle, or as a girdle passing round it. 7th. By high powers

each oval particle is seen to have a terminal cilium, and whilst.

under observation many were seen to separate from the disk and

swim about as free swarm-spores” (Fig. 23)

Cienkowski also observed the fusion of two Noctiluce. ‘ The

two animals place themselves with the two so-called ‘oral aper- a

tures’ close to one another, and through these a protoplasmic

bridge is formed, which unites the nuclei of the two individuals.

Later, at the points of contact, the outlines of the two Noctiluca- —

vesicles fuse, and thus the double-spheroid or biscuit-shaped blad-

ders are formed. By further fusion the pinching in of the vesicle

disappears from one side, so that the vesicle becomes more nearly > —

48 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

spherical. Meanwhile the two nuclei become completely fused

into one, retaining, however, their radiating threads and network,

as in normal individuals. The cross-striped ‘lashes’ and the

‘teeth’ of the two fused Noctiluce also disappear. All trace of

the double origin of these ‘ copulated’ Noctilucse ’ may pass away

by the disappearance of the fold on the: surface, near to which the

nucleus lies, and thus a Noctiluca vesicle ‘ig formed, which is al-

ways larger than the nornial Noctiluca, and seems identical with

the bodies noticed by Busch, and also very probably identical

with the biscuit-shaped and spherical Noctiluca vesicles in whic

Cienkowski has traced the formation ‘of. thé swarm-spores. A

direct observation of the formation of swarm-spores in the copu-

lated forms Cienkowski was not able to obtain.”

This fusion of two Noctilucæ is not, however, essential for the

production of zoospores, as they appear whether conjugation has

occurred or not. When it does occur, however, it seems to be of

a sexual nature. Conjugation, though by no means necessary,

does frequently take place, and “as in the fusion of the zoospores

of Myxomycetz, and the copulation of Actinophrys, and others,

leads to an augmentation of the mass of the protoplasm.” ‘* Zo-

ospores,” he adds, “occur in quite small Noctilucs, which cer-

tainly could not be the product of the fusion of two individuals.

‘Sometimes the zoospores develop very rapidly whilst still in the

disk, and their protoplasm becomes differentiated into a nucleus

and radiating threads.” Cienkowski considers that the zoospores

of Noctiluca decide the systematic position which must be as-

signed to this organism. It seems to him that they are animals

of large dimensions belonging to the division of the Flagellata.

A single mode of growth, therefore, occurs in Noctiluca, i.e.

development from zoospores.

LITERATURE. ,

Busch. Das Meerleuchten und die Noctiluca n Beobachtungen über Anatomie

semen tse the Structure of Noctiluca miliaris. ‘Qu 1art. Journal Mic. Sci., 1855.)

Quat: a e ns sur les Noctiluques. (Annales des Science Nat., 1850,

and yee Nat. Hist., 1853.)

Cienkows: pcan setae bei Noctiluca miliaris, (Schultze’s Archiv, 1871.

Translation in Annals and Magazine ine Natural History, 1871. See also 1872, p. 414.) :

THE WHEELER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW

MEXICO FOR 1874.

BY E. D. COPE.

Tue Engineer Topographical and Geological Survey west of

the 100th meridian, under Lieut. Geo. M. Wheeler, left Pueblo

during the month of July for the prosecution of their labors in

New Mexico. It was divided into eight parties, of which six were

primarily topographical and two devoted to geological and biolog-

ical investigation.

Of the former one only, that under charge of Lieut. Blunt, oper-

ated east of the Rocky Mountains, while the remaining five sur-

veyed from the Colorado line, or near it, southward as far as the

Rio El Rito and Canon Apache, in the following order: at the

north Lieut. Marshall; then Wheeler, Whipple, Birnie, and last,

Lieut. Pric e last named officer having been incapacitated

by alias. was succeeded in charge by Mr. Klett. he two

remaining parties were assigned extensive territorial areas, as the

nature of their work required widely extended reconnoissances, as

well as studies in special localities, the position of which could

not be foreseen. Dr. Rothrock was in charge of a party which

explored the botany and zoology of southern Arizona and New

Mexico, and Dr. Yarrow and Prof. Cope investigated the geology

and paleontology of the northern portion of the latter territory.

e propose to speak of the work of the last named party at

present, as several of the others have not yet come in from the

field. Dr. Yarrow having left for Washington about the middle

of September, according to previous. arrangement, the direction

devolved on the writer. The results obtained have been highly

interesting and important to geological science. An analysis of

the structure of the region traversed between Pueblo and Santa

Fé was accompanied by successful collecting of fossil remains in

many of the strata. „Thus the Cretaceous beds near the Huer-

fano yielded many fine fossil shells and teeth of extinct fishes,

and the carboniferous limestone of the Sangre del Christo pass was

found to be equally rich. A unique collection of a large namber

of most beautifully preserved invertebrate remains was pr

NATURALIST, VOL. IX (49)

50 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW MEXICO.

from the same formation near Taos. Below the Picoris Moun-

tains the sand beds and bluffs of the Pliocene formation fill the

valley of the Rio Grande. These are the deposits of a lake of

comparatively modern age, and in some localities they abound in

remains of the skeletons of the animals that inhabited the sur-

rounding continent at that time. Mastodons of species quite dif-

ferent from that so frequently found in the Eastern states were

found to be abundant, while camels and horses had evidently ex-

isted in droves. One of the most singular discoveries was that of

deer which did not shed their horns, as do modern species of that

e. There is abundant reason to believe that they were fre-

quently broken off in combats, so that while some individuals of

a species had solid horns like the giraffe, others of the same spe-

cies had them united by a suture with a burr like the deer. To

keep the herbivorous animals in check, there were several species —

of wild dogs, while a large vulture allied to the turkey buzzard

was prepared to eat them when life had departed, as the fossil re-

mains demonstrate.

After concluding the fiola of this basin, the geologist

was enabled through the courtesy of Gen. Gregg commanding the

district of New Mexico, to make an exploration of the geology of

the region at the northern end of the Zandia Mountains, forty

miles south of Santa Fé. Here numerous fossil remains were

found, including those of the hairy elephant, Elephas primigenius

(var. Columbi). The party, after examining the geology of the

Eastern Jernez mountains, passed north to Abiquiu on the Rio

Chama and through the cañon Canjelon to Tierra Amarilla.

The writer had been led to suspect the existence of a tertiary

lake basin on the divide of the drainage of the Chama and San

Juan rivers, and had already published his belief that the rich life

of the Eocene period of Wyoming had been preceded by older

_ forms, which had lived upon older territory in the southern regions

of the great basin. This position was fully confirmed by my dis-

covery in the region in question of an enormous mass of lacus- _

trine deposits of some 3000 feet in thickness, which cover an area

„of at least 3000 square miles (probably more) which includes

remains of the oldest mammalian fauna of the continent, and whic

corresponds with the lowest of the fossil bearing beds of Wyom-

ing. About 100 species of vertebrate animals were obtained, of

-~ which two-thirds are mammälia, and a R percentage new to

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF NEW MEXICO. ; 51

science. The crocodiles were very numerous and turtles swarmed.

The mammalia did not embrace many of the modern classes, but

exhibit, according to the preliminary reports published by direc-

tion of Lieut. Wheeler, characters of orders of which little has been

known. The largest species were those of the genus Bathmodon,

of the Indian rhinoceros to that of the tapir. They resembled

closely the elephants in the structure of the feet and legs, but the

tapir and the bear in the characters of the skull. They were

armed ii most formidable tusks, and their crania were solid and

well thickened to repel attack. Besides these there were numer-

ous species more nearly resembling the tapirs, and in some remote

degree the horses, of a more harmless type, while a numerous

population of carnivora restricted the increase of the rest. Six-

teen species of flesh-eating forms were found, some of them mi-

nute, and others of powerful make, but all far removed from the

existing types, and more or less related in structure to other kinds

of quadrupeds, especially to those of insectivorous habits. Some

of them possessed teeth of extraordinary strength, and were ap-

parently bone breakers, while the excessively worn condition of

the teeth and tusks of some others indicate hard diet and friction

against resisting bodies. An order of very peculiarly constructed

animals was represented by several species. These had much the

structure of the gnawing order (Rodentia) in their dentition,

which, however, includes many peculiarities, but resembled so some

of the hoofed animals in their feet. e only known example of

this order (the Toxodontia) had been previously obtained from

the late tertiary deposits of South America.

e boundaries of this lake basin were pretty well determined,

and attention directed to the structure of the hill and mountain

regions which constituted its shores. Among these were found

marine and fresh water formations, containing abundant fossil

remains, with beds of lignite of fifty feet or more in thickness.

One of the lake deposits contains an abundance of petrified wood,

while a lower formation was found to contain the teeth and bones

of saurians of large proportions, and pba si of amater anti-

quity than those heretofore obtained in the Wes

The brilliant colors of some of the strata a are very re-

markable, and the scenery is rendered highly picturesque by the

escarpments of obliquely elevated strata, which traverse the coun-

52 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

try for sixty miles and more, parallel to the mountain axis. Most

curious are the remains of human dwellings which stand in lines on

the summits of these rock crests, and almost all the more inaccessi-

ble and remote points of the hills. They were often found standing

on the summits of ledges of from five to twelve feetin width, with

precipices of several hundred feet in depth on one or both sides ;

or occupying ledges on the sides of precipices forming the walls

of cañons, in positions only accessible by perilous climbing.

These localities are often remote from water, in some cases more

than twenty miles.

The party collected and brought within reach of transportation

about a ton of fossil remains. They crossed directly from the

Rio Puerco to Conejos over the San Juan Mountains by a pass

some twenty miles in length, where they were overtaken by a

severe snowstorm. They returned to Pueblo on the 11th of No-

vember.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

EMBRYOLOGY OF THE CTENOPHORÆ.! — The development of

certain jelly fishes (Ctenophor) belonging to the genera Idyia

and Pleurobrachia has been elaborated in this memoir with great

care and beauty of illustration by Mr. A. Agassiz. He gives a

connected account of their history from the earliest stages in the

egg until all the features of the adult appear. While the mode of

segmentation of the yolk is extraordinary, the embryo attains the

Müller, Gegenbaur, Kowalevsky and Fol, give us a tolerably com-

plete view of the mode of development of this order of jelly

shes. These Ctenophore on our coast spawn late in the summer

and fall. The young-brood developed in the autumn comes to the

surface the following T nearly full-grown, to lay their eggs

late in the summer. The autumn brood most probably passes the

whole winter in deep water, a oe it must take six to eight months

for the young to attain their maturity. The memoir closes with

1 sac nb of the Ctenophorz dei ak

: poa text. From the Memoirs a the Amer. Acad. Arts and | ee A aee

187$. Ato, px Al.

BOTANY. 53

a vigorous and trenchant criticism of Haeckel’s Gastrula the-

ory, exposing its weak points. Mr. Agassiz regards the assump-

s of Haeckel forming the basis of his Gastrula theory as

“wholly unsupported.” It must “take its place by the side of

other physio-philosophical systems,” and he denies that we have

been “able to trace a mechanical cause for the genetic connection

of the various branches of the animal kingdom.”

Enromo.oey 1N ILLINOIs.!—We have noticed previously the im-

portant NET reports made by Mr. Riley to the state of

Missouri; we now have before us a Report of about two hundred

pages by the state assets of Illinois. It is fully illustrated

by admirable drawings mostly from the pencil of Mr. Riley, and

is well printed. Instead of treating directly of injurious insects, it

is a treatise on the beetles of the United States, and as such will

serve to ata the way for future reports on economic ento-

ology. work is excellent as an introduction to a study of

the beetles, which comprises some of the most injurious species,

and we bespeak for it a large circulation outside of the state

could find some fault with the general classification of the fined;

but the aim of the work and successful treatment of the subject

preclude such criticism. The transformations of a number of

new beetles are described and figured.

POLARIZATION OF Ligut.2—This is another of the elegant and

popular treatises reprinted with additions and new plates from

“ Nature.” They contain the substance of lectures delivered at

various times to workpeople, and *‘ constitute a talk rather than a

treatise on polarized light,” says the author.

BOTANY.

Do VARIETIES WEAR OUT OR TEND TỌ WEAR OUT?—In an inter-

esting article on this subject in the New York ‘ Tribune,” Prof.

Gray discusses this question, and concludes that ‘ sexually propa-

gated varieties, or races, although liable to disappear through

change, need not be expected to wear out, and there is no proof

that they do; also, that non-sexually propagated varieties, though

1Fourth Annual Report on the Noxious and Beneficial meg of the State of Ili-

geo By William LeBaron, M.D. Springfield, sett 8vo, pp.

Polarization of Light. By William Spottiswoode, LL.D., $. R. S. Nature Series.

laria Macmillan & Co. 1874. 12mo, pp. 129, en plates and cuts. Price $1.00.

54 ZOOLOGY.

not liable to change, may a be expected to wear out,

but to be a very long time about it

CYPRIPEDIUM SPECTABILE.—Last spring I found on East Moun;

tain, Williamstown, two flowers of the Cypripedium spectabile

Swartz, growing from the same stalk, one of which was the reg-

ular oo all purple, and the other was pure white.—J. S.

KINGSLE

ZOOLOGY.

NOTE ON STERNA LONGIPENNIS NORDMANN. --In the NATURALIST

for July, 1874 (p. 433), a tern, “new to the Atlantic coast of

North America,” was described by me under the name of Sterna

Portlandica—in event it should prove distinct from S. longipennis

Nordm., with which Dr. Coues identified Mr. Lawrence’s S. Pikei

(see Key, p. 320). At that time no specimen of Nordmann’s

species existed, so far as known, in the United “tates, so that a

satisfactory comparison could not be made, while the new bird did

not agree well with the description of S. Pikei in the ninth volume

of the Pacific Railroad Reports (p. 863). In order to settle the

question of the relationship of S. Portlandica, Dr. Otto Finsch,

Curator of the Bremen Museum in Germany, kindly forwarded to

the Smithsonian Institution the only specimen of S. neon.

a fine example, in perfect plumage, procured at the sea of Bai

Siberia, June 3, 1870. Having thus an fh cocci A of en

comparison of specimens, the results are herewith given

Sterna longipennis Nordmann is very closely related to S.

hirundo, from which it scarcely differs more than as a geographi-

cal race, and is very distinct from both S. Pikei and S. Port-

landica. The degree of relationship between the four forms is

shown below:

A.—Beneath ashy white; nape pale pearl-gray; forehead some in sum-

mer; feet red. Tarsus :70 or more; culmen 1°40 0

Bill red, the terminal third black. Wing, 10: vy agers 6:50;

depth of fork, 3-10; a” 1:50; depth of bill, -30;

tarsus, ‘80; middle ea:

S. HIRUNDO.

Bill black, the upper mandible beneath the att and the

basal

konvink,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 55

B.—Beneath snowy-white; nape pure white; forehead wholly lips in

summer; feet black or red; tarsus ‘60 or less; culmen, 1°25 o

less.

Bill Piped black; feet deep black. Wing, 9°60; tail, ges

of fork, 2°60; culmen, 145; depth of bill,

aan ‘55; middle toe, ‘60.

S. PoRTLANDICA.

Bill dusky reddish; feet gags Wing, 9:00; tail, 5°50;

culmen, 1:12; tarsus,

S. PIKEI.

S. longipennis agrees very closely with both S. hirundo and S.

macroura in the main points of coloration, having the same de-

cided grayish tinge to the lower parts and nape, and the forehead

black. The specimen compared, however, differs from both these

species in having the white terminal borders to the longer scapu-

lars, tertials and inner primaries much less distinct; the outer

surface of the primaries is more silvery, and the black of the nape

appears to extend farther down, terminating at about 3-00 from

the base of the culmen instead of at less than 2°50. Whether

this last feature depends upon the “make” of the skin is uncer-

tain.—Rosert RIDGWAY

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

New Forms or ELASMOSAURIDÆ. — Professor H. G. Seeley has

recently examined the structure of the reptiles found in the Eng-

lish formations referred by authors to the old genus Plesiosaurus.

He finds that the modifications in the structure of the scapular

arch are such as to require their reference to two families, the

Plesiosauride and Elasmosauridz. The former embraces only the

genus Plesiosaurus; the latter includes Elasmosaurus and three

new genera, namely, Eretmosaurus, Colymbosaurus and Murzno-

saurus. The characters distinguishing these genera are princi-

pally discoverable in the scapular arch.—

AMERICAN TYPES IN THE Cretaceous or New ZeaLanp.—Mr.

Hector, the fcr ep esta of New Zealand, has obtained and de-

cribed the ains of numerous extinct reptiles which present va- _

rious spiel of resemblance to those disclosed by explorations in

Kansas, and described in Dr. Hayden’s annual reports. Thus he

finds a species of Polycotylus and a form which he states to be

allied to Elasmosaurus, called Tanivasaurus. He adds a number

56 ANTHROPOLOGY.

of species of Pythonomorpha, among which are a Liodon, with a

conic muzzle, and a new genus allied to Clidastes. Other species

are referred to the true Plesiosaurus.— E, D. C.

A New Masropon.—The Mastodon of the Santa Fé marls turns -

out to be distinct from the M. Chapmanii of the East, and the M.

Shepardii of California, and is allied to the M. longirostris of Eu-

rope. It has been named N. productus Cope. The presence of

the genera of Mammalia characteristic of the Pliocene formations

of Nebraska and Colorado refers these beds to the same horizon.

A report on the paleontology of the formation is just issued by the

Chief of Engineers, Washington.— E. D. C

ANTHROPOLOGY.

Cremation AMONG Nortu American Inprans.1—The object of

the present note is merely to record the fact, that among the many

different methods of paying the last tribute of respect to deceased

members of the tribe, which are now practised by the native races

of North America, cremation is not entirely omitted.

In December, 1850, while enjoying the hospitality of the detach-

ment of the 2nd U. S. Infantry, which at that time established

Fort Yuma, the military post at the junction of the Colorado and

Gila Rivers in California, I availed myself of the kind offer of

Mr. Jordan, one of the owners of the ferry near the post, to make

with him an exploration of the river below the junction.

Starting in a small flat boat, which he generously sacrificed for

the purpose, with a Yuma Indian, who had a feeble knowledge of

Spanish, as guide and interpreter, we floated down with the cur-

rent of the il making, by the aid of a solar compass, a rough

survey. On the afternoon of the third day we arrived at the

lowest alee of the Cocopa Indians, who are the next tribe south

of the Yumas. Below that village we were told that the spring

tides widely overflowed the banks of the river, and that if we

went farther, the softness of the mud might seriously hinder our

return.

_ The next day I learned from the guide that an old man had

died in a village near the east bank of the river, and that the

_ body was to be burned

ip, + the Wertfard E T OAN A ka käy Rel

ANTHROPOLOGY. 57

Never having heard before that this custom existed in North

America, we eagerly availed ourselves of the opportunity of seeing

the interesting ceremony. Crossing the stream in our flat boat,’

we arrived, after a walk of a couple of miles over the river bottom

and adjoining desert, at the late residence of the deceased.

A short distance from the collection of thatched huts which

composed the village, a shallow trench had been dug in the desert,

in which were ‘laid logs of the mesquite (Prosopis, and Strombo-

carpus), hard and dense wood, which makes, as all western cam-

paigners know, a very hot fire, with little flame, or smoke. After

a short time the body was brought from the village, surrounded by

the family and other inhabitants, and laid on the logs in the trench.

The relatives, as is usual with Indians, had their faces disfigured

with black paint, and the females as is the custom with other sav-

ages made very loud exclamations of grief, mingled with what

might be supposed to be funeral songs. Some smaller faggots

were then placed on sah a ve of the personal effects of the dead

an added, anc 1 fire appl After a time, a dense mass of dark

salotda smoke atose, and ‘hs burning of the body, which was much

emaciated, proceeded rapidly. I began to be rather tired of the

spectacle, and was about to go away, when one of the Indians, in

a few words of Spanish, told me to remain, that there was yet

something to be seen.

An old man then advanced from the assemblage, with a long

pointed stick in his hand. Going near to the burning body he

removed tlie eyes holding them successively on the point of the

stick, in the direction of the sun, with his face turned towards

that luminary, repeating at the same time some words, which I

understood from our guide was a prayer for the happiness of the

soul of the deceased. After this more faggots were heaped on

the fire which was kept up for perhaps three or four hours longer.

I did not remain, as there was nothing more of interest, but I

learned on inquiry, that after the fire was burnt out, it was the

custom to collect the fragments of bone which remained, and put

them in a terra cotta vase, which was kept under the care of the

family.

The ceremony of taking out the eyes, and offering them to the

Sun, seems to indicate a feeble remnant of the widely diffused

Sun worship of former times, but when introduced, or whence de-

rived, I could not learn. The subject appears to me an important

58 ANTHROPOLOGY.

one, and to deserve attention from those who are so situated as to

procure further information.

None of the Cocopas whom I met had sufficient knowledge of

Spanish to enable me to communicate easily with them, so that I

learned little of their history or habits, during the two days that I

remained among them. I however wrote down their numerals and

a few other words, which were sufficient to confirm the information

I afterwards obtained.

n a subsequent journey along the Gila to Tucson and other

towns, then belonging to the Mexican state of Sonora, I passed

through the villages of the Coco-maricopas who, as is well known

to all of my hearers, live in a semi-civilized condition, in close

bonds of union with the Pimos, on the banks of the Gila

I was led by the similarity of language, as well as by the re-

semblance in name, to suspect that this tribe was related to the

Cocopas of the lower Colorado. On enquiring, I was told by one

of the chiefs, Francisco Duk, that they still preserved a tradition

of the former connection of the two tribes’ Many years ago, in

search of more extensive lands, the Cocopas had separated from

them, and gone westward, settling on the banks of the Colorado,

below the confluence of the Gila. Visits were occasionally made

to their villages by their kinsmen from the Colorado, and in fact,

I had met on my journey a small party of Cocopas returning from

the Maricopa villages.

The Maricopas are now completely identified in interests and

habits with the Pimos, and if the? practised cremation when they

first entered the Gila valley, the usage has long since become ob-

solete

Commercial intercourse between the Indians of these interior

valleys and those of the Californian Gulf must have also taken

place centuries ago, when a higher form of semi-civilization existed

along the Gila. For not many days afterwards while examining

the famous Casas Grandes or Casas Blancas, as they are more

usually called, I found shells of the genera Oliva and Conus, which

had been brought from the Gulf. Small ornaments of turquoise,

similar to the variety found near Santa Fé, New Mexico, occasion-

ally occur and are greatly prized by the Indians.

MICROSCOPY.

ÅNGULAR ÅPERTURE.— The discussion upon this question which

was tedious a year or two ago has become interesting now, and the

utilization of the extra-limital rays (in immersion objectives as

compared with dry ones) which was first published as a definite

theory by Dr. Woodward, in the *‘ Monthly Mic. Journ.,” and edi-

torially in the Narurauist, in an article which was written inde-

pendently, and was in type at the same time, seems likely to prove

to be one of the few great steps of progress in the development

of the microscope. Before that time Mr. Wenham, and some

others, had strenuously insisted upon teaching the reduction of the

(nearly) 180° dry angle to about 82° immersion angle, and in so

doing had been led, apparently unconscious of saying materially

more than that, into a denial of the possibility of constructing an

objective capable of using a larger angle than that ; and Mr. Tolles,

and no others, had as firmly insisted on his ability to enlarge the

angle without any definite or assignable limit: the one party had

argued a natural limit and nothing further, and the other party

had denied a limit and appealed to his work for proof, but neither

party was understood to have established the doctrine of the util-

ization of the extra-limital rays by admitting the limit, and at the

same time showing how that limit may be passed without conflict-

ing with well established theory. When this explanation was pub-

lished it seemed so reasonable and so consistent with the asser-

tions of both parties, that it was supposed both would say that

it was precisely what they meant all the time. Mr. Tolles promptly

did this, but Mr. Wenham, to the surprise of many of his friends,

denied and still denies the whole doctrine, and what is more strange

is satisfied with a n a one of beng — foot as

a final disproof of

act angle of a certain 4 made by Mr. Tolles, and whether it siii

82° or not, is of some consequence to Mr. Tolles and his customers,

but is of little importance to the world of science, compared with

the theoretical possibility of exceeding that limit; and Mr. Wen-

ham is, perhaps, one of the last persons in the world who would have

been expected to fall into any doubt or confusion at this point.

At the same time as Mr. Tolles was the first, and still is the only

(59)

60 MICROSCOPY.

one known to claim to make lenses in which the extra-limital rays

are turned to good account, it is only justice to him to mention

his name in connection with them, just as Huyghens and Kellner

are credited with the negative and orthoscopic oculars, and Wenham

with the binocular prism and the simple front objective. The ex-

act comparative efficiency of the extra-limital immersions is yet

undetermined, though they would be expected to have certain

strong working points; a theory that seems fully justified, even

Fig. 24.

' after making all possible allowance for the enthusiasm of those

possessing and using a oe by the trials already made of

some of the lense

Of all the boo to this subject none probably excel in

interest and importance the mathematical computation of the course

of the light through the y inch objective at the Army Medical

Museum, by Prof. R. Keith, of Georgetown, a synopsis of which was

published in the September Number of the ‘‘ Monthly Microscopical

MICROSCOPY. 61

Journal,” and for the full details of which we are indebted to the

courtesy of Prof. Keith. Nor is the interest of this elaborate

mathematical analysis appreciably lessened by Mr. Wenham’s

doubt, as to the reliability of the data furnished by Mr. Tolles

as a basis for the computation; since if the data do not accu-

rately represent the construction of that objective they at least

seem to represent a practicable combination of lenses, which

might be made into an objective, and that is what we want to

know, and what the long discussion has derived its cat-like life

from. The objection in question consists of seven lenses; a quad-

ruple back consisting of a double-convex of crown glass, a plano-

concave of flint, a plano-convex of crown and a meniscus of flint,

a double middle formed by the union of a double-convex of crown

and a double-concave of flint, and a simple hemispherical front of

crown. The plan of grinding the lenses as thin as possible is dis-

carded, as in much recent work, and some of the lenses are quite

thick at the thinnest point. The following figures represent the

data of construction, the letters a to g representing the seven lenses

in regular order, beginning with the upper lens of the back com-

bination (See also Fig. 24).

Index of Refraction. 1525 | 1-620 | 1:525 | 1620 | 1525 | 1°654 | 1°525

Radius of Curvature:

First surface. 265

2 œ 2 1 18 +033

Second surface. 2 Ce 3 5 18 5 o

Thickness at centre. “048 027 “033 ‘047 | 062 02 -035

Diameter. Tae 2 2 2 165 *165 066

Distance of back combination from middle -008. By sc

collar adjustment the front is set at a distance of -00528 from re

next surface. The light is assumed to start from a point ten

inches above the first (back) surface, and is traced through the

objective to a focal point below. The table on p. 62 represents —

the distance from the axis at which the extreme ray crosses each

surface, and the angles which the ray, before crossing, makes with

the axis. The negative sign indicates convergence of light.

This gives a computed angular aperture of 110° 35’ 10”, which

largely exceeds the 87° obtained by measurement by Dr. Wood-

Å.

62 MICROSCOPY.

ward; but the very reasonable allowance of -00162 for the set-

ting of the front lens, reduces the computed to the observed angle.

By computation the spherical aberration is almost nothing, which

also corresponds with Dr. Woodward’s statement, based upon the

performances of the lens in actual use. Though constructed for

immersion use only, Dr. Woodward states that it works well dry

at near open point.

First surface. 0-09250 or OTST" 457"

Second “ 0°09139 — 6 651 51

Third: * 008742 | — 4 37 23

Fourth ‘ 0-08626 | — 4 54 42

t ifth . 0-08318 | — 2 57 30

Sixth “ 007391 | — H1 1 3

Seventh “ 0°06625 — 2 81 5

Eighth ‘ 0°05324 ee T aE

Ninth “ 003300 | — 29 44 7

Tenth “ 000000 | — 55 17 35

ToLLES New yoTH vs. OLD ,h7H.1—I am indebted to my friend

r. J. Edwards Smith, of Ashtabula, O., for the loan of his old

Tolles ,4;th, the first lens, so far as I know, that showed A. pellu-

cida in dots, and also his new Tolles’ {th objective. Bo

glasses failed in my hands, with eye-pieces as high as Beck’s No.

3, to do as well as my Tolles’ 3 system th: but the performance

of the {th was so very fine for a glass of such low power, that I

at once ordered one of like construction; thinking that such a

glass could be relied upon in the study of objects too thickly cov-

ered to permit the use of the higher-power objective.

The one sold me by Mr. Stodder is marked “ Tolles’ -th Im-

mersion, Balsam angle 88°.” Its air angle, as billed by Mr.

Stodder, is 180°. It works well through the covers generally

used for test objects.

I was greatly surprised at the exquisite performance of this

glass. The best work of the bth, either by day or lamplight

a _ illumination, was at once excelled; the advance being of so de-

cided a character as not to permit of doubt.

A certain Lepisma scale that I had carefully studied for a long

P , + J

is, Tenn., Mi 1 Dec, 3d

MICROSCOPY. 63

time with the =;th and other glasses, and had seen under many

favorable conditions, was instantly displayed by the four-system

sth clearer and better in every respect than I had before seen it.

` With this superb definition it appeared in ridges and corrugations,

not beads; thus confirming the conclusions arrived at previ-

The superiority of the new glass is also evident on the most

difficult natural tests known, such as A. pellucida, N. crassinervis,

F. saxonica and Nitzschia curvula, the transverse striæ showing

well, by lamplight, on all of them whether mounted dry or in

balsam. The longitudinal lines of Suirella gemma are strongly

ne ndidly illustrated with central light. This method of illu-

mination ime brings to view the minute hexagons of Triceratium

avus alsam, a more difficult test than angulatum; and also

shows 8. gemma well broken u

An exquisite definition of the scales of Podura and Degeeria,

gives no semblance of beading, although the ridges are better

defined than I have ever seen them before.

For an eminent optician to surpass his own best glasses of the

highest powers, with objectives of an improved plan of construc-

tion and of as low power as ;,th, is surely a triumph worth re-

cording, and gives promise of still further advance.—G. W.

Morenousr, Wayland, N. Y., Nov., 1874

Remarks oN Mr. Morenovuse’s Parer.!— Referring to Mr.

Morehouse’s observations on Podura and Lepisma, I desire to say

that I have diligently studied these scales with the new 4 system

4th and th objectives, and that I thoroughly endorse what he

has written. I have never discovered the slightest semblance of

the‘‘ beading” set forth by someobservers. With the objective out

of proper correction, it is indeed easy to get appearances that

might mislead a novice.

Regarding the performance of the jth, I beg to add, that its-

maximum cannot be obtained with eye-pieces less than a D

solid. Even when employing lamp illumination, I often get “ de-

cided added force” by using the }th inch solid (=F). With

blue sunlight the Ath will bear the {th inch solid r T

EDWARDS SMITH, Ashtabula, 0., Nov., 1874.

> I haf. y Ar. hia Ari taai i Dec. 2d.

. k 7 sacs y r

. NOTES.

“Tue Natural History Association of North-western College,””

at Naperville, Illinois, has recently completed its organization.

The following are the officers: —J. L. Rockey, President; A.

Goldspohn, Vice President; J. W. Troeger, Secretary ; U.

Rassweiler, A. M., Treasurer; Professor H. H. Rassweiler, Cu-

rator; Miss N. Cunningham, Directress of the Botanical Depart-

ment; C. H. Dreisbach, Director of the Mineralogical and J

Troeger, of the Zoological Departments.

Tuose who remember the ingenious section cutter figured and

described in a late number of the Naruratist will be pleased to

know that L. Schrauer, 13 Edgerly Place, Boston, has the patterns,

and can furnish them to order. He has made one for the Botanic

Gardens, Cambridge, and it works admirably. He is endeavoring

to establish a business in this branch of work including microscope

stands and apparatus connected with it, and we can highly com-

mend his work.— E. S. Morse.

[We cordially recommend Mr. Schrauer as an excellent work-

man.—Enprrors. |

The skeletons of five Indians were recently exhumed by several

members of the Essex Institute, in Marblehead. A farther ac-

count will appear in our next number. The skeletons were photo-

phed in situ, and copies of the photographs are for sale by the

Naturalists’ Agency

Tue undersigned is about to publish his long projected mono-

graph of Geometrid moths, and designs giving a figure of each

species. To make the work as complete as possible specimens of

this family are earnestly sired for study and will be carefully

returned, or the i: s in exchange.—A. 8. PACKARD, Jr.

E X c HA ag GES.

: ical deporte Address Rev. LF. pie dan 171 South 3d Street, Columbus, pg :

Ne in exchange for specimens from the Atlantic coast of the United

ee states. “date A.B. Hervey, 10 North Second Street, Troy, N. X.

Wanted. all quantity of the New or West Nottingham d diatomaceous earth (or

: mee h ee ok sar ed offered. Address Frank Miller >

SLY basics

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— FEBRUARY, 1875.—No. 2.

CoRGORDOD >

ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL

KINGDOM.!

BY PROFESSOR T. H. HUXLEY.

ae rd

Linnzvs defines the object of classification as follows :— ‘** Me-

thodus, anima scientiz, indigitat, primo intuitu, quodcumque cor-

pus, naturale, ut hoc corpus dicat proprium suum nomen, et hoc

nomen quecumque de nominato ne te beneficio seculi innotuere,

ut sic in summa Faero rerum apparenti, summus conspiciatur

Naturæ ordo.” (“ Systema Nature,” ed. 12, p. 1

With the same brats conception of itasathicwtnry method as

Linnzeus, Cuvier saw the importance of an exhaustive analysis of

the adult structure of animals, and his classification is an attempt

to enunciate the facts of structure thus determined, in a series of

propositions of which the most general constitute the definitions

of the largest, and the most special, the definitions of the smallest

| groups.

Von Baer showed that our knowledge of animal structure is im-

perfect unless we know the developmental stages through which

that structure has passed; and since the publication of his “ Ent-

wickelungs-Geschichte der Thiere,” no philosophical naturalist

has neglected embryological facts in forming a classification.

ela by laying a novel and solid foundation for the theory

Paper read at the Linnean Society, Dec. 4, 1874. Printed from advance proofs cor-

Bonk by the author.

_Entered,. according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

SCIENCR,.in the oftice of the Librarian pete Wastingon.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. I (65)

66 CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

of evolution, introduced a new element into taxonomy. If a

species, like an individual, is the product of a process of develop-

“ phylogeny ” becomes not less important than embryogeny to the

taxonomist. But while the logical value of phylogeny must be

fully admitted, it is to be recollected that in the present state of

science absolutely nothing is positively known respecting the

phylogeny of any of the larger groups of animals. Valuable and

important as phylogenic speculations are as guides to, and sug-

gestions of, investigation, they are pure hypotheses incapable of

any objective test; and there is no little danger of introducing

confusion into science by mixing up such hypotheses with tax-

onomy, which should be a precise and logical arrangement of

verifiable facts.

The present essay is an attempt to classify the known facts of

animal structure, including the development of that structure,

without reference to phylogeny, and, therefore, to form a classifi-

cation of the animal kingdom which will hold good, however much

phy pe speculations may vary.

Animals are primarily divisible into those in which the body is

not aa into histogenetic cells (Protozoa), and those in

which the body becomes differentiated into such cells (Metazoa of

Hæckel).

. I. The Protozoa are again divisible into two groups: 1. the

Monera (Hæckel), in which the body contains no nucleus; and 2.

the Endoplastica, in which the body contains one or more nuclei.

Among these the Infusoria, Ciliata and Flagellata (e.g., Noctiluca),

while not forsaking the general type of the single cell, attain a

considerable complexity of organization, presenting a parallel to

what happens among the unicellular Fungi and Alge (e.g., Mucor,

Vaucheria, Caulerpa).

II. The Metazoa are distinguishable, in the first place, into

those which develop an alimentary cavity—a process whieh is ac-

companied by the differentiation of the body wall into, at fewest,

two layers, an epiblast and a hypoblast (Gastree of Heckel),

and those in which no alimentary cavity. is ever form

Among the Gastree there are some in which the iole, or

primitive sac with a double wall open at one end, retains this prim-

itive opening throughout life.as the egestive aperture ; numerous

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 67

ingestive apertures being developed in the lateral walls of the gas-

trula—whence these may be termed Polystomata. This group

comprehends the Spongida or Porifera. All other Gastree are

Monostomata, that is to say, the gastrula develops but one inges-

tive aperture. The case of compound organisms in which new

gastrule are produced by germination is of course not a real ex-

ception to this rule.

In some Monostomata the primitive aperture becomes the per-

manent mouth of the animal (Archzestomata)

This division includes two groups, the members of each of which

are very closely allied:—1. The Celenterata. 2. The Scoleci-

morpha. Under the latter head are included the Turbellaria, the

Nematoidea, the Trematoda, the Hirudinea, the die, Serie and

probably the Rotifera and Gephyrea

In all the other Monostomata the priinitive opening of the gas-

trula, whatever its fate, does not become the mouth, but the latter

is produced by- a secondary perforation of the body wall. In

these Deuterostomata there is a perivisceral cavity distinct from

the alimentary canal, but this perivisceral cavity is produced in

different ways.

1. A perivisceral cavity is formed by diverticula of the ali-

mentary canal, which become shut off from the latter (Enteroceela).

The researches of Alexander Agassiz and of Metschnikoff have

shown that, not only the ambulacral vessels, but the perivisceral

cavity of the echinodermata are produced in this manner; a fact

which may be interpreted as indicating an affinity with the Ccelen-

terates (though it must not be forgotten that the dendroceele

Turbellaria and many Tremateda are truly ‘ ccelenterate”), but

does not in the least interfere with the fundamental resemblance

of these animals to the worms.

Kowalevsky has shown that the perivisceral cavity of the anom-

alous Sagitta is formed in the same way, and the researches of

Metschnikoff appear to indicate that something of the same kind

takes a in Balanoglossus.

A perivisceral cavity is formed by the splitting of the meso-

blast (Schizoceela).

his appears to be the case in all ordinary Mollusca, in all the

polychzetous Annelida, of which the Mollusca are little more than

an oligomerous modification, and in all the Arthropoda.

It remains to be seen whether the Brachiopoda and the Polyzoa

belong to this or the preceding division.

68 CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.

3. A perivisceral cavity is formed neither from diverticula of

the alimentary canal nor by the splitting of the mesoblast, but by

an outgrowth or invagination of the outer wall of the body (Epi-

cela).

The Tunicata are in this case, the atrial cavity in them being

formed by invagination of the epiblast.

Amphioxus, which so closely resembles an Ascidian in its de-

velopment, has a perivisceral cavity which essentially corresponds

with the atrium of the Ascidian, though it is formed in a somewhat

different manner. One of the most striking peculiarities in the

structure of Amphioxus is the fact that the body wall (which ob-

-viously answers to the somatopleure of one of the higher verte-

brata, and incloses a ‘‘ pleuro-peritoneal” cavity in the walls of

which the generative organs are developed), covers the branchial

apertures, so that the latter open into the ‘ pleuro-peritoneal”

cavity. This occurs in no other vertebrated animal. Kowalevsky

has proved that this very exceptional structure results from the

development of the somatopleure as a lamina wh ws out

from the sides of the body and eventually becomes united w

its fellow in the EnS ventral line, leaving only the so-called

“ respiratory pore” open. Stieda has mentioned the ainia of

the raplé in the position of the line of union in the adult animal.

Rathke described two ‘“ abdominal canals” in Amphioxus; and

Johannes Miller, and more recently Stieda, have described and

figured these canals. However, Rathke’s canals have no existence,

and what have been taken for them are simply passages, or semi-

canals, between the proper ventral wall of the abdomen and the

incurved edges of two ridges developed at the junction of the ven-

tral with the lateral faces of the body, which extend from behind

the abdominal pore where they nearly meet, to the sides of the

mouth. Doubtless the ova which Kowalevsky saw pass out of

the’ mouth, had entered into these semi-canals when they left the

body by the abdominal pore, and were conveyed by them to the

or ion. The ventral integument between the ventrolateral

lamine is folded as Stieda has indicated, into numerous close-set

longitudinal plaits which have been mistaken for muscular fibres,

and the grooves between these plaits are occupied by epidermic

cells, so that in transverse section the interspaces between the

plaits have the appearance of glandular ceca. , This plaited organ

appears to represent the Wolffian duct of the higher Vertebrata,

which, in accordance with the generally embryonic character of

CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. 69

Amphioxus, retains its primitive form. The somatopleure of Am-

dorsal or axial wall unites with its fellow in the raphé of the

ventral boundary of the perivisceral cavity.

In all the higher Vertebrata of which the development has yet

been traced, the ‘* pleuro-peritoneal” or perivisceral cavity arises

by an apparent splitting of the mesoblast, which splitting, how-

ever, does not extend beyond the hinder portion of the branchial

region. But in many vertebrata (e.g., Holocephali, Ganoidei, Tel-

eostei, Amphibia) a process of the integument grows out from the

region of the hyoidean arch, and forms an operculum covering the

gill-cleft. In the frog, as is well known, this opereular membrane

is very large, and unites with the body wall posteriorly, leaving

only a “respiratory pore” on the left side, during the later periods

of the tadpole’s life. Here is a structure homologous with the

splanchnopleure of Amphioxus; while, in the thora oo-abdominal

question a arises whether the ‘ splitting” of the mesoblast in the

Vertebrata may not have a different meaning from the apparently

similar process in the Arthropoda, Annelida and Mollusca; and

whether the pericardium, pleura, and peritoneum are not parts of

- the epiblast, as the atrial tunic is of the epiblast of the ascidians.

Further investigation must determine this point. In the mean-

while, on the assumption that the “ pleuro-peritoneal” cavity of

the Vertebrata is a virtual involution of the epiblast, the perito-

neal aperture of fishes becomes truly homologous with the “ respi-

ratory pore” of Amphioxus; and the Wolffian ducts and their

prolongations, with the Miillerian ducts, are, as Gegenbaur has

already suggested, of the same nature as the segmental organs of

worms. : ¥

The division of Metazoa without an alimentary cavity is estab-

lished provisionally, for the Cestoidea and Acanthocephala, in

which no trace of a digestive cavity has ever been detected. It is”

quite possible that the ordinary view that these are Gastrææ mod- —

ified by parasitism is correct. On the other hand, the eases of the |

Nematoid worms and of the Trematoda show that the most com-

_ plete parasitism does not necessarily involve the abortion of the

70 THE SONG OF THE CICADA.

alimentary cavity, and it must be admitted to be possible that a

primitive gregariniform parasite might become multicellular and

might develop reproductive and other organs, without finding any

advantage in an alimentary canal. A purely objective classifica-

tion will recognize both these possibilities and leave the question

open.

THE SONG OF THE CICADA.

BY F. C. CLARK, M. D.

Ir must not be considered that all music is a succession of de-

lightful sounds. Harmony, it is true, depends much upon the

construction of the musical apparatus, but it depends still more

upon the skill of the operator and the taste of the listener.

Hence among the lowest insect tribes, many a rough, rasping

note, though awakening no particular delight in us, serves as

great a purpose as the more pleasant sounds.

On any warm sunny afternoon, or evening, insect courtships

take place in countless numbers under our very eyes if we would

only use them. What Katy-did, which name the insect has borne

for ages, still exercises the imagination of poets and philosophers.

We hear it loudly "whispered in trees and shrubbery, that some-

thing was done by “ Katy,” but beyond that we are left in utter

darkness; though some poets have even attempted to unravel

the mystery.

Among still higher orders of animals, as our birds, we find

the plumage of the male more brilliant, during the pairing season,

and their songs more ravishing than before. At this time they

charm the human listener, even as much as the delighted female

bird. Even our barn-yard cock, good chanticleer, assumes a

bolder front, and echoes his joyous notes over hill and dale.

Rising to mammals, man excepted, we shall observe certain

sounds more or less pleasant, but still sufficient. to fulfil the

object for which they were created.

Therefore from the human family, where music reaches its

highest perfection, down to the lowest and meanest insect that

utters a sound, each furnishes notes to form the grand harmony

- of nature, in the great struggle for existence. To a cultivated

THE SONG OF THE CICADA. 71

ear, the peep of a frog, or the chirp of a cricket, is not less un-

pleasing than the monotonous humdrum of the savage, who rep-

resents now the place formerly occupied by the most cultivated

nations of the world.

The cicada (or harvest-fly), improperly called ‘‘locust,” is so

familiar that its description seems hardly necessary. Suffice it

to say, that from the middle of June to early a this joyous

little songster is heard piping away upon the tre

The insects especially known to us are the kaii (Cicada

tibicen) or lyreman, as it is known in Surinam, from its noise

resembling the notes of a lyre, and the red-eyed cicada, or

- seventeen-year lecust (C. septendecim). There is a third (C.

canicularis) which appears during dog-days only. Its inferior

aspect is covered with a substance resembling meal.

in red as the lyreman is in green. This last insect has been ~

thought only to appear as its name indicates. But though less

numerous than the trumpeter, the red-eyed locusts may be found

during every year, though in different regions of our country, its

name to the contrary notwithstanding.

But it is the cicada’s song, which chiefly interests us now—its

“noise” if you will have it so. In some countries where the

harvest-fly abounds (for all species of it iag in the same way)

its stridulent noise is in some instances almost deafening, and

may be heard a mile off. But our cicada, I am happy to say, is

not so annoying.

_ The males alone are provided with the musical apparatus. This

fact led a very satirical Greek, Zenarchos by name, to exclaim, I

fear, not in a very gallant manner:

Caan not cicadas truly bles

a female voice NA

The ancients speak of them in the most flattering terms. So

much did they please our Greek and Roman friends, that they

were kept in cages, as one would pet a bird.

The Athenian ladies wore gold cicadas in their hair as orna-

ments. A toy cicada, sitting upon a harp, was, an emblem of the

science of music. í

But the cicada was not alone beloved for its song. They were

also served up as dainty morsels to Athenian epicures. A shrewd |

a2 THE SONG OF THE CICADA.

_ old philosopher remarked, that cicadas were good in the pupa state,

_but better when served up full grown, especially the females, just

before they have deposited their eggs.

From historians and philosophers we pass t the poets. Their

praises and similes here are legion. Homer compares garrulous

old men;

As 79 bay: cieaagsy whioh infos

The w nds, and upon ae trees

Utter a testers voice.”

And Virgil,

“ And shrill cicadæ all the woodland tire” (Southey).?

which leaves it apparent to our minds, that their music did not

strike our poet as being very melodious.

Since we hear the cicada generally during the hottest part of

the day, Virgil says again:

=e the woods resound

With shrill ei bae ya

In fine, no praises seemed too extravagant to lavish upon the

harvest-fly. The ancients called them ‘‘ the love of the Muses,”

“ Sweet prophet of summer,” etc. They likened them to the gods.

No sound seemed to awaken in their minds memories so pleasant,

as the truly delicate voice of the cicada. We can, perhaps, sym-

pathize with them here, when we hear the peeping of the frogs at

the opening of spring, the glad token that the long and cold winter

is past. Especially can we feel such emotions when we hear them

after a long absence from home.

Antipater is said to have preferred the notes of the cicada to

the swan’s. But all others’ praises fall short, compared with what

Anacreon bestows upon our little friend. And truly most raptur-

ously he sings

“ Oh thon of all creation blest,

Sweet insect! that a to rest

Upon the w ild wood’s y tops

For thou art mild as matin dew,

11x. Book III. 2Geog. III, 328. 3Bucol. II.

THE SONG OF THE CICADA. 73

And still, when summer’s flowery hue

ess bl

odious insect! child of earth!

irth x x

So blest an age is passed by thee.

Thou seem’st a little deity.”*+

Now after singing the praises of our little friend, the cicada,

in not, I hope, too extravagant a vein, we pass to a brief de-

scription of his singing apparatus, and learn how he makes his

music, and see how wonderful and complicated that organ really

is.

Réaumur made numerous dissections of the cicada, and was

the first to describe accurately the mode of production of its

music. But as these dissections can easily be made, and the

insects plenty, each one may investigate quite well for himself. A

careful examination of the insect is however necessary, as the

whole musical apparatus is within the abdomen in the first ring.

the abdomen of the male, are seen two close fitting scales,

rounded at the free end, and straight where they join the body.

These can be lifted to a considerable degree, but prevented to

too great an extent by two projections which serve to keep the

valves (or opercula more properly) in place. Removing the

valve, we observe beneath a cell, a little box, so to say, at the

bottom of which lies a circular membrane of exceeding thinness,

and presenting all the colors of the rainbow. Réaumur calls it

the mirror. It resembles the drum of the ear, and affords much

pleasure even in a cursory examination. Imagine for the time

two cells, with each a window opening into the internal parts of

the body, and concealing machinery which works the apparatus.

Each cell is divided into three parts by a triangular plate ; the | =

upper boundary being a semilunar membrane, which ral Con-

‘Ode XXXIV, Moore’s Trans.

74 THE SONG OF THE CICADA.

racted or relaxed at the pleasure of the insect, and the part

ae the mirror. But the real organ is only seen from the

ack. It is found a little below the external covering of the ani-

mal, directly facing the membranous drumhead in the first cavity.

It consists of a very thin membrane, wrinkled, and can be moved

back and forth within its circumference, causing a snapping noise,

something like the sounds given out by the live insect. Attached

beneath each drumhead are fibres of muscle, which join near the

inside edge of the mirrors, and form one, which is inserted to the

back. If we pull one, or both these muscles, the well known

sound is emitted. When these muscles are contracted or pulled,

the drumhead falls in; and when relaxed, the drumhead springs

into position by its own elasticity. We can therefore imagine

how, when these muscles are contracted with sufficient rapidity,

the insect sings his song. The musical instrument is therefore,

simply a little drum. The sound passes through the first cell,

and its pitch is regulated by the movable seniilunar membrane

Then striking against the mirror the sound may be řetiiforédd

and then passes out by the valves which regulate its intensity in

some manner. For on pressing the valves closely to the body,

little sound, if any, is emitted ; raise up the valves as high as pos-

sible and the sound is most intense.

The insect may be kept captive for some time, and in this con-

dition much may be learned from actual observation. Boys in

Surinam fasten straws to the cicadas and run with them through

the streets. Its ‘‘ noise” has been compared to the sound given

out by whirling a piece of cardboard attached to a string, rapidly

through the air.

The cicada, though as in the seventeen-year species maturing

_ for several years, lives but for a brief season. With the expiring `

summer he takes his leave, and testifies with his lingering life, a

glad song which grows feebler and feebler, till finally it dies away

sadly but beautiful like the summer he carries with him.

ON THE BREEDING OF CERTAIN BIRDS.

BY DR. ELLIOTT COUES, U. S. A.

No. 2.

In the treeless portions of Montana, the streams that meander

through the boundless prairies constantly present the feature of

“ cut-banks,” which I mentioned in my last article as the breeding

resort of various hawks. This furnishes other exceptional in-

aes of terrestrial nidification, which may well be placed on

Probably no birds vary more in their modes of nesting accord-

ing to different circumstances than swallows; and certainly none

adapt themselves more readily to their surroundings. On the face

of the cut-banks, as would be expected, thousands of cliff swal-

lows fasten their bottle-shaped nests of mud; but who would have

RIRUN the breeding amongst them of barn swallows, in holes

n the ground? In various parts of Montana, where there =

no trees, and no breaks in the prairie excepting the “ coulés

(ravines) and streams, I frequently saw troops of barn-swallows,

and for some time wondered where they bred. At length Mr. —

Batty, one of my assistants, found some nests of this species, and

settled the question. The nests were placed in little excavations

on the face of the banks, deep enough to be fairly called ‘ holes,”

and answering all the purpose of the corner of the rafters, which

the bird usually selects. Mr. Batty surmised that in some in-

stances at least, the bird enlarged and adapted, if it did not

actually dig out, the excavation; but of this I do not feel sure.

It seems more probable that choice was made of the natural inden-

tations of the bank, just as was the case with the hawks already

mentioned.

At one of our camps on a small tributary of Milk River, on the

boundary line of the United States and British America, two

nests of the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaétes) were found within a —

mile of each other, each capping a piece of cut-bank.

all intents and purposes, placed on the bare level ground; from

“the reverse aspect the natural instinct of nesting on a crag was

(75)

76 THE BREEDING OF CERTAIN BIRDS.

seen to be fulfilled. But one would think that if an eagle were to

stoop to nest in such a place, the bird would choose the highest

and boldest embankment in the vicinity. Such was not, however,

the case. One of the nests which I visited was rather upon the

brow of a little hill than the edge of a cliff. The distance from

the bed of the stream was no more than an easy gunshot, and the

inclination was so slight that I readily walked up the embank-

ment, gun in hand. The nest was composed of sticks, some of

which were as large as one’s wrist, brushwood and bunches of

grass and weeds with masses of earth still adhering to the roots.

It was about four feet across in one direction, and three in the

other, the shape being suited to the slight projection of ground on

which the nest rested; the matted mass of material averaged

about six inches deep. The other nest was described to me as

considerably larger. Both were empty and apparently deserted.

Ithough I saw no eagles just at this spot, I do not hesitate to

identify the nests as those of the species mentioned, for the birds

were very frequently — almost every day — seen in the neighbor-

ing Sweetgrass Hills. There do not appear to be any bald eagles

in the country, and the nests were altogether too large to have

been those of any kind of hawk known to occur in the region.

- Some years ago, Dr. F. V. Hayden brought us from the moun-

tains a pair of harlequin ducks (Histrionicus torquatus), and

accompanying the specimens was an egg cut from one of them.

This fact, coupled with the date of capture (May 31), led to the

inference of the breeding of this species in the Rocky Mountains

within the limits of the United States. ‘The past ‘season (1874)

I have had the pleasure of establishing the fact. At Chief Moun-

tain Lake, near the heart of the Rockies, where the U. S. Boundary

line crosses, I found broods of young harlequins still unable to

fly, late in August. Several specimens, including the mother of

_ one of the broods, were secured ; the adult male was not observed.

What is somewhat unusual for ducks, this brood was found in a

a cascade. The altitude was about five thousand feet. The char-

acter of the stream may be clearly recognized in the fact that it

was full of beautiful trout of two species, and was also the home

of the water ouzel (Cinclus Mexicanus). When disturbed, the

old bird flew low over the water, while others sank back quietly _

into the limpid element, till only the head remained above the

THE BREEDING OF CERTAIN BIRDS. 77

surface — just like grebes; some sought refuge behind and þe-

neath the cascade, screened by the whole volume of water that

leaped over the projecting rocks. Another brood was seen swim-

ming quietly in one of the side pools near the lake.

With the harlequins was also breeding a species of Bucephala.

It was not B. albeola, but whether B. clangula or B. islandica is

yet undetermined, as I did not take the old male, and as the young

ones cannot be determined without comparison of specimens that

I cannot make in the field.

The breeding of the Bohemian waxwing (Ampelis garrulus)

long remained unknown, and to this day my only records of its

nesting on -this continent have come from Alaska, whence speci-

mens of the eggs were lately brought. It is a matter of satis-

faction to be able to attest its breeding in the Rocky Mountains,

on, or at any rate very near, the border of the United States.

the 19th of August, while I was at Chief Mountain Lake (this

beautiful sheet of water lies across our line), a Bohemian wax-

wing was shot by my assistant, Mr. A. B. Chapin, who picked it

out of a flock of common cedar birds. It was still in the peculiar

_ Streaky stage of plumage which is characteristic of the very young

ird, and must have been hatched somewhere in the vicinity.

Additional evidence in favor of this induction lies in the fact that

the cedar birds were breeding at the same time. Several young

ones were shot, and Mr. Chapin secured a nest containing four

partially incubated eggs. This was late (Aug. 19) even for so

tardy a breeder as the cedar bird is well known to be. But the

birds were in mountains, and at a latitude (49°) north of their-

average breeding range. What with the rare ducks just men-

tioned, the water ouzels, dusky grouse, and the curious little chief

hare, Lagomys princeps, to say nothing of the aristocratic Bohe-

mians, our familiar friends were here in very select company.

There are some interesting points, all of which may not be

generally known, respecting the range of the flickers in this part

of the world. In the Red River Valley, and clear away westward

on the parallel of 49° to where the Coteau of the Missouri crosses

this line, you get nothing but pure auratus. I have shot this

nearly to the head waters of the Souris or Mouse River. Through-

out the greater part of the Missouri region proper — the immense __

extent of which must be travelled over to be thoroughly appreci-

ated — the curious “ hybrid ” form prevails. I never saw a speci- —

78 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

men that did not show the mixture of Mezicanus, from any part

of the Missouri water-shed beyond the strict limits of the Eastern

Province. But at the Rocky Mountains this mongrel breed runs

up north into the Saskatchewan region at least, if not farther.

In latitude this is more than abreast of the Mouse River area where

auratus flourishes untouched with red. I have specimens of vari-

ous grades of * hybridity” from the mountains where the St.

Mary’s, the Kootenay (or Kootanie) the Belly and other tributa- .

ries of the northern waters arise.

Audubon’s warbler (Dendreca Auduboni) breeds in the Rocky

Mountains at the locality lately specified. Several very young

birds were shot in August

here is something I have not quite made out respecting the

breeding range of Sprague’s lark, Neocorys Spraguei. The bird

can hardly be more abundant anywhere than it is in the country

west of the Red River and north of the Missouri Cotean. I cer-

tainly saw several thousand last year. The present season, at the

site of Fort Union (Audubon’s original locality), and thence up

the Missouri to the mouth of Milk River, I noticed altogether a few

hundred perhaps. But the birds were not common, and in all the

country west of this I saw none at all until I came upon the head

of Milk River, just at the ridge that divides these waters from those

of the Saskatchewan. There, among the foothills of the Rockies,

the species reappeared. Much the same peculiarity attaches to the

breeding range of Baird’s bunting. This bird is everywhere over

the Mouse River region, and the type came from the Upper Mis-

souri, but during the summer just passed I have failed to find a

single one in the whole country from the mouth of the Yellowstone

to the headwaters of the Saskatchewan.—Fort Benton, Montana,

Sept. 9, 1874.

THE COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS OF THE NORTH

BY PROF. A. E. VERRILL.

Ses

Arter the first part of this article was printed, I received an

interesting letter from the Rey. Mr. Harvey, who, in accordance

with my request, has made a new examination of the large arm of

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 79

« No. 2,” preserved in the Museum at St. John’s, N. F. He states,

in this letter, that all the suckers were originally esta

around the margin, as suggested by me in the last number of

Narurauist, and that this fact was previously overlooked on ac-

count of the mutilation it had undergone. e has also furnished

to me a full series of measurements.of its aus parts. It has

contracted excessively in the alcohol, and is now only thirteen feet

and one inch in length (instead of nineteen feet, its original

length), the enlarged sucker-bearing portion being two feet and

three inches; the large suckers occupy twelve inches ; the terminal

part bearing small suckers, nine inches ; circamference of slender

face, among large suckers, 2°5 inches; from face to back, 1°62

inches ; diameter of largest suckers outside, *75 of an inch; inside,

- 63 of an inch. It will be evident from these measurements, when

compared with those made while fresh and from the photograph,

that the shrinkage has been chiefly in length, the thickness re-

maining about the same, but the suckers are considerably smaller

than the dimensions previously given.

Mr. Harvey also mentions that a specimen was cast ashore at

Bonavista Bay, December, 1872, and his informant says that the

long arms measured thirty-two feet in length, and the short arms

about ten feet in length, and were “ thicker than a man’s thigh.”

The body was not measured, but he thinks it was about fourteen

feet long, and very stout, and that the largest suckers were 2°5

inches in diameter. ‘The size of the suckers is probably exagger-

ated, and most likely the length of the body also. It is even pos-

sible that this was the same specimen from which the beak and

suckers described in my last article, as No. 4, from Bonavista Bay,

were derived, for the date of capture of that specimen is unknown

to me. The latter, however, was much smaller than the above

measurements of the former would admit, and it will, therefore, be

desirable to give this one a special number (11).

Another specimen, which we may designate as No. 12, was cast

ashore this winter, near Harbor Grace, but was destroyed before

its value became known, and no measurements are given. ;

Architeuthis princeps Verrill, sp. nov., figures 25, 26, 27. This

species is based on the lower jaw mentiocad as No 1 in my former

papers, and on the upper and lower jaws designated as No. 10, in

the first part of this article; besides these jaws we only have the

80 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

rough measurements of the body of No. 4, and an estimate of the

diameter of the sessile arms. The jaws of No. 10 were obtained

from the stomach of a sperm whale taken in the N. Atlantic, and

were presented to the Essex Institute by Capt. N. E. Atwood, of

Provincetown, Mass., but the date and precise locality of the cap-

œ Fig. 25.

Upper jaw of Architeuthis princeps Verrill. No. 10. Natural size.

ture are unknown. The form of these jaws is well shown im

figures 25 and 26. The total length of the upper jaw e 25)

= iş 5 inches; greatest breadth, 1:45; front to back 3'5 inches;

-width of palatine lamina, 2°32. The frontal portion is viiki

_ ably broken, but the dorsal portion — to extend nearly to _

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.. 81

posterior end, the length from the point of the beak to the poste-

rior edge being 3°4 inches. The texture is firmer and the lamina

are relatively thicker than in A. monachus. The rostrum and

most of the frontal regions are black and polished, gradually be-

coming orange-brown and translucent toward the posterior border,

and marked with faint stris radiating from the tip of the beak, and

Fig. 26

Lower K of Architeuthis princeps. No.10. Natural size. The dotted line shows

the portions that are present on the back side.

by faint ridges or lines of growth parallel with the posterior mar-

gin; a slight but sharp ridge extends backward from the notch at

the base of the cutting edge, and other less marked ones from the : :

anterior border of the ale. The tip of the beak is quite strongly — es

curved forward, and acute, with a slight shallow groove, commenc-

ing just below the tip, on each side, and extending backward only

a short distance and gradually fading out. The cutting edge i is

nearly smooth and well curved, the curvature being greatest to-

ward the ee ; at its base there is a oe angular notch, deepest

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. :

82 . COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

externally. The inner face of the rostrum is convex in the middle

and concave or excavated toward the margins, which are, there-

fore, rather sharp. The anterior borders of the alæ are convex,

or rise into a broad, but low, lobe or tooth beyond the notch, but

beyond this they are nearly straight, but with slight, irregular

lobes, which do not correspond on the two sides. The anterior

edges of the alæ make nearly a right angle with the cutting edges

of the rostrum. The palatine lamina is broad, thin, and dark

brown, becoming reddish brown and translucent posteriorly, with

a thin, whitish border. The surface is marked with unequal diver-

gent striæ and ridges, some of which, especially near the dorsal

,part, are quite prominent and irregular; the posterior border has

a broad emargination in the middle. but the two sides do not ex-

actly. correspond. The lower jaw (fig. 26) was badly broken, and

many of the pieces, especially of the ale, are lost, but all that re-

main have been fitted together. The extreme length is 3°63 inches ;

_ the total breadth, and the distance from front to back, cannot

be ascertained, owing to the absence of the more prominent parts

of the ale ; from tip of beak to posterior dorsal border of mentum,

1:68 ; from tip of beak to posterior lateral border of ale, 2°20;

from tip of beak to posterior dorsal border of gular lamina, 2°37 ;

from tip of beak to bottom of notch at its base, -80; tip of beak

to inner angle of gular lamina, 1°85; height of tooth from bottom

of noteh, -25; breadth between teeth of opposite sides, *60 ; from

front to back of gular lamina, in middle, 1:75. The rostrum is

black, with faint radiating striæ, and with slight undulations par-

allel with the posterior border; the beak is acute, slightly in-

curved, with a notch near the tip, from which a very evident

groove runs back for a short distance, while a well marked, angular

ridge starts from just below the notch, and descends in a curve to

the ala, opposite the large tooth, defining a roughened or slightly

corrugated and decidedly excavated area, between it and the cut-

ting edges ; the cutting edge below this ridge is nearly straight, or

slightly convex; the notch at its base is rounded and deep and

‘strongly excavated at bottom; the tooth is broad, stout, obtusely

rounded at summit, sloping abruptly on the side of the notch, and

gradually to the alar.edge. The anterior edge of the ale, beyond

the tooth, is rounded amd strongly obliquely striated: it makes,

with the cutting edge, an angle of about 110°. The inner sur-

faces of the two sides.of the internal plate of the rostrum form

an angle of about 45°.

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 83

The lower jaw of No. 1 (fig. 27) is represented only by its

anterior part, the alæ and gular laminæ having been cut away by

the person who removed it. It agrees very well in form and color

with the corresponding parts of the one just described, but is

somewhat smaller. The lateral ridges of the rostrum are rather

more prominent, and the area within it is narrower and more

deeply excavated, especially at the base of the notch, where the

excavation goes considerably lower Fig. 27.

than the inner margin. The notch .

is narrower and not so much round-

No. 10, and appears to be even more

prominent, because the edge of the

ale is more concave at its outer

base; it is also more compressed

and less regularly rounded at sum-

mit; the anterior edge of the als Part of lower jaw of Architenthis

à b princeps. No. 1. Nat. size.

seems to rise into another low lobe

beyond the concave portion. This jaw measures 1°30 inches from

the tip to the posterior dorsal border of mentum; +65 from tip to

the bottom of the notch; -16 from bottom of notch to tip of the

tooth.

Both these lower jaws agree in having a very prominent tooth

on the alar edge, with a large and deeply excavated notch between

it and the cutting edge, and in this respect differ from the two

lower jaws of A. monachus in my possession, for in the latter the

tooth or lobe is low and broad, and scarcely prominent, while the

notch is narrow and shallow. This seems to be the best character

for distinguishing the jaws of the two species. But they also

differ in the angle between the alar edge and the cutting edge of

the rostrum, especially of the lower jaw, for while in A. monachus

this is hardly more than a right angle, in A. princeps it is about

110°. Moreover, the darker color and firmer texture of the jaws

of the latter seem to be characteristic.

The proportions of the body seem to be quite different, if we

can judge by the measurements given of the specimen (No. 1)

which was found dead and floating at the surface of the water, at

the Banks of Newfoundland, by Capt. Campbell, of the schooner

84 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

B. D. Haskins, from Gloucester, Mass., in October, 1871.1 It is

stated that this specimen was measured, and that the body was

fifteen feet long, and four feet and eight inches in circumference.

The arms were badly mutilated, but the portions remaining were

estimated to be nine or ten feet long and about twenty-two inches

in circumference, two being shorter than the others. This would

indicate a much more elongated form of body than that of A.

monachus. If these proportions be correct, the body of No. 10

must have been about nineteen feet in length, and five fcet and

nine inches in circumference.

This specimen is probably the largest invertebrate hitherto actu-

ally examined by any naturalist. Larger cephalopods may pos-

sibly have been seen by mariners, but most of their statements

of size are only rude estimates, and are nearly always much exag-

gerated.

otes on specimens described by other writers. We are mainly

indebted to Professor Steenstrup and to Dr. Harting for our

knowledge of the specimens preserved in European museums, or

cast ashore on the European coasts. Professor Steenstrup has

given interesting accounts. compiled from contemporary docu-

ments, of a specimen taken in 1546, and of two specimens of

huge cephalopods cast ashore at fotlena in 1639 and 1790, a

has also described and figured? the jaws of another eater o

A. monachus, obtained at Jutland in 1853. In the same memoir,

of which I have seen only the first part, there are references to a

description and figures of A. Titan, obtained in 1855, by Capt.

Hygom, in N. Lat. 31°; W. Long. 76.° The latter specimen

appears to be the same that Harting? mentioned under the name

of “Architeuthis dux Steenstrup,” as collected at the same time

and place, and of which he published an outline figure of the lower

jaw, copied from a drawing furnished to him by Steenstrup. Hart-

ing states that the pen or “gladius” of this specimen is six feet

long. Many important parts of this catch were secured, and I

1 See the American Naturalist, Vol. sb pi 91, Feb.,

2 In a paper, of which I have only see! e proo eed given by him to Dr. Pack-

ard, entitled “ Spolia Atlantica.” a aa memoi n published I do not

k te (I) that I have seen. is marked “Vid. Selsk. Skrifte Række, n

og a Afd. iv, Bind;” and there are references to three other plates TERTS

A. Titan

: iposeripuion d de quelques ema ae PE a ah prh gigantesques. Publiées

o, with three plates.

COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS. 85

regret that I have been unable to see the figures and description

of it, referred to by Harting as forming part of Prof. Steenstrup’s

memoir, then unpublished. But to judge by the outline figure

given by Harting, it is a species quite distinct from those described

above. The lower jaw resembles that of A. monachus more than

A. princeps, and is a little larger than that of our No. 5 (sce fig.

6). The beak is more rounded dorsally, less acute, and scarcely

incurved, the notch is narrow, and the alar tooth is not prominent.

Harting, in the important memoir referred to, describes speci-

mens of two species, both of which are evidently quite distinct

from all those enumerated above.

The first of these (Plate I) is represented by the jaws and

buccal mass, with the lingual dentition, and some detached suck-

ers, preserved in the museum of the University of Utrecht, but

from an unknown locality. . These parts are well figured and

described, and were referred to Architeuthis dux by Harting. But

the character of the dentition (fig. 28) is so totally different from

Teeth of Loligo Hartingii Verrill. Enlarged. :

what I have found in A. monachus that it will be necessary to

refer this species to a different genus, if not to a distinct family.

he form of the lower jaw is quite unlike that of A. dux, for the

beak is very acute, the cutting edge is concave, the notch shallow

and broad, and the alar tooth is somewhat prominent. The size

is about the same as our No. 5. The suckers figured are from the

sessile arms, and agree pretty nearly with those of A. monachus

(see fig. 3). The edge is strengthened by an oblique, strongly

denticulated ring. The internal diameter of the ria of these

suckers is °75 of an inch; the external, 1:05 inches. They were

furnished with aie pedicels, attached e ee on one side.

The lingual teeth (see fig. 28 copied from Harting,) are in seven |

regular rows, and resemble closely those of Loligo (fig. 9). In

fact, I cannot find, in the figures and description, any character

by which this species can be separated from Loligo, and at the“

same time it is evident that it is a species distinct from all others

86 COLOSSAL CEPHALOPODS.

known. I would, therefore, propose to designate it by the name

of Loligo Hartingii

The other species described by Harting was represented by the

jaws and pharynx, an eye, a part of one of the sessile arms, and

of one of the long tentacular arms, preserved in the museum of

the Zoological Garden of Amsterdam. They were taken from the

stomach of a shark, captured in the Indian Ocean. Harting re-

ferred this specimen to-the genus Enoploteuthis, and doubtfully to

the species described by Owen under the name of FE. unguiculata,

from a specimen in the Hunterian museum, collected ges Cape

Horn and Australia by Banks and Solander, on Capt. Cook’s first

age. The jaws of this species are very sharp ai strongly

incurved, and a little smaller than those of the Loligo Hartingii.

Instead of circular suckers with denticulated margins, the arms

bear two rows of large sharp incurved hooks or claws, arising

from large, swollen, muscular bulb-like bases, attached to the arms

by short pedicels. The lingual dentition is also quite peculiar,

but the teeth are arranged in seven rows, as usual

Mr. Kent, in the article already referred to,4 mentions a sessile

arm of a giant cephalopod, which has been long preserved in the

British Museum, but of which the origin is unknown. He states

that it is 9 feet long; 11 inches in circumference at the base, ta-

pering off to a fine point. There are from 145 to 150 suckers, in

two alternating rows, those at the base being half an inch in di-

ameter. The relatively small size of the suckers and great length

of the arms show that this arm cannot belong to the same species

as our Architeuthis monachus, which Mr. Kent thought probable.

But as the arms of A. princeps and Loligo Hartingii are still un-

To it may belong to one of those species, or it may belong |

the species observed, but not captured, by the officers of the

IRE in 1861, near Teneriffe, and named Loligo Bouyeri by

Crosse and Fischer, but known only from the imperfect descrip-

tions of it given by the officers, and a sketch of it prepared while

the crew were making unsuccessful attempts to get it on board.

e body of this one was estimated at 15 to 18 feet in length,

with the arms somewhat shorter.

_ Proceedings Zoological Society of London, for 1874, page 178.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA AND SPONGES.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

VII. THE INFUSORIA (CILIATA).

Tuoven the term Infusoria has usually been applied to nearly

all the Protozoa provided with cilia

or flagella, it is now restricted to the

highest division of the Protozoa. In-

stead of an attempt to define the

group, the following brief description

Fig. 29.

of some of the well-known forms will

perhaps best show how they differ

from the Flagellata, with which they ey’

are most apt to be confounded.

One of the simplest and most abun-

: i i j II

dant forms is Paramecium. The ac-

companying figure (29), copied from

Clark’s ‘* Mind in Nature,” represents

Paramecium caudatum, of Ehren-

berg.! This animalcule is a mass of n

protoplasm, representing, perhaps, a ™

cell. In the body-mass are exca-

vated a mouth and a throat leading

to a so-called stomach or digestive

cavity. Two hollows in the body ev

form the contractile vesicles, and an-

other cavity forms the reproductive

organ. Prolongations of the body-

mass form the cilia, which character-

ize the Infusoria and give their

name, Ciliata. No specialized tis-

sues composed of cells exist in these

organisms, and they are regarded as

on the whole representing a single

cell. Some authors, as Claparède,

regard them as composed of several

Paramecium.

cells, but the whole animal, though performing functions nearly

Fig. 20. A view from the dorsal side, magnified 340 diameters. H. the De ad: T. the

tail; m, the mouth; m to g, the throat; a, the pos terior. o opening of the di ity ;

(87)

88 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

as complicated as those of sponges, low worms and radiates which

ave bodies composed of many cells, should be regarded as made

up of indifferent or unorganized sarcode or protoplasm, somewhat

like that of the bodies of the emuyos of the higher animals in

their earliest stages.

Paramecium has an elongated, oval body ‘with one end (H)

flattened out broader than the other, and twisted about one-third

way round, so that the flattened part resembles a very long figure

8.” In this form, as in Stentor (Fig. 30), as Clark remarks, ‘‘ we.

have the mouth at the bottom of a broad notch or incurvation,

-and the contractile vesicle on the opposite side, next the convex

back, whilst the general cavity of the body lies between these

two.” The arrows in the'figure represent the course of the par-

ticles of indigo with which Clark fed his specimens, ‘‘as they are

whirled along, by the- large vibrating cilia (v) of the edge of the

disk, against the vestibule of the mouth.” During the circuit the

food is digested, a mass of rejectamenta is formed near the protu-

berance, a, which has appeared a short time before. This finally

opens, allows the rejected matter to pass out and then closes over,

leaving no trace of an outlet. This and other Infusoria seem,

then, to have a definite digestive tract, hollowed out of the paren.

chyma of the body.

“The system,” says Clark, “which is analogous to the blood

circulation of the higher animals, is represented in Paramecium

by two contractile vesicles (cv, cv’, 1, 11, m1), both of which have

a degree of complication which, perhaps, exceeds that of any

other similar organ” in these animals. When fully expanded they

appear round, as at ev; but when contracted they appear, observes

. Clark, as “ fine radiating streaks, and as the main portion lessens

they gradually broaden and swell until the former is emptied an

nearly invisible, and they are extended over half the length of the

body. In this condition they might be compared to the arterial

- vessels of the more elevated classes of animals, but they would at

the same time represent the veins, since they serve at the next

moment to return the fluid to the main reservoir again, which is

effected in this very remarkable way.” ‘The contents of these ves-

icles is a clear fluid. .

The reproductive organ in Paramecium is a small tube (x), only

` seen at E period when the eggs (7) are fully grown.

ev', the anterior and ev. posterior r dombactie vesicles; I, 11, MI, the radiating canals of

cv'; n, the reproductive Ae #, the large VUE n cilia at the edge of the vestibule.

After H. J. Clark.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 89

Clark says that the eggs are arranged in it “in a single line, one

after the other, at varying distances.” It usually lies in the midst

of the body, and extends from one-half to two-thirds of the length

of the animal. ‘According to b Fig. 30.

Balbiani’s observations upon a

closely allied species, when the A /

j ¥ Wares:

eggs are laid they pass out from

the ovary through an aperture

near the mouth” (Clark). `

In the Trumpet animialcule

(Fig, 30, Stentor polymorphus of

Ehrenberg, after Clark?) we have

a higher grade of development o

than in Paramecium, the animal-

cule attaching itself at one end,

and building up a slight tube in

which it contracts when dis-

turbed ; an anticipation in na-

ture of the worm in its tube.

Prof. Clark has studied in

this animalcule certain circular

bands within thè edge of the

disk, from which arise twelve

very thin stripes (rr) which con-

verge’ towards the mouth (m).

These bands are evidently, he

says, in close relation with the x

mouth and cilia, the most active Trumpet Animalcule.

organs of the animal, and he concludes that it is a nervous

system.

The most complicated form of all among the Infusoria is the

Vorticella, or bell-shaped animalcule. These forms are very com-

mon on submerged plants and leaves, appearing to the naked eye

like mould. Their motions, as they suddenly contract and then

ae Antor inlay ne mis pma 130 diameters, yppa e yeni sT over

3 the ; the mouth, m, next th eye, and the dor

a, E portedor end: th. the tuve enclosing a: ©, th e ciliated border of the dis VEOH

larger, rigid cilia; cv, the c ile vesicle in the

whole thickness of the body ; gles ev, the pos terior

r1, the circular and ela scam ene ei pi the EAS syst em , the re moon

tive aaa exten n, posteriorly, but sve arte the eye atn

(Clark)

90 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

shoot out their bell, mounted on a long stalk, are very interesting.

Fig. 31. They form the most available and

attractive infusoria for study and

amusement. The throat is quite dis-

tinct, while the nucleus is the most

conspicuous organ of the body. The

digestive cavity is ‘‘one vast hol-

low,” in which the whole mass of food

revolves in a determinate channel

(Clark). In fact, so highly devel-

oped are these Infusoria that they

seem to anticipate certain low worms

to which they bear a certain resem-

blance, and indicate that the worms

may have sprung either from the In-

fusoria or early organisms like them.

Biitschli claims to have discovered

8 that lasso cells like those in the

Hydra and jelly fishes are developed

in a certain infusorium named by him

m: Polykrikos.

The Infusoria may be divided into

three groups; 1, represented by Pa-

ramecium; 2, by Vaginicola and

Pell- “shaped Animalenle, natural size; Vorticella, and 3, by Acineta (Fig. 33,

irged. H). This latter form is not ciliated,

the body i stated and in front prolonged into slender suckers,

each terminating in a mouth. At one time Stein supposed that

the Vaginicola or Vorticella passed into an ** Acineta-form,” but

Claparéde disproved this and Stein retracted his opinion.

Development. The different modes of development among the

Infusoria are still involved in doubt. The best observers have

advanced theories that have appeared sound, and then revoked

them. All agree, however, that the simplest and commonest mode

of development is fission, a process analogous to the ordinary

3 Fig. 31 “ Epistylis flavicans Ehr., a single, many-forked colony of bell animalcules,

slightly magnified, Fig. 32, one of the animalcules magnified 250 diameter h

stem; d, the flat Lapira! sie flendeare.d cilia at the edge of = he disk; ms, the mus

s, the dept ae of t m, the mouth, g, g', the throat; 7, the single ana

tory lash ich pre jecte from the depths of the throat; cv, the contractile vesicle:

the Seerne organ” (Clark).

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 91

self-division of the nucleus of eggs, and the primary mode of

growth in both animals and plants, not involving the idea of sex.

good example of fission, by which all Infusoria are sup-

posed to multiply their kind, though some may at certain times

reproduce from eggs, we may cite a case observed by Clark, the

full account of which is given in his admirable ** Mind in Nature.”

He observed a Stentor polymorphus divide in two. The first

change taking place is in the contractile vesicle, which divides into

two distinct vesicles. The mouth of the new Stentor is formed in

the middle of the under side, first appearing as a. shallow Oi

around which arises a semicircle of vibratile cilia. The

mouth deepens, the throat is hollowed out; all this taking Sens

before any external sign of division appears. But in the course

of two hours the body splits asunder, and two new individuals

appear, each exactly like the other. $

In Vaginicola there is a modification of this simple process,

which is more like true gemmation or budding, and is accompanied

by a process of encysting. Our figures of the mode of development

Fig. 33.

Development of Vaginicola.

are taken from a short paper by C. J. Müller. He first traced

the fission of this infusorium (Fig. 32, A), which takes place in

the following manner. After the animal has withdrawn within

its case, and assumed a pear-shaped form, its cilia, meanwhile,

apparently lost, a conical fissure appears at the base, and soon

after ‘a wavy line of division shows itself at the upper extremity

of the animalcule ;” the two fissures enlarge and meet; pulsating

vesicles become active on both sides of the line of fission, and

cilia begin to grow out, until at the end of an hour, two separate

animals are formed, which soon afterwards appear as in Fig. 33, B.

92 ' LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA.

Now begins a new process; the production of a free swimming

embryo. On one of the two Vaginicolas is developed ‘a delicate

me or band at about one-third its length from the lower extrem-

ity.” Then it contracts in its cell, becomes quiet (as in Fig. 33,

C, D) and from the ring or band develops a new circle of cilia,

the former ones having disappeared. It then swims off as at Fig.

33, E, darting about rapidly until it attaches itself to a piece of `

Conferva, as at Fig. 33, F. After some hours, perhaps twenty,

a fringe of cilia begins to appear on the upper end, the old ones

begin to be absorbed, and the tube arises, as at Fig. 33, G, and a

new Vaginicola appea Stein had some years previous made

similar observations on 9 Vagiñicola crystallina Ehr., and thought

he had traced their further development into a form resembling

Acineta (Fig. 33, H), but this proved afterwards to be a young

parasitic Acineta, a suctorial Infusorian.

We have seen that Vaginicola passes through a resting stage,

withdrawing into the case in which it lives, and being for a time

inactive. Stein has shown that all the Vorticelline *‘ at an earlier

or later stage of their development become encysted, by drawing

in their ciliated disk and contracting their bodies into a ball; at

the same time secreting around themselves a gelatinous mass

which solidifies into a firmer elastic covering.” Fig. 34, G, after

Stein, shows a Vorticella thus encysted. After becoming thus

encysted the interior becomes homogeneous, as in Fig. 34, H.

From this cyst the Vorticell arise directly.

Now a second mode of development, and the simplest, has been

observed by Stein, d. e., that of monad-like young which result

from the breaking up of the cyst. While examining a cyst Stein

observed that it burst, and the free contents ‘ remained as a round,

transparent limpid drop of jelly, of about the same diameter as

the cyst, in which some thirty embryos, of the form of Monas

colpoda or Monas scintillans, sailed about with varied and active

motion, as if in a little ocean.” These embryos resulted from the

breaking up of the basid-like nucleus. This breaking up did not

take place ‘* by successive acts of division, but in the nucleus,

round disks become marked off contemporaneously, at the most

distant points; whilst the intermediate substance of the nucleus

s re-absorbed.”

it thus seems that the Ciliata pass through a flagellate or monad

condition. Stein regards the above described propagation by the

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 93

change of the whole inner encysted body of a Vorticella into

numerous embryos, as the equivalent of the sexual propagation of

the higher animals. We also quote Stein’s summary of the cycle

of changes undergone by the Vorticella: ‘* We may thus ideally

arrange the different stages of development through which the

Vorticelle pass ; the largest end their lives by becoming encysted ; ,

the whole of the contents of their bodies then passes into em-

bryos, to which the dividing germ-nucleus first gives origin.

“The embryos become fixed, develop from their posterior ex-

tremity a stalk, which is at first not contractile, and gradually

change their monad-like bodies into that of a common Vorticella,

«As soon as this has taken place, their very much smaller size

only distinguishes them from the perfect Vorticella. Even in this

imperfect condition they frequently multiply by continual division

and in a subordinate degree by external gemmation. This power

of multiplication in the imperfect state, however, is one of the

most certain criteria that we have to do with an alternation of

generations. * Finally, the last generation become

encysted, not to re-awake to an independent existence, but to

break up into a swarm of embryos.”

Let us now look at the development of Epistylis plicatilis as

studied by Claparéde. Fig. 34, A, represents an individual con-

Fig. 31.

Development of Epistylis.

taining several embryos (B) and opposite the lower one on the

right side is a projection, through which the embryo at B’ has

passed out. The specimen figured at B’ is a fair example of the

embryos of species belonging to six families of Infusoria, and

94 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA,

may, perhaps, serve as a typical example of most Infusoria at the

time of birth. This young stage may, then, be contrasted with

the embryos of the Flagellata, which are of a much simpler form,

resembling the zoospores of the algæ and lower Protozoa.

The embryos of the Infusoria arise from the nucleus, which cor-

_responds to the ovary of the higher animals. The nucleus is a

curved, oblong, oval body, represented in Figs. 34, A, n; 39, E.

When the Epistylis is about to reproduce its young, the nucleus

sends off a portion which enlarges until it assumes the appearance

indicated by Fig. 34,C. It has become round, and contains a cen-

tral, granular mass, from which the embryos arise. At Fig. 34, D,

is a globular mass, detached from the nucleus, and containing sev-

eral embryos in the first state of development. Fig. 34, E, repre-

sents the embryos provided with a circle of cilia, and nearly ready

to swim about freely. Claparéde did not watch their farther devel-

opment, but thought it probable that they grew directly into the

Epistylis form.

What is the meaning of conjugation in the Infusoria is not

clearly understood. Whether it is analogous to sexual union 1s

not certainly known, but it is now thought by Balbiani that the

smaller individuals found conjugating with the larger are males,

and he even thinks that some Infusoria contain spermatozoa.

Fig. 34 represents an Epistylis conjugating, each one provided

with two buds; the bud of the individual on the left is conjugated

with that of the individual on the right hand. Epistylis also

passes through encyste | stages as indicated at Fig. 34,G and H.

The same mode of development was observed by Claparéde in

Fig. 35.

Development of Urnula.

a parasite of the Epistylis, i. e., Urnula epistylidis (Fig. 35),

which, besides reproducing by fission, also produces ciliated

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE PROTOZOA. 95

young. Fig. 35, B, e, represents the ciliated young within the

ody of the parent, B; Fig. 35, C, the free swimming ciliated

young. In another specimen Claparade observed the interior of

the body subdivide into several masses, as at Fig. 35, D. ese

masses increase in size and become filled with a number of small

corpuscles, with active movements, which finally press through the

walls of the Urnula. These are probably spermatozoa, as Stein

considers Urnula as the male of Epistylis, contrary to the opinion

of Claparède, who regarded it as a Rhizopod, though its ciliated

young is, in the light of later studies, sufficient to prove that it is

a ciliate infusorian,

As to the sexuality of the Infusoria, Balbiani has advanced the

idea that they are in reality hermaphrodite, the nucleus repre-

senting the ovary, and the nucleolus the testis, the latter produc-

ing bodies which he regards as spermatozoa. Claparède regards

this view as weli founded, as it had already been suggested by

himself, Lieberkiihn, J. Müller and Stein that certain Infusoria

contained spermatic particles, found not only in the nucleolus, but

also in the nucleus, into which they had penetrated from the nu-

cleolus. This has been observed in Paramecium, where, as Clap-

aréde quotes as Stein’s opinion, that ‘* Fecundation having been

accomplished, these zoosperms disappear, and the nucleus then

divides in a manner comparable to the segmentation of the egg

into a certain number of segments, or reproductive bodies, des-

tined each to give rise to an embryo. The Infusoria, then,” adds

Claparède, ‘** are androgynous.”

It appears, also from the observations of Balbiani, that the

Infusoria, as Stentor, Paramecium, Vorticella, etc., have true

eggs, each egg consisting of “two hollow membranous spheres,

the smaller being enclosed within the other, and separated from it

by a considerable interval.” ‘The smaller vescicle he regards as

the germinal vesicle, and the larger as the vitelline membrane.

After the fecundation, “at the end of four or five days, the devel-

opment of the eggs is complete, and each, with the aid of re-

agents, displays in a very distinct manner its characteristic ele-

ments, namely, vitelline membrane, vitellus, germ-vesicle and

germ-spot.” Bütschli, however, it should be stated, denies that

Infusoria produce spermatozoids whieh fertilize the nucleus. As

to the development of the Acinetz, self-fission is in them very

are, while conjugation is very frequent.

96 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

‘There are, then, two modes of development among the Infusoria

(Ciliata) :—

‘1. By fission.

2. By production of internal ciliated embryo arising from eggs.

We have, then, for the first time among the Protozoa, if the

observations of Balbiani be correct (though this is denied by

good observers), truly sexual animals, producing truè eggs and

spermatic particles. 'The same animal reproduces both by fission

and by the production of ciliated embryos. Most ef them before

producing embryos undergo fission. This is comparable to the al-

ternation of generations among the Hydroids, Aphides, ete.

LITERATURE.

Ehrenberg. Die ale ae ey als volkom gani , 1838

i AURON, t :

fih y ht

1854

Untersuchungen über die Entwickelung der Infuserien. preen i Archiv,

1849.)

—— Der Organismus des Infusorien.

Cla Lachmann. Études sur ai tarac et les Rhizopodes (Memoires

de V Institut National Gereyois, 1858-61).

albiani. Recherches sur les Phénoménes sexuels des Infusoires. a ei

Journal dela Physiologie. 1861. Translated in Quart. Journ. Micr. Science. 1862.)

Cla 186.

Everts. Untersu enehan an Vorticella nebulifera. (Siebold and K6lliker’s Zeits-

chrift, 1873.) ->

VIII. THE SPONGIÆ (PORIFERA).

We now come to animals whose bodies are composed of numer-

ous cells, and which produce true eggs, sometimes even with a thin

calcareous shell, and genuine sperm cells. The embryo sponge

arises from eggs which undergo a total segmentation of the yolk.

The free swimming larva later in its life becomes fixed, loses its

external cilia, but retains its cellular walls, now composed of two

layers, which are supported by silicious or calcareous needles or

spicules developed in the inner layer.

To regard such an organism as a Protozoan, or even to compare

‘it with a compound Radiolarian such as Sphærozoum, with its sili-

cious spicules and aggregations of one-celled organisms, would

not seem warranted. We have, in fact, in the light of the —

cal investigations of Lieberkiihn, Carter and Clark, and the c

bined anatomical and embryological studies of Heckel, Metech-

nikoff and Carter, no grounds for leaving them among the Pro-

tozoa. Indeed, one of the most striking illustrations of the value

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 97

of the knowledge of the early history of an organism is afforded

by the embryology of the sponge. Heeckel’s discovery that the

larval sponge is a planula, though not homologous with the em-

bryo polype or jelly-fish, enables the naturalist to at once decide

that the sponge is not a Protozoan, but belongs to a type only less

highly organized than the lower te and with more analogy

to the Radiates than the Protozo

If, under the guidance of the ae of the studies of Lieber-

kühn, Carter, Clark, and particularly of Heckel and Metschnikoff,

Fig. 36. Fig. 37.

Axinella polypoides. ape erent E AE

ter Schmidt.

we examine the structure of a sponge, we shall find that in its

simplest form it is a hollow, vertical cylinder, fastened by its base,

with the mouth opening upwards from a central gastro-vascular

cavity, with ciliated epithelial cells lining the cavity, and possess-

ing a surprising degree of individuality. There usually are sev-

eral mouths, and the cavity usually opens into a. labyrinth of

chambers connected by passages through. the cellular tissue ; these

round chambers being lined with ciliated epithelial cells. This

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. T

98 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

body is supported by a basket-work of interlaced needles of silica

or lime, developed in the inner layer of cells of the larva.

Such, in brief, is the sponge. Does the fact that in the sim-

plest, immature forms, we have quite a regular body-wall and a

single cavity, compel us to range the sponges side by side and in

he same natural division with the polypes and jelly-fishes, in the

Fig. 40.

Fig. 38.

$ } N

Tethilla polyura. After Schmidt. PR ne. ik — of a

enlarged. After Lovén.

typical forms of which the central cavity acts as a true stomach

and the outlet surrounded with tentacles acts as a mouth? Metsch-

nikoff has shown that it would seem to be a violation of. the

existing principles of classification to place together animals so

unlike. The sponges apparently represent a class lower than, but

possibly equivalent, systematically, to the polypes and jelly-fishes.

Currents of water, created by the cilia and bearing along parti-

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 99

cles of food, enter through the system of mouths, and when the food

is absorbed bythe cells of the inner lining, they pass out through

the larger openings. -Both the larger and smaller “mouths” are

capable of opening and closing.

The eggs and sperm cells are scattered at irregular intervals

among the cells composing the body-walls; the spermatozoa are

Fig. 39.

Pheronema Annæ and Spicules, After Leidy.

in some species developed in “mother” cells, as in’ many of the

higher animals.

e sponges are by Heckel regarded as closely allied to the

Hydroid polypes, members of the Ceelenterates, a division formed

are based on the fact that the sponges are made up of two layers

of cells (ectoderm and entoderm, or outer and inner layer) sur-

rounding 2 central cavity, and that both reproduce by eggs and

spermatozoa, and pass through a “planula” stage.

100 LIFE

HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

Dorpere n

Bost eR So PAY

im. mamm g

TRS

“i

Hyalonema with hermine polypes,

embedded half its length in the

ud. After Gra Bon

Hyalonemn Sieboldii (} nat. size).

After Schulze.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 101

Gegenbaur and some English naturalists have endorsed this

view. Heckel goes so far as to state that the only character ex-

Corbitella, 3? natural size. After Lütken.

Tuba op hon aha 4 natural size.

After Liitker

cluding the sponges from the Ceelenterates is the want of lasso

cells,* but we have seen that the true Infusoria possess them.

4 Eimer claims to have found true lasso cells in Reniera, a sponge observed by him at

Capri; but Carter attributes their presence to a parasitic pc ite which he = stecte at in

this sponge. Eimer on other gr etait piaia that he has disc ed a sponge w

affords a passage i pr the Hydroids. “ In an Esperia, in anoth aili icious spongo pre

to Myxilla, and in a horny sponge, the surface is studde sina ‘saith chitinous tubes

simil

becoming, however, more delicate below, and finally passing into a sarcode-like con-

dition; each of these tubes is inhabited by a retractile, sac-like body, provided with

ectoderm, a muscular layer, and entoderm, with thread cells, and with 6-12 long, un-

branched tentacles, with cilia and thread cells; below, they pass successively into the

common sponge-substance, and generally lie four in each channel, each, however, with

102 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

But Metschnikoff has shown that there is no true homology be-

tween the sponges and Radiate

The sponges are divided SG (1) the naemen represented

by Hälisarca ; (2) the Fibrospongiœ, or the silicious sponges, rep-

resented by Axinella (Fig. 36, A. polypoides ; 37, another species

of Axinella), the fresh water Spongilla; Thethya, Tethilla (Fig.

38 T. polyura) ; Pheronema (Fig. 39, P. Anne and spines); the

glass sponges, such as Hyalonema (H. boreale, Fig. 40, from the

Fig. 45.

Dactyocalyx pumicea. After Liitken.

Arctic Ocean; Fig. 41, H. Sieboldii ; Fig. 42, another Hyalonema;

anchored in the mud by its silicious threads) the Venus flower

basket, or Huplectella aspergillum from the Philippines; the Tuba

(Fig. 43, T. labyrinthiformis) from the West Indies; the Corbi-

tella from the Moluccas (Fig. 44) ; and Dactyocalyx (Fig. 45, D.

pumicea®) from the West ies. The third division of sponges

comprises the calcareous sponges (Calcispongie) represented by

the Sycon (Sycandra ciliata, Fig. 46), a common little white

sponge found on our shores, and in the North Atlantic generally.

its own special ype tube. In other sponges (Reni ) th polypoids were found

in a lower stage of evolution, with short or absent tentacles, thread-cells present or

wanting, no nal layer, chitinous investment sometimes strongly developed, an-

nular and projecting—in other instances reduced to a delicate, almost sarcode-like

membrane, or almost totally wanting. The idea of parasitism is, according to the

author, quite out of the question; the ‘ polypoids’ he constantly regards as the true

nutritive zooids of the e spon ge, an and the npongon:. in which they oponr in a more rudi-

ges without

nutritive zooids of any kind.” Lütken in Zoological “Record for 1872. Taa. 1874.

and Figs. 36-38, 40-46, were kindly loaned me by Dr. C. F, Lütken, of the

Royal Zoological Museum at Copenhagen. They are from the Tidsskrift for Populære

Fremstillinger af Naturvidenskaben. 1871.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 103

Development. Lieberkiihn made the astonishing discovery, con-

firmed by Heeckel, that sponges were really hermaphrodite animals

reproducing by eggs and sperm cells developed

in the same individual sponge. Heckel showe

that they were probably developed from the inner

(endodermal) layer of cells forming the body,

being simply modifications of these endodermal

cells, much as the eggs of the higher animals are

mod fied epithelial cells. Fig. 47, from Heckel,

shows one of these cells (of Sycortes quadrangu-

lata) with several spermatozoa mingling their

protoplasmic contents with the protoplasm of the

egg itself.

The endodermal cell transforms into an egg,

according to Heckel, in the following manner. Syoindra ahoi 4

At first provided with a “collar” and flagellum pa peman a ate

much as in the Codosiga figured on page 42, it Schmidt.

begins to draw these in until they disappear; then a nucleus (nu-

cleolinus) appears within the nucleolus of the cell. The egg soon

becomes detached from the body wall, and Fig. 47

moves about, sometimes penetrating into the

exoderm, or ‘‘emigrating, in the oviparous

species, from the ‘ stomach’ to be fecundated

abroad.”

‘The spermatozoa are apparently devel-

oped through repeated divisions of modified

endodermal cells; the ‘ head’ is formed by

the ‘nucleus,’ the tail by the protoplasm

of the minute sperm-cells.”

After fecundation of the egg, it begins to eles with egg of sponge

undergo self-division, splitting into two, After Heckel.

four, eight, sixteen, etc., nucleolinated cells (Fig 48, total seg-

Fig. 48. mentation of eggs of Halisarca),

the process being exactly as in

the eggs of nearly all the higher

animals including man. This

stage of segmentation, like the

mulberry mass of the egg after

Segmentation of egg of sponge. segmentation in the higher ani-

mals, Heckel terms the Morula stage (from its likeness to the mul-

berry, Morus; see Fig. 48, after Carter). The cells of the

104 : LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

Morula afterwards become separated into two kinds, a few re-

maining round, the majority becoming long and prismatic, and

provided each with a cilium (flagellum), by means of which it

swims about and looks like a “planula” or larval jelly-fish.

This stage Heckel consequently calls the ‘ Planula” stage.

The next step is the formation of a ‘‘ stomach” or internal

cavity in the body of the ciliated larva. This stage Heckel calls

« Gastrula.” Fig. 49, from Heckel, represents the gastrula o

Leuculmis echinus, as seen in optical section, the outer layer (ec-

Fig. 49.

Larva of a Sponge.

toderm) being composed of long prismatic, nucleated cells (ex)

provided with a lash, while the cells (en) of the lining (endoderm)

of the cavity are much larger and rounder. After swimming

about for a time it becomes fixed by the end of the body to some

object, the cavity finally opening out by a mouth. The external

cilia now disappear, and others become developed in the cells lin-

ing the interior of the cavity.” Afterwards the true sponge char-

ê Metschnikoff shows that this “entoderm” is really an invaginated portion of

- Heckel’s ectoderm.”

7 Metschnikoff observed on the contrary that the ciliated external cells are with

drawn in the process of growth and line the cavity.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 105

acter of the organism is revealed. The body-wall becomes per-

forated with pores, which open into the general cavity of the body,

while currents of water are maintained by means of the cilia, and

w out through the so-called mouth. “This is the ‘ Proto-

spongia” state, and when spicules of silex or lime are developed

to strengthen the walls of the body, the young sponge is termed

by Heckel, the ‘* Olynthus.”

Thus following the course of development as Heckel supposed

to be the case with the calcareous sponges, for he, as Metschnikoff

remarks, did not actually observe the stages after the formation

of the ciliated larva we obtain a very clear idea of the typi-

ca] structure of the sponge. JI cannot do better than employ the

Lütken in the “ Zoological Record” for 1872, with a few correc-

tions taken from Metschnikoff’s paper. The Olynthus, the sim-

plest type of the sponge, is a ‘cylindrical, clavate or Shins

etc., tube, closed at the extremity by which it is affixed, commonly

open by a ‘mouth’ at the other; the body-wall, enclosing the

‘gastric’ cayity, is a thin membrane composed of the two layers

named above—the ‘syncytium’ or exoderm [Metschnikoff’s inner

layer] a mass of sarcodine with nuclei, the cells of which are so

completely fused together that the original cellular structure

cannot be made visible through any chemical reaction; if torn

mechanically, the fragments will, whether containing one or more

or no nuclei, take the shape of Amæœbæ and walk about. In this

layer® the spicula are developed, chiefly of three types—simple,

3-radiate and 4-radiate, anchor-shaped spicula are rare (Syculmis

synapta, anchoring the animal in the mud bottom) ; the stellate

spicula sometimes occurring are foreign bodies, belonging origin-

ally to Didemnia (Ascidie). The spicula are invested with a

delicate sheath of condensed sarcodine; they contain an axial

filament, and are composed of concentric layers, like the sili-

cious tout chemically they are composed partly of Co,, CaO,

partly of an organic substance (‘spiculin’). The endodermal

cells are, like certain flagellate Infusoria, provided with a collar

and flagellum; they contain a ‘nucleus’ (with ‘nucleolus’), —

and often one or two contractile ‘vacuola’ (water drops) ;

though without ‘mouth,’ they both ‘drink’ and ‘eat,’ or receive

DA ”

8 Metschnikoff h that th pi 1 y9 $ A Er : 3

106 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES.

into their interior, not only fluid, but also minutely diffused solid

matter (e. g., carmine), probably through the soft exoplasm be-

tween the collar and flagellum. Liberated artificially, they also

assume amoeboid shapes and motions. On the endodermal cells

devolve the whole of the nutritive (digestive, respiratory and

secretory) functions ; and there can be little doubt that both eggs

and spermatozoa are modified endodermal cells.”

Heckel did not observe the development of the larva, his gas-

trula, into the young sponge. This gap has been filled by Metsch-

nikoff. He observed the course of development in Sycon ciliatum

(Fig. 50) from the segmentation of the yolk, through the larval

state, up to the time when the sponge is fixed and the spicules are

Fig. 50.

Sycon ciliatum.

well developed ; in fact, through nearly every important ‘tae in its

life. By making a section through the sponge he es Sose and

embryos in different stages of development in spri The

total segmentation occurred as Hæckel describes. Me EEA TI

however, observed that a small ‘segmentation-cavity” appeared

in the egg (Fig. 50, A, c) which soon disappeared (Fig. 50, B).

As a result of the process of division, a roundish embryo appears,

which is made up of a large number of small cells. He was un-

able to study the mode of origin of the germ-layers. The free-

tain large round ones, much fewer in number, The first form a

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE SPONGES. 107

sort of arch, with a hollow in the middle, surrounding which a

large number of very fine brown pigment corpuscles are collected.

The next change of importance is the disappearance of the cayity,

the upper or ciliated half of the body being much reduced in size.

Then the large round cells of the hinder part are united into a com-

pact mass, leaving only asinglerow. The ciliated cells are gradu-

ally withdrawn into the body cavity. Fig. 50, D, shows this process

going on. At this period also the larva becomes sessile, and now

begins the formation of the sponge spicules, which develop from

the non-ciliated round cells. Metschnikoff calls attention to the

. which is persistent in the genus Sycyssa. The layer of ciliated

cells are gradually withdrawn into the body cavity, until a small

opening is left, surrounded with a circle of cilia. These cilia

finally disappear, and a few more spicules grow out, and meanwhile

the opening disappears. In the next stage (represented at D) a

considerable (gastrovascular) cavity appears, which may be seen

through the body-walls. At this time, by soaking the specimen

in acetic acid; the body of the sponge was seen to consist of

two layers, the inner layer of ciliated cells forming a closed sac,

enveloped in the spicule-generating layer (representing the ento-

derm). At this time no mouth-opening was formed, though three-

pointed spicules had appeared.

It results from Metschnikoff’s observations that the body of the

larval sponge is composed of two primary germ-layers, an ‘‘ ento-

derm” and “ectoderm,” the two germ layers about which we shall

hear much more hereafter.

The observations of Carter, made on several additional species

both of sHicious and calcareous sponges, confirm the results of

Metschnikoff as to the later history of the larval sponge, and those

of Heckel as to the mode of segmentation of the egg. Our Fig.

48, A (copied from Carter), shows the total segmentation of the

yolk in Halisarca lobularis into two portions ; these portions farther

subdivide, as at Fig. 48, B, until an immense number of 1

embryonic cells are produced.

- Carter observes that the embryos may be found at all seasons,

from March through the summer. These observations are not dif-

ficult to follow out. We have, by tearing apart a species of Sy-

candra (or Sycon) perhaps S. ciliata, which grows on a Ptilota,

found the planula much as figured by Heckel, Metschnikoff and

108 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Carter, and any one can sues patience and care observe the life

history of the marine spon

It seems, then, that the fe history of the sponges consists of

the following stages :—

1. Fertilization of a true egg by genuine spermatozoa; both

eggs and sperm cells arising from the inner germ-layer.

2. Total — of the yolk, or protoplasmic’contents of

the egg.

3. A ciliated embryo.

4. A free swimming “planula ”-like larva, with two germ-layers,

not, however, originating as in the true planula of the acalephs.

The planula becomes sessile, spicules are developed in the hinder

end of the body, afterwards a gastro-vascular cavity appears,

constituting the

5. Gastrula stage.

6. A mouth and side openings appear and the true sponge char-

acters are assumed.

LITERATURE.

Lieberkiihn. ick ”s Archiv, 1856 )

O. Schmidt. Die Spongien des ‘Adriatisches Meeres. gree 1862-66.

Clark. Spongiæ Ciliatæ or Infusoria sharia

eckel. Die er cameras Eine onograp h. 2 vols. and atlas. Berlin, 18

Metschnikof. Z gsg (Siebold ae Köl-

liker’s Zeitse tsohrift. "Feb .» 1874.)

Carter. Development sir the Marine Sponges, etc. (Annals & Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov.

and Dec., 1874.)

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Tue Sprpers or France.!—Mr. E. Simon has just published

the first part of a monograph of the Arachnida of France, forming

an octavo volume of two hundred and seventy pages, with three

plates. Beginning with the Aranez he describes the Epeiride,

Uloboridæ, Dictynide, Enyoide and Pholcide. This arrange-

ment is not meant for a natural one, but has been adopted because

the work on these families was first finished by the author.

introduction i is promised in a future part, but the present volume

ns with a short review of the principal descriptive works on

1Les Arachnides de France. Par E. Simon, Tome 1, Paris, 1874, with 3 plates 8yo.

pp. 270,

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 109

European spiders, a list of definitions of terms used in descrip-

tions and some general remarks on classification. The arrange-

ment of families adopted by Simon is the following. l

lst suborder. Araneæ oculatæ; Attidæ; Lycosidæ; Oxyo-

pidæ.

2nd suborder. Araneéz vere; Sparasside ; Thomisidæ; Pal-

pimanidæ; Ereside; Epeiridæ; Ulobaridæ; Theridide ;

Pholcidæ; Hersilidæ; Urocteidæ; Eryoidæ; Agelenide ;

sside,

3rd suborder. pile graphose ; Scytodide; Dysderide ;

4th suborder. Aranez theraphose; Filistatide; Avicular-

The first suborder is founded on the great development of the

head and front legs in the Attide, the third is the Senoculine

of Blackwall, the fourth the sores eig of Walckenaer, and the

second comprises all the other familie

For convenience in identification, tae are given of the most

prominent characters of the genera of each family and the species

of each genus.

The plates give a TE of one spider from each genus in the

Epeiridæ, Ulobaridæ, and Dictynidæ, and a few enlarged figures of

feet, palpi and copulatory organs.

The second part containing the Urocteidæ, Agelenidæ, mr

misidæ and Sparassidæ, is to be published next April. The w

will be quite useful to students in this country.—J. H. E

WHEELER’s SURVEY OF THE Terrirortes.'—Judging by the

present report, a good deal of geological and biological work has

been accomplished in connection with the regular topographical

work of the survey. Three parties were in the field, and explored

portions of Utah, Arizona, Colorado and New Mexico. Consider-

able geological work was done, while Dr. J. T. Rothrock and assist-

ant John Wolfe collected Hail 12,000 specimens of plants, repre-

senting over 1,100 species. A goodly number of animals were

collected, and have been distributed to specialists. The report is

accompanied by a number of descriptions of fossil vertebrates

from New Mexico by Prof. Cope.

1 Annual Report upon the Geographical Explorations and Surveys west of the 100th

Meridian in California, Nevada, ae Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Wyoming and

Montana, By G. M. Wheeler, U. S. Engineer, Waington, 1874. 8vo, pp. 130, with

110 BOTANY.

EMBRYOLOGY or THE PILL-BUGS.—An addition of much value to

our knowledge of the mode of growth of crustacea is afforded by

a Russian embryologist, Dr. Bobretzky in Siebold and Kolliker’s

* Zeitschrift.” He figures the early stages of the pill-bug, or Onis-

cus murarius, of Europe.

Tue Entomostraca.— An extended and beautifully illustrated

memoir by Prof. A. Weissmann, on the structure of Leptodora hy-

alina, a little European Entomostracan, or water-flea, appears in

the last number received of Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift.”

BOTANY.

A New MATERIAL ror Parer.—Considerable attention has re-

cently been called in England to the capabilities of the Zizania

aquatica as a material for paper. This grass grows in large quan-

tities in swamps on the Canadian shores of Lakes Ontario and

Erie, and is known to the native Indians under the name of ‘Tus-

carora,” the grains affording an article of diet which is both highly

nutritious and palatable, and furnishing ‘food to enormous flocks of

wild swans. The culm grows to the height of eight or ten feet,

and is of great strength and tenacity. It is said to possess all the

good qualities of the “ esparto” from the shores of the Mediter-

ranean, now so largely used for paper making in England, and

besides, to contain less silex, to require fewer chemicals for its

purification, and to make a paper which takes printers’ ink with

greater sharpness. The great obstacle to its exportation is the

heavy freight in consequence of its great bulk; but there is little

doubt that if it could be at least partially prepared on this side

the water, it might become an important article of commerce. It

is stated that a company has been formed for the purpose of ob-

taining a concession of the land from the Canadian government.

The grass is mek A allied to the rice belonging to the tribe

Oryzeæ. — A. W. B

THE Movement or Water 1N Praxrs. — Dr. W. R. McNab

of Dublin has performed a fresh series of experiments on the

rate of motion of the sap in plants, and the transpiration of

water from the leaves. The plants selected were the cherry-

laurel (Prunus ee elm and privet; and the results

obtained were as follows: 1. That under favorable circum-

BOTANY. 7

stances, a rate of ascent of 40 inches per hour can be obtained.

2. That, contrary to the generally received opinion, direct exper-

iment has shown that the upward rapid current of water does not

cease in the evening. 3. That checking the transpiration for a

short time by placing the branch in darkness does not materially

impede the rapid current of water. 4. That the removal of the

cortical tissues does not impede the rapid current in the stem,

which moves only through the woody (xyleus) portion of the fibro-

vascular bundles. 5. That a well-marked rapid flow of fluid will

take place in a stem aser the removal of the leaves. 6. That

fluid will rapidly flow downwards as well as upwards in the wood

(xyleus) portion of the fibro-vascular bundles, as seen in a branch

in which lithium citrate was applied at the top. 7. That pres-

sure of mercury does not exert any very marked influence on the

rapidity of flow, in the one experiment made with a pressure of

110°53 grammes of mercury. — A.‘ W. B.

Tue Resurrection Fern. — Polypodium incanium, the com-

monest of all the ferns of Florida, is often called the resurrection

fern. It grows mostly upon the trunks and branches of the oaks,

being dead. While in this condition I secured some, wrapped

them up in paper, and sent them in April last to Cambridge. On

my return to that place in September last, the plants, after having

moist moss placed about their roots, were secured to blocks of

oak wood hung up in the greenhouse of the Botanic Garden.

The leaves unfolded and assumed a bright he color. They

now appear to be in a healthy condition. — E. PALMER

Tue Trus Process or RESPIRATION IN Prants. — M. Claude

Bernard pointed out long ago that the process ordinarily described

as that of respiration in vegetables, the decomposition of the CO,

of the atmosphere, is not properly of this nature at all, but is

rather a process of digestion; the true process of respiration

being of a precisely similar character in the animal and vegetable

kingdoms, viz., an | of the carbonaceous matters of the

tissues. M. Corenwinder of Lille in France, has recently con-

firmed this view Para a series of observations on the maple and

lilac, proving that true respiration is always going on in a plant,

even when concealed by the greater activity of the decomposition

112 ZOOLOGY.

of the CO, by the parts containing chlorophyll. He distinguishes

two periods in the vegetative season of the plant: — the first

riod, when nitrogenous constituents predominate, is that during

which vegetation is most active; the second, when the proportion —

of carbonaceous substance is relatively larger, is the period when

respiration is comparatively feeble, the CO, evolved being again

almost entirely taken up by the chlorophyll, decomposed, and the

carbon fixed in the process of assimilation or digestion. He

found that the proportion of nitrogenous matter in leaves grad-

ually diminishes, while that of carbonaceous matter increases,

between autumn and spring. — A. W. B.

MARTENIA PROBOSCIDES.—This is a very common plant ie Ari-

zona and is very productive. Its large seed pods after being de-

prived of their epidermis are used by all the Indian tribes of Ar-

izona to ornament their willow baskets. The method resorted to

is first to soften by means of water the black pods which are very

hard. They readily soften, and are then straightened, split into

the requisite strips and worked into willow baskets to form the

black ornamentations seen in those made by all the tribes of Ari-

zona.—EpWaARD PALMER.

ZOOLOGY.

An AppiTionaAL CHARACTER FOR THE DEFINITION OF Ruyn-

cHopHorous CoLroprera.!—QOn two former occasions I have

invited the attention of my colleagues of the Academy to the re-

lations which the Rhynchophorous Coleoptera bear to the other

divisions of that order of insects. In the first of these I endeay-

ored to show that they formed a group which was equivalent to all

the others combined.. The defining character of the group I

stated to be, that the posterior lateral elements (the prothoracic

epimera), of the under surface of the prothorax, coalesced on the

median line, in such a manner as to form a longitudinal suture be-

hind the end of the prosternum ; in all other Coleoptera? the pro-

sternum ends in a vacant space, or extends so as to take part in

the articulation between the pro- and metathoracic segments. In

the second memoir I attempted a sketch of the manner in which

the group might be naturally divided into series and families.

1 Read before the National Academy of Sciences, at Philadelphia, Nov. 5, 1874.

2 Except in Cossyphus and a few Colydiidæ.

w ZOOLOGY. 113

During the progress of the investigations which will terminate in

the classification, according to the scheme there proposed, of

the genera and species by which the Rhynchophora are repre-

sented in our fauna, I have been led to observe an additional char-

acter serving to define this great and important complex of genera.

This character strengthens greatly the opinion I first announced

concerning its systematic value, as an equal of all the other Cole-

optera combined.

On separating the head of a Rhynchophore, it is seen that the

cranium (I use this word for want of a better term) is globose,

and always presents a distinct trace of a median suture on the

under surface, corresponding with the gular sutures of other Cole-

optera. In the latter, however, these sutures diverge either be-

fore or behind, and rarely (Silphide and Staphylinide), approxi-

mate at the middle of their course. Whether the differences in

direction of these sutures may or may not, when carefully studied,

give indications for the definition of the series into which the nor-

mal Coleoptera are now divided upon other characters, I cannot

now say. But this much I can assert positively, that in no other

but the Rhynchophora, do the lateral elements of the under sur-

face of the head coalesce on the median line, so as to form a

straight longitudinal suture extending to the posterior limit of the

chitinous part of the head.

~ In most of the Coleoptera the gular sutures diverge behind, and

even when they are obsolete, their posterior termination is indi-

cated by a nick or irregularity in the outline of the infero-poste-

rior margin of the cranium. In the Ptinide and Bostrichide, by

a remarkable exception, the sutures, though distant in front, con-

verge behind,

It will not be in my power, for some time to come, to follow

this train of investigation to its limits, and I now make known

these imperfect observations in the hope of inducing observers,

who are less burdened with a great mass of material urgently

pressing for classification, to give some attention to the valuable

characters here indicated. — J. L. LeConte, M.D

Note on Terea Potypuemus.—My note on the synonymy of

this species on page 753 of Vol. viii, of the — NATURAL-

IsT, was printed without proof having been sent to me. In the

` second paragraph, line six, ‘‘this Bomb” aii read ‘the

` AMER.. NATURALIST,- VOL.. IX.

114 ZOOLOGY. 7

Bombyces.” No species of Attaci have yet been discovered in

_ Cuba; the very extensive collections of Lepidoptera made in that

Island by Professor Poey and Dr. Gundlach having been exam-

ined by me (see Grote, on the Bombycide of Cuba, Proc. Am. .

Ent. Soc. Phil., 5). As stated, Linné has no species under the

name Polyphemus in his 10th or 12th Editions, or in the Mus.

Lud. Ulr., but I find that in the 13th Edition, p. 2402, No. 461,

he cites a species under that name. Linné gives references to

Fabricius and to Cramer and undoubtedly intends our species.

He says: “ Habitat in America boreali, Jamaica.” The preceding

species is his Paphia, of which he says: “ Habitat in Asia,” and

there is no reference, doubtful or otherwise, to Catesby. So that

I repeat my former conclusion that there can be no reasonable

doubt that Linné’s Paphia is a distinct species from our Polyphe-

mus, and that we are not justified in surrendering the latter name.

I have recently given the synonymy of the North American forms

of the group (Attaci) to which Polyphemus belongs in the Trans-

actions of the American Philosophical Society.— A. R. GROTE.

ES ON CALIFORNIAN Turusnes.—The recent appearance of

oe gover work by Baird, Brewer and Ridgway, on the ‘‘ His-

orth American Birds,” makes it necessary for me to ex-

aes some discrepancies between my statements in the ‘ Orni-

thology of California” and the views taken by them in relation to

the two common brown thrushes of California.

1. A reference to Baird’s report, in Vol. IX, P.R.R. series, will

show that the specimens collected on those expeditions led him to

believe that T. ustulatus was limited to the “Coast region of

ashington Territory and Oregon,” while the 7. nanus was con-

fined to the “ Pacific Slope, from Ft. Bridger and Ft. Crook (about

lat. 41°) to the valley of the Gila and Cape St. Lucas.! In the Or-

nithology of California I merely extended the range of ustulatus

to ‘San Francisco in winter,” having observed it there (as I sup-

posed) while in the Colorado valley, and at San Diego I only

found nanus at that season. Relying too much on the authority

of the Pacific Railroad Report, I assumed that ustulatus was a

northern form only, and nanus a southern and consequently

_ dwarfed race (without reference to their eastern allies). I may

om, Jp Wiat That seh bA he fal hin Dt

JEP

ZOOLOGY. 115

remark, that in the woods it is impossible to distinguish between

them at the distance such shy birds usually keep from the ob-

server.

2. At the time I wrote the Ornithology of California, I had

collected only nanus in winter, and with the above mentioned im-

pressions, too hastily concluded that they remained in the state

all summer, while the ustulatus retired to more northern regions.

Afterwards when collecting the nests and eggs assigned to nanus,

it was inconvenient, and seemed unnecessary to preserve the birds

also. I will admit therefore, that I may have described those of

ustulatus as belonging to nanus.

3. That there is still reason to believe that nanus does not

always build on the ground is shown by the note in Vol. III,

Hist. N. A. Birds, p. 499, describing the nest of “ var. Audubonii”

on a tree, and in a region remarkable for dryness.?

4. The statement on page just quoted, that “ Dr. Cooper has

sent to the Smithsonian Institution skins of his T. nanus and they

prove to be 7. ustulatus,” is not quite correct. I sent one skin

from near San Buenaventura with notes showing its differences

from T. nanus (which I also obtained there), and my uncertainty

as to what to call it. Prof. Baird wrote that it was T. ustulatus,

although I had supposed, from its very olivaceous hue, that it

might be Audubonii. I had not considered it nanus, and it was

so much less brown than the ustulatus I obtained in Washington

Territory that I did not suppose it the same. It must be consid-

ered a link between them and the var. Swainsonii.

5. The facts now stand exactly in reverse of the range given

in the Report on Birds in the Pacific Railroad Survey. Thus

ustulatus is the summer species of pie as well as northward |

breeding from Alaska south to lat. 35°, near the coast and in low

grounds. Nanus is the winter species of California, retiring north

and perhaps to the high mountains in summer, while in winter it

only reaches Cape St. Lucas, ustulatus going entirely south of the,

United States, and as far as Guatemala.

6. In southern Californian specimens there is not so marked a

difference between the color of the tail and bäck in ustulatus and

nanus as to distinguish them strongly without comparison, nor

2 Audubon and Wilson also dasacerihad th + a r Q 7 73 R

I did those of var. nanus.

116 i ZOOLOGY.

can I give any differences in song, unless I suppose that nanus is

quite silent while with us, and that all my notes on songs belong

only to ustulatus. They are easily distinguishable by measure-

ments. ;

7. Admitting the determinations of, the authors quoted, the

law of priority requires us to call the species T. ustulatus and

var. Swainsonii, also T. nanus and vars. Pallasii and Audubonii.

It is however a question not decided by them, whether the two

species of Peru are identical with those of North America. If

found south of the equator, they must be supposed to migrate

toward the south pole, if at all, and there may even be two or

three races of each in South America, corresponding to longitud-

inal differences in climate. Though quoting Fauna Peruana they

do not give localities for ours south of the equator. o T. min-

imus Lafr. and T. guttatus Cab. cover the Peruvian species? or

is any similar species found there ?—J. G.

ASCENDING Process OF THE ASsTRAGALUS IN Birps.!— Mr,

Morse first described the ascending process of the astragalus in

birds, as seen in the hen. The astragalus in birds codssifies early

with the end of the tibia, and this process, as it has been called,

ascends as a spur from the upper side of the astragalus in front

of the tibia. In certain extinct reptiles, like Hypsilophodon, Læ-

laps, and others, the ascending process of the astragalus shows it-

self as an avian character.

A few years ago Prof. Wyman discovered that this process had

an independent centre of ossification, and therefore could not be

a process ef the bone. Mr. Morse had interpreted this bone as

the intermedium of Gegenbaur. The intermedium is a tarsal bone,

occupying a position between the astragalus and calcaneum. In

the Saurians, turtles, and other reptiles this bone is well seen.

In certain amphibians as in the salamanders, the bone is long, ©

wedge-shaped, and partially projects between the tibia and fibula.

Mr. Morse has expressed his belief that the ascending process

of the astragalus represented the intermedium of reptiles e

had published in the ‘ Annals of the New York Lyceum of Kaini

History” a theoretic figure of the proper position of this bone in

birds, comparing it with the intermedium of certain salamanders.

1 Abstract of a pap d at the Hartford ting of the American Association for

the Advancement of Science, by Edward S. Morse.

’

GEOLOGY. 117

He explained its position in front of the tibia as a supposed

termedium in front of the tibia, and, as it early unites with the

astragalus, has naturally been mistaken.

fr. Morse had been able to confirm his opinion regarding the

nature of this bone in studying the embryos of the common tern at

Penikese Island. In the embryo bird the intermedium appeared

as a long oval bone between the astragalus and calcaneum, passing

up between the tibia and fibula as seen in the lower reptiles.

In this connection it is interesting to observe that in the mam-

malia the intermedium does not occur, and Gegenbaur has ex-

pressed the opinion that the astragalus of mammals represents the

astragalus and intermedium united. These investigations might

possibly go to confirm that opinion in the fact that in reptiles the

intermedium is separate; in birds it is separate in the young bird,

but connected with the astragalus in the adult state, while in

mammals, if Gegenbaur be right, it is always so connected.

GEOLOGY.

Return OF Proressor Marsu’s Expepition.—Professor Marsh

and party returned to New Haven, Dec. 12th, after an absence of

two months in the West. The object of the present expedition

was to examine a remarkable fossil locality, discovered during the

past: summer in the “ Bad Lands” south of the Black Hills. The

explorations were very successful, notwithstanding extremely cold

weather, and the continued hostility of the Sioux Indians. The

latter refused to allow the expedition to cross White River, but a re-

luctant consent was at last obtained. ey afterward stopped the

party on the way to the “ Bad Lands,” attempted a night attack

on their camp, and otherwise molested them, but the accompanying

escort of U. S. troops proved sufficient for protection. The fossil —

deposits explored were mainly of Miocene age, and although quite

limited in extent, proved to be rich beyond expectation. Nearly

two tons of fossil bones were collected, most of them rare speci-

mens, and many unknown to science. Among the most interest-

ing remains found were several species of gigantic Brontotheride,

nearly as large as elephants. At one point these bones were

118 GEOLOGY.

heaped together in such numbers as to indicate that the animals

lived in herds, and had been washed into this ancient lake by a

freshet. Successful explorations were made, also, in the Pliocene

strata of the same region. All the collections secured go to Yale

College, and ‘will soon be described by Professor Marsh.

Summer Scuoot or GroLocy.—The great difficulty that all

students of practical geology meet at the outset of their career is

to obtain proper instruction in the methods of working in the field.

With a view to meet this need the teachers of geology at Harvard

University have determined, with the consent of its governing

body, to begin a system of summer instruction intended for the

proper geological training of persons having sufficient preliminar y

knowledge to pursue field studies with profit. The school will be

established in a camp to be formed in the state of Kentucky, in the

immediate neighborhood of Cumberland Gap. This place offers

great advantages for the pursuit of such studies. In that neighbor-

hood a section from the Potsdam sandstone to the middle carbo-

niferous can be easily traced, and it is in the midst of the noble

mountain structure of the Appalachians, and affords great advan-

tages for the study of dynamic geology. At the same time the

situation is entirely healthy, being elevated more than fifteen hun-

dred feet above the sea, thus avoiding all malaria and the extreme

heat of lower regions.

The instruction will include lectures on different subjects con-

nected with geology, by a competent corps of instructors, and prac-

tice in field work. Opportunities will be thus afforded for the study

of dynamic geology seine chemical geology, with some-

thing of zoology hog botany.

Students will be required to pay in advance for the instruction

and use of camp furniture, the fee of fifty dollars, and will also be

required to pay weekly i in advance the actual cost of their subsis-

tence, which is expected not to exceed three dollars per week.

e first term will be continued for about ten weeks, or from

July 1st to Sept, 1st, 1875. Transportation of students from the

nearest railway stations in Kentucky and Tennessee will be pro-

vided at actual cost. An effort will be made to secure a reduction

of fare to students travelling to and fro from the camp.

_ This school is meant especially for teachers of natural science,

and those who are desirous of pursuing the study of geology in a

ANTHROPOLOGY. 119

practical and efficient fashion, ‘and it will therefore be limited to

persons of some training fitting them for such work. The num-

ber will be limited to twenty-five, and the school will not be begun

if tiiere are less than ten applicants. Persons desirous of joining

the school should apply to F. W. Harris, President’s Secretary,

Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.— N. S. S

Ancient Lage Basins ofr THE Rocky Mountarns.—The exis-

tence of several large fresh water lakes in the Rocky Mountain

region, remarks Prof. Marsh (in the American Journal of Science

and Arts, Jan., 1875), is now well established, mainly through the

researches of explorers whom the striking scenery of the “Bad

Lands,” or the extinct animals entombed in them, have attracted

thither. The oldest are of Eocene age. The one best known

forms the Green River basin, and the sediments are at least 6,000

feet in thickness. The animal remains found in these strata are

those of tapir-like mammals, monkeys, crocodiles, lizards and ser-

Aras and betoken a tropical climate. e lake basin of the

“Bad Lands” of Nebraska is of Miocene age, and the strata are

about 300 feet thick. The assemblage of animals indicates a cli-

mate less tropical than that of the Eocene lakes, as seen in the

absence of monkeys, and the scarcity of reptilian life. The Bron-

totheridz, the largest known Miocene mammals, are peculiar to the

iower strata of this basin. The late tertiary or Pliocene basin,

Marsh calls the Niobrara basin ; it extended from Nebraska nearly

to the Gulf of Mexico. The strata are nearly or quite 1,500 feet

thick. The fauna indicates a warm temperate climate, the more

common animals being a mastodon, rhinoceroses, camels, and

horses, the latter being especially abundant.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

COPPER AS A PRESERVATIVE OF ANIMAL AND VEGETABLE SUB-

sTANCES.—In examining an old Indian burying ground at Harps-

well, Maine, several pieces of leather and strips of nicely twisted

grass fibres were found which were fastened together at the pides

ay a tough grass thread passing through at intervals a

inch, though some of them were woven together. With these were

embedded several copper tubes and some thin sheets of copper;

the corroding of the latter so impregnated the former that they

120 MICROSCOPY.

were in a good state of preservation; the pieces exhibiting the

best marked effect of the copper were the strongest. The articles

of which these pieces once formed a part had long since gone to

decay; not coming in contact with the copper they were not

spared. to become articles of curiosity or of study to the ethnolo-

gist.—E. PALMER.

MICROSCOPY.

Ross’ New Microscores.—The adoption by this great house

of the Jackson model of stand (which has long been very gener-

ally preferred in this country if not everywhere), in place of the

transverse bar model which had come to be familiarly known as

the Ross style, is an innovation of sufficient importance to attract

special notice, and, we may add, congratulation. The magnificent

workmanship of the old Ross stand is no secret and is a sufficient

assurance of the mechanical excellence of the new ones, while the

fact that they are designed by Mr. Wenham leaves nothing to be

said as to their microscopical efficiency. The new stands, while

_ adhering substantially to the Jackson model, combine some of the

best features of the previous stands of Ross, Powell & Lealand,

Ladd, and other makers.

The Ross’ new patent object-glasses (devised by Mr. Wenham)

are believed by the makers to have so well proved their superi-

ority that they are now exclusively offered, and the old construc-

tion abandoned, from the 3 inch upwards,

Very Turn Covere Grass.—Mr. G. J. Burch, of the Queck-

ett Club, recommends the following procedure for producing very

thin covers, not for general use, but only when excessive thinness

is required. Seal up the end of a 4 inch glass tube in a blowpipe

ame, and continue to heat it until so soft as to require turning to

prevent its falling out of shape; then remove it from the flame

and blow into it strongly until it swells, at first slowly and then

suddenly, into a very thin bubble of glass, of perhaps four inches

diameter. When cold it is to be broken in pieces, and the pieces

cut to shape with a writing diamond. When perfect flatness is

_ required, lay a piece on a flat strip of platinum foil and place it

for a moment in a Bunsen flame, which, at a red heat, will both

flatten and anneal it. A piece of*this glass measured 51,5 inch

='0004 inch, while Dr. Pigott’s measurement of the thinnest glass

in his possession was °0022, which is 54 times as thick.

MICROSCOPY. Zi

FALSE-LIGHT EXCLUDER FOR Oasionvie. —Mr. Wenham’s exper-

iments upon the aperture of objectives, cutting off stray light

by a perforated stop surrounding the focal plane of the objective,

have suggested to Mr. Ingpen the usefulness of a similar contriv-

ance for cutting off false light in objectives in actual use, and

thereby preventing that milkiness of field which mars some other-

wise excellent objectives. He slips over the objective a cap

having a perforation a little larger than the field of the objective.

When this cap is slipped down to the cover-glass, the full aper-

ture of the lens is used and stray light excluded. The cap, by

slipping it up toward or to the objective, may be made useful to

secure a variety of reduced apertures. Such a contrivance which

has hitherto been used in connection with micro-spectroscopic

work is evidently capable of a more extended usefulness.

STAINING VEGETABLE Tissues.—Persons unaccustomed to mi-

croscopical manipulation suffer much loss of time in working from

such superb books as those of Beale and Frey, partly in selecting

from the great wealth of material and partly from the necessary

omission of minute details in the way of working directions. Of

staining solutions, for instance, the beginner is at a loss to choose

from the pages of excellent formulas, and is not unlikely to begin

with the least suitable one; and, partly for this sores! few be-

ginners are aware of the ease with which the mo methods of

staining may be employed, or of the exquisite wiles PIERS

. Such will be glad to use the following hints, which are mainly

— from a paper by Dr. Christopher Johnston in the

** Monthly Microscopical Journal.”

For staining animal tissue carmine succeeds perfectly, and log-

wood gives also beautiful results, but aniline is unsatisfactory ;

while for vegetable work logwood-violet and aniline-blue are pre-

ferred to carmine, being easier to work and pleasanter to study,

especially by lamplight.

Lo. d staining was introduced by Boehmer, who used solu-

tions of hematoxylin and alum, mixing them in small quantities

when needed for use. Dr. Frey simplified the plan by mixing log- _

wood and alum solutions until a violet color was produced, filtering

the solution thus prepared, and keeping it for use when required.

Dr. Arnold’s plan, which is the most convenient, is to pulverize

one part of extract of logwood and three parts of alum in a mortar, —

122 MICROSCOPY.

and gradually add water so as to form a saturated solution, some

of the powder being left undissolved. When filtered this should

be of a dark violet color; if a dirty red, add more alum. . After

standing a few days add one-fourth of its’ bulk of 75 per cent.

alcohol. Should a scum form on the surface, add a few drops of

alcohol and filter.

Ordinary aniline blue is insoluble in water, but made soluble by

the addition of sulphuric acid; but it may now be obtained in

soluble form at the color shops, and a one per cent. aqueous solu-

tifin of the soluble blue, with the addition of a little alcohol and

a trace of oxalic or acetic acid may be used, or the solution sold

as “ Bower’s Blue Ink,” may be slightly acidulated and used in-

stead.

The specimen, whether a section or a thin leaf, if it has not been

blanched by previous maceration in alcohol, is decolorized by

soaking in Labarraque’s solution of chlorinated soda until per-

fectly achromatic and transparent, and then soaked in distilled water

for an hour or two. It is next soaked in a three per cent. aque-

ous solution of alum, then in the logwood solution (diluted with

twenty-five per cent. alcohol if a slight or slow effect is desired) ;

when sufficiently stained it is washed in the alum solution, and

then transferred through alcohol and oil of cloves, to damar var-

nish or a chloroformic solution of balsam. Or else the bleached

ashed specimen is soaked in a three per cent. solution of

fod acid in fifty per cent. alcohol, then in the blue fluid until

intensely colored, washed in ninety per cent. alcohol to remove the —

superfluous aniline, and transferred promptly through absolute

alcohol and oil of cloves to damar or the balsam solution. A

small weight is placed upon the cover, and a temporary label on

the slide while the balsam hardens.

The logwood stainings may be mounted at leisure and at any

time, but those of aniline must be completed at once or the color

will wash out.

A METHOD or PREPARING AND MOUNTING SUITABLE INSECTS FOR

MICROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION.!—After procuring the insect, place

it under a tumbler or suitable vessel with a few drops of ether ;

when dead, wet it with alcohol, and place it in liquor potassæ of

the strength of 1 oz. (troy) fused caustic potassa and 1 pint dis-

tilled water.

petia No SaaS fe gal ok eer Eak ds iety, December 17, 1874.

MICROSCOPY. : 123

Let it soak in this liquid until the skin or external part is soft,

and the internal substance in such a condition that, upon slight

pressure, the insect can be evacuated by the natural, or, if neces-

sary, an artificial opening. This is best done under water, and a

white plate is best to use.

When this is effected the object is to be cleaned. Have a cam-

el’s hair brush in each hand; with one hold the object, and with

the other brush every part of the insect, and on both sides; float

it on a glass — and dispose each part in a natural position,

either creeping or flying.

Cover this slip with another glass slip of the same size, and

press gently together, using only sufficient force to make it as

thin as possible without crushing or destroying it.

onfine these two glasses, the insect being between, with a fine

brass wire as a string, and place it in clean water, to remain

twenty-four or thirty-six hours; this will give the insect a position

which is not easily changed, and it is therefore proper that the

position be such as you desire when finished. Remove the string,

and open the glasses carefully under water, and float the insect

off; give it another brushing, and let it remain a few hours to re-

move the potassa.

Transfer to a small but suitable vessel containing the strongest

alcoho] that can be obtained, pursuing the same course as with the

water, placing between glass slips, tied together, and letting it

remain about twenty-four hours

Transfer to a vessel PEERY spirits of turpentine. It is to

remain in this, kept betwee e glasses, until all the water is re-

moved. While in the siepeiting the insect is to be released sev-

eral times and the moisture removed from the glasses, and the

insect again confined.

hen no moisture is visible surrounding the insect, heat the

glass slips containing the insect over a spirit lamp until the con-

tained turpentine nearly boils, when if any moisture be present, it

will show its presence when the glasses are cold.

If free from moisture it is ready for mounting: float it on a

suitable slide from the turpentine; drop a sufficient quantity of |

alsam upon it; examine, and if no foreign substances are pres-

ent, heat the cover slightly, and apply in the usual way.

After a day or two, heat the slide moderately, and press out the

surplus balsam, and place a small weight upon the cover while

drying.

124 MICROSCOPY.

After the lapse of a suitable time, remove the surplus and clean

the slide.

In all the operations the utmost cleanliness is to be observed ;

the liquids used to be frequently filtered and kept from dust, and

a large share of patience will be found necessary.—Tuomas W.

Starr, 324 Chestnut St., Philadelphia.

Distineuisnine BLoop CorruscLes.—The ordinary method of

soaking out the shrivelled and distorted cells from a dried blood

stain or clot, and then measuring their diameter under a suitably

high power, is conceded to be satisfactory in many of the most

frequently occurring cases (for instance, Dr. J. G. Richardson,

who has been for several years a prominent advocate of the relia-

bility of this method of distinguishing human blood, under high

powers from that of certain domestic animals, has recently shown

by numerous experiments the feasibility of thus distinguishing

the blood of man, ox and sheep) ; but it fails when the corpuscles

approach each other too nearly in size. It also gives unsatisfac-

tory results with the oval nucleated corpuscles of reptiles, etc.,

which, when swelled by soaking, do not arrive at their original

condition. Dr. R. M. Bertolet of the Philadelphia Hospital is

represented as advising the following method of staining these

corpuscles, which is applying one of the chemical tests for blood

` in a new way and with great precision. The blood is moistened

with slightly acidulated glycerine, and then carefully irrigated

with an alcoholic solution of guiacum resin, and finally a small .

quantity of ethereal solution of ozonic ether (peroxide of hydro-

gen) is flowed beneath the cover. By this procedure the whole

corpuscle is stained of a uniform color which varies in different

corpuscles from a light sapphire to a deep blue, except in case of

the nucleated corpuscles in which the nucleus assumes a distinctly

different tint from the rest.

Empeppine Tissues.—Mr. R. Packenham Williams, in a paper

‘On Cutting Sections of the Eye of Insects,” read before the

Queckett Club, advises that the head, after hardening in alcohol,

should be embedded in a mixture of butter of cocoa, bleached

_ beeswax, and a little new Canada balsam. This mixture melts at

about 120°, and may be removed from the sections, after cutting,

by gently warming them in turpentine. The cutter used in con-

~ nection with this compound should be wetted with turpentine while

_ making the sections.

MICROSCOPY, 125

PH®#RAPHIDES. — Professor George Gulliver calls attention in

_the “Monthly Microscopical Journal,” to the hitherto unnoticed

spheraphides in Leonurus cardiaca, and also to the two kinds o

spheraphides occurring in this species as well as in Urtica divica,

U. ureus, Parietaria diffusa and Humulus lupulus: one kind, the

larger and smoother, occurring in the blades of the leaves and

consisting chiefly of carbonate of lime; the other kind, smaller

and more roughened on the surface, occurring in the fibro-vascular

‘bundles of the leaf and in the pith, and consisting of oxalate of

lime except in L. cardiaca in which they are composed chiefly of

carbonate of lime and in which they are wanting in the pith.

Boiling the parts in caustic potash solution discloses these crys-

tals admirably even when not otherwise easily found, as in the

case of the leaf of Ficus carica.

Sprpers’ Wes.— Mr. H. J. M. Underhill publishes in “ Science

Gossip” an interesting microscopical study of the spider’s web

and the mechanism by which it is produced. He finds that of

the two to four pairs of spinnerets or web-forming papille pos-

sessed by spiders, the British species have at least three pairs.

The first, or upper pair of spinnerets, produce plain threads of

the largest size which are stretched taut from point to point to

form the foundation of the web, especially at the edges where

great strength is essential; these threads are often doubled or

trebled for age security. The spinnerets of the second pair

are somewhat similar but smaller, and produce a ane but

otherwise similar a The third pair differs notably in struct-

ure, and produces a thread which is either elastic and ea e

with viscid globules, or is slack, irregular and curled, being in

either case adapted for entangling and holding the insect prey.

In the common house spider ( Tegenaria domestica) there are about

three hundred and sixty silk-glands each furnished with a sep-

arate uct and terminating in a silk tube at the extremity of a

spinneret. The first pair of spinnerets has about sixty of these

glands, the second pair eighty, and the third pair two hundred

and twenty, which are more complicated in structure, though i

much smaller than the others. In spiders which have four _

pairs of spinnerets the thread of the fourth pair is somewhat

like that of the second, and the aggregate number of silk tubes __

is greatly increased, being in Ciniflo atroz about twenty-six hun- -

126 ; NOTES.

dred. Thus each pair of spinnerets is calculated to produce

a different kind or size of thread; contrary to the common

belief that each thread is formed by a coalescence of silk

from all, in which case the change from viscid to plain thread

would depend in some obscure manner on the will of the animal.

Nor do those drops of silk which are simultaneously produced

coalesce into a homogeneous thread, as a web under a high

power will show many of the threads frayed like a worn rope,

and an unfortunate fly is not bound by the coils of a single

thread but by a broad band of many detached threads, from the

tips of the six spinnerets arranged in a line, thrown rapidly

around it.

Coarse Lines on Diatoms.—Mr. F. Kitton, the valued corres-

pondent of ‘Science-Gossip,” again calls attention to the fact

that while ‘“‘smooth” diatoms have been patiently studied with

lenses of high resolving power, those with coarse lines or coste

being easy of resolution have escaped such scrutiny, though many

of them are possessed of finer markings which are capable of

resolution by the means applied to more “ difficult” diatoms. The

cost of some species of Synedra and Cymbella he has recently

studied in this way, and found the rib-like lines composed of a

-~ series of beads, reminding him of peas in a well filled pod. He

has not yet been similarly successful with the Pinnularias.

NOTES.

‘Tue State Board of Education have presented to the Massachu-

general survey of the state, a subject which was referred to the

Board for report by the last legislature. This report makes prom-

inent a number of important points bearing on the necessity of the

` proposed survey, and gives minute estimates of its cost, which are

placed at the comparatively insignificant sum of $25,000 a year

for a period of fifteen years. The value of the survey to the peo-

ple of the state is so very apparent that we have little fear but

that the legislature will pass the bill, as soon as it comes before

them, notwithstanding the economical wave that in its periodic

course ‘has again broken upon our land. Certainly, if we were

blessed with a more thorough understanding of our resource, and

= worked in all departments with more knowledge of the laws of

NOTES. í ine

‘nature, and did not so ignorantly interfere with laws which we can-

not change, we should not so often be in that sad position, when

we have to stop and ask, Why are we so poor when riches are under

our feet? To this end, that we may know our resources, and not

only take better advantage of them, but also through knowledge

avoid mistakes, we hold that the thorough survey of the state will

prove of lasting benefit, and long before it is finally completed

show itself even a financial success.

The survey, as asked for by the original memorial of the Ameri-

can Academy and as endorsed by the State Board of education,

is not designed to be simply topographical and *geological

though the well known imperfections of all maps of the state show

the importance of the former, while the almost total ignorance of

our very peculiar geology, and the present excitement at Newbury-

port, over the discovery of lead and silver, certainly are proof of the

importance of the latter topic. But not only are these depart-

ments contemplated, but that of biology as well, and here again

can we cite the importance of the survey in a field where ignorance

is so uniformly the rule that to be wise is considered foolish. Here

are thousands of people in the state dependent on the success of

their crops and their stock for support, and hundreds of thousands

still more dependent on what their farms will bring them, and all,

so nearly or entirely ignorant of nature’s laws, that hardly an act

is committed in the efforts of cultivation, that is not sowing the

seeds of failure in the future. It is the bearing which the biologi-

cal part of the survey will have on these practical and vital points

of our daily life, that will in the end make it the most important

branch of the survey, though the very ignorance which will be its

work to supplant by knowledge, will be the cause of its being the

least understood at first, and the hardest to make men realize the

importance of providing for, by Legislation.

For our credit as a state ever ready to do that which is best for

the people, and from the much — principle, the advancement

of knowledge among men, and the quent higher degree of gen-

eral education, we hope-and trust that the important matter of a o

thorough and exhaustive survey in all departments, will not only —

be provided for by the present Legislature, but will be placed on so

firm a basis that no matter what political revolutions may ensne

- during the Text fifteen years, the provisions for the soriy shall

remain intact. `

128 NOTES. i

Three preliminary maps have during the past year been pub-

lished by Hayden’s U. S. Geological Survey of the Territories, the

one of most interest being a preliminary map of Central Colorado

showing the region surveyed in 187

A glance at the “Catalogue of the Publications of the U. S

Geological Survey of the Territories, F. V. Hayden, Geologist in

charge, Washington, 1874,” may give some idea of the energy

shown in the conduct of this survey; several volumes appearing

annually, beside smaller pamphlets, containing a large mass of

information regarding the public lands. Exchanges of the publi-

cations of the survey with societies and individuals engaged in

scientific studies are desired.

Pror. Cu. Fren. Harrr, who left this country for Brazil by way

of England in Oct. last with his assistant and photographer, Mr.

John Branner of the Geological Laboratory, Cornell Univ ersity,

was busy on the surface geology of the neighborhood of Rio de

Janeiro when last heard from. We believe he has found reasons

to differ from Prof. T. Sterry Hunt’s views in regard to the origin

of the loose materials covering the rocks around Rio. He has

been going over the ground with great care, working it up in de-

tail, and we shall expect an interesting communication from. him

on the subject as soon as he returns.

Sır Wiruiam Jarprne died Nov. 12 at the age of seventy-four.

Though especially devoted to T: he established the

“ Magazine of Zoology and Botany,” afterwards the “ Annals of

Natural History,” which in 1841 was combined with the Magazine

of Natural History to form the * Annals and Magazine of Nat-

ural History,” now the leading English sep or in this department

of science.

= Varvas sets of Floridan plants have been made by Dr. G.

Palmer, and are authentically named and for sale at the herba-

rium of the Botanic Garden at Cambridge. They can be purchased

on application to Prof. A. Gray, as Dr. P. is now in California.

Mr. F. W. Purnam has received the appointment of Curator of

the Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology at

_ Cambridge, held by the late Professor Wyman.

_ Tue Governor of Rhode Island has recommended, in his inaug-

ural address, a geological survey of that state.

2E eo

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— MARCH, 1875.—No. 3

CTEGORDOOD TLS

RED SNOW.,

BY F. C. CLARK, M.D.

PERHAPS no more curious phenomenon meets the gaze of the

Arctic observer than what is familiarly known as “red snow ;”

and truly a beautiful sight must the little plant present, in direct

contrast with the expanse of white, whether appearing in thinl

scattered patches, or crimsoning the hills and plains for miles

around.

The subject has ever been of the deepest interest, and excited

the attention of the most eminent scientists. For a long time its

- true place in nature remained undetermined. On each side of the -

contest as to its affinities were arrayed most distinguished author-

ities, each claiming to have solved the mystery. Yet it was only

after many conflicting opinions that its true position was deter-

mined. Hence if the vegetable origin of “red snow” seems con-

clusive enough to us, we must not forget the advantages we possess

over former observers. The microscope, the natural sciences and

mechanics, have all received marked improvement since the first

discovery of the snow plant

The history of the Pelionu nivalis, as naméd by Agardh,

dates from a very early period in antiquity. Aristotle tells us it

was known in his time. In fact it was one of the chief objects

whichsttracted the attention of mountain travellers and of adven-

turers in thèfrozen regions of the North.

Entered, according to Act of Congress in the year 1875, by the PEABODY. ACADEMY or

SCIRNGE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress: at are aby

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. (129),

130 RED SNOW.

But the most accurate accounts extant only date from 1760 of

the present era. Saussure about this time made careful examina-

tions of “red snow” obtained from the Apennines. The result

of his investigations was the discovery of a vegetable substance

which he supposed was the pollen of some plant.

The subject now remained quiescent until the return of the

Arctic exploring expedition under Sir John Ross in 1819. New

material was now obtained for examination. Specimens of ‘‘ red

snow ” were sent to Robert Brown and Francis Bauer.

Brown gave it as his opinion that the snow plant was a unicel-

lular plant belonging to the order of Alge.

Bauer, however, dissented from Brown, and declared it to be a

species of fungus (Uredo nivalis). Apart from his conclusions

upon the subject, he made many interesting experiments with the

plant. Its microscopical appearances and also analysis were

given. But perhaps the most curious experiment was his attempts

at propagating the Protococcus.

For this purpose he placed some of the “red snow” given him

by Sir John Ross, and which had already become white from long

exposure to the air, in a glass vessel filled with snow, taking care

to mix the two well together; on exposing the vessel of snow in

the open air for some time, and, fortunately, while the weather

was unusually cold (in December), he found the snow to change

from white to pink; and finally to regain its original color, and

its quantity also to increase.

Not satisfied with this, he carried his investigations still further.

He put a small quantity of the snow plant upon the surface of

some snow, and watched the result. The temperature being suffi-

ciently low, the same changes were observed as occurred in the

former instance, but a greater increase in bulk of the plant.

From these experiments Bauer concluded that the young plant

became green before it matured; that a certain degree of cold was

necessary for its production, and that, if exposed to the open air

alone for some days, the plant would lose its red color.!

In 1823 Baron Wrangel after careful analysis denied the con-

clusions arrived at by former observers, and pronounced the plant

to belong to the lichens, naming it Leprasia Kermesina. So in-

1 Philosophical Transactions, 1820, Part 1, pp. 165-174. g

: “‘ Microscopical observations on Red Snow, by F. Bauer. Journal of Sci. and Arts

(Royal Inst. of Gr. Br.), vol. vii, 1819.”

RED SNOW. 131

stead of clearing away all doubts he only served to introduce new

matter for discussion.

Two years afterwards the question-was again agitated by Agardh

and Dr. Greville? of Edinburgh. Both these observers agreed in

every particular with Robert Brown. Sir William Hooker also,

the eminent naturalist and botanist, later confirmed the views of

Agardh and Greville; but he named the “ red snow” Palmella in-

stead of Protococcus nivalis Agardh. The algic nature of the -

plant was thus decided for a time.

During the year 1838 several observers on the continent, among

whom may be mentioned Kunze, Unger and Martius, wrote elabo-

rate monographs upon the subject, but without eliciting anything

ew.

Thus far we have had to do only with believers in the vegetable

origin of the Protococcus. There are almost as many eminent

observers arrayed on the opposite side, who pronounce in regard |

to its animal nature.

In August, 1839, Mr. Shuttleworth,4 an English resident of

Switzerland, understanding that “red snow” had been discovered

in the vicinity, betook himself thither, and by the aid of his mi-

croscope was enabled to make out the presence of animalcules.

Adding to these examinations he described two species of low

animal organisms, and proclaimed the animal] nature of the snow

plant.

In 1840, Professor Agassiz of Neufchatel made a tour to the

glacier of Aar, and discovering ‘‘red snow” there, carefully exam-

ined it with a microscope, and presented his views concerning the

plant before the British Association at Glasgow. Not only did he

fully confirm the conclusions of Shuttleworth, but he added four

other species of animalcules to those already discovered and de-

scribed by Shuttleworth. Agassiz considered that the opinions of

former observers were due to their mistaking the ova of animal-

cules for the spores of a plant.

After the confusion necessarily arising from muah a variety of

Penny Encyclopedia.

a — Gevtaneaie Flora,” by Robert K. Greville. Edinb., 1825-1829. Vol. iv,

Decca observations sur la matiére colorante de la neige rouge,” par James

Shuttleworth. Bibl. Uniy. . XXV, 1840. Edinb., New Phil. Journ., xxix, 1840. Poi

Notizen, _ 1840. Also Bibl. Univ. xxv, 1840. Edinb. New Phil. Journ. xxix, 1840.

5 Loc. ci

132 RED SNOW.

opinions, and each advocated by unimpeachable authorities, had

somewhat subsided, the true nature of the Protococcus was at

"e decided. And to-day its vegetable origin is no longer

ubted. It holds no middle place between the animal and the

gardh, Greville, Hooker, and many other eminent authorities

- haye since declared.§

Animal substances, it is true, are found present in the alga.

But this is easily accounted for when we consider the immense

numbers of low animal, as well as vegetable organisms, floating

in the atmosphere, and even in the most frigid of climates.”

Mineral substances are also present, thus misleading the chemist

as well aş botanist and naturalist. Hence analyses of the snow

plant often strengthen the observer’s private opinions, thus ren-

dering a bias of judgment almost unavoidable.

Botanists refer the snow plant to the family Palmellaceœ, the

lowest of plants, and related to the Confervacee. It is propa-

the extremity. Gradually a cell is formed at the end of the tube,

which continues contracting until the new cells lose all connection

with the mother-plant, and become distinct individuals. —

In some species of this family true segmentation is the rule.

In this mode of reproduction the young plants exhibit for a short

time remarkable powers of locomotion, which are due to the rapid

vibration of an immense number of cilia. When this motion

ceases, then is the signal for segmentation or reproduction to

begin. When segmentation ceases, motion reeéstablishes itself,

then segmentation recommences, and so on.®

The vibration of these cilia has undoubtedly led observers,

opposed to the vegetable origin of Protococcus, to regard it as

similar to the zoospores of certain Protozoa. For it is a well-

known fact that “ red snow” possesses some degree of motion.

The Protococcus is very minute, in fact microscopical. Under

the microscope it has the appearance of brilliant garnet-colored

ê Brand’s Dict.. of Sci. Lit. and Art.

pp. 138-140.

8 Chamber’s Encyc. vid. Palmellacem. (See also Clark’s “ Mind in Nature” for orig- _

inal observations on American specimens by this eminent observer, illustrated by fig-

- ures.—EDs.

RED SNOW. 133

disks resting upon a matrix of gelatinous matter. They resemble

to a remarkable degree the red globules of the blood in size and

color. But Bauer gave their size as zby inch in diameter;

whereas more careful measurement will show the diameter of the

disks to be nearer 3-55 Or qoy inches. Each one of these glob-

ules is made up of seven or eight cells filled with a liquid, which

probably contains the coloring matter of the Protococcus. But

Ioe thinks the liquid contains great numbers of animal-

pyran

uer, Wollacton; payunen So Peschier and others give

tkorniesi analyses of the snow. as they all give nearly like

rešults, the analysis of Pevchicr is oily subjoined, viz. :

Silicious matter . . . . > 66.50

Alumina ip ela sere. ee

TOROSIOG of ROR- ok > i o eae

Lime . sana a LA

Organic E T brara eee 10

The ‘‘starch test” proves the vegetable origin of Protococeus

perhaps better than any other.

The genus to which the snow plant belongs takes a variety of

forms; of du®t-like particles, as in the case of “‘red snow;” ofa

stringy gelatingus mass as in “gory dew;” or of a thin and mem-

branous structure, like a frond. ,

Dr. Kane found the color to be of a dark red. On paper it pro-

duced a cherry red stain, which became brown on exposure to the

air. Its solution in water, in which red snow is very soluble, is of

a muddy claret color. But if the snow were damp, upon which it

was found, the snow beneath was stained a beautiful pink.1!

The Protococcus is found above 83° north latitude, and as far

south as in New Shetland in 70° S. Lat. Sir John Ross saw it

extend over the cliffs bordering upon Baffin’s Bay for a distance —

of eight miles, end, in some instances, to a depth of twelve feet.

To this day the heights are called the “Crimson Cliffs.” 12

Parry found ‘‘red snow” even far from land upon the ice-fields

of Spitzbergen. Kane obtained it fifty miles from land upon the

floes of ice. Here it seems to have been diffused through the

®*Brocklesby’s Meteorology, pp. 120-121.

10 Penny Encyclopedia.

4 Kane’s Narrative, 1851, 1854, pp. 138-140,

12 Kane’s Narrative.

134 RED SNOW.

atmosphere over the Arctic snows like other organic matter.

Kane also found it mixed with foreign vegetable matters, which

might perhaps be the source of the ammonia necessary for its —

existence. Indeed the snow plant was always of a deeper red,

and in a more flourishing condition in proportion to the Toney

of this extraneous matter.13

This alga is found also upon the tops of high mountains above

the snow-line. It has long been known to exist in the Apennines

and Pyrenees Mountains. The recent discovery of the snow plant

in our own country (in California) upon the tops of the Sierra

Nevadas, at an altitude of 10,000 feet above the level of the sea,!4

renders the subject under discussion of twofold interest. Speci-

mens obtained from this locality show the same structure and

microscopical appearances as those from other parts of the world.

amp places, near the ocean or fresh water, seem to favor its

production. The specimens supplied to Dr. Greville were from

the shores of Lismore, off Scotland. It was found upon reeds

and stones, but grew to perfection upon calcareous rocks.!

A species of alga ( Uredo viridis) of a greenish color has been

described. But Martius refers it to the Protococcus nivalis, though

in a different stage of development.

Other varieties of colored snow have been mentioned, which are

confounded with Protococcus. What is known as “brown snow”

is due to a discoloration of the.snow by earthy matters washed

down by mountain streams. Arctic observers (Belcher) speak of

a red snow produced by a species of little auk which feeds on

shrimp and congregate there in immense numbers.

Snow and ice often appear colored from reflection. These illu-

sory appearances are easily explained. Dr. Kane speaks of “ red

ice” which, on a nearer inspection, proved to owe its red color to

reflection. The same observer mentions ‘blue ice” as being some-

es seen, and due to like causes.

But apart from all this, the Protococcus declares its vegetable

18 Kane’s Narrativ

4 7t was also dhiewvored at an elevation sete 6, pas feet on the Cascade Range in Wash-

ington Territory by the late George Gibbs. ATURALIST, V, p. 116, 1871. — Eps.

Red 5 now is not seldom nee amona the $ haras » in the s 50-C: called Alpine Hob Des

n, in Clover © i East Hum t} from July to Se

It is found a old snow asins A ty U.8. Geol. Explor. of 40th parallel, vol Vv; eae

1871. Page 415, Prof. H.C ds).

nome oot pedia.

16 Kane’ Narrative, pp. 138-140. _

THE SISCO. 135

origin. And yet, why it should prefer to make the snow its habi-

tat, or how it can find its way into those regions of frost and in-

fertility, remains a question which still perplexes the naturalist

and philosopher.

THE SISCO OF LAKE TIPPECANOE.

BY PROF. D. S. JORDAN.

A snort time since, I received from Prof. E. T. Cox, state geol-

ogist of Indiana, a collection of deep-water ‘‘Siscoes” taken in

Lake ee Kosciusko. Co., Indiana, by Judge J. H. Car-

penter of War: Prof. Cox réinueliied . me to examine these

fishes, and prepare an account of their characters and relation-

ship, as considerable interest is attached to them as well as to the

fauna in general of the ‘ bottomless. lakes” of northern Indiana.

I find them to be Salmonoids belonging to the genus Argyro-

somus of Agassiz, a group c psely allied to the white fishes (Core-

gonus) but distinguished b sithe greater development of the lower

longer, and the bones of the mandible rather heavier, and the

teeth although very feeble are slightly stronger than in Coregonus.

Compared with Coregonus most of the species have a more slender

form ; hence their popular name of “lake herrings,” although their

resemblance to the sea herring is quite superficial.

This Indiana Argyrosomus appears to be quite distinct from |

the species found in Lake Michigan; i. e., the shallow-water her-

presumably different from A. harengus (Rich.) and A. lucidus _

(Rich. ), which, if really distinct species, seem to be loose-scaled, __

shallow-water fishes, allied to A. clupeiformis.

It seems to be identical with the “Sisco” of the deep lakes of

- southern Wisconsin, a fish, which, although known for some time _ 2

to naturalists, has not m as far as I am able to ascertain, re-

ceived any specific nam

I have therefore vaiibinte to describe these fishes as new, under

; 136 i THE SISCO.

the name Argyrosomus Sisco,! taking as the type of the species

several specimens — male and female — from Lake Tippecanoe,

caught in the spawning season, about Nov. 25, 1874. Compari-

sons with A. Hoyi and other related species are made below. I

am indebted to Dr. Hoy for specimens of A. Hoyi and the Wiscon-

sin “ Sisco,” and for the opinion that the latter is entirely distinct

from A. nigripennis, a species which I have been unable to obtain.

This fish has been found in Geneva Lake in Walworth Co., Lake

Mendota in Dane Co., and, I think, in Lake Koshkonong. It

should be noticed that these lakes belong to different water sys-

tems, Geneva Lake being drained by Fox River, a tributary of

the Illinois, Lake Mendota by Cat-fish River, a branch of Rock

1A S Jord Fo gular. spindl e-sh ape ed, comp ressed slig

elevated at the ara of the dorsal fin; general outline not very different sas

others in the gi

“~ The gre: iai dopin of the body is contained 4 1- i times (4 1-4 in males, 4 1-2 in A.

Hoyi), in length from tip of snout to the end of the scales at base of caudal. The

ree of the body is xed so ed depth. The nylon d is man BRAE com-

id The

yi) i in length of body exclusive: of caudal. The eyes are large and circular,

and thei 33-4; 31-2 in A. Hoyi) times in the length

of the side of the head. The nos strils are large, nearly midway between eye and tip

of snout, and on the upper naa of the hea

of the mout rather beers ats aise The lower jaw is

mis, very

in hich is al ike in cn

tip of the lower ias suggesting the “nail” on the bill of ducks, overlaps and fits into

a slight emargination at the ah of the upper jaw. Margins of lower jaw with slight

roughnesses representing tect th. _Intermaxillaries with minute asperities. Tongue

ev ident.

provicei

Maxillaries m omong; weaker than i in A. Hoyi, contained 3 1-3 (2 3-4 in A. Hoyi)

side of h

a eye.

Cih of n aard much more thav least depth of tail. 21-8 (2 in A. Hoyi) times

in head. General characters of opercular bones, branchial openings and branchioste-

cals 0° omi other re:

ciput to tip of shout contained 2 1-3 times (17-8 in A. Hoyi) in dis-

tance from occiput to beginning of dorsal. Depth of head at occiput 2-3 the length of

ead,

ales are relatively smaller than p most of the other ou the lateral line

having 84 developed scales (81 to 86; 75 in A. Hoyi, 73 in a specimen of A. clu, “aa )

besides several small ones at the pase had the candal, which form a concave mar

somewhat parallel with the fork of th species.

: scales, though seh are inann sit rather less so than in A, Hoyi, very much

- more so than in the “ Lake

The lateral line is Hoot dh ‘vient, nearly straight, and rather nearer the back than

belly. There are eight se

The radial formula is D. 1 pie 10, P: 16, V. 14, A 3,12;

The dorsal fin begins in front of the ventrals at a point about equidistant between

_ the front margin of the oe and the first rays of caudal. It is short and rather high;

THE SISCO. oe

River, while Lake Tippecanoe is one of the sources of Tippecanoe

River, which flows into the Wabash. I have not heard of these

‘t Sisco” has been transferred to the common white lake bass

(Roceus chrysops Gill).

Concerning the habits of the Indiana Sisco, we have the follow-

ing information from Judge Carpenter :

“ Some years ago, probably five, these fish were discovered on

the north side of Tippecanoe Lake by Is ohnson, and at each

return of their spawning season, T p in the a of ee

hey have reappeared in la um not see

hey

any other season of the year, keeping istanalves's in the deep vile

its greatest height is a little more than 2-3 the length of the head. Its length is 2-3 of

its greatest height. Its longest ray is a little more than 3 times the length of the short-

est, this giving the fish a different form from 4. Hoyi, in which the longest ray of the

eer is cress 4 times the length of the cores se adipose fin is rather slender

The pec ectorals are rather iad and SG e. as long as the ventrals and op

course not reac hing nearly to

The ventrals are rather ite ore than 2-3 the length of the head, falling consider-

ably short of vent. The aaia scale at theix base is rather phori and ngre 4

less than half the gs of the fin. The depth of the

(6 3-4 in A. Hoyi) times in the length of the body.

— uee tin ta parte forked, its lobes are long and SRR but in all my speci-

ns mo r less mutilated. The distance from the yent to the rudimentary caudal

rays is contained 4 had a 1-2 in A. i, ab in the length of the ) fish.

Lhi ; 4 n

below the lateral line, where it changes to silvery. The arrangement of the J poai

gives an appearance of longitudinal lines which are conspicuous in certain lights.

free

kiganga fins and tips of “paired fins also thickly PENS n wall an as i skin of the

hea

a ee dots seem mi be a speci ific rg veto as they occur in ges jaen

and Indiana specimens. They are not noticeable on A. Hoyi, excepting o head.

The latter ts a sae bila aefa rne a diated having a peculiar se ‘ute

lustre wanting in

Average ek “i sada examined, 9 1-2 inches, including the caudal fin, being

thus larger than 4. Hoyi, which rarely exceeds 7. The largest T of the Sisco

arpenter

seen measures 101-2 inches. Larger individuals sometimes oc

writes that ** oceasonaly ae is caught weighing 112to2 sta ta it p very unu-

m so large.’

sual to find th

The ae specimen in my possession of the Wisconsin Sisco agrees in the main

with the above, but it is a slimmer fish (perhaps owing to sex or season), the depth |

ens contained 5 times in the length of the body, the head 4 2-3 and the eye 4 times in

The maxillary is aeii: 2 R in length of head, the depth at the vent 63-4in

angs length of the sgi and the ce from vent to base of caudal only 4 times. The

f the lateral

much weight these Airuno i on se entitled T be told by a comparison of a vae

ber of specimens

line. To how |

138 ' THE SISCO.

of the lakes. The general opinion is that ey wh not bite at a

hook, but Mr. Johnson says that he has on o occasions

caught them witha hook. To my knowledge hes ae e never been

found in but two of our lakes, Tippecanoe and Barber’s, which are

both large lakes and close together, as will be seen by reference to

the map.

The spawning season lasts about two weeks and they come in

myriads into the streams which enter the lakes. There are large

surprise you, could you witness it. ‘Those who live in the neigh-

borhood put up large pete of pn they sts the only fish

ing. ntl

i i

and that in a few days the fishes will have taken their depar artane

for the deep water of the lakes, and will be seen no more until

next November

As far as I can learn, the habits of the Wisconsin Sisco are sim-

ilar, but they seem to be much less abundant. Fishermen say

that specimens were once sent to Prof. Agassiz, who pronounced

them something ‘‘ new and extremely rare.” Specimens procured

for me last year, by Prof. Copeland, cost a dollar apiece of the

fisherman, which shows the high value attached to these fishes, as

A. clupeiformis when taken from the nets is not worth more than

ten cents a dozen.

Concerning the Lake Michigan species Dr. Hoy writes me, “A.

nigripennis is a large, magnificent fish. It can be known at once

by the black fins. It is never caught in less than 60 fathoms, and

not in large numbers till you reach a depth of 70 fathoms. The

A. Hoyi is the smallest of the Salmonidæ, if I am not mistaken.

It never approaches the shoal water, where A. Artedi (= A. clupei-

formis) is only found. About 30 or 40 fathoms is as near shore

as it has ever been captured here.”

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. UW.

BY DR. C. O. PARRY.

Ow the 8th of May an opportunity offered of making an excur-

sion in a southwestern direction to the Beaver-dam Mountains,

about twenty miles from St. George. This range forms a high

dividing ridge extending in a southeast course, separating the

valleys of the Santa Clara and Muddy Rivers, which are the prin-

cipal northeastern tributaries to the Rio Virgen. Through this

mountain mass, composed of variously inclined’ sedimentary rocks

made up of alternate strata of sandstone, limestone, and varie-

gated marls, with immense beds of gypsum, the main stream of the

Virgen cleaves its way by an impassable cañon. Our route after

crossing the Santa Clara near its mouth, then flooded with melted

snow and turbid from the dissolved mud of its lower alluvial banks,

followed up one of the “dry washes,” as they are significantly

termed, leading more directly towards the mountain slope. Along

the course of this sandy bed, the ‘desert flowering willow” (Chil-

opsis linearis) was abundant, though not yet fully leaved out, nor

offering any display of its showy Catalpa-like blossoms. Still

more conspicuous at this season of the year was the Cowania

* Mexicana, then completely covered with a profusion of pure white

flowers, almost hiding from view its finely divided varnished leaves.

A pleasant balsamic fragrance, exhaled in the clear atmosphere

from this charming shrub, lent additional attractions which seemed

to be appreciated by a swarm® f hovering insects. The adjoining

uplands were composed of vari jas colored clay and sandy knolls,

often fantastically washed, and intersected by miniature ravines

and deep basins. The vegetation on these slopes was mainly

composed of the prevalent Chenopodiacesze, occasionally set off by see

the more graceful forms of Larrea, Algarobia, or the showy Dalea-

Johnsoni. Amid the more usual forms of undergrowth, made — o

familiar in my rambles near St. George, my attention was drawn |

at a single locality to a showy Papaveraceous plant, with nodding < : Hie

white flowers, in which I was delighted to recognize the Arcto

mecon Californicum Torr. (No. 6), collected only by Fremont

thirty years ago, and figured and described in his report from a

(189)

140 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

single specimen. The present collection, since supplemented by

mature fruiting specimens, furnishes the means of completing the

description of this interesting plant, which seems to differ from

the original figure in its less hairy leaves, four (not six) valved

capsule and more ceespitose habit. The fruiting specimens show

marcescent petals, persisting after the maturity of the seed, and an

eversion of the upper third of the triangular valves, leaving the —

placental ribs connected at the summit with the united stigmas

and forming a basket in which the shining black seeds lie loosely

like so many eggs. The plant is apparently biennial, with deep

tap roots, the broken stem and leaves giving out a yellowish sap.

In the two localities where found it grew in a loose marly soil,

strongly impregnated with gypsum.

On reaching a higher elevation on a continuous upward grade

there was brought to view a greater profusion of plants and shrub-

bery, conspicuous among which may be noted Audibertia incana,

Coleogyne ramosissima, and a ceespitose yellow-flowered Mamilla-

ria (M. chlorantha Engel., ined.). At our nooning place, havi ing

reached an elevation of not less than one thousand feet above the

valley of the Virgen, a deep gorge in the limestone rocks afforded

a scant supply of water. In the abrupt face of these perpendicu-

lar rocks, a delicate fern was noticed, which Prof. Eaton has de-

termined to be identical with the Notholena tenera Gillies, from

the South American Andes, not before found in North America. i

Owing to the shortness of our stay and the difficulty of securing

specimens from the inaccessible positions in which they grew,

only scanty collections were made, but the locality is so readily

identified that some future botanist will be able to supply the de-

mand for this interesting addition to North American Filices.

Other plants afforded by this locality were the diminutive @no-

thera pterosperma Watson (No. 70), Astragalus arrectus (No. 45),

a tall Phacelia of a climbing habit with foliage resembling P. tan-

acetifolia, but apparently distinct, Phacelia ramosissima Benth.

(No. 184) and a robust showy form of Eriogonum ovalifolium Nutt.

(No. 241). ;

Farther on in our upward ascent, we reach a growth of clumpy

cedars, being the common species of this country, extending from

Lake Utah to Arizona. This is the Juniperus tetragona, var. oste-

~ osperma Torr., since determined by Dr. Engelmann to be a variety

_ (Utahensis ined.) of the western species, Juniperus Californica,

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 141

It is readily distinguished from the more common Juniperus occi-

dentalis Hook., with which it is probably associated farther south,

by its larger green mealy-coated fruit, one-seeded, with a hard

stony shell, the mature fruit fading chocolate-brown, not purple,

etc. With this tree at all high elevations the common “Piñon”

(Pinus edulis Engel.) is quite constantly associated. The under-

growth here exhibits less of a desert feature ‘in the presence of

such plants as Streptanthus cordatus Nutt. (No. 10), Pentstemon

puniceus, var. (No. 152), Phlox ares Torr. & Gray (No. 186),

Eritrichium leucopheum DC. (No. 166). Quite a conspicuous fea-

ture in the floral landscape was — by dense clumps of Berbe- -

ris Fremontii Torr. (No. 5), then in full flower, its bright yellow

racemes contrasting prettily with its stiff spiny holly-like leaves.

Near the close of the day in ascending the last sloping ridge,

leading down on the opposite side to the wide desert plain through

which the Muddy courses to unite with the Virgén, we first recog-

nized one of the principal objects of our journey in the singular

forms of that remarkable desert production, Yucca brevifolia Engel.

This is universally known among the Mormon settlers under the

name of “ The Joshua.” The mail rider over these desert tracts

had furnished us weekly reports of its progress in flowering, so that

we were constantly on the lookout for a first view of what had

never yet been examined by a scientific botanist. At first a

few scattering clumps of the peculiar stiff spiny leaves that char-

acterize this genus of ‘plants attracted attention, then some gaunt

forms raised on withered trunks revealed the identical species.

On hastening forward to a more vigorous growth, where the masses

of compact flowers were visible at a distance crowning the top of

the upper branches or main axis, we soon had one of the lower

flowering stems ruthlessly torn down for a closer inspection. The

first feeling was one of disappointment; the flowers, crowded in a

close pyramidal head, failed to exhibit the ordinary graceful forms

pertaining to the Liliaceæ. The perianth was of a dull greenish-

white color, its divisions long-linear, thickened and confusedly —

massed together, while the odor given out was decidedly foetid,

seeming to present special attractions only to various beetles and

insect larve. An examination of the inflorescence shows a regu- ee

larity such as the botanist would expect: the upper leaves of the

flowering branch gradually becoming bract-form subtend in their

axils small jointed flower-stems, with the lower flowers generally -

142 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

arranged in threes. These in continuing their spiral arrangement

on the main axis form the condensed mass of flowers which, open-

ing from below upwards, prolong the flowering process for several

weeks. Only a few of the flowering stems perfect fruit, and occa-

sionally (as during the present season) all prove abortive, possibly

owing to the absence of some insect agency for effecting fertiliza-

tion. In the desert districts lower down, where this species es-

pecially flourishes, the flowering heads are said to weigh frequently

over fifty pounds.

The material and notes now supplied will, it is hoped, enable

Dr. Engelmann who has made a special study of this -i to

complete the technical description of this remarkable specie

A short ramble on the following morning in the vicinity i our

camp brought to view some other points of botanical interest.

Quite common on loose gravelly slopes occurred the neat species of

Ranunculus, R. Andersonii, Gray (No..2). This differs from the

figure and description in Watson’s Bot. King’s Exp., in its con-

stant branching habit, rendering this variety better suited for hor-

ticultural purposes. Its marcescent petals seem to retain to some

extent their bright color and streaks after the maturity of the

achenia.

Here also were found the singular Rutaceous shrub, Glossopetalon

spinescens Gray (No. 27), and Spiræa Millefolium Torr., which

closely simulates Chamebatia foliolosa Benth. Along the edges of

dry ravines Astragalus eriocarpus Watson (No. 44) was quite fre-

quent, usually associated with Eritrichium leucopheum DC. (No.

166) and the handsome Pentstemon puniceus Gray (No. 152).

On the summit of a high limestone ridge overlooking the valley of

the Muddy, was seen for the first time the dwarf species of Agave,

A. Utahensis Engel. This species, which adheres quite closely

= crevices in the limestone rocks, forms extensive patches by

sending out offsets, so that in cultivation it could be readily prop-

agated, making an interesting addition to the class of hardy pot

plants. At the time of our visit it was just sending up its flower-

ing stalks, too early, however, for securing herbarium specimens,

which had been supplied in the collections of Dr. Palmer four

years previous, from which the original description was drawn.

The hasty return trip to St. George, loaded down with Yuccas,

Cacti, and Agaves, did not afford much opportunity for excursive

botanizing. —

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 143

With the advent of prolonged summer heat the Eriogonez

became especially prevalent both in variety of species and

number of individual forms. Thus with the exception of Nema-

caulis and Lastarriza (the latter probably lately introduced into

California from Chili), we have representatives of all the North

American genera of the tribe. ese, Eriogonum includes

eleven species, Chorizanthe two, Oxytheca, Centrostegia and

Pterostegia, one each. Of the slender annual species of Erio-

gonum some are remarkably gregarious in their mode of growth,

forming dense patches that give a singular aspect to the bare

landscape. This is particularly marked in Æ. reniforme Torr.

(No. 237) and E. trichopodum Torr. (No. 240). More irregu-

larly scattered over rocky slopes occurs the singular fistulous-

stemmed species Hriogonum inflatum Torr. (No. 230) ; this from

the peculiar bulging appearance of its main stalk and upper

branches, sometimes fully one inch in diameter, has received the

fanciful popular name of “bottle stoppers.” Early in the sea-

son the young and tender shoots afford an agreeable sub-acid

juice not unwelcome to the thirsty traveller over these arid tracts,

in lack of more attractive cheer suggested by the above popular

name, Later in the season E. Parryi Gray, n. sp. (No. 239), with

its broad cordate leaves and divaricately branching flower stem,

is commonly met with on rocky slopes, being usually associated

with Chorizanthe brevicornu Torr. (No. 230) and Chorizanthe rigida

Torr. (No. 231). On dry sandstone rocks, Eriogonum racemosum

Nutt. (No. 234) is conspicuous, and in favorable localities there is

an abundance of the singular Oxytheca pei eee Torr. & Gray

(No. 228) and Centrostegia Thurberi Gray (No

Not infrequent in the shade of overhanging oie adjoining the

Virgen is a very neat species of oe recently described

by Professor Gray under the name of S. longiflorus (No. 87).

This shrub forming dense clumpy masses, s slender banii

small foliage, and delicate white flowers streaked with pink, would

make an interesting addition to this class of common cultivated —

shrubs ; unfortunately the flowering season was too late to secure

mature fruit to determine its scientific characters or make it avail-

able for garden cultivation. Quite co constantly associated with the

glabrescens Watson (No. 20), which from its peculiar habit an

mode of growth it is difficult to regard as a mere oS of that : :

widely. spread —— species.

144 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

_ Among the rarities of this section must be noted a well marked

new species of the peculiar southwestern genus Petalonyx, char-

acterized by Prof. Gray as P. Parryi n. sp. (No. 75), this making

a second recent addition to the genus. Of this only a single plant

was met with, forming a low bush with remains of dead stalks,

especially conspicuous at a distance from the faded leaves of the

previous season’s growth, exhibiting a pure pearly white. The

delicate cream-colored blossoms, with exserted style and stamens,

reminded one of Lonicera, but the polypetalous flowers and the

ra hairy brittle leaves designated it at once as belonging

e Loasacew. A diligent search over the dry gravelly and

inline soil, where it was found associated with the common

“ crease woods” of this region, failed to bring to light any other

plants, so that this single locality, precariously situated within a

stone’s throw of the great Mormon temple, does not encourage the

hope of a prolonged existence for the benefit of future botanists.

Another interesting plant of this same family was also met with

in crevices of denuded sandstone rocks near the Santa Clara.

This I recognized at once as an old acquaintance, having several

years previously collected imperfect specimens of the same, past

flowering, on the Lower Colorado. Of this, provisionally named in

a manuscript list Zucnide urens Parry, full material has now been

collected, from which Prof. Gray has recently published a descrip-

tion in the Proceedings of the American Academy, Vol. x, pp. 71-

72, under the name Mentzelia (Eucnide) urens, n. sp. (No. 79).

Another plant especially worthy of notice belongs to the nat-

ural order Aselepiadacee. It is a small twining milk-weed, grow-

ing in loose drifting sand, in which the thick tap roots are deeply

buried; these send up several slender stems, which cling to the

scanty shrubbery or lie prostrate on the scorching sand, where

blown about by the wind they form irregular and constantly chang-

ing circles. The small umbels of flowers in the axils of the upper

leaves are of a dull yellow color and are without the usual horny

appendages. Dr. Engelmann, to whom specimens have been sent,

has characterized it in the accompanying list under the name of

Astephanus Utahensis, n. sp. (No. 209).

A frequent associate of this. latter plant is the little known

Dicoria canescens Gray, an annual composite plant allied to Fran-

= seria, In similar dry sandy soil was also found Franseria eriocen-

tra Gray, forming an irregularly branched Barge shrub two to

three feet in height.

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 145

With the disappearance of the ordinary class of desert annuals,

the early summer rains bring forward a peculiar set of composite

plants, remarkable for their strong odor, due to a large develop-

ment of oil-bearing glands. These include two species of Psa-

thyrotes, viz., P. annua Gray (No. 114) and P. ramosissima Gray

(No. 115). Besides these is a plant not seen by me, probably a

Pectis, which spreads over the ground in prostrate mats, its foliage

so strongly charged with an aromatic oil that it is extracted by a

rough process of distilling for domestic use, the plant receiving

the popular name of “ head-ache weed.” Later in the season my

attention was mainly taken up in the collection of seeds. This

though generally tedious and uninteresting, especially when requir-

ing exposure to the hot mid-day sun, yet offered not a few points

of peculiar attraction. It was instructive in passing over these

arid tracts to note the provision made for scattering or preserving

these necessary products for the succeeding season's growth.

Thus the evanescent annuals drop their seeds in the loose sandy

or gravelly soil or rock crevices, in the most suitable conditions

‘for retaining their vitality during the hot dry season, while the

withered stems, having fulfilled their part in the processes of growth

and reproduction, dry up and are blown away. Deep sun-cracks

in the strongly impregnated gypseous soil] receive the seed of the

future crop of annual CEnotheras, Gilias, Phacelias and Eriogo-

nums, to be covered up by the first rains. The specičs of Com-

posite, not so generally here as elsewhere provided with a feathery

pappus for stransporting their seeds, maintain their foothold by

unusual productiveness. Even in the case of Glyptopleura setu-

losa Gray, which seems amply furnished with a light capillary

pappus, it is rare to find the aigrette expanded, and the matured

achenia remain enclosed in the involucre, thus leaving them to be

planted in the loose soil with the dried-up remains of the parent

stem. Another instructive example is presented by Tetradymia

_ spinosa H. & A., in which the seeds are wholly covered with a

white woolly down, and at the season of maturity are thickly scat-

tered over the arid tracts in which it grows, gathered by the wind |

= like snow drifts, into every sheltered nook, or clinging to the ad- :

hesive hairs of branching Mentzelias. -

= Bulbous plants, such as Androstephium and Calochortus, hide yo

their newly formed bulbs in the gravelly soil at depths practically

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

Hadar.

Paeceesible to all but curious BE or S Indians. A

146 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

singular arrangement for shooting seeds was brought to my atten-

tion in the case of Gilia setosissima Gray. Wishing to collect

somewhat largely of the seeds of this neat little annual, I watched

more closely than usual the maturity of the capsules. In most of

the other species of this prevalent genus, there is a succession of

flowers and maturing capsules, which latter opening at the summit

discharge their seeds while the plant is still producing flowers,

thus rendering it difficult to secure a large quantity of seed with-

out including capsules not sufficiently mature. But in the case of

Gilia setosissima, all the capsules remain tightly closed till the

whole plant becomes dry and brittle. In then gathering seed by

picking each plant separately, I noticed the seed projected with

some force against my hand. On closer examination I found that

these capsules open from below upwards, and that the tension ac-

cumulated by the shrinking of the tissues in the process of drying

gives an elastic spring to the three separating valves when released

from their attachment at the base of the calyx, that throws the

contained seed from two to six feet. After making this discovery

it was interesting to watch the process by loosening the attachment

of the valves with the point of a knife, and see how far they would

shoot. The majority of the seeds were scattered within a radius

of two feet, while in the plumper capsules the shots took effect to

a distance of six feet or more. The three separated valves of the

capsules on account of their light chaffy texture were not thrown

as far as the seeds.

A similar character, though less marked, was also exhibited in | ,

certain species of ceespitose Phlox, though in this latter case the

explosions observed occurred some time after the capsules were

‘detached from the calyx. The conclusion arrived at is that the

character of explosive capsules in this particular family is peculiar j

to those that open at the base instead of the summit.

In the succeeding paper I shall conclude this account of botani- :

cal observations in Southern Utah by a notice of a short excursion

to the alpine district of Pine Mountain, and a more prolonged stay

in the vicinity of Cedar City, including a visit to the elevated sheep

pasture in the adjoining mountain range,—to be followed by an _

appendix containing a full list of the plants collected, with de-

scriptions of the new or imperfectly known species.

‘ 5 a

FB Ey OE ee OE SUR CNTY Be TREE aa a ge g oP PLR ON Pp E Se a A a ae Ren eo el) ot E O T

THE PRAIRIE GOPHER.

BY DR. ELLIOTT COUES, U.S.A.

iaee

Tue subject of the present history is one of a large group of

small quadrupeds inhabiting the western half of North America,

from Mexico to the Arctic Ocean, as well as a large portion of

the northern hemisphere in the Old World. They belong to the

family of the squirrels (Sciuridæ) ; in fact, they are squirrels mod-

ified in a particular way for a terrestrial instead of arboreal mode

of life. We are all familiar with the common little chipmunk

of the eastern states, Tamias striatus, and know that, on com-

parison with a true tree squirrel, it differs in having a shorter and

less bushy tail, in possessing large cheek pouches, ete. Now

Tamias is just one step away from Sciurus towards the genus

Spermophilus; and this genus is the group to which the prairie

gopher belongs. In fact Tamias and Spermophilus very nearly

run together, so gradual is the transition among the several spe-

cies. If we were to take a chipmunk and crop its ears down

close, cut off about a third of. its tail, give it a blunter muzzle,

and make a little alteration in its fore-feet, so that it could dig

better, we should have a pretty good spermophile, to all intents

and purposes. A little further change in the same points would —

_ make a prairie dog, which is a kind of spermophile, though now

placed in a different genus (Cynomys). An extreme of modifica-

now just the links which the spermophiles furnish. They are ter-

restrial, fossorial, gregarious squirrels —by which I mean that

they live sociably in burrows under ground. The broad prairie

is their home. Though one or two species are found in wooded

_ places, yet they rarely, if ever, climb trees, and are only at home

q in perfectly open ground. This fact alone determines their geo-

_ graphical distribution. Only two species are found at all east i

the Mississippi, and these too haunt the prairie. But they occur :

_ in profusion from the plains to the Pacifi¢, from Mexico northward.

Now that we have some idea of the animals, the next thing is —

(47)

148 THE PRAIRIE GOPHER.

to find a name for them. ‘+ Ground squirrel” would be unobjec-

tionable and indeed appropriate, but that is already in use for the

species of Tamias. ‘‘ Marmot” is sometimes used, the present

species being the tawny marmot of some writers, but this is the

name of the woodchucks (Arctomys). ‘*Spermophiles” they have

been called ; but this word is so thoroughly un-English that it will

probably stay in the learned books where it arose. Naturalists, in

‘fact, have no English name for these animals. But by the people

who live among them they are universally called ‘* gophers ;” and

as this name will certainly stick in the vernacular for all time, we

may as well accept it. We will say “ gopher,” then.

I elect to write about the prairie gopher — as I shall call that

particular species known in the books as Spermophilus Richard-

soni — for several reasons. In the first place, I know more about

it than I do about any other species of the genus at present.

Secondly, nobody else seems to know much about it. Thirdly, it

is one of the most abundant animals of our country, occurring by

hundreds of thousands over as many square miles*of territory, al-

most to the exclusion of other forms of mammalian life. Millions

of acres of ground are honeycombed with its burrows. Through-

out a vast stretch of country in the northwest, gopher-holes and

buffalo-chips are the most noticeable points about the landscape.

How far from being exhausted is the natural history of the United

States, when of such an animal as this next to nothing to the

point is found written down about it, beyond a description of its

skin and skull and a sketch of those characteristics which it shares

with other Spermophili! Until recently, indeed, a stuffed skin of _

the prairie gopher was something of a rarity. Let me make such

statements good: the latest authority on North American mam-

mals says no specimens of this species were collected by any of

the Pacific railroad expeditions, and makes use of one in the Phil-

adelphia Academy for description, collected in the Rocky Moun-

tains by Townsend more than thirty years ago. Prof. Baird is

further at pains to record the fact that in 1855 Dr. Hayden met

with a small spermophile, probably of this species, in considerable

numbers, north of Fort Union, but was unable to procure speci-

mens; and goes back to Sir John Richardson (1829) for some

further items of geographical distribution. Audubon’s biography

is almost entirely from Townsend, who evidently knew the animal

well, and is very good, as far as it goes.

THE PRAIRIE GOPHER. ; 149

During a considerable portion of two years, my lines have been

cast in the very home of these animals ; at any rate, I fancy they

cannot be more abundant anywhere else. I have crossed the

continent by another route, much farther to the southward, but

I never saw any animals—not even buffalo—in such profusion. I

have ridden for days and weeks where they were continuously as

numerous as prairie dogs are in their populous villages. Their

numbers to the square mile are vastly greater than I ever ascer-

tained those of S. Beecheyi, the pest of California, to be, under

the most favorable conditions. In a word, their name is legion.

If Dakota and Montana were the garden of the world (which they

are not, however), either the gophers or the gardeners would have

to quit.

Should certain portions of the Territories just mentioned ever

come to be settled, the little gophers will contend with the hus-

bandmen for the land more persistently and successfully than the

Indians can’ hope to. Already, though the population of the

gopher districts has consisted principally of Indians and certain

British-American surveying parties, these insignificant quadrupeds

have killed men and horses. Their holes are small, but many of

them, like the burrows of the badgers, foxes and prairie wolves,

will admit a horse’s hoof. The risks run in buffalo hunting on

horseback spring chiefly from this source; what little the huge

beasts themselves can accomplish in self-defence is utterly insig-

nificant in comparison with this ever present danger. In some

regions it is impossible to gallop a hundred yards except at risk of

life ar

My seins on the prairie gopher have been confined to a

narrow belt of ground along the parallel of 49°. Exactly how far

they range on either hand I am unable to say — probably farther

north than south. Perhaps the upper Missouri may nearly limit

their dispersion southward. Speaking generally, they extend from —

the Red River of the North to the Rocky Mountains. Baird

speaks of their occurrence in Michigan; but I never saw any in

Minnesota, nor indeed in the immediate valley of the Red River,

even on the Dakota side. There the genus is represented by

Spermophilus Franklini and S. tridecemlineatus. But they appear

in abundance just as soon as, in passing westward, we cross the

low range of the Pembina Mountains, and strike perfect prairie,

characterized by the presence of such birds as Sprague’s lark and

150 : THE PRAIRIE GOPHER.

Baird’s and the chestnut-collared bunting. From this point they

stretch clear away to the Rocky Mountains, subsiding only among

the foot-hills of the main range, where the pocket gophers (species

of Thomomys) begin to claim the soil; but a day’s march, indeed, +

from the rocky haunts of the little chief hare (Lagomys princeps).

The region of the Milk River and its northern tributaries, most of

which, as well as the river itself, cross 49°, is their centre of abun-

dance. Approaching this parallel from another direction, namely

up the Missouri and across country northwesterly from Fort

Buford,! I first met with them near the mouth of Milk River, and

they almost immediately became abundant. They doubtless ex- |

tend down the Missouri to the mouth of the Yellowstone beyond.

Audubon gives the latitudinal distribution from 38° to 55°. The

recently described S. elegans and S. armatus of Kennicott (Proc.

Phila. Acad. 1863, 158), both being mere varieties of Richardsoni,

carry the range of the species in the Rocky i et region down

‘to the vicinity of Fort Bridger.

As already said, the gophers overrun all this scales country.

Travelling among them, how often have I tried to determine in my

mind what particular kind of ground, or what special sites, they

preferred, only to have any vague opinion I might form upset,

perhaps in a few hours’ more riding, by finding the animals as

plentiful as ever in some other sort of a place. Passing over a

sterile, cactus-ridden, alkali-laden waste, there would be so many

that I would say ‘‘this suits them best;” in camp that very night,

in some low grassy spot near water, there they would be, plentiful

as ever. One thing is certain, however; their gregarious instinct

is rarely in abeyance. A few thousand will occupy a tract as

thickly as the prairie dogs do, and then none but stragglers may

be seen for a whole day’s journey. Their choice of camping

grounds is however wholly fortuitous, for all that we can discover,

and moreover the larger colonies usually inosculate.

hat a country it is, to be sure, where the most persistent of

the minor inequalities of surface are little heaps of dirt alongside

of little holes! But about these holes, which I suppose I ought to

describe, there is nothing remarkable whatever, except their num-

bers. They are all pretty much alike, yet no two are exactly the

1Fort Union, formerly a somewhat noted locality, now a mere heap of rubbish,

. ‘stood about on the line between Montana and Dakota. Fort Buford, a flourishing post

about two miles from the old site, now commands the mouth of the Yellowstone.

THE PRAIRIE GOPHER. 151

same. If we fancy an active, industrious, muscular little animal

to begin to scratch with strong sharp claws, and to keep at work

throwing out the dirt behind him till he has buried himself in a

crooked passage that will just comfortably let him pass into the

ground several feet below the surface, we have a good idea of the

burrow. There is not the slight rule observed as to direction and

distance, any more than there is as to location. An average sized

burrow will just not admit a man’s arm, except at the mouth, where

it is usually funnel-shaped. It may go straight down, but gene-

rally slants very obliquely, and most frequently there is an elbow

. a foot or so from the surface. I do not think that the holes are any-

thing like as deep as those of prairie dogs. +I never dug one out,

indeed, but I judge by the peck or bushel of earth usually thrown

out, as well as by the fact that it is very easy to drown out the

animals with two or three bucketfuls of water. Moreover, I am

satisfied that the burrows do not, as a rule, intercommunicate —

perhaps they never do, except by accident, when many animals:

are living side by side. Many holes are found with no earth at

the entrance — a clean, circular opening in the grass. These are

obviously points where the creatures have burrowed up to the sur-

face again from below. If the animals have any preference, it is

a choice of the lighter and more easily worked soils, rather than a

. question of location. They seem to haunt especially the slight

knolls of the prairie a few feet above the general level. There

the soil is looser, and the inhabitants have some little additional

advantage in their'view of the surrounding country. But

are plenty of burrows in the heaviest soil of the creek-bottoms.

They fislike stony places for obvious reasons, yet they will often

burrow beneath a single large rock. I have also found nearly

horizontal holes of theirs dug from the face of an almost perpen-

dicular bank. In short, there is endless diversity in the details of

their habitations.

Of the underground life of the gophers I suppose no one knows

much—certainly I do not. I am inclined to think the animals are

essentially polygamous, which is a point to be considered in the

question of the occupancy of the burrows. If they regularly

paired, I think sufficient indication of the fact would not have

escaped me. But I saw no signs of this occupation of a burrow

by a pair. One gopher to a hole is the universal rule; that is,

one gopher to an occupied hole. For the animals are very in-

152 THE PRAIRIE GOPHER.

dustrious, and in every thickly peopled region, the number of

deserted burrows is out of all proportion to those in use. That

not only the breeding female, but every other individual has his

own domicile, cannot, I think, be doubted; and they appear to

guard the gates jealously. For whenever, in the hurry of a sud-

den alarm, two or more gophers rush into the same hole, there is —

sure to be trouble. We hear, if we are near enough, a squeaking :

and commotion below, and the intruders are pretty sure to betake —

themselves off as soon as they dare. Doubtless different holes are

put to different uses. The female must have her bed in which to i

be confined and rear her young, The male his permanent retreat."

Some of the holes are storehouses. Then, I am persuaded, a —

great many of the shallower burrows are dug for temporary refuge —

and soon abandoned; for the gopher is an exceedingly timid ani-

mal, and must have a convenient place to hide. The storehouses

I have discovered by accident and examined at my leisure. 4

places where small streams work through light soil, they contin-

ually form “ cut-banks” along their convexities. By this under-

mining and fall of earth, burrows are frequently exposed. thè —

storehouses I have seen were merely an enlarged excavation at

the end of the passage, containing a hatful of the husks of grass

seeds and the like. :

There is one very curious point in the socialism of these ani-

mals. Every now and then, in odd out-of-the-way places, where

there may not be another gopher for miles perhaps, we come upon

a solitary individual guarding a well-used burrow, all alone in his

glory. The several such animals I have shot all proved to be

males; and what is singular, these old fellows are always larger

than the average (some would weigh twice as much), peculiarly

sleek and light-colored, and enormously fat. The earlier ones -

got I suspected to be a different species, so peculiar were they ™

many respects. I suppose they are surly old bachelors who have

foresworn society for a life of indolent ease, though if 1 had found

them oftener among their kind I should have taken them for the

Turks of the harem. It seems to be a case somewhat parallel

with that of the lonely old buffalo bulls so often met with away

from the herd.

grown. The young probably keep closely in the burrow until they

THE PRAIRIE GOPHER. 153

are of about this size—I do not remember to have seen any

smaller ones running about. Without having seen a litter in the

nest, I should judge the number of young produced at a birth to

be about eight; at any rate, the female has constantly ten ? teats ;

and July specimens, in worn harsh pelage, with all or nearly all of

the teats in use, are frequently secured.

Of the life of the animal during the winter I know positively

nothing. But two things are assured. They do not migrate, and

they are not seen abroad. They must hibernate, and pass most

_ of the long inclement season in a state of torpor. Such supplies

-of food as I have spoken of would not last an active animal so

long.

_ However this may be, the gathering and hoarding of seeds

= seems to be their principal occupation during the summer.

a Amidst thousands that we pass only to see them skurry into their

holes in trepidation, there are necessarily some observed which do

not notice us, or at any rate do not take alarm. I have often

watched them, where the grass was taller than usual, gathering

_ their store. They rise straight up on their haunches, seize the

= grass-top, and bite it off. Then settling down with a peculiar

_ jerk, they sit with arched back, and stow away the provender in

their pouches with the aid of their fore paws. Their cheek pouches

= are not very large — both together would hardly hold a heaping

teaspoonful. When duly freighted they make for their holes.

Their mode of feeding, as they do, upon grass-blades or any other

herbage, as well as upon seeds, is essentially the same. In their

foraging excursions, they seem to have regular lines of travel.

From almost every long-used hole may be seen one or more little

_ paths, an inch or two wide, sometimes so well worn that they may

be traced fifteen or twenty feet. These paths often run from one

hole to another. No matter how smooth the ground, these paths

= are never quite straight; they repeat in miniature the devious

vents an animal from walking perfectly straight being in force

here. z

_ Though properly a vegetarian, like other rodents, the gopher is

fond of meat, and I think that no small share of his summer’s

food is derived from the carcasses of buffalo. Wolves do not

_ appear to be numerous, in summer at least, in this region, and the

2 One pair axillary, one pair pectoral, two pairs abdominal and one pair inguinal.

footpath across the meadow, the mysterious something that pre- _

154 ‘THE PRAIRIE GOPHER.

polishing of buffalo skeletons is largely accomplished by the kit

foxes, badgers, skunks and gophers. Hard by a slain buffalo a

badger’s hole is pretty sure to be soon established, together with a

number of temporary gopher burrows. In proof positive of this

carnivorous propensity, I have more than once seen the inside of

a drying carcass completely covered with the peculiar and readily-

recognized excrement of the gophers, while the bones and flesh

were gnawed in a way that plainly told who had been there. The

excrement is conico-cylindric, and thus very different from that of

rabbits, the only other common rodents of the region.

The voice of the gopher is peculiar — quite unlike the harsher

and more guttural “ barking” of the prairie dog. It is a sharp,

wiry squeak of less volume, and is pitched in a higher key, than

might be expected in the case of an animal of its size. It is a

single note, repeated a few times. Comical as a gopher is in some

of his attitudes and motions, he never looks so funny as when

squeaking. He generally gets down on all fours to it, drops his

jaw with a jerk, and squeezes out the noise by drawing in his

belly — it reminds one of a toy dog. If caught or wounded, they

have an energetic chattering outcry, much like that of other

species.

There is not the slightest difficulty in securing any desired num-

ber of specimens—as is not the case with the prairie dog. Though

equally timid, the gopher is neither so suspicious nor so warily

cautious; nor is it so tenacious of life. As is well known, the

chances are largely against securing a prairie dog shot at the

mouth of his burrow. No matter how badly wounded, he gene-

rally manages in his death struggles to work down out of reach,

and he not seldom, when shot dead, falls out of sight. But I

would readily undertake to secure half the gophers fired at when

fairly in sight, no matter if they were directly over the hole.

Moreover a prairie dog, scared into his hole, will scarcely show

his nose for a long time, while a gopher, more inquisitive or less _

rudent, generally pops up again in a few moments, to have an-

other look, and vent his displeasure in a series of energetic squeaks. —

Advantage may be taken of this trait to secure him alive, by

simply setting a noose around the hole, and retiring toa little —

distance, jerking the string smartly the moment the little animal's. —

iy eRe

t conica

3 On slightly everting the anus (both sexes), th hree Į i

papillæ around the margin, just inside — one anterior and one on each side.

THE PRAIRIE GOPHER. 155

nose appears. He is generally caught by the neck or around the

chest. .The soldiers used to have great fun this way sometimes,

_and I know of one man catching seventeen in about an hour.

Fishing for gophers may not be very thrilling sport, but I should

think, though I never tried it myself, that it would be quite as

exciting as some other styles of angling.

I wish I could do justice to the rest of my subject — I mean to

the variety of tricks and funny ways there are about a gopher, and

= without which no gopher is complete. But a gopher must be seen,

and seen often, to be appreciated. For instance, a gopher caught

away from home is a very different animal from one at the mouth

of his hole. A most unreasonably timid animal, considering how

_ rarely he is molested, he never goes out without feeling that he

has taken his life in his hands. A thoroughly scared gopher is the

liveliest object in nature ; a mule kicking over the traces is perfect

= repose in comparison. He doubles up and opens out like nothing

- else I know of, with his absurd little whisk of a tail hoisted, and

_ the way he gets over the ground without once looking back is

amazing. Safe home, be he never so badly frightened, he will stop

_ to see what was the matter. He pops bolt upright, stands stock

still with his fore-paws drooped affectedly in front of him, looks

demurely around, and squeaks out ‘* Pooh! who’s afraid?” a

plainly as’possible. But let one come a step nearer, and down he

goes on all fours, right over the hole, where he sits and scolds

with back arched up, ready for a dive. When he does finally duck

out of sight, there is no mistaking his meaning; the suggestive

flirt of his tail, the last thing seen, speaks volumes to a thought-

ful observer.

But one must not too heats sonsindé that a gopher on the

prairie is always in a flurry, or that one at home is always saucy.

On the contrary, like other frolicsome, heedless little creatures

they are sometimes wofully imprudent, and will gambol about

almost at one’s feet, or enter a tent to forage for food. They are

the life of the prairie, and they have afforded, to me at least, no

little real pleasure. I like to watch them undisturbed, they are

such pretty, sleek, comfortable creatures, so full of life, so busy,

better if they dared, and when they give you up as an impossibil-

y, they go off in zigzag with mincing steps, stopping every few

paces, half inclined to come back after all. A gopher never quite

so bright. They always look as if they would like to know you ~

156 A STATE SURVEY FOR MASSACHUSETTS.

knows his own mind. But the prettiest of all the exhibitions a

gopher can make of himself, is when he frames his profile in the

rim of his burrow. Not seldom, after running some little fellow”

to earth, have I stood still just by the hole, and confidently waited

for his reappearance. Presently I hear a little scratching, perhaps

a squeak, and then I see his head, turned roguishly to one.side, to

throw one bright black eye full upon me, as if to ask what manner

of creature I may be to stand thus boldly at his door. He looks

as if he would like to invite me in, and then laugh at me for

being too big and too clumsy to enter.

A STATE SURVEY FOR MASSACHUSETTS.

BY PROF. N. S. SHALER.! x

Ware Hayden with his score of coadjutors is skirmishing over

the unexplored recesses of the West, reconnoitring an empire in a

season, the surveyors of Great Britain are patiently unriddling their

islands at a rate that will require a century for its completion.

It must not be supposed because these two kinds of workers

differ so widely in their methods that either is mistaken. Each is

doing legitimate work in its sphere, and each has its important

scientific and economic results. Perhaps the best specimen of

this system of reconnoissance work which has ever existed is now

in operation in this country, under the charge of Dr. Hayden;

other expeditionary surveys under the charge of Mr. Clarence

King and Major Powell, have shared with Hayden the task of un-

ravelling the complicated geology and topography of the vast area

lying between the eastern and western borders of the Cordilleras

of North America. The present system pursued by Hayden is

admirably suited to secure the most rapid delineation of a country —

for correct sketch maps. A system of triangles is carried across

country from mountain-top to mountain-top, so that a large num-

ber of positions are accurately determined. From good points of

view the topographer delineates the intermediate country by the

saints nt r

+ 1 The following extracts are taken from an article in the *“ Atlantic Monthly ” for

e have not space to reprint the article AARE as it forms à

admirable presentation of the subject of suryeys in general.

Pe ala ce ae

A STATE SURVEY FOR MASSACHUSETTS. 157

use of the theodolite; contour lines, or lines supposed to repre-

sent equal heights above a water level, are sketched in with some

detail, so that the eye catches the true reliefs of the country.

Along with these topographical parties go geologists and collect-

ors of specimens, to illustrate the geology and biology of the

country. This survey is carried on at such speed that in a season

of four’or five months a single party will work in several thousand

square miles of territory and obtain a remarkably good idea of all

its important features. Several of such parties together make up

the expedition, and the reports set forth, with a fair accuracy, the

topography, geology, zodlogy, botany, agricultural resources, and

such information as can be gained concerning the climatology of

the district surveyed. It is difficult to imagine a plan better cal- .

culated than this to accomplish the end in view, namely, to discover ©

the general characters of an unexplored land, and to guide the com-

ing immigrant in its development by the steady light of science.

The state of Massachusetts is a remarkably favorable state for

illustrating the methods in which a survey should be conducted ;

not such a survey as a new Western State makes in order to get

some idea of where its coal and iron lie, and the amount of its

wealth, but a work intended to be the most exact and final work

which it is possible to do on the earth’s surface. When a govern-

ment approaches so considerable an enterprise as this, and deter-

mines that it is to be done so as never to require, in our day at

least, a reconstruction, all geologists will agree that the first thing

is to secure the best map. Massachusetts has the good fortune to

4 have her shore-belt map completely made by the Coast Survey ;

Cape Ann and Cape Cod and the bordering islands, making, to-

gether, about a tenth of the total area of the state, have all been

done on the scale of one ten thousandth, or about six inches of

map to the mile of distance. If it were practicable, this map

should be continued on the same scale over the whole state, mak-

ing, when finished, a record map about ninety feet long and fifty-

_ four wide; on this scale every important detail could be truthfully

= laid down. ‘This is the proper thing to do, and nothing but the

cost of the work can be urged against it; on this plan the

surveying and improvement of private grounds could always be |

accomplished, tax-levies made, in short, our civilization could be

organized upon it. If something else less perfect must be dorne,

it will be with the greatest regret that we turn to it from our ideal.

158 A STATE SURVEY FOR MASSACHUSETTS.

On this perfect system the topography alone would be likely to

cost over half a million of dollars and pretty certain not to exceed

_ three-quarters of a million, or about as much as one thousand feet

of the Hoosac Tunnel. Who will say that Massachusetts cannot

afford this sum for a perfect record of the theatre of her indus-

tries? If, however, it be thought that it is better to temporize

with the matter, it will certainly be possible to get the most im-

portant results with a smaller original map—one twenty-five

thousandth, or about two and a third inches to the mile, will

answer for most of the great economic purposes of a survey ; it

will not, however, serve as a tax map or for the management of

individual estates, and in time it would have to be done over on

the larger scale. The dimensions of the original maps, it should

be noted, is quite another matter from the size they have in their

published form ; from the original records reductions can be made

to any scale.

When this topography is far enough advanced to give a basis

for other work, the geology and biology should be taken in hand.

Here we come upon a class of researches which require some

special consideration. What should be the objects of this scien-

tific work, and how are these objects to be attained? To answer

these questions at length is to discuss all the methods and aims of

science. There are some limitations, however, which are worthy

of note. Any state, however small, furnishes problems organic

and inorganic, which will require centuries for their complete dis-

_ cussion. As we do not propose that a survey shall take up at once

all the problems of science, it becomes a nice matter to limit the

work. In the geology this is comparatively easy ; no amount of de-

tail consistent with the condition of the science will be superfluous

here; every stratigraphical question, every question in chemical

geology, should be followed to its utmost point. Each region sup-

plies the investigator with special problems which he knows when-

ever the general structure of a country is known; it is the special

object of a reconnoissance to show what and where these prob-

lems are. Some of them are economical, have money in them ; the

others are economical too, in that higher sense which finds all

truth profitable. Of those which connect themselves immediately

with industry we may mention the following questions: (1) the —

distribution of water, its storage and quality; (2) the building-

stones of the state; (3) the existence of deposits of coal in work-

able quantities; (4) the distribution of metals, the iron of the —

}

A STATE SURVEY FOR MASSACHUSETTS. 159

western region, and the silver-bearing beds of the east; (5) the

reclamation of marshes; (6) the retimbering of the exposed parts

of the coast. Among the scientific problems, the state affords

some matters of surpassing interest. Probably no other known

fossils have so much value for the science of to-day as those won-

derful footprints of the Connecticut Valley. They deserve years

of study and the thorough investigation which can only be given

by a careful re-survey of the whole region.

Among the many problems concerning the existing life of the

state, it is difficult to give in a word the most important. A large

part of the necessary work for the complete description of our

animals and plants is already done, and needs but to be assembled

and ordered. The state is already rich in investigators, and as

soon as a survey begins, these will be increased; from their labors

we may hope for a thorough study of the biology of Massachusetts.

The state has already taken advanced ground concerning instruc-

tion in natural history. It will greatly aid the work of diffusing

a knowledge of nature throughout the people, to have carefully

edited catalogues of all the animals and plants existing within the

state, with enough concerning their characters, habits, ete., to make

the information of practical value to beginners. This work need be

of very little expense to the survey; the state already has nearly

a million of dollars invested in the Museum of Comparative Zoöl-

ogy, and in the work of cataloguing the animals this noble insti-

tution can make a substantial return through the students it has

in science in our public schools of all grades. With good maps

and good catalogues of the natural productions of a country, the

teaching of natural science becomes possible to a degree that can-

not be hoped for under other circumstances. This is to Massachu-

setts a matter of great importance ; her real greatness has lain and

always must lie in her power to produce men preéminently fitted

for the work of their day. Other states can, almost without effort,

beat her in the race for material greatness, strive as she may

against it; but her intellectual lead, now so clearly established,

may be maintained to the end if she but care to take the steps

necessary to keep her energies bent towards this object. She must

now foster science as she has established and fostered theology and

general learning.

THE MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

— +4

I. THE HYDROIDA.

Tar animal next higher in structure than the sponge is the

curious Protohydra discovered by Greef among diatoms and sea-

weeds in the oyster park at Ostend. It is regarded 'by Greef as

the marine ancestral form of the Celenterates (Hydroids, Jelly

fishes and Actiniæ). It is the simplest possible radiate form yet

discovered. As the form of the fresh-water Hydra is familiar,

Protohydra may be best described as similar to that, except that

it is entirely wanting in tentacles. Like Hydra it is made up of

two layers (an ectoderm and endoderm), with a mouth and stomach

(gastro-vascular cavity). Nothing is known of its history, though

Greef is positive that it is not a young Actinia.

The next highest form is. the fresh-water Hydra, which is com-

monly found on the under side of the leaves of aquatic plants.

This well known animal is the simplest form of the division of

radiates known as Hydroids. The somewhat club-shaped body

consists of two layers, the inner (endoderm) lining the general

cavity of the body, which serves both as mouth and stomach and

for the circulation of the nutritive fluid, and is called the gastro-

vascular cavity. The mouth is surrounded with eight tentacles,

which are prolongations of the body-wall and are hollow, commu-

nicating with the body cavity. a

Such is the general structure of the Hydra. In the ectoderm

are situated the lasso-cells or nettling organs, being minute barbed

filaments coiled up in a cell-wall. rom Kleinenberg’s recent

researches on the Hydra it appears that there are scattered irregu- —

larly through the endodermal lining of the body-cavity isolated —

ciliated cells. They do not form a continuous lining membrane,

and thus bear an interesting analogy to the ciliated cells of the —

sponge. While the endoderm forms a simple cell-layer, the outer —

layer (ectoderm) is more complex, as just within an external —

simple layer of large cells is a multitude of smaller cells, some of —

them being thread or lasso cells, while still within are fine muscu- —

lar fibrilla which form a continuous layer. The large cells first —

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 161

named end in fibre-like processes, which alone possess contractil-

ity and are thought by Kleinenberg to be motor-nerve endings.

These large cells, from combining the functions of muscle and

nerve, are termed ‘‘nervo-muscle cells.” The little cavities be-

tween the large endodermal cells and the muscular layer which

lies next to the endoderm is filled with small cells and lasso-

cells, forming what Kleinenberg calls the interstitial tissue. From

this tissue are developed the eggs and spermatozoa.

he organization of all the hydroids and even Lucernaria and

the larger jelly-fishes (Discophora) is based on the plan of the

Hydra. They all have a simple body-cavity, but no true alimen-

tary canal surrounded by a perivisceral cavity. This is the dis-

tinguishing character of the Cœlenterates. In the jelly-fishes, the

often complicated water vascular system of canals are simply

passages leading out from the axial gastro-vascular cavity. If we

place a jelly fish in the same position as the Hydra, i.e.,.with the

tentacles directed upwards, the general homology between the

parts can be clearly traced. In the Hydroids, such as Sertularia,.

etc., the ectoderm is surrounded by a chitinous sheath, secreted

from this layer. While in Hydra the young bud out from the side

of the body, in the Hydroids the young are developed on a sepa-

rate stalk from the barren or nutritive stalk.or “zooid.” The in--

- dividual Hydroid is thus subdivided into a. reproductive and a,

nutritive zooid. The reproductive zooids.seldom.or never. take in

food, but are nourished by the nutritive zooids,.the two zooids

being connected by a common creeping stem called the ‘‘ccenosare.”

» The Anthozoa or sea anemones and coral polypes differ from

the Hydroids and Meduse in having the stomach. open. at the

bottom into a second and larger cavity communicating with the

radiating chambers. In the. Ctenophora there is a decided. ap--

proach in the complication of the body. to the Echinoderms.. The

radiated structure so clearly, shown in the lower forms is here. in.

part subordinated to the bilateral arrangement of parts; they

have a right side and a left side. ‘They also differ, in. the month.

opening into a wide digestive cavity, enclosed between two verti-

cal tubes, uniting at the end of the body, where the stomach forms

a reservoir for the gastro-vascular tubes ramifying throughout the

body. They move by a peculiar. apparatus consisting of bands of.

comb-like flappers. Not detaining the reader with a definition of;

the subdivisions of the Coelenterates. we shall be content. with,

AMER. NATURALIST,.VOL. IX.

162 _ MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

giving the following tabular view of the lowest subdivision of

Radiates :—

CŒLENTERATA.

wager! z HYDRO

roida. a. pake iform (Hydra, Hydractinia, waa Sertularia)

b. nade elella, Agalma, Physa

2. Calycozoa (Lucerna

æ or Discophere (A +)

ANTHOZOA (Actinia, Cerianthus, Pere Alcyonium, Gorgonia and —

CTENOPHOR (Beroé, Cydippe, Cestum).

Development of Hydra and the Hydroids. Ehrenberg first showed

that the Hydra reproduced by eggs which’ become fertilized by

spermatic particles. Kleinenberg describes the testis, which is

lodged in the ectoderm and which develops tailed spermatozoa like

those of the higher animals. ‘They arise, as in other higher ani-

mals, from a self-division of the nuclei of the testis-cells. There

is a true ovary formed in the same interstitial tissue of the ecto-

derm, consisting of a group of cells, which differ entirely in their

mode of formation from the ovaries (gonophores) of the marine

Hydroids, which are genuine buds.

It thus seems that Hydra is moneecious or hermaphrodite, i. e.,

the sexes are not distinct. The egg of Hydra originates from the

central cell of the ovary; thus confirming the opinion now gener-

ally held that all animals as a rule arise from a simple cell. After

the egg-cell has escaped from the ovary through the ectoderm, it

still holds on by a narrow point to the sides of the Hydra, where

it is fecundated by the spermatic particles discharged into the

surrounding water from the testis.

Fecundation is succeeded by a true segmentation of the egg-

The young Hydra thus passes through a true ‘¢ Morula” stage.’

There is an outer layer of prismatic cells, forming the surface of

the germs, and surrounding the inner mass of polygonal cells. At

first none of these cells are nucleated, but. afterwards nuclei ap-

pear, and it is an important fact that these nuclei do not arise

from any preéxistent egg-nucleus.

The next step is the formation of a true chitinous shell, envel-

oping the germ or embryo. After this Kleinenberg asserts that

the eells of the germ become fused together, and that the germ is

dike an unsegmented egg, being a single continuous mass of proto-

plasm. Allman remarks that ‘‘as this phenomenon does not occur

1 Here i P: tt “ Morula,” instead of “ stage

of n ot of the egg,” for the sake of iaaea ;

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 163

in other Hydroids it can have no general significance for the

development of the order.”

e remaining history of Hydra is soon told. In this proto-

plasmic germ-mass there is formed a small excentric cavity ; this

is the beginning of the body-cavity, which finally forms a closed

sac. Allman remarks on this discovery of Kleinenberg’s that ‘ it

is glear that the formation of a body cavity by invagination of the

walls [i. e., ectoderm] with the significance which Kowalevsky

has assigned to it in other animals, does not exist in Hydra, and

just as Tittle will it be found in any other hydroid.” It will be

seen farther on that in certain medusz, Kowalevsky has discov-

ered that the digestive cavity is formed by the invagination of the

ectoderm, and we have seen (p. 107) that Metznikoff declares

that the ciliated cells lining the gastro-vascular cavity in the embryo

of the sponge are the originally external ciliated cells of the pla-

nula withdrawn into and lining the body cavit

After several weeks the germ bursts the hard shell. and escapes

into the surrounding water, but is still surrounded by a thin inner

shell. After this a clear superficial zone appears, and a darker

one beneath, which is the first indication of the splitting of the

germ into the two definitive germ-lamella, common to all animals

except the one-celled Protozoa.

The embryo soon stretches itself out, a star-shaped cleft appears,

Which forms the mouth. The tentacles next appear. The animal

now bursts open the thin inner shell, and the young Hydra appears

much like its parent form.

There is, then, no metamorphosis in the Hydra; no ciliated pla-

nula. The adult form is thus reached by a continuous growth.

It will be seen, to anticipate somewhat, that the Hydra, ex-

actly as in the vertebrates, including man, arises from an egg

developed from a true ovary, which is fertilized by a true tailed

spermatic particle; that the egg passes through a morula stage ;

that the germ consists of two germinal layers, while from the

outer layer, as probably in the vertebrates, an intermediate or

nervo-muscular layer is formed, which Allman thinks is the homo-

logue of the middle germ-lamella of the vertebrates, supposed

to have originally split off from the ectoderm. Allman even

regards the chitinous shell of the germ of Hydra as the equivalent

of the epidermis of vertebrates, being a provisional SPIER

- organ in Hydra, but permanent in vertebrates,

164 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

In all the marine Hydroids, which are more complex in their

individualism than Hydra, the sexes being separate, the eggs and

spermatic particles are thought by Allman to be developed from

the endoderm. But E. Van Beneden has on the other hand shown

that the eggs in Hydractinia are exclusively developed from the

endoderm, while the spermatic cells arise from the ectoderm.

‘The simplest form next to Hydra is Hydractinia, in which the

individual is differentiated into three sets of zooids; i.e., a, hydra-

like, sterile or nutritive zooids; b and c, the reproductive zooids,

one male and the other female, both being much alike externally,

having below the short rudimentary tentacles several spherical

sacs, which produce either male or female meduse. These

medusa buds or closed generative sacs are fundamentally like

the free medusz in structure. The marine Hydroids, then, are

universally dieeious, and usually each colony is either male or `

female.

A rather more-complicated form is the common Coryne mirabilis.

Fig. 51 shows. the hydrarium with its long tentacles (¢) and a the

medusa buds, Fig. 52 its free medusa.. Tubularia is a higher form,

and allied to the latter is still another form, Corymorpha pendula

(Fig. 53. After Agassiz).

Figs. 54-58 (after A. Agassiz) represent quite fully the life his-

tory of another Tubularian, Bougainvillia superciliaris. Fig. 5

represents the hydrarium, with the sterile zooids provided with long

tentacles, and the medusa buds of different ages. Fig. 55 shows

a bud still more enlarged, with the proboscis (manubrium) just

formed, and Knob-like, rudimentary tentacles. In an older stage

(Fig. 56) the proboscis is enlarged and the tentacles lengthened,

while the depression at the upper end indicates the future opening.

In Fig. 57 the appendages of the proboscis are plainly indicated,

the tentacles are turned outwards. Shortly after this the jelly-fish

breaks loose: from its attachment and swims around as at Fig. 58.

How do the zooids-first arise? This leads us to speak of the sim-

plest mode of reproduction in the Hydroids, which is by budding.

The object of sexual reproduction, i. e., by eggs and spermatozoa,

throughout the animal and plant world, is by bringing the germ or

rtion of protoplasm of one individual, which is an epitome

potentially of its physical and psychical nature, to mingle with

that of anotMer of the same species, so that the offspring may

combine the qualities of both parents, and not deteriorate. The

Oe ere ea Ark ee ees ALIN ie a anaes, T=,

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 165

species can be reproduced simply by budding, but the result would,

if maintained for a number of generations, in the end prove disas-

trous to its integrity. Nature abhors self-fertilization. So that

while, as in these Hydroids, the zooid form may be produced by

budding, yet the time comes when the individuals of one colony

must mingle their reproductive elements with those of a remote

colony, through the medium of the water. By this mode of repro-

Fig. 52.

Poly pite of Coryne mira-

puis ei gi oi bud below

Corymorpha.

Cromeiteeey above, a,

p yeti gaat After

Agas

Free medusa of Co-

ryne thrown off

from the gono-

phore. Natural

size, After Agas-

81Z.

duction new colonies are also set up. On the other hand budding

or gemmation has for its object the extension of the colony of

nutritive and reproductive zooids. This alternation of budding

with sexual generation or “ alternation of generations,” or * parthe-

nogenesis,” is first met with in the Hydroids, and we shall find it

often recurring in the higher animals when needed to meet some

special exigency of the species.

MODE OF GROWTil OF 1HE RADIATES.

Medusa bud wit!

cles t

fie

urned ou

ed.

Medusa of Bougainvillia. Magnified. After A. Agassiz.

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 167

Budding begins as a slight protrusion of the basal portion (cœ-

nosarc) of the colony, which then becomes spherical and finally

club-shaped, as in Fig. 51, until it assumes the form of a zooid.

It remains permanently attached in all the Hydroids except in

Hydra, where it breaks off and bears a free individual. In some

species of Tubularia the heads of the zooids successively drop off,

and are renewed.

Multiplication by fission has only been observed in one case, in

the medusa of Stomobrachium, observed by Kolliker at Messina.

In this the pendent stomach divided in two, becoming doubled,

which was followed by a vertical division of the umbrella, sepa-

rating the animal into two independent halves. These again sub-

divided, and Kölliker thinks this process went on still farther.

The second mode of generation, t.e., by eggs and spermatic

particles, have been observed in many marine Hydroids. As in

the Hydra, the eggs, after being fertilized, pass through a morula

stage, and finally the germ becomes surrounded by a blastoderm,

as in Hydra, formed of long prismatic cells directly comparable

with the zone of blastodermic cells of insects, and many other

animals, including the mammals. The germ elongates and finally

escapes from the ovisac (gonophore) of the parent as a ciliated

**planula,” a term first applied to it by Dalyell.

Now how do these planulas become converted into hydras, and

through them into meduse? A glance at the accompanying figures

will give the main points in the life history of a not uncommon

Hydroid found on our shores, a Melicertum allied to Campanu-

laria (Fig. 62). We are indebted to Mr. A. Agassiz (Seaside

Studies in Natural History) for the following facts and illustra-

tions regarding its history. After keeping a number of the Meli-

certum in a large glass jar for a couple of days at the time of

spawning, he found that the ovaries, at first filled with eggs,

became emptied, and that the planule, at first spherical and after-

wards pear-shaped (Fig. 59) swam near the bottom of the jar, and

soon attached themselves by the larger end to the bottom of the

jar (Fig. 60). ‘* Thus their Hydroid life begins; they elongate

gradually, the horny sheath is formed around them, tentacles

arise on the upper end, short and stunted at first, but tapering

rapidly out into fine, flexible feelers; the stem branches, and we

have a little Hydroid community (Fig. 61), upon which, in the

= course of the following spring, the reproductive calycles contain-

ing the medusæ buds will be developed.”

(nee th eee oe

ary

OEM alta TN Etat

168

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

Fig. 61.

Planula of

Melicertum.

Fig. 60.

Cluster of Planule Polypites of Melicertum

just attached to the developed from the a gl

round. ulæ; greatly magni

Fig. 62.

Melicertum campanula, seen in profile. Natural size. After

Agassiz.

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 169

Coming now to the Portuguese man-of-war (Physalia) which have

so much occupied the attention of the best naturalists, it would seem

at first well nigh impossible to trace their relationship with the or-

dinary Hydroids. A Physalia may, however, be compared to a fixed

colony of Hydractinia or Coryne, for example. Each Physalia is

either male or female, and consists of four kinds of zooids; viz.,

nutritive and reproductive, with medusa buds, which, by their

contractions and dilatations propel the colony onward; and the

“feeders,” a set of digestive tubes which nourish the entire colony.

The Siphonophores (as observed by Gegenbaur, Kowalevsky,

Heckel and Metschnikoff, in Agalma and several other genera)

arise from eggs which pass through a morula stage, into a ciliated

planula, whose body consists of an ectoderm and endoderm. The

gastro-vascular cavity in the Siphonophores, as in the lower Hy-

droids so far as observed, is formed by a fold of the endoderm,

while, as we shall see farther on, in the rarer ous jelly fishes it

is formed by an infolding of the ectoderm

The further development of Nanomia, a Siohomnphets native to

our northern shores, from the larval state, has been described and

figured by Mr. A. Agassiz. To use nearly his own words, the

Nanomia consists, when first formed, of an oblong oil bubble,

with but one organ, a simple digestive cavity. Soon between the

oil bubble and the cavity arise a number of medusa buds, though

without any “proboscis” (manubrium), as these medusa buds,

called “swimming bells,” are destined to ‘serve the purpose of

locomotion only, having no share in the function of feeding the

community.” After these swimming buds, three kinds of Hydra-

like zooids arise. In one set the Hydra is open-mouthed, and is

in fact a digestive tube, its gastro-vascular cavity connects with

that of the stem. and thus the food taken in is circulated through-

out the community. These are the so-called “feeders.” The

second set of Hydras differ only from the “feeders” in having

shorter tentacles twisted like a corkscrew. In the third and last

set of Hydras the mouth is closed, and they differ from the others

in having a single tentacle instead of a cluster. Their function

has not yet been clearly explained. Gradually new individuals are

added, until a long chain of Hydroids is formed, which move

gracefully through the water, with the oil globule uppermost,

which serves as a float and is identical with the large-crested

“ float” of the Physalia.

O , MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

Finally, the higher Hydroids, such as Æginopsis, Ægineta

Cunina and Lyriope have been found by Muller, Agassiz, McCrady,

Leuckart, Gegenbaur, Fritz SRR and others, to p directly

from eggs and pass through a metamorphosis as medusæ. Duri

the past year (1874) PERS has published, ii, many fig-

ures, an account of the development of Geryonia, Polyxenia

(Ægineta) and Æginopsis.

In these animals the egg passes through a morula stage; an

outer layer of cells (blastoderm) splits off from.the morula, form-

ing the ectoderm and entoderm. The embryo, then, as in Polyx-

enia, passes through a ciliated planula stage. The embryo may

remain spherical, as in Geryonia, or as in Polyxenia and Ægin-

opsis, the body of the planula becomes greatly elongated and

bomerang-shaped, and from each end are developed the first two

tentacles, then others, and after a slight metamorphosis the adult

form is attained.

The life history of the Hydroids comprises, then, the following

phases in development :—

1,a. Origin of young Hydra by budding.

b. Origin of embryo from egg fertilized by a

- Morula stage.

. Planula (Gastrula) stage.

Hydra-like form, attached.

- Medusa, free and discharging eggs.

oe Oo bo

LITERATURE.

ig ger Versuch eines Systemes der Medusen (Siebold and Kölliker’s Zeitschrift,

MeCrad - Gymnophthalmata of Charleston harbor (Proc. Elliott Soc. N. H., i, 1859).

L. Agassiz. Contributions to the Natural oy of the United States, vol. 3 and 4.

~ Agassiz. pretense of ü Acalephæ of North span Mus. Comp. Zool., 1865.

E. C. and A, Agassiz. side Studies in Natural His Radiates. eai. 1871.

Kleinenberg. Hydra, p P EAE E EREE ELE EA Untersuchung-

Leipzig, 1872. (Abstract, with notes by Allman in Quatr. Journ. Micr. Science, 1874.)

niko,

+ Studien ueber die Entwickelung der Medusen und Siphonophore® 4

(Siebold und Kölliker Zeitschrift, 1874).

II. THE MEDUSZ (Discophore).

Passing by the Lucernaria, beautiful and interesting, but of -

whose early development we know nothing, we come to the common _

ination of the ectoderm, as stated by Mets-

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 171

larger jelly-fishes of our shores, which differ from the bell-shaped

hydroid medusz in their usually larger size and solid disk, as well

as in the larger number and greater complication of the water

tubes, which ramify and interbranch along the under side of the

disk; and in carrying their eggs in pouches. In our common

Aurelia flavidula there are four of these large pouches occupying

the centre of the disk.

The life history of the Aurelia, which we will select as an ex-

ample of the mode of developmentsof this group, since it is best

known, is far less complicated than that of the Hydroids. The

ciliated planule may be found in the egg pouches of the female

Aurelia during the last of summer. Soon Fig. 63.

after the ectoderm and entoderm are

formed, a mouth is developed, and a gas-

tro-vascular cavity is formed by the invag-

chnikoff, and they then pass into a gastrula

(planula) stage (Fig. 63, Gastrula of a

form allied to Aurelia ; a, mouth ; b, gastro- B

vascular cavity ; c, ectoderm ; d,entoderm; Gastrula of an Aurelia-like

after Metschnikoff), with a mouth and oe

long digestive cavity. After swimming about for a while they fix

themselves to some object at the bottom of the sea and soon a

Scyphistoma of Aurelia, at differ-

ent ages. Magnified.

Strobila of Aurelia.

: pair of tentacles begin to develop, and then two more, until not

= more than sixteen are developed. When of this hydra-like form

(Fig. 64 a, young; b, older, after A. Agassiz) it is called a “ Scy-

_ phistoma,” having originally, as well as the Strobila and Ephyra,

172 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

been mistaken forand described as an adult animal under that —

name.

After assuming this scyphistoma condition, transverse constrict-

tions appear at regular intervals, dividing the column, as it were,

into a pile of saucers ; the edges rise, tentacles bud out, and the

animal assumes the form seen in Fig. 65 (after Agassiz). The

Fig. 66. uppermost disk becomes detached, the rest

separate one after the other and float away in

aurelia or adult condition (Fig. 67). The gi- :

gantic Cyanea arctica, which attains a diam- —

eter of from three to five feet across the disk,

Ephyra of Aurelia. ag Agassiz remarks, is produced from ‘‘a hy-

droid measuring- not more than half an inch when full-grown.” _

On the other hand there are several exceptions known to this

mode of development, a few growing directly from the egg, with-

iy de ara a th el

Aurelia Mavidula. After Agassiz.

out passing through a hydra, or scyphistoma stage. Such is the a

large Pelagia, as observed by Krohn. Mr. A. Agassiz has ob

served, the same fact in Campanella pachyderma, a minute jelly

fish.

The Discophores, then, develop in two ways :—

A. Directly from the egg (Pelagia and Campanella).

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 173

B. From hydra-like young arising from eggs (Aurelia and

Cyanea) and presenting the following phases of growth :—

1. Egg.

2. Morula (?)

3. Planula (Gastrula).

yra

te Aoii (adult). :

LITERATURE.

Nearly the same as for the Hydroids.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Haypen’s Gro.oey or Cotorapo.!— Within this bulky volume

of over seven hundred pages is contained a mass of geological,

topographical and biological facts concerning Colorado, which

it must be confessed reflect great credit on the management of

the survey and the industry of the gentlemen employed upon it.

Large appropriations have been made by the government for the

survey, as accurate and timely information was wanted. We do

not see but that ample and speedy returns have been made. The

best possible topographical work was wanted, and the public have

it from the best possible source. Information concerning the

_ mines of Colorado is here given, while the bulk of the volume is

_ taken up with the legitimate kind of work to be expected from

such a survey. To this are to be added reports on the fossil ani-

mals and plants, and the living animals and plants of Colorado,

- thus making it a handbook for the general reader and traveller as

well as scientist.

The geological and paleontological work (fossil plants as well

as animals) and: the living animals, are more fully illustrated than

_ in former reports.. The: outline illustrations, showing the topog-

_ raphy in combination, with. the geology, are admirable. We have

Annual Report of the United' States Geological and Geographical Survey of the

f° Denies, embracing Colorado, being a report.of. progress of the exploration for the

year 1873, By F. V. Hayden, U. S. Geologist, Washington, D.C. 1874.. 8vo. pp-. 718.

' _ With maps and illustrations.

174 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

obtained clearer ideas than ever before of the scenic features of

the Rocky Mountains.

The elevated plateau and mountains of Colorado have a uniqu

“interest to the naturalist. Most interesting questions in the dis-

tribution of life, both horizontal and vertical; the relation of the

physical aspects of Colorado as compared with the plateaux of

Asia and the mountains arising from them, will find a partial solu-

tion in the data given in this report.

In the first eighty pages Dr. Hayden describes the chief objects

of geological interest from Denver to the south and middle parks.

Some interesting facts are given concerning the ancient glaciers of

Colorado. He says that there is evidence that the Arkansas valley

was formerly filled with an enormous glacier with branches of

greater or less magnitude, leaving lake basins, moraines and im-

mense granite bowlders scattered over the surfaces. The figure

on page 177 is a view of the rounded and polished rocks in

the valley of a stream which rises among a group of peaks

which the Mountain of the Holy Cross (Fig. 68) is the most

spicuous. ‘The mountains on either side rise to the height

2,000 to 3,000 feet above the valley, and the glacial markings

visible 1,200 to 1,500 feet. The morainal deposits on the r

west side reach a height of 1,200 feet above the stream, and f

a sort of irregular terrace, which, when cut through by the litt

side-streams, show that it is made up of gravel and bowlde

much worn. In some instances there are well-worn cavities int t

sides of the mountains, showing. how the running water, in

nection with a mass of rock, formed the cavity much as a‘p

hole’ is made in our streams at the present time. Many of

‘sheep backs’ are still covered with a crust-like enamel, but us

ally this has peeled off.”

Returning to the Mountain of the Holy Cross, we are told

the main mass of the peak, like the whole of the Sawatch

is composed of granite gneiss. The summit of the Holy Cross

covered with fragments of banded gneiss. The amphitheatres

all sides have been gradually excavated, as heretofore describe

and the more or less vertical sides show the intermediate st

very clearly. The characteristic feature of the Mountain ©

-Holy Cross is the vertical face, nearly 3,000 feet on the side, Y

2 We are indebted to the courtesy of Dr. Hayden firthe use of clectrotypes

the acce mpanying figures.

ountin of the Holy Cross, Colorado.

HO PSIA SH ERMA x sa

Gothic Mountain, Elk Range, Colorado.

Fig. 70.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 177

a cross of snow which may be seen at a distance of fifty to eighty

miles from other mountain-peaks. ‘This is formed by a vertical

fissure about 1,500 feet high, with a sort of horizontal step, pro-

duced by the breaking down of the side of the mountain, on

which the snow is lodged and remains more or less all the year.

Late in the summer the cross is very much diminished in size by

the melting of the snow which has accumulated in the fissures.

A beautiful green lake lies at the base of the peak, almost -up to

Fig. 71.

Rounded Rocks on Roches Montonnées Creek, Colorado.

timber line, which forms a reservoir for the waters from the melt-

ing snows of the high peaks.”

The contrast of the volcanic peaks with the granite mountains

is seen in the accompanying sketches of Gothic mountain (Fig.

69) and Italian mountains (Fig. 70).

The reports on the geology of special areas are by Messrs.

Marvine, Peale and Endlich, and are fully illustrated with maps

and sections. The report on fossil plants by Mr. Lesquereux con-

tains valuable remarks on the age of the North American Lignitic

formation, the climate of the North American Tertiary Period, ac-

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 12

178 _ BOTANY.

companied by descriptions of a large number of new fossil plants.

Prof. Cope’s report on the fossil vertebrates of Colorado contains

descriptions of several new species with eight lithographic plates

illustrating them. The zoology of Colorado is treated of in

papers, by Lt. Carpenter, Baron Osten Sacken, Dr. Hagen, and

. Messrs. Ulke, Smith, Verrill, Binney, and Packard. The report

on the geography and topography of Colorado, by Mr. James T.

Gardiner, possesses a high degree of interest, and is an important

contribution to American geography.

BOTANY.

Tar Lorus IN tae Derrorr River. — Early in the summer of

1868, I attempted the introduction of the Lotus or Chincopin

(Nelumbium luteum Willd.) into the Detroit River, by planting the

seed in nine different places. In company with Mr. Richa

Storrs Willis, I planted (May 2, 1868) some of the seed in three

places in the Bayou, at his residence at Belle Isle. Mr. Willis

subsequently informed me that one plant was the result of my

sowing; but I do not know that it ever arrived at perfection. I

have not known of my other locations resulting in even this par-

tial success. But last summer, at a field meeting of the Detroit

Scientific Association, at Grosse Isle, several of the flowers of this

beautiful species were brought me for determination by Miss

Douglass, who had discovered and gathered them the day before

(August 11, 1874) in the Cannard River, Ontario (a tributary of

the Detroit) opposite basa Isle. They may have been over-

looked there a long time. The year previous a young lad had told

of finding, in the ceded: a water lily different from all others, —

which led to the above result.

A gentleman has also succeeded in growing the plants from

seed in the Rouge River, which falls into the Detroit a few miles

below the city. They blossomed for the first time last summer.

Another friend, who sowed the seed a year or so ago, has had as

yet no appearance of its growth. I am aware that it often takes

years to germinate after planting. On August 12, 1872, a seed

which I had planted in my aquarium, 4} years before, rose to the

surface of the water in the act of germinating. It afterwards -

sank to the bottom, and settling in the mud, but not rooting, sent

out a long shoot, which (leaf and petiole), on August 17, in 24

hours, grew 44 inches in length, the weather being very warm.

ZOOLOGY. | x 179

One could almost see the growth. Another seed planted at the

same time and in the same place germinated in one year. — HENRY

GILLMAN, Detroit, Mich.

ZOOLOGY.

Tur Gromerrip Morns.— The undersigned, desirous of per-

fecting as far as possible a monograph of the Geometrid moths,

would beg the assistance of collectors, especially in the western

and southern states, during the coming season. He would like in-

formation especially regarding the early stages, viz. : specimens and

descriptions of the larva, chrysalis and their habits, as well as the

food plants of any, even the most common species. Due credit will

be given for any new facts. Out of about four hundred species in

North America, we know of the caterpillars of but about twenty

species. A number of illustrations! on the next page show the

forms characteristic of this extensive family. The caterpillars

are loopers or geometers, and are very familiar objects, feeding

usually on low bushes and herbaceous plants late in summer.

As every species known is to be figured, it is hoped that ento-.

mologists will lend their rarities, and thus aid in the publication

of what, it is hoped, will be a useful contribution to the study of

our moths. To those aiding by the loan of over twenty speci-

mens, a copy of the work will be sent. The larva can be reared

easily; full instructions may be found in the “Directions for

preserving and collecting Insects,” recently published by the

Smithsonian Institution, and which can be had on application to

the subscriber.

ny moths of this family sent to the subscriber will be named

and carefully returned if desired. The work is about ready for

the P and specimens are desired at once. The collecting

season is May, June and July, in the middle and northern states,

June being the month when they are most abundant. — A. S.

PACKARD, Jr.

A Douss Heavep Larva or A FLy.— Professor Weyenbergh of

Cordova, La Plata, describes a double headed larva of Chirono-

‘mus. The body seems double throughout, though the two heads

begin to unite on the second segment behind the head, and become

fully united on the sixth.

1 Most of the cuts are kindly loaned by Prof. F: V. Hayden, having been taken from

his annual report for 1873 on the Geology of Colorado Territory.

180 ZOOLOGY. a

& ig ¥ ey

Eufitchia ribearia.

Macaria Californiata.

a i

j ged

Avpilates 4-fasciaria.

Rat

Uc Smee ip ee ae S

Drepanodes varus, with larva

and pupa.

Anisopteryx vernata.

EXAMPLES OF GEOMETRID MOTHS.

ei et ee Be aE oh RN eee he PA SEEN E ST OEA DI Se gly, 5

ve eee

{

ZOOLOGY. 181

INFLUENCE OF ELEVATION AND LATITUDE UPON THE. DISTRIBU-

TION OF SPECIES. --It is surprising to what extent observers still

overlook the fact of the influence of elevation upon the distribu-

tion of animal and vegetable life ;—that they should still regard

parallels of latitude, instead of isothermal lines, as bounding the

habitats of species. ‘That such is the case, however, is sufficiently

apparent from such notices as that in the December NATURALIST,

respecting the summer distribution of the chestnut-sided warbler

(Dendroica Pensylvanica), which is but a sample of such remarks

as frequently occur in reference to the distribution of our birds

and mammals. . The merest tyro in the study of the geographical

distribution of animals knows that their range is not only deter-.

mined by climatic influences, but that these influences depend

largely upon the character of the surface of the country, as, for

instance, whether it is a level plain or is broken by mountain

ranges, and that increase in elevation is climatically equivalent to

an increase in latitude. If authors would use isothermal lines in

giving the distribution of a species, instead of arbitrary political

divisions, they would be able to speak with much greater precision

in such matters than is customary at present. The isotherms are

now so well established, and a knowledge of them may be so easily

acquired by means of our meteorological maps, that it seems quite

time to adopt them in speaking of the distribution of species

While southern New England may, generally speaking, fare

the southern limit of the breeding range of a bird, or of the dis-

tribution of a mammal, reptile or plant, the same species may,

and generally does, exist in the highlands of the Alleghanies as co

far south as northern Georgia; and even species which occur only -

to the northward of southern Maine, in the lowlands, not only

occur in the highlands of Berkshire county, ne but —

also southward in the Alleghanies to North Caro

A great point will be gained in precision when ea come _

to use natural faunal areas, instead of arbitrary political divisions, |

in speaking of the distribution of species. If Dr. Brewer had —

said, in speaking of the chestnut-sided warbler, “ not known to

breed south of the Alleghanian Fauna,” instead of “not known to

breed farther south than Massachusetts,” he would not only have

expressed the fact with precision, so far as our present knowledge °

extends, but would have saved himself the exposure to such criti-

-cism as that made by Mr, Stark (Am. Nat., VIII, P- 756, Dec.,

182 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

1874). I mention.the present case merely by way of illustration,

and not for the purpose of making any special strictures upon my

friend Dr. Brewer, who is by no means in this respect an ex-

ceptional transgressor. If it is urged that the people would not

understand such expressions as the “ Alleghanian Fauna,” and the

like, it may be said that the time has come when they should be

familiar with them. Most intelligent people know that isothermal

lines vary in direction with the elevation and contour of the land

over which they pass, sweeping, in our own country, far to the

southward in leaving the lowlands of the Atlantic coast ; that they

pass southward of the Appalachian Highlands, and then bend

abruptly northward again along their western base. It is time

they knew, also, that the different zones of animal life follow the

flexures of the isotherms, and that there are natural faunal belts,

sufficiently distinct to be capable of recognition, whose bound-

aries coincide very nearly with certain of these isotherms. Furth-

ermore, that throughout eastern North America, at least, these

faunal belts are already well known to specialists of the subject,

and that there already exist definite expressions for such cases as _

the one that has furnished the text for the present note. I will

add, also, that so much is already known of the laws of the geo-

graphical distribution of animal life, that one could have safely

assumed, from our present knowledge of the general range of

the chestnut-sided warbler, that from its being a rather common

summer resident in southern New England, it would also be found

to breed in the mountainous districts as far south even as northern

Georgia.—J. A. ALLEN.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

New Orper or Eocene Mammars. — At the last meeting of the

Connecticut Academy, Feb. 17th, Professor O. C. Marsh made &

communication on a new order of Eocene Mammals, for which he’

proposed the name Tillodontia. These animals are among the

most remarkable yet discovered in American strata, and seem to

combine characters of several distinct groups, viz.: Carnivores,

Ungulates and Rodents. In Tillotheriwm Marsh, the type of the |

order, the skull has the same general form as in the bears, but in

its structure resembles that of Ungulates. The molar teeth are of

the ungulate type, the canines are small, and in each jaw there is

a pair of large scalpriform incisors faced with enamel, and grow-

ANTHROPOLOGY. 183

ing from teres pulps, as ia Rodents. The adult dentition is

as follows : —Incisors 2 ; canines +; premolars 3; molars 3.

The ARAPE of the lower jaw with the skull corresponds to

that in Ungulates. The posterior nares open behind the last upper —

molars. The brain was small, and somewhat convoluted. The

skeleton most resembles that of Carnivores, especially the Urside,

but the scaphoid and lunar bones are not united, and there isa

third trochanter on the femur. The radius and ulna, and the tibia

and fibula are distinct. The feet are plantigrade, and each had five

digits, all terminated with long, compressed and pointed, ungual

phalanges, somewhat similar to those in the bears. The other

_ genera of this order are less known, but all apparently had the

same general characters. There are two — families, Tillo-

theride, in which the large incisors grew from persistent pulps,

while the molars have roots; and the POPES in which all

the teeth are rootless. Some of the animals of this group were

as large as a tapir. With Hyrax or the Toxodontia the present

order appears to have no near affinities.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

CLAY-BALLS AS SLUNG SHorT or Cooxine Stones. — Round

balls of clay as hard as that material could be made were seen

in the museum of Nassau, N. P., labelled from a cave in the

Islands. These might be used for two purposes; as they were

round and the size of a hen’s egg; first, their size and shape fitted

them for a weapon of warfare, if wrapped in buckskin or hide

drawn very tight over it and fastened, leaving a loose end, which,

being firmly fastened over a strong stick, forms a formidable slung

shot. The Apache Indians make and use the same kind of im- —

plement, which they use in battle, only their balls are of stone.

The second use to which they might be applied is in cooking. After

being heated very hot they were probably placed in the substance —

to be cooked, then taken out and this operation repeated until re-

quired no more. The ancient Indians of the Bahamas made

pottery, as pieces found testify, therefore they could cook in ves-

sels of pottery when stationary, but if travelling, it would be in-

convenient to carry them, as they easily break; but they could

make deep baskets, or trays of twigs, or leaves of the palm-trees:

so tight that they held water ; thus, by putting water with whatever

Se ee ey

dah Oe eG

ci i ae ana aes

AETS

184 MICROSCOPY.

was desired to cook, they would drop in these balls of clay red

hot, and repeat the operation until the cooking was completed,

without injury to the basket. There are several tribes of Indians

in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah and California, which make water-

tight baskets of willow twigs, and I have several times seen them

cook by heating stones and dropping them into these baskets filled

with the articles to be cooked. It might be urged against this

mode of cooking, that it wasted the food, as so much must stick

to the balls every time they were taken out. This would be true-

if they did not use their tongues to clean off all that adhered.

Then if the mass were increased by a few ashes adhering to the

balls, that would be nothing to them. Ashes were at least as

healthy for them, as pepper and other condiments used by white

men.— E. PALMER.

MICROSCOPY.

AMERICAN Microscoricat Socirtizs.—The following list of

Microscopical organizations is published to facilitate the work and

increase the intercourse of the societies themselves, as well as

of microscopists generally. Revised lists will be published from

time to time, for which purpose secretaries and others interested

are specially requested to furnish such corrections and additions

as may become necessary.

Bronte. INSTITUTE, Sacramento, Cal. Organized 1874. Secretary, Rev. J. H. ©

ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; enw and

Microscopical 1 Section. Meets ‘arse y hoye evening of month. Lim gs? , W. R. 8.

Recorder, J. G. Richard-

Sine TSG M. D.; Vice-Director, James Tyson, M. D.;

son, M M.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; AAE Sub- .

Section. Meets occasionally in Seaneution with the migratory sessions of the Associa-

sot

N MICROSCOPI cies SOCIETY OF NEw Yo Organized 1865. Meets second

and fourth faceds ay evenings of the month. President, ohn B. Rich, M. D.;

qjident, W.H H. Aikinsoù, é ED.: Se Ti feisan G- F. Cox x. Port Richmond, Staten Tiasa.

x Y.; Treasurer, Prof. T. L. Orenieu; Curator, Wm

BAILEY CLUB, New York City. A small clu of Stor members. Meetings ine

BOSTON MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY. Organized ss Meets first and third Thursdays

of month, at reside = of members. President, M. bi ala ek > ; Vice-President,

1. J. Wetherbee, D. D. S.; Secretary and pita Boig M. D., Brattle

Square, Cambridge, Mass

OSTON OF Na ATURAL HISTORY; Microscopical Section. Committee, E.

ry ein £3 C. Greanieak B. Joy Jeffries. M. D.

TH MICROSCOPICAL CLUB, Hanover, N. II. President, Prof. E. Phelps; a

Fee President, ae beso = Hall; s Secreta T. A. Cutting, st st ie

PICAL ETY of Ph adelia Organized an Monsi a

ehis. Tra idon nF F. Milne; gos and Treasurer, Wm. C. mer nson, Jr., 24

South 4th St. frst

NDIANA MICROSCOPICAL TOON Berie ee pe Ean ed ri sanaos i X

veni

Treasurer, E. Hadley, M. D., 191 Va. rh

cocci pora OF NATURAL HISTORY, Cleveland, oe. aa ae ae

Bowers.

MICROSCOPY. 185

kon ISYILLE MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY, Louisville, Ky. Organized 1874. President,

Pr J. Lawr moe Smith; Vice-Presidents. Noble Butler and C. F. Carpenter, M. D.;

Trersurer, C. J. F. Allen; Secretary, John Williamson; Cor. Secretary. E. S. Crosier,

[ARYLAND ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, Baltimore, Md. ; Section of Biology

A d Mic

ol Meets Foros and third Pa hee seta bee ae pa pd ‘month. Chairman, Christopher

Join: ‘ton. M. D.; Secretary, W. G. Harr „M. D.. 69 C

EMPHIS ariera SOCIETY, Mow mphis, Tenn n. Organized 1874. Meets first

and third Th pexséay evenings of month. President, S. P. Cutler, M. D.; Secretary and

patch er, . Dod, 257 eee St.

sec to Mo nday evening of m nth at Rutger’s Callens. Prandent. Pron "F. C. Van

Dyck; ec. eretar yi Hor: ml Lock woo » Ph.D , Freeho ld, eT bees i Te J.

Box 8 Ne. 7 E arias Prof. Eli W. Blake; Secretary, Prof. Sohn Pea, Pot office

SA ANCISCO Microscopical SOCIETY, San Francisco, Cal. Organized 1872.

Me eee te and third agate o of month. Pe mi Henry G. Hanks; Froe Shi esi-

dent, Arthur B. Stout, M. D c. Secretary, C. Mason Kinne; 422 Cal. St.;

tary, Henry C. fiyae adire Chae . G. Bwi

SOLIETY OF NATURAL SCIENCES, Buffalo, N. Ya; Microscopical Section. Organized

oe Curator, sign? Mills, 162 pag

TE MICROSCOPICAL >OCIE _ Tetons i hicago, Ill. Organized 1869. Meets

second and fou rth Fridays of m President, S. A. iiriggs; Cor. Secretary, O. S.

F. ate

Tan Microscoricat SOCIETY OF MICHIGAN, Kalamazoo, Mich. President, Rev.

Ue Fo

oor Sormewrivre ASSOCIATION, Troy. N. Y.; Microscopical Section. Organized

tare Meets monthly. President, R. H. Ward, aM. a ; Vice-President, Rev. A. B. Her-

be © doumetayeg “Me kaye Arthur W. Bower, 35 ‘Seven h St.

TION, pple tei, Ohio; Mierdiraeiont Section. spl ges 1874.

Presitent, Brot Albert rt H. Tuttle; Secre etary, C. Leo Mees; Curator, Rev. 1. F. Stidham,

171 Sou

New Suir ror TESTING ANGULAR Aperture.—Believing Mr.

Wenham’s apparatus for this purpose to be unnecessarily compli-

cated, Mr. Tolles has constructed a very simple substitute which

is easily made and used. A piece of silvered glass mirror is cut

to a convenient size (say 3x1), the silvered surface being pro-

tected by varnish so that it caw be handled. Through the silver-

ing a vertical slit is cut, the surface of the slit being cleaned by a

little dilute acid. This slit may be as wide as the field of the high-

est power objective to be tested. A part of this slit is covered with

a cover-glass under which and directly upon the slit are test dia-

toms, dry upon one portion of the covered part of the slit and

balsam-mounted upon the rest, so that the slit can be used while

tests of the definition of the objective are actually in view. If a

high-angle objective be adjusted for the thickest cover it is capable

of working through, and then tested upon the uncovered portion

of this slit, the very great aberration will give a small and imper-

fectly defined angle; if then tested upon the covered portion of

the slit, the definition is greatly improved and the angle largely

increased. If now water or glycerine is introduced to ae con-

tact between the cover and the objective, definition good,

and the diatoms are exhibited on a well Waminated tal. while

the aperture, now an immersion angle, can be measured with the —

186 MICROSCOPY.

proper appliances, such, for instance, as the semi-cylinder origin-

ally introduced for this purpose by Mr. Tolles.

A slit one-half or one-third as wide as the field gives equally

good results where water-contact of the objective is used, but when

working through air reduces the angle to an evidently fallacious

degree. Glycerine is a better substitute for glass than water is,

and therefore for a thin cover and an objective corrected for best

work through thick covers, glycerine should always be preferred

to water as the immersion-fluid.

“© 180°” ANGULAR Aperture. — The latest contribution to this

ubject is a note from Mr. Wenham, which, besides its personal-

ities, consists of a violent attack upon an article in the NATURALIST

for advocating ‘¢ 180°.” As the article referred to simply mentioned

the 180° as the claim of a certain optician, and did not say one

word in favor of the propriety of the claim, the minor inaccura-

cies of Mr. Wenham’s note may well pass uncorrected, while its

sneering tone will be rated at its true worth by those who are

familiar with the courtesies of literature and science. The treat-

ment which Mr. Wenham has received from the Naruratist for

years past is sufficiently well known.

Lest any future writer, rather than use a tiresome circumlocu-

tion, should unfortunately say 180° when he wished to say indefi-

nitely near to 180°, it would be well to have it understood that no

one need consider it either necessary or handsome to make such

unguarded expression the occasion of an abusive reply.

Cars ror Mountinc Opaque Ossects.— Prof. John Peirce of

Providence, R. I., has had a die cut for making a novel kind of

cell, which is excellent for mounting large opaque objects, such as

many mineral specimens and nearly all seeds, which require to be

permanently preserved and at the same time show best without a

cover-glass. The cell is made of thin copper, and has the shape

of a hat with a very low crown. The rim at the bottom is to be

cemented with marine glue to the glass slide, and the top of the

crown is a removable cap slipped on or off at pleasure, so that the

object can be examined or manipulated with the greatest facility.

Though not prepared for the trade, they could probably be ob-

tained, in exchange or otherwise, by any microscopist.

Rogers’ MICROMETERS AND Test Piates.— Mr. Rogers of the

Cambridge‘ Observatory has made arrangements to furnish micros-

NOTES. Ior

copists with samples of his fine ruling on glass which has been

already noticed in the Narurauist. The lines, which excel any

with which we are familiar except the Nobert lines, are now ruled

from +45 to ¢gdaz inch, on glass slips 3 x 1, and covered with thin

glass. They cost $8 or less, according to fineness.

THe ArGanD Burner.— Microscopists who use illuminating

gas with the common Argand burner will be interested in Mr.

John H. Martin’s suggestion of placing a thin piece of mica, with

a small hole punched in its centre, upon the top of the glass chim-

ney. A more perfect combustion of the carburetted hydrogen is

secured, giving a very steady flame, and the full amount of light

with the gas turned about half off.

MONOCHROMATIC SUNLIGHT. — Instead of a small disk of blue

glass which has long been used in connection with a shutter or

diaphragm or with some illuminating apparatus, Mr. J. E. Smith

recommends a blue glass pane of about 12 x 18 inches, standing

at the edge of the table, between the microscope and an open win-

dow through which the direct sunlight enters. The pane is sup-

ported by a cleat, so that it can be instantly placed in position

= orremoved. The whole instrument stands in the blue light, and

-~ is managed exactly as with ordinary diffused daylight.

AMPHIPLEURA PELLUCIDA. — The latest measurement of the

_ strie of this favorite “test” is that of Prof. E. W. Morley, of

Hudson, Ohio, communicated to the Memphis Microscopical So-

ciety, which estimates the markings at 92,600 to the linear inch.

NOTES.

Proressor Lupwie’s Jubiläum or the celebration of the twenty-

fifth year of his professorship, took place at Leipzig, October 15.

This eminent teacher, founder of the Saxon Physiologische An-

stalt has in the past quarter of a century had more than a hundred

and fifty private students, whom he has trained in special investi-

gations, and of whom many have since become distinguished pro-

fessors. There was a large assemblage of friends and pupils to

take part in the ceremonies, including Professors Ernst Heinrich

Weber, the Nestor of physiology ; ‘Helmholtz, Du Bois Reymond,

and others of less fame from Upsala, Moscow, Edinburgh, Brus-

sels, Vienna, etc. The oldest scholar proved to be Professor Fick,

188 NOTES.

of Zurich, and on him devolved the congratulatory address, at the

conclusion of which a curtain fell, uncovering a bust of Professor

Ludwig which had been made by Professor Schilling of Dresden,

Professor Cyon, of St. Petersburg, spoke in behalf of Ludwig’s

Russian students, and the curtain fell again, displaying an. ex-

quisite silver clock. Professor Miiller presented an album with

photographs of all his pupils. But the finest of possible gifts

was the superb volume of sixteen memoirs on anatomy and

physiology which had been prepared as a lasting commemoration

of the day. Then followed addresses from former colleagues in

Zürich and Vienna, and presentations of memoirs dedicated to

Ludwig and sent by various learned societies. In the afternoon

the company assembled again in the Hétel Hauffe for a dinner

given to the es at which there was more speech-making.

“I am an old man,” said Weber in private conversation, “but I

have never seen or sae of so much honor being done to any ©

professor. It has never happened (Es ist nie dagewesen).” In the

evening, at Professor Ludwig’s own house, the guests found fifty

congratulatory telegrams spread upon the table, which had been

sent from the principal towns of every part of Europe.—Nation.

Tue trustees of the Peabody Museum of Yale College,—Pro- |

fessors James D. Dana, Benjamin Silliman, George J. Brush and ©

Othniel C. Marsh, Gov. Ingersoll, Hon. R. C. Winthrop, and G.

P. Wetmore,—have decided to proceed to the immediate erection —

of one wing of the building, at a cost of $160,000. The lot on —

which it is to stand extends from Elm to Library streets, being —

one hundred and forty-five feet deep, and four hundred and four-

teen feet in length. ‘The front of the entire building will extend

three hundred and fifty feet on High street. The wing to be-

erected at this time will have a front of one hundred fifteen feet 4

on High, and one hundred feet on Elm streets, and will contain

three stories with a high basement. The basement wilt contain-

working rooms, and fossil foot-prints ; the first main story, a lecture

room and mineralogical specimens; the second story, geology:

especially fossil vertebrates; the third story, zoological speck

mens; the attic, archeological and ethnological specimens,

mineralogical collection of the Museum is to be under the charge

of Professor G. J. Brush, the geological department under Pro-

fessor O. C. Marsh, and the zoological under Professor A. E, Ver?

AED ie sy ee Te NRO eee ee eye are ieee eee EEL E PAY, | a

NOTES. : 189

rill. The original gift of Mr. Peabody was $150,000, with the

provision that a fire-proof building be erected, and $50,000 kept

as a reserve fund. In accordance with the terms of the gift, the

land is to be given by the college, and the building, when com-

pleted, is to be the property of the college. A building fund has

been reserved which will not be used until it amounts to at least

$100,000.

Sır CHARLES LYELL, the eminent geologist, died Feb. 22, at the

age of seventy-seven. He was born Nov. 14, 1797. He began

to publish geological papers in 1826. In 1830 appeared his

“Principles of Geology.”. This work was original in its method,

as the author sought to explain past geological events by laws in

operation at the present time. The doctrine is called Uniformita-

rianism, and is of a piece with Darwinism and evolution. Lyell

in a measure was to geology what Darwin is to biolog

_ Sir Charles Lyell visited this country in 1841. His journey

resulted in the publication of ‘‘Travels in North America in

1841-2.” “A Second Visit to the United States” appeared in

1849. His “Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man” was

published in 1863, in which he endorsed the theory of Mr. Darwin,

though previously opposed to the development hypothesis, which

his whole course of geological thought had unconsciously pare

to himself favored.

Tur Cornell University has just received from Australia, through

Prof. H. A. Ward, a foetal Dugong (Halicore australis), about 23

feet long, well preserved in salt. The intestines had been re-

moved, but the other viscera, including the peculiar bifid heart,

are in good condition.

It is my hope that its dissection may throw some light upon the

general homology of the pectoral muscles with mammals; and

that its brain and other organs may lend some aid to our knowl-

edge of the relations of this peculiar group of aquatic Herbiv-

ora. — Burt G. WILDER.

Tur Newark (New Jersey) Scientific Association was organized

in January last, with the following officers :—President, Dr. A. M.

Edwards; Vice President, Dr. A. N. Dougherty ; Secretary, G. J

Hagar; Treasurer, W. S. Nichols. The Association will hold

monthly meetings, give lectures and form a cabinet. It intends

to pay special attention to local natural history, and do what it

190 NOTES.

can in promoting science in Newark and vicinity. We are glad to

see these new societies come into existence, and hope that every

city and town in the country will soon have its scientific society.

We have been requested by the author to state that the Con-

gressional edition of Capt. W. A. Jones’ report on his reconnais- `

sance of N. W. Wyoming, in 1873, contains only one-half of Mr.

T. B. Comstock’s geological report. The copies ordered for the

use of the Engineer Office in Washington (to be published as

soon as possible) will contain seven more chapters, with twenty-

nine additional cuts. The forthcoming portion will be more valu-

able than the eight chapters already published.

“ Tae Natural History Association of North Western College,”

at Naperville, Illinois, has recently completed its organization.

The following are the officers :—J. L. Rocky, President, A. Gold-

spohn, Vice President, J. W. Troeger, Secretary, C. F. Rassweiler,

A. M., Treasurer, Prof. H. H. Rassweiler, Curator, Miss N. Cur-

ningham, Directress of the Botanical Department, C. H. Dreis-

bach, Director of the Mineralogical, and J. W. Troeger of the

Zoological.

Tue “ Dunkirk Microscopical Society” was organized in June

last and now consists of thirteen members. Its officers are Prof.

J. W. Armstrong, D. D., President, and Geo. E. Blackham, M.D.,

Vice President, Treasurer and Secretary. Its regular meetings

are held on the second Friday of each month.

A Funeus show has been held at Munich, in the Crystal Palace

there, from October 3rd to 11th, and is said to have been visited

by nearly 50,000 persons. The arrangements were well made :

and the plants carefully labelled. A list of the species exhibited

will be found in the ‘‘ Gardener’s Chronicle.”

Tue Memphis Microscopical Society, organized last summer,

with a membership at the outset of about thirty, is doing good _

work. At least one paper of considerable importance has been

read at its monthly meetings. Papers or specimens are earnestly

desired, in order to add to the interest of the meetings.

A society for the promotion of science and history was formed

in November last under the title of the Central Ohio Scientific :

Association, at Urbana, Ohio. Theo. N. Glover is the president a

and Thos. F. Moses the corresponding secretary. 2

EXCHANGES. BOOKS RECEIVED. 191

Dr. Gipzon Lincecum, of Long Point, Texas, died November

28, 1874, of paralysis. He was a valued contributor to this jour-

nal, and his papers showed keen powers of observation. His

most remarkable contributions were on the agricultural ants of

` Texas.

CHARLES Kinastey, reformer, novelist, poet and naturalist, died

Jan. 25, aged fifty-five. His ‘‘Glaucus, or Wonders of the Shore,”

is one of the most inspiring popular science books ever written,

and evinced the hearty love of science of its gifted author.

Tux plants collected in Florida by Dr. E. Palmer, have been

named by Prof. Gray and Mr. Watson. They are made into sets

and are for sale. Apply to Prot. Asa Gray, Botanical Garden, -

Cambridge, Mass.

A German society in Japan has issued its first volume of Pro-

ceedings, containing a notice of a cuttle fish (Ommastrephes) four-

teen feet in length, captured on the coast of Japan.— Monthly

Microscopical Journal.

Dr. R. E. Grant, the anatomist, best known for his staot o on

the sponges, died in London, sig 23.

EXCHANGES.

The Memphis Microscopical Society is propres to offer exchanges of unmounted mi-

croscopic objects. Lists furnished by A Dod, Sec’y, 257 Main St., Memphis, Tenn.

EN he > ted os oF EAE S, AT

BOOKS RECEIVED.

i The Com on Td t. George Mivart. Macmillan & Co. London, 1874. Nature Series.

& Tilustrated. on. 158. ePrice $1.00.

iv fur Anthro, ejir: Zeitschrift fur Naturgeschichte und Urgeschichte des Menschen.

‘Bra ream abele. 1874.

poue sur V Empire du Ja apon. Yokohama, 1873. pp. 85. 8vo.

Special- Catalog der chinesischen anne’ II Pking. Wien, 1873. pp. 49. 8vo.

Das Winkler’sche — en-Dendrometer. By Franz Grossbauer. Wien, 1874. pp. 144. 8yo.

La Retraite de Lagu By Alfre éa D'Escra kaane Taunay. Rio Janeiro, 1871. pp. 224. 8vo.

ee, = rulciiachen a Alpen Lender und ihre Forste. By Joseph Wessely. Wien, 1853, pp.

809,

ry Lehre vom Dunger. By Emil ite Wien, 1872. pp. 336. 8vo.

vo.

s Rechnun ngrwp Lw poner oder forstverwaltungen. By Agnaz Maur. Wien, 1859. Dritte

e er Eisenacher Forstschule: Eisenach, Wilhelmsthal, Ruhla. By Carl Grebe.

Gisenach, 1858. th a4. 8vo.

: lompendium der Jagduade. By Christof Liebich. Wien, 1855, Illustrated. pp. 8vo,

5 Notions on the Chor ma of — By Joaquim Manotl de Macedo. Trans! “os by H. Le

e ig. 1873. p

her Be -~Hochwa PMictried. B By Carl Grebe. Gisenach, 1856. pp. 236. 8vo.

Die Beaufsicht ung der Privatwaldungen von Seiten des Staates. By C. P, À, Grebe. Gise-

ERA gvo.

rie des Konig gra R Ers ec 1873. pp. m Bg O.

la: mduirthec he ones: Gesellschazi von epa de Chili

n, 1973. ith € pp.

Die Forstwirthschaftsclehre fur Forstmanner und Waldbestker, By Leopold Grabner. Wien, —

192 BOOKS RECEIVED.

Schematismus und Statistik du Staatsforste. By Karl Schindler. Wien, 1864. pp.2H. 8yvo.

a ae Sar Forstdienstes in Oesterr 5 By J. Wessely. wien I866, pp. 507. Svo.

Ratio icht der Susswasserfische. y Raphael Molin. en, 1864. pp. 346. 8vo. ‘

Forstb a By G. Konig. eee Pe 1861. pp. 431. 8vo, i

Daret or Oesterreichs. By v. Hohenbruck. Wien, 1669. pp. 303. zp

Lehrbuch d der forstlichen Zoologi e. E F. M. ae Hak Wie k Pi S9. p. 483. 8vo

Annales de la Societe Entomologique de Belgi gigue Bruxelles, 1873. pp. agi 8vo.

$ Biss. v0. of the Zoological Society of London, i874. “Par t IL pp. 153-248, “Part Ill. pp.

vo,

Diptera, or two-winged Flies. Manuscript Notes from my Journal, or Illustrations of Insects, :

Native on nd Foreign. By Townend Glover. Washington, D.C., 1874, pp. 120, 4to,

Babbitt Portfolio, New England Society of Orange, New Jersey. October, 1874, dto,

ai Polarization of Light. Nature Series. By William Spottiswoode. London, 1874. pp. 126,

Chemical and Geo eological Essays, By T. Sterry Hunt. Boston, 1875.. p. 489. 8vo. J. R.

Osgood & Co. $3.00.

i a Jor the Determination of Minerals. By Persiter Frazer, Jr. Philadelphia, 1875. pp.

; os

Researches in Acoustics, ih the aaa Journal of Science and Arts, vol. viii, 1874. By

er? >a M. Mayer, Paper No 5.

repancies between Theory a a of the Moon’s Motions. Trans. Kansas Acad, of

ana 1874. By F. W. Bat won: p. 4. 8vo.

— to be Po xiii Observations on the Genus Unio. By Isaac Lea. Philadelphia, 1874,

vol. iii. pp. 29. 4to.

Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and 1873. U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries.

ashington, 1874. Part II. pp. 98. hs

p ia Species,

Engineer Department, U. 3. Arm rof. E. L gmi ats Berea tne ist, p 18. 8vo.

Bericht uber die Thatigkeit phy 3i Gatliechen, 1812-73, a Gallen, 1874. pp. 5 22, 80,

Buill "r Mens uel d e la Societe d’Acclimatation, Paris, 1874, 3me Serie, Tome 1, Nos. 7, 8: pp-

vO.

Sitzungsberichte der philosophisch a n und historischen Classe der k, b. Academie

der Wissenschaften. Munchen, 1873. eft v, vi. pp. stg “em eat sage pp. 132-872. &vo.

Sitzungsbe richie der TENETE arg sikalischen Classe der k. b. Akademie der Wiss senschayten.

Iera. Hett i-ii. pp. 240. 8vo.

r Deutschiands ‘Weise leitung: Ta Von Loher. eer ig 1874. pp. 48. &vo.

s Frether: ig zum Gédachiniss. Max von Pettenkofer, Meuchen, 1874,

tang

Justus Freiherr von Liebig os Begru runder de er Agrikultur- - Chemie. M aaa Vogel. Munchen,

D ar pp. 6 Ov

The Species of the ee s Genus Pamphila. By Samuel H. Scudder. Memoirs Bost.

Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ii. part iii, No. 4, Boston, 1874. pp. 841-353, 4to,

Annual Report upon the Uetprophicat Ex; med ations and E Mi West of the One Hundredth

dian roe a hgton, 1674. pp. 180. Svo.

Elementary Collect ion of Minerals and Rocks. By E. Seymour. New York, 1874. pp. 37. 8v0.

Natural History, No.1." On the e Arian, U. S. Northern Boundary Commission, By Elliot

Coues. “Philadelphia, “1874 pp. 28,

e od Non es g st ‘ rth American Fociuidie. By Aug. R. Grote. Philadelphia. pp. I7. 6v0,

ceived Noy. k

men and —— Essays, a T. Sterry Hunt. Boston, 1875. p. 501. &vo, cloth.

rice

Note sur un procede pour r donner rrendre leur couleur rves a

Palcohol. Bed Felix Plateau. Prinshes, , 1874. pp. 7. oes

ps0 ie, Er Tans, n A bars e roy Scienti ific Associ Troy, 1875. Pp :

ry Report e Fossils SERE m the Expeditions od sa 5 s p in A

with ge eripitons of tie By C. A. White. Washing Bom et Bee 3

eological Exp lorailons. wad ‘Surveys West of the — Meridia ott )

votes onthe Natural History of Portions of Montana and Dato IS ‘J. A. Allen, Bostons

pp. 61, mo j

Bulletin of th Torrey Botanical Club, New York. Vol. v, Nos. 10 and 12, Vol. vi, No. l.

dex to Vols, i- eg With

photograph af Dr. Torre 2 8vo 0. :

Teuge s of “Melon ee: "tbe ys Putnam’s Sons. New York, 1874. Iilus-

12mo. s Peyi,

agnetism sm and Flocirictiy. 1 By John — G. P. Putnam's Sons. New York, 1874. Illus

trated. pp. a even - a;

ritish Wild Fi consider n ana tion to Insects. = Sir John

MeMillan & Co, 187 Winte prsa ustrated. . 186, Price $1.50,

Lists of Elevation. one principally an that aari of the U Tnited States west of the Aississ

A ae on, 1875. den’s ee Survey of the Territories, Miscellaneous pi

Pl PP 8vo.

Notice of the Chemical and Geological Essays sof T.S Hunt. By James D. Dana. From Am-

Jour. Sci. and Arts. Vol. ix, rene 1875. PP: 02-100. Svo.

Notice of New Tertiary Mammals, IV. By O. C. Marsh. From the Am. Jour.

Arts, March, 1875.) Received Februar deli 185.

w oa

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— APRIL, 1875.—No. 4.

ece TORI OD Ds

ABOUT STARCH.

BY PROF. M. W. HARRINGTON.

Peruaps it would be more correct to have our title read “About

Starches,” for each species of the higher plants seems to have its

own characteristic and recognizable sort of starch.

One of the most easily recognizable sorts of all is the starch

from the potato. It is very easily got at, too, and requires little

Fig. 72.

or no preparation for its examination. Take a fresh potato and

cutting it open, take the thinnest possible slice which one can

make with a sharp razor. Deposit the slice on a glass-slip, drop a

little water on it, cover it with a thin glass, and it is ready for

examination.

Placing the specimen now under the microscope —a magnifying

power of 250 diameters does very well — we see (Fig. 72) an im-

Phe rigs E i a ne

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY or

SCIENCE the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 13 (198)

Fae PAR a ee en Peas ete ee eee ER TE ee ee ee By GS

194 ABOUT STARCH.

mense number of bodies of two sorts. The most striking are

ovoid bodies of considerable apparent size, often showing a series

of eccentric rings, the one within the other. Sometimes the rings

are seen to be arranged about a dark point or nucleus. Mixed in

with these ovoid bodies are large numbers of much smaller disk-

shaped ones, without apparent rings. These two sorts of bodies

are the starch granules of the potato. “Tt is no unusual thing to

find two pretty distinct sizes of starch grains in the same plant.

There are intermediate forms of all sizes; but the two sizes re-

ferred to so much predominate as to strike the attention at once.

The grains are packed in very closely together in much larger cells

the cut edges of which can be distinguished, although they are

very transparent. Here and there in the section are spots without

starch grains and with much finer tissue. These are sections of

the vascular bundles where longer and fibre-like cells and vessels

which arise from the stem pass through the tuber. Toward the

edge of the potato, too, the starch grains are seen to grow less

numerous and the cells smaller with thicker walls.

To render the position of starch and cell-walls still more evident,

let us apply a little of the aqueous solution of iodine to the speci-

men. This can be readily done by placing a drop at the edge of

the thin glass cover. It will be gradually drawn under to mingle

with the water. Meantime its progress and its effect can be

watched with the eye at the microscope. Should the iodine not

pass readily under the glass cover, its progress can be hastened —

by placing a bit of blotting paper in contact with the cover on the

other side. As it absorbs the water, the iodine will pass in to —

supply its place. As the iodine comes in contact with the cell-

walls they are stained a rich gold-color. At the same time, 4

series of changes is taking place in the starch. The grains were

at first colorless and transparent; as the iodine reaches them,

they are stained, first yellow, then red, violet, blue, and finally an

opaque black blue, if the iodine is strong enough. Here we have

the cell-walls colored one tint, and the starch another, and .it is

very easy to determine their relative positions.

The use of iodine is the most usual test for starch, and the $s

microscope as in the starch-paste in use by chemists. If sulphuric

acid is added to the specimen, the cell-walls gradually tumm

blue too.

ABOUT STARCH. 195

We have now the position, the general appearance and the usual

test for starch. Let us examine it more carefully to see what its

structure is. For this purpose take a very little matter scraped

from the cut surface of the potato; aim to get only starch and

none of the cell-structure. Place this on a clean glass slide, add

a drop of water and put on a thin glass cover as before. By care-

ful management of the light, we can probably now see the concen-

tric rings quite plainly. They have the shape of the outline of

the starch-grain. If it is egg-shaped, as is usually the case, so

are they. If it is almost triangular or linear, as sometimes hap-

pens, so are .the concentric rings. These rings are sometimes

easily seen; at others, only considerable care can bring them out.

I have sometimes found them plainer in the starch from a sprout-

ing potato than from others.. In potatoes frozen and thawed, they

appear distinct. If they can be brought out in no other way, the

application of dilute chromic acid will usually show them very

plainly. A few lines, scattered among the rest, are generally

plainest.

Are these lines simple markings on the surface of the grains, or

are they edges of layers one inside the other? In order to ascer- _

tain that we must roll them over and see how they look on the

edge or on the other side. This is easily done. We have only to

incline the body of the microscope a little more, and some of the

grains will be carried down by the action of gravity, and will roll

over with more or less freedom. If this does not serve, we can

_ press on one edge of the thin cover with the point of a pencil, and

a great commotion will be caused among the grains. As this sub-

sides, we can watch some of them rolling over leisurely, now |

stopping for a moment on the face to give us an opportunity to

examine that side, then rolling up on edge and hesitating there

196 ABOUT STARCH.

while we survey that side too. Now if the lines are on the sur-

face, a grain like a (fig. 73) would look like b when rolled up on

its side. If, on the other hand, these rings mark the edges of

concentric layers, coats arranged like the coats of an onion, they

would be arranged in the edge view of the grain essentially as they

are in the side view. As the grains roll over, we see very dis-

tinctly the rings are concentric yet ; the starch grain must be com-

posed of layers one over the other.

If we take a little of the starch from the potato and dry it,

without the addition of water, at a temperature of perhaps 150°,

we shall see a dark point appearing at one end — usually the

smaller. This is the nucleus and around it are arranged the con-

centric rings already mentioned. It has been described as a little

pedicle or stem by which the starch-grain is attached to the cell-

wall. This was when it was still thought that the grains budded

out from the wall, a theory completely disproven now, by what is

known of the development and functions of the wall, as well as by

specific observations on the formation of the grains themselves.

The nuclei have been described too as holes, passing into the inte-

rior from the outside, and admitting the materials from which the

successive layers were formed from without inwards. If the de-

velopment of the starch-grain were endogenous, there might be

some ground for this hole-theory of the nucleus, but it is now well

proven that their formation is from within out, or exogenous.

There is no easily accessible specimen at this season of the year,

to illustrate this, but writers generally refer to ripening corn,

where all the stages can sometimes be seen in a single grain.

However, we can easily prove with the specimens under examina-

tion that the nucleus is neither a little stem nor a canal. If it

were either, it would appear, as we roll the grains, sometimes

elongated. As we roll the grains over, by inclination of the

stage, or pressure from one side, as before, we see no difference in

the shape.of the nucleus. It is the same round or angular black

spot, occupying the same position from whatever point it is viewed.

If we are lucky, we may get a grain up on end, and examine it in

the direction of its long diameter. The position of the nucleus

and arrangement of the rings remain the same.

What ean we conclude concerning the nature of the nucleus

from this? It was indistinctly or not at all visible in the fresh

grain; it becomes visible on drying, and looks like an air space.

ABOUT STARCH. 197

It is in the structural centre of the grain. If the drying is car-

ried far enough, cracks may be seen extending from the nucleus.

They generally radiate, looking something like a star. Sometimes

one long crack runs the greater part of the length of the grain.

The cracks may and may not reach the surface. Taking all these

facts together we can draw the fair conclusion; that the layers

differ in density; that the inner layers are softer than the outer,

because they contain successively more water; that the water is

driven off by the heat and the consequent vacuity appears, form-

ing the “ nucleus,” where there is most water, that is, in the inner-

most layers; that farther drying causes cracks to appear in the

harder layers, the longer the drying the more extensive the cracks.

Further evidence in favor of this explanation of the starch-

grain is afforded by the action of hot water and chemicals. If a

little starch is boiled, the grains swell, burst and emit much glairy

matter. At the same time a thin pellicle sinks to the bottom and

is only gradually absorbed. These phenomena can be partially

seen in a test-tube. They can be watched under the microscope

if the observer has the apparatus for heating his slide without in-

juring his objectives. For those who are without this apparatus,

perhaps the best way is to deposit a little starch with two or three

drops of water on a glass slide, and then boil the water down

without the application of too much heat. The slide should be

allowed to cool ees it is | under the microscope. Starch

can then be seen arrested in every stage of solution. One is

apparently ita ; aeo is slightly swelled; another is

much swelled at one end ; still another is just ready to burst.

A similar series of phenomena can be seen by the application of

caustic potash. Arrange a slide as before, for the application of

iodine and treat in the same manner. The approach of the re-

agent causes a great commotion among the starch grains. They

become uneasy, dance about, and finally sweep away to the other

side of their limits. To see the action of the potash well, one

must select a field easily accessible to the reagent, but where the

exit of the grains is prevented by an air-bubble or bit of tissue

just behind them. That being the case, the grains advise the ob-

server of the approach of the potash by becoming very uneasy.

As it strikes them they begin to swell, the swelling extending

down their length as the potash advances. The swelling is mostly

lateral, and what was'an ovoid body before becomes a broad disk. —

198 ABOUT STARCH.

Meantime the grains warp and twist and writhe about. Separated

before by considerable spaces, they now block up the whole field,

and their outlines gradually disappear until the whole is a homo-

geneous mass.

The action of sulphuric acid differs a little. There is the same

uneasiness of the grains on the approach of the acid. Meantime

the concentric lines grow very sharp and distinct. When struck

by the acid, the grains swell until nearly globular, then a fissure

appears, generally in the vicinity of the nucleus. The grain is rent

from side to side, and a mass of liquid matter with some grains

intermixed, shoots out with so much force that it is sometimes

carried to a distance of two or three times the diameter of the

grain.

From these observations it appears evident: that the outer

layers are more dense than the inner; that the semi-liquid interior

absorbs water or other fluids by endosmose until the exterior is so

much expanded as generally to burst; that the outer layers are

much less readily dissolved than the inner.

The use of the polarizing apparatus shows in a striking and

~ beautiful manner that the nucleus coincides with the optical centre

of the grain—which might be translated that the layers are really

regularly arranged around the nucleus. It also brings out more

clearly the rings themselves. If abundance of light is used, and

a plate of selenite is inserted between the object and the analyzer,

a cross of colors of rare beauty is seen on the grains. If the

polarizer is now rotated, the play of colors is very beautiful.

The interesting fact to us, however, is that the arms of the color-

cross meet at the nucleus. i

We have thus seen that the starch grain is an organized body,

composed of layers arranged about an eccentric focus, and that

these layers increase in density from within out, the innermost

being comparatively soft. ;

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

BY -€..C+ PARRY.

No. 8.

WHEN exposed to the withering summer heat of 105° to 110° F.

in the valley of the Virgen, it was tantalizing to see within twenty

miles to the north the rugged slopes of Pine Mountain streaked

with patches of snow. Having secured most of the lowland and

desert plants, I was anxious to supplement my collection with the

alpine flora of the adjoining high mountain districts. Accordingly,

on the 8th of June, I undertook an excursion to Pine valley, occu-

pying an extensive basin on the northwest slope of Pine Moun-

tain, thirty miles by the travelled road from St. George. Our

route, which if practicable would have followed up the valley of

the Santa Clara to its extreme sources, mounted by a series of

very steep ascents to the abrupt sandstone ridges bounding the

valley on the left. Higher up the rugged features of the bald up-

lands are greatly exaggerated by a confused intermingling of

sedimentary and igneous rocks. Recent volcanic overflows had

partly filled up the denuded sandstone ravines, with floods of

black, scoriaceous lava. Some distance farther on the source of

these igneous products is brought to view in two distinct volcanic

cones, with clearly defined craters. The course of the Santa Clara

through this confused labyrinth of aqueous and igneous deposits,

is completely hid from view in inaccessible chasms. At a consid-

erable elevation towards the foot-hills of Pine Mountain, there is

a stretch of comparatively level country, scantily watered by irreg-

ular snow-fed streams, known as Damaran Valley. Here the poly-

morphous evergreen shrub oak (Quercus undulata Torr.) makes

its appearance associated with the still more spiny-leaved Bar-

berry (Berberis Fremontii Torr.). Occasionally in strongly im-

pregnated saline soil, was noticed a broad leaved Lycium, the-

species of which, on account of the absence of flower or fruit,

could not be satisfactorily determined.

Frequent along the roadside was an old Californian acquaint-

ance, Platystemon hear Benth. (No. 8), not heretofore

known east of the Sierra Nevada, and as if to keep up the distant

(199)

200 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

association there were occasionally extensive patches of Emme-

nanthe penduliflora Benth. (No. In our noon halt under

the shelter of a wagon-bed, it was quite refreshing to be able to

gather an abundance of Gilia filifolia Nutt. (No. 195) and Centro-

stegia Thurberi Gray (No. 232), without necessary exposure to

the hot sun. In crossing over the prolonged spurs of the moun-

tain range to reach the northwestern slope of Pine mountain, we

encounter a growth of clumpy cedars, in the shelter of which were

found scattering plants of the Frasera albo-marginata Watson

(No. 203) only known before from scanty specimens collected by

r. Palmer in this same section in 1870. In similar gravelly

stretches we also find Caulanthus crassicaulis Watson, Physaria

Newberryi Gray, and Thelesperma subsimplicifolium Gray (No.

108). Quite conspicuous along the borders of rivulets and moist

springy places, occurred the showy-flowered Pentstemon Palmeri

Gray, lately extensively introduced into gardens from seed dis-

tributed by Mr. A. L. Siler.

Our upward route occasionally crossing the clear dashing stream

of the Santa Clara along its upper course, finally emerged into

the wide open basin of Pine valley, lying at the base of steep

mountain ridges heavily timbered with pine and spruce. The reg-

ular outlines of this basin at once indicate it as the bed of an an-

cient lake, since drained through the deep gash through which the

Santa Clara courses to mingle its tribute of melting snow with the

turbid waters of the Virgen. The atmospheric coolness of this

elevated district afforded a refreshing contrast with the torrid heat

of the lowlands, and was especially noticeable in the vegetation,

which exhibited a more northern aspect. In the cultivated fields the

difference was equally striking; wheat then ready for harvest at

the mouth of the Santa Clara, was just spreading out its early © :

leaves at its upper sources; cotton-woods which several weeks

before had opened their bolls in St. George, were barely in bud at — 4

Pine valley. In fact the flowering season in these elevated dis-

tricts was only just commenced, and the bald alpine ridges tow:

the summit of the range showed no signs of advancing vegetation,

being still occupied by scattered snow drifts. Under these cit —

cumstances only the lower slopes afforded scope for botanizing

during the short stay devoted to this section.

Disagreeably abundant in all the foot-hills, as a serious impedi-

ment to comfortable travelling, is the deciduous leaved shrub oak

See Pelee ae iat Peas kee eee eee ree = akan att

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 201

(Quercus undulata Torr. var. Gunnisoni Engel. ined.). Much

more attractive with its glossy foliage and long feathery seeds, is

the mountain mahogany, Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt. (No. 58),

feet in height, with trunks six to eight inches in diameter. Along

the borders of all the numerous mountain streams the common

alder (Alnus incana var. glauca) is abundant, associated as else-

-where in the Rocky Mountain districts with Betula occidentalis

ook. As if to complete on a small scale the resemblance with

analogous eastern sections, the western sugar maple (Acer grandi-

dentatum Nutt.) makes its appearance. Though generally of a

low bushy growth, it occasionally attains the size of a small tree,

with trunks a foot or more in diameter. The wood in hand speci-

mens is undistinguishable from our hard maple, and is applied to

similar uses. The Conifers of this section include, on the lower

slopes extending down into the valley, large trees of Pinus pon-

derosa and Abies Douglasii, succeeded higher up by scattering

growths of Pinus flexilis and Abies concolor, and towards the sum-

mit by dense forests of Abies Engelmanni. The highest elevation

is at no point sufficient to show a well-defined timber line, though

bare alpine patches are spread out at various exposed points near

the summit of the range. The lower dividing ridge to the north

and west is mainly occupied by a scattering growth of cedar, the

undergrowth affording the following plants, viz.: Physaria New-

berryi Gray (No. 14), Pachystima myrsinites Raf., Astragalus atra-

tus Watson (No. 47), Hymenopappus, luteus Nutt. (No. 107),

Gilia ages var. Bridgesii (No. 194), Echinosy um deflexum

Lehn. (No. 172).

In the fits portion of the main valley was found a very neat

species of Trifolium with large*reflexed heads, Trifolium Bolan-

deri Gray (No. 34). Near by on the borders of a springy bog

occurred in great abundance the interesting Lewisia Brachycalyxz

Engel. (No. 22). This rare species, only known heretofore by a

few imperfect fragments, will be characterized anew by Dr. Engel-

mann in the accompanying list. ‘Though much inferior in beauty

to the northern typical species (Lewisia rediviva Ph.), it still pre-

sents the same style of flower and foliage on a somewhat smaller

scale, and being undoubtedly hardy, may be improved by cultiva-

tion. Some of the more familiar aspects of the sub-alpine flora

were presented in the well known Rocky Mountain forms of Aqui

202 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

legia cerulea Torr., Mertensia sibirica Don., and Polemonium hu-

mile Willd. It would have been interesting later in the season to

have made a more thorough examination of the high alpine expos-

ures, which from their isolated position would doubtless afford

rare or new species, The exchange from the cool snow-drifts of

Pine mountain. to the oven heat of St. George proved much less

pleasant than the reverse process, though miore easily accom-

plished. It is worthy of remark in this connection to note the

mutual dependence of these two strongly contrasted but adjoining

districts. Thus the moisture, condensed either in the form of sum-

mer rain or winter snow on these high mountain ridges, is not all

exposed in open water courses to be directly returned to the at- `

mosphere by the intense evaporation of the lower desert tracts. A

large part of it sinks into the pervious sandstone strata, dipping

towards the south, thence working its way through deep unseen

channels, it breaks out in the form of copious springs at the base

of the high cliffs bounding the Valley of the Virgen. From this

source is derived the necessary supplies of irrigating water for the

gardens of Washington and St. George. In return, these semi-

tropical districts contribute to the dwellers in the mountains the

elaborated products of the choicest garden fruits that would be

otherwise unattainable. Without such a mutual exchange neither

of these sections would be as well adapted as now for civilized

habitation.

On the 25th of June having completed my botanical collection

in the valley of the Virgen, I left on my return route to Salt Lake,

having arranged to spend a few weeks in the more elevated dis-

tricts within the rim of the great basin.

On reaching Cedar city, sixty miles to the nortlt of St. George, —

in the latter part of June, it was hot very encouraging to note that

the continued dry season had in a great measure completed the de-

velopment of the early Spring plants, which were but scantily amet

ceeded by later summer forms. On the rocky and variegated —

marly exposures adjoining the town, the conditions seemed es-

pecially favorable for a peculiar flora, and this expectation was in —

a measure realized, though in scanty forms. Among these is & —

well marked new species of Gaillardia characterized by Prof. Gray

as Gaillardia acaulis n. sp. (No 120).

Here also occurred quite abundantly a species of Lepidium near

to Lepidium integrifolium Nutt., or possibly a new species (No. 16).

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 203

Other rarities include Polygala subspinosa Watson (No. 32),

Brickellia linifolia D. C. Eaton (No. 89) and Eriogonum williflo-

rum Gray (No. 243). On one of the exposed rocky slopes was .

gathered a dwarfed variety of Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt., or pos-

sibly a new species to which the name of Cercocarpus intricatus n.

sp. (No. 59) may be provisionally applied. Along the gravelly

margins of Cedar Creek was found Astragalus Sonore Gray (No.

53), Astragalus -longocarpus Gray (No. 52) Thelesperma sub-

nudum Gray, n. sp. (No. 109) and Lygodesmia grandiflora Gray

(No. 128). On shaded hill-sides, Cercocarpus ledifolius Nutt.,

Cowania Mexicana Don..and Fraxinus anomala Torr. (No. 210),

are abundant. Having soon exhausted this scanty flora, my at-

tention was directed to the high mountain range of the Wahsatch,

rising abruptly to the East, and overlooking the southern exten-

sion of the great interior basin. An ascent of about 3,000 feet

in a distance of three miles, brings us to the outer crest of the

range, which extends eastward in an irregular series of undula-

‘tions to the upper Sevier valley. At several points on the lee

side of steep ridges there were still the remains of rapidly wasting

snow banks. Notwithstanding the comparative elevation and

freshness of vegetation, there was a scant supply of surface water

= except immediately adjoining large snow banks. The prevalent

timber growth was made up of interrupted groves of Aspen pop-

lar, some high ridges in the distance showing a few scattered pines

and spruces. Four miles back towards the interior of the range,

the country expands into wide grassy slopes, and frequent springs

and running streams bordered by snow drifts, give unwonted fresh-

ness to the pastoral scenery. Here is located the summer sheep

range, and dairy farms of this district, of which the only apparent

drawback to their attractive and productive features, is the an-

noying prevalence of blood-thirsty flies.

The botanical features are very similar to other elevated pas-

toral districts in the interior West. Senecios and Arnicas serve

to give a yellow cast to the open grassy meadows ; shades of blue

are supplied by thrifty Delphiniums. In the aspen copses there

is a dense undergrowth made up mainly of Prunus, Rosa, Sym-

phoricarpus, and Salix. Less conspicuous but more interesting as

be eee” ihe NT ee a T S E

yoy Nes Lae

pygmea Gray, Trifolium eriocephalum Gray (No. 35), Oxytrophis

ampestris var.? and Cordylanthus Kingit Watson (No. 156).

204 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

The destructive effects of exclusive sheep grazing on the native

forage grasses, was manifest in a disagreeable prevalence of the

common yarrow (Achillea paun L.), wherever the herds had

been long stationed. On other hill slopes the entire vegetation

was usurped by a bushy EENE SAE umbelliferous plant. Ligusticum

Scopulorum Gray (No. 82), which alone seemed capable of with-

standing the destructive effects of close grazing; possibly its pro-

tection is due to some nauseous quality serving to keep the sheep

herds at a distance.

On account of the severity of the weather, and the great depth

of winter snow, this mountain section is abandoned in the winter

for the warmer, though less productive sage-brush lowlands. No

attempt has yet been made to establish permanent settlements

here for the cultivation of the rich soil, though apparently admir-

ably fitted for the growth of the hardier small grains and root

crops.

spending a few days very pleasantly in the rude homes of

these hospitable herders, I returned to Cedar city, by a very direct

trail, leading down the steepest part of the mountain slope. On

this route I was fortunate in securing good fruiting specimens of

Astragalus megacarpus Gray (No. 51), hitherto only known from

Nuttall’s original specimens. 3 4

On this same trip my attention was particularly directed to the — |

_ two species of Rocky mountain balsam, Abies grandis Lindl., and — |

Abies concolor Engel. ined.; in regard to which so much needless

confusion has arisen. I here found the two species growing not 4

far distant from one another, and exhibiting plainly their distinct-

ive characters (as trees if not as herbarium specimens). {

we may note Abies grandis with a more strict habit, narrower

leaves, smooth bark (at all sizes) and deep purple cones, more ex- .

clusively confined to high elevations. Per contra; Abies concolor; —

less pyramidal in shape, with much broader leaves, rough fur-

rowed bark (in old trees) and apple-green cylindrical cones, found

growing at much lower elevations on the mountain slope, and less

exclusively confined to moist ground. It is to be hoped that this

latter species may soon be introduced into cultivation when its or-

namental qualities can be more fully developed. Succeeding we!

return from the mountain range summer rains set in with unus

frequency and copiousness. Dark thunder clouds hovering about

the distant mountains to the east which they illuminated with the

w n a Om haa a beer

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 205

most brilliant electrical discharges, were the sure precursors of

floods sweeping down the rocky bed of Cedar creek. The partic-

ular location of each storm was plainly indicated by the different

colored mud, brought down on the swollen flood, varying from

dark brown to dirty yellow or dull red. The stratified deposits

thus spread over the bed of the great basin made up the perma-

nent geological record of summer storms in the Wahsatch in 1874.

On the 20th of July I took final leave of this section of south-

ern Utah, carrying with me many pleasant remembrances of the

kindness and hospitality received from this much misrepresented

Mormon people, who in supplanting the digger Indians by civil-

ized homes of industry and refinement, are deserving of more

credit than they have yet received.

The list of plants following will conclude the present paper.

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS

MUMIAS, SOUTHERN MINAS GERAES, BRAZIL.

BY PROF. CH. FRED. HARTT.

Tue Fazenda da Fortaleza, also known as Santa Anna, formerly

the property of the late Barao de Lage, and probably the finest

plantation in Brazil, is situated in the southern part of the prov-

ince of Minas Geraes at a distance of about seventeen miles to

the east of the city of Juiz de Fora.! It belongs to-day to the

Conselheiro Diogo Velho C. de Albuquergue, a gentlemen celebra- —

ted as a politician, and who occupies the important post of Presi-

dent of the Uniao Industria road. The region in which the Fa-

zenda is situated is composed of gneiss, similar to that of the Serra

do Mar, and of the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro, and probably of

_Archeean age.

At a distance of a league, more or less, to the south or south-

east of the Fazenda, is a line of high hills of the same gneiss,

three of which form prominent heads presenting lofty, almost per-

- pendicular precipices, smooth and rounded and striped vertically

= with black bands, like the cliffs of the neighborhood of Rio de Ja-

1A parem description of this fazenda will be found in Madam Agassiz’s “ Jour-

ney in Braz

206 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

neiro. The easternmost of these hills, a peak probably not far

from three thousand feet in height above the sea, with magnificent,

nearly vertical precipices, is called the Fortaleza or the Fortress,

and gives its name to the Fazenda. The second hill is lower and

less prominent, but towards the northward, in its upper part, it

presents a fine rounded, precipitous front, in the solid rock of

which are excavated three grottos, one of which, used anciently as

a burial place by the Indians, forms the subject of this paper. As

this hill has, so far as I have been able to learn, no distinctive ap-

Ground plan of Gruta das Mumias showing Interments.

. Body of child, in basket.

2. Mummied bodies of or un and child.

3. Skeleton wr apped in ba

s Remains of child var ied in po

x wrapped i E huee tk.

; ), 10. Four pots containing ‘kelet ons

11. p h boatas of mother and guild buried i ” the fame hammock.

12. Body of little child wrapped = bast and palm straw.

13. Loc cality where arrow was fot po

The compass bears N. magne etie

pellation, I have taken the liberty to name it after my distin-

guished friend the proprietor of the Fazenda, calling it the Morro

de Diogo Velho. The third mountain is a fine dome about two

thousand feet in height, known as the Morro da Babylonia, from

whose top a magnificent view of the country to the northward is

to be obtained. i

In the two last-named hills the beds of gneiss dip to the south-

southeastward at an angle of about 40°.

The largest of the caverns, known as the Gruta das Mumias, ÍS-

situated near the base of a precipice on the northeastern side of

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 207

the Morro de Diogo Velho, and at a height of about seven hundred

feet above the level of the Fazenda. It consists of an irregular

excavation which penetrates the hill in a direction S. 60° W.

(mag.) its axis being considerably inclined so that from the mouth

to the end of the cave, the floor offers an ascent.

The roof and sides of the cavern form together an arch whose

curves are sometimes quite regular. In various parts of the grotto

there are in the sides and roof more or less deep, rounded exca-

vations that penetrate the rock in various directions, much resem-

bling potholes, but which are, however, not due to the action of

water. On the eastern side of the cavern is one of these exca-

vations which is extending itself in a direction parallel to the axis

of the cavern, but has not yet reached the same depth. It is sep-

arated from the main hall by a narrow wall of rock which is grad-

ually breaking down and disappearing. Originally, probably, this

wall extended farther toward the mouth of the cavern.

The floor of the cave before being disturbed by the work of ex-

ploration consisted of a bed of fragments of rock, fallen from the

roof and sides, and mingled with earth derived from the decompo- —

sition of the gneiss, from the dung of jaguars, bats and other an-

-imals, and from the destruction of the enormous clay nests of a

large species of bee, which inhabits the cave, building on the roof.

When the cavern was discovered the floor was strewn with frag-

ments of these nests, sometimes three feet or more in diameter.

The cavern measures approximately seventy-five feet in length,

twenty-five in breadth at the mouth, forty-two feet in greatest

breadth and twelve feet more or less in height. The gneiss in _

which it is excavated consists of distinct, thin, alternating bands

of which some are made up principally of a very black mica

in small crystals. Others are, for the most part, composed of

little grains of silica with but little feldspar, while yet others con-

sist of a mixture of quartz and feldspar rather coarsely crystal-

lized. It is noteworthy that the rock contains no garnets. The

beds are inclined to the south-southeastward at an angle of

40°-45°4+, and are full of small, but sharp plications, which,

together with the alternation of the white and black’ bands, give

to the rock, as clearly exposed on the sides and roof of the cavern,

an exceedingly beautiful appearance. The second cavern is in |

_ this respect perhaps even more noteworthy than the first.

208 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

Examining the surface of the rock in the interior of the grot-

tos it will be seen that the gneiss is suffering a very rapid decom-

position, and is scaling off in thin flakes, which are sometimes so

soft as to break up readily between the fingers

As the gneiss is very compact and had cciginally but few frac-

tures, and as the decomposition progresses from the outside

inwards, the rock of course decomposes concentrically, giving rise

to more or less regular, concave surfaces. The surface of the

rock inside the cavern is constantly damp, but not sufficiently wet

to drip. I suppose that this dampness is for the greater p

caused by the soaking through the solid rock of water from above,

and that the decomposition is caused mainly by the action of car-

bonic acid derived from the air.

Large caverns like that just described are rarely encountered in

the gneiss of Brazil, but small ones abound and may be seen in

the precipices of the gneiss hills of the vicinity of Rio.

It is somewhat difficult to determine just how the caverns of

the Morro de Diogo Velho at first originated, but it is very likely

that they commenced by the decomposition of an isolated mass in

the gneiss, that had’a somewhat different mineralogical composi-

tion than that of the rest of the rock. Ordinarily, cavities of this

kind soon disappear from the surface of a cliff, because of the

scaling off of the thick, half decomposed sheet, which falls from

time to time, leaving a new surface exposed. It is not at all as-

tonishing that the decomposition should go on irregularly and that

the cavity should enlarge itself in some parts more rapidly than in

others, giving rise to the pot-hole-like excavations above described.

A very slight difference in the hardness of the rock, ‘or in the

amount of moisture, would be sufficient to determine the more

rapid decomposition of a certain part of the surface, giving rise

to a hollow. On the Rio Tapajos the edges of the beds of coal-

measure limestone, exposed to the action of the waters of the

Igarapé de Bomjardim, during the rainy season, are not dis- 2

solved away evenly, but are honeycombed with grottos. Witness —

also the way in which metals and other substances are honey- —

combed by acids.

upper grottos of the Morro de Diogo Velho are like the

lower caverns, but smaller. I shall not describe them particu-

larly, because archæologically they do not appear to be of interest,

a itor dy a Ub atad i nee bakin cmp TaN eae

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 209

since they have afforded no human remains... All the caverns, con-

trary to the opinion of many, are natural excavations, and. offer.

no signs of being, even in part, the work of man.

The lower and larger cavern is perfectly visible from the low-

lands to the north, but as it is quite difficult of access, it does not

appear to have been visited by civilized persons until, in 1871,

Sr. Antunes, the administrator of the plantation, succeeded with.

much difficulty in reaching it. _He, however, saw nothing of the

archeological treasures it contained, and their discovery remained

to be made by Dr. Manoel Bazilio Furtado, a gentleman, who,

much interested in the study of antiquities, has already made ex-

plorations of a sepulchral. cavern, and of a, rock. shelter on the

head waters of the Rio Itapémerim, an account of which he. has

promised to furnish me.

As soon as Dr. Bazilio knew of the existence of the caverns of

the Morro de Diogo Velho, he visited and examined. them, finding

human remains in the larger one, thus proving it to be an ancient

Indian burial-place. Several other visits were made to the cave,

not only by Dr. Bazilio, but also by the Conselheiro Diogo Velho,

and by Dr. Rozendo Muniz. About three months ago, Sr. Diogo

Velho invited Dr. Ladislau Netto, the well-known Director of the

Museu Nacional of Rio, to visit and examine the locality, and to.

facilitate the exploration he caused roads to be cut and steps and

ladders to be constructed.

Dr. Netto had the kindness to invite me to accompany him, and

was so good as to delay the excursion until I could find time to

go with him. On the 6th of December, we left. Rio in company _

with Sr. Albuquerque, one of the assistants of the Museum, and

M. Glaziou, the Director of the -Passeio Publico of Rio, and.a

man who has probably done more than any one else in the way of

actual botanical exploration in Brazil., As my task in this. paper

is simply to give an account of the scientific results of our explo-.

rations, I shall attempt no description of our most interesting.

journey to the Fazenda of Fortaleza, and I shall be obliged to

limit myself to saying that we were overwhelmed with kindnesses ,

and attentions by the hospitable Conselheiro and. his friends.

Dr. Diogo Velho placed at. the disposition of .Dr..Netto more than,

twenty slaves, under the superintendence of Sr. Antunes, and,.

accompanied by his associates, Dr.. Machado and Dr. rc Basilio, he.

senate us personally in the work of, orplorafipniyi í sie

NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

-210 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

In the following paper I will give not only the results of my

own personal observations, but also the facts relating to the pre-

vious explorations, which were furnished me by Dr. Bazilio and

Sr. Antunes, and of which my notes were written in the cavern

with the greatest care, being afterwards revised by these gentle-

men. Dr. Netto has very kindly permitted me to examine the

objects sent to the Museu Nacional, so that in this paper I shall

be able to give a very complete account of the interments found

in it. A detailed description of the human remains themselves I

am obliged to defer to another occasion.

As the preliminary excavations in different parts of the cavern

offered us no results, we found it necessary to proceed more sys-

tematically. We first of all threw out all the large stone and

rock masses that encumbered the cavern, amounting to many tons.

A line of negroes was then formed across the mouth of the

cavern, and the loose earth was examined to a considerable depth

from one end of the cave to the other, the work occupying the

greater part of two days.

On the first day nothing was found, but very early on the next

morning two interments were discovered, one of a child buried in

an — pot, the other of a young person wrapped up in a ham-

k, and shortly afterwards there was found the body of a little

abil enveloped in bast and palm straw. This was the last object

discovered.

The following plan (Fig. 74) represents the floor of the cavern

and the localities of the various interments, which are numbered

as in the following description.

No. 1. Body of a child buried in a well-woven little basket,

above which were laid several pieces of bark. Found by Sr.

Antunes.

No. 2. Mummied body of a woman with a little child in her

arms. These remains were sent to the Museu Nacional, but have

not yet been received, so that I cannot describe them.

No. 3. Skeleton wrapped up in bast, but concerning which I

could obtain no certain information.

No. 4. Skeleton of a man (?) found wrapped up in bast and ea

terward in palm straw. It was found sometime before our visit,

and had been unwrapped, the bones having, however, been left in

the cave. The skull is remarkable for a perforation near the

crown, apparently the result of a wound. The remains were to ~

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. pak

be sent to the Museum, but not having arrived at time of writing,

I have not been able to examine them closely.

No. 5. Bones of a child buried in an earthen vessel, and dis-.

covered during our exploration. i

The upper part of the ygaçába was wanting, together with a

large part of the bones, including the skull, and the remaining

parts of the vessel were broken, the fragments however remaining

in situ. The pot was ovoidal in shape, the lower part resembling

the tapering end of an egg. It was not at all flattened, and con-

sequently the vessel could be kept upright only by being set in

the ground or supported in some'way.. The material of which it-

was constructed was clay mixed with somewhat coarse sand. The

vessel appears to have been made over a mould ; indeed it would

have been difficult to build it up in any other way. The inside is

slightly rough, showing no signs of having been smoothed by a

finishing tool, whose marks. are however clearly observable on

the outside surface. No signs of paint, of varnish, or of deco-

ration of any kind, were observed on the parts of the vessel pre-

served.

The burning was- incomplete, and for about one-third of the

thickness from each surface, the clay of the walls is well reddened,

the interior remaining of a grayish color. In the pot were found

the following bones belonging to the skeleton of a young person:

—The femur, tibia and fibula of one leg, united by the dried lig-

aments and with parts of the muscles preserved, the knee being

flexed, showing that probably the body was buried with the knees

doubled up against the breast. There were also the united bones

of a fore arm, a scapula, a hand, six dorsal vertebra, four ribs of

the left side united, and in addition six ribs, separated. The rest

of the bones were wanting, and I doubt whether they existed in

the vessel when it was found by the negroes, for I searched care-

fully in the earth thrown from the spot, but could find nothing.

It seems therefore probable that at some previous time the grave

had been disturbed, perhaps by some wild beast. The bones were

found mingled with a light earth which appeared to be mainly com-

posed of organic matter, and to be full of the skins of the larve

of the insects that attacked the body. a

In the same earth were also found a number of seeds, which M.

Glaziou identified as belonging to a species of Anona or custard

apple. There were also found numerous fragments of the pinnules —

Rie ee oR She iat ee eet

212 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

of a species of palm which the same botanist recognized as Geono-

ma pinnatifida. It is probable that the body was wrapped in this

palm straw before being deposited in the ygagaba. The fragments

of the vessel and the bones were destined for the Museu Nacional. -

. 6. Remains of a child from seven to ten years of age,

Nest: wrapped in a hammock, and discovered on the second day

of our exploration. I assisted in their disinterment, and exam-

ined attentively their disposition in the grave.

y, which is now in part reduced to the state of a mummy,

was doubled up with the knees against the breast, and then wound

about with the hammock, having exposed the upper part of the

head and the feet which last protruded through the hammock.

The bundle when found was oval and flattened, and about two feet

long. The head was turned toward the left and the body, perhaps

owing to the pressure of the superincumbent earth, rested on the

. left side. The feet were directed towards the mouth of the cavern.

The grave was not more than eighteen inches or two feet deep.

The soft parts of the body had for the most part disappeared,

but there still remained a part of the scalp with a few hairs and

the skin of the trunk which was dry like parchment.

I have not yet been able to examine carefully the hammock, but

it appears to be constructed like that which was found wrapped

about the woman in the interment No. 11. It is however made of

the fibres of a palm, Astrocaryum tucum, and not of cotton.

Underneath the hammock adhered what seemed to be eat

ments of large leaves, that had been laid in the bottom of the

grave before the body was deposited. By the side of the ham-

mock there were also found fragments of palm straw, which made

me suspect that outside of the hammock was a wrapping of this

material. Above the body in the grave, were found a few little

sticks which were disarranged in digging. The body was cov-

ered simply with earth and stones. The body, still wrapped in the

hammock, will be preserved in the Museu Nacional.

Nos. 7, 8, 9,10. Four. ygagabas buried in a line transverse to

the grotto. They were extracted before our exploration, and are

said to have been sent to the private museum of His Majesty the

Emperor, but they have not yet arrived there. The fourth, No.

10, was broken in extraction, and I saw fragments in the hands of

Sr: Antunes at the Fazenda. Dr. Bazilio has furnished me wiih) 4

some important notes on each.of the four interments.

Bra aR Ee ag e a AEE ARE IIE DEE TARE Aa AEO AES ES eee E

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 213

The ygaçábas were all ovoidal in form, without base, and were

buried upright. The mouth of each was closed by a round, thick

piece of the bark of the Jequitibá, set into the orifice. Outside,

the urns were covered with a sort of basket-work of the bast of

the Embanba tinga, a species of Cecropia, and to this was attached

a cord extending across the mouth to serve as a handle, the shape

of the ygacabas rendering it necessary to provide means of this

kind for their conduction. It is worthy of note that all the urns

are small and contain only the bones of children.

Over the mouth of No. 8 was found a small basket a little more

than eight inches in diameter and made of cipó tinga a kind of

lliana, which had been split, carefully prepared and woven in an

open manner, the basket being furnished with a cord across the

mouth, to serve as a handle. It contained a number of little

bundles of palm straw, similar to those that form the outside cov-

ering of the body in No. 12. The basket was crushed flat by the

weight of the earth and stones. By the side of the same ygacaba

was found interred a bundle of five sticks, bound near each end

by a bit of cipó. These sticks were of about the thickness of a

finger and four were about three feet in length, the fifth was some-

what shorter. They were all sharp at one extremity and blunt

and polished at the other. My friend Dr. Muniz Barretto, who

was present when the pot was found, tells me that it contained

the skeleton of a child wrapped up in bast and palm straw, form- ,

ing a bundle which was afterward tied up with a cord of the palm

fibre.

By the side of No. 9, and in part bent over the mouth of the

pot, was found a ‘‘bornal de caça” or a sort of small haversack,

woven in an open manner of palm fibre thread, and furnished

with a long cord by which it might be carried like a game bag.

According to the description of Dr. Bazilio this “ bornal” was of

exactly the same shape as the sacks used at present, not only by

the Botocudos but also by many other Indian tribes of Brazil.

The sack was full of little bundles of palm straw, similar to those

found in the basket accompanying No. 8.

The ygacgaba, No. 10, broken in extraction, contained the bones

of a child of about twelve years of age and which had already

finished its first dentition: The vessel of which Sr. Antunes

showed me fragments, was of the form of an egg truncated at the

larger end. The mouth was large and entirely without lip. The

214 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

interior of the vessel showed the casts of striæ on the mould.

The exterior surface was moderately well worked down, showing,

however, long, hard marks of the finishing tool. There were no

signs either of ornament or of glazing.

The four ygaçábas were separated one from the other by little

sticks, which circumstance makes me suspect that they were all

deposited together.

n the surface of the ground near the pots, but in a position

which I am unable to indicate on the plan, was found the body of

a child probably wrapped up in bast.

. 11. Mummied bodies of a mother and new-born child,

wrapped in the same hammock. These most interesting speci-

mens are preserved in the Museu Nacional where I have had an

opportunity of examining them. The body of the woman is a nat-

ural mummy, simply preserved in a half decomposed and dry

tate. The skin remains on nearly the whole body, and, so per-

fect is the state of preservation, that the lower lip remains, and

the feet are simply shrivelled up. The body reclines somewhat on

the left side. The head is turned to the left. The left hand was

placed on the breast and the right was held just above the abdo-

men. The legs, partially drawn up, are bent over to the left.

The body bears no ornament.

= By the left side of the corpse was found a little bundle con-

taining the dried-up, natural mummy of a new-born babe, much

doubled up and wrinkled and but little discolored. The skin is

well preserved. The left arm bears a sort of band of woven

string, and on one leg is a string of beads made of rather wide

sections of a hollow bone strung on a coarse thread, a touch- a

ing evidence of tenderness. The body was wrapped up in bast,

and tied outside with a coarse string which passed through the

fingers of the right hand of the woman, who in death was thus .

closely united to her offspring. It is very probable that the wo-

man died in childbirth, but this is a question in medical juris —

_ prudence which I am not competent to decide. Both mother and

child were buried in the same hammock, which is in a fair state Z

of preservation and accompanies the body in the museum, but, a38

it has been removed from the mummies, it is not possible to de-

termine the manner in which it was wound about them. The ham- —

mock consists of rather coarse cotton thread, and is constructed

-~ like that in which the body of the young person, No. 6, is e

Bie

PR FEA Oe! 8h O ag Tho whee E bMS thee Senne Sew MSS Goat ae rN: Gene ee

Re ree ee Mie an ee Re PA Ree rep Renee piece a NS ae Ee ah Os ee

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 215

wrapped. It consists of threads parallel to one another and con-

siderably spaced, united together at intervals of a foot or more by

transverse threads. At the two extremities of the hammock, the

threads appear to be simply gathered together for the attachment

of a stout cord for suspension.

In the manner of weaving, or rather in the arrangement of the

threads, the hammocks of the cavern of the Morro de Diogo Velho

bear a close resemblance to’ that represented in one of Lery’s

woodcuts,” but the form is different. Lery says that the epee

Indians made their inis of cotton thread, sometimes like a ne

sometimes woven into a close cloth. Both Lery and Stade call an

ammock int or inni, a word which I have sought in vain in Tupi

dictionaries, and which does not occur to-day in Lingoa geral.

On the Amazonas the name for hammock is kygana (kyeaba,

old Tupi), a word which seems to have been derived from ker

dormir (to sleep) and the termination ¢aba or cana, which indicates

the instrument with which anything is done. In the language of

the Mundurucus I have found ŭlu and in that of the Maués yly

meaning hammock, both of which forms may well have been de-

rived from the same source as ini, as the three languages above

enumerated belong to the same family.

Underneath the bundle formed by the two bodies were laid side

by side a number of broad strips of coarse bark.

Over the bodies was deposited upside down a basket, well made

and full of little bundles of palm straw, each with a knot. Over

this were laid side by side strips of coarse bark, like those under-

neath the body, the whole being covered with earth.

In the same grave was found a‘‘ bornal” similar to that already

aera but in a bad state of preservation

No. 12. Bundle containing the remains of a little child, found

buried m a slight depth and extracted in my presence. The body

was well wrapped in the first place in strips of bast forming a

little bundle scarcely eighteen inches long, a foot and a half broad

and about four inches high. This package was then loosely cov-

ered on the outside with palm straw, which was tied up in a number

of little bundles like those found in the baskets, and the *‘bornal”

: already described. The body was deposited immediately upon a

flat stone, and over it were placed, side by side, four flat pieces of

bark, about two feet long and two inches wide, forming a sort of

1 Lery, Historia Navigationis in Brasiliam, edition 1586, p. 252. —

216 THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS.

‘protecting covering. ‘The bast, palm straw, and bark are all well

preserved but the package has not been opened.

‘fireplaces, etc., but found no sign that it had ever been either a

dwelling or that it was a place much resorted to. Sr. Antunes

found on the-floor of the cavern a fire brand and a long split stick

which he thought might have been used to collect water, but both

these objects may be very recent. In the spot marked 13 a sharp-

ened stick was found buried. I have not seen it, but Dr. Bazilio

thought it to be an arrow.

The observations made in the Gruta das Mumias show that the

cavern is a natural excavation which has served as a cemetery to

savage Indians. So far as the mode of burial- and the preserva-

tion of the bodies are concerned it offers: nothing very novel, but

as an archeological locality carefully explored it is of much im-

portance.

The Gruta das Mumias is not the only cave in Brazil in which

“Indian interments have been found. Dr. Bazilio found a large

-number of skeletons in a cave near the head waters of the Itapé-

-merim. A similar excavation is reported to exist near Macahé,

and yet another containing. mummied bodies and urns in the Serra

dos Dois Irmaos, near the head waters of the Rio Parahyba do

Norte. My friend, Sr. D. S. Ferreira Penna, discovered another in

Brazilian Guyana, in which was found the portrait urn I described

and figured some time ago in the AMERICAN NATURALIST. Every

one will remember the cave-of the Atures on the Orinoco nan

by Humboldt.

The burial of the dead in the hammock has been described over

and over again by writers on the Brazilian Indians, and the same

custom is still in force to-day among many. tribes, but I do not re-

member having met with a description of the mode of wrapping

the body in strips of bast and in palm straw. «

Urn burial was practised by many ancient Brazilian tribes, and

is still in use to-day in many parts of the country.

Two Tupi names are applied to the burial urn in Brazil, ygagaba

and camuti or camutim. The former simply means a vessel 10

hold water, the latter.a pot of any kind. It is a great mistake to

suppose that either name belongs exclusively to the burial vase.

Ordinarily the vessel is not made on purpose for the body, but

one of the larger earthen pots for water, or for brewing cauim is

THE INDIAN CEMETERY OF THE GRUTA DAS MUMIAS. 217

used. It is safe to say that when the corpse is to be buried im-

mediately the vase is not made on purpose. It takes time to

make and ornament an earthen vessel, and true burial vases in

Brazil will usually be found to contain only the cleaned bones of

the dead. Those of Marajé are often made with the greatest care

and most elaborately ornamented. I have already called atten-

tion to the facts that they are often true gesichtsurnem, wonderfully

resembling those of the old world, about which so much has of

late years been written by German archeologists.

As to the antiquity of the interments in the Gruta das Mumias,

nothing whatever can be at present determined. At. first sight,

the state of preservation in:some cases of hair of the skin of car-

tilages and dried muscles, of hammocks and bags, ete., would ap-

pear to indicate that the bodies were buried at an extremely recent

date, but it is well known that, for very many years, no savage

Indians have existed in the vicinity.

In the decomposition of a human body in a.dry place, the soft

parts disappear quickly, but the skin, the cartilages and other

parts, may dry up and be preserved. indefinitely. This loose ma-

terial in which the bodies were buried was extremely dry, so dry

that, though our explorations were made in the wet season and

even during heavy rains, the negroes in. working raised a thick

cloud of dust, that at one time drove us from the cave. This dry

material, probably containing much saltpetre, is. particularly

adapted for the preservation of organic substances. The human

remains of the cave may be many hundreds of years old.

In the present state of our knowledge of Brazilian archeology

it is impossible to determine the tribe to which the.

longed. We are ignorant of the epoch of the na and of

the history of the different tribes, that in turn have occupied the

locality. Indeed, the little information -that we possess of the

aborigines. last: known to have existed in this part of southern

Minas is meagre in the extreme.

THE MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

Ill. THE ACTINOZOA.

The sea anemones and coral polypes are more highly developed

than the Hydroids, since the mouth opens into a double digestive

cavity, which is supported for its whole length by the six primary

curtains or septa. The second and lower half of the cavity en-

larges greatly, and communicates with the general cavity of the

body, the upper portion being entire, tubular, and forming a sort

of throat opening into the proper digestive cavity. In the Hy-

droids, the digestive cavity, it may be remembered, is simply hol-

lowed out of the body cavity and is a more primitive affair than

that of the Actiniæ.

While in the Hydroids also the ovaries hang outside the body

cavity, in the true polypes they are attached to the septa or walls

of the radiating chambers, so that the eggs, when ripe, drop down

into the body cavity, whence they pass out through the mouth, or,

as observed by Lacaze-Duthiers, in the coral polypes through the

tentacles. The chambers between the septa correspond to the

water canals, or chymiferous tubes of the Hydroids. q

In the coral polypes the coral is secreted in the chambers, so that

there are soft partitions alternating with the limestone ones. ` The

tentacles which surround the mouth vary ard in number.

are hollow, each communicating with a cham .

The polypes are divided into (1), the cal ‘olde (Zoantharia)

which either secrete no limestone, as in the sea anemones, or form |

a coral stock, as in the coral polypes, and have an indefinite num-

ber of tentacles, and (2), the Haloyonoidiyi in which the tentacles

are eight in number. Such are the sea fans (Gorgonia) and Hal-

cyonium, which does not secrete a coral stock. a

Development. The life history of a polype is soon told. Natu-

ralists are indebted to the magnificent memoirs of Lacaze-Duthiers

for a full biography of not only several genera of sea anemones —

(Actinia mesembryanthemum, Bunodes and Sagartia) but also of

the Gorgonia, Halcyonium, red coral, and the Astreoides, 4 Medi- 7 a

terranean form allied to Astrea. a

(218)

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. ee a

The young sea anemone develops without any metamorphosis,

directly into the adult condition. Lacaze-Duthiers could not

determine by actual sight how fecundation of the egg takes place,

or whether the egg passes through a morula stage or not, though

he infers, with every reason, that this stage, i. e., the segmentation

of the egg contents, takes place in the ovary. The ovaries and

spermaries are in the Actiniz situated in the same individual ; the

eggs are oval, while the spermatic cells are of the usual tailed

form. The fecundated egg in the state in which it was first seen

by Lacaze-Duthiers was oval, and surrounded Fig. 75.

by a dense coat of transparent conical spinules.

He was soon able to detect the presence of the

two primitive germinal layers, the ectoderm

and endoderm. Fig. 75 (from Metschnikoff)

illustrates the relation of the embryonal layers

in the larva of another polype which he calls /

“ kaliphobenartige Polypen larve ;” a, primitive

opening into the gastro-vascular cavity; b, c,

ectoderm ; d, entoderm ; e, body cavity), show- ciliated larva of a

ing that the walls of the digestive cavity are

formed by the entoderm ; and Metschnikoff’s figure shows that the

embryo polype has a greater resemblance to the embryo starfish

of the same age than the acalephs.

Two lobes next appear within the body, these subdivide into

four, eight and finally twelve primitive lobes. This stage is rep-

resented by the corresponding stage of the coral (Fig. 77,B). Not

until after the twelve primitive lobes are fully formed do the ten-

tacles begin to make their appearance. When the first twelve

tentacles have grown out, twenty-four more arise, and so on, until

` with its increasing size the actinia is provided with the full number

peculiar to each species. The preceding remarks apply to Actinia

mesembryanthemum, but Lacaze-Duthiers observed the same

changes in two species of Sagartia and in Bunodes gemmacea.

Turning now to the stony corals we will give more fully the

sequence of events in the life of a coral builder of the Mediter-

ranean, the Astreoides calycularis, so faithfully narrated by La-

* caze-Duthiers. Fig. 76 taken from Tenney’s “Manual of Zool-

ogy ” illustrates this coral in various stages of expansion. :

He studicd this coral on the coast of Algiers, and found that —

reproduction took place between the end of May and July, the

220 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES,

young developing most actively at the end of June. Unlike Ac-

tinia, which is always hermaphrodite, this coral is rarely so, but

the polypes of different branches belong to different sexes.

As in the other polypes, including Actinia, the eggs and sper-

matic particles rupture the walls of their respective glands situ-

ated in the fleshy partitions. As in Actinia, Lacaze-Duthiers thinks

the fecundation of the egg occurs before it leaves the ovary, when

also the segmentation of the yolk must take place. Unlike the

embryo Actinia, the ciliated young of the coral, after remaining

in the digestive cavity for three or four weeks, make their way out

into the world through the tentacles. ‘‘ Many times,” says Lacaze-

Duthiers “have I seen the end of the tentacle break and let out

Coral polype (Astreoides calycularis) expanded.

the embryo.” The appearance of the embryo, when first ob- —

served, was like that in Fig. 77, A, an oval, ciliated body witha —

small mouth and a digestive cavity. This may be called the gas- _

trula, adopting Heeckel’s phraseology. a

The gastrula changes into an actinoid polype in from thirty to —

forty days in confinement, after exclusion from the parent, but in —

nature in a less time, and it probably does not usually leave i

mother until ready to fix itself to the bottom.

Before the embryo becomes fixed: and the tentacles arise, the

lime. destined to form the partitions begins to be deposited in ` :

the endoderm. Fig. 77, C, shows the twelve rudimentary ope |

These after the young actinia, or ‘‘actinula” (Allman), has be

come stationary, finally enlarge and become joined to the external

Oe St SP Le TO a ee a Ed] CINE ane Se en os Ge eRe a Oe eee ee es ee ee a

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 221

walls of the coral now in course of formation (Fig. 77 C, c)

forming a groundwork or pedestal on which the actinula rests.

D represents the young polype Fig. 77.

resting on the limestone pedestal.

In the experience of Lacaze-Du-

thiers it happened that the embryo

polype which had been swimming

Fig. 78. about in his jars for

about a month, sud-

denly, within the

space of three or four

hours after a hot si-

rocco had been blow-

ing for three days,

assumed the form of

small disks (Fig. TI, Development of a coral polype, Astræ-

B), divided as in the oides calycularis. After L. Duthiers.

Actinia into twelve small folds forming the bases of

the partitions within.

tentacles next arise, being the elongation of

the chambers between the partitions, six larger and

elevated, six smaller and depressed (Fig. 77, D).

The definitive form of the coral polype is now as-

sumed, and in the Astreoides it becomes a compound

polypary.

The singular floating young Edwardsia, originally

described under the name Arachnactis, has been

found by Mr. A. Agassiz to be the early swimming

stage of Edwardsia, a worm-like Actinian, which,

like Haleampa albida a > lives in the sand or mud, unat-

tached to any fixed objec

Kowalevsky has cae found that the Cerianthus, a gigantic

Actinia which lives in a tube in the mud at eae depths, has a

free swimming early stage like Edwardsia.

The following is a summary of the ieee éaitenfons by’ the

polypes so far as known :—

4 1. Egg fertilized se true spermatozoa.

‘ 2? Morula. -

Mekana al-

bida.

ihis A Sl p3 2 1 D. e AP Rian eae ae

e + d ? Yy ğ r

and Fisheries,

229 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

3. Planula (Gastrula).

4. Actinula, with twelve primitive tentacles.

5. Adult actinia or polype.

LITERATURE.

Lacaze-Duthier (L Duthiers’ Archives de Zo-

ologie pak Sma etc. “1872, 1873).

IV. THE CTENOPHORZ.

These beautiful animals derive their name Ctenophore, or

‘‘comb-bearers,” from the vertical rows of comb-like paddles, situ-

ated on horizontal bands of muscles, which serve as locomotive

organs, the body not contracting and dilating as in the true jelly

fishes. In their organization they are much more complicated

than any animals of which we have yet spoken, as it has been

shown by the two Agassizs that they have a true digestive cavity,

passing through the body cavity, with a posterior outlet, and orig-

inating in the same manner as in the Echinoderms. From this

alimentary canal are sent off chymiferous tubes which “ correspond

in every respect with the water tubes of the Echinoderms” (

Agassiz). The rows of paddles are intimately connected with the

chymiferous tubes, so that the movements of the body are in di-

rect relation with the act of breathing. Moreover these animals, —

while in the disposition of the organs following the radiate plan-

of structure, are also more truly bilateral than any of the lower

classes of radiates. The sexes are united in the same individual ;

the ovaries in Idyia are on one side of the main chymiferous tube, —

and the spermaries on the other, both being brilliantly colored.

Referring thé reader for farther details to Mr. A. Agassiz’s “Sea —

Side Studies,” where these animals are described and illustrated —

with sufficient detail for the general reader, we will now turn to

their mode of growth, under the guidance of the same author, —

whose recent richly illustrated memoir, with others by Kowalevsky _

and Fol leaves but few gaps to be filled by future observers

Developmént. Agassiz states that the Ctenophore are readi y

kept in confinement, and from twelve to twenty-four hours after

they are captured lay their eggs, either singly or in strings, 0",

as in Idyia, in a thick slimy mass. The Ctenophore of our —

eastern coast spawn from late in July through August and Sep-

tember. ‘The young brood developed during the fall, comes to

5 7

ERT Ree as ee ae RETE eS na) pete oi ye sd

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 223

the surface again the following spring as nearly full-grown Cteno-

phoræ, to lay their eggs late in the summer.”. Fortunately the

eggs are so transparent that in some forms (Pleurobrachia and

Bolina) the embryology can be studied, not only in the egg but

also through nearly all the earlier stages of the larva.

Selecting Pleurobrachia as an example of the mode of growth,

we find that as in Idyia the egg consists of two layers, i.e. an

inner yolk mass and an outer, thin, finely granular layer surrounded

by a transparent envelope. The inner mass acts merely as a nu-

tritive mass, while the outer is the true embryonic layer, which

builds up the body at the expense of the central nutritive mass.

No nucleus nor nucleolus has been observed by Agassiz in the

eggs of any Ctenophore, after they are once laid, until late in the

stage of segmentation. The egg divides into four and again eight

spheres of segmentation, each of which has, like the egg, origi-

nally an outer and inner mass. In a second stage of segmentation

small cells arise which surround the original eight large cells.

From these small cells the external organs are destined to arise,

while the larger cells form a yolk mass out of which the internal

organs arise.

The embryonal layer is next formed, then the outer wall by “the

gradual encroachment of the actinal cells over the whole of the

yolk mass.” Finally, the mouth (actinos-

tome) of the germ is formed, and after-

wards the digestive cavity, which results

from an invagination of the outer embry-

onic layer (ectoderm). Fig. 79 (after

Metschnikoff) represents the larva of a

Cydippe ; a, primitive opening ; b, gastro-

vascular cavity; c, sm: d, endo-

derm ; e, interspace corresponding to the

body cavity of the larva of the polype. The development of the

chymiferous tubes is succeeded by that of the locomotive flappers,

eight or nine pairs in each row appearing before the young leave

the egg, and of the fringed tentacle, which attains a great length

after the young is hatched.

Finally the definitive form of the Pleurobrachia is attained

before it leaves. the egg, as seen in Fig. 80 (ż, tentacles; e, eye-

speck; c, c, rows of locomotive —— d, digestive cavity;

Gastrula of Cydippe.

: greatly magnified after A. Agassiz)

224. MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

Fig. 81 shows the young Pleurobrachia swimming about in

the egg just before hatching, and in Fig. 82 (after A. Agassiz),

Fig. 80. we see the young after hatching

(magnified) with nearly the same

form as the adult; f indicates the

funnel leading to the anal opening, l,

the lateral tubes, and c c c’ c' the rows

of locomotive flappers. The remain-

ing changes are slight, and there is

not even a slight metamorphosis, the

body simply becoming spherical and

the tentacles increasing enormously

in length. In Bolina and its allies,

as A. Agassiz states, ‘the morpho-

logical changes are very great, and it would indeed puzzle the

most accurate systematist to recognize in the early stages of some

of the Mnemidz the young of well known genera. We cannot

say that there is a metamorphosis in the ordinary sense of the

word, as supposed by Gegenbaur, but there certainly are remark-

Young Pleurobrachia still in the

Egg.

Fig. 82.

swimming in egg

ready to hatch.

Young Pleurobrachia

The same after hatching.

able changes, such as the almost total suppression of the tentact-

lar apparatus, the development of auricles, of lobes, with their

complicated winding chymiferous tubes, which alter radically the

appearance of the Ctenophore at successive periods of growth,

and present between the younger and the older stages differences

usually considered as of great systematic value.”

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 225

The summary of stages is very brief, the Ctenophore passing

through three phases :—

1. Egg stage.

2. Morula state.

3. Adult form, assumed before hatching.

LITERATURE.

E. C.and A. Agassiz. Seaside Studies. 1863.

A. Agassiz. Catalogue of North American Acalephe.

Kowalevsky. Entwickelungsgeschichte der pores to rA (Mémoires Acad., St.

Petersbourg, x, No 4.)

Fol. Ein Beitrag zur Anatomie und Entwickelung einiger Rippenquallen. (Siebold

and Kölliker’s Zeitschrift, 1869.)

. Agassiz. Embryology of the Ctenophore. (Memoirs Amer. Acad. Arts and

APEP ces. x, No. 3, 1874.)

V. THE ECHINODERMS.

The Echinoderms (starfishes, sea urchins and sea cucumbers)

are far more complicated than the Coelenterates, having a true alı-

mentary canal passing through the general cavity of the body.

In them for the first time among the Radiates appears a well devel-

oped nervous system. Not only do the young exhibit a bilateral

symmetry, but in the, higher forms, as the spantangoid sea urchins,

Fig. 83.

Pendacta frondosa (From Tenney’s Zoology.)

this is quite well marked; and there is a dorsal and vential side.

Still, in the generality of the forms, the radiated plan of structure

is remarkably adhered to, the body as:distinctly made up of spha-

romeres, or wedge-shaped sections of the body, as the worms are

of segments (arthromeres). In this and other respects, as well —

as the form of the larve, there is a remarkable parallelism be-

tween the worms and echinoderms.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 15

226 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

We will briefly review some of the anatomical features of the

Echinoderms, in order to understand their complicated mode of

growth.

The stomach and intestinal canal either pass straight or ina

spiral course through the body, as in the sea urchins (Fig 103) and

Holothurians (Fig. 83), and open out at the opposite end ; or, as

in the Antedon (Comatula), the anal opening is situated near the

mouth, while in the Ophiurans (Fig. 85) and Luidia and Astro-

pecten, low starfishes, the undigested food is rejected from the

mouth. In the starfishes and Holothurians, the alimentary canal

opens into five voluminous cecal appendages. These are wanting

in the Ophiurans, and there are but two in Astropecten. They

are in connection with the complicated

water tubes, which consist of a canal

surrounding the mouth and sending

branches out into the rays of the star-

fishes in communication with the loco-

motive organs or suckers, called am-

bulacra. The water fills the tubes

through a duct leading from the sieve-

Hooks and Plates of Synapta. like plate, situated in the dorsal

(abactinal) portion of the body. Near this duct is the pulsating

tube, the so-called heart.

The Echinoderms are further distinguished by the body walls

secreting calcareous plates, often Fig. 8.

forming a solid limestone shell, as `

in the sea urchins; or the plates

are smaller and movable as in the

starfishes, or as in the sea cucum-

bers they are microscopic, buried

in the skin; sometimes, as in the

Synapta forming anchor-like hooks

and small plates (Fig. 84).

The sexes are as a rule distinct.

In Ophiura squamata and Synapta

they are united in the same indi-

vidual. The ovaries and testes

are gland-like masses situated at Sand star (Ophiopholis aculesta) i

the base of the arms in the starfishes, or between the ambulacra

jn the sea urchins. The ovaries are red or yellow, the male glands

Fig. 84.

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 227

whitish. In the Ophiurans the eggs and spermatozoa pass out of

the body through little holes between the plates on the under side

of the body. In those starfishes in which the alimentary canal

is a blind sac, the eggs are emptied into the body cavity; but

how they pass out is unknown. In some starfishes they escape

through certain (interradial) plates on the back. In the Echi-

noids they make their exit from between the ambulacra. In the

Holothurians, however, there is a duct leading from the generative

gland opening out near the mouth, between the tentacles. ‘The

eggs are usually round, and minute ; the spermatozoa of the usual

tailed form. Fertilization takes place in the water.

Remembering that there are five well-marked divisions of

Echinoderms, i.e., Crinoidea, Ophiuroidea, Asteroidea, Echinoidea,

and Holothuroidea, we will now review some of the main points in

the mode of development of the respective orders.

Development of the Crinoids. While we know nothing of the

mode of development of the true Pentacrinus and Rhizocrinus,

the lineal descendants of the Crinoids of the earlier geological

ages, we have quite full information regarding the life-history of

the Antedon, which is for a part of its life stalked, and is in fact

a true crinoid.

The following account is taken (sometimes word for word) from

Professor Wyville Thompson’s researches on the Antedon rosaceus

of the British coast. The ovaries open externally on the pinnules

of the arms, while there is no special opening for the spermatic

particles, and Prof. Thompson thinks they are ‘‘ discharged by the

thinning away and dehiscence of the integument.” The ripe eggs

hang for three or four days from the opening like a bunch of

grapes, and it is during this period that they are impregnated.

‘The egg then undergoes total segmentation. Fig. 86, A, represents

the egg with four nucleated cells, an early phase of the mulberry

or morula stage. After the segmentation of the yolk is finished, the

cells become fused together into a mass of indifferent protoplasm,

with no trace of organization, but with a few fat cells in the centre,

This protoplasmic layer becomes converted into an oval embryo,

whose surface is uniformly ciliated. The mouth is formed, with

the large cilia around it, before the embryo leaves the egg. When

hatched, the larva is long, oval, and girded with four zones of cilia,

with a tuft of cilia at the end, a mouth and anal opening, and is

about 8 millimetre in length. The body cavity is formed by an

228 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

inversion of the primitive sarcode layer which seems to corres-

pond to the ectoderm.

Within a few hours or sometimes days, there are indications of

the calcareous areolated plates forming the cup of the future cri-

noid. Soon others appear forming a sort of trellis work of plates

and gradually build up the stalk, and lastly appears the cribriform

basal plate. Fig. 86, B, c, represents the young crinoid in the

middle of the larva, whose body is somewhat compressed under the

covering glass. Next appears a hollow sheath of parallel calca-

reous rods, bound, as it were, in the centre by the calcareous

plates. This stalk (B, c) arises on one side of the digestive

Fig. 86.

Development of’ a Crinoid (Antcdon).

cavity of the larva, and there is no connection between the body

cavity of the larva and that of the embryo crinoid.

Two or three days after the appearance of the plates of the

crinoid, the larva begins to change its form. The mouth and di-

gestive cavity disappear, not being converted into those of the

crinoid. The larva sinks to the bottom resting on a seaweed or

stone to which it finally adheres. The Pentacrinus is embedded in

the former larval body (the cilia having disappeared), now consti-

tuting a layer of sarcode conforming to the outline of the Antedon.

Meanwhile the cup of the crinoid has been forming. It then

assumes the shape of an open bell; the mouth is: formed, and five

lobes arise from the edges of the calyx. Afterwards five or more,

usually fifteen tentacles, grow out, and the young Antedon appears

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 229

as in Fig. 86, C (after Thompson). The walls of the stomach then

separate from the body-wall. The animal now represents the pri-

mary stage of thë crinoids, that which is the permanent stage in

the Pentacrinus and its fossil allies. The Antedon, however, in

after life separates from the stalk and moves about freely.

Development of the Starfish. We will select as a type of the

mode of development of the starfishes, that of the common five

finger, Asterias (Fig. 87), as worked out with great thoroughness

Fig. 87.

ve se

ere? 383 X

eee Saas ;

p yot

4È

pt Sus

‘Oe

teh

D b 4 TEA

VE, ht, b we

4 pam ou

3a, N rea

Ova e 2

tis

Asterias.

by Mr. A. Agassiz, and given in the “Seaside Studies.” The

accompanying illustrations are taken from this work and the orig-

inal memoir, through the kindness of the author, whose descrip-

tion is here freely used.

Fig. 88 shows the transparent spherical egg, enclosing the ger- _

minative vesicle and dot, and Figs. 89, 90, illustrate the segment-

ation of the yolk into two and eight and more cells, enclosing a

central cavity. After this the embryo hatches and swims about as

a transparent sphere (Fig. 91). A depression (Fig. 92, ma) then

begins to appear, the body elongates, and this depression forms —

an inversion of the outer wall of the body (ectoderm), constitut- _

ing the body cavity (d, Fig. 93, a), being the provisional mouth-

“~

230 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

opening, afterwards sages the anal opening ; at this time, how-

ever, serving both for taking in and rejecting the food). From

the upper as i the digestive cavity next project two lobes

(w, w, Fig. 94, m, mouth). These separate from their attachment

and form two distinct hollow cavities (w, w, Fig. 95, a, d, ¢, di-

gestive system; v, vibratile chord; m, mouth). Here begins the

true history of the young starfish, for these two cavities will de-

velop into two water-tubes, on one of which the back of the star-

fish, that is, its upper surface, covered with spines, will be devel-

oped, while on the other, the lower surface, with the suckers and

Fig. 88. Fig. 89. Fig. 90.

Free swim-

Egg of Starfish. Segmentation of yolk. ming germ.

Fig. 95.

Fig. 92.

Fig. 94.

The same,

older.

i Mouth of Gastrula. q

Gastrula. Laria

tentacles, will arise. At a very early stage one of these water

tubes (w’ Fig. 96) connects with a smaller tube opening outwards,

which is hereafter to be the madreporic body (b, Fig. 96). Almost

until the end of its growth, these two surfaces, as we shall see,

remain separate and form an open angle with one another ; it is

only toward the end of their development that they unite, enclos-

ing between them the internal organs, which have been built up in

the meanwhile.

“ At about the same time with the development of these two

pouches, so important in the animal’s future history, the digestive

cavity becomes slightly curved, bending its upper end sideways

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 231

till it meets the outer wall, and forms a junction with it (m, Fig.

97; 0, digestive cavity). At this point, where the juncture takes

place, an aperture is presently formed, which is the true mouth.

The digestive sac, which has thus far served as the only internal

cavity, now contracts at certain distances, and forms three dis-

tinct, though connected cavities as in F ig. 96, viz., the cesoph-

agus leading directly from the mouth (m) to the second cavity or

stomach (d), which opens in its turn into the third cavity, the ali-

mentary canal. Meanwhile the water-tubes have been elongating

till they now surround the digestive cavity, extending on the other

side of it beyond the mouth, where they unite, thus forming a

Fig. 98.

a a

Profile view of Larva. Larva,

Larva with arms developing.

Y-shaped tube, narrowing at one aap ee and dividing into two

branches toward the other end, Fig. 9

“ On the surface where the mouth is pee aad very near it on

either side, two small ones arise, as v in Fig. 95; these are cords

consisting entirely of vibratile cilia. They are the locomotive or-

gans of the young embryo, and they gradually extend until they

respectively enclose nearly the whole of the upper and lower half

of the body, forming two large shields or plastrons (Figs. 98, 99).

The corners of these shields project, slightly at first (Fig. 98),

but elongating more and more until a number of arms are formed,

stretching in various directions (Figs. 99, 100)? and, by their con-

a, anus; c, intestine; e’ e’’ e? et e e, arm sophagus.

i 3 Figs. 99,100, side view of 99. Adult sak sovelle pun hiolaria, lettering the seme

in all the figures; t, tentacl phd te Be starfish; ff, brachiolar appendages ;. r,, back of

young starfish. Fig. 101, t', oad tentac

299 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

stant upward and downward play, moving the embryo about in the

water” (A. Agassiz).

Having reached the Brachiolaria stage, the body of the future

starfish begins to develop. On one of the water-tubes (w’) the

tentacles of the future starfish arise as a series of lobes (¢) ; while

Fig. 99.

o m

a w’

r e w’ gale

Full grown larva of Starfish, or Brachiolaria.

on the opposite water-tube (w), arise a number of little calcare-

ous rods, which afterwards form a continuous net-work; r indi-

ates the back of the young starfish. The larva now shrinks and

drops to the bottom and attaches itself there by means of the

short arms (f f' Fig. 99). The starfish now absorbs the larva, and

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 233

appears of an oval form with a crenulated edge, and soon reaches a

stage indicated by Fig. 101. (Fig. 102, the same seen in profile).

In this stage it remains probably two or three years before the

arms lengthen and the Fig. 100.

adult form is assumed. e

The development of the

Ophiurans is much like that w'

of the starfish, with some

characters of the embryo

sea urchin. The larva of *' ”

the sand star (Ophiura)

is called a Pluteus, and is

remarkable for the great | si

length of two of the arms.

Development of the Echi- w'

noids. The researches of m

Mr. A. Agassiz, who has

given us a very, complete “ 3

history of the common sea

urchin of the northern

shores of the United States

in his ‘Revision of the

* will be our guide

p”

chini,

in these studies. The x

earlier stages of develop-

ment were obtained by

artificial fecundation of

the egg during February.

The early embryonic

stages are much as des-

cribed in the starfishes, the

process requiring but a few

hours. “The embryo when hatched is like that of the starfish at

the same period (Fig. 91) and then it passes into the gastrula

stage (Fig. 104, lettering the same in all the figures as in those of

the starfish) the digestive cavity being formed by an inversion of

the ectoderm. “The embryo, in escaping from the egg, resembles

a starfish embryo, and it would greatly puzzle any one to perceive

any difference between them. The formation of the stomach, of

the c@sophagus, of the intestine, and of the water tubes takes

Fig. 99 seen in profile.

234 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

place in exactly the same manner as in the starfish, the time only

at which these different organs are differentiated not being the

same. In figure 105 we see the begin-

ning at w and w’ of the water tubes

arising as pouches sent off from the di-

gestive cavity, and T-shaped rudiments

of the limestone rods (r), so character-

istic of the larva of the sea urchin are

now visible.”

Fig. 106 represents the larva well

advanced towards the pluteus stage. It is now in the tenth day

after fecundation.4 The arms are now well marked, and the “‘ vi-

bratile epaulettes” appear. When the larva is twenty-three days

Fig. 101.

4 4 \

Common Sea Urchin (Echinus)

Young Starfish seen in profile.

Young Starfish seen from the back.

old, the rudiments of the five tentacles of the sea urchin appear,

the first one on the left water tube. The arms have increased in

length, until in the full-grown larva, now called the plutens (Figs.

107, 108, the same seen sidewise) the arms with the calcareous rods

supporting them are of great length, opening and shutting like the

rods of an umbrella; while the sea urchin growing within has

concealed the shape of the digestive cavity of the larva, and the

spines are so large as to conceal the tentacles.

$ iinei pi e-e" arms; v-v’ , vibratile chord,'w w’, earlets, water tubes; aode, digestive

-r'' solid rods of the arms; m, mouth; b, madreporic opening. Fig: 107, f

etki Sisti

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 235

The pluteus, a nomadic stage of the echinus, is as Mr. A.

Agassiz states “a scaffolding in which the future sea urchin plays

but a secondary part, and is composed of two open spirals, the

one to form eventually the complicated abactinal system (the in-

terambulacral and ambulacral plates), the other to form the water

system, and holding between them the digestive cavity and

other organs of the pluteus, which as yet appear to have no con-

nection whatever with the spines of the future Echinus. Yet to-

wards the end of the nomadic pluteus life a few hours are sufficient

to resorb the whole of the complicated scaffolding, which has been

the most striking feature of the Echinoderm, and it passes into

Fig. 106.

Development of the Pluteus of the Sea Urchin.

something which, it is true, we could hardly recognize as an

Echinus, yet has apparently nothing in common with its former

condition.”

From this time the body of the pluteus is absorbed by the

growing sea-urchin ; the spines and suckers of the latter increasing

in size and number with age, and by the time the larval body has

disappeared the young Echinus is more like the adult than the

starfish at the same period in life. Fig. 109 (¢, tentacles; ss’’,

spines) represents the sea urchin very soon after the resorption of

the pluteus.

In after life the young sea urchin with its few and large spines

resembles Cidaris and a number of allied forms, showing that

23 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

these genera, which appeared earlier geologically than our common

Echinus (Fig. 103, Strongylocentrotus Drébachiensis), are lower in

development.

Development of the Holothuroids. Of the development of our

Fig. 107.

Pluteus of the Sea Urchin.

native sea cucumbers our knowledge is exceedingly fragmentary,

and for nearly all that we do know of the mode of growth

of these animals in general, we are indebted to the elabo-

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES. 237

rate researches of the distinguished J. Müller. He figures the

earliest stage of the larval Holothurian, which he calls an ‘* Auric-

ularia.” The course of de-

velopment is much as in

the starfishes. The earliest

stage known resembles

that of the starfish repre-

sented by Fig. 93. It then

passes through a stage re-

presented by Fig. 96, when

the mouth and digestive

tract is formed, and again

a stage analogous with Fig.

98. The Auricularia when

fully grown, is cylindrical,

annulated, with four or

five bands of cilia, usually

with ear-like projections,

whence its name Auricu-

laria. Before it becomes

fully formed the young

Holothurian begins to

grow near the side of the

larval stomach, the cal-

careous crosses appear

and the tentacles of the

future Holothurian bud

out. The ear-like projec-

tions disappear, the Auri-

cularia becomes cylindri-

cal, and is- now called the

“pupa.” The Auricularia

is gradually absorbed and the young Holothurian strikingly re-

sembles a worm. In this pupa stage, in certain transparent

forms observed by Miller, the intestine of the embryo Holothurian

could be observed twisted on itself, with the mouth surrounded by

tentacles. The only observations published on our native Holo-

thurians are those of Mr. A. Agassiz, on Cuvieria, our large red,

heavily plated sea-cucumber, which inhabits stony bottoms in deep

water. The young are of a brilliant vermilion. In the earliest

stage observed by Mr. Agassiz (Fig. 110 Z, “ pupa ;” g, tentacles) ;

Fig. 108.

Profile view of 10

238 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE RADIATES.

the “ pupa” or second form of the Auricularia is very large and

the tentacles do not project beyond the body, as they afterwards

do (Fig. 111) when the Auricularia is nearly absorbed by the grow-

ing Holothurian. In a succeeding stage the tentacles begin to

branch, where before they were simple and knobbed. At this time

the cesophagus, stomach, intestine and anus are developed, and

there is a ring of limestone rods and crosses around the mouth.

The madreporie body (b) has not yet been drawn within the body.

Fig. 109.

The young Echinus.

Finally, the Auricularia becomes wholly absorbed, the tentacles

are much branched and capable of retraction within the body ; the

tegument secretes limestone plates, the suckers are developed in

the ambulacral rows and the adult form is attained without import-

ant changes. Fig. 83 represents a common sea-cucumber of our

coast.

Some holothurians, as well as starfishes and ophiurans, as 0b-

served by Mr. A. Agassiz, undergo their larval (i. e., Pluteus,

Brachiolaria and Auricularia) phases of development above

described without leaving the parent, in pouches held over the

mouth of the parent, making their escape in a form approaching

that of the adult.

MODE OF GROWTH OF

THE RADIATES. 23

Metschnikoff has made some valuable comparisons between the

ciliated embryos of the Coelenterates and Echinoderms, and shows

that the primitive body-cavity of

the former is not homologous with

the peritoneal cavity (i. e., the space

in which the digestive canal hangs)

of the Echinoderms. He also shows

that while the primitive body cavity

of the Coelenterates remains perma-

nently as the digestive tract ; in the

Echinoderms it is temporary and

embryonic. Metschnikoff, on embry-

ological grounds (a view which the

structure of the adult animals con-

firms), thinks that there is the same

similarity between the Celenterates

(Acalephs and Ctenophorze) and

Echinoderms, as between the higher

worms (Hirudinez, Gephyrea and

Annelides), and the Crustacea and

Insects.

Fig. 112.

Larva of Cuvieria.

Reproduction by fission as in the Actiniz and jelly fishes vcry

rarely occurs in the Echinoderms.

Fig. 110.

An Ophiuran deprived of all

Fig. 111.

Deve'opment of a Holothurian (Cuvieria).

its arms will reproduce them by budding, and Lütken shows that

certain starfishes divide in two spontaneously, having three arms

240 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

on one side and three on the other, while the disk looks as if it

had been cut in two by a knife, and three new arms had then grown

out from the cut side.

Echinoderms as a rule, then, are reproduced alone by eggs and

sperm cells. After fertilization of the egg they pass through:

1. Morula T

2. Gastrula stag

3.. A larval, mt E stage (Pluteus, Brachiolaria, Auricu-

laria).

4. The Echinoderm grows from a water tube of the larva,

finally absorbing the latter, whose form is often materially

changed during the process. It thus undergoes a true metamor-

phosis, in a degree comparable with that of some insects.

LITERATURE.

J. Müller. Abhandlungen über die Metamorphose der Echinodermen. (K. Ak-

ademie der Wissenschaften. Berlin, 1848-1855).

A. Agassiz. On the Embryology of Echinoderms. (Memoirs Amer. Acad. Arts and

Sci. ix, 1864.) atiy or toe > hini, Partiv. (Ill. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool. vii, 1874).

logy ot t Atitedon rosaceus. (Philosophical Trans-

yville Th

actions, Sag ae "1365).

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Tue GrorogicaL Survey or Missourt.— We have too long de-

layed our notice of the two octavo volumes from the geological

survey of Missouri, which, though bearing the date of 1873, were

not distributed till 1874. The first of these is a collection of re-

ports from 1855 to 1871, by Messrs. Brodhead, Meek & Shumard,

and the second, the results of the work of 1872, is devoted to the

iron and coal deposits of the state. Of these the former are de-

scribed by Dr. Adolph Schmidt, and the latter by Mr. Brodhead;

in addition to which the late director, Prof. Raphael Pumpelly, has

efixed an important chapter on the geology of the Pilot Knob i

district, and its iron ores, from which, and from the copious de- —

scriptions of Dr. Schmidt, we gather a pretty complete account of —

this extremely curious region. Rising above the floor of horizon-

tal palæozoie deposits, the 3d Magnesian limestone of Swallow, 4

member of a group of strata supposed to correspond to the Pots- —

dam of New York, appear numerous hills of crystalline rock, der

scribed as exposed portions of the skeleton of the eastern part of

CAAT E ie MN Ren ee te ee,

ot ie ee

STE 6 MEE ken ela Eee

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 241

the Ozark Mountains; which formed an archipelago in the palæo-

zoic sea, and are now from 300 to’700 feet above the limestone at

their base. The Pilot Knob group includes four of these, and the

Tron Mountain is another and distinct mass. All of these consist

wholly or in part of quartziferous porphyry or orthophyre, but in the

vicinity of these porphyry hills are others composed of granites,

often chloritic or hornblendic, some of them capped by the porphyry

which is considered as a newer rock, and, it is suggested by Pum-

pelly may be the youngest member of the Eozoic (Archzan) rocks

of the region. He, however, adds in a note that the red granites

may be an exception to this supposed rule. These porphyries pre-

sent some considerable variations in character, but may be described

as having a fine grained compact base or matrix with conchoidal

fracture, composed of an intimate mixture of feldspar and quartz,

in which are generally disseminated small crystalline grains of vit-

reous quartz, and crystals of pink or white feldspar, generally tri-

inic. The colors of this rock are various shades of yellow, red,

gray, brown and black, and it is often banded in its structure,

sometimes exhibiting thin layers, occasionally with alternations

of quartz, in addition to which, according to Pumpelly, it is strat-.

ified on an immense scale. Epidote, chlorite and a steatitic min-

eral occasionally occur in it; and magnetic and specular iron ores

are often disseminated through the mass. To those familiar with

the geology of our eastern coast it is only necessary to say that

these porphyries seem to be identical with those of Lynn, Saugus, `

Marblehead and Newburyport, Massachusetts, which are traced

thence along the coast of Maine and New Brunswick, and are well

developed about Passamaquoddy Bay, where they occasionally

contain small deposits of iron ore. These porphyries have already

been compared by Hunt with those of Missouri and with similar

ones on the north shore of Lake Superior. As seen on the coast

of New Brunswick, they are, according to him, intimately associ-

ated and interstratified with schistose rocks, supposed to be of

Huronian age,!

At Pilot Knob, the excavations in the ore-deposit; have. exposed

a considerable sectian of the strata, which dip,at a, moderate angle

to the southwest, and consist: at the base of several varieties of

banded sp pony ry, one of these containing iron ore in grains.and

1,7. Sterry Hant Chemical and Geological PRE p. 187

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 6

242 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES,

in streaks. Above these lies a thin layer of clay slate, followed by

a great mass of bedded iron ore (about forty feet) divided into

two parts by a layer of a few feet of clay slate, talcose in parts.

The upper portion, which is thin-bedded and flag-like, is less pure

than the lower, containing a considerable admixture of silicious

matter, and is overlaid by about 100 feet of well-bedded conglom-

erate rock, consisting of pebbles or more or less angular fragments

of porphyry and gray quartz, in a matrix of granular iron ore, occa-

sionally with grains of quartz and a soft clayey matter. In the

lower part of this the conglomerate character is less obvious, and

it appears to be a uniform ore-bearing porphyry with thin layers of

fine conglomerate. The iron oxyd is essentially hematite or per-

oxyd, but the rock possesses a decided magnetic polarity. While

the great deposit of ore is here newer than the porphyry, and seems

to be the cement of a conglomerate made up of the ruins of this

rock, it is found in the Iron Mountain in this region, in veins in-

tersecting a clayey material, which is nothing but the porphyry de-

composed in situ. In a deeper cutting, however, the hard unaltered

porphyry has been met with. Prof. Pumpelly calls attention to

several curious phenomena dependent upon the decay of the crys-

talline rocks in this region. In some cases partial decomposition

of the granites has left at their outcrop great polygonal rounded

blocks, often hundreds of tons in weight. Elsewhere, the chloritic

granites for fifty feet, and probably for many times that depth, are

completely disintegrated and decomposed. In the case of the de-

cayed porphyry of the Iron Mountain, the effect of the atmospheric

waters upon this mass, ‘‘part iron and part elay,” has been to re-

move the latter, so that when the mountain was first examined, it

exhibited a layer of from four to twenty feet or more in thickness,

of rounded masses and grains of pure compact red hematite or

specular.ore, with very little clay. This residual detritus, as re-

marked by '!Pumpelly, represents a great amount of porphyry de-

composed and removed since the ore-veins bear but a small pro-

portion to'the whole mass of the rock. In the sediments around

the base of the mountain are large stratified accumulations of sim-

ilar detrital ore, which were washed down the slope and “ concen-

trated by the waves of the Silurian ocean,” thus showing the great

antiquity of this process of decay.

The ore at Cedar Hill near Pilot Knob is compact, holding

grains of limpid quartz, and has, according to Pumpelly, the as- a

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 243

pect of a porphyry, in which the whole matrix has been replaced

by iron ore. This forms irregular masses in ordinary porphyry,

which in other localities contains iron ores highly manganesian, and

even deposits of nearly pure oxyd of manganese. Crystals of or-

thoclase, feldspar and grains of quartz, are found imbedded in a

compact manganese ore, which, according to Pumpelly, may be

supposed to have replaced the matrix, leaving the crystalline ele-

ments intact, while in other portions the replacement has been

complete, manganese-oxyd taking the place of the grains of

quartz, and the feldspar crystals. With these manganiferous por-

phyries is associated carbonate of Jime, sometimes forming layers

of pink and greenish crystalline limestone several inches in thick-

ness, interlaminated with a schistose jaspery or porphyroid rock.

To account for these various associations, Prof. Pumpelly suggests _

two hypotheses, the one that the porphyry, both matrix and in-

cluded crystals, may have been replaced by oxyd of iron or of

manganese, and the other that the parent rock may have been a

limestone, parts of which were changed into ore by a similar re-

placement, “ while the porphyry now surrounding the ores may be

due to a previous, contemporaneous or subsequent replacement of

the lime-carbonate by silica and silicates.” ‘The important fact is

noted that chemical analysis shows that the remaining porphyry,

intimately associated with the ore, has undergone no change, but

retains its normal constitution.

The ore-deposit of Iron Mountain is, according to Dr. Schmidt,

a great irregular vein of specular ore, more or less split up, and

including masses of wall-rock, but accompanied by numerous

smaller veins. He supposes the ore to have been deposited in fis-

sures in the unaltered porphyry, which was further cracked and

fissured by the crystallization of the ore, while this was itself sub-

sequently broken by the contraction and the decomposition of the

porphyry ; in fact, the angular fragments of ore in the latter can

scarcely be otherwise explained. The writer can, from his own

observations, bear witness to the careful statements of facts in

the case of these curious ore-deposits as given in the present vol-

ume, and affirm that the singular perplexity of the phenomena at —

the Iron Mountain can scarcely be better described or explained

than has been done by Dr. Schmidt, As regards the origin of

the ore-deposits Dr. Schmidt considers the various hypotheses of-

igneous injection, of sublimation and of segregation, and rejects

244 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

them in turn, in favor of that of aqueous deposition from infiltra-

ting waters. The ores at Shepherd Mountain are similar vein-

deposits, but the porphyry is here seen in an undecayed state.

As regards the very unlike deposits of Pilot Knob, Dr. Schmidt

accepts the first hypothesis of Prof. Pumpelly, and supposes that

solutions, similar to those which-deposited the ore in the fissures of

the porphyries elsewhere, have here effected the conversion of the

porphyry into ore. It is, as he admits, difficult to explain in this

view, the removal of the resulting silicate of alumina, and not

less difficult to explain the removal or replacement of the quartz,

as supposed by Pumpelly. When we consider that iron oxyds are

frequent elements in gneissic and other crystalline rocks, and that

they have been directly deposited in later sedimentary formations,

it will seem to many simpler to accept the hypothesis that these

iron and manganese oxyds in the porphyries and conglomerate

beds, instead of having come from the replacement either of feld-

spar and quartz or of carbonate of lime, may have been deposited

as we now see them.

Besides these ores associated with the Eozoic rocks, Dr. Schmidt

describes several other classes of iron-ore deposits, one of the

most interesting of which occurs in the sandstones immediately

above the 3d Magnesian limestone above named, and often fills

small basins or excavations in this sandstone, nearly vertical walls

of which are seen to limit the ore-deposit. The ore in these is

stratified, and is often both overlaid and sasciheliid by beds of clay,

flint and broken sandstone, and, it is saggested, may have been de-

posited in cavities produced by a subsidence of the strata into

caverns in the limestone beneath. The ore is sometimes specular

red hematite, and at other times limonite, occasionally also mag-

netite, and sometimes includes rounded masses of ferruginous lime-

stone with crystals of iron-carbonate. This association leads Dr.

Schmidt to suggest as an alternative hypothesis, that these deposits

may have been formed by the transmutation of limestone deposits

previously occupying these basins, To this class belong the ores

of the Merramec district.

In the Carboniferous series again, deposits of red hematite ore

occur in sandstone, forming nodular or concretionary masses Or

regular beds. In one locality also, we haye here described a large

cavern or sink in the Receptaculite limestone at the summit of the

Trenton, in which occur stratified layers of hematite and limonite, _

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 245

with more or less heavy spar, the whole capped by a bed of crys-

talline heavy spar, including galena. The 3d Magnesian limestone

is also metalliferous, and holds in drusy cavities crystals of pyrite

and chalcopyrite. It sometimes contains more than the proportion

of magnesian carbonate required to form dolomite, a not very

common circumstance.

The coal measures of the state, belonging chiefly to the great

western coal-field, and occupying an area of nearly 23,000 square

miles, are described by Mr. Brodhead with much detail. The

coal seams are generally thin, though some in the lower measures

occasionally attain four feet. Their local value is very great

from the scarcity of wood, and we are told in one place of a seam

of from ten to fourteen inches which is wrought, the coal being

sold at the mine for twenty cents a bushel. In regions where the

product commands so high a price even small seams are precious.

The coal deposits of Lincoln county in the eastern part of the

state, belong, unlike those just referred to, to the central or Illinois

field, and present the unusual character of detached basins of coal,

sometimes twenty-five feet in thickness, with little or none of the

usually accompanying strata, occupying depressions or previously

excavated basins in the Lower Carboniferous limestone. These

basins are very limited in extent, and haye but a local importance.

The discussions of the various points with regard to the eco-

nomic geology of the state, the chemical investigation of its iron

ores, and the valuable appendix or investigations on the strength

of building materials, all of which show good and thorough work

alike for science and for the material advancement of the state,

would occupy too much of our space. Since the regretted resigna-

tion of Prof. Pumpelly, on account of ill health, the direction of

the survey has been confided to Mr. Brodhead, whose report for

1873, we have just received and shall soon notice. The beautiful

atlas of maps which accompanies the report of 1872 should hot -”

pass unnoticed. These maps are from the establishment of Mr.

Julius Bien of New York, who, by the admirable style of his

work, has put all students of geology and geography under obli-

gations to him, —T.

Revation oF British Witp Fiowers to Ixsecrs.!— The pa ie

prefaces his little work with the information that his observations ee

1Ọn British Wild Flowers considered in Relation to Insects. By Sir John Lubbock. :

mo, PP. aa

Nature Series, With numerous illustrations. London, Macmillan & Co.

179. 1875. Price $1.50,

246 BOTANY.

and notes on this subject were originally prepared with the view of

encouraging in his children that love of natural history from which

he himself had derived so much happiness. A child can readily

understand the happy and clear exposition of the subject con-

tained in the pages of this‘most attractive book. And this is the

way natural history should be presented to children. It leads

them to take at once a lively interest in the doings of insects and

plants, and is worth far more than formal introductions to zoology,

just as one can learn more by watching the actions of a live bee or

the growth of a plant, than by the inspection of dried specimens.

Children of maturer growth will be startled and set thinking by

some of the conclusions of Sprengel, Darwin, Hermann Miiller

and our author. For example, we are told that to bees and other

insects “ we owe the beauty of our gardens, the sweetness of our

fields. To them flowers are indebted for their scent and colour;

nay, for their very existence, in its present form. Not only have

the present shape and outlines, the brilliant colours, the sweet

scent and the honey of flowers, been gradually developed through

the unconscious selection exercised by insects; but the very ar-

rangement of the colours, the circular bands and radiating lines,

the form, size and position of the petals, the relative situations of

the stamens and pistil, are all arranged with reference to the visits

of insects, and in such a manner as to insure the grand object

which these visits are destined to effect.” The facts tending to

substantiate these conclusions are presented by word and picture.

We are confident that books like these are destined to revolu-

tionize the study of biology in our schools.

ELEMENTS OF Macnetism anp EL ectricrty.!1 — This compact

little manual like the “ Principles of Metal Mining,” is an English

reprint. It is printed with the object of aiding students to pass —

‘tin the first class in elementary stage of the government science-

examinations,” It will be a useful reprint in this country.

BOTANY.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION or Norta AMERICAN FERNS.—

An interesting paper on this subject by Mr. J. H. Redfield ap-

pears in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. The last vol-

ume contains an excellent photograph of the late Prof. Torrey. _

1Elements of Magnetism and Electricity, ete. By John Angell. With 120 acer!

tions. New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 8yo, pp. 176. Price 75 cents. For sale by

A. Smith & Co., Salem, Mass.

ZOOLOGY.

Fricut or Vanessa Antiopa, Fes. 16th.— This afternoon one

of our visitors saw a butterfly fluttering in the air. In a few

moments it lit on the snow, and he, going to it, found it chilled,

and brought it to me. The specimen answers in appearance —

to Vanessa Antiopa. The insect has been flying about a warm

` room this afternoon.

Considering the intensity of the cold for the past six weeks,

and the fact that even to-day the thermometer has not marked

26°, and not a suspicion of dripping even on the south side of the

house, I have considered the incident worth relating to you.—

E. Lewis Sturtevant, So. Framingham, Mass., Feb. 16, 1875.

Snatts 1n Winter.—S. Clessin describes the habits of snails

during the winter, their burying in the ground, often in crowds, the

formation of the epiphragm, the interruption in the growth of the

shell, etc. He thinks that slugs and fresh-water snails are less

sensible to the influence of season, hiding themselves later in au-

tumn, and coming forth earlier in PEs than Helix and that

young specimens are less sensible than older ones. C. B. Ver-

Regensb (xxxi, pp. 114-130). -Bocen Record for 1872.

FıLarra In THE House Fry.—Prof. Leidy has recently found

that the common house fly is afflicted by a thread worm, about a

line in length, which takes up its abode in the proboscis of the

fly. From one to three worms occurred in about one fly in five.

This parasite was first discovered in the house fly of India, by

Carter, who described it under the name of Filaria musce, and

suggested that it might be the source of the Guinea-worm in man.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Tue Musk Suerr rossi, IN Srresta.— According to Herr F.

Römer, of Breslau, the skull of the musk sheep (Ovibos moscha-

tus), the most Arctic herbivorous mammal, has been detected ©

among fossils from the Pleistocene loams of Silesia. The discov-

ery is of some interest, in consequence of the limited occurrence

of this species in Germany, three localities only having hitherto.

yielded its remains. — Academy.

(247)

248 ANTHROPOLOGY.’

A Tertiary Gar Prke 1N France.—It seems to be proved be-

yond doubt that a true Lepidosteus lived in the waters of the

Paris basin during the early Tertiary period. M. Paul Gervais

has recently announced that the ganoid fish from the Paris beds,

described by Agassiz as Lepidotus Maximiliani should be referred

to Lepidosteus Suessionensis. This correction is based upon the

recent discovery of abundant fish remains, including vertebra, at

Neaufles, near Gisors. — Academy.

FALL or Cosmicat Dust on tHe Eartu.—It has been ascer-

tained by Nordenskiéld of Stockholm, that small quantities of a

cosmical dust, foreign to our planet and containing metallic iron,

cobalt, nickel, phosphoric acid, and also a carbonaceous organic

matter, falls upon the earth along with snow or rain. — Amer.

Journ. Science.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

An Inpian Mutt Seen 1x tHE Museum or Nassav, New

ProvipeNnce. — This important object was marked “ Indian idol

or stool.” An image with a human face was carved on the centre

of one end of its oval shape; this “stool,” as it was marked, was

hollowed out, increasing from its two extremities towards the cen-

tre, the carved head peering a little above the rim. It was sup-

ported by legs, was of wood, the workmanship of the extinct race

that once inhabited the island. It was in a good state of preserva-

tion, which is no doubt owing to the antiseptic qualities of the air

in the cave in which it was found, which preserved the wood, that

may be three hundred years old. Many caves have been found in

the Bahama Islands which, if they were not the dwellings of the

former Indians, must have formed their temporary coronene

many implements are found in them. =

This supposed “stool” was nothing else than a mill; the Indians

would not have bestowed so much labor upon a stool. It is, be-

sides, too small for that purpose. The people of the Island pos- a

sessed in those days tools made of bone or stone, therefore they

would only make the articles that manufactured food or clothing, —

the Islands producing no stone hard enough to be formed into &

mill, It is just the height required for a person sitting upon the

ground, is much like those made of stone, and in use by the poor —

MICROSCOPY, 249

people and Indians of Mexico. I am convinced that this article

seen in the museum of Nassau, N. P., was used to bruise or grind

the corn, seeds of plants, dried fish, etc., used as food by the

ancient and now entirely extinct race. The female sitting upon

the ground, takes the mill, places it between her legs ; then taking

a flat piece of very hard wood (or stone) which can be found upon

beaches, she draws it backward and forward, bringing under it

whatever is in the mill, which, by rubbing back and forth, is soon

reduced to flour, or to any consistency the animal or vegetable

substance was desired.— EDWARD PALMER

MICROSCOPY.

Postat Micro-casinet Cius.—A club for the circulation and

critical study of microscopic objects has been formed, its design

and methods conforming mainly to those of the very successful

English club. The following rules have been prepared for the use

of the organization, and Rev. A. B. Hervey, No. 10 North Second

St., Troy, N. Y., has consented to act as secretary until the first

regular election of officers. Applications for membership may be

made to him or to the Editors of the NATURALIST.

Rules of the American Postal Micro-cabinet Club.

1. This club shall be called the American Postal Micro-cabinet

Cub.

2. Its object shall be the circulation, study, and discussion of

microscopic objects

3. Reliable persons accustomed to work with the microscope,

and able to contribute to the usefulness of the club by sending

good objects for examination, shall be eligible to membership. —

4. Applications for membership may be made to the secretary,

and should be accompanied by reference to some person, prefer-

ably a member of the club or a well known microscopist, who is

acquainted with the applicant.

5. Names of applicants known to be eligible, shall be submitted —

to vote by the secretary, who shall send them around through the

circuits in the letter — > four-fifths vote of all the mem-

bers shall be necessary to elec

6. Members elect shall be spat of their election as soon as

they can be placed in any circuit, either by the formation of new

250 . MICROSCOPY.

circuits or by filling vacancies in old ones. They shall then, and

during the first week of every January thereafter during their con-

tinuance in the club, send to the secretary, as annual dues, the

sum of fifty cents. If this subscription should prove insufficient _

to defray the expenses of the club, the secretary, with the ap-

proval of the President and managers, may give notice of an in-

crease to any required sum not exceeding one dollar per year.

7. The officers shall be a President, Secretary, who shall also

act as Treasurer, and two managers. They shall be elected by

ballot by a plurality of votes cast, blanks for that purpose being

sent around by the secretary in January of each year.

- 8. The secretary shall arrange the members in sections of

twelve members each.

9. He shall send a box capable of holding one dozen slides to

the first member of each section. Each person shall, within four

days of the date of receiving it, put in a slide, preferably one

which illustrates some new result of study or method of prepara-

tion, and mail the package, carefully directed and stamped, to the

name and address next below his own on the list of members of the

section. After completing each circuit the box shall be returned

to the secretary who shall start it on the next circuit. When it

has completed the whole circle of all the circuits, it shall be re-

turned to the first circuit again, when each member shall remove

his own slide and replace it with another, mailing the box as be-

fore to the next member.

10. Slides placed in the box must contain no writing. Written

labels should be soaked off or pasted over, and the slide desig-

nated by a number to correspond with the number of the owner in

the list of members of the section.

The slides are to be very carefully packed in the box, to which

is securely attached by a string, at a distance of two inches, 4

tag bearing a postage stamp and the address of the next member — =

of the section. Nothing is to be placed around or upon the box

which could invite a blow from the post office stamp. a

11. If any member should receive a box too much damaged to

be safely used, or containing broken or damaged slides, Or not 4

containing the full number of slides indicated by the accom- “a

panying memoranda, he shall at once notify the secretary and the

member who last mailed the box. a

If the loss cannot be adjusted by exchange between the owner

Sats oe ee NA

= ; MICROSCOPY. 251

of the slide and the person who mailed it, the damaged slide shall

be sent to the secretary who shall compensate the owner, to an

extent not exceeding one dollar for any one slide, out of any un-

appropriated funds belonging to the club. Cash on hand and in

excess of the estimated expenses of the current year shall alone

be considered subject to this claim. Differences of opinion in re-

gard to damages shall be referred to the President, whose decision

shall be final

12. At the same time with the box, and to the same address,

shall be-invariably mailed a letter-package containing a list of

members of the section and of objects in the box, and blank

papers for memoranda, remarks, questions and answers, notices

of exchanges sought or offered, etc.; also, at the proper times,

voting lists for election of officers or the transaction of other busi-

ness. Everything contained in the letter-package shall be con-

sidered the property of the club, shall only be removed therefrom

by the secretary and shall be by him filed or published as may

seem most advisable.

13. The letter-package and the box of slides should accompany

each other, and any member who does not receive either one within

three days after the receipt of the other, shall promptly notify the

secretary,

Notice shall always be sent by members to the secretary, one

week previously, if practicable, of any change of post-office ad-

dress, or of any absence from home which would cause more than

ten days’ delay in the forwarding of any package directed to

them

14. The secretary shall annually submit a detailed statement

of receipts and expenditures to the managers, who shall audit the

same on behalf of the club.

A NEW SPRING CLAMP FOR MOUNTING OBJECTS. —Mr. Norman

N. Mason, of Providence, R. I., has contrived a clamp, or spring

clip, for holding the cover-glass in position, which is probably by

far the best yet made, both from the ease with which it can be

made and the facility with which it can be used. A thin plate

of sheet brass or German silver is cut to the shape of fig. 113,

and then bent into position as represented in side view by fig. 114.

The end of the glass slide is slipped under the spring d, and rests

against the curve e. The point a, which may be protected with a

959 MICROSCOPY:

cork if preferred, rests upon the centre of the cover-glass. A

lfttle change in the curve of one or both of the plates at e, will

give any necessary change of pressure upon the slide or the cover.

An easy way to form this clamp is to cut strips of the metal as

Fig. 113.

Natural size.

long as from a to f, and as wide as atc. One is then bent upon

itself at c, and hammered down flat; it is then filed, in a vice,

with a uniform taper to a; the spring dis then bent up and the

Fig. 114.

Two-thirds natural size.

curve e, formed with a pair of wire-nippers, and finally the long;

straight spring turned up at right angles at b. Fig. 113 is drawn

to natural size ; fig. 114 is two-thirds natural size.

PRESERVING ALGÆ.— Mr. Thomas Palmer contributes to “ Sci-

ence Gossip” his method of preserving algæ as microscopic spec

imens. The seaweed is first washed in fresh water, which is left

running so as to be continually changed, until the salt is entirely

removed. It is then partially dried with blotting paper, and pre-

served in pure alcohol until wanted for mounting. For mounting

it is transferred through chloroform to balsam. This method sac

rifices the color, a loss which is overcome by staining with a warm

solution of logwood.

Mountine SeLecrep Diatroms.—F. Kitton highly compliments

slides received from Herr Weissflog, in which the selected diatoms

(not arranged in patterns, the doing which is a shameful waste

of time”) are mounted on a thin cover and then inverted over #

cell consisting of a thin silver disk, of the same size as the covets —

and perforated with a small central opening, often as small as 30

inch. The object in this tiny cell is easily found, stray light iS

largely cut off, and a very neat mount is produced.

MICROSCOPY. 253

A tixTED Conpenstne Lens.— Prof. E. Abbe, of Jena, whose

New Illuminating Apparatus seems not very unlike the common

English ‘‘ Webster Condenser” modified so as to be available in

the limited space allowed between the stage and mirror in conti-

nental microscopes, suggests the employment as a condensing

lens, when lamplight is to be employed, of a large glass globe

filled with water colored of a moderate blue tint. “This is placed

between the flame and the plane mirror below the condenser, and

gives, according to the depth of color employed, a nearly white

or a decidedly blue illumination.

Wipe ANGLED Ossectives.— Having been a member of the

committee of the Memphis Microscopical Society appointed to

make certain tests of various object-glasses, it may prove of in-

terest to make public the results of our investigations.

Dr. Carpenter lays down as a fixed law the statement that ‘all

who have made much use of the microscope are now agreed as to

the superior value of objectives of moderate or even comparatively

small angle of aperture for ordinary working purposes ; the special

utility of the very wide apertures being limited to particular

classes of objects.” (Carpenter, 4th ed., p. 172).

It is now claimed that this no longer holds good; and our in-

vestigations were undertaken simply with a view to testing the

_ correctness of this statement.

The glass we selected as the representative of the wide angles

was a ‘‘four-system” immersion 74th, of nearly 180°; the narrow

angles with which it was compared were the best at our command,

by leading makers of England, Germany, France and America,

and comprised both dry and wet systems. Bearing in mind the

theory that the wide angles are only superior on diatoms and with

oblique illumination, we discarded diatom tests, and used only

central light

The first slide selected was a specimen of mosquito scales, dry.

Under the +th of nearly 180°, this object was beautifully defined,

the structure of the intercostal spaces, longitudinal ribs and ter-

minal spines being all sharply and clearly shown. - Even under so

high eye-piercing as 4th inch solid (equal to D), the object was

splendidly illustrated. The narrow and moderate angles were then

successively brought to bear on the same object, with the uniform

result that while not giving so good: definition under low power

254 MICROSCOPY.

eye-pieces, under the high eye-piece all utterly broke down. The

next test selected was a slide of voluntary muscular fibre, in bal-

sam. Here again the nearly 180° glass gave splendid results, the

definition of the striz being perfect even under D eye-piece. The

moderate angles were again brought on the field, with the same re-

sult as before.

These facts seem to justify the claim that the law, as laid down,

touching the general usefulness of the wide-angled glasses, is not

now correct, having obtained credence at a period when the diffi-

culties attending their construction had not been thoroughly mas-

tered; but that such is no longer the case. I feel sure that the

advanced workers of this country already accept as true the con-

clusions arrived at by our committee ; but I am also sure that by

far the greater number of our microscopists still hold to the old

faith. — ALBERT F. Dop, Memphis, Feb., 1875.

FREEZING APPLIED TO HisroLocy.— Messrs. Key and Retzius,

while admitting the value of freezing as a means of hardening cer-

tain tissues for cutting sections, have lately called attention to the

false canals which are often formed and which not only disorgan-

ize the tissue, but might be mistaken for normal structures. At

the moment of freezing, the water separates from the tissues and

branches out into acicular columns of ice; and the cavities thus

formed may be preserved and demonstrated by hardening the

frozen sections by alcohol or osmic acid, before thawing them.

Exactly similar appearances may be observed in sections of frozen

blood or starchy or gelatinous mixtures. 7

Ir. Lawson Tait, of Birmingham, has found sections of tissue,

which were cut while hardened by freezing, to be full of air-bub-

bles which even the air-pump failed to remove. The contained

water had, in freezing, expelled the air it had held in solution, an

the bubbles thus produced were so entangled in the tissue as to

defy mechanical treatment. They were readily re-dissolved, how-

ever, by soaking the section in cold distilled water which had been

recently boiled to expel its supply of air.

Empeppinc 1N ELDER Prra.— Dr. C. H. Golding Bird, in 4

paper read before the Medical Microscopical Society, advocates

elder pith as an almost universally preferable medium for embed-

ding tissues preparatory to cutting sections. For holding in the

hand it will in most cases give as good results, as the troublesome

NOTES. 2959

wax method, and in far less time; while for use in the microtome

it is preferable because of its simplicity and portability, no acces-

sory appliances being required, because it cannot revolve in the

microtome like wax, and because of the facility with which it can

be removed from the tube and readjusted in it if required. The

object, such as a piece of hardened tissue, is loosely packed in the

tube of the microtome by means of dry elder pith which, being

wetted, in about three minutes swells so as to fill up the vacant

spaces and fixes the object immovably in place. This process

which is represented as equal, in most cases, to the common

method by wax or paraffine, is invaluable for cutting sections of

leaves and the like, for which the usual embedding media are nearly

useless. Even tissues embedded in wax may be conveniently

packed in the microtome by means of pith.

NOTES.

AN organization bearing the title of the “ Central Ohio Scientific

Association” was formed in Urbana, Champaign Co., O., in No-

vember last, with the following officers: for the present year: Pres-

ident, Rev. Theo. N. Glover; Vice-President, P. R. Bennett, Jr. ;

Corresponding Secretary and Curator, Thos. F. Moses, M. D.;

Recording Secretary, Wm. F. Leahy ; Treasurer, J. F. Meyer.

Tue 22d of November, the block of granite which is designed

to cover the tomb of the naturalist Agassiz, left Interlaken for

Neuchatel. It has been taken from the rocks situated below the

glaciers of the Aar, near the hut where Agassiz and his colleagues

in science explored the glaciers.— Swiss paper.

Tue Detroit “ Scientific Association” has during the past winter _

held monthly meetings. The museum of the society is tempora-

rily located in rooms. The officers for 1874-5 are G. P. Andrews,

M.D., President; and A. B. Lyons, M.D., Secretary and Cabinet

keeper. There are eight Curators.

Tue Geological Magazine edited by Henry Woodman, has just

completed the first volume of the second decade since its first

publication. This journal is of sufficient general and popular

interest to secure subscribers in this country among geologists.

The publishers are Messrs. Tribner & Co., of London. Subscrip-—

tions will also be taken at the NATURALISTS’ AGENCY.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey of Colorado, Report Jor 1873, By F. V. Hayden,

Washington, mt E pha 718. 8¥0,

Contributions ssil Flora of the Western Territories. Part I, Cretaceous Flora. By

ere “Tg

Bg eports Finda U 5S. + eight Survey of the Tetritor ies. By F.V. Hayden. Washington,

74, Vol. ¥i, p

Psyche, Cam es, Feb, 1875. Vol. i, No. 10,

po.

Canadian Entomologist. pal Eig ‘Ont. 1875. Vol ek No. i. “pp. 20. 8vo

Monthly Report of the Department of Agriculture. Washington, Jan. isis, pp. 63. 8vo.

Societe Eniomologi A

G TF

Preliminary or upon Invertebrate Fossils Collecte db ý the Expeditions of 1871, 1872 and

1873, with Descriptions of New Species. Pocerap ical and Geol ogical A Shit gree and Surveys

West of orme te mon Mer p e . By C. A. Whi oR h Dh C,, 1874, pp. 2

nen gar Ghivetatiats e dur y Bagge year r 1872 at +4 J S. Naval

Psat By B. F. ; "pm 555.

U. 9. AAA Survey of the Te erritories for 1867, 1868 a 4 i869, By F. V. Hayden. Wash-

Oh, 3. pp.26l. 8vo.

ical Survey of Wyoming and Contiguous Seay, 1870. By F. V. Hayden.

Washington. 1 i2. Lis p. 511, 8vo,

i U. S. e a oe of Montana and Adjacent Territory, 1871. By F. V. Hayden. Wash-

ington, 1872 ioe pp. 8vo.

8. Geo ii y dines of Montana, Idaho, Wyoming and Utah. 1872, By F. V. Hayden.

Washington, 873. pp. 844. 8vo.

nnual Report of the U. 8. Geological Survey of the Territories for

ite os E Y. hn den. Washington, 1872, pp. 22. 8vo.

Bulletin » Geologic na nd Geographical Survey of the Territories. Washington,

a 2nd — Sate aoe sal ‘8v0.

Lists of El iiy in n that portion of the U. S. West of the Mississippi River. By

Henry Gannett. ak og 5. J4. 8vo.

p ‘

The Elev of Certain Datum ink, s on the Great Lakes and Rivers and in the Rocky

iaia By Jan T. Gardner, Washington, isi, Hep mn Ann Rep. U. S. Geological and

o dleieorologi Su pid of the he petal for 1873,

ops of the the Flora of Colorado,

Coad tadtons to the Extinct Vertebrate Fauna of the Western Territories, By Joseph Leidy.

ash 1873. pre J, & Geological Survey of agi smog 98 Vol. 1. pp. 358, 4to.

Synopsis of the de of N.A. By Çyru as. Washington, 1873, U. S. Geological

he oeie iaren l v.

ische und Meteorologi. irr aay itungen an der K. K, Sternwarte zu Prag im Jahre

rie

Acta Academia C. L. C. G. T ire aS be Vol. 36, pp.574. 4to.

Leopoldina. Dresden. Heft Phun Mo and T he x: pp: D E 120. 4to.

Me a toire Naturelle de Geneve. Geneva, 1813-14

T Part II. pp. 508. 4to,

es de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel. Neuchatel, 1874. Tome 4, Part

WE p tisa. 4to.

schriften Kai.

Sitzungsberichte math -naturi Wien, 1873. I Abtheil, No. 8-10. II Abtheil, No. 8, 9, 10.

IIL Abthiel, No, 6-8, 9-10, 1 I. Abthiel, No, I, 2, 3. Pi I Abthell, No. 1, 2, 3.

Jahr tbe der Pancfreaaeeias Gesellse schaft in E 1s pp. 44. 8vo.

Z x igen der schweiz. naturf. Gesellschaft, Jahrg. I "Bn, K 73; pp. 431, 400. 8yo.

jet s fe ri

Pe nage E ~~. Gesellschaft zur Beforderung Heh mten Naturwissenschaften zu

arburg. ji VO.

Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft, Jeua, 1874. Vol. 8, New Series. Vol. 1, No. 4

pp. 451-578. 8vo.

Corr respondenz-Blatt des zoologisch-mineralogischen Vereines in Regensburg. 27th year, 1873.

No. 1, pp. 192. 8vo.

Bultetin de la Societe des Sciences Naturelles de Neuchatel, 1874. Tome, x, No.1. age pity

Jahrbuch der k. k. geologischen Reichsanstalt, 1873, malt, No.4. 1874. xxiv, Nos. l, 2,3, 4t0-

Verhandlungen der k, k. geologischen Reichsanstalt. 1813, Nos. 14-18. 1814, Nos. 1-13, 4to.

Bulletin Mensuel de la Societe d’ Acclimatation. Paris, Oct. 1374. 3e Serie, T, 1, No. 10. PP»

NEPA Bp lus-

ie to r Two-winged Flies. By Townend Glover, Mss. Notes from my Journal, or Ilu

trations or | pia Native and orein. p. 120. 4to. Washington, 1874, no

Bulletin of the Torrey Botan: Club, Eib b. 1875. Vol, vi, No. 2, With Supplement to Bota

l Directory, pp. a fags wia

Prelimin: wat Repo he Cretaceous Lamellibranchs Collected in the vicinity of Pernambu mete

Brazil. B; chard Ratt hbt bun. Boston, 1875, From pias . Bost. Soc, Nat, Hist, pp. 241-256. .

virg k the “Northiwest BY Elliott Coues, U.S. Geological Survey of the Territories. pP»

791, Rage woe ngton, l

Gonatit tion, By-laws, aie. ‘of the Troy Scientific Association. Troy, 1875, pp. 11. 8vo.

Views sa gen Se pp. 141-18. Anon Hippe 2 12mo pamphlet, Pro-

PESA jad tog peng ak geota : pa d Resin nona n in the India Museum, or

ced in ia, By é me on, 4. pi 2 oO.

1 anal Rape Kri hd the U. S. Geological Survey of co anc ag By F. V. Hayden, Washington,

2 pp.

‘a: ae

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— MAY, 1875.—No. 5.

LO VEORYDOOD-~

THE LAW OF EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT THE

SAME IN PLANTS AS IN ANIMALS.

BY I. A. LAPHAM, LL.D.

Ir is a well known law in the animal kingdon, that the young or

embryonic state of the higher orders of animals, resemble the full-

grown animals of the lower orders. As examples, we have the

tadpole, which is a young frog with gills and a tail; thus resem-

bling the fishes which stand lower in the scale than the reptiles ;

and the caterpillar which has the characters of a worm, but is the

immature state of the butterfly, an animal of a higher class of

articulates. The discovery of this important law, and its applica-

tion to particular cases, has been one of the causes of the recent

rapid progress in the study of the animal kingdom; it has enabled

naturalists to determine the proper place of certain species in the

grand scale of beings, and thus to correct their systems of classi-

fication ; it has enabled geologists to decide upon the relative age

of rocks, in some otherwise doubtful cases.

It is the purpose of this paper, to show, as briefly as possible,

that the same law of resemblance between the immature of one

order and the mature of a lower order of animals, is equally true

in the vegetable kingdom, where its study may hereafter lead to

equally important results.

Plants grow from seed planted in the ground, have roots, stem,

branches, leaves; they produce flowers with calyx and corolla,

and the more essential organs, stamens and pistils ; they bear fruit

tered, according to Act of Con in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

Boinas in the Office of the Litrarian of Gonaress. at Washington,

AMER. 17

NATURALIST, VOL. IX. (257)

258 EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT, SAME IN PLANTS AS ANIMALS.

with seed after their kind, which when planted, swell and become

plants again.

The stamens have at their top a sack (the anther) completely

filled with grains nicely packed, each of which proves on examina-

Fig.115. tion to be a small sack (Fig. 115, the pollen) filled with a

crag fluid matter, in which are floating exceedingly

mall grains called fovilla. These are essential organs in

Pollen. ~ reproduction of the plant, and must perform their

functions before the seed can be matured: We may increase and

multiply plants by layers, cuttings and budding ; but to reproduce

a new plant, the agency of the stamen, pollen and fovilla, is

- needed as well as that of the seed.

Under a good microscope, this fovilla may be seen in any ripe

ollen grains, but the particles are among the most minute things

we are called upon to examine; requiring the higher powers of

the instrument even to see them; and, what is truly wonderful,

these minute particles are found to have a proper motion of their

own. They move forward, backward or sidewise, but never make

much progress in any direction ; the motion appears to be object-

less, not likè that of an animal seeking its food. The cause of

this motion is not known; it is called molecular motion, and may

be the effect of some chemical action; but is more probably due

to the mysterious vital force.

From the bottom of ponds of stagnant water, and from springy

places, we may bring up plants so minute that no unaided human

eye -has ever seen them; they consist of a single cell; they are

_ the smallest and the very lowest grade of plant-life, the Desmidee ;

and yet they are full-grown plants. They never grow to be any-

thing else, they are only Desmidex and nothing more. They are

true plants and not animals, as was once supposed.

These minute, though full-grown plants, will be found actively

moving forward and backward and sidewise ; making no progress};

pearing to have no aim, no object ; precisely like the little par-

ticles of fovilla from the pollen grains, of the highest orders of

plants.

Here then we have the first proof of the existence of the law

in the vegetable kingdom ; the wonderful motion, both of the full-

grown plant of the lowest of the vegetable race, and of the par- p

ticles, which may be regarded as one of the first steps toward tbe

reproduction of plants of the highest type.

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT, SAME IN PLANTS AS ANIMALS. 259

Arctic and Alpine travellers report the snow as sometimes red,

and we know that our stagnant waters are sometimes green ; these

Fig.116. Colors are found upon close examination to be owing to

7 other minute one-celled plants called Protococcus (Fig.

116). They are little sacks or cells containing particles

Protococ- of a brilliant carmine-red, or beautiful green color. Each

particle within the cell is destined to become a new plant,

and then again to give origin to others.

The analogy between these full-grown plants of an exceedingly

low grade and the pollen-grains (Fig. 115) of ‘a rose, standing at

or near the head of the plant kingdom, is at once apparent. They

contain particles (fovilla) destined to the same office of reproduc-

tion; one woodcut serves to represent both.

The Botrydium (Fig. 117) may be deemed a plant only a little

higher in the scale than the Protococcus. It consists like that of

a single cell, but this cell sends down a tube which

is often branched, extending off in various direc-

tions very much like roots in search of vegetable E

food. The cell proper is filled as usual with the

reproductive particles; and some of the branches

become enlarged as shown in the figure, develop

other particles and soon separate to form new

plants of the same kind.

In this, and in many similar full-grown plants of

the lower orders, there is a very striking corres-

pondence with the pollen grains after they have fallen upon the

stigma and developed tubes, the pollen-tubes (Fig. 118).

In both cases we have a cell with a

extending downwards from one side, with

the vegetable particles and fovilla, and in

both, these minute bodies are supposed to

pass down the tube to perform their office

J| of originating a new plant.

j Here again the full-grown Botrydium

A corresponds with the embryonic pollen-

Pollen tubes of the higher plants; and we have a

` third proof. of the existence of the law.

Fungi are plants of a higher grade than the RISE the Proto:

coccus, and the Botrydium. Instead of a single cell, they consist

of an aggregation of cells; and they produce a number of little -

cases or sacks filled with grains, ealled — Here (Fig. 119)

Fig. 117.

Botrydium.

Fig. 118.

Fig. 119.

260 THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP.

is the figure of the mould that grows upon bread in a damp cellar.

It consists of a single stem made up of cells placed one upon the

other, and a single globular spore-case at the top. The spores

Pie ido. are liberated when ripe and are blown to the four quarters

of the world by the wind. Wherever they alight, circum-

stances being favorable,—as bread in a damp cellar, —

they grow and become mould again. Compare this, which

is one of the lowest of the Fungi, with a stamen (Fig.

120} growing in one of the most perfect of flowers. It

has its filament (stem) supporting a ease or sack (the

anther) filled with pollen-grains (which I compare with the

spores. of the fungi) and which, when fully mature are

liberated and scattered about by the wind, or are carried

by insects. Under favorable circumstances (falling upon the

stigma) they also grow and become new plants.

These examples are sufficient for the present purpose; they

show clearly the existence of this important law in the vegetable,

as well as in the animal kingdom. Many similar analogies might

be found throughout the whole course of vegetable life, were it

desirable to pursue the subject. We have here one more link be-

tween the two great kingdoms of organized nature, and another

proof of the unity of design of the Creator. i

Stamen.

N THE PHYSICAL AND. GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER-

ISTICS OF THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP, AND

THE EASTERN COUNTIES OF VIRGINIA.

BY PROF. N. B, WEBSTER.

Tuts remarkable morass, situated partly in Virginia and partly

in North Carolina, is about forty miles long and from fifteen to

twenty-five miles wide. The earliest account of a passage through

` the swamp is by Col. Byrd, who surveyed the state boundary line

in 1728. Until this time, Col. Byrd wrote in his journal “this

dreadful swamp was ever judged impassable.”

About 1755 a Scotchman named Drummond, discovered the

pond now bearing his name, and which has since been immortal-

ized by Moore as the “ Lake of the Dismal Swamp.”

THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP. 261

In 1763, George Washington, then twenty-one years of age,

penetrated the swamp and in his own language “ encompassed the

whole.” He camped one night on the eastern border of the lake,

which is about seven miles long and five in width, and in a morn-

ing ramble before breakfast, made the interesting discovery that

the water of several very small streams ran owt of, instead of into,

the lake. Washington wrote to Hugh Williamson that he had no

doubt the water was running into some of the rivers of Albe-

marle Sound. The youthful surveyor had in fact discovered the

source of Northwest River which runs into Currituck Sound.

Washington also ascertained that the surface of the lake was

nearly level with the western edge of the swamp and considerably

higher than the eastern border, or in other words that the swamp

was neither a hollow, nor a plain, but a hill-side. More careful

measurements since have shown that the surface of the lake is

twenty-one feet higher than mid-tide, and twelve feet higher than

the eastern border of the swamp.

Com. Barron and others sounded across the lake and found the

depth, in the middle, to be fifteen feet, with a bottom of swamp-

mud, covered in some places with white sand. The soil, if soil it

can be called, taken one foot below the surface, contains more

than 96 per cent. of organic matter. Workmen in the swamp as-

sert that they can run a pole down from ten to fifteen feet in this

soft mud or sponge. This sponge is really a peat when taken

near the surface, and has been used as fuel. Shaded and kept

moist by the dense growth of ferns, reeds, and juniper trees, which

with their long deep roots stand firm in the trembling mud, the

annual accumulation of vegetable growth does not decay, but

gradually aids in raising the level of this growing bog. But

when the mud is thrown up in ridges by the excavations for

ditches and canals, it soon disappears by a slow oxidation.

The trees of past centuries, buried in the swamp, as wellasthe

` present growth are of great value for shingles, staves, and other

purposes where durability is desired.

During dry seasons extensive fires prevail, not only burning the

vegetation above the surface but the peaty soil itself, leaving ©

holes and large depressions sometimes two feet in depth.

In this way the lake was probably formed. It is not to be sup-

posed that the bed of the lake was thus burned to the depth of

fifteen feet, but that at some remote time, the large area of its

262 THE GREAT DISMAL SWAMP. |

` bed was burned so low, that the water from succeeding rains filled

it to a depth too great to allow vegetable growth, and that each

succeeding year added to the height of the banks or relative depth

of the lake. The perpendicular banks of the lake and the charred

stumps that have been formed at the bottom, confirm this supposi-

tion.. There are many proofs that the water supply of the lake is

from the rainfall on the swamp and not from springs at the

bottom. The water is remarkably pure except from vegetable

matter infused, which gives it the color of weak tea and the name

of juniper water. It is considered the ‘best water for long sea

voyages. Contrary to popular opinion abroad, the interior of the

swamp is a very healthful locality.

Lyell briefly refers to the swamp in his “Travels in North

America,” and of course sees a confirmation of his theory of coal

formations, viz.—‘‘’Fhat ancient seams of coal were produced,

for the most part, by terrestrial plants of all sizes, not drifted, but

growing on the spot.”

That the Great Dismal was once much greater is evident from

the deposits of peaty matter, swamp mud, and burnt stumps, be-

low from twelve to fifteen feet òf clay, at the distance of several

miles from its present limits.

A specimen of charred wood was taken from a well about five

miles from the swamp, and perhaps a mile from Suffolk, Va., on

the line of the seaboard railroad. It was found as a part of a

large stump, where it had grown in the midst of the black peaty

soil, and below six and one-half feet of swamp mud, two feet of

blue clay, and twelve feet of red clay. In the mud about the roots

of the stump, white sand was found as-at the bottom of the lake.

It is well known that the southeastern part of Virginia con-

sists of two plateaus, one about eight or ten feet above the sea

and the other from twenty-five to forty feet. The well referred

to was dug near the eastern edge of the higher plateau, and the

surface of the swamp forms an inclined plane from one plateau to >

the other.

This vast swamp appears to he retained above the level of the

adjacent land in a way similar to the ‘peat-mosses of Solway and

Sligo, until they burst and overwhelmed the neighboring country.

What known force but that combination of molecular forces known

as capillarity can supply and sustain the waters of the lake and

swamp above described?

THE FERTILIZATION OF CERTAIN FLOWERS

THROUGH INSECT AGENCY.

BY THOMAS G. GENTRY.

In the spring of 1873, a few seeds of Cucurbita ovifera were sown

in a box which had been previously filled with rich earth from the

woods. In course of time they germinated, producing thrifty

plants. After the latter had attained suitable heights for removal,

some were transferred to the garden, and the remainder were given

to friends in the vicinity ; a few of the latter found their way to a

thickly-built up portion of Philadelphia, and trained to grace the

walls of an outhouse. All the plants flourished and fruited abun-

dantly. The city fruit was the exact similitude of the original,

globular in configuration, with a small curved neck, and of a light

yellow color with a circular patch of green upon the basal part.

The country plants produced more than a dozen gourds to the vine,

which differed very materially from the original in size, form, and

color. With one exception they were globular in shape, attaining

in some instances a circumference of nearly three feet, and of a

deep rich gamboge color. The exceptional case was perceptibly

flattened at the ends, and marked with alternate longitudinal broad

bands of deep and light shades of green, affording a striking con-

trast in color to the others. There was particularly noticeable in

the fruit, a very close resemblance in outline and color to the ordi-

nary pumpkin, Ç. pepo, and, indeed, the flavor and thickness of the -

flesh were so pumpkin-like, as to convince one unfamiliar with the

facts, that it was truly the case. Whence the difference between

the city fruit and that matured in the country? I think it must

be attributed to the agency of insects. Many of the Bombi, for

instance, Bombus pensylvanica, together with the little honey bee, —

Apis mellifica, were observed on scores of occasions by the writer,

to visit the female flowers of C. ovifera, doubtless, through mis-

take, fancying them to be the pollen-bearing ones, with their pos-

terior trophi laden with yellow pollen-grains gathered from C. pepo.

In alighting upon a flower, a Bombus could not phy brushing its

posterior limbs against the bilobed stigmas thereo

Here, it is evident, is a case of hybridism ai about through

(263)

264 THE FERTILIZATION OF CERTAIN FLOWERS

the agency of bees, whereby a cross between two closely-allied

species has been effected in an eminently successful manner, if the

size, quality, and profusion of the fruit are any criteria. In the

city specimens, fertilization has undoubtedly been accomplished

through wind-agency. ' It is extremely doubtful that bees could

have taken any part therein, since it is a rare occurrence to meet

with them in a compactly built city; their presence being rarely

ever observed except where conveniences for nest-building and

abundance of food are met with. j

Bees were also noticed by the writer to visit the female flowers

of C. ovifera, after having previously collected pollen from the

male flowers of the same vine. ‘From this and the preceding fact,

it would seem that the pollen of a very near ally has sometimes

a prepotent influence over the plant’s own pollen.

In Gray’s Manual it is affirmed that C. ovifera is probably the

parent of C. pepo. That there is a close relationship subsisting

between them amounts to a settled conviction in my min e

perfect freedom with which C. ovifera receives the Erpa of C.

pepo, in preference to its own, i: is what I should expect, if the latter

has been evolved from the former, which I presume to be the case.

Supported by a trellis in front of my door, there is growing a

beautiful and thrifty vine of Wistaria Sinensis. When the season

is favorable, it is an early bloomer, throwing out its lovely purple,

pendent racemes, days in advance of its long, graceful compound

leaves. Its flowers usually appear with the various species of

Bombi, Xylocopa and Apis, and are sources of attraction to them

when other and richer sweets are absent. During the last spring

my attention was attracted to these flowers, by the incessant hum

which always saluted my ears when returned from my day’s labors.

From morning until night, as long as the flowers remained,

these busy creatures were engaged. There were B. pensylvanica,

B. virginicus Fab. (queens) ; Xylocopa virginica (female) and Apis

mellifica (worker). After watching them on many occasions for

more than an hour at a time, I was surprised to discover how few

entered the flowers in front for the honey which they secrete.

They almost invariably perforated the vexillum. Having wit-

nessed this operation many times, I set to work finally, to examine

` each individual flower of many clusters. The result of my labor

showed that nearly every flower had been thus perforated. Judging

from the sizes of the apertures, they were evidently the work of gr

THROUGH INSECT AGENCY. 265

Bombi and Xylocopa; the proboscis of the honey-bee being too

small and narrow to produce such results. Although hundreds

of honey-bees were flying from flower to flower, not a solitary in-

dividual was noticed to enter the throats of the same. Like their

larger and distant relatives, they took the shorter road. As a gen-

eral rule, the little Apis enters in front. In this instance I can only

attribute its deviation from custom to the power of imitation.

Perceiving that the coveted material was to be had, at a great

saving of labor and time, as evidenced by the examples of Bombus

and Xylocopa, it had learned to profit thereby.

Although the purpose for which nature had created the flowers

of Wistaria seemed to be defeated, viz., the propagation of its

kind and the continuance of the species, as made manifest through

previous observations, yet I did not cease to give them attention

when opportunities offered. After long and weary watching for `

nearly one whole afternoon, I was repaid for my patience -and

watchfulness, by witnessing an individual of Bombus pensylvanica

enter a flower. After this I had the gratification of witnessing

similar operations performed by several others.

In order that the process may be understood, it is necessary to

give a detailed description of the structure of a normal flower. In

papilionaceous flowers, the corolla is perigynous; of five irregular

petals (rarely fewer). The upper or odd petal, called the vexillum,

is larger than the others, enclosing them in the bud, and when

open is usually turned backward or spreading. The two lateral

ones are called the wings and are situated obliquely and externally

to the two lower petals; the last are connivent and more or less

coherent by their anterior margins, forming a body named the carina

or keel which usually encloses the stamens and pistil. The sta-

mens are ten in number, diadelphous; nine in one set, in a tube

which is cleft on the upper side, that the side next to the stand-

ard, and the tenth or upper one se

From the position of the stamens an pistils in a normal flower,

the former being curved forward and overhanging the latter, it would

seem that the object to be attained is the fertilization of the flower

by its own pollen. Buta knowledge of the degree of perfection —

to which the sexual parts have attained, after the release of the

wings and carina from the enveloping vexillum, dissipates any

such opinion. The anthers have not acquired their full develop-

ment, while the stigma is perfect, judging from the viscid secre-

266 THE FERTILIZATION OF CERTAIN FLOWERS, ETC.

tion which covers its surface. By the time the anthers mature,

the stigma has begun to wither. As the lower flowers of a cluster

come to perfection before the upper ones, or rather as flowers may

be found on the same raceme in various stages of development, it

is possible to meet with some that mature their pistils at the same

time that others do their stamens. It is obvious from the above

that self-fertilization is out of the question. In confirmation

thereof, I might cite the important fact that on a vine that pro-

duced no less than one hundred clusters, each bearing at least fifty

flowers, but eight legumes were counted; seldom more than one

was found on the same flower stalk ; in one case I observed two.

When a Bombus visits a flower, it alights upon the vewillum, and

in order to get to the honey, thrusts its proboscis downward be-

tween the keel and standard which are in close contact. The effort

thus expended forces the carina backward which releases the sec-

ond set of stamens and the pistil (the first being already free)

from their confinement. The pollen-grains being already ripe, be-

come dislodged from their box-shaped anthers, and fall down upon

the head and back of the bee. The bee passes to another flower,

further up on the same stem. ‘The same process is effected, which

permanently releases the stamens and pistils (the former being

undeveloped). In the act of retiring, the head and sometimes the

back come into contact with the stigmatic surface of the pistil

which projects slightly beyond the stamens, and which being

abruptly curved downward, cannot escape fertilization.

At the time of writing, June 29, 1874, a second crop of flowers

is visible. These are principally secondary clusters, which have

pushed from the long, pendent compound leaves, which are to be

observed at the basal third of the primary floral axes. For more

week I have attentively watched these flowers, in the hope

of witnessing the visits of bees. Up to the present moment it

has not been my privilege. Bombi pass and repass without being

attracted. Within the woodwork of the trellis which supports the

vine, are several burrows of Xylocopa virginica, and within a few

inches of the aperture which forms the mode of ingress and-

egress, there is hanging a cluster of flowers, whose conspicuous

color of purple and strong fragrance could not fail to invite atten-

tion and induce acceptance, were there a disposition upon the part

of this insect.

When the clovers, oe Trifolium pretense, are in blos-

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 264°

som, and the delicious sweets which they yield are eagerly sought

after, all other luxuries are held „at a discount. Bees appear to

be very fastidious, so to speak, in their tastes ; seldom noticing

plants of inferior qualities, except as necessity demands.

July 14th. The flowers have all fallen and not a legume, nor

the trace of one, from this second flowering is to be seen. During

repeated examinations of these secondary clusters, there was ob-

served nothing in the structure of the stamens and pistil of any

flower, to prevent self-fertilization, provided they had come to ma-

.turity at the same time. rere was abundance of pollen in the

anthers, and the stigmatic surface of the pistils was open and coated

with a viscid secretion. The presence of bees and the development

of fruit in a few instances where aided by those insects, associated

with the opposite condition, to wit, the absence of bees and the ~

consequent absence of fruit, the flowers being ready but the bees

being unwilling, are incontrovertible evidence of the fact that bees

are essential to the fertilization of Wistaria Sinensis.

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

BY. DR. O. O: PARRY.

—1oo-——

No. 4.

Tue following list comprises the collection of plants made in |

the above district, in the season of 1874.

The numbers given correspond to those affixed to the distributed

sets, and referred to in the previous papers. Where no numbers

are given the plants named were either scantily collected, or

merely observed. In a few instances the unnumbered plants, —

though belonging to this locality, were derived from other sources

as indicated in the text. Where no special locality is given, the

valley of the Virgen in the vicinity of St. George is to be in-

ferred. To the notes and descriptions following any particular

species furnished by other star ote the name of the author -

is appended.

“No. 1. Anemone decapetala L. Rocky ledges. April.

No. 2. Ranunculus Andersonii Gray, Var., tenellus Watson. King’s Rep. p. 7, t. 1.

268 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

regen Tn clumps, with the flowering stems quite constantly branched; Beaver-

dam

No. r Delphinium Seer oun Michx

0.4 Benth. Clar:

` a.

No. 5. Berber eris Fremontii Torr. Beaverdam mts eh ay.

No. 6. Arctomecon Californicum Torr ont’s Rep. p. 312, t. 2. Dry gypseous

hills on the Virgen. Ma “i Peat from se description an d fi b ferred to,

Tehi PP

in its less hairy foliage, 4(

No.7. Eschscholtzia C Some ioa Cham. var. hypecotdes Gray

No. 8. Platystemon Californicus Ben Upper Santa Clara. WH ne. The most east-

= e ET from which t this well Aer Californian plant has been collecte

Arabi: nn. King’s Rep. p. 17, t. 2.

xo. W Streptantnus cordatus N Beaver-dam a May.

- dt. ia stone elie edges. Apri

i ` Capsell

No.1 . Thysanocar rpus cu ook.

No. i Physaria 2 eatery gi Bot. Ives’, Rep. p.6. This species seems to take

the place of the m common northern species, P. didymocarpa Hook., in all the

No. 15. Biscutella ( Dithyrea) Wislizen vend Wig: Sand drifts

. 16. int ium

num. ~ (2 + Pp. 29), st

leaves lobed. In every other respect the A iket is exactly Nutts okk L. reatar ox

asey; 620 Wolf) which = tartine mye S few-toothed at the apex entire.

cies is provided with a s what woody base and thick lea Ta pede the goto

conspicuous, capsule orate pa orbicular, marginless or very nearly so. Rocky ridges

near Cedar City. July.— ATSON,

pidium Frenontii Watson. King’s Rep. p. 30, t. 4. Profusely a

from a perennial uis base, forming diffuse globular shaped clumps, 1-2 feet

height, with copious racemes of small white flowers, succeeded by crowded rales

of ee Peers te. broadly Saree siliques. The figure above referred to

Watson’s Repo: en fi an imperfect fra; t, does not do justice to this fine

well piri asali Abundant on jiyi hill sides néar St. George, flowering in May.

No. 18. Lepidium montantas n

No. 19. Lepidium Wrightii G yp j;

No. 20. Arenaria Fendter$ Gray, Var. dlabrescens” Watson. A much finer pant th than

work.

No.21. Stellaria Kingii Watson King’s Rep. p. 39, t. 6, fig. 1-2.. Interior basin of

Central Utah. July.

. No. 22. Lewisia brachycal

No. 23 and a Claytonia PREE Dan. Vars. Shaded crevices of Sandstone rocks.

. Santa Clara ril.

No. 25. "Spharaten ger Torr.

No. 26 lvastram exile Gray. Bot. Ives’s Rep. p. 8.

No. 27. SESE spinescens Gray. Pl. Wright. Pt. 2, p. 29, t. 12. pester dam

Mts. May.

No. 28. Larrea Mexicana Morie

No. 29. Acer grandidentatum Nutt.

No. 30. Vitis Arizonica n. sp. Yo same branchlets, pasita and inflorescence den

occose-tomentose, adult naked or usually (at least on the nerves of the leaves) beset

with short hairs; leaves eee) pren ijay paies , With a wide (sometimes very

A bergs acute, with irr AB ar, sha arp, often very poin ted, rather small paai ae

bed with rounded sinuse

sii AA

1 Intermitting tendrils we find in those species of Vitis where arh lea

posed tendrils are succeeded by'a third leaf without a tendril, and so on in succession:

ves with op:

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 269

and bunches of berries shorter than leaf; berries small or middle-sized (2-3} lines in

Dirse; seeds mostly 2-3, usually obtuse with a small but prominent chalaza and

more f r righ

re or less indistinct raphe itis æstivalis, Var? Gray, Pl. » pt. 2, p. 27

Pac Seer 9.—Common along streams of Arizona where it was

first collected by the botanists of the erig Boundary, and of some of the Pacific

Railroad Ex tions; later by. Dr. Palmer, who made an especial study of it and

xpedi a

amie humerous specimens in mature ys uit; Dr. Parry’s collections are from south-

wester nite tah.

Wi me hesitation I ee to PRANIE a si TE in this intricate genus, and

espec fally ì in the Cordifolia group; 1 be united with any of

~ a = — ha ve m try aa suka i or itaele The forms belongin g to the Cordifolia

g y their more or ies a onbre atas ani T Ang. they ex-

ten a over the whol e breadth of the c and are V,

cordifolia with ie teks broadly dentate, aoa: leaves and smallest berries in inne

bunches, raphe usually strongly developed on the top of the seed as a well m

ord; from New England to Missouri, Nebraska and Texas; F. sienn with oien

incisely dentate, usually sharply 3-lobed, glabrous leaves,’ larger berries in small

ed;

bunches, mpos SS visible on top of se from Canada to the Rocky mountains

and to Texas; rizonica with smaller, broadly cordate, sharply dentate leaves,

menio fterwards, middle-sized berries in smz u es, raphe

or less indistinct on top of seed; lifornica with middle-sized, narrowly cor-

date, broa te, always tomentose or c cent leav m es in rage

unches, raphe invisible on the broad seed; found only on tie Pacific slope, fi

Sacramento Ba: ey southward.

The fruit of V. Arizonica aike like that of V. riparia to the better class of Axa :

can popi while that of the two others is scarcely edible, this is said to be q

luscious, and will in time no doubt be peeing in a warmer climate. Dr. ssa

seeds have well germinated with me, but the yines perished in the climate of St. Louis,

after a lingering existence of several years. tes seeds show a remarkable variability

in form and markings so as to weaken to some extent their specific value. I find them

generally obtuse, but emarginate and even notched on top; the chalaza is small but

usually quite prominent and is narrow pigs upwards into the cee hie on akan top of

he seed becomes inco. nstances re prominent.,

D ci ern

ona specimens I have seen, by having markies loved leaves. Their rages Ersa

rs 0)

inflexed; in the fertile flower-bud the A ens are shorter than the pistil, the fiia

straight and scarcely as long as the short anthers, and after fecundation recurved. I

could discover no difference in the condition of the pollen of both kinds of flowers.

This seeins to be the ordinary form of = fertile flowers in our wild species, and in

some cultivated ones, while some other stocks bear fertile flowers with aai eee

thus constituting the incompletely a character of our grape-v. ; purely

pistillate flowers I have never seen, and doubt whether they exist. Be G G. Eram

No. 31. Krameria parvifolia Benth

No. 32. Polygala phew Wajo. Am. Nat. Vol. vii, p. 299. Cedar City. July.

No. 33. Vicia exigua N

No. 34. Trifolium m Kingi woke. King’s Rep. - Intermediate in some respects

between L. Bolanderi Gray, and S. Beckwithii Bre

No. 35. Trifoi tiun erida ocephatum pe y. sen ep hiii: Viat City. July.

No. 36 and 38. g h, Var

No. 37. Hosackia rigida Be

No. 39. Hosackia REA ude & Gray.

the ordinary occurrence in all our grape-vines gime the oe of V. Labrusca and

- conten varieties; = these the tendrils are , each leaf has a tend-

ed to it all th only in well-grown Sans T This character dis i at

pf yaa of Ag pes Bra pete tendrils are found in all our species, w

the exception F. Reve which bears simple te tendrils.

270 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

No. 40. Dalea Johnsoni Watson. King’s Rep. p. 64.

No. 41. Lupinus So talk Pursh. An unusually robust and showy form, frequently

enggen ng; 4-8i inct

li. on. King’s Rep. 5l a t. 7.

Tu apt inus (Platyc sae sien i Watson. . Am. Acad. vol. x, p. N.

i v, caulescent, branching, teat and wT lies: pa i leale! 5-8

lines long, acutish, smooth above, shorter than slender peti say racemes short, few

flowered, on elon gsi pe a oa equalling A leaves; a sags short, scattered;

bracts shorter than the calyx; ctlets linear; calyx-lo tatoo, toothed, 3

lines long, the upper a ike as petals light-purple, nA lines long; pod 4-5 lines

long; seed a line or more broad.

An interesting addition to this section of the genus, PaE S paent nie Be

ea by its more slender habit, softer pubescence, and capitate long-pedu ra-

sommes. Wa fra a S. Utah (A. L. Siler, 1873); Loma on se Rio aeih. E Col-

isan 295 Wol olf). = TSON. Seah valley, S. Utah (Parry 1874) :

No. Watson. King’s Rep. p. 71.

No. é Ast rogatus a P Gray. gew -dam are May.

Astragalus cyaneus Gray. Pl. Fendl. This species seems to be w

distinguished from A. Laisa ENIS, to wack it has been referred, by the legumes adh

when

immature, and by the nar rower oblong acutish ena In A. Shortianns the wider

pod is rounded at base and strictly sessile, the leaves suborbicular, pete obtuse or

nese and the epee of the calyx aot closely arisi as in the oth A. Shor-

tianus has been collected in the mountains of Colorado; A. cyaneus in hee ‘Vasa

a 8.4 WATSON.

No. 47. Astragalus atratus Watson. Kiug’s Rep. p. 69, t. 11.

No. 48. Astragalus diphysus Gray. Cedar City. July.

No. 50. Astragalus Nuttallianus DC. Var. canescens

No.51. Astragalus megacarpus Gray, Var. Cedar City. July.

City. July.

k Sonor ete

No. 54. ee iee Gray. Cedar City. July.

No. 55. Oxytr i High m near near Cedar City. July.

. No. 56. Prunus penpals fascionlata Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. Vol. x, P

Emplectocladus fusciculatus, Torr. Pl. Frem. in Smith’s contr. p. 10, t. 5. Abundant on

l rocky slopes in se mey of the Virgen; fl. April; fr. June, popularly known in

es gag as “the w nd.” ;

Coleogyne. ezamosissima ee Pl. Frem. in Smith’s Contr. p.8,t.4. Flowering

Py he iio sa in June common shrub on the hills near St. "George; pe

deep green; flowers bright yellow, Leas The mature fruit is said to be gree

No. 58. Cer ated ledifolius Sou.

No.59. Cercocarpus intricatus n, Proc. Amer. Acad. vol. x, p. 346. (C.

breviflorus of ami Rep, p. 33, oak a aay ba City. July.

- No.60. Cowania icana Don

No. 6l. fniek rubescens Torr. Stansb. Rep., p.388, t. 5.

No. 62. Ribes 3 Pu Pine Valley. June.

No. 63. (Enoth lbicaulis Nutt , var eiD decumbens. Low, sending out from the base

4 } k ’ 1 bl pet tioled, sinuate, dentate ; com-

mon in peo san s soil near ‘St. prenei -Ware

No. 64. Œnothera Johnsoni n. sp. airig 5 primiveris, but the

and vali and they stigmas dune Peles inch long, the calyx-tube equalling

or exceeding the leaves; capsules 9-12 lines long, E hocewhit 4-angled, strongly Laven.

-not crested. Common on all dry hills near St. George. Dedicated to I. E. obn-

No. 72. “Enot hera ( Chylismia) Parryi, n. sp. Low, diffasely branched from the base, .

villous with i hairs; stems leafy; leaves ovate to Comes Buses A at pa!

long, sub-sinuately tooth

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 241

peta patton the slender branches and petioles subtended by small espns bracts;

owe eep yellow or drange, occasionally spotted with red inside, 3-4 lines broad;

long, ascen

Distinguished from any form of Œ. scapotdea, by its smaller a eee more deflex

ba bright yellow aoe ap soma’ habit. Abundant

pia at a ee e; fl. May.—S. WAT

o Th hera brevipes Gia. vee gure in size, from 4 to 18 inches high.

Rocky hisies ne ear St. George; fi. ez ai

No. nothera aigre Gray, v rviflora. Of a much more branching oiy

than He preceding; the leaves more aint pinnate; inflorescence more slender

_ flowers pale yellow, ie petals 2-3 lines long.—S.

0.75. Petalonyx Parryi, n.sp. Gra ay, Proc. Am Peace a ak; P tae phen

branches lealy up to the cbnilensed spicate heads a flowers; lower leaves oblong o

spatulate, entire, sub-sessile, upper ones larger, rhomboid Sbovate or ovate, ease’

acute at base, short petiolate; lobes of the calyx linear, twice as long as the ovary,

e itidus

Watson, of Serni Nevada. A low branching suffrutesce nt plant with c copious re-

locality near ae George

No.

Nu Vay.

ae 78. Mentzelia rS Sut Vir. ( ?). ae mere pe z ‘

. 19. Mentzelia ( Kucnide) urens Party. Gra Acad., vot. x, p. 71.

aah tee prea ng, abit hispid n with stinging bes pe ener with amare many-

bar hairs; leaves orbicular, unequally sub-dentate, penninerved, lower petiolate,

upper sessile partly clas sping a ai hs base; secures ana pedicels short, PI

bose; flowers large, petals light yellow, obovate, mucronate, often tipped with a small

tuft of hairs, near sf T as long as 5 the lanceolate lobes of the persistent caly? X, decid-

sth tp

TOE = internal corona. Sub-pendent from crevices of perpendicular sandstone

- Jun

ntzelia ( Bartonia) tricuspis n n. Ep. A span high, Lore bee sparsely hispid with

slender, simple bristles :h with the shorter and peculiar pubescence of the

group; leaves petioled, oblong-lanceola te, actite o grata ots sinuately pinnatifid-

caches flowers very short-peduncled, large; shies bracteolate, its lanceolate subu-

lobes about the length of the ae ena and half the length of the 5 spatulnte-

pretty numero series

nta. Appa henti & draad. ay a single pater en brought by ie sinif-siaee fh from the

sane fpes enka f St. hong May.—A. GRAY.

sae erus purpu tson. AM. NAT., vol. vii, p

No. e Deki toe see a ET . Highm a near ar Cedar City. July.

No. 82. L Bi ares: scupulorum Gra Proc. Am. Acad.. vol. vii, p. 347. Elevated

sheep fiersa f the Wahsatch near Cedar City ; July. The remar rkable persistence of

th ai the locality indicated,

Skaka of other more nutritious vegetation — one of the few oad plants that can

intain and even extend ite foot thold under the usually destruc of

ery :

cultivation and settlement on the native ` vegetation of any newly occupied district. A

somewhat similar condition of hings in southern Colorado has lately given rise to

u a cattle herders. e sr hat the intro-

duction of sheep and close grazing favors the growth of plants poisonous to cattle.

i pom Wats ae

euc on. AM. NAT., vk vii, p. 301.

8t. Cymopterus terebinthinus Torr orr. & Gray.

272 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

No. 8. Peucedanum macrocarpum Nutt.

No. 86. Galium acutissimum Gray. Dry rockŷ slopes on the Santa Clara.

——. Galium oon Kellogg. Mountains near Cedar City.

ymphoricarpus longiflorus Gray. Revis. Symph. Jour. Linn. Soc., vol. xiv, p

z 7 gothic intricately branching shrub with small leaves and long slender pant

white, tinged with pink; 2-3 feet high; abundant among shaded rocks adjoining the

ne.

No. 88. Symphoricarpus oreophilus sibs Revis. Symph. Jour. Linn. Soc., vol. xiv.

p.12. Mountains near Cedar City. Jul

No. 89. Brickellia bong as ©. Raton. King’s <p » DP. 187, t. 15. Cedar City. July,

No. 90. Brickellia signet Gray. Proc, Am. Acad., vol. viii, p. 2

No. 91. Anr tortifolius G ray. Pro o Am Acad., vol. vil, p: 353. "k common, large-

flowered growing in George; fl. May.

No. 92. Erigeron Bellidiastru m Nutt.

No. 93. Erigeron stenophyllum, var. tetrapleurum Gray. Very showy with its light

blue, copious rayed flowers, growing in crevices of sandstone rocks near St. George;

fl. Ju

No. 94. Townsendia strigosa Nutt. Cedar City. July.

No. 95. PERA pumila Nutt. Cedar City. July.

No. 96. Acamptopappus ane rocephulus Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. viii, p. 634;

ad.

Torr. in Pacif. R. R. Expl., vol. vii, p. 12, t.6. Common on diy hills near St. George;

fl. June.

No. 97. Aplopappus De DC. Sandstone ture on the Santa Clara. May.

No. 98. Hranseria dumos COTES: when in full bloom, in

M ay, th 1 ts as itant st

Fra a eri iocenira a Gray. Proc. Amer. PO vol. vii, p. 355. A shrub 3-

4 n feet high; only ly ate frniting specimens éoliected. Jun

Hymenoc Salsola Torr. & Gray. Pl. Potin. in Smith’s Contrib., vol. vi,

p- po 3 ‘s.

No. 100. Monoptilon bellidiforme Torr. & Gray. Journ. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., vol, V,

p. 106, t. 13. Only before known from a single Fremontian specimen, St. George;

fi. Ma;

No. 101. Chænactis macrantha D.C, Eaton. King’s Rep., p. 171, t. 18.

No. 102. Chænactis stevioides H. & A. St. George.

No. 103. nact t. M p. 94.

No. 104. Actinolepis lanosa Gray. Proc. Am. gaia vol. ix, p ge ie .

05. i . Proc. Am

No. 106. Syntrichopappus Fremontii Torr. pas R. kop, vol. we gos 15.

No. 107. Hymenopappus luteus Nutt. Pine Valley. June,

No. 108. Thelesperma subsimplicifolium, var. scaposum Gray. Bot. Mex. Bound., P.

Pine Lage une.

No. Ap erga rma subnudum n. sp., Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p. 72. Low,

snort lear from ich divided = ennial base; Senile thickened: ligid, canir

segments short, nen Ianeeolate oblanceolate; peduncles simple, scapiform, about

a span efeng achenia s n, surmo ania by an obtuse 4-5 toothed naked

corona. — lie. ‘July,

No, 110. ia Nutta Fo am, Valley. June.

No. 111. attnala Bichordaonié Nal rt ihe Pine Valley. June.

No. 112. yia g 1. & A. ade gist

“P.

No. 113. Tessaria borealis T. & Gr. Pl. Eg p- 75; Siter, Rep., t. 5.

No. 114. Psathyrotes annua Gray. Pl. hilt part 2, p. 1

No. 115. aga ramosissima Gr ray. Proc. Am. Mua. vol. vii, p. 363, note. Up-

per and lo pubescent; the ken s of the leaves and pe

tioles closely ii with ciliate jointed psat s, looking under s like a string of beads.

- These swollen glandular portions co the aromatic resinous stn that gives the pe

culiar ae odor to all the species of een s genns, being most marked in this pat

ticular one. :

——. Psathyrotes Schottii Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. ix, p. 206, A single speci-

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 273

men of this well-marked species was brought by the mail-rider from the lower valley

e Virgen

No. 116. Bai ileya ueia Harv. & Gray. Pl. Fendl.. p 105.

No. 117. Stylocline micropoides Gray. P1. Wright., part 2, p. 84.

No. 118. Tetrady H. & A.

e mit spinosa H. &

No. 119. Tetradymia glabrata Torr. & Gray. Pacif. R. Rep., vol. ii, p. 122, t. 5. Sevier

Val

a be sith dao n. es Gray, ibe Am. Acad.. vol. x. p. 73. Low, peren

nial, pube rulent; lea ich crowded on the thickened caudex, slightly fleshy, ie

vate, petioli ite mi untulate or 'sub-dentate margins; scape naked, less than a span

high, monocephalous; n the disk, outer sien ovate-oblong, inner

r i slenderly acumi inate; flowers sor the ray and disk yellows nai x sus ae

ceptacle short, tories -subulate; lobes of t

obtus se; scales of the pappus 9, ovate- sage jointa: iiye olay hills 3 near peor

y. Ju

uy.

Nos. 121,122. Gaillardia ae am Torr.

No. 123. Senecio Douglas DC., var. (?).

No. 124. Artemisia trifida ae Valley of the Sevier. July.

No. 125. Dicoria canescens Torr. & Gray. Bot. Mex Medea t.30. Oualy a few

immature plants obtained, DT it to be an annual, omaha Towering i in August

or September

No, 126. Cni lulat . ca»escens Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p. 42.

No, 127. oe Arizonicus Gey. a Am. Acad., vol. x, p.44. Ced ar City. hiy.

No. 128. g rr. & Gray. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. ix, p. 217,

note. Cedai r Cit ;

No. 129. civ peara ‘etna nad ds Proc. Am. Acad., vol. ix, p.211. Biennial; fl.

pe See aboy vol. i

o. 130. mg ir hates pcs. “Prec. Am. Acad. big: ix, p. 213

No. 131. Malacothriæ sonchoides Torr. & Gray. Gray, Proc. Am. pe aey IX, p. 214.

. Mal jaothete platyphylla Gray. Proc. Am. eet vol. ix, p. 214, note. Lower

valley of the Virgen; Ma

No. 132. EER Thu rberi Gray. Var. nana. ae aaa p. 325.

No. 133. Lygodesmis exigua Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., x, p. 217, note; fl. June.

No. 134. Stephanomeri« exi,ua Nutt. tore. & ok tos vol s

35. Troximon aurantiacum Hook. Fl. Bor pA 300, t. 104. Pine

valley. June.

No. 136. Ca re GEREP Wrightit Gray. Pl. ges Part 2, p. 104,

No. 137. Maelicothrix Tor: gprs o Pro cad., vol. i ou wor note; fl. otis

No. 138. Rajin parek Neo- Mi SE Pl Wright men 2, p 103; A. April.

No. 139. Microseris macro iki ta hay. Proc. A cad., vol. ix, P- gia oe

No. 140. Microseris linearifolia Gray. Proc. Am. E vol ga p. 211

ro. a Perezia mi ro cephala DC. Dry rocky slopes near St. George: 5i yor Mn

Ph aa Encelia Californica Nutt., var. (?).

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 18

THE INVERTEBRATE CAVE FAUNA OF KENTUCKY

ND ADJOINING STATES

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

oo —

I. ARANEINA. -

In an article on the insects and crustaceans of Mammoth Cave,

based on specimens obtained by Messrs. F. W. Putnam and C.

Cooke, published in 1871 (Amertcan Narurauist, vol. 5), I

expressed the hope that thorough zoological explorations of

Mammoth Cave would be made by a state commission or by per-

sons acting under the authority of the state. ‘This hope has been

fully realized. Since the publication of the ‘‘ Mammoth Cave and

its Inhabitants,”! the new geological survey of Kentucky has been

instituted, under the charge of Prof. N. S. Shaler, who invited

Mr. Putnam and myself to explore the caves of Kentucky under

the auspices of the survey. Accordingly, during portions of the

months of April and May, 1874, I examined Mammoth Cave and

Several are i. e., White’s Cave, Dixon Cave, Diamond Cave

d Proctor’s Cave, in company with Prof. Shaler and Mr. F. G.

Sanborn, aiaa on the survey, and subsequently Mr. Sanborn

explored these and Carter caves. In company with Prof. Shaler,

I also made a slight examination of the four Carter caves. Fully

appreciating the importance of the subject of cavern life and of

comparing the fauna of different caves, Prof. Shaler invited me to

visit Wyandotte Cave, and the Bradford caves in Indiana. The

Bradford caves I visited in company with Dr. John Sloan, of

New Albany, Ind., who had already examined, with much success,

many of the small caverns in southern Indiana. His observations

on the temperatures of the caverns of his state are of much inter-

est, and will be published in a succeeding paper. The collections

made by him and contained in the Museum of Natural History of

New Albany were also examined, and he has kindly sent me other

material. On my return I examined Weyer’s Cave and adjoining

Cave of the Fountains near Staunton, Virginia, and discovered

about twenty forms, where before none were known to inhabit

Soe RAMI NS IORNRN PNET ae T 2

1 By A. S. Packard, Jr. and F. W. Putnam, &vo. pp. 62. With two plates and cuts. i ‘

Salem, 1872.

(274)

INVERTEBRATE CAVE FAUNA OF KENTUCKY. 275

those caves. In the autumn Mr. Putnam made a thorough explo-

ration of Mammoth Cave. These papers are accordingly based on

material collected by him, Prof. Shaler, Mr. Sanborn, Mr. Cooke,

Dr. Sloan and myself.

Mr. Emerton kindly identified and described the spiders of the

caves, and his paper and drawings accompany this article. The

Coleoptera have been identified by Dr. LeConte, the Diptera by

Baron Osten Sacken, and the only Neuropterous insect found, an

immature Psocus, has = figured and identified, so far as it

could be, by Dr. Hagen

Without at this tiine speaking of.the physical aspects of the

caves, I may say that the life of the caverns is much more abund-

ant than I had supposed from the accounts given by others. The

spiders were found not infrequently in all the caverns mentioned

in the notes appended to Mr. Emerton’s descriptions. I should

say that the spiders were equally abundant in Mammoth and Wy-

andotte caves, but they were most abundant in Weyer’s, where

three species occurred. They were next commonest in the Carter

caves. These are small caverns, none more than a mile in ex-

tent; but it is interesting to observe that in Mammoth and Wy-

andotte caves respectively, both between five and seven or eight

miles in extent, so far as rude measurements show, there was but -

a single species. The following table shows the distribution of

the six species of true cave spiders :

MAMMOTH. |WYANDOTTE| BRADFORD. CARTER. WEYER’S.

Anthrobia |Linyphia — | ?NesticusUarteri.} Nesticus Carteri. | Nesticus pallidus.

mammouthia|subterranea | Linyphia subterranea.| Linyphia Weyeri.

Linyphia incerta. Linyphia incerta.

It will be seen that the two largest and consequently most an-

cient caverns, Mammoth and Wyandotte, and in which the phys-

ical environment of the species is most unvarying, have but one

species each. The Anthrobia mammouthia is only found in Mam-

_ moth, and the small ae i. is Diamond and Proctor’s, situated

about five miles from it. other species occurred in these —

smaller caves. The only i found in Wyandotte Cave was the

Linyphia subterranea, which also occurred in the Carter caves, |

276 INVERTEBRATE CAVE FAUNA OF KENTUCKY.

while in the Bradford Cave occurred a Nesticus thought by Mr.

Emerton to be identical with Nesticus Carteri. The Carter caves

and Weyer’s caves are small caverns, all perhaps less than half a

mile in length, with the exception of Bat Cave which is perhaps

over a mile in length; the distances are uncertain, these caverns

winding about very irregularly and their length is only estimated

by guesswork.

It is in the small caverns of Carter County, Kentucky, and the two

Weyer’s caves (Weyer’s and the adjoining Cave of the Fountains)

which are often but a few (less perhaps than a hundred) feet below

the surface, that the variation and number of species is greatest.

In each set of caves there are three species, to one in Mammoth and

Wyandotte caves. The individual variation was the greatest in

Nesticus pallidus, and, as might be suspected, in the eyes. The

degree of variation is indicated in Mr. Emerton’s description.

The spiders occurred more abundantly in all the caves than we

expected. The individual abundance was greater in the smaller

caverns, especially the Weyer’s eaves, than any others. In the

Mammoth Cave the Anthrobia occurred under stones in dry but

not the driest places, on the bottom at different points in the cave.

Sometimes two or three cocoons would be found under a stone as

large as aman’s head. The cocoons were orbicular, flattened, an

eighth of an inch in diameter, and formed of fine silk, and con-

tained from two to five eggs. They occurred with eggs in which

the blastodermic cells were just formed, April 25th. The eggs

were few in number and seemed large for so small a spider, being

cz%5 inch in diameter. The chorion is very thin, and finely

speckled. The blastodermic cells seemed very large, the largest

measuring nearly øy inch in diameter. They were round, not

closely packed and showing no indications of being polygonal.

They all had a dark, very distinct nucleus.. I was unable to trace

the development of the young, and ascertain if the embryos are

provided with rudimentary eyes. Two young Anthrobie hatched

out May 3d in my room. The whole body, including the legs is

snow white, with the legs much shorter than in the adult. The

adult in life is white, tinged with a very faint flesh color, with the

abdomen reddish, in some specimens the abdomen has beneath .—

several large transverse dusky bands. The Linyphia subterruned,

as observed living in Wyandotte Cave, is pale pinkish horn-brown

on the thorax and legs, while the abdomen is dull honey-yellow-

INVERTEBRATE CAVE FAUNA OF KENTUCKY. 277

What constitutes the food of these diminutive, weak, sedentary

spiders, I cannot conjecture, unless it be certain minute delicate

mites or young Podurz. They spin no web, though some of the -

spiders in Weyer’s Cave (Cave of the Fountains) do spin a weak,

irregular web, consisting of a few threads. The Sciaree and Chiro-

nomus are too large and bulky to be captured by them. The prob-

able insufficiency of food as well as light, may account for their

small size and feeble reproductive powers. The individuals were

far less numerous than those of the Acanthocheir and Chelifers.

The distribution of Cave Araneina in the middle states, is par-

alleled by that of the other insects, as we shall see in subsequent

papers. The other Arachnidans follow much the same law. So

with the Myriopods.. The Spirostrephon (Scoterpes) cavernarum,

of Wyandotte Cave occurs abundantly in the Carter caves, but not

in Mammoth Cave, which is so much nearer Wyandotte Cave. The

common myriopod of Weyer’s Cave, on the other hand, is closely

allied to Spirostrephon Copei, but much less hairy.

-I may here anticipate a fact which I shall bring out more fully

in a subsequent paper and which has an important bearing on the

derivative theory. I found in the Carter caves several specimens

of S. cavernarum which were reddish-brown, and had apparently

larger eyes than the normal white examples characteristic of the

Carter and Wyandotte caves. I regard it as extremely probable

that this reddish race has not been established long enough in the

cavern to lose its original brown color. We here see, in fact, a

cave species in process of formation, and I regard this as one of

several facts which I hope to offer in subsequent porom tending

to prove that nearly all the cave animals are mo ms living :

at the present day out of doors. In all the caves sao except

Mammoth and Wyandotte, living Pulmonate mollusks occurred.

The large dead snail shells I found on the banks of the river Styx

in Mammoth Cave, must have been carried in dead by floods from

the Green River or through fissures from above.

Every vegetable was carefully preserved. The common plant —

found in Mammoth Cave has been identified by Prof. Farlow as-

the old Byssus aurantiaca, now known under the name of Ozonium _

auricomum Link. Prof. Farlow, who kindly identified the cave

plants, says that it is “found in caves on wood in Great Britain,

Germany, etc., and has been found in Michigan and elsewhere by

Schweinitz. As far as I know it is simply the mycelium of some —

278 NOTES ON SPIDERS FROM CAVES

unknown fungus.” A young Peziza occurred in Weyer’s Cave, it

was not in fruit, was colorless, and impossible to determine spe-

cifically. A colorless Agaric also occurred in Weyer’s Cave.

The temperature of Weyer’s Cave on May 18th, was 55°-56°

Fahr. for both water and air; that of Zwingle’s and. Bat Cave

(Carter caves) was ascertained by Prof. Shaler to be 48° for the

water. Dr. Sloan ascertained the temperature of the brook in

Bradford Cave to be 55° on May 9th. The temperature of Mam-

moth Cave is 59° the year around, according to Prof. B. Silliman.

Mr. H. W. Conrad, proprietor of Wyandotte Cave, informs me

that the temperature of Wyandotte Cave varies from 54° to 57°

F.; that of Little Wyandotte Cave in April is 50°.

NOTES ON SPIDERS FROM CAVES IN KENTUCKY,

VIRGINIA AND INDIANA. s

BY J. H. EMERTON.

Tue collection of cave spiders contained about one hundred

specimens of eleven species. Two species were found only about

the mouths of caves. These are Theridion vulgare Hentz, a

spider found all over the country in shady places, and a large

species of Meta, which has been found in similar situations in

Massachusetts and New Hampshire, and resembles Epeira fusca

Blackwall. One young spider allied to Tegenaria was taken in

Fountain Cave, Virginia, and four specimens of a species of the

same family were found in small caves in Carter county, Ken-

tucky; all were immature except one female, and none showed

any subterranean characters. The remaining six species, all be-

longing to the Theridiidœ, were found in considerable numbers in

the larger caves where there is little or no light and the climate

is little affected by outside changes. One species of Linyphia

from Weyer’s Cave, Virginia, has the eyes of the normal size and

number, and the colors and markings of some specimens are as

bright as on spiders of the same family living in cellars or shady

woods. The other five species are all pale in color and show some

unusual condition of the eyes, three species having the front mid-

dle pair very small, one having all the eyes small and colorless,

IN KENTUCKY, VIRGINIA AND INDIANA. 279

with the front middle pair wanting in the males and some females,

‘and one species being entirely without eyes. Following are de-

scriptions of the last six species.

Nesticus pallidus n. sp.— Plate 1, Figs. ws Cephalothorax ge legs out _—

brown, abdomen yellowish: -white with brown hairs. Length of female 3

ea a a fering and nearly as set, little elevated in siren: ei nes of

e dorsal pit. Front middle eyes black and half as lar w as the

others, nearly touching « each other. Rear middle eyes separated from each other by

their diameter an the front middle eyes by half that distance; lateral su in

pairs separated from che middle tics by half their diameter. Mandibles ton as long as

the cephalothorax. Maxill and labium short and wde: Palpal claw long and,

slender with six teeth along the middle. Legs 1, 4,2,3. lst pair 10 mm., 2d 8.25, 3d

8.15, 4th 9.6, thinly covered with long hairs and without spines. Tarsal claws long

and slender, the lower with two teeth, the upper with 9 o , Epigy ; the

sacs showing through the in some specimen a en |

ished mo it sins iip pers distorted by the alcohol. The palpus which had cast its

skin is shov s is raised from its natural » Which

‘oove seg ‘pir rally round w te the palpal organ to ee eT A

long proc q Pii hes froth the bas se of the t

Fountain rihin next to Weyer sas Viegalss where

light. Several loose cocoons were found, one containing thirty or ‘forty Fa yos

hatched (Packard).

Nesticus Carteri n. sp.— Plate I, Fig. 28. sanoppa ax and legs light yellow,

3 me

hairs shorter than in N. pallidus. Abdomen in so mens with indistinct gray

markin Eyes smaller and farther separated from aa oa i us.

Epigynum fig. nat rape species is otherwise much like N. pallidus. Bat nt Zwin-

gle’s Cave, Carte o., Ky. (Packard). A cocoon collected b

Packard, from Brad-

ford se Ind., pei young, which had passed their second moult, ronaki of this

speci

Eiai subterranea n. sp.— Plate I, Figs. "a e and legs yellow-

ish-brown, in some specimens reddish. Abdomen white with brown hairs, in two

specimens from Zwingle’s Cave gray with noe te spots. Eyes s 8, fig. 30, white sur

rounded by a dark border, in one specimen colorless without dark borders, Front

middle eyes very small and in the two dark specimens from Zwingle’s Cave obscured

by dark markings on the head? Mandibles with seven teeth in front of the claw

grooves. Legs short 1, 4, 2,3, spines on desagenioe and tibia. es claw of — "a

two teeth, the upper claws with eight or nine. No claw

as long as the ma EERS extending backward along the under side of the — (fg.

29-31) or when th

Under stones in Carter and Wyandotte caves (Pac kard).

Linyphia Weyeri.— Plate I. Figs. 7-12. Cepha peg and legs yellow-brown, ab-

2.25 m

t ite. Di h of Cephalothorax wide and but

little elevated in front in eit ex. Fro dle sie near each other on a blac

Spot, r dle eyes separated by their diameter and e same dist: :

front e eyes, lateral eyes in pairs, ir surrounded rea an S-

ant twice it the middle eyés. Mandible long, spreading apart at the ti

and incline rd toward the yond the ends of which they extend a

hird of their length in the female and farther in the male; n

al claw. 1, 4. 2, 3, first pair 4 min. long i and 4.4 mm. in

g, o spines on femur, one on patella and two on tibia. Under claw of tarsus 3

with one tooth, upper s with nine or ten teeth. Epigynum with an oval opening

behind, twice as wide as pra in front of which is a short, flexible n.

a) Go,

Palpus of male, figs. 9 and 10. The tarsal process is a small hook on the upperside, —

he penis is long. and passes one and s half times round the palpat eps Bapported g

its ngth t h. Under z

the end of the penis is a soft brush-like appendage, and beside it two hard EEEE ue

280 NOTES ON SPIDERS FROM CAVES

Weyer’s Sate, eee in darkness, but not far from the oe ance (Packard).

Linyphia incer sp.— Plate I. Figs. 13-21. ength 2 Cephalothorax and,

legs orange- iri , abdo nen piei pg short, Hee brown eats: Cephalothorax i

h female. T es

from each other, figs. 18 and 21; the front middle pair are very small PAR larger than

the circles around the bases of the hair by which they are Surrounded, a only distin

guished from them by wanting the dark rim which surr mate the hair circles. In 5

females from Fountain Caye all the eyes are present rate my ir e of the

front middle eyes is wanting. pis 3 males from the same cave both front middle eyes

are wanting, as in fig. 21; iu one male one aroy of stia gront middle „pair is wanting In

A romane and 1 1 male from Bat Cave, Car r Co K¥

Mandi , inclined ‘bac kward toward the vaxi. se

teeth in front of the claw gr oove, whic ha e longer in the males o palpal pit.

Legs 1, 4, 2, 3, longest 4.75 mm. Tar goa short and slender, as claw with one

tooth, upper claws with 7 or 8 te a. a eh on patella and tibia. P nig um witha

small oval opening behind with dark brown border. Palpus of ¢, , having a

sharply-curved process at the bas oof were rsus, ee © penis is supported by a stout

ne to i 1 oft l

Fountain Cave, Virginia, among stalactites i in money with Nesticus pallidus (Pack-

rei oat in Bat oes Carter Co., Ky. (Shaler & Packard).

obia mammouthia. P late 1, Figs. 1-8. Ini 1844, Tellkampf described 33 jeesaa

iv fi

rong Pa Wile aay Archiy fur from

oth Cave, among them an eyeless spider, which he refe rea w ith doubt to the kesar

lide, apparently because he saw only 4 spinnerets.. The e s spiders for and by bcd

Matik

his figure 13 represents quite wet the out tline ofa specimen, flatter wt by press ure =

tween two glusses. No other eyeless spider was laut and no other which could be

identified with Tellkampf’s doses! ption. There seems, therefore, little doubt that these

i h me specie Tellkam du

short and wide. Sternum wide and hairy. Legs 1, 4, 2, 3. are about 2.5 mm.,

hairy, with — on stele aaa tibia. Under tarsal claw with one tooth, the upper |

— Ws with we or more short_teeth. No palpal claw. Palpus of g, pos 3, with a long aa

le of the tibia apo in a sharp hook. The tarsal process forms & 3y

panied by

a rai an appendage. Spinnerets dca i ae å the meer of the first eae

M r ee

ard) Sm e fou , g s

which were unusually large in 1 tl f the spider. ets.

[In this connection it may be of interest to learn the ones nion s Dr. T. Thorell, the oe

accomplished i a of Upsala. Upon receiving a specimen of Anthrobia mam-

mouthia, sag > sent him, he writes me that * the Anthrobia if it really is the true 4.

mamm woe scarcely differs from the genus Erigone by anything more

than ti the want ia eyes; it may, howpter, bo an ii as a peculiarity, that the three ps

sl "de ntated nor pectinated. The s

po belong most certainly to the family Therin iuidæ.”

On the other hand on the receipt of a pale n of the same species of spider and

me cave (Mammoth) as that from which the specimen was taken irge

ell

Mygalidæ, as was supposed from the imperfect description of Tellkampf, but to our

Dysderide, and the genus Leptoneta, only it is blind.”—A, S. P.]

IN KENTUCKY, VIRGINIA AND INDIANA.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

Anthrobia args eae 9.

y; anys side.

“

€

Miny pais Weyori de

8. meei and mandibles of ¢.

alpus of ¢.

Linyphia sep F:

a pal

foot

erk ai

"an

Qs side

n front of Nabe and mandibles.

of first pair.

xe of Ẹ hos Fountain Cave.

1oo

parie

Q side view.

foot.

palpus of g.

‘ oe tomes ie head and mandibles.

š E pn Q.

s 2 under side.

s € epigynum.,

. Nesticus Carteri 9 epigynum,

ote peg: — © underside.

Q front eri neg and mandivles.

ide

éé

“

281

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

I.. LAMELLIBRANCHS. ;

Havine gone thus far along the track leading from the moners

to man, we come to where the road branches in several directions.

The path from the Protozoa to the sponges, from the sponges to

the polypes, and from the polypes to the Ctenophoræ, and through

them to the Echinoderms, though at times devious and readily

lost, yet in the retrospect is more easily followed than those lying

before us. In fact there is no single track leading directly from

the lowest to the highest animals. We have to follow distinct

lines of development, and, after toiling up one ascent, find that it

ends abruptly, without bringing us very near the goal. We then

have to retrace our steps, return to the old fork in the road and

essay a new path. For example, following up the line of mollusca,

we come to the cuttlefishes with their well developed eyes and cir-

culatory apparatus, nearly as complicated as those of fishes. If we

follow the ascidian line of development, we trace immediately in

their larval condition a chorda dorsalis and a relation of rudi-

mentary organs which bear a striking analogy to those of Amphi-

oxus, the lowest vertebrate. Again, in studying the Brachiopods,

we follow a line of life which leads us to forms such as the Lingula —

which combines Annelid characters with remarkable features of

its own. If after traversing these paths we take up the long and

devious route which leads from the Rotifers through the non-seg-

mented worms up to the leeches and Annelides, to the Crustacea

and Insects, we shall then reach animals which in many respects

are only inferior to the vertebrates, and in complexity of organiza-

tion, in their morphology and in their psychological endowment a

are on the whole, superior to any other invertebrates.

What is this initial point from which these lines diverge? Itisa ee

larval form having a bilateral, cylindrical body, sometimes annu-

lated, divided into a preoral and postoral region, i. e., a head and

hind body, with a ciliated crown, often a whip-lash or tuft of —

bristles, with a mouth, a usually curved alimentary cavity, and .

anus opening often near the mouth. This stage is seen in

(282)

hide 5 SEU ee gn team aati dae ee

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 283 |

young Echinoderm, such as the Auricularia or Bipinnaria; or in

the Veliger state of the young mollusk; in the young worm,

whether the ‘ Actinotrocha” of the Sipunculus, or “ Tornaria” of

Balanoglossus, or “ Mesotrocha” of a higher annelid, or even in

the young Rotifers. For such a form the term Cephalula may be

proposed in allusion to the fact that a cephalic region is indicated

in this state, the Gastrula being a simple sac with the head end

not differentiated from the opposite extremity. Let the reader

compare the gastrula of the sponge (Fig. 49) with the Cepha-

lula of the Trochus (Fig. 138, B) and he will detect the difference

between the two stages. This stage is thus named simply to give

emphasis to the fact that it is a form common at one stage in

their life-history to several entirely different classes of animals,

radiate, articulate and molluscan, independently of any theoret- —

ical considerations. I will only say that the Cephalula bears an

analogous relation to these classes, as the Planula to the Radiates,

the Nauplius to the Crustaceans, or the Leptus to the Insects.

We shall see in our future studies of the: life-histories of the

different classes of invertebrate animals, how often this Cephalula,

with its ciliated crown, recurs.

No one has ever given a thoroughly satisfactory definition of

the type of Mollusca, and we shall certainly not attempt one here.

It may be said, however, that they are in their early stages, and

in nearly all (except the Gastropoda, in which the visceral or ab-

dominal end is asymmetrical), in adult life bisymmetrical animals

bearing usually an external or internal shell (sometimes the shell

is larval and deciduous), with the under lip converted into an or-

gan of locomotion, the large fleshy foot. The nervous system

consists of three pairs of ganglia usually surrounding the cesoph-

agus, sending nerve-threads in irregular directions to the different

organs.

The Mollusca usually have a well developed heart, more so than

in the Crustacea and Insects, situated dorsally and consisting

usually of a ventricle and two auricles. The respiratory organs

depend or project from the mantle or tegument, and are permeated

by a net-work of blood-vessels. A large number have an “ odon-

tophore” or “lingual ribbon, a band of teeth rolled up in the —

mouth. The mollusks are neither radiate nor segmented as in the —

Articulates or Vertebrates, though certain larve are BoE

annulate as in that of Chiton. :

284 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

For a further discussion of the characters of the mollusks as

compared with the worms the reader is referred to Prof. Morse’s

memoir ‘On the Systematic Position of the Brachiopoda.”!

The following tabular view of the mollusks is copied from Geg-

enbaur’s “Principles of Comparative Anatomy.” For further in-

formation the reader is referred to Woodward’s ‘‘ Manual of the

Mollusca.” ; ;

MOLLUSCA.

I. LAMELHBRANCHIATA.

1. Asiphonia (Ostræa, Anomia, Pecten, Mytilus, Arca, Unio).

2. Siphoniata (Chama, Cardium, Cyclas, Venus, Tellina, Mactra, a

Solen, Pholas, Teredo). 5

II. CEPHALOPHORA.

Scaphopoda (Dentalium).

2. Pteropoda. !

Thecosomata (Hyalea, Cleodora, Chreseis, Cymbulea, Tiede- f

mannia).

. -Gymnosomata (Pneumodermon, Clio).

3. Gastropoda.

Heteropoda (Atlanta, Carinaria).

Opisthobranchiata (Bulla, Aplysia, Doris, Glaucus, Holis). . "

Prosobranchiata. j

Cyclobranchiata (Patella, Chiton).

Ctenobranchiata (Paludina, Neritina, Buccinum, Purpura,

Murex, Fusus, Conus, Oliva, Strombus, Haliotis

4. Pulmonata (Lymnæus, Physa, Planorbis, Helix, Bulimu

- III. CEPHALOPODA.

1. Tetrabranchiata (Nautilus).

2. Dibranchiata.

Decapoda (Spirula, Sepia, Loligo).

Octopoda (Octopus, Argonauta).

s, Limax).

Development of the Lamellibranchs. It is only within a com-

paratively few years that we have learned anything of the mode

of growth of our commonest bivalve mollusks. To this day the

life history of the common clam or quahaug is a mystery. The

early stages of the oyster are only partially known. We know

much less about the early stages of the common sea mussel ; while

the history of the fresh-water mussel (Unio) sketched roughly m

1831 by Carus, is still fragmentary. For the first definite knowl- ,

edge of the metamorphoses of the Lamellibranchs, we are indebted

to the distinguished Swedish observer Lovén, who gave between t

years 1844 and 1849, a series of sketches more or less complete of

1 Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. xv, 1873, 8vo- pP- 60.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLEUSCA. 285

a number of marine forms. To him and to Sars, the famous Nor-

wegian zoologist, who made the first sketch of the metamorphoses

of the Gastropods, we are indebted for our earliest and most val-

uable facts in the life-history of the mollusks. Before ADEA some

larval mollusks were regarded as infusoria by Ehrenber

Of the mode of development of the oyster, the eae lamelli-

branch, the first information was supplied by Lacaze-Duthiers

(1854-5), supplemented by the recent (1874) observations of

Salensky. While some lamellibranchs, such as the Unio, are bi-

sexual, the oyster is hermaphroditic. The eggs, which are yellow,

~ after leaving the ovary are retained among the gills. <A single

oyster may lay 2,000,000 eggs. The spawning time of the oyster

in Europe is from June to September. During their development

the eggs are enclosed in a creamy slime, growing darker as the

“sprat” (the term applied to the young oysters) develops. w

The course of development is thus: after the segmentation of

the yolk (morula stage), the embryo divides into a clear peripheral

layer (ectoderm), and an opaque inner layer containing the yolk

and representing the inner germinal layer (endoderm). ew fila-

ments or large cilia arise on what is to form the velum or the

future head. The shell then begins to appear at what is des-

tined to be the posterior end of the germ, and before the di-

gestive cavity arises. At this stage the two-layered germ is said

by Salensky to represent the planula of the sponge. The digest-

ive cavity is next formed (gastrula stage), and the anus appears

just behind the mouth, the alimentary canal being bent at right

angles. Meanwhile the shell has grown enough to cover half the

embryo, which. is now in the ‘‘ Veliger” stage, the “velum” being

composed of two ciliated lobes in front of the mouth-opening, and

comparable with that of the gastropod larve. The young oyster,

vas figured by Salensky, is directly comparable with the Veliger of

the Cardium (Fig. 121).

We have, then, three stages of growth in the oyster, (1) the

morula, (2) the gastrula (with the digestive cavity as yet unde-

veloped and, (3) the veliger with an alimentary canal and a head

and hind body (cephalula). This is an epitome of the mode of —

development of most of the lamellibranchiate mollusks whose em-

bryology is known. Soon the shell covers the entire larva, only

the ciliated velum projecting out of an anterior end from between

the shells. In this stage the larval oyster leaves the mother and

286 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

swims around in the water, the cilia of the velum keeping up a

lively rotary motion. In this state Lacaze-Duthiers observed it

for forty-three days, without any striking change in form, except

that the velum increased in size, and the auditory vesicle appeared,

containing several otoliths, which kept up a rapid motion. But

still the gills and heart were wanting. Of its further history we

know but little, except that it becomes fastened to some rock and

is incapable of motion. The oyster is said by the appearance of —

its shell, to be three years in attaining its full growth, but this

statement needs confirmation.

The most complete life history of a bivalve mollusk is that of

Cardium (C. pygmeum), the cockle shell, as described by Lovén.

The egg of this shell is spherical, the yolk being surrounded by

a layer of white protoplasm, much as in the eggs of vertebrates.

‘The process of fertilization was observed by Lovén, who saw the

spermatic particles of the usual form, i.e. with a head and long tail,

to the number of a dozen penetrating through the envelopes of

the egg out toward the yolk. Following the morula condition the

embryo consists of two layers, an outer peripheral clear mass like

the ‘‘ white” of an egg (ectoderm), and a central dark mass, re-

garded by later observers as equivalent to the inner germinal

layer. The embryo now becomes ciliated on its upper surface

and already rotates in the shell. On one side of the oval em-

bryo is an opening or fissure ,! on the edges of which arise two

tubercles which eventually become the two “sails” of the velum. — 4

This probably represents the gastrula stage, and the embryo

already shows a tendency to become bilateral. The next step

is the differentiation of the body into head and hind body, ie.

an oral (cephalic) and postoral region.. Out of the middle fe

the head grows a single very large cilium, like the whip-lash of A

the Flagellata, the so-called flagellum (Fig. 121 A, fl; v, velum). —

The shell (Fig. 121 B, sh) and mantle (mt; ml, muscle) now begin

to form. Fram the inner yolk-mass are developed the stomach, the

two liver lobes = on each side of the stomach BiA and the intes- -

Orth ee s 1 Cre nella

ardi

not a secondary wa fete? ne as Salensky insists, but a SETE piae ange the ecto-

ee AAi is therefore properly a gastrula. It will be ps

the oyster on caine ae shell test to form before the mouth-open

The young ai rat stage Ee iately succeeding the morula is, fa then, a oe

the Cardh im and Crenelia, a gastru varran

D a class » as Salensky ddini

’

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA., 287

tine (i). The mouth (m), which is richly ciliated, lies behind the

velum, the alimentary canal is bent nearly at right-angles and the -

anus opens behind and near the mouth. The velum (Fig. 121, v)

really constitutes the upper lip, while a tongue-like projection (Fig.

121, B f) behind the mouth is the under lip, and is destined to

form the large impaired ‘ foot,” so characteristic of the mollusks.

In a stage previous to this, when the shell only partially covers

the animal, the veliger may be compared with the veliger of Trochus

(Fig. 138, B) and a remarkable resemblance be traced, the velum,

the bent. alimentary canal and the foot being almost identical.

The shell arises as a cup-shaped organ in both bivalves and uni-

valves, but the hinge and separate valves are indicated very early

in the Jamellibranchs. The earliest phase of the veliger stage

Fig. 121.

li 1

Development of Cardium. After Lovén.

(cephalula) indicated at Fig. 121 A, in which a cephalic and

abdominal region is demarked, may be compared with profit by

the reader with the embryo infusorian with its cup-shaped body „ —

and its crown of cilia, or with the larval Polyzoan or even the larval

Brachiopod to be hereafter figured. At the stage represented by

ig. 121, B, the stomach is divided into an anterior and posterior

(pyloric) portion. The liver forms on each side of the stomach

an oval fold, and communicates by a large opening with its

cavity ; while the intestine elongates and makes more of a bend. _

The organ of hearing then arises, and behind it the provisional _

eyes, each appearing as a vesicle with dark pigment corpuscles

arranged around a refractive body. The nerve ganglion (m)

appears abové “the stomach. The twa ciliated gill-lobes now

appear, and the number of lobes increases gradually to three or —

288 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

four. The foot grows larger, and the organ of Bojanus, or

kidney, becomes visible. The shell now hardens;. the mouth

advances, the velum is withdrawn from the under side to the

anterior end of the shell. In this condition the veliger remains

for a long time, its long flagellum still attached, and used in swim-

ming even after the foot has become a creeping organ. Latest

of all appe:rs the heart, with the blood-vessels.

Upon throwing off the veliger condition, the velum contracts,

splits up and Lovén thinks it becomes reduced to the two pairs

of palpi, which are situated on each side of the mouth of the ma-

ture Jamellibranch. The provisional eyes disappear, and the eyes

of the adult arise on the edge of the mantle.

The mode of development of Crenella marmorata is nearly

identical with that of Cardium. The Crenella is dicecious, the

females being known by their reddish ovaries, the males by their

white sexual glands. In this genus, however, there is no egg-

- capsule, and no * white” enveloping the yolk.

ll that we know of the development of the common muscle

(Mytilus edulis, Fig. 122, after Morse) is from studies made by

Lacaze-Duthiers on the shores

of. the Mediterranean. The

larval forms were not discov-

ered. The young about 4™™ in

length were found swimming

at ebb tide on the surface of

SS = the water. The shell at this

EZ ae _ stage is like a Crenella, and

j there are four long gill lobes,

which arise from the outer la-

. mella of the inner gill. 6

The fresh water bivalves pass through entirely different phases

of development from the marine forms. The eggs of Cyclas have

no shell, no “ white” and no yolk skin; they are few in number,

from one to six existing in unequal degrees of development w

broad cavities filled with a nutritive fluid, and hanging free from

the base of the inner gill. The velum is either absent or ri

slightly developed, and the shell begins to develop at two widely

separated initial points on the mantle, according to Leydig.

The fresh water mussels (Unio, Fig. 123, after Morse, and Ano-

= donta) represent another mode of development. In their embry?

Fig. 122.

Common Mussel.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 289

the velum is wanting or exists in a very rudimentary state. The

mantle and shell are developed very early. They live within the

parent fastened to each other by their byssus. The m (Fig.

124) differs remarkably from that of the adult,

being broader than long, triangular, the apex

or outer edge of the shell hooked, while from

different points within project a few large, long

spines. So different are these young from the

parent that they were supposed to be parasites

and were described under the name of Glochi-

dium parasiticum. They are found in the pa-

rent mussel during July and August. The eggs have a shell,

“ white,” and yolk skin and a micropyle. The embryo rotates,

Fig. 124.

Young Unio.

Fig. 123.

Unio moving through the sand with the siphons expanded.

and remains a month in the egg. When hatched, great numbers

still remain among the gills in a -mass of slime, and during this

time the shell thickens, grows rounder and somewhat longer.

The history of the ship worm (Fig. 125, Teredo navalis Linn.)

is one of great interest both from a practical and scientific point

of view. To the eminent French naturalist, Quatrefages, we are

indebted for its life history. Its general development up to the

time of the larval stage is much like that of the oyster. The

egg has noshell. After fertilization it undergoes total segmenta-

tion (Fig. 126, A). The two germinal layers appear as usual, the

velum arises much as in the embryo oyster, there being no lash, as-

in the Cardium, but scattered cilia. Swimming about in this state

the embryo would be mistaken for an infusorian. In forty-eight

hours after life begins, the cilia begin to disappear and the germ —

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 19 =-

290 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

sinks to the bottom. A deep fissure now separates the germ into

halves; meanwhile the mantle and shell have grown, and when

Fig. 125.

The Ship Worm.! After Verrill.

five days and a half old the germ appears as in Fig. 126, B, the

shell almost covering the larva. Soon after this the velum be-

comes larger, and then decreases, the gills arise, the auditory sacs

Fig. 126. develop, the foot grows, though

not reaching to the edge of the

shell, and the larva can still

swim about free in the water. —

When of the size of a grain of

millet, it becomes spherical,

as in Fig. 126, C, brown and

opaque. ae long and slender

shell, and the velum assumes

the form of a swollen ring on

which is a double crown of cilia.

The ears and eyes develop more, and the animal alternately swims

with its velum, or walks by means of the foot. At this stage

Quatrefages thinks it seeks the piles of wharves and floating wood

in which it bores and completes its metamorphosis. The further

Development of the Ship Worm.

changes must be very great before it assumes the adult form of —

the ship worm with its long body, but these stages have not been

observed. Keferstein, however, says that Vrolik saw in July the

1Fig. 125, c, collar; p, pallets; ¢, siphonal tubes; s, — f, foot. After Verrill. Re-

port U. S. Fish Commissioner. Fig. 126, v, velum; f, foot. After Quatrefages.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 291

larvee swimming about on the coast of Holland, and some by the

middle of the month had bored into the wood and attained the

adult Teredo form, though still very small, while others in Sep-

tember still retained their larval, veliger shape. It requires about

three weeks for them to complete their metamorphosis. Verrill

states that the Teredo navalis on the coast of New England “ pro-

duces its young in May, and probably through the greater part or

all of the summer.” Quatrefages says that the Teredos die during

the winter succeeding their birth.

Keferstein tells us that some lamellibranchs attain their growth

in one year. The fresh water mussels (Unio and Anodonta) are

thought to live from ten to twelve years, while Tridacna gigantea

probably lives from sixty years to a century.

The time of spawning usually takes place in summer. The

edible mussel (Mytilus edulis) and different species of Venus

are found with eggs and embryos among the gills from March till

May, on the coast of Holland and France, while Pholas and Pan-

dora and most other genera breed from July until September. On

the Sicilian coast, according to Poli, Mya and Solen breed early

in spring; Pholas, Chama, Venus, Donax, Anomia, Tellina and

Mactra in summer; Mytilus edulis from October to December.

We have seen that the Lamellibranchs pass through a true

veliger stage, and we shall soon see that their larval forms are

directly comparable with the veliger state of most Cephalophora.

In after life the “ head” of the bivalve, i.e. the oral and preoral

part of the body, which was fully half as large as the body in

the veliger, diminishes greatly in size and importance, becoming

finally merged with the postoral region and represented simply

by the palpi and foot, the mouth-opening being situated at or

near the extremity of the body, so that the old a) pri

well indicates the want of a cephalic region ared wi

the large and well developed head of the satin (ioa

and cuttle-fishes (Cephalopoda).

The summary of changes is usually as follows :

1. Egg fertilized by tailed spermatic particles.

2. Morula.

3. Gastrula. (Observed in a very few cases.)

4. Veliger (Cephalula). In Unio and Cyclas wholly or mostly

suppressed. i

5. Adult Lamellibranch.

292 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

LITERATURE.

J. E. Carus. Entwicklung von Unio und Anodonta. (Nova Acta Phys. Med. Leo-

pold. 1831).

S. Lovén. Tiet of Marine Lamellibranchs. (Ofversigt af Kong. Vetensk.

kad. 1844-1849. Wie; n’s Archiv, 184 pe See also Keferstein’s abstract in Bronn’s

Classen und Daia pas kry iii.

Quatrefages. Anatomie et ine dela Teredo. (Annales des Sciences

Nat

848-50.

Tabane: Duthiere: Development of various Lamellibranchs. (A les des Sc. Nat

1854.

0. Schmidt. Sis ickelung von Cyclas. reei Archiv, 1854).

F. Leydig. Cyclas; Anatomie und Entwickelung. (Müller’s Archiv, 1855).

. Salen: Bemerkun ngen über Hæ ckel’s Gastrea-Theorie, with three drawings

of th bryo oyster and very p (Wiegmann’s Archiv; 1874).

II. THE CEPHALOPHORA.

The Cephalophora include not only the Gastropods (snails and

whelks) but more aberrant forms such as the swimming Pteropods

Fig. 127.

Fig. 128.

Helix in its natural position, creeping.

Trivi a Gas-

: ‘pod. After

and the Dentalium, etc. The term indicates the presence in the

adult of a well formed head, as distinguished from the acephalous

clams. Not only is there a head, but the eyes are restricted to

the most anterior part of the preoral region, being, as in the

snail, borne on extensile tentacles, whereas in the bivalves, such

as the pecten, the eyes are scattered on the edge of the mantle

along the entire body. The adult animal is not symmetrical, the

mantle containing the viscera being thrown on one side. The foot

is greatly enlarged, forming the entire under side of the animal,

as in the snail (Fig. 128). The shell is usually external, spiral and -

asymmetrical, or cup-shaped.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 293

The tooth shell, or Dentalium, is the lowest of its class, and its

life history is one of much interest. For the following facts we

are indebted to the memoir of Lacaze-Duthiers. The sexes are

distinct. It breeds from the beginning of August until the middle

of September. After fertilization by the spermatic particles, which

Lacaze-Duthiers saw penetrating into the egg, the egg undergoes"

complete segmentation (A). At the end of this time the embryo

swims about by means of tufts of fine cilia (Fig. 129, B), and a

pencil of large cilia in front. It then lengthens and is provided

with seven bands of Gilia, and the larva is remarkably worm-like

Fig. 129.

Development of Dentalium.

(C). When two days old the mantle secretes a small shell (a) at

the end of the body. The ciliated bands now approach and form

4 swollen ring, or ciliated crown, the velum, as in fig. 129, D, z.

At this time the shell is median, unpaired and situated on the back

of the larva. The lobes of the foot next arise. Fig. 129, E, re-

presents the young Dentalium, after leaving the larval state, and

when thirty-five days old. The three-lobed foot protrudes from

the shell now enclosing the animal, the rudimentary tentacles

(E, d) are visible, as well as the subcsophageal nerve-ganglia

(E, j) and the digestive canal (E, f, f”) and liver ( P) After this,

the change into the mature form is slight.

294 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

The winged sea-snails (Pteropods) are beautiful creatures found

floating on the high seas. With their large, ciliated velum and

rudimentary foot they represent the Veliger or larval condition of

the Gastropods. There is scarcely a more strikingly beautiful and

strange object in nature than the Spirialis with its large heavily

ciliated velum, which may be caught in our harbors with the tow-

ing net and compared with the young veligerous gastropods often

captured in the same net.

The egg of Cavolinia undergoes total segmentation, and before

the large yolk-spheres are absorbed, the spherical embryo swims

about like a larval infusorian with a crown of cilia. It may now

be called a Trochosphere.. Soon the larva assumes a conical form

Fig. 131.

- Fig. 130.

Larval Nudi-

Pteropod larva. branch.

Æolis, a Nudi-

branch.

Styliola vitrea. :

and subsequently the velum greatly expands. Afterwards the

Cavolinia, with its projecting foot, assumes a form much like the

_ veliger of Trochus (Fig. 140, B). Fig. 130 (after Gegenbaur), re-

presents a singular Pteropod veliger after the velum has disap-

peared, consisting of three distinct ciliated segments, like a worm.

_ Fig. 181, after Verrill, represents an adult Pteropod, Styliola vitrea,

enlarged three times, with the wings of the velum.

Bulla, Æolis and Doris, represent the Opisthobranchiate or

naked mollusks, which either, as in the two latter genera, have no

shell, with the gills arranged singly or in tufts on the back, or

possess a white shell, as in Bulla, the bubble shell. Fig. 132 (from — us

Verrill’s Report, represents Æolis). Fig. 133! (after Schultze), 2

1 Fig. 133, d, foot; s, nautilus-like deciduous shell; v, velum. a

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 295

represents the young Tergipes, a naked sea-slug allied to Doris,

with its large ciliated velum and foot, the animal being partly

surrounded by a large shell (s). This shell is finally dropped

with the other deciduous larval organs, the gills grow out from

the back and the soft elongated body of the adult nudibranch, as

this animal is called, is finally attained. It is a singular fact,

discovered by Sars, that in the egg-capsules of Dendronotus, as

many as six embryos develop side by side.

We will now more carefully study the course of development of

a Bulla (Acera bullata) as given by Langerhans.

In this animal the yolk of the egg subdivides into two spheres

of segmentation, one being much smaller than the other and dif-

fering in color. Each of these two cells subdivides into similar

halves.. The two larger cells then remain passive, while the

smaller form a mass of nucleated cells which in two or three days

form a layer surrounding the central, inactive yolk cells. On the

fifth day arises the first indication of the shell, and on the same

day is developed a furrow, the primitive mouth, which separates

the cephalic end from the postoral extremity. On the seventh

day appear the rudiments of the organ of hearing, and on the day

after, the operculum. On the ninth day the pharynx, stomach and

intestine begin to develop. On the fifteenth day . pig. 134

the otolites are seen in the ear. The liver is next

formed, and a few days after the eyes and nerve

ganglia, when the larva hatches.

With the mode of development of Chiton, a cyclo-

branchiate Gastropod, Lovén has made us ac-

Fig.135. Quainted, The larva leaves the egg oval in

m, with a ciliated ring in the middle of

the body and a long tuft of large cilia on

the head. Afterwards it becomes annu-

lated, as in Fig. 134 (after Lovén) and two

eye specks appear. Its resemblance to a

worm larva is now remarkable. It soon settles down into a quiet

life as a Chiton (Fig. 135, C. ruber, represents a species found

Veliger of Chiton.

Chiton.

on our shores, from Verrill’s Report, after Morse), and the lime-

stone plates correspond to the primitive larval rings.

Of the mode of development of the other marine univalve shells. ae

(Prosobranchiate Gastropoda), I cannot do better than avail my-

self of the recent papers of Dr. Salensky. His studies were made =

296 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

on shells living in the Black Sea, but we have species of Calyptraea

and Trochus on our own coast.

Calyptrea sinensis lays its eggs in pear-shaped capsules at-

tached to the same mussel or stone on which it lives. The young

of the same brood develop at the same time. Development be-

gins with the total segmentation of the yolk. After it divides

into eight cells the blastoderm forms, which consists of a single

layer of cells, the result of the subdivision of the first four spheres

of segmentation, which grow over and envelop the yolk spheres,

thus forming the two germinal layers (ectoderm and endoderm).

The cells of the outer layer multiply and form the blastoderm,

from which the skin, mantle and external organs, as well as the

walls of the mouth arise, while, as in the articulates, the aliment-

ary canal with its dependencies, the liver, etc., arise from the pe-

riphery of the yolk cells, the central mass being absorbed.

As soon as the blastoderm is formed, a heap of cells arise and

the ectoderm pushes in at a spot which becomes the ventral

side of the y. This is the primitive mouth. The anterior

part of this cellular heap is the first indication of the ‘“ head-

vesicle,” which becomes a provisional organ well developed in

he larva, and is also seen in the embryo fresh-water snails (Pul-

monata). The sides of the primitive mouth form the two * sails”

of the velum or swimming organ, so characteristic of the larval

mollusks, and which was first noticed by Forskal, who wrote on

animals just a century ago. Finally, the posterior edge of the

infolding, which is also at first a little mass of cells, is the first

indication of the foot. The whole surface of the embryo is now

covered with cilia, and by their movement

the embryo with its fellows, rotates in its

capsule.

The next change consists in the growth

and differentiation of the parts already

sketched out. The germ of the foot extends

backwards, the mouth-opening deepens and

becomes tube-like, the first indization of

the pharynx (Vorderdarm). The next most

important change is the presence of a layer of cells between

the outer and inner germinal layers, which is called the middle

germ layer, with cells very unlike the outer layer, from which are

developed the muscles of the foot and head as well as the heart —

Fig. 136.

. Veliger of Calyptrea.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 297

itself. Salensky thinks that this middle layer arises from the.

outer. It appears first on the ventral side of the embryo. The

germ is now of the form indicated by Fig. 136 (ce, ectoderm ;

‘ee, middle layer, the yolk spheres representing the inner layer,

endoderm; m, mouth; v, velum; f, foot. After Salensky)-

The next important chapter in the life history of the Calyptraea,

is the appearance of the mantle, which arises as a disk-like thick-

ening of the outer germ layer on the back of the embryo. In the

middle of the disk the shell grows out as a cup-like cavity which

is connected only around the edge with the mantle, but is free in

the centre. The ears or auditory vesicles next appear, which, like

the eyes, begin as an infolding of the outer germ-layer.

Up to this time the entire body has been symmetrical. Along

the longitudinal axis of the body are the foot, the head-vesicle,

the germ of the alimentary canal, and on each side a lobe of the

velum. The alimentary canal, now further developed, begins to

curve to the left, and as the shell grows, the visceral sack, or post-

oral portion of the body, hangs over on one side. Not until the

organs of sense appeared, the ears with their otolites, and the eyes

with their pigment cells, did Salensky discover any. trace of a

- nervous system, and then it was not the cephalic, but the ganglion

of the foot which first arises as Fig. 137.

a mass of nerve cells from the

ectoderm.

Fig. 137 (after Salensky) re-

presents the asymmetrical larva

with the shell enveloping a large

part of the body, and the velum

(v) and foot (f) well developed.

The larval head forms a third

of the whole body and is still

finely ciliated. The temporary

larval heart (h), a large oval

vesicle, is situated on the right side of the back of the embryo,

between the head and anterior edge of the mantle, in quite a dif-

erent position from that of the adult heart, which afterwards arises :

as a new organ. The larval heart contracts rhythmically sixty

times a minute. This is an entirely different organ, says Salensky,

from the pulsating vesicle or “heart” seen by Duben and Koen

in Purpura (Fig. 138, P. lapillus and egg capsules, from Verril’s

Veliger of Calyptræa farther advanced.

298 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

_ Report) and Buccinum, or the contractile vesicle found by Semper

in Ampullaria, Cyprzea, Murex and Ovulum, or the dorsal vesicle

of the Pulmonates (snails). There is,

however, a similar larval heart in Nassa.

At this stage also appears the primi-

tive kidney (Fig. 137, k), also a deciduous

organ, the permanent, adult kidney aris-

ing in another part of the body far be-

hind the larval heart. It resembles the

primitive kidneys of the snails (Pulmo- ©

nates), and appears first as a sort of

necklace consisting of four yellowish cells, situated next to the

larval heart.

Meanwhile the more the posterior part of the body grows, the

larger and more spiral becomes the shell, until the helmet shape

of the adult is approached. At this stage also the gill-cavity

appears, but there is as yet no trace of the gill itself. ,

n a succeeding stage the foot has increased in length, the

spire of the shell has begun to topple over as it were and fall

on one side like a skull cap, and now the adult heart (the peri-

cardium being formed first), and permanent kidney and gills grow

out. The gills originate from the ectoderm. It is not until this

period that the end of the intestine and anal outlet is formed.

The provisional larval organs now begin to disappear, the ceph-

alic-vesicle (larval head) grows smaller, the primitive pig. 139.

kidneys disappear. Of the larval visceral organs only Z

the heart remains which, though smaller, still pulsates.

It now rests under the mantle in the branchial cavity.

There are now two gill-leaves, and finally the perma-

nent heart is formed. The further changes consist in

the perfection of all these organs and the development AES

of the shell into the helmet shape of the adult. Fig. Calyptræa

striata.

139 (after Morse) represents the common Calyptrea

Fig. 138.

Purpura and Egg Capsules.

striata of our own coast. We have scen that the usual five stages

have been undergone, i.e. the egg, morula, gastrula (not so well

marked as in the pond snail, Fig. 141), veliger and adult.

The metamorphoses of Trochus represent another type of deo

velopment in the Gastropods, which illustrate points less clearly

wrought out in the Calyptræa. og

The eggs of Trochus varius are very small, spherical, and laid a

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 299

in masses of jelly on sea weeds. The morula, or mulberry mass,

forms as usual. The blastoderm arises from a few small

clear spheres of segmentation situated at one pole of four prim-

itive dark morula cells. e four vitelline or primitive cells,

instead of remaining passive as in Calyptraea, subdivide, as well

as the blastodermic cells. The egg now becomes flattened at

one pole and slightly pointed at the other, the latter being the

anterior end.

In six hours after development begins, the outer layer begins

to form, and the first organ to arise is the velum, which at first

consists of a swollen ciliated ring on the anterior end of the em-

bryo. This stage (Fig. 140, A, v, velum, after Salensky) is equiv-

alent to the trochosphere (Lankester) of the pond snail. It will

thus be seen that the development of Trochus is now very. dif- .

ferent from that of the Calyptraea, where the velum, head-vesicle

and foot arise simultaneously. A little later the mouth and cesoph-

agus.arise. Salensky remarks that the Prosobranchiate Gastropods

as a rule develop like Trochus. In Vermetus, however, according

to the observations of Lacaze-Duthiers, the velum does not arise

in the form of a ciliated crown, but as a paired organ. Salensky

adds, however, that in other respects there is a strong analogy

in Calyptreea to Vermetus and Buccinum and Purpura, which

develop like the former mollusk, having a similar larval heart and

primitive kidneys, though the mode of development of the exter-

nal organs is almost wholly unknown. ere are thus five gen-

era of Prosobranchiate Gastropods which develop as in Calyptrea,

all belonging to the suborder Ctenobranchiata. ;

On the other hand, Paludina vivipara, Neritina fluviatilis, and

certain Pteropods (Tiedemannia neapolitana, Cavolinia gibbosa)

and a Heteropod (Pterotrachea) are provided, as in Trochus, with

a ciliated crown, the first organ lying behind the primitive mouth.

“ A good starting point,” adds Salensky, whom we have in reality

been quoting all along, “for the comparison of the development of

Trochus and allied forms, with that of other animals, consists in

this stage (Fig. 140, A). A cursory glance at the illustration, will

convince one that this condition of the Trochus embryo is simi-

lar to the larva of some annelides.. Examples of such Annelid

_ larvae may be seen in some Sabellidee (e. g., Dasychone lucullana) or

Spio (9. fuliginosus). The latter in escaping from the egg have __

a more or less oval body consisting of two layers, its only organ

800 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

a ciliated crown on the anterior part of the body. The idea of an

analogy between the Mollusca and Annelid larva has already been

suggested by Gegenbaur. Still more strongly does it follow from

these facts, that in the Annelides, as surely as in the Mollusks, the

mouth-opening, with the pharynx, arises immediately after the for-

mation of the ciliated crown and somewhat behind the same. Im-

mediately after the formation of the rudimentary pharynx arise

the characteristic organs of the two types: in the Annelides the

body segments with their appendages; in the Mollusks the foot,

shell and two velar lobes.”

Salensky then compares the development of Trochus with the

Rotifer, Brachionus, and finds some striking analogies. His facts

we shall present hereafter in describing from his memoir the life-

history of a rotifer.

In the second period of development of Trochus, the true Vel-

iger state is entered upon. The mantle and shell are formed much

as in Calyptreea. The body is now

flattened, and the ciliated crown

projects very slightly. The shell

(s) has grown considerably.

Fig. 140, B, after Salensky, repre-

sents this stage. The pharynx (4)

arises through a tube-like invagina-

tion of the outer germ-layer, behind

the ciliated crown (v). At the

Pe Se same time behind the mbuth arises,

a projection, which indicates the beginning of a foot (f). Within

the foot, as well as in the anterior part of the body, may be nò- —

ticed the middle germ-layer, which arises as a layer of cells be-

tween the outer and inner germ-layer. =

In the following stage the form of the larva is somewhat | ;

changed. The shell begins to unroll spirally on the under side of

the body. The velum grows more than the middle portion of the

head, and the lateral lobes become larger. The operculum also

arises on the posterior portion of the foot.

Coming now to the mode of development of the Pulmonate

mollusks (fresh-water and land-snails), we find that the aquatic

forms undergo a complete metamorphosis, while in the land-snails .

there is no metamorphosis, and they are hatched in nearly We

same form as the adult. z

Fig. 140.

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 301

The life history, particularly the earlier stages, of the common

pond snail (Limneeus stagnalis) of Europe has been worked out with

much care by Prof. Ray Lankester, his observations confirming

those of Lereboullet, Pouchet and others so far as they extended.

The eggs of Limnzus are deposited in June on the under side

of water-plants, in capsules enclosing one, rarely two eggs, and

surrounded by a mass of jelly. After seg- Fig. 141.

mentation the Gastrula (Fig. 141, m, mouth;

ec, ectoderm ; en, endoderm) is formed, the

primitive digestive cavity or mouth result-

ing probably from an infolding of the ecto-

derm. Lankester believes that this orifice or

mouth is temporary, the mouth of the adult

being a later production. The primitive

mouth closes as the embryo enters on the

Veliger state, in the earliest stages of which the embryo is oval

and surrounded by a ciliated ring, much as in the larval Trochus

(Fig. 140, A). This state is caled by Lankester the “ Trocho-

sphere.” A definite Veliger stage is finally attained ; the foot is

large and bilobed, the mantle and shell then arise and the larva

soon passes into the definite molluscan condition, with a shell,

creeping foot, mantle-flap and eye-tentacles. The young snail

hatches in about twenty days after life begins. :

Professor Lankester confirms the suggestions already made by

Gegenbaur, Morse and Salensky regarding the resemblance of the

larval mollusks to young worms. He remarks also that both the

Trochosphere and Veliger forms are ‘“ well known and character-

istic of various groups of Worms and Echinoderms, and the latter

is seen in its full development in the adult Rotifera, and in the

larval Gasteropoda and Pteropoda. The identity of the velum of

larval Gasteropods, with the ciliated disks of Rotifera, seems to ad-

mit of little doubt, and it would be well to have one term, e. g.,

velum, by which to describe both. The Trochosphere is the ear-

lier, more or less spherical form in which the velum is represented

by an annular ciliated ridge, and which is sometimes (e. g., Chiton)

provided with a polar tuft of long cilia.

“The cell, polyblast (morula), gastrula, trochosphere, and vel- :

iger phases of molluscan development are not distinctive of the

molluscan pedigree; they belong to its præ-molluscan history.

The foot, shell-gland, and the odontophore are sgam which are

TE = a Pond

302 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

distinctively molluscan—the last characteristic of the higher Mol-

usca only—the other two of the whole group, and their appear-

ance must be traced to ancestors within the proper stem of the

molluscan family tree. The foot is essentially a greatly devel-

oped lower lip.”

We would add that the Molluscan as well as Annelid Trocho-

sphere may be directly compared (morphologically, not histolog-

ically) with the embryo Infusoria (see Fig. 83, E, p. 91) and the

ancestry of the Mollusca as well as the Vermes should, as Haeckel

declares, be traced back to the Infusoria, perhaps the parent-

forms of the entire animal world above the Protozoa.

The usually hermaphrodite Cephalophora, as a rule, to sum up

the different phases of their metamorphosis, pass through the fol-

lowing stages :

1. Egg.

2. Morula.

3. Gastrula. (sometimes suppressed ?).

4. Veliger (the earliest substage being the Trochosphere, which

passes into the generalized Cephalula form; or, restricted to the

mollusks, the Veliger stage).

5. Adult mollusk, with foot, shell and often lingual ribbon

(odontophore).

LITERATURE.

paii papreman of Nudibranchs. Digs. e s eter 1837, 1840, 1845).

Pou Paris, 1847.

Tih. “Ue ber Paludina (Siebold and = Nike s Zeitsch

rift, 1850).

Koren and Danielssen. Bidrag til Pectinibranchiernes Udviklingshistorie. Bergen,

1851, 1856. (Wiegmann’s Archiv. ;

Kölliker and Gegenbaur. Entwickelong von Pneumodermon, (Siebold and Kölli-

Gegenbaur. Un ntersuchungen ueber Pteropoden und Heteropoden. Leipzig, 1855.

Claparède, Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte der Neritina fuviatilis. “ail

ler’s Archiv, 1857).

Lacaze-Duthiers. Histoire de Organization, du Dévelopment, etc., du Dentales.

(Annales des Sciences ~~ 1858).

Lereboullet. Recher es @’Embryologie comparée sur le Dévelopment de la Truite,

du Lézard et du Linéo. a ales des Sciences Nat., 1862).

Salensky. Beitra ; See der Prosobranchien. (Siebold

and paroki Zeitschrin, 1872

Zur

anger

Kölliker’s Zelite, tate

Lankester. Observations on the Development of the Pond Snail. (Quart. Journ.

Microscopical Science, 1874.)

Consult also Keferstein, the author of vol. 3 of Bronn’s Classen und Ordnungen der

Aerien ; 1862-66; and papers in eee t journals and transactions of Alder and

ock; Carus, Krohn, Lacaze-Duthiers, Lovén, Miller, Reid, Schmarda, and

sal :

earning der Gastropoda Opisthobranchiata. (Siebold and —

See. ete ee Res es ee tea A

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 303

Development of the Cephalopods. Though the homologies of the

Cephalopods with the Cephalophora, particularly the Pteropods,

are quite direct, yet the cuttlefishes differ greatly i in their mode of

growth, particularly in the embryological stages. While the work

of Kölliker on the development of the Cephalopods is a classic, yet

I shall here avail myself in part of Ussow’s more recent work.

His observations, made at Naples, are based on two species of

Sepia, Sepiola, Loligo and Argonauta argo, and they agree so

well in their embryology, that the following description answers

for all. In the partial segmentation of the yolk, Ussow, as Kölli-

ker before him, was reminded of the same process in the eggs of

birds and the turtle. It begins on one side of the yolk; a primi-

tive furrow arising, which is intersected at right angles by a second

furrow forming four divisions, afterwards eight, until finally a one-

layered germinative disk (blastoderm) is formed on a portion of the

surface of the egg, on the second day after development begins.

The inner germ-layer then arises, which farther splits into two

sub-layers (the outer of which is the dermo-muscular, and the

inner the intestino-fibrous).

In Loligo and Sepiola by the 7th or 8th day the germ becomes

perfectly spherical and ciliated in portions, so that it rotates in its

In the second period of development, that of the production of

organs, the blastoderm covers the entire yolk. The mantle be-

gins to form, next the rudiments of the eyes arise from the ecto-

derm, and the mouth appears. The embryo is now like a convex

disk, or rather a hollow hemisphere.

On the 10th day the gills, funnel, arms and anal tubercle make

their appearance, the germ of the gills arising from the dermo-

muscular sub-layer of the middle germ-lamella.

On the 11th day the rudiments of the auditory organs, the

pharynx and salivary glands arise, as well as the anal orifice, and

on the succeeding day the auricles of the heart, the pericardium

arising afterwards. The walls of the aorta and of the larger arte-

ries and veins, with the offshoots of the latter (the so-called

kidneys), are developed from the cells of the middle lamella,

Which become elongated and arrange themselves in rows. On

the 13th day the ink-sac develops, and the liver. The intestinal

tract originates from the primitive invagination of the outer

germ-layer (ectoderm) as in ee A some Coa

304 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

terates, the Brachiopoda, Vermes, etc. As to the mode of origin

of the nervous system, Ussow says “1 have been compelled to

Fig. 142.

Development of the Cuttle Fish.

ive up forever the hope of finding any resemblance to its de-

velopment in the Vertebrata, Tunicata, Annulosa and Mollusca.”

All the ganglia of the Cephalopoda originate

from more or less compact thickenings of the

middle germ-lamella (dermo-muscular súb-layer),

as in the peripheral ganglia of the vertebrates.

Ussow was unable to trace the origin of the

genital glands, as they do not arise until after

the animal is three days old, and he could not

keep his specimens alive beyond this period.

Now returning to Köllikers memoir for our

information regarding the later stages, Fig. 142,

A (m, mantle ; b, branchial processes ; $, siphonal

processes; a, mouth; e, eyes; 1-5 rudimentary

arms, after Kélliker) represents the disk-like em-

bryo resting on the surface of the yolk; B, a side

view of the embryo when farther advanced (y,

yolk sack; h, head), and C the same still older,

the yolk sac still smaller, the contents having

been partially absorbed. Soon after this the

ody arms grow longer, and the animal

Egg Capsule of Lo- moves about in its shell.

ligo Pealii. i

For our information regarding the still later

history of our native cuttle fishes we are indebted to the observa-

tions of Prof. Verrill, from whose report on the Invertebrates of

Fig. 143.

Fig. 144.

ocala SE

---------

Fig. 145.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

306 LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA.

Vineyard Sound in Prof. Baird’s U. S. Fish Commission report

these cuts are taken. Fig. 143 represents the egg-capsule of

Loligo Pealii. Fig. 1441 represents the young of the same cuttle

fish, with the yolk sac (y). Fig. 145 represents the same farther

advanced, while Fig. 146 gives an idea of the same after hatching,

the yolk having been completely absorbed. Another species of

cuttle fish (Loligo pallida) is represented by Fig. 147.

Such is the usual mode of development of the cuttle fishes. But

in an unknown form probably over three feet in length, as its mass

of eggs was thirty inches long, the mode of development is entirely

different. The growth of the embryo is greatly accelerated, and

immediately after segmentation it assumes a state analogous, to

the Trochosphere of other mollusca. To Grenacher’s beautiful

Fig. 148. Fig. 149.

Development of an unknown Cuttlefish.

memoir we are indebted for the following facts regarding the

life-history of this cuttle fish, whose adult form is unknown.

studied the eggs found floating’ in the Atlantic ocean, and was un-

able to raise it to maturity. After partial segmentation, the

process being indicated by from five to eight radiating streaks,

on the surface of the yolk, the embryo assumed the form indi-

cated by Fig. 148, which represents the blastoderm growing

around the under pole of the yolk mass and approaching the

anterior end, where there is a swollen, ciliated band (v) appar-

ently identical with the velum of the Trochosphere of the lower

mollusca. This is an interesting point as Grenacher adopts

Lovén’s opinion that the arms of the Cephalopods represent and

1 Fig. 144 a, a'', a''', a"'"', the right arms belonging to four pair’; c, the side of sal

e eye; f, the caudal fins; h, the heart; m, the mant © in which the co OF

LIFE HISTORIES OF THE MOLLUSCA. 307

are homologous with the velum of the lower mollusks, particularly

the Pteropods, and not with the foot as commonly urged.

This spherical stage is also remarkable for the early appearance

of the mantle, with the contractile pigment cells (chromatophores).

It will be seen that the entire egg is, as in the lower mollusks,

converted directly into the embryo. The embryo soon elongates,

the mantle grows, the eyes and arms bud out, and the form of the

adult is rapidly sketched out as in Fig. 149 (m, mouth; a, a’, a”,

arms; /, inner and outer funnel-layer ; mt, mantle, the dotted line

ending in a chromatophore; h, ear; g, optic ganglion; e, eye.

We thus have in the embryology of this form, which seems

not very different from Loligo (as may be seen in a more advanced

stage figured by Grenacher not reproduced here), a mode of de-

velopment much more like the lower mollusks than was before

suspected.

Of the embryology of the fossil Tetrabranchiate Cephalopods

(the Ammonites, etc.) we know from the beautiful researches of

Professor Hyatt that the shell in Ammonites as well as Goniatites

begins as a minute globular sac; in Nautilus this sac “is not re-

tained, but traces of its former existence are a en on the

apex of the first whorl, in the form of a scar or cicatrix.

Summarizing the known facts regarding the living, dibranchiate

Cephalopods, we have eggs and spermatic particles developed in

separate sexes, the egg passing through the following phases.

1. Partial segmentation, analogous to that of Vertebrates.

` 2,a. Trochosphere (?) or germ developing on the surface of the

yolk and gradually absorbing it; the Gastrula state suppressed ;

or, as is more usually the case (b), the adult form is directly at-

tained.

LITERATURE.

Kölliker. Ent hichte der Cephalo Zürich, 1844.

Hyatt. araa of 1 the Wetrabrsichtates. (B alletin. we Comp. Zool. 1872).

nkester. ss te of the Cephalopoda. (Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. 1873,

and _ Journ, Micr..Se. 1875).

Zur aa steer na E der Cephalopoden. (Siebold and Köli-

Grenacher.

ker’s Tonket 187. :

Pate te Ae SE NE Investigations. (Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.

1875). ne

Consult also the writings of Van Beneden, Metschnikoff, D'Orbigny, G. & Pe

Sanberger, Barrande and Verrill. -

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Tue HERPETOLOGY or Eurore.!—In this work we find the

fullest list of European Batrachia and Reptilia which has ever

been brought together. They are characterized by full descrip-

tions, each of which is accompanied by an outline figure of the

more essentially distinctive parts of the animal. As a manual

for the determination of the species of European Reptilia, this

work appears to be the most convenient in existence, providing

the classification be not taken into account. It is also full in

the matter of geographical distribution, supplying’ a want which

has long been felt especially by extra European students.

Since the work is stated on the title page to be ‘‘ Sy stematische

raged it may be well to take a glance at the system

t-d. We find that the Batrachia are arranged in accordance

vies the system, or rather want of system, of fifty years ago. The

important structural features which distinguish the crania of the

salamanders, pointed out by Gervais, Gray and others, are not

regarded as of sufficient weight to affect the classification. In

consequence the genus Euproctus is united with Triton, and Geo-

triton with Spelerpes. The arrangement of the frogs and toads

is still more remarkable. But one of the four genera embraced

in the Pelobatidz belongs to it, and this genus Pelobates em-

braces two well defined genera of authors. The typical species

of one of these Didocus calcaratus is regarded as a synonyme of

the very distinct Cultripes provincialis. Of the three remaining.

genera, two belong to the Discoglosside, the type genus of which,

Discoglossus, is placed in the Ranidæ, a group which stands in the

remotest relation to it AEn with reference to the same

order. In the Anura as in the Urodela, SNET characters,

the only reliable ones, are tts neglected.

Among the serpents we notice with regret the substitution of

the time-honored Coluber by Callopeltis of later nativity, and

Periops is scarcely different from Lamenis. The family charac-

ters are derived from the dermal scuta, which are quite inadequate

for such serv ce. Characters of like inefficiency figure in the di-

nL en cca eae eae

1 Herpetologia Epropaea: Systematische eosin der amphibieon und reptilien

w. in Europa aufgefundsind von Dr. Egir Schreiber, Brunswick, 1875.

308)

BOTANY. 309

agnoses of the families of Lacertilia, hence we find the Agamid

genera referred to the Iguanidæ, and Opheomorus and Anguis

to the Scincidæ !

The review of geographical distribution at the close of the

volume is valuable in proportion to its completeness, which the

date of the work in a measure guarantees. But with every appre-

ciation of the value of the author’s species work, the absence of

systematic analysis deprives his book of the scientific merit which

would otherwise belong to it.—E. D. C.

Tne DISTRIBUTION or Insects 1n New Hampsuire.!—The author,

in this interesting essay, discusses with his characteristic thorough-

ness the relations of the faunz (Alpine, subalpine, Canadian and

Alleghanian) which have their representatives in that state. It is

illustrated by a map of the state, showing the relations of the

Canadian and Alleghanian faune, and another of the Alpine and

subalpine regions of the White Mountains. . The data are drawn

from the butterflies and grasshoppers. We were not aware that

such excellent material existed for such a full discussion of the

subject, which will, we doubt not, greatly stimulate further studies

on the geographical distribution of insects in this country.

Princietes or MeraL Minine.2— This is a compact, clearly-

written and well illustrated little manual by a practical miner and

member of the London Geological Society. The author has

adapted it for the instruction of young miners starting in life.

We have not met with a better and briefer introduction to the art

of mining for the general reader.

BOTANY.

Fucus serratus AND Fucus anceps.—I have received from —

Prof. A. F. Kemp, of Knox College, Galesburg, Ill., specimens of

Fucus anceps Harvey, and Fucus serratus Linn., with the follow-

ing notes concerning them which will be interesting to marine bot-

anists.

1 The Distribution of Insects in New Hampshire. A chapter gre the first volume of

the Final Report upon the Geology of New Hampshire. sd S. H. Scudder. Conc ncord,- .

1874. Royal 8vo. pp. 331-380. With two maps anda

a pla es

? Principles of Metal Mining. By J. H. Collins. Poca Passer i Science

Series. With 76 illustrations. New York, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 12mo, pp. 1 a9. Price a

75 cents. For sale by A. A. Smith & Co., Salem, Mass.

310 BOTANY.

I very much doubt whether F. serratus ever grew on our coast.

I am not aware that any botanist has found it in situ or in such a —

condition as to warrant the belief that it was indigenous. In June,

1869, I found it in Pictou Harbor, Nova Scotia, but only in mod-

erate quantity and attached to movable stones. It had all the ap-

pearance of being introduced from Europe, the European ships

coming for lumber were accustomed, I was told, to discharge their

ballast in the deep water of the harbor. This ballast, to my

knowledge is often taken from the sea-shore. In this way I think

the plant has been brought to this coast. It would be interesting

to know whether the plant has béen found anywhere else. Dr.

Harvey’s authority for assigning it to our coast is doubtful. * * *

At Peak’s Island I found a form of Fucus, very abundant there

but not noticed anywhere else. I sent it to Dr. Harvey who ac-

knowledged it to be new to the Atlantic coast, and like a be

lately found in Ireland which he said was named ‘“ Fucus anceps.”

It grows very large, has the habit of F. serratus but wants the

serratures. It grows just at low water mark and is never al-

together free from the moisture of the sea. I have observed places

north and south of Peak’s Island, but have never seen a specimen

anywhere else.

It looks so much like the young of F. vesciculosus that it is apt

to be taken for it, which it certainly is not.

A specimen sent me by Harvey is much less robust than mine,

very diminutive indeed but seems to have a like form. — D. S.

JORDAN.

GENTIANA ANDREWSI. — In one of the numbers of the Nart-

URALIST r for 1874, some remarks were offered by a correspondent,

regarding the fertilization of this species by humble bees. It

was assumed since the stigma and its style also project some dis-

tance beyond the anthers, that this species needs the assistance

of insects to become properly fertilized. The stigma is brought

in contact with the pollen in the natural development of the flower.

In the bud the epipetalous stamens and their cohering anthers are —

superior to the stigma. The latter is raised by the growth of |

both style and ovary, but especially the ovary, and pushed up

through the ring of the cohreing anthers, but not until they have

matured their pollen. This they shed so plentifully as to bury

_ completely the stigma for the time being, and fertilize it even

ZOOLOGY. 811

more effectually than could possibly be done by humble bees in

the manner suggested by your correspondent. Observation will

fully establish the main fact of this statement.— M. W. Vausen-

BURG, Ft. Edward, N. Y., Apr. 10, 1875.

STENOGRAMMA INTERRUPTA.—In Grevillea for December, 1874,

is an article by Mr. E. M. Holmes, “On Stenogramma interrupta -

Harv.,” in which the writer states that Harvey had never published

an account of the tetraspores of that plant, of which material had

been sent him by Miss Gifford. In the “ Nereis Amer. Bar.,” Part

II, p. 162, Harvey acknowledged the receipt of Miss Gifford’s

Specimens, and gives a full account of the literature of this spe-

cies, which is Stenogramma inter. yes of Montague, not of Harvey

as Mr. Holmes has it.— W. G. Fartow.

A Drrecrory or American Boranists has appeared in the

“ Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club,” New York. Also de-

scription of new fungi from New Jersey, with other notes of value

to working botanists.

Preserving Fungt.—A good method for the preservation of

Fungi is to place them in a solution of 1 part calcic chloride,

10 parts hydric oxide. This will change the phosphates in the

fungus into phosphate of lime (calcic — after which they

will be found to keep well. —J. H. MARTIN

Vorvox.—A work by Dr. F. Cohn on the developmental ~

of the genus Volvox has lately appeared.

Norta American Funer.—The Rey. J. M. Berkeley continues

his notices of our Fungi in “ Grevillea.”

ZOOLOGY.

= PAYLLOPOD PETERA i have received from Dr. E.

Coues, naturalist of the United States Northern Boundary Com- :

mission, a collection of these animals which he writes ‘‘ occurred in

myriads in several small prairie pools from a hundred yards to a

half mile or so wide, exactly on the Boundary line, 49° N., just

on the west bank of Frenchman River, Montana. You will not ~ :

find this stream on the map, perhaps, by this name; it is one of ©

the first of the whole series of similar streams flowing south into

Milk River. The species was not observed elsewhere. The ponds —

were extensive shallow sheets of sweet water, of a comfortable :

812 ZOOLOGY.

wading depth, generally with a little open space in the deepest

part, but mostly choked with luxuriant vegetation (Gramineæ,

Utricularia, etc.). Date of collection first week in July.”

The occurrence of the Apus-like form, which may be called Lep-

idurus Couesii, is of much interest, as the genus has not before

occurred on this continent south of the Arctic regions and Green-

land, where L. glacialis occurs. Our western species, however,

more closely resembles L. productus from Europe, but differs in

the much longer telson, which is long, slender and spatulate. In

this character, and its much longer carapace it differs from L.

glacialis from Greenland. It also differs from L. productus in the —

eyes being closer together and more prominent

In the males the carapace is a little shorter, and the telson twice

as large as in the other sex, being three or four times as long

as that of L. productus. Thirty-two males and thirty-one females

occurred. This equality in the number of the sexes is noteworthy.

With these occurred a new Lymnetis with eggs. It is interme-

diate in size between L. Gouldii and L. gracilicornis, but more

spherical than either. It may be recognized at once by the much

roduced, mucronate front, which in the two other species is broad

and spatulate and square at the end. From this character it may

be called Lymnetis mucronatus, Length .10-.13 inch.—A. S.

PACKARD, Jr.

ÅRTIFICIAL HATCHING or Grassnorrers.—I recently noticed

the hatching of grasshoppers under such peculiar circumstances

that I thought them worthy of public mention. I was travelling

with U. S. Troops in the southwestern part of Dacota Territory,

through a region which had been visited by the flight of grass-

hoppers of 1874. It was January and the weather intensely cold.

We generally came into camp each day at 4 r. m., when the snow

was cleared off, tents pitched and fires lighted in them, which soon

thawed out the ground and heated it for some distance around.

The fire was not kept burning more than five hours at any camp,

yet often the next morning young grasshoppers were seen skipping

about as full of life as though they had not been subjected to such

an unusual forcing process.—W. L. CARPENTER, U. S. Army,

Camp Robinson, Neb., Jan. 17, 1875.

[It seems probable to us that the larvæ of the Caloptenus

hatched in the autumn before the snow fell, as those of other an

-allied grasshoppers do in New England.— Eps. ],

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.. 313

DENDROICA DOMINICA IN InDIANA.—Dr. Coues notices in the

Narourauist for July, 1873, the occurrence of Dendroica Dominica

Baird, ‘‘so far north ” as Kanawha Co., West Va., as stated by

Mr. W. D. Scott.

I shot in Indianapolis, Sept. 25, 1874, an individual of that

species, apparently ‘intermediate between the varieties Dominica

aud albilora as given by Baird, having the part of the superciliary

stripe before the eye strongly tinged with yellow, and the yellow

of the chin and maxillæ narrowly bordered next the bill with

white.

Seiurus Ludovicianus Bp. I found last year about Green Ba;

Wisconsin, in some abundance in the latter part of April.— D. S.

JORDAN.

Ture Wuistitixc Swan. — A fine adult specimen of the whist-

ling swan (Çygnus Americanus) was obtained on the 20th inst.,

by James Logan, near Shelbyville, in this state. It measured

eighty-four inches from tip to tip of the wings. It was shot while

feeding along a small stream of water in company with two others,

one of which, from its brown color, was evidently young. The

swan is exceedingly rare in this state, only stopping occasionally

on its way to the North.—E. S. CROSIER, Louisville, Ky., March

27, 1875.

Hasits or Snatts.—A specimen of Helix pomatia lived for

eleven months without feeding, and slept for seventeen weeks. Its

weight was diminished by 0°13 gr., or 0-6 per cent. daily.—J. V.

Sivers, C. B. Ver. Riga. (xix, p. 112), Zoological Record for 1872.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Foss. Batracuta In Onio.— Prof. J. S. Newberry, director of

the geological survey of Ohio has made additional collections in

the fossil-bearing coal-measures. Land vertebrate remains of that —

age have as yet been only found in Ohio within the limits of the

United States, and the specimens are noted for their singularity —

and beauty. Thirty-three species of Batrachia have been found;

but no reptiles nor higher vertebrata. One of the novelties is a

species of the genus Ceraterpeton, the first time a European genus

has been detected i in this country. This form is as large as a rat, —

and has a pair of stout horns on the back of its head, in the posi-

314 ANTHROPOLOGY.

tion and having much the form of those of the ox. The skull is

sculptured by rows of small pits, separated by fine radiating

ridges.— Independent.

Tue Prospect or VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS IN THE WEST seems

to be good if the opinions of the geologists of Wheeler’s Expedi-

tion are correct. ‘In the past they have occurred so recently

that it is, indeed, surprising that there is no human record of

them,” and eruptions may take place at any time in the future.

In Southern Utah they ascertained that there are connected floods ::

of lava covering an area of 5,000 square miles, while in Arizona

and New Mexico there is an area not less than 20,000 square miles

in extent, and never before recognized as a connected belt.

GLACIAL PHENOMENA IN Uran.:—The southern limits of the

ancient system of glaciers has been ascertained by the geologists

of Wheeler’s Survey, through the entire extent in longitude of the

Survey, and an attentive examination has been made of the record

of an expansion of Great Salt Lake, which occupied the valleys -

of Utah, while the highest mountain gorges were choked with ice.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

CLAY ‘‘ HUNTING-WHISTLES.”— There occasionally occurs among

the relics of central New Jersey, found upon the surface, short,

cylindrical tubes of fire-baked clay, measuring from one and one-

f to two inches in length, slightly tapering, being half an inch

or slightly larger at one end, and about three-eighths of an inch

at the smaller end. These tubes I have always’ considered as

Fig. 150.

simply pipe-stems, and such, in fact, they may be; but two facts

connected with them, now suggest the possibility of their having

been utilized as whistles (?). Every specimen met with has been — :

very carefully squared at the end which joined the bowl of the —

pipe, if the specimens are pipe-stems, showing that they were

utilized after the fracture occurred. Considering, however, the

great abundance of fragments of clay pipes, it seems strange that

MICROSCOPY. 815

no broken stems, not smoothed at the broken end should be found.

Split stems, and fragments of bowls are met with, and occasion-

ally an entire pipe. The specimen figured (150) giving a good

idea of the whole series as found by me, was taken from an “ In-

dian” grave, associated with the usual “ find” of relics so occurring.

This fact seems to indicate that whether utilized pipe-stems or im-

plements de novo, they had some special use; and I suggest that

such use was as whistles. By placing the thumb over the basal

or larger opening, and holding the specimen at right angles to the

lips, it requires but a slight blowing effort to make a remarkably

shrill clear whistling, which can easily be heard a quarter of a mile.

In the hands of the aborigines, accustomed to their use, no doubt

a much shriller “call” could „be made with them. Of course the

whole matter is an undeterminable one, but I suggest this as a

plausible explanation of the presence of considerable numbers of

this peculiar relic.— Cuaries C. Absorr, M. D., October, 1874.

Tue Bronze AGE IN SwitzERLAND.—The Memoirs of the So-

ciety of Natural Sciences of Neuchatel (Tome. iv, part 2), con-

_ tains a beautifully illustrated memoir on the bronze age in Swit-

zerland, especially of the Lacustrian inhabitants,

MICROSCOPY.

A SECTION CUTTER ror HARD opsects.— Dr. George Hoggan’s

section machine, as described at the Queckett Club, differs radi-

cally from the tubular style of section cutters in common use.

According to the inventor’s assurance, which is fully justified by

the appearance of his contrivance, he had at the time of its con-

struction never seen a section cutter of any kind, and to this fact

he attributes the originality of his conception. The object fo be

cut, instead of being packed in a tube, is (protected by slices of

carrot or pieces of paper) fastened by means of a clamp and

binding screw upon a sliding support or “table” which is moved

in a grooved track at right angles to the course of the saw or knife

by a screw capable of giving a graduated motion of ¢}5 inch. On

each side of this sliding table, and attached to the bed-plate on

which it slides, is an upright guide-bar to serve as a lateral sup-

port for the instrument making the sections. Hard sections, as

of bone, are cut with a fine saw, what is called the “ Pearl saw”

being the best, which, like all other saws, should in Dr. Hoggan’s —

316 MICROSCOPY.

` opinion, be mounted so as to cut during the pulling and not dur-

ing the pushing stroke. The saw cuts sections of bone at the

rate of one in two to three minutes, which are sufficiently thin and

smooth, and only require to be washed free from sawdust to be

ready for mounting. The saw frame being thicker than the blade,

the upper part of each of the guides is set back so that the blade

and frame of the saw will both move in the same perpendicular

plane. Béth blade and frame are held against the guides by steel

springs, the face of the guides being also protected by hardened

steel, securing a correct path for the saw independently of the

skill of the operator. For cutting soft tissues, with a razor, the

instrument is turned so that the cutting is done in a horizontal in-

stead of a vertical plane, the object being arranged on the sliding

table by means of a tray. The cavity most convenient for ordi-

nary work will contain a 14 inch cube of the material to be cut,

though it may be so enlarged as to permit the cutting of a section -

of 4X6 inches.

Recent Ossectives.—Mr. Charles Brooke in his President’s

Annual Address before the Royal Microscopical Society, makes

some interesting suggestions in regard to last year’s improvements

in object glasses. A “remarkably fine 4th” by Powell & Lealand,

with an avowed single-front lens is mentioned, but its principle of

construction is not discussed, as it has not been made known by

its makers. :

Increased flatness of field has been obtained in objectives con-

structed on Mr. Wenham’s formula, by replacing the original

single plano-convex posterior lens by two plano-convex lenses of

proportionally less curvature. r, Brooke possesses a 4th thus

improved, which excels in definition any other objective in his

possession. It defines well with the sixth eye-piece of Ross, which

however, he would never think of using except as a test of defini-

tion.

The fog which is so conspicuous a defect in some otherwise ex-

cellent glasses, he suggests may be partly due to the multiplica-

tion of cemented contact-surfaces, and that it may be so excessive

in certain cases because of increasing not in the simple ratio of

such surfaces, but in proportion to the square of that number, 25

if an objective with four cemented surfaces should have four times

as much fog as one with two such surfaces.

MICROSCOPY. 817

PersonaL Equation IN Microscopy.—The ‘‘Monthly Micro-

scopical Journal” gives the following excellent summary of Mr.

Ingpen’s interesting communication on the above subject to the

Queckett club : —

“ Mr. Ingpen communicated some notes on ‘ Personal Equation,’

with reference to microscopy. He first explained the use of the

term in astronomy, as exemplified in transit observations, and in

its more extended differences by a constant quantity between ob-

servers, short of actual defects of vision. The same causes

affected microscopical observation, though they were not so well

recognized as in astronomy. The principle points referred to

were the following: I. Mental equation, as causing differences in

interpretation, , particularly with regard to test-objects. II.

ous equation, as shown by varied sensibility to tremors, etc.

Color. Difficulty in astinnntitig color, as noted in Admiral Smyth’s

‘Sidereal Chromatics.’ — Right and left eye often differ in this re-

spect. — Effect of yellow crystalline, referred to by Professor

Liebreich in his lecture on ‘Turner and menar — Difference in

visibility in violet end of the spectrum, amounting in some cases

o slig ght t fluorescence. — Effect of red and Salen grounds in

creasing definition in certain cases. — Effect of bluish mist ee

: ; r

correction of objectives.—-Color blindness often existing in a

paso degree tig oi We and difficult of detection. IV. Focal

equation. Differences in effect of long and short sight upon cover

n, ete., also upon init of focus, and power of resolving

surface markings. — Differences in ene of images formed by right

and left eye, atid consequent effect upon bi ones vision. — Wa nt

of accommodation, and ps bondostiontt vision V. Form.

General pce! of neon eye to show ultimate particles circular.—

Effect of s and triangular apertures. — Effect of astigmatism

upon form, pub enik arly K lines and do ts, as of in differen sl

directions.— Reference to Professor rennet lecture. — E

of diffraction upon Beth ts of light, ete. — General aias

of the effects of unnoticed differences sof vision producing discre-

pancies often attributed to other causes.”

The microscopists seem no more agreed than other critics, as to _

the peculiarities of the later Turner pictures, as “ Mr. . Waller

differed from Mr. Ingpen with reference to the later pictures of

mannerism which coald be vis aside ape

Picment-Particies. —Dr. J. G. Richardson’s uu that

particles of dried blood which washing has failed to remove from

318 NOTES.

the irregular surface of previously used glass slips or covers have

been habitually mistaken for recent objects and have become fa-

miliarly recognized as pigment-particles, is discredited by Mr.

Brooke, who does not believe such a theory applicable to the work _

of experienced microscopists.

NOTES.

Mr. R. U. Pirer in an article in a daily paper on the use of

Paris green in killing potato beetles, warns people against its use

as it is a deadly poison. A single grain is sufficient to cause

death, and a little of the dust received into the system from time

to time is extremely dangerous. M. de Kerchove also deprecates

the use of the arsenite of copper (Scheele’s or Paris green) as too

dangerous a substance to be made common. _ Its careful use during

the coming season should be inculcated.

Sır CHARLES LYELL has bequeathed $10,000 to the Geological

Society of London, ‘for the encouragement of geology, or of any

of the allied sciences by which they shall consider geology to have

been most materially advanced, either for travelling expenses, or

for a memoir or paper published or in progress, and without refer-

ence to the sex or nationality of the author, or the language in

which it may be written.”

Dr. Hormany, of Berlin, recently delivered the Faraday Lect-

ure of the Chemical Society at London. At a dinner, when one-

hundred and eighty scientists were present, ‘‘ probably,” says

“ Nature,” one of the most remarkable scientific dinners that have

taken place for some years, he made a noble appeal in behalf of

the recognition of the high value of pure scientific research.

Dr. STEINDACHNER recently read a paper before the Imperial

Academy of Sciences at Vienna, on the river fishes of the south-

eastern coast district of Brazil, from the mouth of sai La Plata

to that of the San Francisco.

Danie: Hanpory, the joint author (with Dr. Flückiger) of 4

late work entitled ‘‘ History of Drugs” died March 24th, aged 49.

He was an F, R. S: and treasurer of the London Linnean Society-

Dr. H. R. Gorrrert, the venerable professor of botany at

Breslau, celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of his graduation, Jan-

Ith.

NOTES. 319

Actinc-Governor Van Zandt has appointed George H. Wilson

member of the commission to prepare plans for a geological and

scientific survey of the State of Rhode Island, in place of Hon..

: Rowland Hazard, declined.

Pror. M. Fosrer and A. G. Dew—Smirn lately read a paper

before the Royal Society ‘On the behavior of the hearts of mol-

lusks under the influence of electric currents.”

Pror. Asa Gray, at a meeting of the French Academy held

on the 16th March, was elected an honorary member in the depart-

ment of science.

JUsT as we are going to press, we learn that the bill for the

scientific survey of Massachusetts failed to pass the House, but

the vote (nearly a tie vote) in its favor was so large as to indicate

that public sentiment strongly demands a resurvey of the state.

The movement in Massachusetts has extended to Connecticut and

Rhode Island, while the recently published report of Prof. Hitch-

cock, as state geologist of New Hampshire, is a credit to that state.

We look confidently to the institution, within the next year or two,

of resurveys of nearly all the New England states.

Ir seems that our paragraph taken from a Swiss paper regarding

the block of granite designed to cover the grave of Agassiz, con-

tained some errors. The bowlder in reality came from the terminal

moraine. Judging from its position when removed, it must have

formed part of the median moraine, and have been about 7,000

feet higher up where Agassiz lived on the Aar glacier. It prob-

ably came originally from the ‘‘ Abschwung.”

THE University of Wisconsin at Ann Arbor has received an

appropriation of $80,000 from the legislature for building a Sci-

ence Hall. :

E have received from Mr. C. F. Dennet an interesting pam-

ace entitled “Vegetable Fishes,” with special reference to the

textile fibres, ete.

Tue fifth volume of the Annals of the “Museo Civico” of

Genoa is devoted to an elaborate memoir on the birds of Pors

by Salvadori, of Turin.

A PROPELLER has been invented to imitate the action of the

dorsal undulating fin of the pipe fish and sea-horse.— Nature. ©

320 BOOKS RECEIVED.

Tue Signal Service office at Washington, is to publish in its

weather reports, the more apparent phenological phenomena, t. €.,

the times of flowering of plants and appearance of animals in the

United States.

Ir seems that a species of Peronospora, the same genus of

fungi as that which occasions the potato rot, infests the opium

crop of India very seriously, causing the blight.

ANDERSON SCHOOL OF NATURAL HISTORY, SESSION OF 1875.

Owing to the impossibility of carrying on the Anderson School

of Natural History at Penikese, on the same terms as formerly,

the trustees have decided to charge a fee of fifty dollars for the

coming session. The price of board will be fixed at the lowest

possible terms. The course of study, for the season of 1875, will

be announced at an early date. It is very desirable that applica-

tion for admission be made at once to the director. Preference

will be given to teachers. — ALEXANDER Acassiz, Director. Cam-

bridge, April 20, 1875.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

essay concerning Important Physical Features exhibited in the valley of, the, ws gag

upon piney! signification. bad G. K. Warren. Stas ag 1874. pp. 22.

ae ort af K Commissioner of Education, 1873. Washin gioni 1875. pp. 1048. Svo.

litatin ‘a Societe Geologique de Prone Paris, che a e, Tome 1. Nos. 1-5, 1873. Tome

II, Nos. 1 ey Tome HI, Nos. 1, 2, 1875. 8yo. Reun ae ‘traordinaire a Raonne. Aug.

and Sep vo. t-

Geo slegio oe — of Alabama, Report of Progress for 1874. By Eugene A. Smith, Moni

gomery, 1875. pp. } vo. Svo:

Geo ological Surv vey of Canada, Report of Progress s for 1873-74. Montreal, 1874. pp, 268. 8yo.

Proceedings of the Paa + i of Natural Sciences of dogg rags an rS Prao 13-286. pig 3

wane A arterly Journal of Microscopical Science. London, Oct. 1874. . 1875. pP-

vo.

1o Sitzungsberichte der physikalisch-medicinischen Societat zu iced Erlangen, 1874. pP-

b. Vo.

ae r Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft. Jena, 1874. VIII Bd. N. F. I., Ba. 3. PP.

Vegetable Piores, seg th Reh specie reference to the Textile Fibres, Rhea or Ranue, via New Zeslant

Flax. Th voce "Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society. By Char i

Dennet. Brighton, 1905, pp. 8. 2S

Bullettino della Societa P deta Italiana. Firenze, 1874. Anno Sesto, Trimestre, 1,

Jardin Imperial de Botanique de St. Petersburg. 1874. Vol. TIl, No.1. pp. 168. 8vo. a

beige Report of the Siate Geologist of New Jersey, for the year 1874. Trenton, 1874. pp. UR

Collection of Mineral: tions. By Rev. E. Seymours a

New Yor ok wag E aye neralsand Rocks, with Brief Descriptio ne ie

ransactions of t it nea of Science, St. Louis, 1875. Vol. ITI, No. 2.

Tidsskrift for Popul: ære Fremstillinger af Naturvidenskaben. kjobenhavi 1 1875. Andet

binds, Forste Hætte. "vO

a foc“ omologist's Mi thly Magazine. agg Apr. os 8vo.

The gips ee feat ag A ca A RE fy as ted ag ha Piit ro ril, 1875. 8vo

e American x ical Sciences. Philadelph a, AM $3

Jahrbucher des N ns fur Naturkunde, Wiesbaden, 1873 and 1874. xxvfl and

xxviii. pp, 258. kag Westfalens.

Verhandlungen des naturhistorischen Vereines der preussischen Rheinlande und We

pam Dritte Folge, Ja Sh ang 10, Pt. 2, 1873. Vierte Folge, Jahrgang nol R i a 8v0.

Freunde Be

Sitzungsberichte = Gesellschaft Natur-forschender Zu. 1874

Deutsche Entomologische Zeit:chrift. JAhrg. xix, Heft 1. 1875. 8v9, 62. ‘810.

Entomologie a gaat irs of the Province of Ontario, Report of 1374. Toronto, 1875. pP-

bhai

CAVE $

IDERS OF KENTUCKY

hte

T EL BI

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.—JUNE, 1875:—No. 6.

LO BGPORDOO TS

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

BY F. W. PUTNAM.

By the courtesy of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of

American Archeology and Ethnology, Cambridge, we are able to

give the following account of the very interesting collection of

articles, principally of pottery, from mounds in Missouri, forming

the Swallow Collection which was secured by the Museum last `

year, and now recorded in the Eighth Annual Report of the

Trustees made to the President and Fellows of Harvard College.

On the decease of Professor Wyman, the late Curator of the

Museum, in September last. the Museum was then placed in

charge of Professor Gray, as temporary Curator, who requested

Mr. Putnam to write a report on the acccessions to the Museum

during the year, and the following extract is = the report ad-

dressed by him to Professor Gray.

To enable a ready comparison to be made with the several

vessels referred to in the text as having been described in Col.

Foster’s “Prehistoric races of the United States,” the woodcuts

illustrating Col. Foster’s article in a former number of the Natur-

ALIST are reproduced at the end of this article.

The collection made by Prof. Œ. C. Swallow, recently secured by _

the Museum, is an important addition, particularly in articles of

pottery and stone of the moundbuilders, and as a number of

woodcuts representing many of the most interesting of the arti-

cles were received with the collection, they are- here inserted

aoo ee eaea

ntered, according to Act of Congress. in the peat 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY oF Boe

miinaa in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. (821)

322 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

together with the following abstract’ from the manuscript by

Professor Swallow

“We opened these mounds in cember: 1856, and the fol-

lowing month. There were present, assisting with their servants

and teams, Messrs. S. R. Phillips, John Martin, M.D., on

Lee, John Jackson, M. Jackson, Elijah Horrel, Dr. Gane: vasa

Fulton, A. E. Sheelds of New Madrid, Missouri, and Geo.

Northeutt of Columbia and some others.

“We cut a passage six feet wide entirely through the “Big

Mound” from side to side and from top to bottom, laying open

its entire structure.

“This mound is in Lewis’ Prairie, west of New Madrid. It is

elliptical in form, 900 feet in periphery at the base, 570 feet at the

top which is nearly level and about 20 feet above the surround-

ing country. This is the wide bottom of New Madrid county

some 60 miles long and 30 to 40 wide, and is known as the

swamp country. This was the country effected by the New

Madrid earthquake of 1811.

“A room seems to have been built by putting up poles (like raft-

ers in the roof of a house) ; on these rafters were placed split cane

(Arundinaria macrosperma); plaster, made of the marls of the

bluff formation, was then applied above and below so as to form

_ a solid mass, inclosing the rafters and lathing of cane, and this held

all in place; over this room was built the earth work of the

mound, so that when it was completed the room was in its centre.

The earth work was then coated with the plaster, and over all na-

ture formed a soil.

“This mud plastering was left rough on the outside of the room,

but smooth on the inside which was painted with red ochre.

(One of the pots found had been used as a paint pot).

“Some of the plastering was burned hard as brick, but other

parts were only sun dried, as shown by the pieces sent.

‘t Some of the rafters and cane lathes were found decayed, some

burned to coal and others all rotted but the bark. Some of the

rafters were, probably, of cypress, and others, of elm. This inner

plastering was found flat on the floor of the room as it had fallen

in, and under it were the bones and pots, the latter including

one that contained a human skull, which we found at one side.

This vessel was first hit by the point of the plow. It was bottom —

up, and not broken nor even cracked when I took it out of its

De cio a ley Nido oes yan Se eh L

tales Sey co

gr Ree, en ae

i Sak a pe ee A paai

$ = IF

UT SASS ie D a) EEE A AE F E E E RN S EAT

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 323

resting place, the skull within was not bróken and could not be

taken out without breaking it or the pot, a fact which attracte

much comment at the time. I remember one remark of Mr.

Phillips.—“ The pot was made over the person’s head as a ptin-

ishment.” The pot! and skull were afterwards broken by an acci-

dent to the box in which it was packed.

“All the articles in this mound were well preserved as the plas-

tering protected them from the elements.”

The character of the articles found in the “Big Mound”

mentioned in the foregoing account by Prof. Swallow, will be un-

derstood from the following short descriptions and accompanying

illustrations. The woodcuts, though rather roughly executed, are

generally quite characteristic of the articles represented. The

numbers used in the descriptions and to designate the figures are

those under which the articles are entered in the Museum Catalogue.

The clay in some of the vessels has been mixed with more or

less finely pounded shells, probably of fresh water muscles. In

other instances the pounded shell has not been used, but fragments |

of charcoal are to be traced, indicating that either charcoal itself

was used to temper the clay, or else, which is more likely, that

some vegetable substance was mixed with the clay, which, in burn-

ing the vessels, was reduced to charcoal. In a few of the speci-

mens sand was mixed with the clay, and in several, the clay was

apparently without any mixture. These last are generally thick

and rude in their finish, while those in which charcoal is now seen

are generally the thinnest and among the more finely finished

vessels, as in No. 7800.

Many of the vessels from these Missouri mounds show evidence

of having been heated both on the inside and outside ; but several

appear not to have been so heated, and these are not so finely and

Smoothly finished as those which have been hardened by fire.

The best finished of these vessels have the appearance, noticed

by Squier and Davis in other specimens from the mounds, of having

been carefully shaved by a sharp knife on the outside. The same

appearance is observable in the dark, Peruvian pottery. It is pos-

sible that this was produced by making the clay on the outside of

Eenennaam NAA

1This vessel is represented as Fig. 7761; a small portion of it is missing from near `

the bottom, and a few fragments of a human cranium and the vertebra of a deer are

now in it. Prof, Swallow has made mention of this skull in the Proceedings of the

Amer. Assoc. Ady. Sci., xxii, B, 401.—F. W. P

324 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

the vessels very wet and then hastily smoothing it just before it

was baked. The unburnt specimens do not have this peculiar,

smooth surface.

No. 7776. A jar surmounted by the figure of a woman sitting

upon her feet, represented by the two lower protuberances, as seen

in the figure giving the back view. The upper of the three pro-

jections shown in the figure represents the curve of the back, and

the front view shows the hands resting on the knees. This jar

is 7-7 inches high, and 5:8 inches in greatest diameter. The

bulging part has a nearly even diameter varying but °2 of an inch.

The jar is slightly flattened at its base so as to stand without

tipping. The opening at the back of the head is one inch in

transverse diameter by °8 vertical.

No. 7775. This very odd vase or jar is made in the form of a

woman represented in the same squatting position as that sur-

mounting jar No. 7776. The jar is perfect, though, from the clay

being less finely tempered than in the preceding, the features are

not so strongly defined. Each ear is perforated by a small hole,

and the pointed portion on top of the head probably indicates

different style of head dress from that of 7776. ‘The back is rep-

resented as very much protruded, the breasts are large and well

MENN:

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 325

formed. The dimensions of the vase are as follows: total height

4-6 inches; from knee to end of foot 2°5; from breasts to point

of back 2-5; from shoulder to shoulder 2°4; diameter of opening

in the back of the head from ‘6 to 7 of an inch. The very great

No. 7775.

resemblance of this figure to a small Mexican idol in the Museum

(No. 1469) is very striking. The idol is carved in stone and

represents a woman in this same squatting posture with her hands

upon her knees. See also the figure of a man in this same posture

in Foster’s Prehistoric Races of the United States, p. 240. This

last represents a water jar of the same general character as 7775

and is also from a mound in Missouri.

No. 7841. A large pipe carved from a hard sandstone and

rudely representing a frog or a toad. The design is better seen

from a side view than from the front as rep- No. 7841.

resented by the woodcut. The block of

stone composing this pipe bowl weighs 3

pounds and 9 ounces, and is 5:5 inches

in length, 3*7 in width and 3-9 in: height.

The head of the toad, or the part projecting

from the front of the block, is 1°5 inches, the

width of its mouth is 1°7, and the distance

from the outside of one eye to the other is

1-2 inches. The diameters of the bowl of the

pipe and of the hole for the stem are each 1:3 inches, and the iwo

holes are equal in depth, 2 inches. The holes rapidly narrow as —

they extend inwards, being but °2 of an inch in diameter at their

union. “The hole for the stem is sapiens tints but

326 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

that of the bowl is slanting on its front and nearly vertical on its

posterior portion.

No. 7761. This is the vessel which Prof. Swallow states was

found “near the side of the mound, bottom up and containing a

human skull and one vertebra.” It is rather rudely made and is

No. 7761.

not so smooth on its surface as the figure represents. There is

very little mixture of other substances with the clay of which it

is composed. A small portion broken out near the bottom shows

it to be about 4 of an inch thick, and also that the pot has been

hardened by fire, both on the inside and the outside. As shown

in the cut, it is provided with four handles symmetrically placed.

It is 5 inches high, 6'3 to 6'5 in its greatest diameter and 4°6 to

4:8 inches across the mouth.

No. 7778

mmr

Nos. 7773 and 7764 are two pots very similar to the one “=

described. The largest of these, No. 7773, is 6 inches high, an

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 327

from 7:7 to 8 inches in diameter. - The opening is 5'8 to 6'3 in

diameter. The other is much thicker, and is about 5 inches high,

by 6:8 in diameter.

Nos. 7820 and 7824, represented in the cuts of about one-

No. 7820. No. 7824.

quarter their natural size, are probably handles broken from vases

similar to. those taken from another mound and here figured as

OST?

No. 7842 is ie: a natural flint concretion that has been

ightly worked over to form a small dish. Its —

nee is best seen by tipping the engraving

over to the right. Its length is 4'4, width 3,

and height 1-5 inches

No. 7843 is a páli discoidal stone of

diorite, quite smooth and polished. wo. 7843.

It is slightly concave on its upper

surface, with flat bottom and vertical siges, and is 1:2

inches in diameter by °5 of an inch in thickness.

No. 7838. A double concave disk of- sienite, 28 inches in diam-

eter by 1-1 in thickness. The concavities are not over *2 of an

inch in their greatest soa The sides of the

stone are roun . 7839 is another of

these stones of fhe: same shape, except that

the sides are a little more rounded. Thi

stone is slightly polished, perhaps by use.

It is of the same thickness as the first mentioned but is °6 of

an inch less in diameter. With these is another discoidal stone,

No. 7840, having a thickness through its centre of 1-4 and a

diameter of 2-9 inches, but double convex in shape and made of

a gray sandstone. -

These discoidal stones of various forms and sizes are very

interesting relics, and as we know that such stones were used

in games by the American Indians, especially by the Southern

tribes and by the Mandans as described by Adair, Finly, Bartram,

Catlin, and others, it is very probable that these stones wherever

No. 7842.

No. 7838.

328 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

found were used for similar purposes. Messrs. Squier and Davis, in

“ Ancient Monuments of the Miss. Valley,” figure a number found

in mounds and on the surface, and call attention to their enigmati-

cal character and to the fact that they have been found from Ohio

to Peru, and also in Denmark. So far as their observations go,

they regard those found in the mounds as, probably, of more recent

origin than the mounds, but those found by Prof. Swallow in the

“Big mound” are evidently of the same age as the other articles in

the collection, and the very large number from the Mounds in Ter-

nessee, collected by Mr. Dunning and now in the museum, would

indicate that they belong to the mound period as well as to later

times. It is interesting in this connection to record two of these

stones found in Hartford, Connecticut, by the Rev. E. C. Bolles,

and now in the Peabody Academy of Science at Salem, and also to

- refer to the specimens in the Museum from the Hawaiian Islands,

one of which, No. 2903, is labelled ‘‘Stone used in the game of

maika, Hawaiian Islands.” The game played with such stones

by the Mandans is called “*Tchung-kee,” which Adair gives as

**Chungke.” From these names and the term « Chunky-yard,”

used by Bartram in his description of the peculiar enclosure in the

Creek villages in which the game was played, these stones are

. now generally called ‘‘ Chunky-stones,” but it is questionable if this

name should be given to any except those of large size which

are perforated, as the game described by Catlin requires a «ring

of stone” so that if the pole is well thrown the ring will fall upon

one of the projecting points on the pole. That those not perforated

may also have been used for.some other game is probable from

the fact that the stones used by the Hawaiians in their game, Of

“ maika” are, to judge from the several specimens in the museum,

simple biconcave and biconvex disks, in every respect like those

found in America. It is also very probable that some of the —

smaller stones of this character were used as paint rubbers, for ee

is evident that some such articles were required if paint were used.

Nos. 7873 and 7874 are two articles carved from a hard clay

No. t874. No. 7873, "late and carefully smoothed. Their use 18

problematical, but they so closely resemble

<=) (Ep lip ornaments as to suggest that they were

such. The largest measures 1'2 inches m —

length by ‘7 across the top; the other is ‘9 of an inch in length =

by *6 in greatest diameter.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 329

No. 7875 is a needle made of the point of a deer’s antler. The

larger end has been perforated by a small hole and is broken at

this point. The woodcut does not give a very good idea of the

specimen which is 3-3 inches long and °d of

an inch in diameter at its large end. A

similar needle, made of a deer’s horn, was

found by Stevens with a skeleton in an an-

cient burial place in Yucatan, and he states

that the Indians of that country still use the same kind of needles.

There is also an awl, 4'5 inches in length, which probably came

from the Big mound, though it is not specially mentioned by Prof.

Swallow. This awl is like those figured by Squier and Davis from

mounds in Ohio, and is made from a bone of a deer.

Nos. 7858, 7864 and 7865 are several masses of clay used as

plaster on the chamber of the mound as described by Prof. Swal-

low, and several of the pieces show the impressions of the reeds

over which the clay was spread. No. 7866 is a rough ball of burnt

No. 7875.

No. 7866.

clay about 3-5 inches in diameter, and shows the impression of

the skin and finger marks of the hands that moulded it. This —

mass was perforated through the centre as shown in the figure

giving a section.

No. 7855 is a large hoe, beautifully chipped from a pioni of

brown flint. It is 11-3 inches in length, 5-1 in greatest width, and

1-1 in thickness through the centre. One of the surfaces is nearly

flat and is much polished by wear on its lower third, while the op-

posite surface is slightly convex and only polished by wear rise!

its lower edges.

No. 7834 is a polished celt of greenstone, worked in the form of

abroad chisel. Its flat surface represented in the figure is 2'4 —

inches in greatest width and 4'7 from the rounded upper end to

530 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

the beginning of the bevelled edge, which is ‘9 of an inch deep.

The cutting edge is made by the grinding down of this side only.

No. 7852. No. 7855.

No. 7834.

The opposite surface is flat along its central portion but the sides

are rounded. The thickness of the stone is one inch. v

o. 7852. This isa beautiful, little chisel of orange fint, pol- e

shoe on its two broad surfaces but with its sides left roughly —

chipped. The greatest width of the implement is across its cut-

ting edge, which is made by grinding from both surfaces. Length :

8-5, thickness -7, width 1-4 inches. ee

Nos. 7853 and 7854 are two chipped flint chisels, long and nay

No. 7853.

INIER St.

row, and polished only at the cutting portion. The cutting edge

is made by grinding from both surfaces. The cuts do not accu-

rately represent these implements, which are chipped nearly flat r

one surface and roughly convex on the opposite. They are 0t

the same general shape, though of considerable difference in n

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 831

The largest, which is made of a gray flint, is 7-6 inches in length,

1:5 in width across the centre and -7 along the edge. The other

is of a much lighter colored flint, and is 5 inches in length, ‘7 of

an inch in thickness, 1-1 in width, and has a cutting edge of °6 of

an inch.

There are also a number of other stone implements in the col-

lection, some of which probably came from the mounds, and

others were found on the surface. They are all from Missouri,

and are as follows. Three thin triangular implements, No. 7

about 4 inches in length, 3 in width and from -4 to °5 in thick-

ness. ‘These three implements would be classed either as small

hatchets or skin scrapers. No. 7845 is a spear head, 3-9 long by

1:8 wide. No. 7846 is a finely chipped knife, 4-9 long by 1-5 wide.

This implement would generally be classed as a spear head, but

its finely chipped edges and long delicate shape rather indicate

its having been mounted in a short handle for use as a knife!

No. 7847 is probably another knife, of the general shape of the

preceding, but smaller, and having two notches probably to aid in

securing it to the handle. This knife is 3°6 long by 1-4 of an inch

wide. No. 7848 includes four arrowpoints of common form and

size. No. 7849 is probably a small spearpoint 3 inches in total

length by 1-5 in width. No. 7850 is a short and broad arrowhead,

with long wings or barbs and obtusely pointed. ‘This is 1:7 in ©

total length by 2°5 in width across the barbs. No. 7851 is a boring

tool, 2-5 inches long by about °3 to +4 of an inch in diameter, with

a short but, about 1*2 inches wide. All the above mentioned im-

plements are made from white or slightly yellow colored flint, and

show perfection of workmanshi

There are seven stone axes of ordinary size; the smallest of

these being 5 inches in length by 2'8 in width; the largest is

78 long by 4:8 inches in width. Nos. 7827, 7830 and 7831 are

of sienite, and are grooved on three sides, the fourth side being

squared. In 7827 the groove passes a little to the squared or

handle side, and this axe also has a more rounded cutting edge

than the others. No. 7828, the largest of the lot, is of green

Stone and the lower part of the axe is more narrowed than in ~

the others. No 7830 differs from the others in having a flat top,

like the iron axe of the present time, and more nearly resembles

ene ee E

e are, in the Museum, several flint knives from Europe which are very similar.

to this raneal t from Missouri, Nos. 859 and 865, from , are very close indeed as-

regards material, size, shape and finish of workmanship. o i

332 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

it in its general shape’ than do the others. No. 7832 is an axe

of sienite, but differs from the preceding in having the groove

carried all round. It is 5-7 long by 3:4 wide and 2-2 in thick-

ness. No. 7829 is a finely carved, grooved axe, made of clay

slate. The top is flat and the surface, om came in contact

with the handle, is slightly concave, and the groove, which is

quite deep on the opposite side, fades sai gradually as it ap-

proaches this side. The front of the axe is also slightly con-

cave, and at the same time has a curved outline from its top to

its cutting edge, which is short and rounded. This axé, which

is beautiful from its perfect symmetry and finish, is 6 inches

in length 3-5 in greatest width just below the groove, and 2°5 in

thickness. The groove is from °8 to ‘9 of an inch in width. The

cutting edge is 2-5 in length. No. 7833, which is specially marked

as having been found on the surface in Boone Co., is of a very |

unusual shape and may possibly be an unfinished implement. It —

is of sienite, 7-1 inches long, 3-7 wide across its upper third, 2°4 |

along its cutting edge, its greatest thickness 2-5. The top of the —

axe is flat; sides bulging; front and back edges grooved and

convex in outline, the front of the axe being the most : arch.

Nos. 7835 and 7836 are two hatchet-shaped implements of

sienite. They are partially polished, about 4 inches long and

2:5 wide, and of the usual form of these small, or hand celts, as

they are often called. eee

_ No. 7861 is a small implement of sandstone, of about the size

of the last, but more triangular and with a deep groove, as if ig

the ball of the thumb in holding the implement in the hand.

No. 7837 is a small block of mottled greenstone such as many =

articles of ornament are made of. This block is 2'8 inches by a

8:3, and 1-2 in thickness through the middle. It has the gen-

£ a

Nos. 7856, 7857, and 7859 are pieces of sandstone evidently

used for sharpening implements. 7859 has a number of grooves

occasioned by use

No. 7763 is a SA of the shell of Busycon from a small

mound in New Madrid Co. :

I quote from Prof. Swallow’s manuscript the following account $

of two other mounds opened by him, and from one of which the

rest of the articles here described were obtained.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 333

“A smaller mound, 418 feet east of the south end of the Big

Mound, was examined. > This mound was nearly circular, 360 feet

in circumference, 14 feet high, 8 feet above the present surface of

the country, as 6 feet of stratified sands and clays have been de-

posited on the bottom since the mound was formed. In this mound

were found ashes, shells, charcoal, fragments of bones and pots.

Nothing of any great value.

“ In Township 23, Range 15 East and Sec. 26, and about 6 miles

E. N. E. of New Madrid, we opened a small mound, from which we

obtained all the articles sent which are not otherwise designated.

It was overgrown with trees and had not been disturbed, save in a

small place on one side. This mound was circular in form.

‘* The pots and jars were found in a circle near the circumference,

or perhaps two-thirds of the distance from the centre of the mound

to the outer edge, and on the original ground beneath the mound.

We found the base of the mound, when the earth was carefully re-

moved, discolored with dark stains on the earth in the shape of a

human body, with head to the pot and the feet towards the centre

of the mound; also, the position of the skeleton was marked by

traces of whitish, calcareous earth. We also found some fragments

of the enamel of teeth just within the line of the pots where the

form of the head was shown. These bodies seemed to have been

placed as closely together as possible, and a pot or jar at the head

ofeach. So regularly were they arranged that we could find them

by following up the circle after we had discovered the key. There

seemed to be pots in no other position in the mound, All found

were in this circle.

“ It appeared as if the bodies had been placed in position, and

the pots and jars in their places, and then the mound built over

them. In the middle of the mound we found with the earth,

ashes, coal, fragments of shells (Unionide) and broken pottery.

I found one Fusus near one of the jars in the circle.

“ Everything in this mound was greatly decomposed by time and =

the elements, save the pots and jars of the best quality. Other pots

fell to pieces as soon as they were disturbed. They have become —

much firmer since they were taken out.

‘The best pots are made of blue clay, fine sand, and pounded

ow which materials exist in the neighborhood.”

Nos. 7747, 7748, 7750, 7751 are figures of the human head in aay, oo

and once surmounted jars like No. 7782, but of larger size. Prof.

Swallow states that the jars were all broken, and the restorations, _

334 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

indicated by outlines in the three woodcuts, are as correct as

the fragments would permit. 7745 and 7748 are the two heads

showing the most finished workmanship, and agree with 7747, and

also with 7782, in having the hair or a head dress represented as an

No. 7747. No. 7750.

ornamented band over the top of the head. 7782 and 7747 have

this band represented after the same pattern, or with a central

and two side projections or bunches. 7748 has a large bunch on

the left side and a smaller and circular one on the right, while the

No. 7748.

centre of the band is brought over the forehead. In this head the |

ears are perforated, while in all the others they are not placed quite = :

so low down and stand out prominently from the head. in 7750

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 335

the head dress represented is evidently of a more elaborate pattern

than in any of the others, and looks as if the hair had been ar-

ranged in five folds of which the central one was much the largest.

There is also a certain indescribable appearance to this head which

gives the impression that it represents that of a man, while all

the others have a feminine appearance. All the heads but 7747

have the eyes and mouth represented with distinct lids and lips, but

in 7747 the bunch of clay forming the mouth has not been cut to

show the lips, and that forming the left eye is also a simple round

bunch placed in a depression representing the eye socket, while

the bunch representing the right eye was omitted or has since

fallen off. No. 7751 has the top of the head smooth, as if the in-

dividual represented had been without the usual head dress.

The following measurements will give the size and proportions

_ of these faces.

Di emo o i

Width of face, not | of head to Distance from

are including ie pro not including pe root of nose

jecting part the Bre piste ibe so t of = epe cat

ears, in i mta nead dress, nches

747 2 21 1:3

7748 2°15 22 15

7750 21 19 r1

7751 2X4 24 16

7782 Ik 12 17

No. 7782 is a perfect jar with the head surmounting it and

having the opening behind. This was

evidently the smallest of the several jars

of this character found in the mound,

and is made of the blue clay, slightly

mixed with sand, as are the majority of

the articles of pottery found in this

mound. The measurements of the face

are given above. The body of the jar

is spherical and with hardly any per-

ceptible flattening below. The diameter

at its largest part is from 4:5 to 4'6 ;

inches, and the total height is 5-6 inches. The opening in the

back of the head is about ‘8 of an inch in diameter. ee

The seven following cuts represent others of this very interest-

336 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. |

ing series of vessels with necks and heads and with the circular

opening behind.

No. 7786 is 7-4 in diameter and 7:5 inches in total height.

No. 7786. No. 7783.

The width of the odd looking face, which may have been intended

to represent that of an owl, is 2°3 inches; the “bill,” or part be-

tween the eyes, projects half an inch. The apertures of these

several jars are nearly of the same size, varying from about 1°3

to 1°7 inches in diameter.

No. 7783 was perhaps aee to represent some animal with

projecting ears. The cuts show these ears and the opening in

the back of the head. ee jar is 6-1 inches in greatest diameter

and 8:2 inches high.

The heads on Nos. 7781 and 7785 have the KAPERI of being

No. 7781. No. 7785.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. Jot

left in the first stages of the design that they were to exhibit.

The larger of these jars is 7-5 inches in diameter by 8°5 in height.

The smaller is 4°8 in diameter by 5°6 inches in height.

No. 7784 has the appearance of the opening being in the front

of the head, which is much pointed, as if the hair had been car-

ried to a point above and dropped down the back of the neck in

the form of a queue with two knots. The appearance of a high

No. 7784. No. 7745.

forehead with a prominent nose and chin, which the woodcut

gives, is not so apparent on examining the specimen, as the artist

did not properly represent the narrowness of the projecting band

by showing the neck upon which it rests. . The height of this jar-

is 9 inches and its greatest diameter is 7-7 inches.

No. 7745 is one of these neck and head jars, of about the same

size as 7785, but has the head part reduced to a simple spherical

top without any attempt to form features.

No. 7774 is a jar of the general character.of the preceding, but

differs from them in being colored red, and in the whole jar being

made to represent the form of a bird at rest, perhaps that of the

horned owl. A front view shows the feet and projecting part of

_ the folded wings, the large eyes, projecting feathers or “ horns”

of the head, and the bill, which has been broken off as shown in

the cut. A back view represents the back of the head, with the

aperture of the jar, the Te folded on = sides, and the pointed

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL.

838 > THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

tail, on which, with the legs in front, the jar firmly stands. The

size of this very interesting vessel is 10 inches in height, 7 inches

in diameter from wing to wing, and 6:7 inches in diameter from

front to back.

No. 7774.

Col. Foster, in his Prehistoric Races of the United ‘States, de-

scribes and figures two vessels of the same character as those men-

tioned above. On page 239 of his work he represents one from

a mound near Belmont, Missouri, which in design is very close

to those here figured as Nos. 7747, 7748 and 7750. The most mM-

teresting of his figures, however, in this connection, is that on page

243 of a “ water jug found near the mouth of the Wabash.” This

figure shows the jar to be of the same rude design as Nos. 7783

and 7786 of the Swallow collection, and must be considered a3

having been made by the same people, though there is no indica-

tion of its having been found in a mound.—[ To be concluded.

ABOUT STARCH.

BY PROFESSOR M. W.

ities

We have seen, in a former paper, that potato-starch consists of

organized grains, each with a nucleus and around

Fig. 151.

lay ers, each of which is denser than

the one next within. ‘This is the

typical form of the grains of starch,

but there are many variations on

it. Many grains are without rings

or nucleus or both. Sometimes

the rings and nucleus ean be

brought out. in these, by the’ action

of reagents or by partial solution

in any way. This is illustrated in

the grains of wheat-starch. In Fig.

151 (taken from Planchou) we have

the usual appearance of the starch

of wheat. The largest grain at

the bottom of the cut is a com-

pound grain rare in wheat, charac-

teristic of the starch of another group of cereals.

no rings, only occasional incidental markings.

grains we see

HARRINGTON,

it a series of

Wheat Starch.

In the typical

Wheat Starch.

Fig. 152 (also from Planchon), we have wheat starch after the grain

from which it was taken has germinated and solution has begun.

n the starch-grains of many species, however, no rings can be

340 ABOUT STARCH.

made out, even with the aid of reagents. An illustration of this

is the starch from the Colchicum-corm of the druggists (Fig. 153)

Here we have a nucleus, often split into stellate shapes by eee

but no rings. Rings are not

brought out by reagents, nor is

there any cross with polarized

light. In Fig. 154, which il-

lustrates the starch of the root

of aconite, we find neither nu-

cleus nor rings.

Starch is nourishment for

the plant in a condition for pre-

servation. We consequently

find it in the thickened parts of

plants, which serve as store-

houses of nourishment, The

starch of potato is in the tuber, a sort of thickened tip of an

underground branch. In the colchicum the starch is in the corm

or thickened base of the stem; in squills it is in the bulb. Rhi-

zomes usually contain starch. That of the white water- lily 1s

large and easily examined. The starch of the ginger rhizome is

quite characteristic. That of the Fig. 154.

rhizome of sweet flag is very mi-

nute ; the largest grains are hardly

soyo Of an inch in diameter. The

slender rhizomes of the gold-thread

contain a starch which is larger.

The root often contains a large

quantity of starch. The root of

Stillingia of the shops is almost

made up of starch. The stem of

the sago-palms contains starch in

immense quantities. The sago of

commerce is derived from several Aconlie, Biarch.

species of them. Most barks of trees contain starch ; though

often in small quantities, sometimes the amount of starch is con-

siderable i in barks. Cinnamon contains a great deal. The starch

may be confined to one layer of the bark, or, more abundant in

one layer than in the others. In cascarilla bark, where the middle

layer of the bark and the liber interdigitate, it is difficult to trace

Fig. 153.

Colchicum Starch.

ABOUT STARCH. 841

out the line of division between the two until iodine is added.

The middle layer contains much starch, the liber little. When

the iodine is added the starch turns dark and the middle layer

looks like a distinct black saw, with teeth projecting into the liber.

In many fruits and seeds starch is found; in the embryo of the

bean and pea and in the albumen of the nutmeg, corn, wheat and

rice, it is very abundant.

The strangest situation, though, in which the writer ever found

starch was in the centre of a nut-gall. In the middle of the hard

commercial galls (obtained from Quercus lusitanica Webb, var.

infectoria, from Asia Minor), is a little, hard, nut-like case of

thick-walled, stony cells. This case is filled with cellular matter

when first formed. The larva of the infesting insect is found

within this case, and feeds

on its cellular contents. If

the gall is collected when

the insect has already es-

caped, this little nut-like

sphere is empty. If the

gall is picked when imma-

ture, there is some matter

left in the central nut, the

greater or less quantity de-

pending on the immaturity

of the gall and of the en-

closed insect. This matter

within the central case, on

Which the insect feeds, contains starch. None of the rest of the

gall-tissue contains the slightest trace of it. The grains ( Fig.

155) are large and flat with a distinct nucleus, and, usually, dis-

tinct rings. They produce a marked cross with polarized light.

They are so large that a cell seems to accommodate only a single

grain of starch.

The presence of starch in this abnormal growth suggests some

interesting questions. The starch is just where the parasitic

Cynips will eat it and nowhere else. Starch is excellent food for

many animals. We eat immense amounts of it with our cereals.

The sparrows live on it. Doubtless the larva of the gall-fly

finds it good food. On what principle of natural selection can we

account for this food being placed so conveniently for it? So far

Fig. 155.

Starch of Nut Galls.

342 ABOUT STARCH.

as we can see, the Cynips does nothing but injury to the oak.

Why should the oak provide it with choice food ?

So far we have had in mind only vegetable starch. At one-

time it was thought that starch was peculiar to vegetables, but it

has since been found in animals. In so undoubted an animal as

man, starch has been found in organized granules in the brain.

In appearance these grains of cerebral starch are very much like

those of corn-starch. They are, however, softer.

Starch is usually found in the parenchymatous tissue of plants.

Exceptionally it occurs in the elongated, tapering cells: Pock-

lington records in the “ London Pharmaceutical Journal,” the con-

stant occurrence of starch in the wood-cells of the ipecac root of

the shops. A matter analogous to starch is found as secondary

layers on the cell-walls of some seeds. Schleiden calls it Amyloid,

and gives a short list of seeds in which he has found it. A prob-

ably identical substance is found in the seeds of the common

peony. The peony seeds but meagrely here, but the seeds are

used somewhat in medicine, and can be found in many shops,

where they have been imported from Europe. The albumen of

the seeds is made up of a compact parenchyma, with moderately

thick-walled cells, filled with a granular matter. On the applica-

tion of a weak solution of iodine, the contents of the cells are

colored a bright yellow, but the cell-walls a pure blue. If they

were of cellulose, the ordinary constituent of the cell-walls, they

would not be colored blue by iodine until after the action of sul-

phuric acid,

Starch-grains are developed by gradual growth. The different

stages can be seen in most starches, from the matured parts of

plants. It can be seen still better in a nearly ripe grain of corn.

Every stage of the following process can be seen there. A little © 4

cavity or vacuole is formed in the protoplasmic contents of 4 |

_ vitally active céll. A little matter is there deposited, and becomes 3

the nucleus. The cavity enlarges, and a layer is deposited around :

that already formed. Layer after layer is laid on until the grin

attains a full size. This process has been watched by several — a

observers in the fronds of Hepatice. Criiger, as quoted in the :

Micrographic Dictionary, says that the unsymmetrical forms of a

many grains is owing to the differing density of the protoplasm ae 4 :

which they are formed. The thicker part of a grain of potato- a

starch, for instance, is formed in the thicker protoplasm, while ise e

ABOUT STARCH. 343

extended, thinner part is pushed out to where the protoplasm is

less dense. It is often said that starch is especially formed in the

presence of chlorophyl or the green coloring matter of plants.

But we notice that it is generally deposited where there is no

chlorophyl, as in the roots, underground stems, the albumen of

seeds, etc. Starch is formed in protoplasm, whether there is chlo-

rophyl present or not. When the latter is present, its tendency

to collect around the solid matters of the cell, the walls, for in-

stance, will lead it to collect about the forming starch-grain, and

thus give that grain the GAN aR of being embedded in chloro-

phyl, an appearance often noted.

The form and appearance ee the grains differ for each species.

In nearly allied species they are much alike; in distant species,

very different. Whether in all or most cases specific characters

can be drawn from the grains is not fairly settled. It has never

been systematically studied, so far as I know. In a few limited

cases it has been done and with success. From these it is a fair

presumption that specific differences in the grains exist, but are

hard to recognize on account of their minuteness.

The size varies much but is tolerably constant for the same spe-

cies in mature grains. The smallest measured by the writer were

only 2 tt.l in length. They were from the rhizome of Hydrastis

Canadensis L. Those measured were the largest grains. On the

other hand the grains of potato-starch sometimes reach a length

of nearly 50 tt. They are then so large that they can be distin-

guished by the naked eye. The grains Fig. 156.

of canna-starch are said to be even

larger.

The commonest starches of commerce

are the following. The figures are from

Vogl. :

1. Bean-starch (Fig. 156). The grains

are in the cotyledons. They are packed Rana Wave.

in very closely with aleurone. They are

of an ellipsoid or reniform shape, and are 30 tt. or less in length.

The rings are usually not visible, though sometimes very evident.

The nucleus is long and slit-shaped. In two of the grains figured,

smaller cracks can be seen. They are caused by heating. They

are easily seen by making a thin section of a bean or by simply

1 tt= ten thousandths of an inch.

344 ABOUT STARCH.

scraping off in a powder a small portion of the cotyledons. They

derive their interest, not from their use in the form of starch as

food, but because they have formed — or some of the closely

allied starches — several almost historical quack medicines, and

because they are yet frequently used in Europe to adulterate pow-

dered medicines. The writer has found, in this country, speci-

mens of pearl sago entirely made up of bean or pea-starch.

2. Potato-starch has been already figured and partly described.

It derives its special interest from its universal use to adulterate

powders. Commercial arrowroot, not the proprietary, is, to a con-

siderable extent, made up of potato-starch in this country.

3. Tapioca (Fig. 157) is the starch of the root of Manihot util-

issima, a poisonous Euphorbiaceous plant. The starches of some

othe: closely related species are sometimes

intermixed. The grains are small, less than

10 tt. long, shaped like a hemisphere some-

what drawn out. Viewed’ from the end the

grain and nucleus appear round; seen from

the side, the grain appears arched, and the

nucleus seems to have a conical hollow space

extending from it to the base of the arch.

In the original condition the grains probably

have the truncate ends set together, thus forming compound grains

with two individuals in each.

In commerce, tapioca is in irregularly agglomerated masses of

small size and a dead white color. Fig. 158.

These are formed by heating the grains

when wet on hot plates. Sometimes

the heat affects the appearance of the

starch- grain, swelling it and causing it

to bulge out in one or more places.

4. Sago (Fig. 158) is from the stem

of, probably, several species of palm-

trees belonging to the genera Sagus Sago Starch.

and Saguerus, It is composed of muller-shaped grains, which are

rarely more than 25 tt. long. :

In its original state the starcli-grains are compound, consisti!

of one large grain with one or two quite small ones fastened to

it. The component grains are separated in the preparation and

we find the small ones scattered among the large. The nucleu $

Fig. 157.

Tapioca Starch.

ABOUT STARCH. 345

of the largest grains is dot-like, eccentric and usually quite dis-

tinct. The rings are not very apparent.

Sago, in Amefican commerce, appears in two forms; common

or brown sago, by far the most common, is found in the grocery

and drug-stores in small roundish brown masses. They are little

altered by heat and the grains present the characters just de-

scribed.

The pearl sago is in larger spherical balls, of a dead white

color. It has been subjected to heat and the grains are smaller

and their nuclei are bulged ont.

5. Wheat-starch consists of disk-shaped grains 16 tt. or less in

diameter, mixed with numerous minute spherical grains. The

nucleus and rings are usually not

visible. -Wheat-starch is now not

common here as a commercial starch.

In medicine and the arts it is nearly

replaced by corn-starch.

6. Corn-starch is derived from the

albumen of the grain of Indian corn.

The grains (Fig. 159) are small,

from 5 to 10 tt. in diameter, of an

irregular form. The surface consists 3

of partly convex, partly flat faces, the :

latter being formed by mutual pres- iam pick

sure of the grains. The nucleus is star-shaped, at least when dry.

There are no rings. `

Corn-starch now réplaces the most of the other starches, under

its own name or that of maizena, maizone, etc. The amylum of

the Pharmacopoeia which calls for wheat-

starch is, in every one of the many samples

examined by the writer, corn-starch. As

the latter is certainly as palatable as wheat-

starch, and is probably more nutritious, we

cannot object to the substitution except on

the principle that every craft should sail

ieee Tan its own colors.

7. Maranta or Arrowroot is a name ap-

plied to a great many starches, the sort being designated by

another term, as Brazilian arrowroot, referring to the tapioca-

Starch when in a powder. West India or Bermuda arrowroot is

Fig. 1€0.

346 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

the common sort in the United States. It is derived from the

rhizome or underground stem of Maranta. It consists of grains

(Fig. 161) with a length of 24 tt. or less. They are ellipsoid or

egg-shaped with the nucleus in the centre or toward the larger

end. By this character it is at once distinguished from Potato-

starch, which it otherwise resembles. i

The rings are easily seen, though fine. West India Maranta is

often adulterated. The starches which are used to falsify it can

be detected with certainty only by the microscope.

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

BY DR. C. C. PARRY.

No. 5.

No. 143. Nemacladus ramosissimus Nutt. Torrey, Bot. Mex. Bound., p» 108, t. 14.

uly.

» Ui

No. 145. Phelipea Ludoviciana Walp.

No. 146. Antirrhinum Cooperi Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. vii, p. 376. A sle nder

twining plant, likely to be overlooked, collected by. Dr. Cooper on the Lower Colorado

in 1861; also by ©. A. Almendinger in 1868; found sparingly near St. George- i

ade . May.

No. 147. Eunanus ———? A slender, large flowered, showy annual, growing abun-

dantly on gravelly hills near St. George; ce mostly bright reo A light p pink

variety ( a wee wet mer with | later in the sea

No. 148. Pentstemon cubilia ‘Torey. Marcy’s Rep., t. 16. Dry sandy soil in the

upper valley of the Vi as Juni

No. 149. Pentstemon Eatoni Gray. Proc. Am. aa m viii, p. 395. Common in all

No. 150. Pentstemon glaber Pursh, var. Cedar oi ey "Jak

No, 151. Pentstemon cespitosus Gray, var. Cedar City. je

No. 152. Pentstemon puniceus Gray, var. Parryi (?). Bapana mountains. May-

No. 153. Castilleia parviflora Bon

No.1

. 154. Castilleia afinis H. & A.

No. 155. Cordylanthus (Hemistegia) Parryi, n. sp. Closely resembling C.

from which it is distinguished p its scattered greenish-yellow rhiz ert vote

I tube 0:

ceedi and a er ca =

corolla much shorter than the Sande and by the shorter filaments peso hairy ?

s in crowded heads, th h and

canescens has purple flower

corolla, the teeth of the calyx short and spreading, the ¢ orolla-tube as long as the

1 ln tt yi f the Virgen. June.

—85. La Wits

No. 156. pa EN Kingii Watson. King’s Rep., p. 233, t. 22. High mountains -

east of Cedar City. July.

No. face Nicotiana attenuata Torr. Watson, King’s Rep., p. 276, t. 27. Common in

all waste places near St. George. May.

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 347

No. 158. Nicotiana trigonophylla Dunal. Common on rocky hills near St. George.

No. 159. Audibertia incana Benth. A very showy, strong-scented, aromatic plant,

Pos in ‘imps, 1-2 feet high. May.

160.

ria Mexicana Torr ot. Mex. Bound., p. 133, t. 39. Not uncommon

on hes Ess adjoining the Vean from whence the frst i im wae specimens were

collected by Frem tin ae bis owering in May; fruit in

sie mbar enth.

No. 162. Lophanthus wien enth. Cedar City. July.

No. 163. rote, Shen me ifolium Michx. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, Db, Se.

sox ritric i Torr. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p. 58,

165. Eritrichium circumscissum. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. wi Te Beauti-

my figured by Torrey in Bot. Wilkes’ Explor. Exped., t. 12, B.

. Eritrichium leucopheum A. D Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p. 61.

Flowers light yellow. Beaverdam mountains. May.

0. 167. Pectocarya lat a DC.

= 168, 169. Eritrichium pna Torr. Bot. Wilkes’ Explor. Exped., p. 415, t.

gii 170. Amsinckia tessellata Gray. Proc eo Acad., vol.

‘ p. 59.

No. 172. Echinospermum deflecum Lehm. Vile, fort um. Hook. F t Bor. -Am., vol.

ii, p. 84, t. 164. Pine valley. June.

No. 173. Eritrichium glomeratum DC., var. humile Gray. Prot. Am. Acad., voL x,

shin

174. Hydrophylium occidentale, var. Watsoni Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x

p. k High panema mon ast of Cedar City. July.

No. 175. Em nthe pendulifiora Benth. e Santa Clara valley. Jun

No. 176. pomen tntagrijoia Torr. Brioche roc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p. 318. ‘Gili

clay soil in the valley of the Virgen.

No. 177. emas Fremontii Torr. pad of the earliest and most showy spring flow-

ge Marc

k 179. Phacelia ( Eutoca) cephalotes y, Proc. Am, Acad., vol. x, p. 325.

On bare T soil in ee valley of the vides es

No. 1 celia lata Torr. Gray, Proc. Kr. Acad., vol. x, p. 318. Exposed

rocky and ior elly slopes St. George. May.

No. 181. Phacelia micrantha Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound., p. 144. Gray, Pie: Am.

Acad., vol. x, p. 327. Ordvises of basaltic rocks. April.

No. 182. Phacelia pulchella n. sp. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. X, p. 326. Abundant

No.1 ia ramosissima Dougl. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x. n p. 819.) T

May.

84. Phaceli

bushy bega Bu oocandrn; on a arg a

No.

oc. Am

Skeri rea flowers set on the cain bitched abundant on gravelly slopes near

orge. May.

St. Geo

rdia Watsoni Torr. Watson, King’s Rep., p. 258, t. 24. Only a single

specimen of this —— plant was found on the south tank ir the Virgen. April.

No. 186. Phlox ca s Torr. & Gray. The common tufted P| hlox of this region.

No. 187. Gilia pensee Parry, n. sp. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol, x, p. 75. Rocky

o May.

0. 178. phe: Ivesian a Torr. a staeen white flowers. St. George. April.

m. Acad., vol. viii, p. 283. A low annual, with —

is :

‘Slopes near St. George, April. A very hase species, resembling i n flowers and

of Linu a

Gilia n. sp. Annual, viscid with spreading glan dular hairs,

o. latifolia n 1 erect, cs

4-5 “hon high, branching only above; hito t ves few, broadly y ovate, 1-1} inches long, <2

ceous; calyx 23 lines long, cleft sient to the middle with ‘setosely acuminate lobes;

348 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH.

corolla short funnel form, 3 lines long, light pink, the acute yer half as long as the

tube; filaments included, inserted below the middle of the tube; capsule oblong,

ays Sapte eed not mucilaginous. — Of pronat desde to be racon in PRP section

Eugilia, but ee. oe closely any of the o — S. WAT

No. 189. Gilia Bigelovii Gray. Proc. Am. uo gh a viii, p. 265. waco King’s

; Rep., p. 263, t. 15, f. ;

No. 190. cet setosissima Gray, l. c., p. 271. A very neat and ornamental species,

abundant on rocky slopes near St. George. May

ne Gin side cladon Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound., p. 146. Gray, 1. c., p. 274.

No.1 Gilia floccosa, var. Gray, l. €.,

No. sae. Gilia congesta Hook., var. cre ee Gray, 1. Ces p- 274.

No. 194. Gilia aggregata Spreng., var. Bridgesii Gray, l. c., p. 276. Pine valley.

June.

No, 195. Oe. tate pray, J fad +» Ps 272. Upper Santa Clara. June.

No. 196. Gilia demis. shep

No. 197. Gilia siai Sa l C., P. = icmp King’s Rep., p. 270, t. 26, fig. 6-11.

ae . Gilia inconspicua Doug]. Gray. 1. c

. 199. Gilia E (?). Apparentiy distinct fom the above form. Rocky

- ren = George. A roe

0. Po lemon i ile Willd., var. Pine valley. Ju

. Lycium JEAN Gray. Common on rocky hills 1 near St. George; prs

guished from the following by its copious slender fiowers and general habit; flower-

ip in a nae pair The pes red or amber colored berries are sere

yi Gra; ow saline flats of the Virgen. With larger flowers

than ‘the bem ate 6 a in height, fruit red, not edible. Flowering in May; fruit

uly.

0. 203. Frasera ee ARCER pigum King’s Rep., p. 280.

Vo. 204. Cressa Cretica L., v rodr., vol. ix, p

No. 205. Cuscuta de pine’ n. o ' Sieme very slender, paeten flowers few, in

ke 1 les, on short pedicels e lin ng), white; lobes p the

deeply di k globular calyx almost orbicular, brearm, CONCAYG; ed corte

> eorolla; 1 sna troaaly ae obtuse, pes en ‘ab last reflexed,’s as Jon

cales oni. dent angle reac ei ng to the base of the ovate almost sessile pecan

on ender, as long as the conical, pointed ovary, bearing ni tly thickened

(caress TER aia: abita covered by the withering corolla, indehiscent ( ?)

oc sing one or two seeds. — St. George, Utah, on pcan and “aa (Co oleogyne, Bi--

la) in co soil; the first addition to our Cuscuta-flora since my synopsis was

published, 36 zone ago. OR he allied to C. applan :ta Eng., of Arizona, but with

nd t depressed ovary, different calyx, etc. — Dr. G.

ENGELMANN.

-~ No.206. Cuscuta Californica, var. (?) crm ti Engelm. pate ». 499. On Suæda

diffusa Wataup. ear found in the same region by Remy and ai Arizona by Dr. ©

Palmer, — on saline herbs; no Patage has obtained si fruit as yet.— Dr. G.

ENGELMAN

No. 207. aeceive leucophylla n. sp. oe tall; eae ae —— pear with a broad

cordate base, tapering to a sharp = tly point, w mbels many flow-

ered, inne lateral and te ; pedicels a uae, se ‘ce ‘ines the peduncles;

calyx tomentose; corolla woolly sot hoods as — as the short-stalked 5 mamii

tube, slightly spreading, ovate, obtuse, rounded on the inner margin; horn fro mt

lo , of the hood, broad, ascending, horizo Antail ko incurved over the cusps of the

anthers; Aces masses lan ance-linear, pag slightly curv

Dry sa “washes” of the Virgen River, fl. eek sei no Stem 3-5 feet high;

upper oreta 34-4 inches long, 13-14 n near the base, pel can down:

wards, white tomentose on both sides, becoming mottled when old. Ped 3 about ‘

li sels th in J í f with

a i

yellowish green corolla and e crown This species be Panay “e i two other ;

white-woolly south-western species, viz.: A. vestita, eriocarpa

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 349

Benth.; the former of which has also long-acuminate leaves, but those of the latter are

oblong and obtuse at both ends; all these have a short-stalked crown, broad ovate

truncate or rounded hoods, and a short broad horn.

In A, leucophylla the hoods are largest and fully a as long as the anther-tube, round

and not dentate at the upper inner edge; the broad faleate horizontally ck hoa ee

; carti eae

originate b nd lower half of the hood; cartil argin of

ng, obtuse-angled at base; pollen masses slender, ł line or more long; pistils ebro

iocarpa (Hartweg’s original specimen in herb. A. ary, Remy in Mus. Paris)

the hoods are shorter than the tube, angular or formi ot the u

‘gins meet, h two distinct saccate lateral projections; the broad, t

horizontally incurved horns originate from the entire midrib o ood or its upper

half; cartilaginous margins of the anthers shorter, sharp-angled below; pollen

and pistils as in the last.

In A. vestita (Douglas’ original and i herb. ) th

hood reaches to the top of the anther-tube and has a long hor ene tooth where the

upper and inner margins meet; the broad obtuse horn, incurved, but more erect and

sesek than in either of the allied ipia, originates from the n wig o pa por s

e tube; cartilaginous margin of anthers ss rounded belo

line in ae nt meee) in po tion and more ved; ses peste Dr. G. ENGELMANN.

No. 208. arg ET City Jul

stephanus pirg sp. Glabrous, hieni, spreading stems from a

pone bees? ATHA ry owes: umbels; aul

kavi

P la d >

No. 209. A

thick cylindric pots

Lineal pereo: flow coro

d points; folicles meno leng-acu sean ae seeds pen — Drifting

sna near St. George, the fleshy roots penetrating to a great depth, giving

_ origin just art sous surface to the ere branc hes, that stole on reg Net shrubs

or swing loo auds. Flow ; fruit in

This very peculiar ress Asclepiad has its desire sites va psa Caro of Good

Hope, with o stray species in the merica. The

whole plan pe a pils sh a ik the thick cylindric roni Ta brown; the

branching stems from Jess than a span to over a fvot in length; leaves abou inch

i i i re corolla

amp anulate

exed points of t o

wos keraga lobes themselves assume the Shape ane per ee the functions or the h

of o f the adil:

Asclepiads, t

The pen oadly tenth of one line sn slender

sere Hi Tehes es long: comose seeds ace fuji by scale-like protuberances.

0. grocer :omala Torr. Watson, King’s Rep., p. 283. Common

sides r ienis ravines threughout Southern Utah. Flowers in April; fruit i in

Jun

No. ae Californica Gray. Bot. Mex. Bound., p. 173.

No. mea cyclaptera ni Am. Jour. Sci., Ser. rg vol. XV, p- 319.

No. 213. Seli ay. Bot. a . Bound.,

No. 214. Atriplex “Pow lii Watson. Revi

on nse ager marshes se an Lower Sevier hPa ; Jul

Chenopodium Botrys si Waste — St. Diane

= pon {tripl (?) Watson, I. c, p. 116.

No. 217, 220. Atriplex confertifolia Waton, k ĉ.. p. 119.

No. 218. Suceda diffusa ( ?) Watson, l. C., p. 88.

No. 22: nescens Ja i

0. 222. Grayiz polygaloides H. & A. Watson, l. €., p. 122.

No. i atson, l. €., P-

ia A i ;

No, 225. pases lanata Moquin. Watson, l. ¢., p. I

ria debilis Forst. On steep fe eres St. Giang! sect

0. 226. Parieta

No. 227. Polygonum coarctatum Doug]. DC. ee xiv, p. 101.

p. 1 (5 i : a

Saee in Proc. Am. Acad., vol. ix,

350 BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH..

0.228. Oxytheca perfoliata Torr. & Gray. a King’s Rep., p. 311, t. 34, fig. 1.

rebel on gravelly tablo- lands.. St. George.

No. 229. erostegia d E-S Ms. Born, g Gray, Revis. Eriog. in Proc. Am.

Acad., vol, viii, p. 200. Shaded rock crevices. April.

No. 230. Chorizanthe porevepron Torr. & Gray, l. c. 196.

No. 231. Chorizanthe rigida Torr. & Gray, 1. ¢., p.

No. 232. Centrostegia Thurberi Gray. Torr. & Gr a C., p- 192.. Upper Santa Clera

valley. Jun

No. 233. pases racemosum Nutt. Torr. & Gray, l. c., p. 175. Lower Sevier val-

ley. June.

No. 234. EHriogonum fasciculatum Benth. Torr. & Gray, l.c., p- 169. Rocky crevices.

St. roria Jun ne.

riogonum angulosum Benth. Torr. & Gray, l. €., p. es

: No. 236. Eriogonum paesan Torr. Torr. & Gray, 1. c., 185. Rocky hills.

St. ge ag May.

Eriogonum reniforme Torr. Torr. & Gray, l c., p. 184

= Hg Eriogonum Thomasii Torr. Torr. & Gray, 1. ¢., ss 184. Forming large

mee on exsiccated alluvial soil, in the valley 4 the Virxen, May.

o. um Parryi n. sp. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., yol. x, p. 77. Rocky

slopes near St. George, May; very sated in sie in sa jissie the leaves

fully two inches bro agp

No. 240. Eriogonum richopodum . & Gray, l; c ne of the common

+ Pp. 185.

gregarious Species, a in the season a famarien, in the latter part of May, gives a

peculiar y t ul

No. 241. Kriogonum ovalifolium Nutt. Torr. & Gray, C., PÄ 16t. Beaver-dam moun:

tains. May.

sg 242, 244. Eriogonum microthecum Nutt. Torr: & Gray, l. C. p. 170. Cedar City.

‘No. 243. Eriogonum villiforum Gray. Proc. Am. Acad., vol. viii, p. 630. Cedar City.

0.245, Eriogonum spathulatum n. sp. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad., vol. x, p- 76. Lower

valley of the ee July.

paai Rumex hymenosepalus Torrey. Bot. Mex. Bound., p. 177. Abundant on a

a ocky slopes near Äng George; the young tender shoots

teri rag e rhubarb.

erdia iita n. sp. Silvery tomentose and scurfy; leaves persist-

ere 1 or ovate, mostly somewhat cordate, shortly petioled, beneath de nsely

as the less seurfy and gre

male flowers mostly in threes and the female solitary; filaments very short, glabrous;

fruit globular, scurfy; akene — —— channelled at base. —On bare clay 80

in the upper valley of the Vir . L. Siler, 1873. Forming low densely branched

bushes with dull-colored nah inated ap ect p aha ing in March, perfecting its fruit

in J

247. Euphorbia Parryi n Annual, erect, slender, pale-green, glabrous, with

dichotomous spreading hit ly “Jeaves linear, nearly equal at base, acutish or soe

ds, taceously slit stipules; inyolucres campanulate, on moderate: y

se line Habit very sinik te E. revoluta Engel ` Sk ch ea D k lish hegroen

color, miw not involute leaves, very much ir

hort peduncles, and smaller, sharp-angled, si aah eta seeds. The cha

BOTANICAL OBSERVATIONS IN SOUTHERN UTAH. 351

en y our species point to an alliance with Æ. zygophylloides Boiss. — Dr. G. ENGEL-

ons ee. Celtis occidentalis L.,

No. 249, 251. Ephedra oeiia MiNi C. A. Meyer. Watson, King’s Rep., p- 238, t

No. 250. Ephedra trifurca Torr. po n, l. €., p. 239. Not uncommon on bare saline

gen

252. Allium Palmeri Watson. pete Rep., p. 487, t. 87, fig. 10-11. High moun-

July.

No. 253. Androstephium brevi m Wa e Am. Naturalist, vol. vii, p. 303.

No. Calochortus flexuosus Watson, 1. ¢., p. 303. ne large-flowered species,

which on asdbant Z a spe habit Sanii to “a forth its showy tulip-like

flowers for several w:

No. 255. Galain. pa Torr. & Gray. High mountains east of Cedar City.

No. 256. Milla capitata Baker, var. paucifiora oe T King’s Rep., p. 490.

No. 257. Yucca brevifolia Engel. King’s Rep., p. 496. ver-dam mountains; e

eringin May. See oo 5 a Naturalist, sae i et

No. 258. A i he 0 p. 390, t

No. 259. Polypogon Monspeliensis Desf. eae on the ss of ditches, St.

George. Jun

No. 250. iien cuspis pulchella Bot. Whip. re- 156.

No. 261. Aristida purpurea NNE. Steud. Gram. p. 1

No. 262. Adiantum Capillus-Veneris L. Moist 5s about oe at ec r St. patap

——. Notholæna tenera Gillies. Byevic es of perpendicular lim

deep ravine near the base of Beaver-dam mountains, twelve miles peona of Bi

George, May. Hitherto found only in Chili and Bolivia. The present specime ns are

smaller and more delicate than those from S. Am ie ORs but not otherwise differe:

From N. Fendleri and N. dealbata it be disti d by the oblong online of the

frond and the entire absence of white powder be beneath. — Prof. D. C. EAT

No. 263. Notholena Par dex neasg inclined, laden with rather

lan

Bend dark — miiatay striated, pubescent with white articulated often gland-

b p

i ly a

ered above with entangled white hairs like those of the stipe, and coi with a simi-

iar pale-brown tomentum; sporangia blackish, when ripe satin Petes a the

margins of the segments. — Crevices of basaltic rocks near St. George.

EATON :

——. Midi . 8p. Peridia clustered, some short with a wide entire

0 *

pentagonal or hexagonal; spores sub-globose, — yellow, .0007 to ogre inch in diam-

eter.— Parasitic on both sides cog a leaf of Helio Curassavicu ., St. George,

May he peculiar feature of this species is in a peridia, which are ec Pt long or

short, and equally abundant s both sides of the leaf, prisatin g each way from the

subiculum. — C. H. PEC

ERRA

Page 16, 13th line from bottom, for Phacelia rn Torr, read nea ston AE eae

n. sp. st

Page 16, 7th line from bottom, for Phaceli: sp

ten oh

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

RETURNING from our journey through the subkingdom of the —

Mollusca, we will follow the path leading from the Worms up to

the Insects. ‘The lowest worms are far more simple in structure

than the lowest mollusks. Indeed in organisms like the Vortex,

for example, we have forms which serve as a point of departure,

ancestral forms, from which the entire animal world above the

Infusoria may have been originally derived.

The division of worms is now so vast and unwieldy that it

seems impossible to give a general definition of it, and in the

present state of science it may be unnecessary. The group em-

braces all grades of development from simple ciliated forms like

the Vortex, Prostomum and Macrostomum, which are scarcely

more complicated than the ciliated infusoria, differing chiefly in

having genuine cells composing the tissues, up to animals like the

earth worms and nereids which are in some respects as high if not

higher than the Crustacea and insects.

Claparède in his “ Beobachtungen,” etc., says that “the Rhab-

doceela have interested me on account of their undeniable passage

to the ciliated Infusoria. I am truly of Agassiz’s opinion that

many so-called Infusoria may be simply Turbellarian larve; al-

though at first opposed to this opinion I afterwards expressed my

views as to the near relationship of the Infusoria as well with the

Rhabdocela as the Dendrocela. Thus as Trachelius ovum forms

an evident connecting link between the Infusoria and Dendrocela,

so are the early stages of the Rhabdoceela often scarcely to be

‘distinguished from the Infusoria. In many cases one is in doubt

whether he is dealing with a-young Turbellarian worm or a ciliate

Infusorian.” He then describes an Infusorian-like worm in which :

the mouth opens by a pharynx into a broad body and digestive

cavity, with no anal opening. There is thus no digestive cavity — :

separated from the body cavity. There are no other organs P a

cept an otolite. This is evidently an immature form, but none

the less closely allied structurally to Paramecium and Trachelius.

(852) l

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 353

It should also be remembered that among the worms are many

synthetic types which, as regards some organs, remind us of other

groups of animals. For example the Rotifers recall the lower

Crustacea, and are by some naturalists regarded as such; the

Planarians have been considered by Girard, as ee the

Polyzoa and Brachiopods are still regarded. as mollusks by emi-

nent naturalists, and there are very few who do not place the

Tunicates among the latter. On the other hand the Echinoderms

are regarded as worms by some, and Amphioxus has been called

a worm. Indeed if any one has any prejudices regarding fixed

types in nature, and would learn how regardless of preconceived

zoological systems the actual state of our knowledge of the lower

animals must lead one to — let him study the animals now

placed among the ‘ Worms.

Leaving out of consideration the lowest forms, almost without

organs, and many parasitic forms, as a general rule the worms

are bilateral, segmented animals with the nervous cords either sep-

arate or united by commissures, and resting on the floor of the

body under the alimentary canal, which usually (when present)

passes directly through the middle of the body. There is in the

Annelides a dorsal and ventral blood-vessel, the circulatory appar-

atus being closed and more highly developed than in the Crustacea

and Insects, Limulus excepted. In the lower worms (Platyel-

minths, Nematelminths, Acanthocephali and Rotatoria) there is a

complicated system of excretory tubes, thought by some anato-

mists to be analogous with the water-vascular system of Radi-

ates.

The organs of locomotion are, when present, simple bristles or-

prolongations of the walls of the body forming paddle-like flaps.

We are now concerned with tracing the mode of development

of some of the typical forms belonging to the different subdivis-

ions, the general oe, of which may be seen in the following

tabular view, which is taken from Gegenbaur’s ‘Principles of

Comparative porsa with the addition of the Brac a,

which he still retains among the Mollusca. The Onychophora,

represented by Peripatus, are also omitted, as since the publica-

tion of Gegenbaur’s work, Peripatus has been pe by the re-

Searches of Mr. Moseley to be a tracheate In

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 23

354 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

VERMES.

h PLATYELMINTHES.

Turbellaria (Vortex, Prostoinum, ade

Trematoda (Distoma, Monostomum).

Cestoda (Tenia, Botliriocephalus).

Nemertina seneg es).

II. NEMATELMIN

Nematodes aoa ose

» Mermis).

. ATORIA oti

VI. Potryzoa (Alcyonella, Flustra, Tepraia):

VII. ENTEROPNRUSTI (Balanoglossus

VIII. Tunicata (Appendicularia, Anakin, Pyrosoma, Doliolum, Salpa):

IX. GEPHYREA (Sipunculus).

: Bracuiopopa (Lingula, Terebratulina).

XI. Annuata (Hirudo, Lumbricus, Nereis, Serpula).

I. PLATYELMINTHES (Flat Worms, Flukes and Tape Worms).

These are flat-bodied ciliated worms without lateral appendages,

usually with hooks or suckers. They are usually hermaphroditic.

Development of the Turbellaria,- These lowest of worms, in

which there is no true stomach and intestines, but a simple short

blind digestive sac leading from the mouth and

pharynx, are known to multiply by fission, the

body dividing into two... They also possess ovaries

and male glands, and reproduce from eggs-

are not acquainted with the life-history of the

Rhabdocecelous forms, such as Vortex, Prostomum,

etc., except that we know that they produce. eggs

and spermatic particles.. In Prostomum, an orbic-

ular form, the yolk cells are formed in a gland

(vitellogene) distinct from the true ovary or germ-

forming gland (germogene). As an example of

reproduction by fission may be cited the singular

Catena quaterna Schmarda, which occurs in fre

water at the Cape of Good Hope. Fig. 161 repre.

sents two individuals in partial division, and a chain of four indi-

viduals, natural size. : This form reminds us of the tape worm, in

Fig. 161.

Catena quaterna,

‘BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 355

which the joints remain permanently attached. We know nothing

further regarding the history of Catena except that it has been

found as indicated in the figure here reproduced from Schmarda.

Among the Dendroceela, or Planarians, and in fact in the flat

worms generally, fission takes place. If we cut the common fresh

water Planarians into several pieces, each ‘pieee will become” a

perfect worm.

All the fresh water flat worms are born as’ infusorian-like cili-

ated bodies which attain maturity without any metamorphosis.

As an example of the mode of development of a Planarian worm,

may be given the history of Planocera elliptica discovered by

Girard in Boston and Beverly harbors. The spawning time lasts

from the middle of May until the middle of June, the eggs being

deposited in a thin viscid band on stones and sea weeds. The

egg undergoes total segmentation in four or five days after. A

ciliated blastoderm begins to form around the yolk mass, and be-

fore the embryo leaves the egg it assumes the larval shape, being

an infusorian-like form, with a caudal flage ellum. There are no

internal organs except two eye-specks.

In eight or ten days after the larva begins to revolve in the egg,

and after it has hatched, it stops swimming about and becomes

a “mummy-like body” which Girard calls a “chrysalis.” In this

condition, which apparently corresponds to the encysted state of

the flukes, it floats about in the water. Here Girard’s observa-

tions came to anend. Whether in this resting stage it is swal-

lowed by some other animal, and becomes a parasite before

resuming its active life, remains to be seen.

The later history of Planaria angulata has been traced by Mr.

A. Agassiz. ‘‘On examining,” he says, “ a string of eggs, mistaken

at first for those of some naked mollusk, I was surprised to find

young Planariz in different stages of growth with a ramifying

digestive cavity, somewhat similar to that of adult specimens, but

showing besides, one distinct articulation for each spur of the

digestive cavity. The eyes were well developed, and when the

young became free, the articulations were still distinct.” In the

youngest specimen (Fig. 162) observed, the body was almost

cylindrical, while as seen in Fig. 163, the body has become con-

siderably flattened. The fact that before attaining maturity the

Planarian is articulated is very significant, showing that these

low worms, non-segmented in maturity, should not be excluded

356 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

from the class of worms, and that the terms ‘bilateral, articulate”

applies as well to the lowest division (though with many ex-

Fig. 163. ceptions) of worms as to the true

Annelides.

The Turbellaria then, so far as

our limited knowledge extends, de-

velop (a) by fission, (b) from eggs

fertilized by sperm cells, and pass

through the following stages, not,

however, all observed in a single

species.

1. Morula.

Young, Planaria. 2. Infusorian-like stage.

3. A quiet, encysted (?) stage (Girard’s Planocera).

4. Articulated stage observed in one species (Agassiz’s Pla-

naria angulata).

. Adult, ciliated, not segmented.

Development of the Trematodes. The flukes are parasitic

worms, with a sucking disk in the centre of the body by which

they nye themselves on or within the body of their host. The

ke ‘sliver worm” (Distoma hepaticum) lives in the liver of

the vos and of man. The fishes and snails are much infested

by them, nearly each species having its distinct kind of fluke.

The adult flukes are not ciliated, the alimentary canal ends in a

blind sac, and the sexes are united in the same individual.

For the mode of formation of the egg of the Trematodes, and

the embryonic history of certain forms, the student is referred to

Leuckart’s *‘Menschlichen Parasiten” and E. Van Beneden’s

beautiful “ Researches.” E. Van Beneden has shown that the

development of the Trematodes begins by subdivision of the

germinative cellule or nucleus. The nucleus and nucleolus then

divide and subsequently the ‘protoplasmic body.” The yolk

however, remains entirely independent of this division, and psi:

as nourishment for the other cells forming the body of the

embryo.

From Van Beneden’s observations, it appears that the eggs of

the lower flukes as a rule undergo total segmentation, and the

young are hatched either oval, ciliated, Infusorian-like, without

any organs, not even eye-specks, as in Distoma and Amphistoma ;

or as in the higher Trematodes, as shown by the elder Van

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 354

Beneden, the development is direct, the embryo passing directly

into a form like the adult.

For the further history of the fluke we will turn to Steenstrup’s

famous work “On the Alternation of Generations,” wherein is first

related the strange history of these animals. While the flukes

were well known, as well as the tadpole-like Cerearia, it was not

known before the publication of Steenstrup’s work in 1842, that

the Cercariæ were the free larval forms of the Distomæ. The

Cercaria echinata, first described by Siebold, is like a Distoma ex-

cept that the body is prolonged into a long extensible tail. This

tail, says Steenstrup, is formed of several membranes or tubes

placed one within the other, of which the outermost is a very

transparent epidermis, under which is a tolerably thick membrane

furnished with transverse muscular fibres or stric, and between

each pair of these transverse fibres is placed a globular vesicle

which appears to be a mucous follicle or gland; the innermost

tube is opaque and of firmer consistence, it contains the longitu-

dinal muscular fibres, and is usually reticulated on the surface.

Through the centre of these tubes there passes a slightly narrower

canal, which becomes very small towards the extremity of the

tail. The existence of the same layers in the body itself of the

Cercaria, can easily be demonstrated ; but the transversely striated

layer is here not so much developed. This description of the

Cercaria will remind one of the tadpole-like larva of the Ascidians.

The apparent homology in structure of the tail of the Cercaria

with that of the Ascidian larva as figured by Kupffer, is striking.

This similarity may be seen if the reader will compare fig. 7,

Tab. ii, in De la Valette St. George’s “Symbolæ,” representing

a stage in the development of Cercaria flava into Monostomum

favum. The author figures a row of cells on each side of a

central cavity through which passes what is regarded as pos-

sibly a nerve. Whether this is not as much a chorda dorsalis

and spinal nerve as those parts regarded as such in the Ascidian

larva, is a subject for future investigation. But in other respects

the position of the mouth, the sense-organs, as well as the form

of the body strikingly recall the Ascidian larva, so much so that

it gives strong confirmation to the opinion that the Ascidians are

worms, and that they and the Trematodes have possibly originated

from allied forms. In another species, Cercaria ocellata, the tail

has a lateral fin; and in still another species figured by J. Miller

358 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

on the same plate (Cercaria setifera) unaccompanied by any de-

scription, the tail contains an axial row of large cells, with a row

on each side reminding one of the embryo of the Ascidian, with

its axial row of cells (the germ of the chorda dorsalis) and the

Fig. 164.

\ yer

Development of Distoma.

cells on each side; moreover the tail is provided with nineteen

pencils of long hairs, each pair arising from a distinct segment,

Fig. 165, so that in one larval Trematode at least,

ee the annulated structure of the body exists,

as well as in the larval Planaria.

Returning now to Steenstrup’s narrative,

he tells us that these ‘‘ Echinate Cercariæ

(Fig. 164, A, parent nurse; e, germs;

-a a, nurse; B, larva), are found by thous-

ands, and frequently by millions in the

water, in which two of our largest fresh- _

water snails, Panorbis cornea and Limneus

stagnalis, have been kept.” After swim-

_ ming about in the water some time they

fix themselves by means of their suckers (B, s) to the slimy skin

of the snails, in such numbers that the latter look as if covered

with bits of wool. at ait

The Cercaria by contracting its body and violent lashing of the

tail forces its way into the body of its host, loses its tail, and then

resembles a mature Distoma. By turning about in its place and

secreting a mucus, a cyst is gradually formed, with a spherical

shell, This constitutes the “pupa” state of the Cerearia, first

Development of Monas-

: tomum..

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 359

observed by Nitzsch and afterwards by Siebold. Steenstrup

thinks that the Cercaria casts a thin skin. In this state the body

can be seen through the shell of the cyst, as in Fig. 164, C, where

the circle of spines embedded around the mouth is seen.! The

encysted Cercariæ remain in this state from July and August until

the following spring ; and during the winter months in snails kept

in warm rooms, they change into Distomas (Fig. 164, D) the ma-

ture fluke differing, however, in some important respects from the

tailless larvæ. In nature they remain from two to nine months in

the encysted state

“ Now,” asks Stoenetrip! “Whence come the Cercarix ?” Boja-

nus states that he saw this species swarming out from the “ king’s ©

yellow worms,” which are about two lines long and occur in great

numbers in the interior of snails. From these are developed the

larval Distomas, and Steenstrup calls them the “nurses” of the

Cercariz and Distomata. They exactly resemble the “parent

nurses” (Fig. 164, A) and like them the cavity of the body is filled

with young, which develop from egg-like balls of cells. Steenstrup

was forced to conclude that these nurses originated from the first

nurses (Fig. 164) which he therefore calls ‘* parent-nurses.” Here

the direct observations of Steenstrup on the Cercaria echinata came

to an end, but he believed that the parent-nurses came from eggs.

The link in the cycle of generations he supplied from the observa-

tions of Siebold, who saw a Cercaria-like dees: (Fig. 165, B)

expelled from the body of the ciliated larva f Monostomum

mutabile (Fig. 165, A, a, nurse developing from uaa larva; m,

mouth ; b, eye specks). Steenstrup remarks that “ the first form of

this embryo is not unlike that of the common ciliated progeny of

the Trematoda, as they have been known to us in many species

for a long time, from the observations of Mehlis, Nordmann and

Siebold, and it might at first sight be taken for one of the poly-

gastric infusoria of Ehrenberg, which also move by cilia; whilst

in the next form which it assumes the young Monostomum

an undeniable resemblance to those animals which I have termed

‘nurses’ and ‘parent nurses’ in that species of the Trematoda

which is developed from the Cercaria echinata.” |

Thus the cycle is completed and the following summary of

1 Other figures by Steenstrup =: and other authors show t the form of the Prani v

caria very distinctly, niy panies Š

tented in the plate from which this is copied.

360 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

changes undergone by the lower Distomas present as clear a case

of an alternation of generations as seen in the jelly fishes.

Egg.

Morula.

Ciliated larva.

Cercaria (parent nurse, Proscolex) producing

Cercaria (nurse, scolex).

. Encysted Cercaria (Proglottis).

7. Distoma (Proglottis).

The Cercaria echinata, living in snails which are eaten by ducks,

have been shown by St. George to develop into the adult Distoma

‘in the body of that bird. It is generally the case that those Dis-

tomas which pass through an alternation of generations live in

the larval state in animals which serve as food for higher orders.

Thus the Bucephalus of the European oyster passes in the en-

cysted state into a fish (Gasterostomum), which serves as food for

a larger fish, Belone vulgaris, where the cysts of the same worm

occur. ;

Distoma hepaticum, the liver fluke, sometimes occurring in man,

is thought by Dr. Willemoes-Suhm to begin its existence as Cer-

caria cystophora, parasitic on a species of Planorbis.

Pr eS

or)

LITERATURE.

Steenstrup. On the Alternation of Generations. 1842. Translated by G. Busk, 1845

De la Valette St. George. Symbolæ ad Trematodum Eyolutionis Historiam. Berlin,

1855. >

Leuckart. Die Menschlichen Parasiten. Leipzig. 1868, incomplete.

E. Van Beneden. Rect 1 lao Pren tt Cia oe PI er de POeuf. Brux-

elles, 1870.

Development of the Cestodes. In the tape worm there is no ali-

mentary canal, the liquid food being absorbed from the juices of

its host through the walls of the body. The head is armed with

suckers, hooks or leaf-like soft appendages, while the body is sub-

divided usually into a great number of segments, each containing

an ovary and male gland. While the Turbellaria possess 4 pair

of nerve-ganglia, the Cestodes are not known positively to possess

any trace of a nervous system.

E. Van Beneden shows that the e&g is formed by two glands,

one of which (the germogene) forms the nucleus and nucleolus,

while the other (vitellogene) forms the yolk. Development begins

very probably as in the Trematodes, by multiplication by division

of the nucleus (germinative cell). In the eggs of Tenia bacil-

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 361

laris E. Van Beneden saw the nucleus subdivide; afterwards the

cells are arranged in two layers, and the outer layer

is thrown off (this probably corresponding to the am-

insects and crustacea); the central mass

Fig. 166.

nion of

forms the em- Fig. 167.

bryo, and soon

the three pairs

of hooks arise

as in Fig. 166.

Embryo of Three struc-

Tenia.

tureless mem-

branes are secreted around

the embryo, which then

hatches. ‘The embryo cof

Bothriocephalus is provided

with a ciliated membrane,

which corresponds to the

first blastodermic moult cf

the embryo Tænia, which

is not ciliated.

Now taking up the history

of the human tape worm,

Tenia solium (Fig. 1671),

the eggs eaten by the hog

are developed in its body

into the larval tape worm

(scolex) called in this spe-

cies, Cysticercus cellulose,

(Fig. 168; Fig. 169, head

enlarged). The head with

its suckers is formed, the

body becomes flask-shaped

(Fig. 168, Cysticereus) ; the Cysticerci then bury themselves in the

liver or the flesh of pork, and are transferred living in uncooked

sgt to the Be rece canal of man. The w ony now siete AC

Common Human Tape worm.

pA Ere: b, 448th; c, 569th;

size: h, head;

This worm was 10 feet 9

1 Tenia solium. A, the worm natural s

d, 680th; e, 768th ; J, 849th; g, 855th joint and last but on

= joi t

» show in the figure 5

cellulose, the larva lt worm, a, circle of hooks; b, irkit; c, ton neck ;

Sac filled with fluid. This and Fig. 166 and 169 from Weiul and.

362 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

new joints arise behind tke head until the form of the tape worm

is attained, as in Fig. 167, after Weinland.

Now we shall see how the eggs are produced.

joints become filled with eggs and then break off, becoming inde-

pendent animals comparable with the ‘‘ parent-nurses” of the Cer-

carias, except that they are not contained in the body of the

Tenia (as in the Cerearia), but are set free. The independent

joint (Fig. 167, g, is called a “‘proglottis.” It escapes from the

alimentary tract, and the

The hinder

eggs set free are swallowed by that un-

Fig. 169.

Crsticerens. or

larval Tape

worm.

Head of STe ercus enlarged, showing the suck-

rs (S) and circle of hooks.

clean animal, the pig, and the cycle of generations begins anew.

We thus have the following series of changes which may be com-

pared with the homologous series in the flukes :

2. Morula.

3. Double-walled sac (Planula?).

4. Proscolex, free embryo with hooks, surrounded by 4 blasto-

dermic skin (Amnion ?).

5. Scolex (Cysticercus, larva). Body few-jointed.

6. Scolex (Tzenia). Body many-jointed.

7. Proglottis (adult).

LITERATURE.

P. J. Van Beneden. Les Vers Cestoides. Brussels.

. Mem

1850.

moire sur les Vers sess Paris. 1858.

BIOGRAPHIES: OF SOME WORMS. 363

Siebold. Ueber die Band- und yaaa epo ii Leipzig. :1854.

Weinland. An Essay on the Tape f Man

Compare also the works of T enkiki; Souchiosnsitnde, E. Van Beneden and Cobbold.

Development of the Nemerteans. In the development of some

of these worms we are reminded of the mode of growth of the

Echinoderms, while in others the larve attain the adult condition

by gradual development. In no order of animals, perhaps, is

there a greater range of variation in the mode of development

than in these curious worms.

The simplest. mode of growth is that described by Dieck in Ce-

phalothrix, where the ciliated larva, after passing through a morula

and planula! stage (being a two-layered sac, but not a gastrula)

leaves the egg and undergoes no metamorphosis, the young worm

having no body cavity. In the Nemertes: larva of Desor there is

a body cavity, but the larva is still an infusorian-like being, and

attains maturity by direct growth. Another Nemertean (N. com-

munis) has been found by Barrois to have a somewhat more com-

plicated mode of growth than in the larva of Desor.. The first

stages of development are like Fig. 170.

those of the larva of Desor, the

morula passing, as he claims,

into a ciliated “gastrula” state

in the egg, the body cavity being

formed by invagination of the

outer layer of cells, but the ani-

mal after shedding an amnion

leaves the egg in the Nemertes

form, and there is no free swim-

ming stage.

Now we come to those Nemer-

teins in which there is a very

complicated metamorphosis. J.

Müller had deseribed an animal Pdum with tne Nemertes growing in it-

caught with the towing net which he called “‘ Pilidium.” Busch

had suspected that a Nemertes: came from the Pilidium, and: ‘Leuc-

The inner lining of the p ula ari befi h dy cavity is formed, by a differ-

FEF nina of a 1 as occurs in other worms, zoophytes, etc. Dieck

— limits the term gastrula to a two-layered sac, with a body cavity f formed by

vagination of the ectoderm Lankester’s “ gastrula” includes any embryo with

a ra ds sac and a primitive cavity. Dieck’s planula is mand — planula of

e cavity 5 5 5

364 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

kart and Pagenstecker proved it. Our figure taken from the

drawings of these two last named authors shows the singular Pili-

dium, and the planarian-like Nemertes with the eye-specks (Fig.

170, e), growing in it. How the worm originates in the body of

the Pilidium, and how the latter arises, have lately. been fully shown

by Metschnikoff, and to his memoir we are indebted for the

strange history of the alternation of generations in these worms.

He followed the development of the Pilidium from the egg

which undergoes total segmentation, leaving a agmini

i The next occurrence is the separation of a one-layered cili-

ated blastoderm, the ectoderm, which invaginates, forming the

primitive digestive cavity, from which the stomach and esophagus

are formed. The larva is now helmet-shaped, ciliated, with a long

lash (flagellum) attached to the posterior end of the body.

After swimming about on the surface of the sea awhile, the

Nemertes begins to grow out from near the cesophagus of the

Pilidium. On each side of the base of the velum (v) of the Pilid-

jum appear two thickenings of the skin, one pair in front, the other

behind ; these thickenings push inwards, and are the germs of the

anterior and posterior end of the future worm. The anterior pair

become larger than the posterior ; the part of the disk next to the

cesophagus thickens; at the same time the alimentary canal of

the Pilidium grows smaller and only a narrow slit remains. The

disks now divide into two layers, the outer much thicker than

the inner. A new structure now arises, a pair of vesicles near the

hinder pair of disks; these are the “lateral organs” of the future

worm. Soon the anterior pair of disks unite and the head of the

worm is soon formed, when the elliptical outline of the flat worm

is indicated, and appears somewhat as in Fig. 170 (i, intestine

of-the worm). The yolk mass, with the alimentary canal of the

Pilidium, is taken bodily into the interior of st — the

Pilidium skin falls off, and the worm seeks the bot

Metschnikoff discovered five other species of ides and .

thinks this mode of development is not an uncommon occurrence.

This manner of development is directly comparable with that of

the echinoderm from the Pluteus.

To show the wide range of metamorphosis existing in the Ne-

merteans, we may cite the case of a Nareda studied by Mr. A-

Agassiz, and whose early stages are like those of the higher

Annclides, i in fact so much so that Milne-Edwards and Claparède

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME. WORMS. 865

Fig. 171.

Fig. 172.

Development of a Nemertean worm. After A. Agassiz.

366 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

associated “the larva of Lovén” (which Mr. Agassiz has traced

without any doubt to the Nemertean worm) with that of Polynoé,

a representative of the highest family of Chetopod worms. In

the first stage (Fig. 171, a, anus: c, intestine; m, mouth; 0,

cesophagus; s, stomach; e, eye-speck; v, ciliated ring) the larva

is not ringed; this figure may be compared with figure 96 on p.

231 to show how much alike the worm and Echinoderm larve

appear. The new rings are formed between the anal rings and the

older anterior rings, as in annelid larvae, and in fact in the em-

bryos of the Insects and Crustacea. Figs. 172 and 173 represent

the ringed larva. “A number of rings make their appearance at

once, and are the more distinct the nearer they are placed to the

mouth.” The worm now greatly elongates, more segments are

added and it appears as in Figs. 174 and 175, with the ciliated

crown, the small short tentacles and eyes. The worm now swims

about slowly and creeps over the bottom, and is nearly a quarter

of an inch long. It will be observed that the larva differs from

those of other Annelides, as Mr. Agassiz states, in the absence of

“feet, bristles or appendages of any sort, except the two tentacles :

of the head; and, were it not for these, it would seem as if tho

young worm were the larva of some Nemertes-like animal,” Fig.

176 represents the worm over four months after the stage rep-

resented by Fig. 175, the articulations have disappeared an@ a

month later the head is separated from the body by a neck, the

tentacles disappear, the body is flattened, and the Nemertes

(Polia) form is attained. ,

It is thus interesting to know that the young Echinoderm (Fig.

96), the young mollusk (Fig. 140 B) and the young Nemertean

worm pass through’a similar free swimming Cephalula stage. We

shall see farther on that the young Balanoglossus and the sr

Annelides pass through a similar phase. The changes throug’

which the Nemertean worms pass are the following, though bes

should be borne in mind that different species pass through dif-

ferent cycles of growth,:some exhibiting no metamorphosis, the

stages being more or less condensed in the embryo:state. ~

. "1. Egg uao

2. -Morulw. i437

3. Planula (or Gastrula?) hatching‘asa’ e = *

4. Ciliated Infusorian-like larva; ora «> >

5. Pilidium or i Cephalula. +]

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 367

6. Nemertes (a) budding out from the Pilidium, or (b) arising

by direct growth from the Cephalula.

LITERATURE.

Lovén. Jakttagelse ofver Metamorfos hos en Annelid. (K. Vet. Akad. repens

Stockholm, 1840, Translated in Archiv fur Naturgeschichte. 1842, and Annales des

1842.)

esor. Embryologie von Nemertes. (Muller’s Archiv, 1848.)

Leuckart and Pagenstecker, Untersuchungen ueber niedere Seethiere. (Muller’s

Archiv, 1858.)

A. Agassiz. On the young stages of a few Annelides. (Annals Lyceum of Natural

ae a a vial ne E à und Nemertinen. (Mémoires Acad.

Imp. Release "St. Ari tersbourg, 1869.) a Zeits-

Dieck. Beiträge E Sutivicibenipipabeeoue der Nemertinen, (Jenaische Zei

chrift fiir Sensini 1874.) g

II. NEMATELMINTHES (Round worms, Thread worms, Hair worms.)

There is little of interest in the development of the ordinary round

worms, which whether Fig. 177.

the usual form, as shown

in the Eustrongylus.

The mode of deyelop-

ment of all these worms

so far as known is very

uniform. Development

begins in three ways:

(1) usually the egg un-

dergoes total segmenta-

tion ; others (2), as in

show any trace of seg-

mentation, and (3) in

Cucullanus elegans there

is no yolk, the nucleus

absorbing all the vitel-

line matter which is lim-

pid and transparent (E.

Van Beneden). The

germ consists of a single

row of cells bent on it-

self somewhat as.in Fig. 178, which represents a little more m-

368 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

vanced state in Sagitta, and there are a few cells representing the

entoderm. The Nematode may be said therefore to pass through

an incomplete gastrula condition.

The adult form is rapidly assumed

in the egg. Fig. 178 after J. Wy-

man, represents the young of Eu-

strongylus papillosus in the egg

and the worm just after hatching.

Fig. 177, a, several mature worms

coiled up in the brain of the snake

bird; b, female; c, head much enlarged; d, end of the body ; ê

male; f, the end of its body, after Wyman.)

The Trichina spiralis is the author of the terrible disease called

trichiniasis or trichinosis. The young worms exist in the flesh of

the hog, where they become encysted, and if swallowed by man,

the cysts are dissolved during digestion, and the young worms are

set free in the intestinal canal. From here the young bore in all

directions in the body, and becoming encysted cause the flesh to

look as if sprinkled with white sand. a

The development of the hair-worm (Gordius and Mermis) is

quite complicated, as the young are parasitic, tadpole-shaped, ee.

ing in the bodies of insects, especially grasshoppers, in W

Development of a Round worm.

bodies the mature worms are found coiled up. M. Villot is now : :

publishing an account of the mode of development of

worms in a monograph appearing in Lacaze-Duthiers “Archives, —

but not yet completed. These worms are oviparous, laying €x-

ceedingly numerous, minute eggs agglutinated together, forming

long white strings. The young of one genus live in the aquatic .

larvee of flies and were afterwards found by Villot in the mucous —

layer of the intestines of fishes. :

The dicecious round worms pass without metamorphosis through ;

a morula, and a condensed gastrula state (not so well marked as —

in Sagitta) in the egg, assuming the adult form before hatching.

In the hair worms there is a well marked metamorphosis.

LITERATURE,

Claparède. De la Formati Gufs chez les Vers Né :

lape la Formation et de la fécondation des Œu cbold, Nelsom

todes. Genève, 1859. Compare alfo papers by Bagge, Reichert, Si

Schneider, Perez, E. Van Beneden and Villot.

II. CHÆTOGNATHI (Sagitta). 4

This singular worm had been referred to the crustacea by somes

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 369

to the mollusca by Forbes, and even to the vertebrates by Meiss-

ner. Its development and structure, however, show that it is

nearly related to the Nematodes. The mouth is, however, armed

with six pairs of bristles; and a double-fin-like expansion of the

sides and ends of the body gives it a slightly fish-like shape. This

fin-like expansion is seen in the Cercaria, and the young ascid-

ian, and is of little morphological importance. It swims on the

surface of the water, not seeking the bottom or living parasiti-

cally. j

Development of Sagitta. This animal is a hermaphrodite, and

the eggs may be found in August well developed. Its develop-

ment has been studied by Gegenbaur and

Kowalevsky, by the latter in great detail.

The egg undergoes total segmentation, a

segmentation cavity being formed and the

blastoderm invaginating exactly as in the

Nematodes. This results in the formation

of a gastrula-condition (Fig. 179) in which

the infolding of the blastoderm leaves a

well marked primitive body cavity. Soon

at the opposite end of the body another

cavity (the permanent mouth) forms, which deepens and connects

with the primitive body cavity ; this closes up at the posterior end,

and the true digestive canal is formed. The embryo is oval, but

soon elongates, and the adult Sagitta form is attained before the

animal leaves the egg.

The phases of development are then as follows:

1. Morula,

2. Gastrula (well marked, but not ciliated and free). _

3. Adult Sagitta. ;

Gastrula of Sagitta.

LITERATURE.

Gegenbaur. Ueber die Entwickelung der Sagitta. Halle, 1857.

Kowalevsky. Embryologische Studien an Würmen und Arthropoden. (Memoirs

Acad. Imp. Sciences. St. Petersburg, 1871.)

IV. ACANTHOCEPHALI. 4

The Echinorhynchus (Fig. 180, head, after Owen); 181, the

Same, with the proboscis retracted (a, oral pore; bb, protractile |

muscles; cc, retractile muscles; from Owen), a singular worm,

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 24 n a a

870 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

without a mouth or alimentary canal, but with a large proboscis

Fig. 182. armed with hooks, evidently lives by imbibition

of the fluids of its host. It is a not uncommon

parasite of fishes. Fig. 182 represents an al-

lied(?) form (Koleops anguilla) described by Dr.

Lockwood, who found it in the eel (AMERICAN

NATURALIST, vi, 1872).

Development of Echinorhynchus gigas. Schnei-

der has given the only account we have of the

early stages of this worm. “The ova of this

worm are scattered upon the ground by the pigs.

Here they are eaten by the larvæ of Melolontha

vulgaris [a beetle allied to our June beetle], and

Koloope. thus arrive at their further development. e

ova burst in the stomach of the larva, and the embryos contained

g. 181

Fig. 180.

Head of P mamsen

in them can then penetrate, by means of their spines, through the

intestine into the body cavity of the larva; here they become de-

veloped, and again reach the intestine of the pig by the agency of

the larva.

“The larvæ infested with Echinorhynchi live on until their meta-

morphosis into cockchafers. . . . . When the embryos have

arrived at the body cavity of the larvæ of Melolontha, they Te

main for some days unaltered and capable of motion ; they then

become rigid, acquire an oval form, and envelope themselves 1m a

finely cellular cyst, which is. formed of the connective tissue z

the larva. The. skin of the embryo, with its circlet of spines 4

the anterior extremity, continues at first to be the skin of the

growing larva; and it is only at a later period, when the forma-

BIOGRAPHIES. OF SOME WORMS. 371

tion of the hooks commences, that it-is thrown off, when it forms

a second cystic envelope. The embryo, or rather the larva, pro-

ceeding from it, divides very soon into two layers, a thick dermal

layer and an inner cell-mass, from which the other organs origi-

nate.” The ovaries and testes are produced at a very early stage.

LITERATURE.

Schneider. On the development of Echinorhynchus gigas. TRESE der

rage schen SN für Natur und Heilkunde, 1871. Translated in Annals and

&. Nat. Hist.,

V. ROTATORIA.

The Rotifers, by some eminent naturalists regarded as crus-

tacea, are shelled worms, related to the flat-worms in many re-

Spects. The body consists of sev-

eral segments, and the sexes are

very unlike, the small males hav-

ing the organs more or less rudi-

mental, with no alimentary canal.

Like the lower worms they havea $

set of tubes excretory in their na-

ture and perhaps respiratory, Cor-

responding to the water vascular °%

tubes of thé ‘Radiates, but with sv

fine ciliated infundibuliform ori-

fices comparable with the S€g- 4s

mental organs of the Brachiopods

and higher worms; also a pair of -*

teeth in the pharynx, asin many 2

worms. The anus is situated on

the back at the base of the tail.

Sometimes the digestive canal A Rotifer.

ends in a blind sac. The distinc-

tive organ is the retractile, ciliated, paired organ which may be

called the velum. Fig. 183! from H. J. Clark, represents Squa-

Fig. 183.

j m

kona

DEA oblonga, magnified 200 diameters. From fresh water. A view from be-

low; shell o carapace (s, s1, 82); s, the anterior core erse edge of the carapace; st,

the miia., and s?, the posterior t corners of the “n s3, the border of the oval,

flat area which occupies the lower face of the carapace; lb, the cilia-bearing velum of

the head; z, the fork of the tail (tt); m, the mouth; j, honk ; ji, muscles which move j;

st, stomach ; ev, the contractile vesicle, or heart of the aquiferous circulatory system ;

cvl, ev?, the right, ak cv’, cvt, the le ft aquiferous circulatory vessels; eg, egt, eg*, two

largely developed e. —Clark’s “ Mind in Nature.”

372 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

mella oblonga of Ehrenberg, found in this country. It is closely

allied to Brachionus.

Development of the Rotifers. The sexes are distinct. The fe-

' males lay both summer and winter eggs, the former being un-

fertilized, like the summer eggs of the Cladocera (Daphnia). The

Rotifers live in damp places in water and revive after being

nearly dried up for along time. Dr. Salensky has been the first

to give a complete sketch of the life-history of a Rotifer, Brach-

tonus urceolaris.

The eggs of Brachionus are attached by a stalk to the hinder

part of the body of the female. The following remarks apply to

the female eggs, which are quite distinguishable from the mascu-

line ones. The eggs undergo total segmentation, and the outer

layer of cells resulting from subdivision form the blastoderm,

when the formation of the organs begins. The first occurrence is

an infolding of the blastoderm (ectoderm) forming the primitive

mouth, which remains permanently open, the mouth not opening

at the opposite end as in Sagitta, but the entire development of

the germ is as in Calyptræa, as Salensky often compares the ear-

liest phases of development of the Rotifer with those of that mol-

lusk. The “trochal disk,” or velum, as we may call the ciliated

disk of the Brachionus, arises as in certain mollusks, as a swell-

ing on each side of the primitive infolding. Behind the primitive

hole appears another swelling, which becomes the ‘‘foot” or tail.

There is soon formed at the bottom of the primitive infolding a

new hole or infolding, which is the true mouth and pharynx, while

a swelling just behind the mouth becomes the under lip.

Soon after, the two wings of the yelum become well marked, an

their relation to the head is as constant as in Calyptræa. Tho

Fig. 184. foot becomes conical, larger, and the termination

- of the intestine and anal opening is formed at

the base.

The internal organs are then elaborated ; first

the nervous system, consisting of but a single

pair of ganglia arising from the outer germ-layer

jt (ectoderm). Soon after the sensitive hairs aie -

) on the wings of the velum. sats th :

Brachionus nearly Fig. 184 shows the advanced embryo, with ‘ak |

seat Aad sesame body divided into segments, the pair of heap :

wings of the velum (v), and the long tail (t). At this time 1

’

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 373

shell begins to form, and afterwards covers the whole trunk, but

not the head.

The inner organs are developed from the inner germ-layer (en- `

doderm), which divides into three leaves, one forming the middle

part of the intestine, and the two others the glands and ovaries.

The pharyngeal jaws arisé as two small projections on the sides of

the primitive cavity.

The male develops in the same mode as the female. The Roti-

fers, so far as can be judged from one species, seem to develop in a

manner quite unlike other worms, and in the earliest phases much

as in some Gastropods, the mode of their embryology not throwing

much light on the affinities of the group, which is of. doubtful posi-

tion, though with more of the characters of worms than crustacea.

The young pass through a morula state, and the embryo directly

attains the mature form in the egg.

LITERATURE.

Ne ET arta R:

Beit Entwick hi laris. (Siebold

. POIL aNG 4UL ors

and Kölliker’s Zeitschrift, 1872). Compare also the papers of Huxley, Leydig, Cohn,

Gosse and Nägeli.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

SULLIVANT’S Icones Muscorum, OR FIGURES AND DESCRIPTIONS

OF MOST OF THOSE MOSSES PECULIAR TO NORTH AMERICA, WHICH

HAVE NOT YET BEEN FIGURED. — Supplement (Posthumous). With

eighty-one copper plates, imp. 8vo. Prefaced by a Biographical

Sketch of the author, by Asa Gray. Mr. Sullivant died on the —

30th of April, 1873, leaving the plates of this exquisite volume

ready for publication, and the letter-press partially so. The

latter has been completed by his friend and associate, Mr. Les-

quereux; and the volume has at length been brought out, at the

expense of Mr. Sullivant’s executors, and in accordance with his

wishes. Only a very small edition has been printed. The deli- —

cate copper plates were not intended for a large impression ; and

the number of botanists interested in the serious study of mosses

is supposed to be small.

As with the larger first voltime, with one hundred and twenty-

three plates, issued ten years ago, so with this supplementary one

now bequeathed to botanists, the sale of the whole edition, at the

price for the present fixed, would be far from covering the actual

374 : BOTANY. ZOOLOGY.

pecuniary outlay in the production. The work is a gift to bryolog-

ical science by one of its most distinguished cultivators, who,

fortunately, was blessed with the means which enabled him to

estow it. He accordingly fixed a price much below the cost, so

as to bring the work fairly within the reach of students who may

desire it. This policy will still be adhered to for a sufficient time

to enable those in this country who need the work to obtain it

advantageously. For the present the price of the original volume

will be $14.00; of the supplement $10.00; of the two together,

$24.00. It is supplied by the American Naturalists’ Agency, as

well as by Charles W. Sever, Cambridge, Mass., by Westermann

& Co., New York, and by Trubner & Co., London. — Asa GRAT.

BOTANY.

Inrropuction or ULEX EUROPÆUS IN THE Beruvpas.—In the

winter of 1872-3, I sowed English seed of this shrub in my garden,

and a few healthy plants were produced in the course of twelve

weeks or so. Leaving for the north for the summer months, I

thought it best, to insure their safety, to present them to His

Excellency the Governor, Major General Lefroy, whose endeavors

to introduce new forms of vegetation into the islands are widely

known and appreciated. The plants died during the summer.

More seeds were then sown in Government House garden and

came up well, and being transplanted into favorable positions,

throve beyond expectation, and in February last I had the pleas-

ure of seeing several plants, arranged as a thicket on a north-

western slope, in blossom. Still, I was somewhat skeptical re-

garding the ultimate result, knowing that this form refuses -

grow farther south than the latitude of 42° in the eastern hemis-

phere, but much to my satisfaction the legumes duly formed, and

the seeds became fully ripe at the beginning of this month, so that

the plant may now be said to be naturalized in these islands.—J-

Marruew Jones, the Hermitage, Bermudas, May 12, 1875.

ZOOLOGY.

Mr. Gevntry’s PAPER ON FERTILIZATION THROUGH ‘INSECT

Acency.—It is to be regretted that this interesting paper fails

just where it might be of scientific value. If Mr. Gentry, who,

by the context’ of the article evidently anticipated cross fertiliza-

tion, had enclosed a few female flowers in gauze bags, and self

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 375

fertilized them, the case of Cucurbita ovifera would have been

complete, and in Wistaria how easy to take pollen from some nia-

ture flowers and impregnate the younger ones. It is tantalizing

to be put off with “incontrovertible” inferences and suggestions,

when Se prey for actual proof was so near at hand. —

T. Meren

TE Potato BEETLE DESTROYED BY THE ROSE-BREASTED

GRrosseEAaK.— I noticed last summer that great numbers of the Col-

orado potato beetle were destroyed by the Rose-breasted grosbeak,

Goniaphea Ludoviciana.

The farmers hold these birds in great favor, and | are very care-

ful to prevent their destruction. They were so abundant in this

region last summer as to hold in check the vast army of these

ravagers of the potato crop.— W. F. Bunpy, Jefferson, Wis., Feb.

25, 1875.

Tue Umpertvra.— A monograph of the genus has just been

received from Mr. Lindahl, published in the Swedish Transactions.

These polypes are sea pens, with a remarkably long stalk, attaining

the length of two or three feet. The species are of great rarity,

occurring at great depths off Spitzsbergen, Baffin’s Bay; North

Greenland, and off Cape Finisterre. A second genus, Crinillum,

occurred in Banka Sea

Cigars Desrroyep sy Insects.—The disciples of Mr. Treek

will be glad to know that “the weed” is devoured by three kinds

of insects, and thus rendered unfit for the useofman. Ina collec-

tion found by a friend in a lot of cigars, which they had ruined,

Dr. Horn enumerates three beetles: Catorama simplex, Xyloteres?

and Calandra oryzæ.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Tue Sanp Dunes or THE San Luts VaLLEY.—On our homeward

march while in the service of the U. S. Geological Survey (Dr. F.

X Hayden’s) during the summer of 1874, we passed close to the

well-known “sandhills” of the San Luis Valley lying at the base

of the Sangre de Christo Range opposite Musca Pass. They con-

sist of a range of angular dunes extending in horse-shoe form for

Some ten miles, the central points of which will average over

Seven hundred feet in height, making a very prominent object

376 MICROSCOPY.

against the dark back-ground afforded by the Sierras Sangre de

Christo and Belanca. Outside of this range of sandhills along

their whole extent stretches a perfect arena (literally), into

the eastern end of which a river of considerable size rushes

down, and is utterly lost in five hundred yards, reappearing

again, much diminished, several miles below. This floor of sand

and the square sides of the dunes to the very top has been ruffled

by the wind into small irregular furrows identically the same as

the ripple-marks made by the water on a sandy beach. But

while the body of this pure fine sand is hammered as compact

as that under the waves, the surface is a little softer, so as to

readily receive and preserve in ordinarily still weather such deli-

cate marks as the tracks of spiders and small lizards. I noticed

also that portions of this ripple-marked floor which had not been

recently disturbed, was of a slightly different color from newly

exposed sand.. It struck me at the time, that sand might easily

blown over this smooth surface without disturbing it, and

should it lie there long enough to become rock, this first sur-

face would form a natural line of separation between the strata,

having every appearance of an old ripple-marked beach perhaps

containing impressions and delicate fossils, when in fact no

water had been near it, and the wind alone was accountable for

the whole.—Ernest INGERSOLL.

MICROSCOPY.

DOUBLE STAINING OF WOOD AND OTHER VEGETABLE SECTIONS.

—I have lately discovered that benzole fixes the anilines when

they are used in staining vegetable and animal tissues. It not

only instantly fixes any aniline color in vegetable tissues, but

so renders them as transparent as oil of cloves.

Finding that benzole possessed this property, led me to try

double staining upon sections of leaves and sections of wood. — <

The results have proved highly satisfactory. I have found the

following processes successful :+-A section, say of wood, being

prepared for dyeing, is put for five or ten minutes in an alcoholic

solution of “ Roseine Pure” (Magenta), one-eighth or one-quarter

of a grain to the ounce. From this it is removed to a solution of

‘“ Nicholson’s Soluble Blue Pure,” one half-grain to the ounce of

alcohol, acidulated witk one drop of nitric acid. In this it

MICROSCOPY. 377

be kept for thirty or ninety seconds, rarely longer. It should be

frequently removed with the forceps during this period, and held

to the light for examination, so that the moment for final removal

and putting into benzole be not missed. After a little practice

the eye will accurately determine the time for removal.

Before placing the object in benzole it is well to hold it in the

forceps for a few seconds, letting the end touch some clean surface,

that the dye may drip off, and the object may become partially

diy. By doing this, fewer particles of insoluble dye rise to the

surface of the benzole, in which the brushing is done to remove

foreign matter. The object should then be put into clean benzole.

In this it may be examined under the glass. If it is found that

it has been kept in the blue too short a time, it should be

thoroughly dried, and, after dipping in alcohol, be returned to that

dye. If a section of leaf or other soft tissue be under treatment,

it should be put in turpentine or oil of juniper, as they do not

contract so much as benzole.

When hematoxylon is used instead of magenta, it is followed

by the blue as just described. As neither of these dyes comes out

in alcohol or in oil of cloves, the section may be kept in the

former for a short time beford placing in the latter.

The hematoxylon dye I prefer is prepared by triturating in a

mortar for about ten minutes two drachms of ground Campeachy .

wood with one ounce of absolute alcohol, setting it aside for

twelve hours, well covered, triturating again and filtering. Ten

drops of this are added to forty drops of a solution of alum;

twenty grains to the ounce of water. After one hour the mixture Mey

is filtered.

Into this the section, previously soaked in alum-water, is. placed

for two or three hours, or until dyed of a moderately dark shade.

When dyed of the depth of shade desired, which is determined by

dipping it in alum-water, the section is successively washed for a

few minutes each, in alum-water, pure water and fifty per cent.

` alcohol. Finally it is put in pure alcohol until transferred to the

ue, :

Carmine and aniline blue produce marked stainings, but they

are rather glaring to the eye under the glass. I use an ammoniacal —

solution of the former, double the strength of Beale’s, substituting

water for glycerine. In this a section is kept for several hours.

On removal it should be dipped in water, and then put for a few

378 MICROSCOPY.

minutes in alcohol acidulated with two per cent. of nitric acid;

then in pure alcohol; then in the half-grain blue solution before

spoken of, from which it should be removed to alcohol ; then to

oil of cloves. Much color will be lost in the acid alcohol. The

acid is to neutralize the ammonia, which is inimical to aniline blue.

Magenta aniline or hematoxylon may be used with green instead

of blue aniline. The brand of green I prefer is the iodine brand,

one grain to the ounce of alcohol.

Double stainings of sections of leaves in which red is first used,

have the spiral vessels stained this color, other parts being purple

or blue. Radial and tangenital sections of wood have the longi-

tudinal woody fibres red, and other parts purple or blue.

This selection of color is, I think, due to the fact that spiral

vessels and woody fibres take up more red than other parts, and

are slower in parting with it. The blue, therefore, seems first to

overcome the red in parts where there is less of it. It will en-

tirely overcome the red if sufficient time be given.

1f the blue be used before the magenta aniline, the selection of

color is reversed. :

I would here call special attention to the importance of examin-

ing these stainings at night, as the red in them has a trace of blue

in it which does not show at that time, but comes out so decidedly

-by daylight, as to change, even spoil, the appearance of the spec-

imen

I think they should be mounted in Canada balsam, softened

with benzole, as the presence of the latter may be beneficial in

~ preserving its magnets,

I would offer a few words upon section-cutting, and upon pre

paring sections for dyeing.

To cut a thick leaf, place a bit of it between two pieces of

potato or turnip, and tie with a string. Cuts may be made al

the midrib, or across it, including a portion of leaf on either side,

or through several veins. Fine shavings of wood may be i.

or pieces rubbed down.on hones.

Sections of leaves may be decolored for staining by placing for

some time in alcohol; but I would recommend the use <

Labarraque’s solution of chlorinated soda, for a few hours after ‘the’

alcohol. Especially do I recommend the Labarraque for all kinds =

of w In twelve hours wood is generally bleached ; too long

a residence in it will, however, often cause it to fall in pieces.

NOTES. 379

After removing from the soda, wash through a period of twelve

or eighteen hours in half a dozen waters, the third of which may

be acidulated with about ten drops of nitric acid to the ounce,

which acid must be washed out. Next put in alcohol, in which

sections and also leaves may be kept indefinitely, ready for dyeing.

Magenta, when used for leaves, should be of the strength of

one-eighth or one-quarter of a grain to the ounce of alcohol, and

purples and iodine-green two or three times as strong. These

anilines are inferior to the blue in bringing out all the anatomical

parts of a leaf, including the beautiful crystals so often met with.

On removal from the dye, leaves should be thoroughly’ brushed

with camel-hair pencils.

One week, instead of forty-eight hours, is frequently required

to effect the decoloration of large leaves in chlorinated soda, even .

when they are cut into several pieces, which is advisable

Mr: L. R. Peet, of this city, whose stainings in aniliie are un-

surpassed for heauty, thinks better results are attained by com-

mencing with a weak dye, say from one-twentieth to one-twelfth

of a grain, and slowly increasing the strength of the dye, at in-

tervals of from one to three hours, until the required hue is ob-

tained. This process certainly guards against too deep aah,

and may give a finer tone to leaves under the glass. — Geo.

Beatty, M.D., Baltimore, in Science-Gossip.

NOTES.

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.—

The 24th meeting of the Association will be held in Derrorr, Mich.,

beginning on Wednesday, August 11, next. The circular of thé

Permanent Secretary states that the headquarters of the Associa-

tion will be at the Russell House, on Monday and Tuesday preced-

ing the meeting, and on Wednesday and the following days at the

City Hall and Court House, where the general and sectional sessions

will be held, and where the Association will be.well accommodated.

The citizens of Detroit have formed a large working local com-

mittee, comprising nearly two hundred of the leading citizens, with |

the Governor of the State as Chairman, and we are assured that

everything possible will be done to make the meeting a successful

ne so far as the local arrangements are concerned, while the

extraordinary interest taken in the last meeting by the members

indicates that the scientific element of the next meeting will be

‘

380 NOTES.

well sustained. The election of all the important officers a year

in advance will not only save much time in organizing the Detroit

meeting but will also secure special addresses from the presiding

officers of the sections, similar to those which make so important -

a part of the proceedings of the British Association.

At an early date the Local Committee will issue their circular

to members of the Association, giving details relating to the

arrangements made for the accommodation of members while in

Detroit, and such other information as may be of interest to those

intending to be present at the meeting, including any facilities

offered by the railroads, reduction of hotel prices, contemplated

excursions, etc. In order to receive the circular of .the Local

Committee without fail, it is desired that all persons now planning

to attend the meeting should send their addresses to Frederick

Woolfenden, Esq., Secretary of the Local Committee, Detroit.

fessor F. W. Clarke of Cincinnati, appointed by the Chemical

Subsection of the Hartford Meeting to notify chemists of the

organization of a Permanent Subsection of Chemistry, requests

that attention be called to the fact that the subsection is a perma-

nent organization, and states that the general interest awakened

among the chemists indicates a large gathering at Detroit of those

specially interested in that department.

The attention of persons specially interested in Entomology is

directed to the action taken by the Entomologists at the Hartford

meeting, and to the fact that there will be a meeting of the En-

tomological Club of the Association at Detroit, on Tuesday,

August 10 (the day preceding the meeting of the Association);

at, which all interested are invited to be present. -

It was also suggested at the last meeting that special efforts be —

made to bring the Ethnologists and Archeologists together at

Detroit in order to form a permanent subsection of Anthropology,

and it is probable that definite action will be taken on the subject

at the coming meeting. a

ny person may become a member of the Association upon 8

recommendation in writing by two members or fellows, nomination —

by the Standing Committee, and election by a majority of the

members and fellows present in general session. Blank forms for

recommendation to membership, and also copies of the general cif-

cular, will be furnished on application to F. W. Putnam, porma a

nent Secretary, Salem, Mass.

NOTES. 381

The following are the Officers of the Detroit Meeting :—Presi-

dent, J. E. Hilgard, of Washington ; Vice-President, Section A,

H. A. Newton, of New Haven; Vice-President, Section B, J. we

Dawson, of Montreal; Chairman of Chemical Subsection, S. W-

Johnson, of New Haven; Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam,

of Salem; General Secretary, S. H. Scudder, of Cambridge ; Sec-

retary of Section A, S. P. Langley, of Alleghany, Pa. ; Secretary

of Section B, N. S. Shaler, of Newport, Ky.; Treasurer, W.S.

Vaux, of Philadelphia.

Standing Committee :—Past Presidents, Wm. B. Rogers, of Bos-

ton; Joseph Henry, of Washington; Benjamin Peirce, of Cam-

bridge ; James D. Dana, of New Haven; James Hall, of Albany ;

Alexis Caswell, of Providence ; Stephen Alexander, of Princeton ;

Isaac Lea, of Philadelphia; F: A. P. Barnard, of New York; J.

S. Newberry, of New York; B. A. Gould, of Boston; T. Sterry

Hunt, of Boston; Asa Gray, of Cambridge; J. Lawrence Smith,

of Louisville; Joseph Lovering, of Cambridge; the President,

Vice-Presidents, Secretaries, and Treasurer of the Detroit Meet-

ing. As Officers of the Hartford Meeting, John L. LeConte, of

Philadelphia; C. S. Lyman, of New Haven; A. C. Hamlin, of

Bangor ; from the Association at large, Six Fellows to be elected

on the first day of the meeting.

Local Committee: —Chairman, His Excellency, Governor John

J, Bagley ; Treasurer, William A. Butler, Esq.; Secretary, Fred- .

erick Woolfenden, Esq.; also special sub-committees on Recep- —

tion, Rooms, Excursions, Entertainment, Printing, ete. -

Burrertiy No 2, second series of Hayden’s geological and geo-

graphical Survey of the Territories was issued May 14th by the

Department of the Interior. It contains important papers as

follows :—I, Monograph of the genus Leucosticte, Swainson ; or,

Gray-crowned Purple Finches, by Robert Ridgway. II, The cra-

nial and dental characters of Geomydæ, by Dr. Elliott Coues.

ILI, Relations of Insectivorous Mammals, by Theodore Gill. IV,

Report on the Natural History of the United States Geological

and Geographical Survey of the Territories, 1874, by Ernest

Ingersoll.

This was followed on the next day by a third Bulletin, being a-

“Topographical and Geological Report on the San Juan Country”

by A. D. Wilson, the topography illustrated by a map; with a

382 À NOTES.

second topographical report, and a most entertaining narrative it

is, by Franklin Rhoda, assistant topographer. This is illustrated

by characteristic panoramic views of Mt. Sneffes and adjoining

mountains, and of the quartzite peaks seen in looking across the

great cañon of the Animas. These reports and two heliotypes of

the eroded rocks of Colorado, with an explanatory note by Prof.

Hayden, the Geologist in charge, render this a most timely issue,

of value to miners.

As a result of the institution of the Anderson School of Nat-

ural History at Penikese Island, we are gratified to see the estab-

lishment of a similar school in Normal, Illinois.

Arrangements have been completed for a summer meeting of

the association of Natural History of Illinois, for the study af

botany and zoology, to be held at the museum at Normal, Illinois,

- commencing July 14th, and continuing until August 11th.

The following gentleman have been engaged as instructors for

the term :— Prof. B. G. Wilder, Prof. W. S. Barnard, Ph.D., ji

T. J. Burrill, Prof. Comstock, and Prof. S. A. Forbes.

It is found necessary to limit the attendance to fifty students ;

but, within this limit, the class will be open to the teachers of the

State. It is desirable that all names should be sent to the com-

mittee by the fifteenth of June. $

A part of the expenses of the session will be defrayed by a tul-

tion fee of ten dollars for each student; the remainder have al-

ready been provided for through the generosity of friends.

The school is to be conducted by the executive committee of

the association. We hope to see similar schools forming next

year, at least one for each section of the country.

Tie Zoological Garden at Philadelphia is rapidly increasing its

collection of American and exotic animals. Mr. Goode has re-

cently brought from Florida, according to “The Rod and the

Gun,” one hundred and thirty-two specimens representing thirty-

two species, distributed as follows: mammals, five species ; birds,

one; lizards, four; serpents, sixteen; turtles, five ; amphibiahs,

one. A number of Florida wild hogs have been engaged and |

negotiations are in progress for some manatees from the Indian

River country.

Lr. WHEELERS Progress Report upon geographical and geolog-

ical explorations and surveys west of the one hundredth meridian =

E AS AD. EE E E N a

NOTES. 883

in 1872 has been lately issued. It is a quarto pamphlet of fifty-

six pages, and is illustrated with four excellent heliotypes of the

striking scenery of the cañon of the Colorado, and with maps,

including a progress map of explorations and surveys conducted

by the War Department. Appended are reports of the other

officers and civilians connected with the survey. We shall look

with interest for the appearance of the final report of the survey.

Dr. GILr’s ‘‘ Catalogue of the Fishes of the East Coast of North

America” which originally appeared as an Appendix to Prof.

Baird’s Report on the Fish and Fisheries of the United States,

has been republished by the Smithsonian Institution.

Tue importation into Finland or any portion of Russian terri-

tory of American potatoes, or sacks, cases, or any other articles,

which have contained them is prohibited. We suppose on account

of the fear of introducing the Colorado potato beetle.

Tue “San Diego Lyceum of Natural Sciences” was organized

at San Diego Cal., in 1873. The officers for 1875 are Dr. R. J.

‘Gregg, President, and George N. Hitchcock, Secretary. eS

“Tue Vineland Natural History Club,” with about twenty-five |

members, was organized at Vineland, N. J., March 25, under the — .

Presidency of Mr. D. F. Morrill.

Tue “ Nebraska Association for the Advancement of Science”

has been established at North Platte, Nebraska. I. W. LaMunyon

is President, and A. H. Church, Secretary.

Dr. Joan Epwarp Gray, late keeper of the zoological denat

ment of the British Museum, died March 21st, at London, aged 7.

He was the leading editor of the “Annals and Magazine of Nat-

ural History.”

Pror. Marsn has secured for the museum of Yale College, a

perfect skeleton of the mastodon lately exhumed at Otisville,

Orange Cor N. Y.

r. F. V. Haypen has been elected a corresponding penni

of the pie Society of London.

- Pror. Cyrus Tuomas has been appointed State Entomologist

Illinois, .

Tue Anderson School at Penikese has been discontinued for

the present season, for want of funds.

384 BOOKS RECEIVED.

Tue library of Audubon was destroyed by fire April 29th at

Shelbyville, Ky. It was in the house of Mrs. Lucy Bakewell, the

sister-in-law of Mr. Audubon. The collection consisted of about

eight hundred volumes.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Twenty-first Annual Report and Abstract of Proceedings of the Brighton and Sussex Natural

ey Society. Brighton, Lapel Rp. 122. Svo.

rada de Ferro do Recife a Sanin Estudos Definitivos de una a Boa- Vista, Execu-

ES pe soba ornate de J. De da ‘Silva Coutinho. _< de Janeiro, 1874. pp. 155. 4to.

Botentes l Contributii By Asa Gray. ee a the North American Hydrophy

Ex. from Pros Am yen ` Arts and Sciences, 1875. vo,

“Contributions to American Botan , V. Revision of the aa Coann and Descriptions of

New gees a tors as E pata of the Western Species of Silene. By Sere: o Watson. From Proc.

. and Sciences, pp. 2

Geographical Explorations and Surveys West of the One Hundredth Meridian, Engineer =

P le an a nA Pe sir 6 y on, sts, pP artas i ogy e of Ferteraia of the Eocene of New Mexico, C

ed in ashington, vo.

vg. Commission of Fish a d Aeres. Commissioner’s Report, 1872-73. vb aa 1874,

pp. 910.

arterly Journal of Sone’ ae Science. London o. LVIIT Ry ap

erhand ngen des Naturforse enden Vereines. Brunia isis. Sii Band, 1 , 2, Heft. yi 12.

oe Zeitschrift fur Naturwissenschaft. Jena, 187 , Ba. F. ii, Bd. i. pp.

"Pres dings opel Society of Edinburgh. 1873-74, vol. viii, No.87. pp. 207-414, 8vo.

parents Jur Anih dni eit fact Sur Naturgeschichte und. ro boiei des Menschen,

raunschwe

Catalogue o) pom an urian ei Descriptions of some New Species. By U. P. James.

bag yt 1875. pp. 8. 4

at e Canadian A Antiquarian and Numismatic Journal. Montreal, 1875, Vol. 3, No. 4. PP»

| Natural Hist Vol, II II, Part iv, No. 1. Prodrome of @

Monograph the Tubanides 2 ge United ral ore, Ye The Genera Pangonia, | ete,

Silvius, Hem Mabaats., S pp. 365-397.

ay,

— Vori, 875, pp.

Bulletin de la Societe iè Geol ib Certain ia 3e Serie, Lint Paris, 1875, dos a EO seats om

urious Anomaly in Histor es arvæ of Acronycta oi po lee y

Phylogeny of Leplaoptera. as G. Gentry. Proc. Acad. N wy Phil. 1875. pp.

List of the Marine Algæ of the United States, with Notes of por ong id Jeepers ete Known Species. —

By W. G. Farlow Proc. Am. Acad. Arts and Selences, ae p. 35 Svo. Buckley.

First Annual py ie A ihe Geological and A Fey if of Texas. By S.B.

Recent ¢ n of am ” By James C. Southall. Philadelphia, Lippincott & Co., 1875. PP+

Mono ograph of the Genus Leucosticte, Swainson; or, Gray-Urowned Finches. By Robert

say ig de a ee: 1875. . pp. 51-82. 8vo. in Mis-

Dr. Koch dence with regard to the Cotemporaneity of Man and the ering +t pp. 335-

By James DD Dana. From Am, Journ. Science and Arts. Vol. ix, May, 1

- The a g ge pe ae wg in the Physical Features of = By A. Winchell. Am. Journ.

The C Climate oF” of Michigan. a4 a ia rro. Winchell

7 ander nehell,

The Isothermais sind fete ‘ion in North gr sects Ps By Alexander Winchell. From Prot.

Am, Asso. Adv, S 3-13. 8yo. a

Ma gage University, pinatri Tapers to the Board of Trustees. bogie aip

siate. With Charts. By "o d lar Sketches io Te ap Geology of the 1

Religious aotsa ahd nehell, 18 Fg a oe Se eek mae

dist Quarterly key D oti. :

Meo artery fe Py avi ih Facts of fonik By Alexander Winchell. From

e! 3 a 8v

a. France et PEtranger. No. 44, ler mai, 1875. Quartrieme anmeey

2e Serie, prannide By

cig. Enwrengey Anat Eoee eat t S an po AER dro anali

yA 3 :

ons of Four New Species rom J aig Dy Goo. N, Lawrent

Lyceum Nat, Hist. x Y~ Vol. 7 ay ‘ve

The onthiy Magazine , May, 1875, 8vo. Geor-

Bevis af eroavan l dhe ddineralgieat, Godin and Psat Survey of te Sef Aer

Bulletin p Kaati the U. 8. Geological and Ge £ aphica Sursey of of the Territories. F. V. Hayden

in charge, Second Series, Bulletin, No. 4 4

‘Dek Te

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— JULY, 1875.—No. 7.

cee DD I

THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS.

BY PROF. GEO. H. PERKINS.

Tue vegetable life of Illinois presents many points of general

interest, and these are nowhere else so prominent or peculiar as

over the broad, level tracks of moist land so often bordering the

large streams of the West. These lowlands or, as locally termed,

“bottom lands” or “river bottoms,” are of very variable extent,

their limits being determined for each stream by the character of

the region through which it takes its course. In one part of the .

river they are many rods in width and follow it for miles; in an-

other they are narrow and soon end, and again they are wholly

wanting, as when bluffs come to the water’s edge and form rocky

or gravelly banks. ‘This is finely illustrated in Northern Illinois,

where along the Mississippi are high banks with many an out-

cropping cliff of Galena or Niagara limestone. These cliffs have

weathered into forms so strangely like half-ruined fortresses that

it is not easy to believe that yonder bit of wall, half concealed by

vines and shrubs, this crumbling turret, or those broken battle-

ments, are but rough masses of rock. In passing from the ex-

treme northern part of the state southward, we find the hilly,

uneven surface growing smoother and more like a rolling prairie,

which it finally becomes, and this in turn giving place to the dead

Entered, according to Act of Con, in the year by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE, in the Office of the Librarian of pat Wi

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 2 (385)

386 THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS.

level of the flat prairie; yet the greater part of the northern third

of the state is far from level, and the river bottoms, though often

extending one or two, and in some places, five miles from the

Mississippi, are not infrequently broken up by highlands. Nearer

the centre of the state these lowlands are wider and less inter-

rupted in their extent. From Rock Island to Quincy, and even

still farther south, for a distance of over two hundred miles, bluffs

do not form the shores of the Mississippi, except at interyals

widely separated and for short distances. In many places the

banks are formed simply of the washed out edges of great prairies

that extend for many miles into the state. Often while the banks

themselves are low, at varying distances from the water the

ground rises in rounded hillocks or ridges, or masses of limestone

jut out above the surface and form sharp cliffs, all known under

the general name “bluff.” Between the bluffs and the river the

ground is generally low, moist and often swampy. Such lowlands

along the great river are from a few rods to ten miles in width

and, of course, many more in length. Similar, though less ex-,

tensive lowlands, are found along Rock River, Illinois River and

other lesser streams, and along the Iowa side of the Mississippi.

Not all of these river bottoms are swampy, some are reached only

by unusually great freshets and are very valuable as farm lands,

the soil being the richest loam, others, but little elevated above

the usual level of the water, are overflowed by every rise and may

be not only swampy but dotted here and there with ponds, some

of which are of quite large size. Sometimes these ponds unite,

retain a permanent connection with the stream and, at low water,

flow towards it with a slow current, forming what are called “ run-

ning sloughs.” Wherever the lowlands are flooded only at long

intervals, or only every spring, when the stream is at its highest

level, they are usually covered with forests which are made up of

trees of large size and are singularly free from undergrowth. In

midsummer, after the spring floods, when the ground has dried, &

arriage may be driven through these forests for miles with very

little inconvenience from bushes, or indeed from any obstacle. It

is not easy to imagine such forests as ever formed of young trees;

they seem to have always been large and old and stately as now.»

True temples of nature are they —the ground smooth and turf

covered as if carefully prepared for crowds of worshippers — the

THE VEGETATION OF, THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS. 387

grandly rugged columns of oak, maple, cottonwood, sycamore and

many others, reaching far up to the leafy arches of the roof—the

profound silence brooding over all, call the soul to humble adora-

tion of the great Father of all. Except the occasional chatter of a

squirrel, the tremulous, half frightened twitter of a bird, or the

monotonous hum of an insect, scarce a sound is heard above the

rustling of leaves, murmur of wind, or creaking of interlocking

branches, sounds all of them only serving to make the silence

seem the more profound. Undevout and inappreciative indeed

must be the heart that can resist the sombre fascination of such a

Place, a place where, away from life’s cares and vexations, away

from human influences, surrounded by majestic trees, whose huge

trunks by their ribbed and seamed sides tell of centuries of

growth, while their tops, green and leafy, declare that the mystery

of life and growth still goes on with unabated vigor, is found

closest communion and fullest sympathy with nature. But there

are broad tracts too wet to afford a suitable soil for the growth of

forests. In such places only groves or belts of woodland are

found. These cover the higher portions of land, while all around

are wide marshes covered with tall reeds, sedges and grasses, and

lowest parts filled by ponds.

After the high water of spring has subsided, the ponds are bord-

ered by a belt of mud or sand, over which crawl hosts of Palu-

dinas, Lymnæas, Physas, and other “snails,” while just below the

water’s edge the more strictly aquatic Unios, Anodontas, Planorbis

and the like are equally abundant, so that these places offer great

attractions to the conchologist.

Although I have collected fresh water shells in many localities,

I have never secured so rich a harvest of some of the larger spe-

cies as in some of these sloughs. And specimens are not only

abundant, but of large size and with unusually bright colors. Nor

are these localities less inviting to the ornithologist. Quite a

number of species of birds find in them a congenial home and

abundant food, ducks in the water, and plovers, herons and the

like along the margins of the ponds, and in the rank growth of

sedges and grasses, or the copses of button-bush which afford

them shelter, many a thrush and warbler, while over all, like an

untoward fate, hovers the bird of prey. Passing these attractions,

interesting as they are, without further notice, let us now devote

388 THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS.

ourselves to a study of the botanical characteristics of the region.

From early summer until late autumn many a rare and beautiful

flower is here seen. Perhaps the finest display is in late summer,

when, over the higher borders of the marshes, where the lowland

rises to meet the upland prairie, grow hosts of purple phloxes,

mints, pentstemons and many other species, while here and there,

towering high over all the rest, are seen superb clusters of the

rose-pink Spiræa. lobata, well called ‘queen of the prairie.” On

lower ground and in more moist soil, are several species of ger-

ardia with rose-purple flowers, some of the more delicate being ex-

ceedingly graceful, the whole plant covered with beautifully tinted

flowers, being an airy panicle of bloom. Other species with yel-

low flowers and of less graceful habit are found on drier ground.

With these charming plants are found blue lobelias, purplish or

blue veronicas, white chelone and a large representation of poly-

gonums or knot-grasses, with flowers of crimson, rose, white or

greenish hues, most of them neither very attractive nor conspicu-

ous individually, but when growing in masses the effect is often

very pleasing, and in the case of Polygonum amphibium even

brilliant, its deep crimson wands making many a pool bright and

beautiful. Much taller than these are the umbelliferae, some spe-

cies of which rival small trees in size, the white flower clusters

standing seven or eight feet above the ground. Not infrequently

from some darker, shadier nook flashes the brilliant red of the

cardinal flower, while just above the smaller herbs, sometimes. like

a cloud of variegated mist, wave the panicles of purplish, yellow-

ish or greenish grasses and sedges, the light green of the wild rice

being often especially noticeable. In the water, besides many of

the grasses and sedges, are found pennywort, several species of

ranunculus, sagittaria, pontederia, lemna, azolla, peltandra, beauti-

ful pond lilies, which seem to attain their largest size in this re-

gion, and many other plants of similar habit. Among these

smaller species, or by itself alone, grows the great nelumbium,

giant among our aquatic plants, of interest because of its kinship.

with the Egyptian lotus. This covers many acres, often extend-

ing for several miles in great patches. The large cream-colored

corollas, standing often five or six feet above the water, are very

conspicuous and attractive, as are also the leaves, their great

disks, one to two feet in diameter, lying on the surface of the

THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS. 889

water or raised somewhat above it. The upper surface of these

leaves is of the most exquisitely shaded, velvety green, with which

the much lighter shade of the under side contrasts in a most

pleasing manner. In the fall the flowers give place to the huge

conical seed cases, holding in cup-like depressions on the flat up-

‘per surface acorn-like seeds, which, in days gone by, furnished an

important article of food to the Indians. Not infrequently small

flocks of ducks are seen leisurely filing in graceful curves in and

out of this lily forest, and more rarely a solitary blue or white

heron stands dreamily gazing into the water, or lazily wings his

way to the distant wood. But few song-birds are found in mid-

summer in the immediate vicinity of the large ponds, though more

common a little way from them, and often the silence is almost as

complete here as in the great forests, the only sounds, perhaps,

being the harsh call of a hawk or the sudden splash of a water rat

or large turtle. If a knoll or other elevated position can be gained

a wild scene often lies before the observer. All around him as far

as the eye can reach lies the seemingly boundless sea of waving

grass, the undulating surface only interrupted now and then by

rounded clumps of the glossy-leaved button-bush (Cephalanthus),

or more rarely by the tall form of a cotton-wood or other tree,

while in the far distance the sky meets the moving surface, or a

belt of trees forms a dark wall which limits the view, except where

there are breaks through which are glimpses of the same billowy

expanse stretching on and on indefinitely.

The state of Illinois extends from north to south over three

hundred and eighty miles, and for this reason would naturally be

expected to produce a very varied flora, as it certainly does both

as to tree and herb. ;

In one of his works Humboldt mentions the tropical appearance

of the forests of the Mississippi valley, due to the frequent occur-

- rence of pinnate-leaved trees, and the palmate-leaved trees add

_ greatly to the same effect. ,

In many of the forests there is a very noticeable absence of the

higher cryptogams, such as ferns, club-mosses and mosses. Occa-

sionally a great profusion of these plants is seen, but often one

may ride for hours through rich, damp woods without seeing alto-

gether more ferns than could easily be held in the hand, and the

bright, rich green of mossy bank or moss-covered rock or log is not

390 THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS.

often seen. It is not improbable that the germs, or young plants

of these tribes are washed away and destroyed by the often recur-

ring freshets, especially by the spring floods, but they are absent

not only from the lowland forests, but as well from those on the

uplands where no freshet ever comes. Here the drouth of summer

may destroy them as too much moisture does in the lowlands. If

we study the trees alone we find that the entire state affords not

far from a hundred distinct species and varieties, besides about one-

fourth as many shrubs. It would be out of the question to men-

tion more than a few of the more important species here. Of the

‘mnaples, the sugar and the silver, or white, are abundant, and of

large size, sometimes reaching a height of a hundred and fifty

feet and a diameter of eight or ten feet.

The red maple so common in New England very rarely occurs

wild in Illinois, so far as I can ascertain. The oaks are repre-

sented by at least fifteen species and varieties, and in many places

form the greater part of the forests and in new settlements they

furnish most of the building material in place of the lacking pine

and spruce. Of this tribe the most abundant and widely distrib-

uted are the white, red, and black oaks. The bur, swamp and

post oaks, are common in some localities, as are the pin oak,

chestnut oak and laurel oak, though they do not seem to be as

universally common over the state as the three species first named.

The scarlet oak and Spanish oak are probably the least common,

except Lea’s oak which occurs in Fulton county and perhaps else-

where. Both species of Nyssa found in the Northern States are

common in Southern Illinois but not elsewhere. The pawpaw,

persimmon and pecan are found more or less abundantly over the

southern two-thirds of the state, the first species occurring as 4

second growth sometimes in considerable quantity. There are sev-

eral species of trees which are found either alone or in small groups

or along the edges of groves, but they very rarely form groves

by themselves. Those of this class which are most commonly ;

found upon moist ground are, the honey locust, beautiful in form

and foliage, at a distance one of the most attractive of trees, but

ideous often for its huge clusters of thorns; the box-elder, or

ash-leaved maple, with drooping branches that in large, solitary

trees sometimes almost touch the ground, and in one or two such

specimens I have seen almost perfectly regular domes, the base of

THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS. 391

each nearly touching the ground; the buckeyes, which are very

beautiful trees, the black walnut, butternut, and larger than any of

those mentioned, rivalling the very largest of all our trees, the syca-

more and tulip-trees, and more rarely in the southern part of the

state two small trees, the two species of Bumelia or southern buck-

thorn. Besides the maples and oaks some of the largest trees found

in Illinois are the cotton-wood, linden, red, green, blue, white and

black ash, wild cherry, the various species of Carya, the American

and red elm and some others. Many of these trees are found of

very much larger size than is common in our New England forests,

especially such as grow on the bottom lands. Here maples, syca-

mores, cottonwoods, etc., from a hundred to a hundred and fifty

feet in height, and six to ten feet diameter at the ground are not

uncommon, and now and then these dimensions are considerably

exceeded. Even the sassafras, which in New England is a small

tree, sometimes grows to a height of seventy feet. This species

I have seen spring up as a second growth and so completely cover

several acres as to exclude almost every other tree or shrub. The

willows are well represented all over the state, though I have never

seen them covering very wide tracts, as in some parts of the

country. Both on the lowlands along the borders of small

Streams, and on the upland prairies the wild plum is common, and

in similar localities clumps of wild apple are found. Both of these

trees are very beautiful when in bloom, especially when together, —

the pure white of the plum and the pink of the apple blending

finely while the delicious fragrance of the latter perfumes the air

far and near. The birch, so commonly found in New England

woods, is rarely found in Illinois, and only one species, the red

birch, is found at all. Evergreens, which constitute so marked a

feature in many landscapes, are often wholly wanting in Illinois

scenery. The red cedar is found sparingly in many parts of the

state, and on rocky ridges in the Northern counties the white

cedar grows. Sometimes, too, the white pine and dwarf juniper

are seen. One more species completes the list of conifers, the

bald cypress, which grows along the Ohio and Mississippi, in the

Southern counties where it occupies great swamps, its straight

trunk towering for a hundred and fifty feet above the ground.

This tree is very valuable for timber, though from its habits and

392 THE VEGETATION OF THE ILLINOIS LOWLANDS.

place of growth it is not as easily obtained in large quantities as

trees growing in drier soil, and without its sometimes almost im-

passible barricade of roots, arching and twisting above the surface

of the swamp, and amid these the massive trunks of fallen trees.

Grand indeed are many of these old trees in their rugged

and the green and gray of moss and lichen, while some are not

only grand but very beautiful as they are overhung with delicate or

heavy arabesques of clinging vines that sometimes hide completely

the rudeness of their support, and sometimes but partly cover it,

while making that which is not concealed all the ruder as it con-

trasts with their own grace. There are many more species of

twining plants and vines growing wild in Illinois than in New

England, and, as with the trees, so with the vines, our familiar

friends are so large and luxuriant that we scarcely recognize them.

The poison ivy, Virginia creeper, or woodbine, and wild grape are

all found there and are largest of the vines. They often com-

pletely cover, not only the shaft of a tree, but its top as well,

sometimes so tightly embracing their support as to destroy it.

They reach the very top of the highest trees, and are found with

stems a foot or more in diameter near the ground. Not always

do these climbers cover and destroy green and living trees, often

their fullest beauty is reached as they drape the naked, sea

trunk from which life has long since gone, thus changing the un-

sightly and uncouth into noble shafts of living green. Besides

these giant vines there are many smaller and more delicate. Some

of these, as the wild yam, moonseed, hop, four or five species of

smilax, or greenbrier, and other allied forms which are beautiful

for the green of their foliage and attractive mode of growth, but

with inconspicuous flowers, fill many a thicket with masses of tan-

gled cords. Others have the double beauty of foliage and flowers,

_ the grace of pendant branch and twining stem being completed in

the more splendid charm of clusters of flowers. Chief of these,

as it is chief of all our native vines, is the Wistaria, found native

in Southern Illinois. Superb is this vine when of large size and

in the full glory of bloom, the large clusters of rich purple flowers

hanging thickly over the soft green of the leaves. Yet more

showy, though less elegant, is the Bignonia, or trumpet creeper, 85

its clusters of orange buds and flowers gleam like some bright

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 393

fruit from amid the branches of a tall tree or, unexpectedly flash

out from the interlacing branches of the thickets in which it loves

so well to grow. Less showy climbers and of smaller size are

several species of clematis, the wild passion-flower, cypress,

morning-glory, and all the rest, each with its own peculiar beauty

of flower or leaf, sometimes growing alone, sometimes intertwined

about the same tree with several others, uniting their various hues,

the charms of each brightened by those of the others and all

forming a variegated, harmoniously tinted mass delightful to see.

In the dreamy midsummer when all nature’s influences incline to

reverie and repose, no place can be more fascinating than the wild

regions of which we have been speaking. More than elsewhere in

the shaded walks of the ancient forests, is there a coolness and

freshness most grateful to the body, and a freedom from care, a

retirement and a restfulness, as grateful and soothing to the mind.

Not those who have flitted hither and thither over the railroads of

the West, not even those who have sailed on its great rivers, have

an adequate idea of the peculiar modes in which nature expresses

herself in those regions, but only to those who have, alone and on

foot, wandered for miles and miles amid the forests, over the

plains, through the marshes, held by the love of nature, is it given

to know her in her friendliest moods. |

ari

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

BY F. W. PUTNAM.

[Concluded from June Number.]

Nos. 7759, 7760, 7787, 7788, 7789, 7790; 7791 and 7792 are

water jars of various sizes and shapes, as shown in the four figures

illustrating this group. 7759 differs from the others by being con-

stricted in its upper portion. The neck of this jar is not preserved,

but was probably like the restoration given in the figure. The

diameter of greatest bulge of this vessel is from 6 to 6-2 inches.

The constricted portion is about 3:3 in diameter, and the upper

bulge is -5 of an inch more than the constricted part. The-

present height (without the neck) is 5-5 inches. :

394 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

No. 7786 is remarkable for its flatness, the whole jar being 6:8

in height, but one-half of this is in the length of the neck. This

jar is also much flatter at its base than any of the others,

No. 7759.

and has its greatest diameter 2°5 inches from the bottom wien

it measures 6 inches. The upper part of the neck is 2'3 inches

in diameter.

No. 7787 is the most perfect in finish and symmetrical in form,

No. 7787. Xo. 7788.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 395

with a small sized neck. This jar is 8-3 in height, and has its

greatest diameter 6-4 inches from the bottom.

0. 7788 has a diameter of 7 inches and is 8-5 inches high. No.

7790 is 6-5 high by about 4-9 in diameter. No. 7792 is the smallest

and most rudely made: it is 3°5 high by 2-9 in diameter. Its

neck is 1-8 long and the diameter of the mouth No. 7792.

is about 1 inch. Nos. 7739, 7740, 7753, 7757, =

7758, 7793, 7794, 7795, 7796, 7797, 7798, 7799

are all spherical vessels with short necks and

moderately sized mouths and are of various

sizes. Nos. 7753, 7795, and 7798 are figured

and show the variation in the pattern.

No. 7753 differs from the rest in having

been colored red, and in having the bulging portion slightly in-

dented so as to divide the sides into four slightly marked portions.

No. 7753. No. 7740.

This vessel is 3-3 inches high, 4 inches in its greatest diameter,

and 2-4 across the mouth which has a slightly turned lip.

No. 7740 is of similar shape and size to this, but has the sur-

face divided into six projections instead of four. The lips of this

are broken.

No. 7798 is not as well made as the others, the clay not hav-

No. 7795. No. 7798.

ing been so well burned, and it is lighter in color, probably from

896 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

that fact. It is one of the smallest of the collection and the neck is

without a turned lip. It is 3-6 inches in height by 3-4 in diameter.

No. 7795 is a nearly symmetrical vessel, made of the fine clay

of which many of the articles are composed. It is 6'8 to 69

inches in its greatest diameter, 6°9 inches high, and 3°4 across

the mouth. This vessel is slightly flattened at its base.

No. 7794 is the largest of the series, and is from 8*1 to 8°3 in

diameter by 7:8 inches in height.

Nos. 7741, 7742, 7752 and 7754 are nali vessels of the shape

shown in the figures. 7742 might, from its finish and shape, be

well classed as a drinking cup. It is 2-9 inches in height by 3°6 in

greatest diameter, and about 3 inches across the mouth, the lip of

which is slightly ornamented by small oblique lines cut in its in-

ner border.

No. 7741. No. 7742.

No. 7741 is not as symmetrical a vessel as the last mentioned,

and has considerably thicker walls. It is about 3-6 inches high

and about 5:3 in diameter with an uneven mouth about 3°5 inches

across.

No. 7754 is a roughly made little cup, quite thick and only par-

tially baked, about 2-6 inches Migh and with its greatest diameter

equal to the height.

No. 7752 is another small cup about the size of 7754 but more

spherical in shape and having a hole near its mouth, as shown in

the figure. The opposite portion of the mouth is broken, but it iS —

. probable that a corresponding hole existed there, and that these

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 397

holes were for the purpose of suspending the cup. This perforated

cup naturally leads to the next group of vessels, or pots with han-

les, of which class there are several of various sizes, with slight

variation in finish and ornamentation.

Nos. 7763, 7778 and 7780 are the three largest pots, and are

without ornamentation. Nos. 7763, and 7778 have the surface

divided into six even portions by slight depressions. Nos. 7780

and a smaller pot, No. 7779, are perfectly plain and with even sur-

faces. No. 7767 is a smaller pot, of the character of 7763, with

its surface divided into six portions. No. 7769 is a small vessel,

No. 7767. No. 7770.

smooth on its sides, but with its lips marked by small oblique

lines cut in the clay. No. 7770 is ornamented by a row of small

depressions, as if made with a pointed stick while the clay was

soft. No. 7771 is a little more elaborate in its ornamentation, the

punctures extending down the sides in groups which are enclosed

in lines cut into the clay. By the side of the figure of this pot

is placed a figure of one of somewhat similar ornamentation, but

which does not seem to be now with the collection, unless in frag-

ments.

No. 7771.

No. 7800 is a large pot (now in fragments) ornamented in &

398 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

similar manner, but with the addition of small bunches of clay

forming the bases from which the ornamental arches are sprung.

No. 7800,

The design on this vessel is carried out quite symmetrically.

7772 was evidently designed to repre-

sent the face of some animal in relief on

one side of the pot, as shown in the figure;

a portion of this face is on a missing frag-

ment. The distance between the handles on

the opposite side is marked off by four arches

of double lines.

Nos. 7762, 7765 and 7766 are plain pots with four handles like

No. 7762.

No. 7772.

No. 7773, and others from the Big Mound. No. 7766 is the

smallest pot in the collection. No. 7765 is S S thick and

heavy, weighing 2 pounds and 14 ounces, while 7762, of very

nearly the same size, weighs but 1 pound 15 ounces.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 399

No. 7768 is a small pot with eight handles. These handles ex-

tend from the lip to a projecting ridge round the pot as shown in

No. 7766, No, 7768.

the figure, and this ridge is ornamented by vertical lines, evidently

made with the thumb nail while the clay was soft.

The following table gives the dimensions of these several varie-

ties of pots with handles:

No. 7763. Height 6 inches; greatest diameter 8 inches.

eee! ESOS 6 5-8 6c ce 6c és

f 4166, ae 6 66 é & 73 “

« 7800 66 6 6 +“ t6 8 ‘“

$6 7780 & 4-1 t t 6s 6 “6

* PTa 66 4-9 “6 66 6s 61 =“

* TGR; 6 3-6 s6 be 66 46 =“

“71760. aag 4 “M a. cG H

* 779 t6 3°7 66 e ‘6 t4 66

verii Fi “& 82 “6 “6 t 46 «“

"oao s6 8-2 (73 t6 t6 42 “

7170 6c 32 ié ‘6 (z 43 “

= He LM 66 3-2 “és sc 6s 44 “

“& 7766 z3 2 +c rT s g7 u

No. 7777 is a vessel transitionary in form between the pots

with two handles and the wide open vessels with two knobs. It

agrees with the pots like No. 7800 in shape, but is provided with

two flanges or knobs from the lip like No. 7715. It is four inches —

high, 5°8 in diameter at its bulging portion and four inches across

its mouth.

400 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

Nos. 7715, 7720, 7733 and 7737 are all of the same character,

but of various sizes and depths, and are of No. 7715.

solid make. No. 7715 is the best finished

and most aiaro of the lot, and also

the smallest, being but 2-4 inches in depth

by 3°6 in diameter across its mouth which

is its widest part. No, 7733 is 2 inches

high and 4°5 in diameter. No. 7720 is 2°7 high by 4°6 in diameter.

No. 7737 is of the same height as the last, but measures 5:2 in

diameter.

Of the same character of

vessels with those last de-

scribed are the “ head dishes,”

Z=» in which one of the knobs is

made in the form of the head

of some animal, or repre-

No. 7717.

“the clay. No. 7717 is the

most rude attempt to repre-

sent a bird’s head, and is similar to that from the Big Mound

figured* under No. 7824. Nos. 7714, 7718 and 7719 ra n

takable representations of the heads of ducks, No. has

No. 7814,

the head of some animal with larce ears, and differs in shape

from the others in having the sides of the vessel turned inw

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 401

at the mouth, while all the others are wider at the mouth than

in any other part. Of 7716 and 7818 only the heads are now

No. 7718.

preserved (unless the rest of the vesse's are among the frag-

ments that have not yet been restored). No. 7730 has a well

No. 7719. No. 7723,

designed human head which was evidently made in two pieces

and put together before the vessel was baked. In this the hair

No. 7716, No. 7818.

is represented as earried over the top of the head and down’ its

ack in the form of a narrow braid. The eyes, mouth and ears

are perforated so- as to open into the hollow of the head. It will

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 26

402 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

be noticed that in all the instances where the human head is rep-

resented the face looks into the dish while all the birds’ heads,

and the head of the mammal, look outwards. (No. 7717 has the

appearance of looking into the dish, but this rude head has a

No. 7730.

portion broken from the outside which probably would have

better represented the bill of a bird pointed that way.)

The several most perfect of these head dishes measure as fol-

lows, the first figure representing the height, and the second, the

diameter, across the opening: No. 7730, 4°7 by 9 inches; No.

7718, 3-8 by 8:5 inches; No. 7717, 3°5 by 7-6 inches; No. 7719,

4:2 by 7:6 inches; No. 7716, 3-2 by 6-8 inches; No. 7743, 3-1 by

78 inches ; No. 7723, 3-1 by 3-5 inches. a

Col. Foster, on p. 246 of his work (reproduced here on p. 407),

figures a “ drinking cup” from a stone grave in Perry County, Mo.

This cup is of the same design and pattern as No. 7730, and it may

not be venturing too much if we conclude, from this very peculiar

form of pottery, that the same race made the article found in the

ancient cemetery of Perry County and those found in the mound z

New Madrid in the same State. If this should be substantiated

by further evidence we shall have the means of identifying the

general cemeteries of the moundbuilders, or, at least, of ge ae

long been urged that the moundbuilders must have had other

depositories for their dead than the mounds themselves; for, 98

numerous as the latter are, they do not often contain more than

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 403

one or two burials and hence they are not sufficient in number to

serve as the only places of burial used by the race which must

have been so great in numbers.

Nos. 7731 and 77382 are two very interesting circular dishes

with low bulging sides, on two opposite portions of which the

front and hind parts of animals are represented in relief, the wide

mouths of the dishes occupying the position of the backs of the

animals. No. 7731 has the projecting and upward turned head of

a turtle with the front legs on its sides, while the hind legs are

represented on the opposite portion. This dish is 2-9 high and

4-5 inches in diameter across the opening. No. 7732 is 3-7 inches

high by 4 inches in diameter, and

aas a representation of a frog as

the other has that of a turtle.

Nos. 7817 and 7821 are probably

portions of similar dishes repre-

enting other animals.

os. 7735 and 7736 are circu-

lar shallow dishes with rounded

sides. No. 7735 is 4 inches high

by 6-4 in diameter across its

mouth. The outside of the edge of this dish is ornamented by

notches cut in the clay.

No. 7736 is 5:4 in diameter

and 3:3 high. It has the

sides more rounded towards

the mouth than is the case

with the other, and has two

deeply cut grooves around

its open margin.

No. 7746 is a very thin

and symmetrical dish, nearly flat on its bottom, with flanging

sides. It is 3 inches in height by 5'1

inches in diameter, and without orna-

mentation. No. 7724 is a larger dish

of similar shape, but thicker. The

‘height is the same as the last, but its

diameter is 8-2 inche

Nos. 7721, 7722, 7735, 7726 and 7734

No. 7735.

No. 7736.

No. 7746.

404 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

are basin-shaped dishes of various sizes and with slightly orna-

mented edges, as shown in the three figures.

No. 7722.

No. 7721 is 8-4 inches in diameter by 3 inches in height.

u T7293 © OS. ts ce e 5 oe Ce

“ToS 66 sé (7s “6 g7 6 66 66

= 726“ 7-6 S“ +6 c Hor ad “o H

w T34 pI 66 a3 6 “ pg “ 66 t

No. 7728 is a similar dish, but without ornament on its edges,

and is 7-2 in diameter by 3:5 in height.

Nos. 7727, 29, 38 and 44 are saucer-shaped dishes, perfectly

plain and all about 2+5 inches in height and of the following di-

ameters, 6:8, 7°8, 8, 8:1 inches.

e last perfect specimen of these interesting earthen ve

from this mound is the peculiar cup here

figured under No. 7756. It is 2-4 inches

high and 2°5 in diameter across its top,

by 1:6 inches across its flat base. Its

concave portion is °6 of an inch in its

centre. This singular article has the ap-

pearance of having been worked into its

shape entirely by pinching out a mass of plastic clay with she

fingers, and it seems to have been hardened by fire only in its

eavity, as if hot coals had been held in it.

ssels

No. 7756.

THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS. 405

No. 7815 is in fragments, but the figure conveys an idea of its

character.

Among the numerous fragments of

vessels of various. shapes, the follow-

ing are specially interesting: No. 7828,

portions of a small vessel that stood on

three short spherical hollow legs. This

vessel is ornamented with stripes of

red. No. 7755 is, probably, a leg of a

similar vessel but of a larger size and not colored. No. 7826

consists of fragments of shallow dishes, colored red. Nos. 7802

and 7808, probably portions of the same vessel, represent a pot,

of about the shape of No. 7762,

that had evidently been used to

hold the red paint with which

several of the articles were col-

ored.

This last cut was received with

the collection, but the vessel which

it represents is either among the fragments and beyond recogni-

tion or was not received with the rest of the specimens.

Prof. Swallow concludes his account of the mounds he exam-

ined about New Madrid as follows :—

“ These mounds appear very ancient. Soil has formed on them

to the depth of three feet. The largest trees grow on them and

the connected embankments, or levees.

_ ‘A sycamore twenty-eight feet in cireumference three feet above

the ground, a black walnut twenty-six feet in circumference, a

Quercus faleata seventeen feet, a white ash twelve feet, and a

chestnut oak eleven feet in circumference were observed on these

mounds and accompanying embankments.

“The six feet of stratified sands and clays a around the

mounds since they were deserted, the mastodon’s tooth found in

these strata, and other facts indicate great age. These six feet

of thin strata were formed after the mounds, and before the three

feet of soil resting alike on the mounds and on these strata.

“ There are numerous mounds in this Swamp country. Isaw one —

in Pemiscot county thirty-five feet high, elliptical (longer axis N.

and S.), one hundred and ninety-five feet long on top and one hun-

dred and fifty feet wide. This mound is part df a large system of

No. 7815.

406 THE POTTERY OF THE MOUND BUILDERS.

earthworks ; there is a square about one thousand feet on each side

surrounded with a line of earthworks or embankments several feet

high, and the whole area is filled in about ten feet. In the area are

two mounds, the one above mentioned and another smaller, fifteen

feet high. There are also several basins in the area, circular and

much depressed, and a canal on the south side of. the square,

fifty feet wide and twelve feet deep. The large mound mentioned

was cracked open by the earthquake, as was very obvious when I

visited it.

“ Col. J. H. Walker, who was a youth of sixteen years at the

time of the earthquake, showed me the mound in 1856, and also

many large cracks produced by the earthquake. One of these

-Cracks ran through this large mound. Col. Walker told me :—This

crack was opened by the severe shock of Dec. 11,1811. It made

a wide gap through the mound from top to bottom. He [Walker]

went into it and saw at bottom about twenty feet of bones, some

human,’ some fish, and some of other animals. Above the bones

was a coat of plastering made of clay, cane and grass from five to

thirteen inches in thickness. Col. Walker was a leading man in

that country, well known all over the state, and was deemed very

liable,”

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ARCH OLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN INDIANA

AND KENTUCKY.!

BY F. W. PUTNAM.

Tue following abstract of a special Report, made to the Trustees

” of the Museum conveys a general idea of the articles obtained and

the conditions under which they were collected. Facilities were

extended, in the explorations in Indiana, by the State Geologist,

Professor Cox. While in Kentucky my connection with the Geo-

logical Survey, under Professor Shaler, secured extra facilities for

the explorations there.

Several stone implements were collected from within thé walls

of the ancient stone and earth fortification on the Ohio River,

near Charlestown, Indiana. ‘This fortification has been described

in detail by Professor Cox in his last Annual Report as State

Geologist of Indiana, and consists of very extensive walls of

stone laid without cement. At one place, on the side facing

Fourteen Mile Creek, the wall is about seventy-five feet high,

extending for some distance and filling a gap in the natural

precipice on that side. Several fragments of flint arrowpoints

were picked up within this enclosure, and Capt. Sam. C. Rucker,

who lives near the fort, presented me with a few perfect imple-

ments he had found within the walls.

Another similar fortification was examined at Deputy, Indiana,

and will be fully described by Professor Cox, in his next Report.

The principal wall here was several hundred feet in length and was

doubtless, originally, several feet in height. A singular stone -

mound, or monument, was also examined near Lexington,

ana, but nothing that could be brought away was found at either

of these last mentioned places. A large Refuse Circle, about four — a

hundred feet in diameter, near Lexington, Indiana, proved to bey

unlike anything I had seen before, and from the abundance of

split bones of animals, fragments of pottery, etc., found in is a

narrow ridge forming the circle, one can but consider this ridge a

as forming the outline (perhaps the inside of a stockade) of Bie

1 Reprinted from the 8th Report of the Trustees of the Peabody Museum of Amer —

ican Archzology and Ethnology, 1875,

ARCHZOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS IN INDIANA, ETC. 411

ancient camp. Fragments of pottery, with bones of deer and

other animals, were collected. :

umerous stone implements of various kinds, found about

Charlestown, Indiana, were secured. Several of these were kindly

given me by Mr. F. M. Runyan, of Charlestown.

A collection of stone implements was made at Grayson Springs,

Kentucky, and vicinity. One very interesting moundbuilder’s im-

plement of the class generally known as *‘ plumb-bobs,” and made

of magnetic iron, beautifully polished, was given to me by Mr.

Chas. J. Adams of Grayson, though it was said to have been found

“in a coal mine” on Green River. - To Mr. Adams I am also

indebted for several other stone implements from various localities.

The most important exploration in Grayson County, Kentucky,

was that of the Rock Shelter near Grayson Springs. This was

an overhanging ledge of rock, and on the shelves of rock and in

the soil below them, were found several bones of animals, as

well as a few flints, fragments of pottery, charcoal, etc., and

two mortar holes were noticed cut in the solid rock. A large

number of bones from this place are interesting in showing the

manner in which they have been gnawed by rodents.

Several caves in the vicinity of the Mammoth Cave were ex-

plored, and important results obtained. So little is known of

the use of caves in the United States, either for purposes of

burial or as habitations, that every opportunity was taken for

their exploration.

Sanders’ Cave in Barren County, Haunted Cave in Edmonson

County, and a dry (unnamed) Cave in Hart County, are probably

to be classed only as burial caves. Of these, Haunted and the

dry Caves had been much disturbed, and many human bones had

been carried away by the residents in the vicinity. Haunted Cave

had also received attention from other members of the Kentucky

State Geological Survey, earlier in the year; still a number of

human bones and two crania were obtained from these two

caves in which the bodies had been buried with care. In Sanders’

Cave (owing to its difficult entrance this cave has seldom been

Visited) many skeletons are to be found, but the cave has re-

ceived the washings of a farm, and its filthy and wet condition —

renders investigation rather unpleasant, and the bones hard to se-

cure in a perfect state. In this cave the bodies seem to have been

placed at one time, and from two stone arrowheads, found among

412 ARCH ZOLO@ICAL EXPLORATIONS

the ribs of one of the skeletons obtained, there is some ground

for the belief that it may have been the burial place of the victims

of a battle on this “dark and bloody ground.” Further study

of the crania, however, will be necessary in order to determine

the race to which they belong. Several crania, a number of other

parts of human skeletons, and numerous bones of animals were

obtained from this cave. The crania are all of the same char-

acter, having quite flat frontal bones and a deep depression just

ack of the coronal suture, and they are quite different from those

of the dry caves, which are high and full in the frontal region.

The tibize in both lots show various degrees of flattening.

That some of the caves were used as places of, at least,

temporary residence, was conclusively shown by my exploration

of Salt Cave, which proves important in revealing a new phase

in American archeology. This cave, in many respects, ap-

proaches the Mammoth Cave in the size of its avenues and

chambers. Throughout one of the principal avenues, for several

` miles, were to be traced the ancient fire-places both for hearths

and lights. For the latter purpose, small piles of stones were

made with a hole in the centre of the pile to receive the bundle

of dried fagots perhaps smeared with grease. Bundles of these

fagots, tied up with twisted bark, were found in several places

in the cave; and canereeds, probably the remains of ancient

torches of the same character with those found in the Mammoth,

Short, and Grand Avenue Caves, were also very abundant.

The most important discovery in this cave, however, was made

in a small chamber, about three miles from the entrance, first

noticed by my guides, Messrs. Cutlip and Lee. On the dry soil

of the floor were to be seen the imprints of the sandalled feet

of the former race who had inhabited the cave, while a large

number of cast off sandals were found, neatly made of finely

braided and twisted leaves of rushes. a

A number of other articles were collected here, and were as fol-

lows: a small bunch of the inner bark of some tree, evidently pre

pared for use in the manufacture of an article of dress; sever’

small lots of bark not quite so fine as that composing the bunch 5

a piece of finely woven cloth of bark, over a foot square, showing

black stripes across it where it had been dyed, and also specially

interesting in exhibiting the care which had been taken in darn-

ing, or mending a portion of it; a small piece of finely made

IN INDIANA AND KENTUCKY. 413

fringe or tassel discovered in one of the places where the earth

had been disturbed ; several fragments of large gourds ; ; and two

perfect flint arrowheads. Human excrements of great age and

showing peculiar habits of life were noticed in numbers; and in

several places the soil looked as if burials had been made and the

bodies afterwards removed. No human bones were discovered,

and the only remnants of articles that we noted indicating any

kind of food were a few very much decayed shells of river

muscles. A piece of shell of a Unio with a hole bored through it

was also found. It is needless to add that everything in this

interesting collection which it was possible to bring away was se-

cured, though exposure to the outside air is very detrimental to

specimens of vegetable substance so long preserved by the pecu-

liar atmosphere of the cave, and it was only by thoroughly soaking

the sandals, cloth, ete., in thin glue and — them between

glass that I have succeeded in preserving them.

The braided sandals and woven cloth, together with the large

gourds which were probably cultivated, and the absence of the

bones of any animals used for food, are perhaps indications of

an agricultural people dependent on their fields, rather than of a

hunting nomadic race. In connection with these cave explora-

tions I may add that I had the opportunity of obtaining the —

true history of the so-called “ American Mummy” which was

said to have been found in the Mammoth Cave about the year

1813, and about which so much was written soon after that time.

The body was found in Short Cave, about eight miles from the

Mammoth Cave, and I examined the spot from which it was taken.

Since my return I have examined this most important relic, which

is now in the collection of the American Antiquarian Society in

Worcester.1 A careful comparison of the fabrics and articles

found in Short Cave with those collected in Salt Cave conclu-

sively proves their identity, and thus throws some light upon the

race that made use of the caves for burial places, and gives us the

means for the association of the osteological character of the race

as determined from this body with articles found in Salt Cave;

While from several peculiar conditions of the burial in Short Cave,

hints bearing on the great antiquity of the race are given. ©

a ee

For a detailed account of the cave burials and a more extended TESTEN of

turd paper, see Proceedings of the Boston Soviety of Natural History, Vol.

the prese

Xvii, p. 31

414 ARCH ZOLOGICAL EXPLORATIONS

_A large group of mounds was visited at Pageville, Munroe

County, Kentucky. This group consisted of two mounds of about

one hundred feet in diameter, and from twelve to fifteen feet high,

and a number of smaller mounds about fifty feet in diameter and

from three to five feet high. The group lies between Barren

River and Peter’s Creek, on the homestead of Gen. Joseph H;

Lewis, who accompanied me to the spot. A large number of

stone implements, undoubtedly. made by the moundbuilders, have

been found about these mounds, which are now mostly covered

by corn-fields. I collected fragments of pottery on the surface,

One of the small mounds was opened, but it only showed that a

long continued fire had been kept on its top, burning the clay to

the depth of several inches. A hole was then dug to the bottom,

in the centre of one of the large mounds, yet nothing that could

be considered as an undoubted relic of the moundbuilders was

found. About three feet from the surface a human skeleton was

taken out, though it was probably an intrusive burial by à later

race than the one making the mound. |

About one-eighth of a mile to the south of these mounds, on

the brow of a hill, were found a number of graves of a peculiar

character. Many of these graves have been ploughed over, and

the human bones from them whiten the field for half an acre in

extent. Two of the graves, however, had not been disturbed, te

least below the surface, as their walls had been made of slabs of aS

limestone of such size as to prevent the plough from passing Ort 2

the spot. These graves were nearly circular, between four and

five feet in diameter and about three deep. One was carefully

opened and its contents taken out. These consisted of portions

of fifteen human skeletons and a fragment of pottery. The bones

and teeth showed that the bodies buried were those of persons of

various ages, from three children, who had not lost their first set of

teeth, to one person of old age. The grave had been formed by x

digging a hole nearly circular and about three feet in depth. :

feet wide, brought from some distance, had then been placed on-

end around the hole, and the bottom had been carefully ee

with thin shale brought from the creek a quarter of a mile cls

The bodies of the adults had evidently been arranged in a sitting ©

posture against the upright slabs and all at one time. Only frag-

ments of the skeletons of the three children were found and the

IN INDIANA AND KENTUCKY. 415

position in which they had been buried could not be determined.

The earth had been thrown over all and a few small flat stones

placed above: The fragment of pottery found was near the

surface and may indicate that vessels, and perhaps other arti-

cles, had been placed on the surface over the grave, and not buried

with the bodies, as is more commonly the case.

This class of graves is unlike anything heretofore described,

so far as I am now aware, and while it is quite different from

anything of which we know among the Indian tribes, it is equally

distinct from the burial customs of the moundbuilders so far as

at present known. The close proximity of the group of mounds,

the extreme care and labor with which the graves had been made,

their large number at this place (nearly, thirty could be traced,

and a very large number must. have been entirely destroyed by

cultivation of the land over them), and the fact that a number

of bodies of various ages were enclosed at the same time in one

grave, give occasion for much speculation.

Seven of the crania from this grave were obtained in such con-

dition as to permit of their comparatively perfect restoration, and

all the bones found in the grave were brought home, though they

were in the last stages of decay, and it was necessary to saturate

all with glue in order to preserve them in their present condition.

The several crania obtained from this grave vary somewhat in

shape, yet they are, in general, remarkable for their shortness and

great parietal width. They all show an occipital flattening which

in one skull is very marked. A study of these crania has not been

made, but while they resemble the short and high skulls of the

moundbuilders, they seem to have some peculiarities not noticed

in the few mound skulls I have examined. The long bones of the

skeletons indicate a race of ordinary height, though the massive-

ness of the bones is, perhaps, above the average. The tibiz are

all decidedly flattened, and the femora are, perhaps, slightly more

curved than is usual. But on all these points further study is

necessary.

‘

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

CuemicaL AND GroxoaicaL Essays..—The manifest tendency

of modern scientific researches and investigations is toward a uni-

fication of the sciences, and the volume forming the subject of

this notice is a decided step in that direction. We have many

and excellent text-books of geology as studied from the stand-

_ points of physics and biology ; but, with the exception of Bischof’s

treatise on chemical geology, which appeared nearly a generation

ago, this is the nearest approach to a complete exposition of the

intimate relations and interdependence of geology and chemistry

which we have seen. r;

The work comprises twenty of the author’s chief scientific me-

moirs, which have been published at different times during the past

twenty-five years. They treat of questions in chemistry, and

chemical and dynamical geology, and, to quote from the preface,

‘cover nearly all the more important points in chemical geology 2

The author says further that his researches and conclusions as de-

veloped in these memoirs * have been connected with the hypoth-

esis of a cooling globe and with certain views of geological dy-

namics, making together a complete scheme of chemical and physi-

cal geology, the outlines of which will be found embodied in Es-

says I to XIII.” Essays XIV and XV are chiefly historical, while

the five brief papers which conclude the volume are devoted to the

discussion of questions in theoretical chemistry and mineralogy-

In addition to the development of his own ideas, Dr. Hunt has

in general given us the results achieved by his co-laborers, so that

the work is in truth a fair representation of the present state of

the science. Several of the more recently developed of our au-

thor’s views, as those concerning the use of lithologic data as a

basis for chronologic distinctions, and his theory of cycles in sedi-

mentation, have not been generally adopted. The chemical and

mineralogical data forming the basis of these hypotheses, however,

may be accepted without question, and thus every reader is en-

abled to form an intelligent judgment concerning the truth of

these hypotheses. ;

Essay XV on the “ History of the names Cambrian and Silurian

1Chemical and Geological Essays, by Thomas Sterry Hunt, LL.D, 12mo. PpP- 489.

Boston, 1874

R. Osgood & Co, :

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 417

in Geology,” is a very valuable contribution to the history of the

science ; and its value will increase with time. It throws a flood

of light on points of great perplexity for the student; and Dr.

Hunt has in writing it, done the science a real service. It is the

first complete recognition of the claims of Sedgwick, from the pen

of one well qualified to write the history of that painful contro-

versy, and it is to be hoped that the time is not very remote when

geologists will generally refuse to recognize the unwarrantable

usurpations of Murchison.

Some little repetition has arisen from printing the essays in

their original forms, but this could not be avoided, since the au-

thor wished to preserve a certain historic value which attaches to

the papers, and which would have been lost by a change of forms

and dates. e

A copious index and table of contents add much to the useful-

ness of the work.—W. O.

Cuecx List or Norta American Ferns.!—This is a very

neatly gotten up 8vo pamphlet, printed on excellent paper on one

side of the sheet so as to admit of its being cut for herbarium

labels. The specimens are numbered with the same numerals, and

the nomenclature substantially agrees with that of Horace Mann’s

catalogue. I submit a few criticisms on Mr. Robinson’s work.

‘36772 Notholena Newberryi, Eaton, n. sp.” The letter follow-

ing a duplicate should be ù, the letter a being commonly under-

stood as applicable to the first occurrence of a number or name.

“D. C. Eaton is given as the authority to other species, the infer-

ence being that there are two Eatons, both fern authors, whereas

there is but one, the well known New Haven Professor. All her-

barium labels and catalogues also for that matter, should have the

reference as well as the author. If the original work be not ac-

cessible to the compiler then let the reference be to the work from

which he quotes. Such a course clears up doubts, prevents blun- :

ders, and would here have been particularly useful in the cases of

Prof. Eaton’s new species. No European author quotes “3763 :

Woodsia obtusa Torrey” (always Hooker), for the reason that his

catalogue, published in 1840, is unknown there, and is never quoted

in American floras. If Mr. Robinson had referred to the Synopsis

se ——— i

"Check List of the Ferns of North America north of Mexico; by John Robinson.—

Naturalists’ Agency, 1873. Svo. p

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 27

418 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Filicum he would not have written “3780 Botrychium virginicum

Swartz, that author and his predecessor Linné having written

virginianum. It is difficult to understand upon what principle au-

thor’s names have been attached to varieties. ‘ Aspidium aculea-

tum Var., Braunii, Koch” may be correct so far as it goes, as

correct as if Mr. Robinson had attached Eaton’s, A. Wood’s, or

his own name as the authority, but a reference to Koch’s flora

would have shown that that author simply quoted Döll who reduced

Spinner’s A. Braunii to a variety of A. aculeatum. So also of

** Aspidium spinulosum Var., dilatatum Gray,” the fact (if I may

use the word in this sense) was published by Roth in 1797, and the

` name by Hornemann in 1827. In two other cases Mr. Robinson

has gone to the opposite and more misleading extreme, “ Aspidium

cristatum Var., Floridanum Hooker,” and “ Aspidium spinulosum

Var., intermedium Willdenow.” These authors described the.

plants as good species; Professor Eaton reduced them to varie-

ties, and should have been quoted as the authority in accordance

with the “laws of botanical nomenclature” adopted by Mr.

Robinson. ;

8745c. Var. Boottii is the correct orthography, the plant having

been named by Prof. Tuckerman after the late Mr. William Boott.

The arrangement of B. Ternatum is not Swartz’s, and scarcely

Milde’s. The latter author combined three Swartzian species rut-

aceum Svensk. Bot. t. 372, fig. 2), lunarioides and ternatum under

Thunberg’s oldest name thus —

“ Botrychium ternatum (Thunb.)” “ Milde Monog. Botrych. p.

146 in Z. V, B.”

“ A. Europeum” (Rabenhorst, No. 80). I have rag tas American

species of this variety, the B. iagi À.

“ B. Australasiaticum” (Kunze t. 155; Hook. Fl. A t. 169).

This is the true ternatum and is not K American so far as I

have seen.

“O. Americanum” “a. lunarioides airs sp.)” b. obliquum

(Menhl. sp.)” “g. dessectum (Menhl. sp.)”

Bernhardi’ s so-called genus Allosorus is here dropped in favor

of Cryptogramme; Prof. Eaton would have done well to have

sent Cystopteris into limbo with it. Where space abounds aū-

thor’s names need scarcely be contracted. y

We trust Mr. Robinson "o find it necessary soon to issue 4 :

second edition. — D. A. Warr .

BOTANY.

Tue Law or EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS AND PLANT

— An article upon this subject in the AMERICAN NATURALIST Fi

May contains a hasty generalization, based upon pure assump-

tion, or upon insufficient data, and supported only by a false anal-

ogy. It opens with the startling proposition that “‘it is a well

known law in the animal kingdom, that the young or embryonic

state of the higher orders of animals resemble (sic) the full-grown

animals of the lower orders.” If such a law had ever been dis-

covered to exist, the tadpole and the caterpillar, which are cited -

in proof, would certainly be good illustrations of it. But this

statement is so far from being “a well known law,” or “one of

the causes of the recent rapid progress in the study of the animal

kingdom,” that no eminent living naturalist or biologist recognizes

the existence of such a law; or at least no one of them gives a

hint of it in his writings.

Agassiz claimed that ancient animals resembled the embryos of

recent animals of the same class, and that the geological succes-

sion of extinct forms is parallel with the embryological develop-

ment of existing forms. But if this principles be true, it is far

from meeting the requirements of the “law” of this article.

The writer of it may have had in his mind a vague idea of the

law of Von Baer, which is well known, and which has enabled nat-

uralists “ to correct their systems of classification,” viz.: ‘‘That,

in its earliest stages, every organism has the greatest number of

characters in common with all other organisms, in their earliest

stages.” Or, to put it in language parallel to that of the “law”

of this article, false syntax excepted ; the embryonic state of the

higher orders of animals resembles the embryonic (not the full

grown) state of the lower orders. The germ of a human being

differs in no visible respect from the germ of every animal and — .

plant: it never resembles any full grown animal or plant. It suc-

cessively looses its resemblance to vegetable embryos, then to all

embryos but those of Vertebrates, then to all but those of Mam- :

mals, Finally it resembles only the embryos of its own order,

Primates; and at birth the infant is like the infants of all human

races.! But never at any period of its successive differentiations

ere . 1 See Spencer’s Biology, Vol. I.

(419) |

420 3 BOTANY.

does it resemble the adult form of fish, reptile, bird, beast, or

monkey.

The principle stated is not a law of the animal kingdom. If it

be a law at all, it is a newly discovered one, and applies only to

the vegetable kingdom.

The proposition to be established then is, that the young or

embryonic state of the higher orders of plants resembles the full

grown plants of the lower orders. The writer finds his first proof

in a comparison of the foville of a pollen grain with full grown

Desmidiz. The points of resemblance are these: both are mi-

nute; each consists of a single cell; and both have an apparently

aimless motion. Surely, these resemblances are not numerous or

striking enough to found a law upon; and if they were, they have

not the remotest bearing upon the supposed law. Admitting that

the fovillæ “may be regarded as one of the first steps towards the

reproduction of plants of the highest type,” yet they are not in

any sense a young or embryonic form of a plant. The fovillæ con-

stitute the male element, and are homologous, not to the embryo,

but to the spermatozoa of animals. The supposed analogy between

a Protococcus and a pollen grain is open to the same criticism.

Nor is the correspondence between a full grown Botrydium and a

‘pollen tube of greater value. A pollen tube cannot, in any legiti-

mate sense, be called embryonic. The superficial resemblance of

a mould fungus to a stamen, is obvious enough; but in reality no

analogy can exist between them. “The spores of the mould are

embryos, and will develop, under favorable circumstances, into

mould again. But pollen grains are not embryos, and never,

under any circumstances, grow into what, by any stretch of terms,

can be called a new plant. Neither stamens nor pollen constitute

a part of the embryo; and no analogy drawn from them can have

any bearing upon the laws of embryonic development. If such &

law as the writer claims really exist, it must be found by study-

ing the development of the ovule, the true homologue of the ant-

mal embryo. In view of such facts, all * similar analogies” and

all similar ‘‘ proofs of the unity of design of the Creator ”» may be

easily dispensed with. |

` The article proposes to extend the domain of a certain supposed

law of the animal kingdom, so as to include the vegetable king- —

dom also. It has been shown, First, that no such law exists in

the animal kingdom; Second, that not a single fact cited as peor 5 Z

BOTANY. 421

ing it to be a law of the vegetable kingdom has the remotest bear-

ing upon the question. If such hasty conclusions as these, wildly

jumped at from no data, are to be allowed under the name of

Science, her students will richly deserve all the ridicule and sar-

casm which a certain class are so fond of pouring upon them.—

Cuas. R. Dryer, Phelps, Ontario County, N. Y., May 12, 1875.

CoREOPSIS DISCOIDEA SPONTANEOUS IN CONNECTICUT. — Ad-

joining our cow-pasture is a piece of woodland of about four

acres, with beech, birch, chestnut, oaks, etc., growing on it.

is level but has several depressions hick form biS ponds

containing water most of the year. In one of these, about a hun-

dred paces in circuit, grow button-bush, wild-rose sedges, cotton-

grass, sphagnum, grasses, at least three species of Bidens or

beggar-ticks and Coreopsis discoidea. I gathered flowers of the last

when just coming into blossom, supposing it to be the common

beggar-ticks, at the same time noticing its slender, delicate habit,

so unlike the coarse weed of our fields. But, on examining the

young ovaries, I could see no sign of the retrorse bristles on their

awns, which the achenia of Bidens should have. I thought this

might be owing to their immature state. Moreover, on comparing

it with Coreopsis, I found it to agree with C. discoidea in every-

thing except the reflexed outer involucre which an old edition of

Prof. Gray’s Botany assigned to it. I sent a bit of it to him and

he pronounced it C. discoidea.

Just after this, I found, in the same place, a plant, very much

like the former ones, which had unmistakably the achenia of Bi-

dens frondosa, the ciliated outer involucral leaflets of the same, the

flower heads just perceptibly larger than those of the ATOR tts

and the same delicate growth of the latter. ~

In the last edition of Prof. Gray’s manual, he gives as one

character of the subsection * * * * “scales of the outer inyolu-

cre reflexed or spreading” without indicating to which of the four —

species the reflewed involucre belongs. I did not observe any such

in the plants I gathered. The awns did not seem to me “stout”

and they were merely hispid rather than ‘upwardly barbed.” —

Cuartes Wricut, Wethersfield, Conn.

FERTILIZATION OF ÀLPINE FLOWERS BY BUTTERFLIES. — In ithe

ninth of a series of valuable papers communicated by Hermann

Müller, to “ Nature,” on the fertilizatior of flowers by insects, he

422 `. ZOOLOGY.

- shows that butterflies effect the cross-fertilization of Alpine orchids. `

It seems that from twelve to fifteen per cent. of the orchids of the

lowlands are fertilized by Lepidoptera, while from sixty to eighty

per cent. of Alpine orchids are fertilized by the same kind of in-

sects. This corroborates, he says, his view that the predominant

frequency of butterflies in the Alpine region must have influenced

the adaptation of Alpine flowers.

Müller has also shown the wonderful modifications brought

about in the legs and mouth-parts of bees by their efforts in fertil-

izing flowers.

ZOOLOGY.

On THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE Nervous System IN LIMULUS.! —

After a good many unsuccessful attempts at discovering the first

indications of the nervous system in the embryo of Limulus, I at

length, in making fine sections, with the aid of the skill of Prof. T.

D. Biscoe, discovered it in a transverse section of an embryo in an

early stage of development, corresponding to that figured on plate

iv, fig. 10, of my essay on the Development of Limulus Polyphe-

mus in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of Natural History.

The period at which it was first observable was posterior to the first

blastodermic moult, and before the appearance of the rudiments

of the limbs. The primitive band now surrounds the yolk, being _

much thicker on one side of the egg than on the other, the limbs

budding out from this disk-like thickened portion which represents

* the outer or nervous layer of the germ. At the time the nervous cord

was Observed it was entirely differentiated from the nervous layer

proper, and in section and relation to the nervous layer appeared

much as in Kowalevsky’s figure (33) of the germ of Hydrophilus

(Embryologische Studien an Wiirmen und Arthropoden, 1871).

At a later stage in the embryo, represented by Pl. V, fig. 16 in

my Memoir, at a period when the body is divided into a head and

abdomen, and the limbs are longer than before, by a series of sec-

tions parallel with the under surface of the body, I could make

out quite satisfactorily the general form of the main nervous cord.

It then forms a broad thick mass, the two cords being united, with

small holes between the cords opposite the sutures between the

segments and situated between the primitive ganglionic centres-

1 Read at the November (1874) Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences.

ZOOLOGY. 423

The nervous cord, as in the Acarina, is formed long before the

other internal systems of organs ; the development of the dorsal

vessel some time after succeeding that of the nervous cord, while

the alimentary canal is not formed until some time after the larva

is hatched.

The next stage observed, and one of exceeding interest, was

studied in longitudinal sections of the larval Limulus. If we

make a longitudinal section of the young king crab when a

little over an inch long, the disposition of the cephalothoracic

portion of the cord is exactly as in the full-grown individuals.

The nervous ganglia are then united into a continuous nervous

collar surrounding the œsophagus, no ganglionic enlargements

being observed, the collar in fact consisting entirely of ganglia,

the commissures being obsolete; in front of the cesophagus and

in the same plane as the esophageal collar lies the supracesopha-

geal-ganglion, or so-called brain; not as usual in the normal crus-

tacea, raised above the mouth into the roof of the head. On the

contrary, the cesophagus passes behind the brain and through the

collar at a right angle to the plane of the cesophageal collar and

brain taken collectively. Now a section of the larva before

moulting shows a most important and interesting difference as re-

gards the ganglia which supply nerves to the appendages of the

cephalothorax. These are entirely separate, the spaces between

em, where they are connected by commissures, being as wide as

the ganglia themselves are thick. Five ganglia were observed

Corresponding to five anterior pairs of members. It is probably

not until after the first moult at least that the adult form of the.

nervous cord is attained.

Some interesting questions in the morphology of Limulus arise

in connection with this discovery of the original separation of the

ganglia of the head, which I will simply touch upon. The brain

of Limulus differs remarkably from that of the normal crustacea,

i.e., the Decapods, in sending off no antennal nerves, but only

two pairs of optic nerves, there being in fact in Limulus no anten-

ne. In the spiders and scorpion the disposition of the nervous

system only resembles that of Limulus in the thoracic and cepha-

lic ganglia being somewhat consolidated, but the brain is situated

far above the plane of the thoracic mass, and the commissures are

- Very long, and here also there are no antennal nerves, no antennz —

being present, but a pair of nerves are distributed to the mandi-

bei

424 ZOOLOGY.

bles. The general analogy in the form of the anterior portion of

the nervous cord to the Arachnidan, by no means proves satisfac-

torily to my mind that the Limulus and Merostomata generally

are Arachnida, as some authors insist, for, besides the remarkable

difference in the form and position of the supracesophageal gan-

glion above mentioned, there are other differences of much impor-

tance, which separate the Merostomata from both the Arachnida

on the one hand, and the Crustacea on the other.

It will now be a matter of interest to study the development of —

the nervous cord in the Arachnida, at the stage where the cephalo-

thoracic ganglia are separate and compare them with the same

stage in Limulus.

The result may possibly show that the appendages of the an-

terior region of Limulus are in fact cephalic appendages or man-

dibles and maxille or maxillipeds, and in part truly thoracic ; as

in the spiders and scorpions the nerves to the maxille and legs

are distributed from a common cephalothoracic mass of concen-

trated ganglia. — A. S. PACKARD, Jr.

Tue Pine Snaxe. — As having some relation to the animosity

which this reptile is supposed by the old residents of the Pines to

bear towards the rattlesnake, I find an important observation

which I have made, not mentioned in the article of the January

number of the Narurarist. As there noted, the Pine Snake,

when alarmed or enraged, slowly inflates itself with air, thus

nearly doubling its normal size along its entire length, except the

éail. It then slowly expels the air with its own peculiar sound.

While thus blowing in anger, the tail is made to perform a singu-

lar part in this manifestation of rage. The horny tip, or four-

sided spike, is slightly elevated, and caused to vibrate with such

rapidity as to produce a little fan of light, about an inch in length.

Were this quadrangular spike a little flattened and constricted at

intervals, and raised a little higher when set in vibration, we should

have, with its buttons and functions, the true organ of the dreaded

rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus). The sight of this in motion is

certainly suggestive of the tail of a Crotalus in rudiment. If the

tradition of the Pine Snake’s enmity to the rattlesnake be true,

it would not be the first instance of disagreement between

relations.

In this connection may be mentioned our reading a slip from &

ZOOLOGY. 425

western paper, in which was stated that one of our large innoxious

snakes was killed, which had swallowed a rattlesnake, except the

tail, which with its rattles projected from the mouth. The state-

ment lacked the mention of names, thus affording no clue for a

proper inquiry into the facts of the case. .

The old residents of the Pines say that the Pine Snake will fol-

low a person, but that if you approach the reptile, it will at once

turn to escape. This habit, indicating inquisitiveness and timid-

ity, Mrs. Mary Treat informs me that she has herself witnessed,

in the woods at May’s Landing, N

I have received statements from soi residents which make it-

highly probable that the Pine Snake lays its eggs in the sandy

soil, where it is dry, and of course somewhat higher than the

swamps and streams. Also, I believe that the skunk (Mephitis

chinga) has much to do with keeping down the increase of Pituo-

phis, it being, in the Pines of New Jersey, somewhat expert in

finding, and voracious in devouring the eggs of this snake

Desirous to know whether the Pine Snake does carry the vin-

dictiveness towards the rattlesnake imputed to it, and any other

facts that might help to a knowledge of the life-history of the

species, I would be glad to see notes on this subject contributed

to the Naruraxist, either directly, or through the present writer. —

Samuet Locxwoon, Freehold, N. J.

A Lirerary Grm.—In that comedy of errors which one C. G.

Giebel caused to be printed under the title of Thesawrus Ornithol-

ogice—that treasury of blunders—it is hard to select the cham-

pion error. But the gem of this precious collection is perhaps at

p. 96, where we read :—‘‘ Lintna, J., extract of a letter with his

answers to several queries sent to him concerning his experiments

of electricity with a kite (Falco). — Philos. Transact. 1755, xlviii,

757.”

Shade of Ben. Franklin !—with a kite!! — Falco!!! Why did

not the accurate and scholarly Giebel say Fgleo longicaudatus—

for the kind of “kites” referred to, as every little boy knows,

have several yards of tail! ‘This ornithological item is given under

head of “ Anatomy and Physiology.” We sighed, and mechani-

cally turned the leaves back to look under ‘ B” for Burton’s Anat-

omy of Melancholy, but the inconsistent Giebel had overlooked

this; perhaps he thought his book sad enough already. We beg

426 ZOOLOGY.

to respectfully suggest the following ornithological titles for his

next edition :— oe

Tuackeray, W. M. Adventures of Timothy Titmarsh (Parus

palustris).

Huspanp, A. Letter to his Little Duck (Anas) of a Wife

(sponsa), enquiring whether the Baby is still a Creeper (Certhia).

[N. B. If Dr. Giebel should be in doubt under which one of his

xxxiii headings this title should come, he might put it under

‘t Propagatio” or under ‘ Monographs of Families.” ]

Poriceman, A. On the Jayl-birds (Garrulus) and Gutter-snipes

{Scolopax gutturalis) of the metropolis; or, how to go on a Lark

(Alauda).

Gieset, C. G. Ornithological evidences of Lunacy (Loon-icy,

Colymbus glacialis).

Tue European Cappace BurrerrLY probably made its appear-

ance in the neighborhood of Cleaveland, Ohio, during the season

- of 1873, but its ravages did not attract special attention till the

summer of 1874, when many thousands of dollars were lost by

the wholesale destruction of. cabbages and cauliflowers in this

section. We have also received notice of similar devastation

among these plants in Western Pennsylvania (1874), probably

caused by the larvee of this same insect pest. Fortunately for the

vegetable gardeners, however, the active European parasite of the

Pieris is also on hand, and scarcely less than ninety per cent. of

last year’s cocoons are now found more or less completely filled

with individuals of the bronzen ichneumon-fly known as Pteromalus

puparum, either in the larval or pupa state. —T. B. Comstock.

Tue Lark Bunting. — While with the Yellowstone Expedition

of 1873, under Gen. Stanley, I collected some material, amongst

which was a nest of the Lark bunting, Calamospiza bicolor

Bonap.), containing three eggs of the same, with one parasitic

egg, which I have every reason to believe was that of the Crow

Black bird (Molothrus pecoris Swainson), as I am well acquainted

with the eggs of this bird, and also, because it was found at

the same localities, where the Lark bunting seemed to settle.

The nests of the latter were generally found at the head-waters

of the various streams running either into the Heart or Big

Knife Rivers, in fact so close to the springs that in many places

the ground was moist. The nests which I found were generally

under or amongst tufts of grass, or other shrubs of a stun

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. ANTHROPOLOGY. 427

‘character, Mr. Allen, who accompanied us, has probably de-

scribed the nests and eggs, ere this, so I will not go into details.

—W. Horrman, M.D ;

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On THE ORDER AMmBLYPODA.— Prof. Cope recently read a paper

on the structure of the feet of Bathmedon, showing that they re-

sembled in many points those of the Elephants but differed in:

others. He finds five toes on each foot, which are very short and

furnished with small transverse hoofs. The bones of the carpus

resemble closely those of Toxodontia. In the hind foot the

arrangement is like that of the Elephants except that the navic-

ular bone is withdrawn to the outer side so as to bring the cuboid.

and one cuneiform bone into contact with the astragalus. On the

characters thus ascertained he based the definition of a new order

of mammals. The Amblypoda which presents two sub-orders, the

Pantodonta represented by Bathmodon, and the Dinocerata rep-

resented by Uintatherium.

ANTHROPOLOGY.

PERFORATION OF THE HUMERUS CONJOINED WITH PLATYCNEMISM.

— Associated with that extreme development of platycnemism

discovered by the writer, some years ago, in the ancient mounds

on the Detroit and Rouge Rivers, Michigan, he has found the per-.

foration of the humerus. Allusion is made to that peculiarity of

the arm bone in which is presented a communication of the two

fosse at its lower end. It is difficult to arrive at the exact

amount of the percentage to which this prevails in these mounds ;

though there can be little doubt that at least 50 per cent. of the

humeri have this characteristic. This is of interest as being in

excess of that from the mounds in other parts of the country,

where it is ealeulated as being only 31 percent. It is a character-

istic which, significantly enough, exists in the ape, pertains to the

negro in a large degree, while it is very rarely encountered in any

of the white races.

In a letter received last year from Prof. Busk, F. R. S., he at-

taches importance to the writer’s discovery of this conformation —

of the humerus being a peculiarity of platyenemic man, and states

428 MICROSCOPY.

that he does not think such a coincidence has been noticed else-

where. At any rate it has not been so absolutely established

heretofore.

Transitional states of the characteristic, if they may be so

called, are also seen in the Rouge River mound ; that is, instances

in which the communication between the fossæ is not quite com-

pleted, the dividing wall being reduced, in some cases toa very

thin partition, almost transparent. Even where the perforation is

accomplished, there is a great variation in the size of the aperture.

— Henry GILLMAN, Detroit, Michigan.

MICROSCOPY.

ATLAS DER D1ATOMACEEN KUNDE.— By Adolf Schmidt, assisted

by Grindler, Grunow, Janesch, Weissflog and Witt. Publishing

in parts, each with four plates. To be completed in from twenty-

five to thirty parts. Three parts of this magnificent work have

been received. Each plate contains from fifteen to forty figures.

The plates are from photographs of original drawings, reproduced

by some one of the processes for copying photographs. It is said

that nine thousand drawings have been prepared for the work.

Size of the plates, fourteen by nine and one-half inches.

It seems to be the aim of the editors to give every known vari-

ation of each species of Diatom. For example, plate seven has

forty variations of the type Navicula Smithii Breb. = N. eliptica

W. S. Other genera and species are treated in the same manner.

Two plates with eighty-nine figures are devoted entirely to the

panduriform Navicula. The editors are the most renowned stu-

dents of this department of natural history in Germany, and the

work will be indispensable to all workers in this country, tO

whom the writings of the German diatomists have been almost

inaccessible, scattered as they are among the German periodicals,

while for the bibliomaniac it will supply one of the great books of

the age.—C. S. 2

Measvrement or Méuuer’s Prose Prarre.! — Mr. A. F. Dod,

Secretary of the Memphis Microscopical Society, Memphis, Ten-

nessee. Dear Sir: I have this day finished the measurement of

your probe-platte, No. 536. The first thirteen were measured

on the evening of March twenty-ninth, by lamp-light; the rest .

1 Read hat +h AF, pk y: > Ic ie ty, April 1, 1875.

MICROSCOPY. 429

were measured, and the thirteenth was remeasured this morning

by sunlight. A heliostat was used to give a steady beam of light,

and blue glass to make it monochromatic. The index error of the

cobweb micrometer was redetermined for the occasion; three ob-

servations gave .%, 2%, gg, revolutions ieee This cor-

rection was applied in all the calculations. All measurements

were repeated ; all the striz measured were cou at least twice.

In the first five diatoms, as is well known, the striz are not of

uniform fineness all over the surface of the frustule; in these, one

of the measurements is made at the coarsest striation which was

noticed on the frustule ; and another was made on the same strie,

but at the point where they converge nearest to each other. Care

was taken not to be deceived by spectral lines. An immersion

sixteenth, by Tolles, having a- maximum angle of 178 degrees, was

used in all the measurements:

1. Triceratium fayus, . s >» 6 counted 3.63 in 1-1000 inch.

2 é ‘ 5 “& 3.76 “ “

8, Pinmnularia nobilis, =- .. > . MoT ia e

. “ “ f z 2 > 15 “ 12.4 s “ “

5. Navicula lyra, į A i z 23 “ riS u “

6. “ s = { “ 152 “ “ “

ag " > % ;

10. Pinnularia interrupta, . o mT oe 26.7 «© a'k

. i és A ý E a a ai uoa on

12. Stauroneis phoenicenteron, . . 32 “ pos LS

. $ “ i Dio ee ug u a u

l4. Sremmsophers marins, oo onn ee P mie“ &

15. : E an e mi a e e

16. F paronim beam, a aa Bi” wo

a a a ae ey

18. Pisuroslima acuminatum, ioe || Dette: oS

19. fo ae SST ay

20. ERE E Dio ee o a e e o

21. t s > 2 a “ 49.3 6 “ ‘“

22. Pleurosigma angulatum, * ae OM uis a u

23. “ “ a eee mieu cu

24. Grammatophora oceanica, . - 39%“ eses &

z! “ “ E bi é 27 s 61 9 t LL “

26. Surirella gemma; transyerse striæ, 45 “ 5632 “ “ “

es ti o we SS rn o

28. t sé a 7 2 ‘ 35 “ 5g “ “s “

29, é s A n ; 34.C«‘ Bo “s t,“

nan ag o “ e a Be

31. “ “ pea. «+ ga “u “una

32. Nitschia sigmoidea, Lo ereu Man ae i:

33, sg = . . . . 41 * re bes

~~ s OO Ta ee ee Ue

35. Pleurosigma fasciola, -. + + n oa 8 r

430 "MICROSCOPY.

36, Pleurosigma fasc 17 counted 58.2 in 1-1000 inch.

37. egret ay et Tai striæ, DoR Ce ee

38, 3 Š +o te 67.3 «© w «&

39. Cymatipleura elliptiea, ie TEE oy 6 630 « « «

40. i 38 “ gI «4# “

41. Navicul a 81 e gg “ « “

42, +“ 22 t 62s «“ j

43, Mitechia irii 27 Z “ 901 « « #

44, 26 “cc 89.8 “ “ (K3

45. Amphiplenra peli 30 n “ wi n Hoi

46. 17 “ gg “o “u t

47. v u ý 23 “ 96.0 “« t

48. "i & 4 27 ‘“ g.g e & “

In case you should at any time require it, I can specify more in

detail what part of each frustule was subjected to measurement.

I have given all the observations in order that by comparing them,

you may see, in the case of the coarse diatoms which are very

easy to measure, the amount of variation in coarseness on the

same frustule ; and, in case of the finer, which more easily admit

of some error in measurement, the degree of accuracy shown by

the accordance of different observations.

It is not till I shall have measured several copies of Moeller’s

probe-platte, that it will be proper or worth while to make any de-

tailed comparisons of the results. It may, however, be remarked

that the two specimens of T. favus differ as much as nineteen or

twenty per cent. Two vary from fifteen to twenty per cent; two

vary from ten to fifteen per cent; six vary from five to ten per

cent; ten vary less than five per cent; as compared with my

probe-platte. The average variation between the measurements

of the corresponding diatoms of the two plates is six and nine-

tenths per cent; the average of all the variations shows your

platte to have its frustules five per cent. finer than mine. The

samples of Amphipleura pellucida on the two plates agree within

three and two-tenths per cent.— Very truly yours, Epwarp W.

Mortey, Hudson, 0., Apru 10, 1875.

AMERICAN EE E A full representation of those inter-

ested in the microscope is especially desirable at the Detroit meet-

ing of the A. A. A. S., commencing on the 11th of next August,

as it is desired to take steps toward the organization of a Micro-

scopical Society, either as a separate society-or club, or as @ sub-

section of the large Association.. There is a very general desire

for a society of American microscopists, and it is believed that

such a society can obtain general attendance from the whole

NOTES. 431

country only at the time and place of meeting of the A. A. A.S.,

to say nothing of the other very great advantages of meeting in

connection with that prominent organization. ;

NOTES.

Tue Boston Daily Advertiser, in a recent criticism on the

“Statement of the Theory of Education in the United States of

America,” a pamphlet issued by the Bureau of Education in

Washington, offers the following forcible remarks, which illustrate

very fairly how favorably the educational ideas of our best scien-

tific men are received by the intelligent part of the community :

nal discovery. We presume that the last clause, though rather

obscure, points at object lessons, field study and the use of the

laboratory, but the words employed elsewhere, ‘the prevailing

custom in American schools is to place a book in the hands of the

ter

teaching him how to read,” sufficiently express the mental

notion of practical education as it prevails in America. The omis-

sion, on the one hand, of a public Kindergarten as initiatory, and

the close succession of text-books in every department of study,

will begin to apply the same principle in other departments of

study - English literature, for example, will be taught less by

oft

432 NOTES.

means of text-books about the subject than by direct contact with

literature itself.”

Tue Bulletin of the U. S. Geological and Geographical Survey

of the Territories, F. V., Hayden in charge (No. 4, second series,

June 10, 1875), contains “ Notes on the Surface Features of the

Colorado or Front Range of the Rocky Mts. ;” by F. V. Hayden,

illustrated with fine panoramic views of the Colorado Mountains.

“The Tertiary Physopoda of Colorado,” by S. H. Scudder, and

‘Outlines of a Natural Arrangement of the Falconid,” by Rob-

ert Ridgway, with numerous outline cuts. We have also received

-a “Preliminary Map of Central Colorado, showing the region sur-

veyed in 1873-4,” by Hayden’s Geological and Geographical

Survey of the Territories. :

Tue “Annual Record of Science and Industry for 1874,” edited

by Spencer F. Baird, with the assistance of eminent men of sci-

ence, has recently been published by Harper & Brothers. It isa

large 12Mo of 665 pages. This annual has met with the approval

of scientific as well as general students, and is the most reliable

and convenient book of the sort published in the language. Sev-

eral new features have heen introduced, which make the present

volume still more useful than its predecessors.

IN an article in the “ American Journal of Science,” for May,

“On Dr. Koch’s Evidence with regard to the Cotemporaneity of

Man and the Mastodon in Missouri,” Professor Dana, on a review

of the evidence, thinks there is sufficient reason for regarding Dr.

Koch's evidence very doubtful, but that future discoveries will es-

tablish man’s contemporaneity with the mastodon, for he existed

in Europe long before the extinction of the American mastodon.

Sacus’ elaborate and comprehensive ‘“ Text-book of Botany,

Morphological and Physiological, has been translated and anno-

tated by Alfred W. Bennett, assisted by W. T. Thiselton Dyer,

both excellent authorities. The work is published in sumptuous

style by Messrs. Macmillan. Price $12.50. Received from A. A.

Smith & Co., Salem. For sale by Lee & Shepard, Boston.

A VALUABLE, illustrated article on the Potato rot, by Professor

W. G. Farlow, appears in the “Bulletin of the Bussey Institu-

tion,” Part iy.

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— AUGUST, 1875. — No. 8.

TLOeGORDOD IY

ALASKAN MUMMIES.

BY W. H. DALL.

For nearly a hundred years it has been known, through the

quaint accounts of the early voyagers, that certain tribes of

southern Alaska preserved the bodies of their dead. Up to a

very recent period, however, no examples of this practice had

reached any ethnological museum, or fallen under the observation

of any scientific observer. When the territory was purchased,

had it continued as accessible as during 1868, it might have rea-

sonably been expected to attract many investigators in Natural

History and Ethnology, whose chief difficulty would have been an

embarras de richesse. But private interest and public indifference

united to seal it up from inspection. Naturalists generally are

less easily muzzled than poorly paid political appointees, and

hence the obstacles thrown in the way of exploration have been

so great that we can- hardly wonder that so few have been able to

enter this rich and interesting field.

During the last four or five years, the investigations of M.

Alphonse Pinart, and of the writer, have spread among the resi-

dents of the territory some knowledge of the value attached to

the ethnological material which surrounds them, and to this fact

we owe the collection and preservation of much that is of interest.

Among other things which have come to hand in this manner are

the only specimens of Alaskan mummies extant.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

SCIENCE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington,

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 28 (483)

434 ALASKAN MUMMIES.

The practice of preserving the bodies of the dead was in vogue

among the inhabitants of the Aleutian Islands and the Kadiak

archipelago at the time of their discovery, and probably had been

the custom among them for centuries. We find nothing of it on

the mainland. It is curious to trace the customs of the wild tribes

in this respect in connection with their external surroundings.

the Chukchee peninsula on the Asiatic side of Bering Strait, there

is no soil in many places. The substratum of granitoid rock is

broken by the frost into hundreds of angular fragments, which are

covered with a thin coating of various mosses, which may be

stripped off in great pieces like a blanket. There are no trees

and but little driftwood. Burial is impracticable, cremation im- —

possible, and the natives expose their dead on some hillside to the

tender mercies of bears, dogs and foxes.

In the Yukon valley at a short distance below the surface the

soil is permanently frozen, and excavation without iron tools ex-

tremely difficult. But timber abounds, and the bodies of the

dead, doubled up to economize space, are placed in wooden coffins

- which are secured without nails and elevated above the surface of

the earth on four posts. To scare away wild beasts poles are

frequently erected around the coffin, bearing long strips of fur or

cloth which are agitated by the wind.

The poor and friendless may be simply covered with a pile of

logs, secured by heavy stones; but in general the method is as

above. Various modifications are found in various localities; the

coffin on the lower Yukon is sometimes filled in with clay, packed

hard; and the Nowikakhat Indians sometimes place their dead

erect, surrounded by hewn timbers secured like the staves of a

On the islands the soil is unfrozen and there are no obstacles to

digging. But wood is only found on the shores, drifted by the

ocean currents, and usually not in large quantities. However

there are no wild animals to disturb the remains; the beetling

cliffs which are found on every hand, shattered by frequent earth-

quakes, afford in the talus of broken rock at their bases, abundant

and convenient rock-shelters. Here the natural depositories exist,

of which the natives have availed themselves. On all these cus-

toms, originally prompted by the bare necessities of the case, the

slow development of sentiment and feeling (which undoubtedly

oes take place in savage people, though we may not be able to

ALASKAN MUMMIES. 435

trace its growth) has grafted animistic ideas, and semi-religious

rites and ceremonies. Thus, the original utilitarianism is more or

less completely masked or concealed. It is a singular fact that

no people have ever adopted the plan of committing their dead to

the sea.

Without attempting, at present, to trace the growth of the cus-

tom, I will briefly describe the method adopted by the Kaniag. and

Aleut branches of the Eskimo stock, in preserving the dead.

The details are partly given in the older voyages; and have been

confirmed and supplemented by an examination of a large number

of the mummies, and the traditions of the present natives.

The body was prepared by making an opening in the pelvic re-

gion and removing all the internal organs. The cavity was then

filled with dry grass and the body placed in running water. This

in a short time removed most of the fatty portions, leaving only

the skin and muscular tissues. The knees were then brought up

to the chin,.and the whole body secured as compactly as possible

by cords. The bones of the arms were sometimes broken to facil-

itate the process of compression. In this posture the remains

were dried. This required a good deal of attention, the exuding

moist@re being carefully wiped off from time to time. When

Seneca dried the cords were removed and the body usually

wrapped in a shirt, made of the skins of aquatic birds with the

feathers on, and variously trimmed and ornamented with exceed-

ingly fine embroidery. Over this were wrapped pieces of matting

made of Elymus fibre, carefully prepared. This matting varies

from quite coarse to exceedingly fine, the best rivalling the most

delicate work of the natives of Fayal. It is, indeed, quite impos-

sible to conceive of finer work done in the material used.

The matting was frequently ornamented with checks and stripes

of colored fibre, with small designs at the intersections of the

stripes, and with the rosy breast-feathers of the Leucosticte sewed

into it. Over this sometimes a water proof material, made from

the split intestines of the sea lion sewed together, was placed.

The inner wrappings vary in number and kind but they are all re-

ferrible to one or the other of the above kinds. Outside of these

were usually the skins of the sea otter or other fur animals, and

the whole was secured in a case of sealskins, coarse matting or

similar material secured firmly by cords and so arranged as to be

Capable of suspension.

436 ALASKAN MUMMIES.

The case was sometimes cradle shaped, especially when the

body was that of an infant. On these occasions it was often of

wood, ornamented as highly as their resources would allow,

painted with red, blue or green native pigments, carved, adorned

with pendants of carved wood and suspended by braided cords of

whale sinew from two wooden hoops, like the arches used in the

game of croquet.

The innermost wrapping of infants was bisintl 6 of the finest

, and from the invariable condition of the contained remains it

is probable that the bodies were encased without undergoing the

process previously described. The practice of suspension was

undoubtedly due to a desire to avoid the dampness induced by

contact with the soil. The bodies of infants thus prepared were

often retained in the house, by the fond mother, for a long time.

Afterwards they were sometimes. suspended in the open air: but

. adults were as far as I have been able to find out, ee con-

signed to caves or rock-shelters.

Among the localities which have been visited personally by the

writer, are caves in Unga, one of the Shumagin Islands, and

others on the islands of Amaknak and Atka, further west. In

all of these the remains of mummies existed; but the efféct of

falling rock from above, and great age, had in all the caves except

that of Unga, destroyed the more perishable portions of the re-

mains, and in the latter place only fragments remained.

Many stories, however, came to hand in relation to a cave on

the “Islands of the Four Mountains” west of Unalashka, where

a large number of perfectly preserved specimens were said to ex-

ist, in relation to which the following legend was current among

the natives.

` Many years ago! there lived on the island of Kagámil (one of

the Four Mountains) a celebrated chief named Kat-hay-a-kut-chak,

small of stature but much feared and respected by the adjacent

natives for his courage and success in hunting. He had a son

whom he fondly loved, and who was about fifteen years old. For

this son he made a bidarka (or skin-boat) highly ornamented and

of small size. When it was finished, the boy entreated his father

for permission to try it, and after much coaxing was permitted to

do so, on condition that he did not go far from the shore. After

Wim Aaka ta itai f, N hinh tha fi t Russians made

ee Lá 5

éhnt tth sal E PREN t 1760.

ALASKAN MUMMIES. 437

seeing the boat safely launched the father sat on the hillside

watching its progress. The boy became interested in the pursuit

of a diving bird at which he threw his dart and which receding

from the shore carried the boy away in pursuit, forgetful of his

promise.

His father shouted to him but the boy was too far away to hear,

and presently it becoming dusk, he could no longer see him and

the chief returned to his dwelling.

The boy did not become conscious of the distance he had pad-

dled until out of sight of his own island, and in the darkness he

made for the nearest shore.

In those days an. Aléut marrying into another family was aceus-

tomed to leave his wife with her people, at least for a certain time ;

and a native of another island who had married a daughter of the

chief was on his way to visit his wife when he saw a little canoe

in front of him and recognized his little brother-in-law. The boy

did not however recognize the native, and supposing himself pur-

sued paddled away as fast as he could. The brother-in-law tried

to frighten him by throwing darts at his canoe, and threw one so

carelessly that it hit the boy’s paddle and his canoe overturned.

The brother-in-law made all speed to catch up with him and at-

tempted to right the boat; but he could not do it, the boy, as is

the custom, being tied into the aperture in the top; until, when he

did succeed, he found that the boy was dead. His grief may be

imagined, and at first he thought of abandoning the canoe where it -

was, but on reflection he took it to the landing at Kagamil and se-

curing it in the kelp, that it might not float away, he returned to

his own island without having seen his wife.

In the morning the chief’s servants brought it in, and, to his —

great sorrow, Kat-hay-a-kut-chak recognized his beloved son.

He caused the body to be prepared for burial, and when the

preparation was complete he sent for all the people of the Four

Mountain Islands to unite in the ceremonies of depositing the —

body in the place where the Aléuts were used to put their dead.

The people collected, and together with the chief and his family

formed in procession, with songs of lamentation, beating the

native tambourines on the way to the burying place. It was

autumn and some snow was on the ground which the warm sun

had partially melted. On the road lay a large flat stone. The

sister of the boy, who was great with child, having her eyes cov-

438 ALASKAN MUMMIES.

ered, did not see the stone, slipped, and fell, injuring herself se-

verely, and bringing on premature delivery, which caused her

death with that of the infant, on the spot. Now the poor old

chief had three to bury instead of one. So he ordered the pro-

cession to return to the village, bearing the dead with them.

He then had a cave near his house, which had been used as a

place for storage, cleaned out, and after due preparation, the

bodies were deposited in this cave, and with them many sea-otter

skins, implements, weapons, and all the personal effects of the

dead. He then distributed presents and food to the people, saying

that he intended to make of this cave, a mausoleum for his family ;

and that when he himself should die it was his desire to be placed

there, with his children. He then told them to eat and drink as

much as they desired, but as for himself he should fast and weep

for his children. His wishes were carried out, and he was placed

in the cave after his death, and since that time the Four Mountain

` Islands have been abandoned as a place of residence by the

natives and only oceupied by casual parties of hunters.

The writer attempted in 1873 to reach this locality, but bad

weather prevented anchoring ; as the shores are mostly precipitous,

and there are no harbors. In the summer of 1874, however, the

captain of a trading vessel sent there to take off a party of

hunters, was guided by some of them to the cave, and succeeded

in removing all the perfect mummies and such implements and

other ethnological material as could be found. Through the lib-

erality of the Alaska Com. Co. these remains have been received

by the National Museum and a careful and detailed account of

them has been prepared.

Most of the mummies were wrapped up in skins or matting 4s

previously described, but a few were encased in frames covered

with sealskin or fine matting, and still retaining the sinew grum-

mets by which they were suspended. These cases were five-sided,

the two lateral ends subtriangular; the back, bottom and sloping

top, rectangular, like a buggy top turned upside down.

With them were found some wooden dishes, a few small ivory

carvings and toys, a number of other implements, but no ——

except a few lance or dart heads of stone. ‘Two or three women's

work bags with their accumulated scraps of embroidery, sinew,

tools and raw materials were among the collection. 3

While space will not suffice here to describe this material in

ALASKAN MUMMIES. 439

detail, it may be mentioned that it contained thirteen complete

mummies, from infants to adults, two of which were retained in

California; and two detached skulls.

None of the material showed any signs of civilized influences,

all was of indigenous Pane £ either native to the oma or

derived from inter-native tra rift wood. The latter com-

prised a few pieces of pine resin on bark, birch bark, and ee

ments of reindeer skin from Aliaska Peninsula.

It will thus be seen that this is one of the most important addi-

tions to our knowledge of the prehistoric condition of these

people. So far as the specimens differed from those in use in

more modern times they resembled more nearly the implements in

use among the Eskimo of the mainland. The remains are all

those of true aboriginal Aléuts.

The Kaniagmut Eskimo, inhabiting the peninsula of Aliaska,

the Kadiak archipelago and the islands south of the peninsula,

added, to the practice of mummifying the dead, the custom of

preparing the remains in some cases in natural attitudes, dressing

them in elaborately ornamented clothing sometimes with wooden

armor, and carved masks. They were represented, women as

Serving or nursing children ; hunters in the chase, seated in canoes

and transfixing wooden effigies of the animals they were wont to

pursue ; old men beating the tambourine, their recognized employ-

ment at all the native festivals. During the mystic dances, for-

merly practised before a stuffed image, the dancers wore a wooden

mask which had no eye-holes, but was so arranged that they could

only see the ground at their feet. At a certain moment they

thought that a spirit, whom it was death or disaster to look upon,

descended into the idol. Hence the protection of the mask. A

similar idea led them to protect the dead man, gone to the haunts

of spirits, from the sight of the supernatural visitor. After their .

dances were over the temporary idol was destroyed.

We found many relics of this practice in the Unga Caves.

In Kadiak still another custom was in vogue. Those natives

who hunted the whale formed a peculiar caste by themselves. =

Although’ highly respected for their prowess and the important `

contributions they made to the food of the community, they were

considered during the hunting season as unclean. The profession

descended in families and the bodies of successful hunters were

preserved with religious care by their successors. These mum-

440 ALASKAN MUMMIES.

mies were hidden away in caves only known to the possessors.

A certain luck was supposed to attend the possession of bodies

of successful hunters. Hence one whaler, if he could, would steal

the mummies belonging to another, and secrete them in his own

cave, in order to obtain success in his profession.

While M. Pinart was in Kadiak, he heard of the existence of

one of these mummies but was unable to diseover the locality.

Afterwards Mr. Sheeran, the U. S. Deputy Collector of the port

of Kadiak, through a peculiar superstition of the christianized(?)

natives, was able to discover and secure it. It appears that

though nominally all members of the Greek Church they still have

great faith in the superstitions of their ancestors, and while the

whaleman’s superstition has passed away, the natives still re-

garded the mummy as possessing the power of averting the ill

nature of evil spirits, and consequently were accustomed to take —

to it the first berries and oil of the season. This they asserted,

the mummy ate, as the dishes were always empty when they re-

turned for them. Thus annually, they furnished the foxes and

spermophiles with a feast. By watching, when the spring offering

was made, the locality was detected. The mummy was secured by

Mr. Sheeran and placed in an outbuilding near his house. During

the season the natives came to him and remonstrated at his not

feeding the dead man sufficiently; for he had been seen by 4

native watchman one foggy night, prowling about the town, pre-

sumably in search of food

This mummy was only covered with a tattered gut-shirt or

kamlayka, was in a squatting posture, and held in his hand a

stoneheaded lance, on the point of which was transfixed a rude

figure cut out of sealskin, supposed by the natives to-represent

the evil spirits which he held in check. It was that of a middle

„ aged man with hair and tissues in good preservation.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

BY A. 5. PACKARD, JR.

VI. THE POLYZOA.

The Polyzoa or moss animals derive their common name from

their resemblance to mosses. For example, the fresh water Frederi-

Fig. 185.

Sea mat.

Fresh water Polyzoon.

cella Walcottii (Fig. 185, after Hyatt) would easily be mistaken for

moss growing on a submerged stick. The marine species have small-

Fig. 187.

Branching Marine Polyzoon.

er cells and form mat-like encrustations, as in Membranipora (Fig.

186, cells enlarged); or as in Myriozowm subgracile (Fig. 187),

(441)

442 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

they form a coral-like branching mass. On magnifying these cells

when the animal is alive and extended from its cell, each polypide,

as it is called, appears with its crown of tentacles somewhat like a

Sabellid worm. This crown of tentacles surrounds the mouth,

which leads by an cesophagus into the throat and a stomach, the

latter bent so that the intestine beyond ends very near the mouth;

the polypide is thus bent on itself within the cell (cystid) and its

body is drawn in and out by muscles. Attached to the end of the

fold of the stomach is a cord (funiculus) holding the ovary in

place, which extends back to the end of the cystid, as we may

call the cell.

Allman regards the polypide and cystid as separate individuals.

Now in confirmation of this view we have the singular genus Lox-

osoma, which is like the polypide of an ordinary Polyzoan, but

does not live in a cell. On the other hand, we know of no cystids

which are without a polypide (Nitsche).

‘The affinities of the Polyzoa to the worms are quite decided.

In the Phoronis worm, which is allied to Sipunculus, we have the

alimentary canal flexed, and the anus situated near the mouth..

The Polyzoa have but a single pair of nerve ganglia, and in some

cases a tubular heart. The fresh water species are the higher,

and are called Phylactolemata; the marine species are terme

Gymnolemata. All the Polyzoa are hermaphrodite, the ovaries

and male glands residing in the same cystid.

Development of the Polyzoa.—Remembering that the cystids

stand in the same relation to the polypides as the hydroids to the

medusz, as Nitsche insists, we may regard the polypides as sec-

ondary individuals, produced by budding from the cystids. The

large masses of cells forming the moss animal, which is thus &

compound animal, like a coral stock, arises by budding out from &

primary cell. The budding process begins in the endocyst, OF

inner of the double walls of the body of the cystid, according tO

Nitsche, but according to an earlier Swedish observer, F. A. Smitt,

from certain fat bodies floating in the cystid. ;

Nitsche has observed the life history of Flustra membranacea.

He has traced the budding of one cell or zoæœcium (representing

the cystid individual) from another. During this process the poly-

pide within decays, leaving as a remnant the so-called ‘brown :

body,” regarded by Smitt as a secretion of the endocyst and germ

of a new polypide. After the loss of its first polypide, it can woo

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 443

duce a new one by budding from the endocyst on the side of the

stomach. In Loxosoma, young resembling the adult, bud out like

polyps.

Nitsche does not regard this budding process as an alternation

of generations, but states that in Polyzoa of the family Vesicu-

lariidæ, this may occur, as in them some cystids form the stem,

and others (the zocecia) produce the eggs.

The Polyzoa produce winter and summer eggs, the winter eggs,

called statoblasts, being protected by a hard shell. Fig. 188, after

LY è

Egg of Pectinatella magnifica.

Hyatt, represents the winter egg of Pectinatella magnifica, with

Spines. These winter eggs crowd the zocecia, and may be found

in them after the polypides have decayed.

Grant first described the ciliated young of the Polyzoa. The

Swedish naturalists, Lovén and Smitt, have described Fig. 189.

the development of the young Lepralia pallasiana,

which, after passing through a true morula condition, ©

issues from the egg as a flattened ciliated sphere with

a single band of larger cilia surrounding one end.

Our figure (189) is copied from Claparéde’s memoir, \_ A

and represents the larva of Bugula avicularia imme- — Polyzoon

diately after escaping from the egg. After swimming tarva. :

about for a while as a spherical ciliated larva, with a bunch of

larger cilia (flagellum) at one end, it elongates, looses its cilia and

444 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

flagellum, and soon the polypide grows inside, the stomach and

tentacles arise, and finally the polypide is formed. ;

In conclusion, the Polyzoa increase (a) by budding, (b) by

normal eggs and winter eggs. In reproducing from eggs the

young passes through : :

- Morula state.

2. Trochosphere, much as in certain worms and mollusks, attain-

ing the

3. Adult condition (zoccium).

LITERATURE.

Smitt. Bidrag till Kinnedomen om Hafs-Bry utveckling

- Om Hafs-br as utveckling och Fettkroppar. (Ofversigt af K. Vet.

way

Akad. Förh. 1865.)

Niische. Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte der phylactolamen

Siisswasserbryozoen. (Archiv fiir Anat. u. Phys. 1868. K

Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Bryozoen. (Siebold und Kölliker’s Zeitschrift,

1871.) ;

; . Beiträge zur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte der Seebryozoen.

(Siebold und Kolliker’s Zeitschrift, 1870.)

Consult also papers by Grant, Lovén, Huxley, Hyatt and Hincks.

VII. THE BRACHIOPODA.

While the Brachiopods have been regarded by many as closely

related to the Polyzoa, there are many features, as insisted on by

Prof. Morse, which closely ally them to the Chætopod worms. In

his treatise ‘On the systematic Position of the Brachiopoda,”

Morse has given conclusive reasons for removing them from the

mollusks and placing them among the worms, and even, in his

opinion, among the Chætopods, the highest division of worms-

He thus, after giving the anatomical facts in his view sustaining

his position, concludes that ancient Chætopod worms culminated |

in two parallel lines, on the one hand, in the Brachiopods, and

on the other, in the fixed and highly cephalized Chetopods. —

On the other hand Mr. A. Agassiz, swayed by their relationship

to the Polyzoa, remarks that ‘the close relationship between

Brachiopods and Bryozoa cannot be more fully demonstrated than

by the beautiful drawings on Pl. v., of Kowalevsky’s history of

Thecidium. We shall now have at least a rational explanation o

the homologies of Brachiopods, and the transition between sie

types as Pedicellina to Membranipora and other incrusting Bry-

ozoa, is readily explained from the embryology of Thecidium. In

1 Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, xv, 1873.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 445

fact, all merusting Bryozoa are only communities of Brachiopods,

the valves of which are continuous and soldered together, the flat

valve forming a united floor, while the convex valve does not

cover the ventral valve, but leaves an opening more or less orna-

mented for the extension of the lophophore.”!

In his first paper on the “ Earlier Stages of the Terebratulina”

Morse had shown the same relationship between the young Brach-

iopod and the Pedicellina.

The two commonest forms on our coast are the Terebratulina

septentrionalis, found attached to stems or shells in the seas of

New England, while the Lingula pyrimidata (Fig. 190, A, with the

peduncle perfect, retaining a portion of the sand tube ; B, showing

the valves in motion, the peduncle broken and a new sand case

Fig. 190.

c B A

Lingula pyrimidata. After Morse.

ing formed ; C, the same with the peduncle broken close to the body,

after Morse) is common in sand between tide marks, from North

Carolina to Florida. It is usually free, but sometimes attached.

Development of the Brachiopods. The life-history, from the

' time that it leaves the egg until it attains maturity, of our com-

won lampshell, Terebratulina septentrionalis, has been told by Prof.

Morse. Before his account appeared our knowledge was ex-

tremely fragmentary. Morse believes that in all the Brachiopods

the sexes are separate. The eggs (Fig. 192, A), he says, as in the

Annelida, when arrived at maturity, escape from the ovaries into

the general cavity of the body, and are thence gathered up by

the segmental organs, or oviducts, and discharged into the sur-

rounding water. Whether they are fertilized after they leave the

ai ihe u Di

1ı Amer. Journ. Sc. and Arts, Dec., 1874,

446 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

parent or before, is not settled. In a few hours after they are

discharged the embryos hatch and become clothed with cilia. The

earliest stages of the egg of Brachiopods before the larva hatches,

were studied by Kowalevsky after the publication of Morse’s re-

searches. The Russian zoologist observed in the egg of The- |

cidium the total segmentation of the yolk (also observed in Tere-

bratalina by Morse), until a blastoderm (ectoderm) is formed

around the central segmentation cavity, which contains a few cells.

The similar formation of the blastoderm was seen in Argiope,

but not the morula stage. After this the ectoderm invaginates

and a cavity is formed, opening externally by a primitive mouth.

The walls of this cavity now consist of an inner and outer layer

(the endoderm and ectoderm). This cavity eventually becomes

the digestive cavity of the mature animal. After this the devel-

opment goes on as previously described by Morse, Kowalevsky’s

discoveries confirming those of the former observer.

- In Terebratulina Morse observed that the oval ciliated germ

became segmented, dividing into two and then three rings, with a

Fig. 191. tuft of long cilia on the an-

terior end (Fig. 191, A).

In this stage the larva is

quite active, swimming rap-

pidly about in every direc-

on.

Soon after, the germ

Larval stages of Terebratulina. looses its cilia and becomes

attached at one end as in Fig. 191, B (c, cephalic segment; tħ,

thoracic segment; p, peduncular or caudal segment). The tho-

racic ring now increases much in size so as to partially enclose

the cephalic segment, as at Fig. 191, C. The form of the Brachi-

opod is then soon attained, as seen in Fig. 191, D, in which the

head (c) is seen projecting from the two valves of the shell (th),

the larger being the ventral plate.

The hinge margin is broad and slightly rounded when looked at

from above; a side view however, presents a wide, and flattened

area, “as is shown in some species of Spirifer, and the embryo for

a long time assumes the position that the Spirifer must have as-

sumed.” Before the folds have closed over the head, four bundles

of bristles appear; these bristles are delicately barbed like those

of larval worms. The arms, or cirri, now bud out as two promi-

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 447

nences, one on each side of the mouth. Then as the embryo ad-

vances in growth the outlines remind one of a Lepteena, an ancient

genus of Brachiopods, and in a later stage the form becomes

“quite unlike any adult Brachiopod known.”

The deciduous bristles are then discarded, and the permanent `

ones make their appearance, two pairs of arms arise, and now the

shell in “its general contour recalls Siphonotreta, placed in the

family Discinide by Davidson, a genus not occurring above the

Silurian.” No eye spots could be seen in Terebratulina, though

in the young Thecidium they were observed by Lacaze-Duthiers.

The young Terebratulina differs from Discina of the same age in

being sedentary, while, as observed by Fritz Miiller, the latter

appearance.” Discina also differs from Terebratulina in having a

long and extensible cesophagus and head bearing a crown of eight

cirri or tentacles. Regarding the relations of the Brachiopods

with the Polyzoa, Morse suggests that there is some likeness be-

tween the embryo Brachiopod, and the free embryo of Pedicellina,

Fig. 192, B, represents the Terebratulina when in its form it re-

calls Megerlia or Argiope. C represents a later Lingula-like stage.

“Tt also suggests,” says Morse, “in its movements the nervously

acting Pedicellina. In this and the several succeeding stages,

the mouth points directly backward (forward of authors), or away

Ht 192.

Later stages of Terebratulina.

from the perpendicular end (D) and is surrounded by a few cili-

ated cirri, which forcibly recall certain Polyzoa. The stomach and

intestine form a simple chamber, alternating in their contractions

and forcing the particles of food wae one portion to the other.”

Figure 192, E, shows a more advanced stage, in which a fold is

seen on each side of the stomach; from the fold is developed the

448 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

- complicated liver of the adult, as seen in E, which represents the

animal about an eighth-of an inch long. The arms (lophophore)

begin “to assume the horse-shoe-shaped form of Pectinatella and

other high Polyzoa. The mouth at this stage begins to turn to-

wards the dorsal valve (ventral of authors), and as the central lobes

of the lophophore begin to develop, the lateral arms are deflected as

in F. In these stages (G) an epistome! is very marked, and it was

noticed that the end of the intestine was held to the mantle by an

attachment, as in the adult, reminding one of the funiculus in the

Phylactolemata” (Polyzoa). Turning now to Kowalevsky’s me-

moir, he shows, according to Mr. A. Agassiz, that the larve of

Brachiopods are strikingly like those of the Annelides. “The ;

homology between the early embryonic stages of Argiope with

well known Annelid larve is most remarkable, and the resem-

blance between some of the stages of Argiope figured by Kowa-

levsky and the corresponding stages of growth of the so-called

Lovén type of development among Annelides is complete. The

number of segments is less, but otherwise the main structural

features show a closeness of agreement which will make it difi-

cult for conchologists hereafter to claim Brachiopods as their

special property. The identity in the ulterior mode of growth

between the embryo of Argiope and of Balanoglossus, in the

Tornaria stage, is still more striking. We can follow the changes.

undergone by Argiope while it passes through its Tornaria stage,

if we may so call it, and becomes gradually, by a mere modifica-

tion of the topography of its organs, transformed into a minute

pedunculated Brachiopod, differing as far from the Tornaria stage

of Argiope as the young Balanoglossus differs from the free pwe

~ ming Tornaria. In fact, the whole development of Argiope is 2

remarkable combination of the Lovén and of the Tornaria types

of development among worms.”

At the close of his first memoir Morse again insists on the close

relationship of the Brachiopods and Polyzoa; these views, taken

with his later views as to the close relationship of Lingula with

the Cheetopod worms, show how intimately the Polyzoa and Brach-

iopods are bound together with the Annelides.

PEEP e e a SÀ

tiha freo Ii at, f a tha fanati PEE to the epistome in the

dat à h vs in the Polyzoa, though

higher Polyzoa, and we find iton the inner bend of the arms, es "a i mi nasi stine.”

Early stages of Terebratulina, p. 34.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 449

It will be seen that neither in the Polyzoa nor Brachiopods are

there any true molluscan characters, nothing homologous with the

foot, the shell gland or odontophore. The Brachiopods should in

our opinion be, perhaps, united with the Polyzoa and form a group

lower but sub-parallel with the Annelides. The Brachiopods, from

the facts afforded by Morse and others, have neither such a nervous

system or respiratory or circulating organs, or an annulated body,

as would warrant their union with the Chetopods. He has fully

proved that they are a synthetic type, combining the features of

different groups of worms, and this fact apparently forbids their

being regarded as a group of Cheetopods. Looking at the subject

from an evolutional point of view, we should be inclined to regard

the Brachiopods and Polyzoa as derived from common low vermian

ancestors, while the Chætopod worms probably sprang indepen-

dently from a higher ancestry.

To sum up, the Brachiopods pass through

1. A Morula state.

2. A free swimming, ciliated Gastrula condition, formed by in-

vagination of the ectoderm

3. Free swimming larel annulate Cephulala stage, combining

the characters of the larva of Nareda and of Tornaria the larva

of Balanoglossus.,

LITERATURE.

Morse. On the Early Stages of Terebratulina septentrionalis. HERREN Boston Soc.

Nat. Hist., 1 me

cane Embryology of Terebratulina. (Memoirs Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1873.)

owalev. Ma nvestigations upon the Development of aniivatera "Moscow, 1874.

with papers by Oscar Schmidt, Lacaze-Duthiers, F. Müller and McCrady.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

ON ERGOT: !

t BY WILLIAM CARRUTHERS, F.R.S.

Ercor might supply an interesting text from which to exhibit

the worthlessness of speculation as opposed to observation and

experiment in dealing with natural science. Replacing, as it

does, the seeds of different grasses, and always attaining, when

full grown, a greater size than the normal seed, it was at first

thought to indicate an extra quantity of life and vigour in the

particular seed, which exhausted themselves in the production of

the anomalous horned grain. No special properties were asso-

ciated with these abnormal productions. All along the ergot had

been exerting its baneful influence on man and animals without

being suspected. Through its agency the inhabitants of whole

districts in France had been visited with intermittent attacks of

gangrenous diseases; and England, as Professor Henslow has

shown in the pages of the ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural

Society of England’ (vol. ii. pp. 14-19), has records of similar

though not so extensive calamities. Yet many years have not

elapsed since these and other evils have been traced to their true

source,—the consumption of ergotted corn as food.

The remarkable action of ergot on the gravid uterus is well

known, and has caused it to be used for many years as a powerful

aid in cases of difficult or prolonged parturition. It has been

more recently determined that its power of causing muscular COn-

traction extends to all unstriped or involuntary muscular fibre,

and it has consequently been applied in treating certain maladies

connected with the intestinal canal and the arteries, because these

organs, like the gravid uterus, are chiefly composed of this kind

of muscular tissue.

The ‘Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England,’

and other periodicals devoted to agricultural subjects, contain

frequent narratives of the injuries to stock resulting from the

occurrence of ergot in grass crops. Mr. H. Tanner records the

loss to one breeder of cattle in Shropshire of 12007. in three years

from this cause (vol. xix, p. 40). Recent losses, especially in

at rn a errr

1From the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1874.

(450)

ON ERGOT. 451

the casting of foals by valuable brood mares, having again drawn

attention to the matter, I propose to set down what is known re-

garding this dangerous production. This is the more necessary,

because the views of the latest writers in the ‘Journal’ on this

subject were published before the very important observations of

Tulasne were known. This eminent fungologist has fully traced

the history and development of ergot, and has finally set at rest

the many doubts entertained as to its true nature.

Like all diseases which result from the attacks of fungi, the ap-

pearance of ergot is mysterious and more or less inexplicable.

Atmospheric conditions, without doubt, greatly influence the de-

velopment of such plants. Moisture is required for the growth of

the minute spores of fungi, which at all times abound in the air:

a moist and warm atmosphere invariably brings in all suitable lo-

calities a large crop of these minute epiphytic or parasitic fungi.

Such conditions, it is well known, greatly favour the production

and development of the potato fungus. Ergot also is most abun-

dant in wet seasons; and in the fields where it is seen, it has been

found in the greatest abundance in those parts which are low or

undrained. Such physical conditions are, however, not present

in every instance of the rapid progress of a parasitic fungus.

The recent appearance of a blight among garden hollyhocks, and

their allies, the wild mallows, is a remarkable exception. This

minute fungus (Puccinia malvacearum, Mont.) was described by

Montagne from Chili, of which country it appears to be a native.

twas afterwards noticed in Australia; and a year ago it ap-

peared for the first time in England, in such abundance that it

was observed almost ev erywhere in the south, and in some places

not a single Malvaceous plant, wild or cultivated, could be found

that had not been attacked by it. It is reported in the same

abundance from many districts this year.

It is to be hoped that the growing attention which is being given

to these smaller fungi may lead to a better acquaintance with the

Causes inducing their sudden appearance and rapid development.

When these causes are known, one may obtain the power of modi-

fying or controlling, if not of totally preventing, their ravages.

Ergot has been observed on a large number of our native and

cultivated grasses as well as on our cereal crops. The grasses

that are most subject to its attacks are Rye-grass (Lolium perenne,

Linn.) ; the Brome-grasses (Bromus secalinus, Linn., B. mollis,

452 ON ERGOT.

Linn., B. pratensis, Ehr.) ; Couch-grass (Triticum repens, Linn.) ;

Fox-tail-grass (Alopecurus pratensis, Linn.); Timothy-grass

Fig. 193. Fig. 194.

Rye, Secale cereale, Linn. Two spikes bear-

ing several Ergots.

crease in the size of the grain, shown in the drawings,

ileum pratense, Linn.) ; Fes-

cue-grass (Festuca elatior,

Linn.) ; Barley-grass (Horde-

um murinum, Linn.) ; and Man-

na-grass (Glyceria fluitans,

R. B With the view of

enabling the reader to recog-

nise this pest, which is made

too little account of by agri-

culturists I have given a num-

ber of engravings from remark-

ably accurate but till now un-

draughtsman.

As we are most familiar with

the appearance of ergot on the

cereals, I shall first notice the

grain plants affected by it.

That on which it is best

known, and from which it ”

chiefly collected for use in

medical practice is Rye (5 s

cereale, Linn.). In Fig. 193 is

shown a spike of rye, with only

a single ear affected by a 599

and thick ergot; but in Fig.

and the larger and more slen-

der forms of the majority o

the diseased ears exhibit their

usual aspect. The wa

suggested

QV /

\ iN í A,

Spike of Spring Wheat affected with Bunt and Ergot. (453)

454 ON ERGOT.

to Bauhin the name (Secale luxurians) he gave to ergot, more than

250 years ago in one of the first published notices of the disease.

In barley and wheat ergot is not so frequently met with as in

rye ; nevertheless, when carefully sought for, it will often be found.

It has been observed in all the cultivated varieties of wheat. Fig.

195 (p. 453) represents a remarkable case of diseased spring wheat,

observed by Bauer. Two of the ears only are ergotted, while the

great majority are affected by another and better known disease,

bunt or pepperbrand, due also to a minute parasitic fungus (Til-

letia caries, Tul.).

auer made a series of experiments with the view of discovering

the manner in which different diseases due to microscopic fungi

might be communicated to wheat and other cereals. He placed a

quantity of the powder (spores) of bunt on the seed of spring

wheat, which he then sowed. As the wheat ripened it became ex-

tensively affected with the bunt disease. In bunt the contents of

the grains are generally completely replaced by a uniform black

Fig. 196. powder; the grain is brittle

and easily crushed between the

fingers, when it has a greasy

feeling and gives off an offen-

sive fetid smell. Under the

microscope this black powder

is seen to be composed 0

spherical spores with a reticu-

lated surface (Fig. 196). Ifa

í : diseased grain is examined be-

Spores of Bunt showing the threads of My- fore the spores are fully ripe,

celium. Very highly magnified. they will be seen to be attach-

ed by short stalks to a fine branched thread or mycelium, which

appears to be absorbed as the spores ripen ; it can scarcely be de-

tected in the fully ripe bunt. i

Besides the bunt, ergot also appeared in Bauer’s small experi-

mental crop of spring wheat, and in the head figured (Fig. 195, P-

453) he observed that the same grain was attacked by both fungi,

as was noticed subsequently by Phillipi and others, and has been

illustrated and described by Tulasne. A spikelet from the centre

of this head is represented double the size of nature in Fig. 197

(p. 455). This consists of three grains, all diseased. That im

the centre is the largest, the great size being due to the growth of

ON ERGOT. 455

the ergot below the grain itself, which is entirely converted into

bunt-spores, and is carried on the apex of the growing ergot and

surmounted by the withered remains of the style. This is clearly

seen in the section of this grain (Fig. 198), in which the dark col-

our of the bunt-spores at the apex is contrasted with the lighter-

coloured internal structure of the ergot below. The lateral grains

of the spikelet are about the size of ordinary wheat-grains, only,

Fig. 197.

q Section of the

Spikelet from the head of Spring Wheat af- terminal

fected with Ergot and Bunt. Twice the Grain ofthe

natural size. Spikelet.

Fig. 199.

a cc

The lateral grains of the Spikelet. a and b in section; c showing the external

appearance. Twice the natural size.

like all bunted grains, they are somewhat shorter and blunter.

One of these (Fig. 199, a) is entirely converted into bunt-spores,

while the other (b and c), like the central grain, has an ergot es-

tablished in the lower portion, though still young and very small.

It deserves to be noticed that in both the ergotted grains of

this spikelet the early sphacelia state of the ergot is carried up

456 ON ERGOT.

beyond the ergot itself, and covers the bunted apex of the grains

as ‘well.

Maize is subject to the attack of ergot.

The appearance of ergot in rye-grass is well known. Improved

husbandry has made this a comparatively rare grass in cultivated

fields, where it is of little value as a forage plant, though not so

injurious as it has been called; indeed recent experiments make

it almost certain that the evils reported and believed to have been

produced by the use of darnel have been really caused by the un-

observed ergot. The frequency with which rye-grass is attacked

has often been noticed. Edward Carroll says he never failed to

discover it more or less ergotted in fields allowed to stand for

seed, and he adds, what appears to be opposed to general experi-

ence, that its extent is in proportion to the wet or dry state of the

summer months during its maturation ; being rarer when wet, fre-

quent when dry. The probable explanation of this reversing of

the experience in England and the Continent is, that it is due to

the normal moist atmosphere of Ireland, where Mr. Carroll made

his observations, being fitted for the germination of the spores of

fungi; while rain would wash the spores off the plants, and a

superabundance of water would be unfavourable to their growth.

A head of Timothy-grass (Phleum pratense, Linn.) is represented

in Fig. 200 (p. 457) with an extraordinary number of ergotted

ears. This grass forms a considerable portion of the late meadow

crops in many districts.

I have already in the darnel figured the ergot in a weed in cul-

tivated grounds; and in the barley-grass (Hordeum murinum,

Linn.), Fig. 201 (p. 457), we have it on one of the most common

annual grass-weeds of our road-sides and waste places. Although

this is a worthless weed, as it is rejected even by the half-starved

animals that feed by the road-side, it may be actively injurious to

the agriculturist if it is to any extent a nidus for the growth of

ergot.

Numerous other illustrations might be given, but our figures of

the ergot, as it appears in cereals and in pasture and weed grasses,

are sufficient to show the general aspect of this parasitic fungus,

and to enable the reader easily to detect it.

No farm or district has any right to hope for exemption from

this dangerous pest. It may not have been noticed, or it may

have actually been absent for many years, yet it may suddenly;

”

ON ERGOT. 457

without any obvious cause, appear in great abundance and prove

a cause of serious destruction to the cattle or sheep placed in the

field where its presence is not suspected. The late Mr. John

Curtis, a keen and learned entomologist, who had an accurate

Fig. 201.

Timothy Grass.

Phieum pratense, Barley Grass. Hordeum mur- >

Lim. inum, Linn.

knowledge of the British grasses and a quick eye for natural

objects, had for thirty years beaten the ground between Southwold

and Kessington, on the coast of Suffolk, for insects, and bad never

noticed any specimens of ergot till the year 1847, when he found it

458 ON ERGOT.

on the spikes of Arundo arenaria, Linn., in such abundance that

he estimated that one-sixth, if not one-fourth, of all the ears of

this grass in the district

were diseased! (‘Gard.

Fig. 202.

have shown that the ergot

Fig. 203. bears a certain relation to

the seed of the plant in

which it occurs, but that

in all it attains a larger

size than the normal grain,

and is especially longer

and more horn-like. It

occupies the place of the

seed, but, unlike most of

the parasitic fungi with

which agriculturists are

acquainted, it sends no

; roots down into the plant,

a Ergot on a foreign spe- } its whole organisation be-

x “pate Peles mus giganteus, ka $i ing confined to the affected

ee ear. The external surface

is scaly or somewhat granular, and is generally marked by longi-

tudinal and horizontal cracks, penetrating into and exposing the

interior. The colour is black or purple-black, but the interior is

white or purplish, and of a dense homogeneous structure (Fig. 204,

p. 459), composed of spherical or polygonal cells, so largely charged

with an sd fluid! as to burn freely when lighted at a candle.”

a of a brownish yellow agin of aromatic flavour and acrid taste; it AF

viscid, and ies oo gravity is -924 t consists of 69 per cent. of oleic acid, 22 ©

meine acid, and 8 0 f glycerine, with trisse of acetic and butyric acid, and trimethy-

lamin, Dr. Herrmann

2 The inorganic constituents of ergot are —

Potash . . . . . . . . 30°06

Soda ; : : z š i, k 065

p . . . . . . . . hed

agnesia ., ‘ ‘ ‘ š > . i

* Alumina $ k s ; $ i K 0-58

Oxide of iro á $ x ; š 0:86

Oxide of ma ese A ” . : i 0-26

Phosphorje acid š A i á ‘ 45°12

$ : : . . . 14°67

Chloride of sodium ` , ; $ ; pta VA

99°95

Dr. Herrmann in Buchner’s ‘Repertorium for 1871,’ p. 283, and ‘ Pharmaceutica

ournal,’ 1872, p. 241.

ON ERGOT. 459

De Candolle suggested that this anomalous structure had some

“affinity to the amorphous indurated masses of mycelium which had

been united together in a spurious genus to which was given the

name Sclerotium. The illustrious mycologist Fries separated it

from Sclerotium, and established a genus for its reception, which

he designated Spermoedium,

although he doubted whether

it should be included among

the fungi at all, considering

it rather as only a morbid

condition of the seeds of

grasses.

The true nature of ergot

was at length determined by

observations first made on its

early history and development

on the diseased plants, and

duct. In both directions the most satisfactory results have been

arrived at, and we now know the complete history of the plant.

In its earliest condition this parasitic fungus escapes notice,

being composed of a large number of very small elongated cells

borne in a colourless liquid. In about three days after the plant

is attacked the ergot becomes visible, appearing as a yellowish

Viscous substance resting on the outer coating of the as yet unde-

veloped attacked grain (Fig. 205, p. 460). It exudes from be-

tween the glumes and more or less completely covers the whole

seed. It has a taste like honey and an odour like that of grated

bones. The ears naturally attacked do not belong to less vigorous

or healthy plants than those that escape.

Once established, the fungus rapidly developes, carrying up-

wards the aborted remains of the seed, crowned with the withered

Styles, and forming below the homogeneous sclerotioid mass,

which becomes the true ergot. The state of the development of

the ergot had been observed early in the century by Bauer, though

none of his figures were published till 1841. He had noticed its

relation to the outer covering of the seed, and had supposed it to

460 ON ERGOT.

be an altered condition of that structure (‘Linn. Trans.,’ vol.

xviii, p. 475). i

Léveillé, in 1826, noticed that the ergot commenced with this

soft covering, and considering it to be a distinct fungus, parasitic

Fig. 205. on the ergot, he proposed for it the name of

; Sphacelia. John Smith and Quekett, in 1841,

published descriptions of the structure of this

sphacelia condition, as far as they were able to

observe it. They thought it was an amorphous

mass of small spherical cells, with a number

of larger doubly-nucleated oblong cells scat-

tered among them. It was supposed to be the

immediate cause of the ergot, and Quekett

gave to it the name of Ergotetia abortifaciens,

while Berkeley and Broome, believing it to be

a true Oidium, removed it to that genus under

the name O. abortifaciens. Bauer’s drawings

are singularly accurate representations of the

general aspect of the disease in its different

stages, and while his microscope disclosed to

A Grain of Rye coverea Him in 1805 all that Quekett published in 1841,

pid sor or ppha it was not sufficient to exhibit the minute

Twicethenaturalsize. structure as it has been recently described and

figured by Tulasne. In Bauer’s drawings (Fig. 206, p. 461) the

sphacelia is represented as consisting of tortuous and anasto-

mosing ridges or plates, with numerous open cavities in the in-

terior. Tulasne showed that the sphacelia was organically con-

nected with the ergot, and was, indeed, only a condition of it.

Bauer detected the elongated nucleated cells of the sphacelia,

but, like Quekett, he did not observe their connection with the

supporting structures; while the cavities accurately represented

by Bauer in the foldings of the sphacelia (Fig. 206) are the free

spaces where the nucleated cells or “ spores” are produced.

The illustration (Fig. 207, p. 462), copied from Tulasne, shows

the relation of the different structures. The dark lower portions

of the woodcut is a section through the growing sclerotium or

ergot, properly so called. This is composed, as we have already

seen, of densely-packed polygonal cells, filled with oil globules.

On its outer surface and from its apex are given off elonga

ON ERGOT. 461

cells, which are the supports (sterigmata) of oblong cells (sper-

matia or conidia), the most of which are free in the drawing.

These cells are the spores of the Ergotetia of Quekett, and the

Oidium of Berkeley and Broome. The oblong cells or “spores,”

Bnd rn hea al a ee

when placed in water, freely germinate (Fig. 207, a), and they

have the power of reproducing the parasite. But we have not

here the perfect condition of the plant. Recent observations have

shown that many fungi produce at different stages of their history

free cells possessed with the power of germination. The sper-

462 ON ERGOT.

matia-bearing stage has been observed in other fungi besides the

ergot.

When the ergot attains its full size the sphacelia disappears, or

only the withered and dried up remains of it can be detected at

the apex of the ergot.

The further history of the ergot has been determined also by

Tulasne. The frequent occurrence of minute sphærias on the

ergotted grains of grasses suggested to him that they were prob-

ably not accidental productions, as had been supposed, but were

Fig. 207.

Magnified section of an Ergot covered on the Se open a, spermatia germinating

in water. (From Tnlasne.)

organically connected with the ergot, and represented a farther

stage of its development. With the view of testing this opinion,

he planted a number of ergotted grains, and had the satisfaction

to find that a considerable proportion produced spherias. Those

produced by the ergot of rye were the same in form and structure

with what were grown from the ergots of most of the other grasses,

and believing them all to belong to the same species, he gave to

it the name of Claviceps purpurea (Fig. 208, p. 463). This per-

fect plant is a small purplish fungus, with a spherical head, ca

ported on a short firm stem, with a somewhat downy base.

ON ERGOT. 463

globose head is rough with small prominences, which are the open-

ings of the cavities or conceptacles in which the spores are pro-

duced (Fig. 208, b and c). One of these conceptacles, highly

magnified, is shown in Fig. 209, a (p. 464) representing the oval

cavity filled with the long slender spore cases (asci) springing from

the base of the cavity. The mouth of the conceptacle opening

through the conical swelling is obvious; this gives the granular

aspect to the head of the fungus. Four of the sacs or asci are

represented at b, still more magnified. They are seen to be filled

oy of maa rag ona Fone Ga purpurea Tl og tin

(Fro

with slender needle-shaped bodies, which are the ultimate and

perfects reproductive spores of the ergot. A few of these spores

are represented still more magnified at c.

Having traced the history of the ergot, we may now inquire

how and at what time the crops get infected, with the view of

seeing whether it is possible to discover any means of alleviating,

if not of destroying, this injurious parasite.

At two different stages in the life of ergot, bodies are produced

which have the power of propagating the disease, namely, the

464 ON ERGOT.

spores of the perfect fungus developed from the ergot, or the

“spores” (spermatia or conidia) of the early sphacelia state of

the parasite.

The plant is carried over the winter in the dormant ergot con-

dition. A large proportion of the ergot in a field, when it is fully

ripe, falls to the ground during the operations of the harvest, or

by the friction of the spikes against each other through the action

of the wind: These ergots remain on the ground during the win-

ter without undergoing any change. They are dormant, like the

* oko? Sis taeiy, e cSt spore" vom Tulse)

seeds of plants, until the following spring or summer, when they

produce crops of the perfect fungus (Claviceps purpurea, Tul.).

The spores of the Claviceps are ripe about the time that the

cereals come into flower, and by the action of wind or rain they

obtain access to the flowers.

In 1856 Durieu communicated ergot to rye by placing the spores

of the Claviceps on its flowers. Roze has since confirmed and ex-

tended these observations (‘Bulletin Soc. Bot. de France,’ 1870).

It is, then, by these minute needle-like spores that the disease

is communicated at first to all crops; and the principal effort of

ON ERGOT. 465

the farmer who desires to free himself from this pest should be

to secure clean seed, perfectly free from ergot. The ergot is too

frequently overlooked in the barn from its resemblance to the

dung of mice; but it is worth special pains in examining the seed

to secure immunity from this parasite. Tulasne states as the

result of his experiments that if the ergot does not produce the

Claviceps during the first year after it has fallen to the ground,

it loses its vital powers. One might hope to find in this observa-"

tion of Tulasne the means of coping with the disease; and cer-

tainly it is most desirable not to follow an ergotted crop with an-

other crop of cereals. But it must be remembered that the same

species of fungus produces an ergot in most of our grasses, and

that the spores belonging to the Claviceps of these grass ergots

duced by the cereals themselves. We may, therefore, have in

ergotted grasses growing in the margins of fields or along hedge-

banks the means of maintaining and spreading the disease in

cereal crops. No trouble should be spared to collect and destroy

the ergots on such grasses. To permit them to fall to the ground

is a certain method of securing the appearance of the disease on

_ any cereal or grass crops in the neighbourhood in the following

year.

But the disease having once appeared in a field of growing

grain, or amongst hay or grass, easily spreads itself in its early

sphacelia state. Every one of the “spores” (spermatia) has the

power, as we have seen, of germinating, and so spreading the

disease, The striking of an ergotted head against a healthy plant

will communicate the disease. This has been experimentally

tested by Bonarden, and confirmed by Roze. It is not possible,

however, to interpose at this stage of the malady with the view

of arresting it. The diseased grains are difficult to discover in

the field, ana it would be hopeless to attempt to pick them out.

The disease can only be effectually dealt with while the plant is in

its dormant state as an ergot, as already pointed out.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 30

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Dr. Covrs’s Bırps or THE Nortuwest.!— This volume of

eight hundred pages forms ‘* No. 3” of the *“ Miscellaneous Publi-

cations” of the United States Geological Survey of the Terri-

tories, F. V. Hayden, U. S. Geologist in Charge. As its title

indicates, it is intended as a Hand-book of the whole region

drained by the Missouri and its tributaries. It thus embraces a

large area in the interior of the continent, including the whole of

Nebraska, the greater portions of Dakota, Montana, Wyoming,

Colorado, Kansas and Missouri, with portions also of Iowa and

Minnesota. This region embraces the greater part of the so-called

Middle Faunal Province of North America, but overlaps also the

eastern edge of the Western Province and the western edge of

the Eastern Province. It hence includes the greater part of the

birds of the continent, embracing nearly all of those of the East-

ern Province as well as those of the Middle Province. Most of

this extended region is embraced within the great elevated central

plateau of the continent, where the annual rain-fall is low; owing

to this fact, the vegetation is meagre and stunted, and the country

generally treeless. As the author says, “Trees are in effect re-

stricted to the mountainous tracts, and to a slender, precarious

fringe along most of the larger streams.” This precarious fringe,

however, is sufficient to entice the eastern tree-nesting species far

up into the interior of this vast sterile plain, curiously blending

the faunas of the Eastern and Middle Provinces by a series of

jnterdigitations.

= The topics specially treated in this work, among the most

rominent of which is the geographical distribution of the species,

receive that thorough attention which is so well known to mark

all the work that Dr. Coues undertakes. Their distribution is

iven not only with definiteness for the special region under con-

sideration, but also for the whole range of each of the species

treated. Their areas of residence and range of migration, to-

gether with their relative abundance or scarcity, over ditferent

1 Birds of the Northwest: A Hand-book of the Ornithology of the Region drained

by the Missouri River and its Tributaries. By Elliot Cones, Captain and Assistant

Surgeon U. S. Army. Washington: Government Printing Office. 1874. 8vo. PP- +

(466)

9 Ree

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 467

parts of their respective habitats, are given with a degree of detail

never before attempted for the birds of this country, if ever before

for any country. The synonymy is also uniformly worked out with

greater detail than ever before, while the number of bibliographical

references given for each species far exceeds the number hereto-

fore given in any work on American ornithology. While not only

all references of any importance are generally given (we observe

here and there a few rather noteworthy omissions) the nature of

the special papers cited is usually indicated, and the authorities for

the special facts of distribution are stated, thereby adding greatly

to the value of the*bibliographical portion of the wor

A redescription of the species was deemed unnecessary, since,

in view of the several excellent descriptive works that are now so

generally accessible, it seemed needless to swell the size of the

work by a repetition of such descriptions. The matter of the vol-

ume is hence almost entirely new, the biographical portion, as the

writer says, being based mainly upon his own personal observations.

He has, however, not only made use of numerous manuscript

notes given him for his work by several of his fellow ornitholo-

gists, but has collected and combined in a most satisfactory manner

the recent contributions of other authors, published in detached

papers in different and not generally accessible scientific journals.

Dr. Coues’s aim being to contribute new material for future elabo-

ration, rather than to prepare complete histories of each species,

described, which, however desirable, was, under the circumstances,

wholly impracticable, he has devoted generally but a few lines to

the well-known species of Eastern birds, while he has been able to

furnish very nearly complete biographies of some of the heretofore

slightly known Western species. The volume ends with mono-

graphs of several families of the water birds—Laride, Colym-

bide and Podicipide —to which, as is well-known, Dr. Coues has

for a long time given special attention. ‘These are worthy of an

extended critical notice, which want of space will not at this time

permit.

A thorough and detailed index of more than fifty three-column

pages fitly closes the volume, crowning a work that will ever re-

main a monument to its indefatigable author, and a source of

profit and pleasure to future workers in the same field. The

amount of drudgery represented in these pages, which sooner or

later some one must have done, places ornithologists particalary

468 BOTANY.

under obligations to the author, while his easy-flowing, graceful and

sprightly pages of biographical matter, glowing with the enthusi-

asta of the naturalist, and evincing the inspiration of actual con-

tact in their natural haunts with the objects described, will render

his book a pleasing and attractive one to the general reader.

But the author is not alone entitled to our thanks or our con-

gratulations. It must not be forgotten that Dr. Hayden’s early

explorations in the Upper Missouri region, together with the later

collections made under his direction as Geologist in charge of the

Geological Survey of the Territories, have furnished both the

basis and the occasion for the present report, and that to his wise

liberality we are indebted for its publication.—J. A. A

BOTANY.

BOTRYCHIUM SIMPLEX, WITH PINNATED DIVISIONS TO THE STERILE

FROND.— In 1873, Mr. E. W. Munday sent, from Syracuse, New

York, a large specimen of Botrychium simplex, having four pairs

of broadly wedge-shaped divisions to the sterile part of. the frond,

these merely incised at the broad terminal margin. - From Syra-

cuse, Mrs. Styles M. Rust now sends a very robust specimen, ap-

parently of the same species, but of a different Aspect, the divisions

of the sterile part of the frond being more approximate, narrowly

oblong in shape, and strongly pinnatifid. The texture is that of

B. simplex, i.e., thick and rather fleshy. This may interest our

fern-students and collectors. The variety may take the name of

var. bipinnatifidum.—A. Gray.

Fucas serratus.— Colonel Pike has personally assured me that

this Fucus was abundant at Newburyport when he was there in

1852. Rev. J. Fowler sent me some from Pictou harbor in 1869,

and again lately in large quantity, the plant several feet long,

and fruiting abundantly. He writes that he collected it Nov. 1,

1874, and that “it seemed abundant on the rocks round the har-

bor, and had every appearance of being a native.”— Dantet C.

EATON.

MENYANTHES TRIFOLIATA, the Buck-bean, has dimorphous flow-

ers, according to the observations of C. A. Wheeler, of Hubbards-

ton, Michigan, who also calls attention to the fact that Kuhn, in

Germany (in “Botanische Zeitung,” 1867), includes this in a list

of. dimorphic genera. It had escaped our attention.—A. G.

ZOOLOGY.

DESCRIPTION oF A New Wren From Eastern FLORIDA.— Thry-

othorus Ludovicianus (Lath.), var. Miamensis, Ridgw. Florida

ren. Diagnosis.— Similis T. ludoviciano, sed major, robustior,

et coloribus saturatioribus. Als, 2°75; a 2:60; culmen,

‘90; tarsus, ‘95; dig. med. (sine ungue), *

Hab. in Florida orientale (Miami River, eng 1874, C. J. May:

nard). Typus No. 1864, Mus. R.

Similar to T. Ludovicianus (Lath.), but larger, stouter, and

more deeply colored. Above rusty-chestnut, most castaneous on

the back, and becoming browner on the forehead. Wings and

tail with indistinct, narrow, dusky bars, and rump with concealed

white spots; a wide post-ocular stripe of dark rusty on the

upper half of the auriculars, running back into the rusty of the

nape. Below deep rusty ochraceous, the sides and flanks showing

indistinct bars of darker rusty; chin and crissum soiled whitish,

the latter banded with dusky black ; a continuous superciliary stripe

of pale ochraceous, bordered above by a blackish line along each

side of the pileum; cheeks grayish soiled white, with faint cres-

centic bars of dusky. Bill dusky, the superior tomium and lower

mandible pale (lilaceous in life?); feet pale horn color. Wing,

2:75; tail, 2°60; culmen, ‘90; tarsus, ‘95: middle toe (without

the claw), -60.

Habitat.—Miami River, eastern Florida (January 9, 1874; C.

J. Maynard). Type No. 1864, Mus. R.

Remarks.—In coloration, this wania form closely

resembles T. Berlandieri Baird of the lower Rio Grande (see Hist.

N. Am. B., I, p. 144, pl. ix, fig. 2), but the size is greatly larger

than even ‘the most northern “examples of Ludovicianus proper,

while Berlandieri is smaller. It is very remarkable that the

southern form of this bird should be so much larger than the

northern one, in direct opposition to a recognized law of climatic

variation, but we have another case of this same exception to the `

rule in Catherpes Mexicanus (Swains.), and its northern race, var.

conspersus Ridgw. (see Hist. N. Am. B., I, pp- 138-140, and IIT,

503) ; these examples probably justifying the suggestion made by

the writer (op. cit., iii, 503), that an exception to its rule of de-

(469)

-470 ZOOLOGY.

. crease in size to the southward, in resident species, may be made -

in case of families or groups of families which have in temperate

latitudes only outlying genera or species, the increase in this case

being to the southward, or towards the region in which the family

or group is most highly developed !—Rosertr RIDGWAY.

Tue Frigate Brrp anp Warre Isis in Connecticut.— The

_ occurrence of Tuchypetes aquilus in Connecticut is not generally

known, Long Island being, up to this time, the northernmost

locality on record for this bird. A female of this species was

killed at Faulkner’s Island in this state in the autumn of 1859,

and is now in the collection of Capt. Brooks. It was hovering

over the island when shot. Late in the afternoon of May 23, I

observed near Milford, Conn., a specimen of Ibis alba. I recog-

nized the bird as it flew over me, and following it to a small pond

where it went down, discovered it perched upon a tree over the

water. I carefully examined it with a good glass, at a distance

of about one hundred and fifty yards, and by this means was en-

abled to note every detail of form and color. It was in full

plumage, the white being pure, and the naked skin about the

head, bright red. After watching it for a few moments I tried to

_ approach it, but before I came within gunshot it flew, uttering a

hoarse cackle as it went off.— Gero. BIRD GRINNELL, New Haven,

Connecticnt.

New Bros 1N Kansas.—The following additions to the Kansas

list have recently been made: Micropalama himantopus, near

Lawrence, Sept. 9th and 19th, 1874, by W. Osburn; Calidris

arenaria, same locality, Oct. 7th, 1874, by W. E. Stevens; Ægi-

othus linaria, at Baldwin, fourteen miles from Lawrence, March

13th, 1875, by John Holzapfel, also seen in Western Kansas in

Rave aker, by Mr. Trippe, as recorded in Dr. Coues’ * Birds of

the Northwest ;” Dendroeca palmarum, at Topeka, May 6th, 1875,

by E. A. Popenol. To these should be added Ampelis garrulus, a

specimen of which taken at Fort Riley, by Dr. Hammond, is in

the Smithsonian collection. The Kansas List now contains 292

species.— F. H. Snow, Lawrence, Kansas.

Nematorps 1N PLants.—Greef found (SB. Ges. Marburg, 1872)

certain tubercles on the root-fibres of Dodaxia orientalis full

of Anguillulz in all stages, from the egg to the mature and preg-

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY. 471

nant state (these had previously been found in similar galls on the

root-fibres of Sedum and grasses). On Anguillule of Talcaria

Rivinii compare Frauenfeld, Verh., Z.—B., Ges. Wien, xxii, p.

396. — Zoological Record for 1872.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Tue DISINTEGRATION or ROCKS AND ITS GEOLOGICAL SIGNIFI-

canceE.!— This subject the speaker had briefly noticed in a commu-

nication to the Association in 1873, on the geology of the Blue

Ridge. The change of the rocks in question is a chemical one, which

is most obvious in the case of crystalline rocks ; the feldspar loses

its alkalies and part of its silica, being changed into clay, and the

hornblende its lime and magnesia, retaining its iron as peroxide.

From this results a softening and decay of the rocks to greater

or less depths, so that while the beds still retain their arrangement

and are seen to be traversed by veins of quartz and of metallic

ores, they are often so much changed to depths of a hundred feet

or more as to be readily removed by the action of water. This

phenomenon is well seen in the crystalline rocks of the Blue

Ridge, and not less remarkably in those of Brazil, where it has

been noticed by many observers, among the latest of which is

Professor Hartt. Darwin, who long ago described it, imagined

the change to have been effected beneath the sea, but according

to the speaker it has been a sub-aérial process, which has been at

work during past ages, when the composition of the atmosphere

and the climatic conditions differed from those of to-day, and

when carbonic acid, aided by warmth and moisture, abounded.

He connected it with that slow purification of the atmosphere

Ikali

which, from very early times, has been going on. The alkalies-

and lime and magnesia, set free in this process, absorbed the at-

mospheric carbonic acid, and the carbonates carried down to the

sea in a dissolved state gave rise to limestones, dolomites, and

common salt. Such a process of decay was already active at an

early period,:and, from facts observed in Missouri by Pumpelly, ©

had affected the iron-bearing feldspar-porphyries at the commence-

ment of paleozoic time. It was, according to the speaker, from :

the washing down of the thus decomposed crystalline rocks that _

all the clays and sands which had gone to build up the sediments

Abstract of a paper read before the American Association for the AUVERE

; vita at the Hartford Meeting, August, 1874.

472 GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

of our vast beds of palæozoic and more recent rocks had been

either directly or indirectly derived. This had already been

pointed out by Lyell for the tertiaries of the southern states. He

thought it probable that the process’ of decay had gone on with

decreasing energy to our times, though it is now insignificant in

its action, owing to changed atmospheric conditions.

The speaker drew a picture of North America in past geological

ages. The frequently taught notion of the growth of our conti-

nent southward and outward from a nucleus in the vicinity of the

great lakes has no foundation in fact, and the study of the un-

crystalline sedimentary formations tells a different story. The

great paleozoic basin was to the east and west, as well as the

north, surrounded by areas of decaying crystalline rocks. Those

of New England, of the Blue Ridge, and of the crystalline area

to the east of it are the remains of a great disintegrated and

wasted continent, whose ruins have built up the uncrystalline

rocks to the westward of it, as well as the sediments along the

eastern and southern borders of the United States. Up to a com-

paratively recent period, the hills of New England, eastern New

York and New Jersey, were probably, like those farther south-

ward along the Blue Ridge, deeply covered by the products of

their own decay, and from these were derived the clays, as well

_ as the brown iron ores which are found along the base of the Blue

Ridge and its northeastern continuation.

It was during the glacial period, which the speaker considered

to have been one of submergence and subsequent gradual uplift

of northeastern America, at which time it was exposed to the

action of local glaciers and to the iceberg-drift of the polar

current, that the final removal of this decayed covering from

our hills had taken place, while farther southward the mountains

beyond the reach of this denuding action still retained to-day

their covering of decayed rock. A similar condition of things is

to be seen in northwestern Minnesota, where, according to White,

the decayed ecrystallines have escaped denudation. The process

of decay in the more massive and granite-like rocks had often

been incomplete, and working from natural joints had left un-

changed nuclei of hard rock which, when erosion took place, re-

mained as rounded masses or bowlders; a point which has been

well brought out by Mr. Burbank from his studies in North Caro-

lina, and throws much light on our northern drift-deposits.

ANTHROPOLOGY. 473

A profound decay had also affected the hard palæozoic limes

stones, from which the carbonate of lime had been dissolved,

leaving a porous, rotten rock behind. ‘This, as Dawson has

shown, is well seen in the impure argillaceous Trenton limestone

near Montreal, which, in localities ete we by trappean dikes

from the eroding action which came from the northeast, is found

deeply decayed, while elsewhere, near by, its hard surface is worn

down and glaciated. Examples of a similar local exemption of

the decayed crystalline rocks from erosion are not wanting in

New England.!

The speaker alluded, in closing, to a process of mechanical dis-

integration, without chemical change, which in past ages had

broken up undecayed crystalline rocks to form breccias and con-

glomerates. These are seen locally, from the ancient porphyry-

conglomerates of the Lake Superior copper-mines to very recent

deposits, and a remarkable example is met with in the beds of

granitic material, which, in a recemented state, make up parts of

the red sandstone of the Connecticut valley. The slow breaking

up of many crystalline rocks by the action of frost had been sug-

gested by Dawson as a potent agent in the production of such

material, and the speaker conceived that this, in the present state

of our knowledge, was the most probable explanation of its

origin.— T. Srerry Hunt. -

ANTHROPOLOGY.

ArtiriciAL PERFORATION OF THE Crantum.—I wish to call at-

tention to what seems to me to betoken a singular practice con-

nected with the burial ceremonies of the aboriginal inhabitants of

this country, and of which I can find nothing on record in the

books, notwithstanding the remarkable nature of the custom, and

the indubitable marks which would remain to testify in instances

where it had been adhered to. I have reference to the artificial

perforation of the top of the head after death.

The circular aperture, evidently made by boring with a rude,

probably stone, implement, varies in size, in some instances having

n example of this is seen in Kent in orre and also in North Adams,

the Hoosac Mountain shows.

feet or more; while on the summit of the mountain are seen worn and glaciated sur

faces of the cams rock in an undecomposed state

474 ANTHROPOLOGY. |

a diameter of one-third, in others one-half of an inch, and flaring

at the surface. It is invariably placed in a central position at the

top of the skull.

The first instance of its being brought to my knowledge was in

the year 1869, when I took from the Great Mound on the River

Rouge, Michigan, two fragments of crania, each of which exhib-

ited this perforation. A skull recently presented to the museum

of the Detroit Scientific Association. by Mr. A. C. Davis, and

which was exhumed from a mound on the Sable River, Lake

Huron, Michigan, also has this mark. From ten to fifteen skulls

were taken from the same mound, all being similarly perforated,

and there being, as I am informed, no other remains interred with

them. During last Summer (1874), in some: further excavations

made in the Great Mound at the River Rouge, among other relics

exhumed were eight crania, two of which had this aperture. Of

the remaining bones of the bodies pertaining to the two skulls in

question, I specially noticed that many were wanting, and that

those present were heaped en masse, and not in the usual manner

of burial, seeming to imply that they were interred subsequently

to oe denuded of the flesh and the other soft parts of the body.

B the foregoing instances of this curious custom which

have Pa brought to my immediate knowledge, I have since been

informed of the finding of a skull at Saginaw, Michigan, which

presented the peculiarity ; but in this case there were three per-

forations arranged cocoanut fashion.

All enquiry which I have made of learned societies or individ-

uals in regard to this observance has elicited an utter disclaiming

of all knowledge on the subject. The two largest collections in

Ethnology in this country, the Smithsonian Institution and the

Peabody Museum, contain no evidence of it. Prof. J oseph Henry,

in replying to my queries, stated that the only information he had

procured in relation to perforated skulls was the following from

Prof. Mason of Columbian College: ‘It is an interesting coinci-

dence that the head-hunting Dyaks of Borneo have a house in the

centre of their village, in an upper story of which they keep the

beads which they capture suspended by a string which passes

through a perforation in the top of the skull.” The late lamented

Prof. Wyman, in a letter written me the day before his death, em-

phatically states that the fact of this perforation was new to him;

ge “ There is see of the kind in any of the skulls in our

ANTIROPOLOGY, 475

museum, nor have I seen it mentioned as existing elsewhere.” A

friend has learned for me that an educated Indian makes the state-

ment, in reply to our enquiry, that he remembers hearing his.

father say that formerly the heads of distinguished men and chiefs

were honored by this mark after death.

The skull from the Sable River is of a dark color, and its lat-

itudinal or cephalic index, .770, would place it within the Ortho-

cephalic or medium range; the altitudinal index being inferior, or

exactly .745. The-foramen magnum (contrary to the cranium of

the North American Indian) has a central position, its index being-

501. The two perfect specimens from the Rouge River are de-

cidedly Brachycephalic, the cephalic indices being respectively

.822 and .853, the altitudinal indices being inferior, or respec-

tively .733 and .828, while the indices of the foramen magnum

are, in one case .441, and in the other .507. i

It is to be hoped that in thus calling attention to this singular

custom, further information will be elicited ; and I take this oppor-

tunity of earnestly soliciting the communication of any facts

bearing on the subject, which I shall thankfully receive and duly

acknowledge.

Since sending the foregoing to the NATURALIST, My attention

has been called to a note in Harpers’ Magazine for May, 1875, is-

sued since my remarks were written, which states that ‘a com-

munication made by Dr. Prunières (de Marvejols) before the

meeting of the French Association for the Advancement of Sci-

ence, at Lille, treated of the curious artificial perforations common

among the neolithic skulls of the Lozère. These perforations

vary, in the pieces exhibited, from an inch to an inch and a quarter `

in diameter. Near the perforated skulls were found rings of cra-

nial bone, which seemed to be designed as amulets. These were

evidently worked with flint tools. The men of the polished stone

age practised trepanning; for if some of the skulls appear to

have been perforated after death, others were treated during life,

and the patients had lived for years afterward. One skull pre-

sented three perforations made near each other upon a line fore

and aft. There is no distinction of age, the excisions occurring

upon infants as well as upon adults. The motive of this strange

custom was either medical or superstitious. They probably at-

tributed disease to supernatural agencies. The evil spirit escap-

ing through the opening made by the sorcerer, who wrapped the

476 ANTHROPOLOGY.

operation in a shroud of mystery by preserving the detached piece

as a precious relic. From the appearance of these facts reported

by the learned archeologist of Lozére, he said that a new light

had been shed upon the intellectual state of man in the polished

“stone age. It explained his religious conceptions, and confirmed

the discovery of the figure of a goddess in the caverns of Baye

(Marne). M. Broca remarked that perforated skulls were also

found at the last named station. Among the skulls dug up by

General Faidherbe were found two in the same condition. Dr.

Chil, from the Canary Islands, said that perforated skulls had-

been found in the ancient burial-places of his country. Notice

was also called to an example from the grotto of Lorde, upon -

which M. Hamy and M. Chaplain-Dupare gave some interesting

details. A similarly perforated or trepanned skull was found by

Mr. E. G. Squier among some ancient Peruvian crania collected

by him.” :

The original report I have not seen; but the concluding remark,

on the Peruvian skull, removes some doubt as to the kind of per-

foration described. In the well-known instance discovered by Mr.

Squier, the character and the meaning of the operation (trepan-

ning, the excision having been made during the lifetime of the in-

dividual) are so evident, and the shape (rectangular) and the

position (on the left side of the frontal bone) so different from

that of the perforations which I have described in the crania from

Michigan, that I never for a moment associated them, and there-

fore made no reference to the Peruvian skull. The same view,

we may presume, was taken by the learned persons to whom I re-

ferred my discoveries, who could scarcely be supposed ignorant of

the case in question.

I find no positive statement as to the position of the perfora-

tions mentioned at the meeting of the French Association; but

judge from certain remarks that (again unlike our instances from

Michigan) there was no constant position observed. In certain

cases of trepanning the position, of course, must have varied with

. the location of the injury to be operated on.

In short, the perforation which I find in the Michigan crania is

exceptional—rarely present; it is simply a circular hole about

half an inch (more or less) in diameter, apparently rudely bored,

invariably in the top of the head of adults, and made after death ;

_ while those cases described in France, though only so recently

MICROSCOPY. 477

brought to notice, are quite numerous, and appear to be what may

be more correctly termed trepanning, that is the part of the skull

operated on was removed entire, and all ages are represented.

I have purposely refrained from much mention of my specula-

tions on this custom of our aboriginal people; yet I have thought

that the superstition of the modern North American Indian in re-

gard to there being two souls, one of which visits the body after

death, may throw some light on the subject. We know that the

coverings of their graves, made of wood or bark, always have a

perforation at one extremity for the supposed entrance and egress

of the soul. But the question arises — Why, then, is not the per-

. foration of the skull constant, or at least more frequent ?— HENRY

Gitiman, Detroit, Michigan.

MICROSCOPY.

A New Setr-centrinc Turn-tasie.— Mr. C. F. Cox, of New

York, has contrived a turn-table which centres the slide unerringly,

and is at the same time a convenient working instrument. The slide

is held, by pressure upon two diagonally opposite corners, between

two clutches that are made, by a right and left screw, to move

toward or from the centre simultaneously and at a uniform rate.

The centre of revolution must therefore coincide with the centre

Fig. 210.

Cox’s Self-centring Turn-table. :

of the diagonal of the slide which is the exact centre of a truly

rectangular slide, and is practically the centre of any slide fit to

be used. This very useful piece of apparatus is, fortunately for

the taste of its inventor and for the convenience of other micros-

copists, unencumbered by a patent; and it has been already con-

structed by Miller Bros. and by J. W. Queen & Co. The style

made by the latter firm is figured in the accompanying cut. `

478 NOTES.

For all new work, such as making varnish cells or centring

cells or objects of any kind, this turn-table seems worthy to super-

sede all previous forms. For repairing old work, which may not

be well centred originally, it should be provided with a spring

clip under which a mounted object can be centred by the concen-

tric circles in the usual manner, and which, when not in use, can

be removed entirely from the table. By a general adoption of such

a table much of the annoyance incidental to revarnishing slides

- would be avoided.

NOTES.

Pror. D. S. Jorpan has prepared, for the Report for 1874 of

the fading. State Geological Survey, a preliminary list of the

fishes which he has found in Indiana, also including those likely

to be obtained in the waters of the state. This list is prepared

for the purpose of inducing local collectors to examine the streams

and lakes of the state. While all such local lists are much wanted,

we think a mistake is made in using the “Key” system for the

means of identification. Why is it not just as well to give the

characters of the orders, families, genera and species, and thus

teach the collector as he works out his specimens, instead of mak-

ing him follow out a series of artificial groups until he finds some-

thing that will answer to the specimen he has in hand. The labor

by the last method is not lessened, and when the end is reached

only a name is secured, whereas by the former method the name

is found as readily, and much has been learned in hunting it

out.

Tur Trustees of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York),

have recently issued two instructive pamphlets, which also eR

trate the riches in their keeping. One of these is a “Guide

the Cesnola Collection,” and gives a general account, with a num-

ber of cuts, of this most valuable collection of ancient art from

the excavations made on the Island of Cyprus. This collection

was purchased by the Museum for about $50,000, and is the result

of seven years labor on the part of General Cesnola, during which

time over eight thousand Phoenician tombs were opened. These

tombs were situated six and one-half feet below the more recent

Greek tombs, and the most recent date given to them is about

800 or 1,000 years before Christ. The other, and much larger, —

pamphlet is a “ Hand Book for the use of visitors examining Pot-

NOTES. | 479

tery and Porcelain in the Museum,” and contains much valuable

information relative to both ancient and modern pottery.

Ture Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology at Cam-

bridge, has recently received from Mr. Alexander Agassiz, a very

large and important collectién made by himself and Mr. Garman

during the past winter, and illustrating the archeology and eth-

nology of ancient and modern Peru. arge number of vases,

several mummies, and articles of various kinds found in the

graves, were obtained from ancient burial grounds near the coast.

Some very interesting vessels were secured at Lake Titicaca, and

a number of human crania were taken from the burial towers near

the lake; while the collection of articles now in use by the In-

dians gives the means of comparing the past with the present.

This very valuable addition will not be arranged until the cases

in Boylston Hall, recently occupied by the Wyman Anatomical

Museum, are fitted for the reception of the specimens belonging to

the Peabody Museum.

Pror. H. A. Warp, of Rochester, has just*issued a new cata-

logue of osteological preparations, which shows the immense facil-

ities at his control in the way of furnishing skeletons, skulls and

special preparations, to those who wish to obtain specimens for

their own study or for schools and museums. Until Prof. Ward’s

establishment was started, Americans were dependent on Paris for

such specimens, but now anything, from a skeleton of a man down

New York.

Tue Cincinnati Quarterly Journal of Science for July contains

a very readable article on the ‘ Atlantis” tradition as given by

Plato, and its bearing on the supposed early intercourse between

the prehistoric civilizations of the old world and America. The

author, Mr. L. M. Hosea, advocates the former relations between

the ancient races of America and the old Egyptians, and points

out many resemblances between the two civilizations.

In the forthcoming report by the State Geologist of Indiana, of

which we have been favored with advance sheets, Professor Cox :

describes and gives plans of the several ancient works in Indiana

af which mention was made in our last number. Professor Cox

480 BOOKS RECEIVED.

the Mound aiidis; and he is entitled to much credit in thus

making known the antiquities of the state.

HE excursion of the Cambridge Entomological Club to the

White Mountains started on July 8. About thirty persons, in-

cluding ladies, will remain in camp for three or four weeks. The

camp will be located near the Half-way House on Mt. Washington,

and in an interesting field for collecting.

Tue Cincinnati Society of Natural History have recently re-

ceived a bequest of $50,000 from Mr. Charles Bodman of Cincin-

nati. As no conditions are attached to the bequest the Society

will be placed in a position that will enable it to do much for the

advancement of science in the west.

AT a recent meeting of the Trustees of the Peabody Academy

of Science, Professor Gray, who was one of the original Trustees,

withdrew from the board, and Dr. Coggswell of Bradford, and Mr.

John Robinson of Salem; were elected to fill vacancies.

THE distinguished geologist, Sir William Logan, for many years

the head of the Geological Survey of Canada, died at Ontario, on

June 28th.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Repo ofa sig ac poy of the Mineralogical, Geological and Physical Survey of the State of

Pn arch for th iod from Sept 1, to Dec. 3] 1574 BY ae Little. pi Pe 36. ne

p. TBI, 8v Hin s on the Selection and Use of the Microscope, By Jobn k, 1875. -

+ 8vo.

yee : Its History, Classification, Proving and Therapeutical Application, Read before the

kolie “Medical Society of the State of New York, Oct. 22, 1874, By Richard E. Kunze.

Albany, ie pp, 8vo.

Revue Scientifique de la France et de V Etranger, 15, 29, Mai, 1875.

aiatemde Roy = des mig on Foes lettres et des Beaux Arts de Be elgique, Memoires des Mem-

bres. Vol. 40. k . Memoires couronnes et des savants etrangers. Vols. 37, 38. oe

4to. Mowesres ¢ couronnes et anne memoires. Vol. 23. 1873. 8vo, Bulletins de VAc: ademie, 2d

è ` a A 1874, 8

Annales Me ogiqu de PObservatoire Royal de Bruzelles. Annee 1872, 1873. 4to.

Congres Sage doa age = Statisque, Par A. Quetelet. Bruxelles, 1873. 4to.

BE gen es fo ie Royale de Belgique. Oiseroet tions des Phenomenes, Periodiques pendant Panneée

z> Reta de Q a observee a Bruxelles. Par Ernest Quetelet. Syo. t

Qi ‘ ng iemands Simultanees sur Semel Terresire Boreal. Par Ernes

etelet. ‘Svo.

extraites de PA Se Royal di R. p 1874. Par A. Quete-

S83,

Rey

sunaeberi ichte der math. naturw, 1874, I, Abtheil 4,5,6,7. II. Abtheil, Nos. 4,5, 6,7

ui Abtei 1-5, 6, 7. Sis eil, Nos. $

Jahrbuch der k. k. geologise nstait. Wien, 1874. xxiv Band. 8vo.

Verhandlungen der k. Eege geo aes naras aknatan, ’No. 16. 1874. 8vo. 8v0.

Entomologische.Zeit: rm Herausgegeben von dem oe gy ton Tee Stettin. 1874. Ne

Bulletin la Societe Vandoise ehd Sciences Naturelles, Lansanne, 1874. 2e S. Vol. xiii,

a BeA de l'Institut Meteorologique de . Christiania, 1871, 1872, 1873, 1874.

Postola Fike tt E teas “Ae f akr aias F om Ageltierae Tie Deres peg for megs gies

Udbredelse Deres Martyrdod. By C. R. Unger. Christiania, 1874. pp. 966. Band.

Tiron Kongeli ize igh ye i er morn Seika ibs "Skrifter i 19 de ae oth

nro! m pp.

ree eologiske | Under rsgelser telen ioma Amt og tilgraendsende Dele af Nordlands Amt iv af Kart

in Universitate Regia Fredericiana Centesimo Vicesimo Eins &

Anno S73. Terk 1875. Christiania, Kadya

On Giants’ Caldrons, By 8. A. Sexe. Christiania, 1874. Svo.

‘ao a

AMERICAN NATURALIST...

Vol. IX. SEPTEMBER, 1875. —No. 9.

cas On0o>~

ADDRESS

DR. JOHN L. LeCONTE,

THE RETIRING PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.

GENTLEMEN AND LADIES OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR

THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE :—

Tue founders of science in America, and the other great stu-

dents of nature, who have in previous years occupied the elevated

position in which I now stand, have addressed you upon many

momentous subjects. In fulfilling thè final duty, assigned to your

Presidents by the laws of the Association, some have spoken to

you in solemn and wise words concerning the duties and privileges

of men of science: and the converse duties of the nation towards

those earnest and disinterested promoters of knowledge. Others —

again have given you the history of the development of their

respective branches of study, and their present condition, and

have, in eloquent diction, commended to your gratitude those who —

have established on a firm foundation the basis of our modern

systems of investigation.

The recent changes in our Constitution, by which you are led to

expect from your two Vice-presidents, and from the Chairman of-

the Chemical Subsection, addresses on the progress made during

the past year, restrain me from invading their peculiar fields of

ntered, according to Act of Con in the year 1875, by the PEABODY ACADEMY OF

Ioas. in the Office of the Librariae of Gongrese: at Washington,

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 1 (481)

482 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

labor, by alluding to scientific work which has been accomplished

since our last meeting. While delicacy forbids me from so doing,

I am equally debarred from repeating to you the brief sketch I

endeavored to give at a former meeting! of the history, and pres-

ent condition of Entomology in the United States.

But it has appeared to me that a few thoughts, which have im- -

pressed themselves on my mind,.touching the future results to be

obtained from certain classes of facts, not yet fully developed, on

account of the great labor required for their proper comparison,

may not be without value. Even if the facts be not new to you, I

hope to be able, with your kind attention, to present them in such

way as to be suggestive of the work yet to be done.

It has been perhaps said, or at least it has been often thought,

that the first mention of the doctrine of evolution, as now ad-

mitted to a greater or less degree by every thinking man, is found

in Ecclesiastes, i, 9:— —

“The thing that hath been is that which shall be; and that

which is done is that which shall be done; and there is no new

thing under the sun. Is there anything whereof it may be said,

See, this is new? It hath been already of old time, which was

before e us.”

Other references to evolutionary views in one form or another

occur in the writings of several philosophers of classic times, as

you have had recent cause to remember.

Whether these are to be considered as an expression of a per-

fect truth in the very imperfect language which was alone intelligi-

ble to the nation to whom this sacred book was immediately ad-

dressed on the one hand; and the happy guesses of philosophers,

who by deep intuition had placed themselves in close sympathy

with the material universe, on the other hand, I shall not stop to

enquire. The discussion would be profitless, for modern science

in no way depends for its magnificent triumphs of fact and

thought upon any utterances of the ancients. It is the creation

of patient intelligent labor of the last two centuries, and its re-

sults can be neither confuted nor confirmed by anything that was

said, thought or done at an earlier period. I have merely referred

to these indications of doctrines of evolution to recall to your

minds that the two great schools of thought, which now divide

philosophers, have existed from very remote times. They are,

1 Proceedings Am, Assoc. Ady. Sc. xxi (Portland).

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 483

therefore, in their „origin, probably independent of correct scien-

tific knowledge.

ou have learned from the geologists, and mostly from those of

the present century, that the strata of the earth have been suc-

cessively formed from fragments more or less comminuted by me-

chanical action, more or less altered by chemical combination and

‘molecular rearrangement. These fragments were derived from

strata previously deposited, or from’ material brought up from

below, or even thrown down from above, or from the débris of

organic beings which extracted their mineral constituents from

surrounding media. Nothing new has been added, everything is

old: only the arrangement of the parts is new, but in this arrange-

ment definite and recognizable unchanged fragments of the old

frequently remain. Geological observation is now so extended

and accurate that an experienced student can tell from what for-

mation, and even from what particular locality these fragments

have been derived.

I wish to show that this same process has taken place in the

organic world, and that by proper methods we can discover in our

fauna and flora the remnants of the inhabitants of former geologic

times, which remain unchanged, and have escaped those influences

of variation which are supposed to account for the differences i in

the organic beings of different periods.

Should I succeed. in this effort, we will be hereafter enabled in —

groups of animals which are rarely preserved in fossil condition,

to reconstruct, in some measure, the otherwise extinct faunz, and

_ thus to have a better idea of the sequence of generic forms in time.

We will also have confirmatory evidence of certain changes which

have taken place in the outline of the land and the sea. More im-

portant still, we will have some indications of.the time when

greater changes have occurred, the rock evidence of which is now

buried at the bottom of the ocean, or perhaps entirely destroyed

by erosion and separations. Of these changes, which involved

connections of masses of land, no surmise could be made, except

through evidence to be gained in the manner of which I am about

to speak,

My illustrations will naturally be drawn from that branch of

zoology, with which I am most familiar ; and it is indeed to your-

too partial estimate of my studies in that science, that I owe the

privilege of addressing you on the present occasion.

484 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

There are, as you know, a particular set of Coleoptera which

affect the seashore; they are not very numerous at any locality,

but among them are genera which are represented in almost every

country of the globe. Such genera are called cosmopolitan, in

distinction to those which are found only in particular districts.

Several of these genera contain species which are very nearly

allied, or sometimes in fact undistinguishable and therefore iden-

tical along extended lines of coast.

Now it happens that some of these species, though they never

stray from the ocean shore inland, are capable of living upon

similar beaches on fresh water lakes, and a few are found in local-

ities which are now quite inland.

To take an example, or rather several examples together, for

the force of the illustration will be thereby greatly increased.

Along the whole of the Atlantic, and the greater part of the

Pacific coast of the United States, is found in great abundance on

sand beaches, a species of Tiger-beetle, Cicindela hirticollis, an ac-

tive, winged and highly predaceous insect ; the same species occurs

on the sand beaches of the great lakes, and were it confined to these

and similar localities, we would be justified in considering it as living

there in consequence solely of the resemblance in the conditions

- of existence. But, it is also found, though in much less abun-

dance, in the now elevated region midway between the Mississippi

and Rocky Mountains. Now, this is the part of the continent

which, after the division of the great intercontinental gulf in Cre-

taceous times, finally emerged from the bed of the sea, and was in

the early and middle Tertiary converted into a series of immense

fresh water lakes. As this insect does not occur in the territory

extending from the Atlantic to beyond the western boundary of

Missouri, nor in the interior of Oregon and California, I think

that we should infer that it is an unchanged survivor of the spe-

cies which lived on the shores of the Cretaceous ocean, when the

intercontinental gulf was still open, and a passage existed, more-

over, towards the south-west, which connected with the Pacific.

The example I have given you of the geographical distribution

of Cicindela hirticollis would be of small value, were it an isolated

case ; nor would I have thought it worthy of occupying your time,

on an occasion like this, which is justly regarded as one for the

communication of important truth. This insect, which I have se-

lected as a type for illustrating the methods of investigation to

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 485

which I invite your attention, is, however, accompanied more or

less closely by other Coleoptera, which like itself are not particular

as to the nature of their food, so long as it be other living insects,

„and apparently are equally indifferent to the presence of large

bodies of salt water. First, there is Cicindela lepida, first collected

by my father, near Trenton, New Jersey, afterwards found on

Coney Island, near New York, and received by me from Kansas

and Wisconsin ; not, however, found west of the Rocky Mountains.

This species, thus occurring in isolated and distant localities, is

probably in process of extinction, and may or may not be older than

C. hirticollis. Iam disposed to believe, as no representative spe-

cies occurs on the Pacific coast, and from its peculiar distribution,

that it is older. Second, there is Dyschirius pallipennis, a small

Carabide, remarkable among other species of the genus by the

pale wing covers, usually ornamented with a dark spot. This in-

sect is abundant on the Atlantic coast from New York to Virginia,

unchanged in the interior parts of the Mississippi valley, repre-

sented at Atlantic City, New Jersey, by a larger and quite distinct

specific form, C. sellatus, and on the Pacific coast by two or three

species of larger size and different shape, which in my less experi-

enced youth I was disposed to regard as a separate genus Akepho-

rus. This form is, therefore, in a condition of evolution,—how, I _

know not,—our descendants may. The Atlantic species are

winged, the Pacific ones, like a large number of insects of that

region are without wings.

Accompanying these are Coleoptera of other families, which

have been less carefully studied, but I will not trespass upon your

patience by mentioning more than two. Bledius pallipennis —

(Staphylinide) is found on salt marshes near New York, on the

Southern sea coast, and in Kansas,—Ammodonus fossor, a wing-

less Tenebrionide, Trenton, seashore near New York, and valley of

Mississippi at St. Louis; thus nearly approximating Cicindela

lepida in distribution.

We can thus obtain by a careful observation of the localities ao

insects, especially such as affect seashore or marsh, and those

which being deprived of their favorite surroundings, have shown,

if I may so express myself, a patriotic clinging to their native

soil, most valuable indications in regard to the time at which their

unmodified ancestors first appeared upon the earth. For it is ob-

vious that no tendency to change in different directions by “ nu- `

486 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

merous successive slight modifications”! would produce a uniform

result in such distant localities, and under such varied conditions

of life. Properly studied, these indications are quite as certain

as though we found the well preserved remains of these ancestors

in the mud and sand strata upon which they flitted or dug in quest

of food.

Other illustrations of survivals from indefinitely more remote

times I will also give you, from the Coleopterous fauna of our

own country, though passing time admonishes me to restrict their

number.

To make my remarks intelligible, I must begin by saying that

there are three great divisions of Coleoptera, which I will name in

the order of their complication of structural plan: 1. Rhyncho-

phora; 2. Heteromera; 3. Ordinary or normal Coleoptera; the

last two being more nearly allied to each other than either is to

the first. I have in other places exposed the characters of these

divisions, and will not detain you by repeating them.

rom Palzontological evidence derived from other branches of

zoology, we have a right to suppose, if this classification be cor-

rect, that these great types have been introduced upon the earth

in the order in which I have named them.

ow, it is precisely in the first and second series that the most

anomalous instances of geographical distribution occur ; that is to

say, the same or nearly identical genera are represented by species

in very widely separated. regions, without occurring in interme-

diate or contiguous regions. Thus there is a genus Emeasx, found-

ed by Mr. Pascoe, upon an Australian species, which, when I saw

it, I reeognized as belonging to Nyctoporis, a California genus,

established many years before; and in fact barely specifically dis-

tinct from N. galeata. Two other examples are Othnius and Eu-

pleurida, United States genera, which are respectively equivalent

to Elacatis and Isehalia, found in Borneo. Our native genera

Eurygenius and Toposcopus, are represented by scarcely different

forms in Australia. All these belong to the second series ( Heter-

omera), and the number of examples might a greatly increased

with less labor on my part than patience on

A single example from the Rfashisphes, and I will pass to

another subject.

1 Origin of Species, 1869, 227.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 487

On the sea coast of California, extending to Alaska, is a very

anomalous insect, whose affinities are difficult to discern, called

Emphyastes fucicola, from its occurrence under the sea-weed cast

up by the waves. It is represented in Australia by several spe-

cies of a nearly allied genus Aphela, found in similar situations.

In all entomological investigations relating to geographical dis-

tribution, we are greatly embarrassed by the multitude of species,

and by the vague and opinionative genera founded upon characters

of small importance. The Coleoptera alone, thus far described,

amount to over 60,000 so-called species, and there are from 80,000

to 100,000 in collections. Under these circumstances it is quite

impossible for one person to command either the time or the ma-

terial to master the whole subject, and from the laudable zeal of

collectors to make known what they suppose to be new objects,

an immense amount of synonymy must result. Thus in the great

Catalogus Coleopterorum of Gemminger and Harold, a permanent

record of the untiring industry of those two excellent entomolo-

gists, species of the genus Trechicus founded by me upon a small

orth American insect, are mentioned under five generic names,

only one of which is recognized as a synonym of another. These

generic headings appear in such remote pages of the volume as

135, 146 and 289 ;

The two closely allied genera of Rhynchophora mentioned

above are separated by no less than 168 pages.

It is therefore plain, that before much progress can be made in

the line of research which I have proposed to you, whereby we

may recover important fragments of the past history of the earth,

Entomology must be studied in a somewhat different manner from

that now adopted. The necessity is ooy day more apparent that

descriptions of heterogeneous material are “rather obstructive than

beneficial to science, except in the case of extraordinary forms

likely to give information concerning geographical distribution or

classification. Large typical collections affording abundant mate-

rial for comparison, for the approximation of allied forms, and the

elimination of doubtful ones must be accumulated; and in the

case of such perishable objects, as those we are now dealing with,

must be placed where they can have the protecting influences both

of climate and personal care

At the same time, for this investigation, the study of inseote i is

peculiarly suitable ; not only on account of the small size, ease of

collecting, and little cost of preserving the specimens, but because

488 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

from their varied mode of life in different stages of development,

and perhaps for other reasons, the species are less likely to be

destroyed in the progress of geological changes.!_ Cataclysms and

submergences, which would annihilate the higher animals, would

only float the temporarily asphyxiated insect, or the tree trunks

containing the larvee and pupz to other neighboring lands. How-

ever that may be, I have given you some grounds for believing,

that many of the species of insects now living existed in the same

form before the appearance of any living genera of mammals, and

we may suppose that their unchanged descendants will probably

survive the present mammalian fauna, including our own race.

I may add, moreover, that some groups, especially in the

Rhynchophora, which, as I have said above, I believe to be the

earliest introduced of the Coleoptera, exhibit with compact and

definite limits, and clearly defined specific characters, so many

generic modifications, that I am compelled to think that we have

in them an example of the long sought unbroken series, extending

in this instance from early mesozoic to the present time, and of

which very few forms have become extinct.

I have used the word species so often, that you will doubtless be

inclined to ask, what, then, is understood by a species? Alas! I

can tell you no more than has been told recently by many others.

It is an assemblage of individuals, which differ from each other by

very small or trifling and inconstant characters, of much less value

than those in which they differ from any other assemblage of in-

dividuals. -Who determines the value of these characters? The

experienced student of that department to which the objects be-

ong. Species are, therefore, those groups of individuals’ repre-

senting organic forms which ARE RECOGNIZED as such by those

who from natural power and education are best qualified to judge.

You perceive, therefore, that we are here dealing with an entirely

different kind of information from that which we gain from the

physical sciences; everything there depends on accurate observa-

tion, with strict logical consequences derived therefrom. Here

the basis of our knowledge depends equally on accurate and

trained observation, but the logic is not formal but perceptive.

1For a fuller discussion of these causes, and of several re subjects which are

sseni mentioned in this address, Er reader may consult an excellent memoir by my

, Mr. Andrew Murray, “On the Geographical Relations of the Chief Co-

pole Fame. » (Journal of Linn wean Society, Zoology, V

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 489

This has been already thoroughly recognized by Huxley! and

Helmholtz,? and others, but we may properly extend the inquiry

into the nature and powers of this xsthetic perception somewhat

farther. For it is to this fundamental difference between bio-

logical and physical sciences that I will especially invite your

attention.

Sir John Lubbock,3 quoting from Oldfield* mentions that certain

Australians “ were quite unable to realize the most vivid artistic

representations. On being shown a picture of one of themselves,

one said it was a ship, another a kangaroo, not one in a dozen

identifying the portrait as having any connection with himself.”

These human beings, therefore, with brains very similar to our

own, and as is held by some persons, potentially capable of similar

cultivation with ourselyes, were unable to recognize the outlines

of even such familiar objects as the features of their own race.

Was there any fault in the drawing of the artist? Probably not.

Or in the eye of the savage? Certainly not, for that is an optical

instrument of tolerably simple structure, which cannot fail to form

on the retina an accurate image of the object to which it is di-

rected. Where then is the error? It is in the want of capacity

of the brain of the individual (or rather the race in this instance)

to appreciate the resemblance between the outline, the relief, the

light and shade of the object pictured, and the flat representation

in color: in other words, a want of “artistic tact” or ssthetic

perception.

A higher example of a similar phenomenon I have myself seen:

many of you too have witnessed it, for it is of daily occurrence.

is when travellers in Italy having penetrated to the inmost chamber

of the Temple of Art, even the Hall of the Tribune at Florence,

stand in presence of the most perfect works of Art, which it has

been given to man to produce, and gaze upon them with the same

Haat +, hich Alati ti

1A : Gaii:

be assigned. » (Principles and Method ane eae t, 1869, 378)

“Td t that, in many branches of these sciences, an » intuitive per-

aos of raae a a certain artistic tact play a conspicuous part. In natural

sap Ae Hi eee AG left entirely to this tact, hme early definable Yaba, t0

rmine what chartoterstin o species are importan

or classification f the animal or inet table kingdom are more nat-

ral than others. ” (Relation of the Physical Sciences to Science in General, s.

othe 71, 227.) i

3 P: . z

rehistoric Times, p. ARTEEN POE EENS Wak 4:

*On the Aborigines sf oaths: Trans S

490 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

indifference that they would show to the conceptions of mediocre

artists exhibited in our shops.

Perhaps they would even wonder what one can find to admire

in the unrivalled collection, which is there assembled.

There is surely wanting in the minds of such persons that high,

æsthetic sense, which enables others to enter into spiritual har-

mony with the great artists whose creations are before them.

Creations I said, and I use the word intentionally. If there is

one power of the human soul, which more nearly than any other

approaches the faculty of creation, it is that by which the almost

inspired artist develops out of a rude block of stone, or out of

such mean materials as canvass and metallic pastes of various

colors, figures which surpass in beauty, and in power of exciting

emotion, the objects they profess to represent.

Yet these unæsthetic and nonappreciative persons are just as

highly educated, and in their respective positions as good and

useful members of the social organism as any that may be found.

I maintain only, they would never make good students of biology.

In like manner, by way of illustrating the foregoing observa-

‘tions, there are some, who in looking at the phenomena of the

external Universe, may recognize only Chance, or the ‘“ fortui-

tous concourse of atoms,” producing certain resultant motions.

Others, having studied more deeply the nature of things, will per-

ceive the existence of laws, binding and correlating the events

they observe. Others again, not superior to the latter in intelli-

gence, nor in power of investigation, may discern a deeper relation

between these phenomena, and the indications of an intellectual or

zesthetic or moral plan, similar to that which influences their own

actions, when directed to the attaining of a particular result.

These last will recognize in the operations of nature the direc-

tion of a Human Intelligence, greatly enlarged, capable of modi-

fying at its will influences beyond our control; or they will appre-

ciate in themselves a resemblance to a superhuman intelligence

which enables them to be in sympathy with its actions.

Either may be true in individual instances of this class of

minds; one or other must be true; I care not which, for to me the

ropositions are in this argument identical, though in speculative

discussions, they may be regarded as at almost the opposite poles

of religious belief. All that I plead for is, that those who have

not this perceptive power, and who in the present condition of

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 491

scientific discussion are numerically influential, will have tolerance

for those who possess it; and that the ideas of the latter may

not be entirely relegated to the domain of superstition and en-

thusiasm.

In the case of the want of percaptlon of the Australian, a very

simple test can be applied. It is only to photograph the object

represented by the artist, and compare the outlines and shades of

the photograph, with those of the picture. If they accord within

reasonable limits the picture is correct to that extent; at least,

however bad the artist, the human face could never be confounded

with a ship, or a kangaroo.

Can we apply a similar test to the works of nature? I think

we can. Suppose that man,—lI purposely use the singular noun to

indicate that all human beings of similar intelligence and educa-

tion working towards a definite end, will work in a somewhat sim-

ilar manner,—suppose, then I say, that man, endeavoring to carry

out some object of importance, devises a method of so doing, and

creates for that purpose a series of small objects, and we find that

these small objects naturally divide and distribute themselves in

age and locality, in a similar manner to that in which the species

of a group of organisms are divided in space, and distributed in

time; and that the results of man’s labor are thus divided and

distributed on account of the necessary inherent qualities of his

intelligence and methods of action, is not the resemblance between

human reason and the greater powers which control the manifes-

tations of organic nature apparent?

I now simply present to you this investigation. Time is want-

ing for me to illustrate it by even a single example, but I feel sure

that I have in the minds of some of you already suggested several

applications of it to the principle I wish to teach:—the resem-

blance in the distribution of the works of nature to that of human

contrivances evolved for definite purposes.

If this kind of reasoning commends itself to you, and you thus

perceive resemblances in the actions of the Ruler of the Universe

to those of our own race, when prompted by the best and highest

intellectual motives, you will be willing to accept the declaration-

of the ancient text, “He doeth not evil, and abideth not with

the evil inclined. Whatever he hath done is good;”! or that

1Desatir, p. 2.

492 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

from our own canon of Scripture: ‘With him is wisdom and

strength, he hath counsel and understanding.” !

The esthetic character of Natural History, therefore, prevents

the results of its cultivation from being worked out with the pre-

cision of a logical machine, such as with correct data of observa-

tion and calculation would be quite sufficient to formulate the

conclusions of physical investigation. According as the percep-

tion of the relations of organic beings among themselves becomes

more and more enlarged, the interpretation of these relations will

vary within limits; but we will be continually approximating

higher mental or spiritual truth.

This kind of truth can never be revealed to us by the study of

inorganic aggregations of the universe. The molar, molecular

and polar forces, by which they are formed, may be expressed, so

far as science has reduced them to order, by a small number of

simply formulated laws, indicative neither of purpose nor intelli-

gence, when confined within inorganic limits. In fact, taking also

the organic world into consideration, we as yet see no reason why

the number of chemical elements known to us should be as large

as it is, and go on increasing almost yearly with more minute in-

vestigations. To all appearance, the mechanical and vital struc-

ture of the universe would remain unchanged, if half of them

were struck out of existence.

Neither is there any evidence of intelligence or design in the

fact that the side of the moon visible to us exhibits only a mass

of volcanoes.

Yet upon the earth, without the volcano and the earthquake,

and the elevating forces of which they are the feeble indications,

there would be no permanent separation of land and water; con-

sequently no progress in animal and -vegetable life beyond what is

possible in the ocean. To us, then, as sentient beings, the vol-

cano and the earthquake, viewed from a biological standpoint,

have a profound significance.

It is indeed difficult to see in what manner the student of purely

physical science is brought to a knowledge of any evidences of

intelligence in the arrangement of the Universe. The poet, in-

spired by meditating on the immeasurable abyss of space, and the

transcendent glories of the celestial orbs has declared,

“The undevout astronomer is mad,”

1 Job, xii, 13.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 493

and his saying had a certain amount of speciousness, on account

of the magnitude of the bodies and distances with which the stu-

dent of the stars is concerned. This favorite line is, however,

only an example of what an excellent writer has termed “ the un-

conscious action of volition upon credence,” and it is properly in

the correlations of the inorganic with the organic world, that we

may hope to exhibit, with clearness, the adaptations of plan pre-

figured and design executed.

In the methods and results of investigation, the mathematician

differs from both the physicist and the biologist. Unconfined like

the former, by the few simple relations by which movements in the

inorganic world are controlled, he may not only vary the form of

his analysis, almost at pleasure, making it more or less transcen-

dental in many directions, but he may introduce factors or rela-

tions, apparently inconceivable in real existences, and then inter-

pret them into results quite as real as those of the legitimate

calculus with which he is working, but lying outside of its domain.

If biology can ever be developed in such manner that its results

may be expressed in mathematical formule, it will be the pleasing

task of the future analyst, to ascertain the nature of the incon-

ceivable (or imaginary as they are termed in mathematics) quan-

tities which must be introduced when changes of form or structure

take place. Such will be analytical morphology, in its proper |

sense; but it is a science of the future, and will require for its

éalgitds a very complex algebra. °

In the observation of the habits of inferior animals, we recog-

nize many complications of action, which though directed to the

accomplishment of definite purposes, we do not entirely compre-

end. They are, in many instances, not the result of either the

experience of the individual, or the education of its parents, who

in low forms of animals frequently die before the hatching of the

offspring. These actions have been grouped together, whether

simple or complex, as directed by what we are pleased to call in-

stinct, as opposed to reason. Yet there is every gradation be-

tween the two.

Among the various races of dogs, the companions of man for

unnumbered centuries, we observe not only reasoning powers of a

rather high order, but also distinct traces of moral sentiments,

Similar to those possessed by our own race. 1 will give no exam-

ples, for many may be found in books with which you are familiar.

494 PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

Actions evincing the same mental attributes are also noticed in

wild animals, which have been tamed. You will reply, that these

qualities have been developed by human education; but not so,

there must have been a latent capacity in the brain to receive the

education, and to manifest the results by the modification of the

abits. Now it is because we are vertebrates, and the animals of

which I have spoken are vertebrates, that we understand, though

imperfectly, their mental processes, and can develop the powers

that are otherwise latent. Could we comprehend them more fully

we would find, and we do find from time to time in the progress of

our inquiries, that what was classed with instinct is really intel-

lection.

When we attempt to observe animals belonging to another sub-

kingdom, Articulata, for instance, such as bees, ants, termites,

etc., which are built upon a totally different plan of structure,

having no organ in common with ourselves, the difficulty of inter-

preting their intellectual processes, if they perform any, is still

greater. The purposes of their actions we can only. divine by

their results. But anything more exact than their knowledge of

the objects within their scope, more ingenious than their methods

for using those objects, more complex, yet well devised than their

social and political systems, it is impossible to conceive.

We are not warranted in assuming that these actions are in-

stinctive, which if performed by a vertebrate we would call rational.

Instead of concealing our ignorance under a word which thus used,

comes to mean nothing, let us rather admit the existence here

of a rational power, not only inferior to ours, but also different.

Thus proceeding, from the highest forms in each type of animal

life to the lower, and even down to the lowest, we may be pre-

pared to advance the thesis, that all animals are intelligent, in

proportion to the ability of their organization to manifest intelli-

gence to us, or to each other; that wherever there is voluntary

motion, there is intelligence :— obscure it may be, not compre-

- hended by us, but comprehended by the companions of the same

low grade of structure.

However this may be, I do not intend to discuss the subject at

present, but only wish in connection with this train of thought to

offer two suggestions.

The first is, that by pursuing different courses of investigation

in biology, we may be led to opposite results. Commencing with

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 495

the simplest forms of animal life, or with the embryo of the higher

animals, it may be very difficult to say at what point intelligence

begins to manifest itself; our attention is concentrated, therefore,

upon those functions which appear to be the result of purely me-

chanical arrangements, acted upon by external stimuli. The

animal becomes to our perception an automaton, and in fact, by

excising some of the nervous organs last developed in its growth,

we can render an adult animal an automaton, capable of perform-

ing only those habitual actions to which its brain, when in perfect

condition, had educated the muscles of voluntary motion. On the

other hand, commencing with the highest group in each type, and

going downwards, either in structural complication, or in age of

individual, it is impossible to fix the limit at which intelligence

Ceases to be apparent.

I have in this subject, as in that of tracing the past history of

~ our insects, in the first part of this address, preferred the latter

mode of investigation ; taking those things which are nearest to us

in time or structure, as a basis for the study of those more remote.

The second consideration is, since it is so difficult for us to un-

derstand the mental processes, whether rational or instinctive (I

care not by what name they are called), of beings more or less

Similar, but inferior to ourselves ; we should exercise great caution

when we have occasion to speak of the designs of One who is in-

finitely greater. Let us give no place to the crude speculations of

would-be-teleologists, who are indeed, in great part refuted already

by the progress of science, which continually exhibits to us higher

and more beautiful relations between the phenomenon of Nature

“than it hath entered into the mind of man to conceive.” Let not

our vanity lead us to believe that because God has deigned to

guide our steps a few paces on the road of truth, we are justified

in speaking as if He had taken us into intimate companionship,

and informed us of all His counsels.

If I have exposed my views on these subjects to you in an

acceptable manner, you will perceive that in minds capable of

receiving such impressions, biology can indicate the existence of

a creative or directive power, possessing attributes, some of

which resemble our own, and controlling operations which we may

feebly comprehend. Thus far Natural Theology, and no farther.

What then is the strict relation of Natural History or biology

to that great mass of learning and influence which is commonly

496 PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

called Theology ; and to that smaller mass of belief and action

which is called Religion?

Some express the relation very briefly, by saying that Science

and Religion are opposed to each other. Others again that they

have nothing in common. These expressions are true of certain

classes of minds; but the greater number of thinking and edu-

cated persons see, that though the ultimate truths taught by each

are of quite distinct nature, and can by no means come in conflict,

inasmuch as they have no point in common; yet so far as these

truths are embodied in human language, and manipulated by

human interests, they have a common dominion over the soul of

man. According to the method of their government, they may

then come into collision even as the temporal and spiritual sover-

eigns of Japan occasionally did, before the recent changes in that

country.

In answering the query above proposed, it will be necessary to

separate the essential truths of religion from the accessories of

tradition, usage, and most of all, organizations and interpreta-

tions, which have in the lapse of time gathered around the primi-

tive or revealed truth.

With the latter, the scientific man must deal/exactly like other

men, he must take it, or reject it, according to his spiritual gifts ;

but he must not, whatever be his personal views, discuss it or

assail it as a man of science, for within his domain of investiga-

tion it does not belong.

With regard to the accessories of traditions, interpretations,

etc., our answer may be clearer, when we have briefly reviewed

some recent events in what has been written about as the Conflict

of Religion and Science. Some centuries ago, great theological

disgust was produced by the announcement that the sun and not

the earth was the centre of the planetary system. A few decades

ago profound dissatisfaction was shown that the evidence of or-

ganic life on the planet was very ancient. Recently some annoy-

ance has been exhibited because human remains have been found

in situations where they ought not to have been, according to,

popularly received interpretations; and yet more recently much

apprehension has been felt at the possible derivation of man from

some inferior organism; an hypothesis framed simply because 1n

the present condition of intellectual advancement, no other can

be suggested.

PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 497

Yet all these facts, but the last, which still is an opinion, have

been accepted, after more or less bitter controversy on both sides,

and the fountain of spiritual truth remains unclouded and undi-

minished. New interpretations for the sacred texts, supposed to

be in conflict with the scientific facts, have been sought and found

without difficulty. These much feared facts have, moreover, given

some of the strongest and most convincing illustrations to modern

exhortation and religious instruction.

Thus, then, we see that the influence of Science upon Religion,

has been beneficial. Scholastic interpretations founded upon im-

perfect knowledge, or no knowledge, but mere guess, have been

replaced by sound criticism of the texts, and their exegesis in

accordance with the times and circumstances for which they were

written

It must be conceded by fair minded men of both sides that these

controversies were carried on at times with a rudeness of expres-

sion and bitterness of feeling now abhorrent to our usages. The

intellectual wars of those days partook of the brutality of physical

war, and the horrors of the latter, as you know, have been ameli-

orated only within very few years.

I fear that the unhappy spirit of contention still survives, and

that there are yet a few who fight for victory rather than for truth.

The deceptive spirit of Voltaire still buds forth occasionally ; he,

who, as you remember, disputed the organic nature of fossil shells,

because in those days of schoolmen, their occurrence on mountains

would be used by others as a proof of a universal Noachian deluge.

The power of $uch spirits is fortunately gone for any potent influ-

ence for evil, gone’with the equally obstructive influence of the

scholastics with whom they formerly contended.

Since then, there is no occasion for strict Science and pure Re-

ligion to be in conflict, how shall the peace be kept between air

By Toleration and Patience. Toleration towards those who

believe less than we do, in the hope that they, by sateen or

inheritance of æsthetic perception, will be prepa to accept

something more than Matter and Energy in the Universe, and to

believe that Vitality is not altogether undirected Colloid Chem-

istry.

Toleration also towards those who, on what we think misunder-

stood or insufficient evidence, demand more than we are prep

to admit, in the hope that they will revise additional texts which

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 32.

498 THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA.

seem to conflict, or may hereafter conflict with facts deduced from

actual study of Nature, and thus prepare their minds for the re-

ception of such truths as may be discovered, without embittered

discussions.

Patience, too, must be counselled. For much delay will ensue

before this desired result is arrived at; patience under attack, pa-

tience under misrepresentation, but never controversy.

Thus will be hastened the time, when the glorious, all sufficient

spiritual light, which though given through another race, we have

adopted as our own, shall shine with its pristine purity, freed from

the incrustations with which it has been obscured by the vanity

of partial knowledge, and the temporary contrivances of human

polity.

So, too, by freely extended scientific culture, may we hope that

the infinitely thicker and grosser superstitions and corruptions will

be removed, which greater age and more despostic governments

have accumulated around the less brilliant, though important re-

ligions of our Asiatic Aryan relatives. These accretions being

destroyed, the principal difficulty to the reception by those nations

of higher spiritual truths will be obviated, and the intelligent

Hindoo or Persian will not be tardy in recognizing in the pure life

and elevated doctrine of the sincere Christian, an addition to, and

fuller expression of religious precepts with which he is familiar.

In this manner alone may be realized the hope of the philosopher,

the dream of the poet, and the expectation of the theologian.

Universal Science, and a Universal Religion, coéperating harmo-

niously for the perfection of man and the glory of his Creator.

THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA.

BY WM. T. HORNADAY.

In the warm, placid waters of tropical streams whose banks are

bordered by reedy marshes and forests of perpetual green, is the

‘home of the crocodile. About the middle of the day numbers

may be seen lying lazily on the banks enjoying the heat, their

polished scales shining in the sunlight, and all looking the very

picture of tropical languor and repose. Its daily food is the

THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA. 499

fishes that inhabit its native element, but many a bright-plumed,

water-fowl and unsuspecting quadruped falls a prey to its rapacity.

Animals drinking at the stream’s margin or swimming across are

seized in the huge reptile’s powerful jaws, dragged under water,

drowned and devoured. The crocodile evinces a decided prefer-

ence for tainted meat, and after capturing large prey it is often

kept uneaten in the water until in a state of partial decomposition.

The males are very pugnacious and often fight desperately for

Fig. 211.

Head of Florida Crocodile.

possession of the females. Sometimes an individual is captured

whose tail is entirely gone, often the end is missing, sometimes a

leg is wholly or partly wanting. Last winter we killed an alli-

gator whose upper jaw was broken off squarely half way up to the

eyes by some long previous accident.

The female crocodile lays from twenty to thirty eggs at a time.

With her feet and nose she scoops a hole in the mud or sand on

the shore, taking care to select a slightly elevated situation, and in

this deposits her eggs in several layers, one upon another, placing

a coat of earth, reeds and grass over each layer. The heat gener-

ated by the fermentation of this mass is sufficient to hatch the

eggs in about thirty days.

While the crocodiles are distributed throughout all the southern

hemisphere, in fact in all tropical regions, their cousins, the alli-

gators, are confined to America; one species, the A. Mississip-

pensis Gray, being especially abundant in the southern United

States. It was formerly thought that the crocodile did not inhabit

Australia, but it is now known to be there in respectable numbers,

some specimens of great size having been captured. No one spe-

cies of the Crocodilide is universally distributed, but the genus

Crocodilus is widely known and has a greater range than any of its

500 THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA.

congeners. The species are often confined to certain localities,

and in a few their limits are very circumscribed.

The two American species of Crocodilus, viz., rhombifer and

acutus, were first described by Cuvier as confined to the West

Indies and South America, which view was accepted by natural-

ists for a long time. Subsequently the C. acutus has been discov-

ered in different parts of Central America, and in 1870 Professor

Jeffries Wyman described a skull from Florida as belonging to

that species. Reports are current in Florida of a true crocodile

existing there, but specimens have not been secured until very

recently. The present year has thrown more light upon the sub-

ject by the capture of two fine specimens.

My personal observations on the subject were confined to the

southeast coast of Florida, particularly the vicinity of Biscayne

Bay. While there last winter collecting for the Museum of Prof.

Ward, of Rochester, New York, I obtained sight of a reptile that

I at first supposed to be a large alligator, but which a nearer view

convinced me was a crocodile. After two unsuccessful attempts

I succeeded in killing him by lying in wait for him with my rifle,

opposite his favorite mud-wallow on the bank of the stream. It

proved to be a male,—huge, old and ugly. His tenacity of life

was surprising, and his frantic struggles in and out of water made

the fight interesting for some time. He lived for quite an hour

after six rifle-balls had been fired into his nape in the direction of

the brain. He measured fourteen feet in length, and his girth at

a point midway between fore and hind legs was five feet two

inches. His teeth were large and blunt; his head rugose and

knotty, with armor plates very large and rough, all conspiring to

give him a very ugly and savage appearance. On dissection it

was found that he had been very pugnacious, or else was a perse-

cuted and unfortunate individual. Three of his teeth were more

or less shattered; the tibia and fibula of the right hind leg had

been broken in the middle and united, also one of the metatarsal

bones of the same limb; about five inches had been bitten off the

end of his tail leaving it quite blunt, and for some reason, prob-

ably an old wound, two of the vertebre near the middle of the

tail had grown together solidly at an awkward angle

The day following the above capture (January 22, 1875) I had

the further good fortune to kill at the same spot the mate of this

crocodile, a beautiful female, measuring ten feet eight inches.

THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA. 501

There was a striking contrast between the two specimens! The

head of the female was regular in outline, comparatively smooth,

teeth white, regular and sharp, plates even in surface and contour,

and colors very marked. The entire under surface of both speci-

mens was pale yellow, shading gradually darker up the sides with

fine irregular streaks and spots of black. On the upper parts of

the female through the entire length the black and yellow mottling

was about uniform, the yellow rather predominating. The general

appearance of the female was decidedly yellowish, while the back

and tail of the male showed an almost entire absence of yellow,

the prevailing color being a leaden, lustreless black. In brightness

of color, smoothness of armor, and litheness of contour the fe-

male greatly outranked her rough and burly lord. The stomachs

of both specimens were quite empty, but in the esophagus of the

male were the torn remains of two mud-hens in a state of disgust-

ing decomposition. The ovary of the female contained four hun-

dred and twenty eggs, varying from the size of No. 8 shot to a

hen’s egg, all perfectly spherical.

The exact locality of the captures was a narrow, very deep and

crooked stream known as Arch Creek, flowing from the Everglades

into the head of Biscayne Bay. While at Biscayne I collected

abundant evidence that crocodiles, though rare, exist in various

tributaries of the Bay. On the bank of Arch Creek, I found the

skull, fifteen inches long, minus the lower jaw, of a crocodile be-

longing to the same species as the large specimens. No one could

give me any information concerning it.

I succeeded in getting the perfect skull of a small specimen

killed a few weeks before in Indian Creek, on the east side of the

bay, quite near the seashore. Its length from occiput was seven

and one-half inches. I was shown a small stuffed specimen four-

teen and one-half inches in length, captured September 26, 1874,

at the mouth of Miami River, ten miles farther down the bay. All

the above specimens were taken in water that is brackish about

half the time, being influenced by the tide. Prof. Ward has re-

cently received a crocodile (skin and skeleton) from Lake Worth,

Florida, ninety miles north of Biscayne Bay, which is of the same

species as the foregoing. ‘The skin measures nine feet ten inches.

In determining the species of these specimens I follow the late

Dr. J. E. Gray, of the British Museum, as the best recent authority,

his synopsis of recent crocodilians being the latest, most minute

502 THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA.

and comprehensive. See Trans. Zool. Soc., 1867, vi, p. 125, et

seq. Having been unable to examine the skull considered by

Prof. Wyman it is impossible to give the differences between it

and those in hand, but these latter certainly do not answer to any

description of C. acutus, which at first I supposed them to be.

The following is Dr. Gray’s description of C. acutus, and of the

genus which he calls

**Morinta.—F ace elongate ; forehead swollen, convex, especially

in the adult; orbits without any anterior ridge. Nuchal plates

two or four, small. Cervical dise rhombic, of six plates, side

plates generally small. The legs fringed with a series of trian-

gular, elongate scales. Toes webbed. Scales of the forearm and

thigh thin, smooth.”

“Muz gid oblong, et ee slender, with a swollen convexity on

the middle of the face before the e eyes. Nostril not separated by

a long ridge ; the internal nost tril posterior with an oblong sloping

opening ; inter maxillary suture produced behind between “the ends

of the maxille.

“M. AMERICANA.—Face slender, dorsal plates irregular ; the

central series small, keeled; lateral scattered, strongly keeled.

Nasal bones produced to the nostrils.”

It is necessary to give the characteristics of the genus since &

very few points are sufficient to distinguish the species of Molinia

of which there are only two. I shall now describe specimens of

which there is a series of six, varying from fourteen and one-half

Fig. 212.

Skull of Florida Crocodile. Side view.

inches to fourteen feet in length. The description refers to the

adult specimens, of which we have three.

Face elongate; forehead concave or flat; orbits without any

anterior ridge. Nuchal plates four, small; three small keeled

scales on each side of the neck between nuchal and cervical plates,

THE CROCODILE IN FLORIDA. 503

forming a row parallel to the row of nuchals, cervical disc rhom-

bic, of six plates; legs fringed with a series of elongate scales.

Toes of fore feet entirely free, the third and tourth hind toes partly

united, and a very slight membrane between second and third.

Scales of the forearm and thigh thick, and many convex or keeled.

Dorsal plates in four longitudinal series; the vertebral series reg-

ular, large, average one-third broader than long, keeled; lateral

series scattered, irregular hexagons, strongly keeled.

Muzzle elongate, broad in large specimens, with a high, swollen

and prominent convexity on the middle of the face before the

Fig. 213.

SSS

Skull ot Florida Crocodile. Un- :

der surface, showing outlin Upper surface of skuil. 1, Florida Crocodile;

of upper jaw. 2, Alligator.

eyes. Nasal bones produced dividing the edges of the nostril ;

the intermaxillary suture produced behind between the ends of the

maxillæ, the maxillary and intermaxillary bones pitted and tuber-

culated.

These specimens resemble the C. acutus and C. rhombifer Cuv.

(Molinia Americana and Palinia rhombifera of Gray) iu about an

equal number of particulars, the main point of difference from the

latter named species being the four rows of dorsal plates, of which

the rhombifer has six. In fact these specimens seem to stand be-

tween the two species just mentioned, being equally related to

each. The characters I have enumerated above seem distinctive,

504 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

and to indicate a new species for which I would propose the name

Crocodilus Floridanus, or Florida Crocodile.

We present, for general illustration, a cut of the skull of an

Alligator Mississippensis (Fig. 215) compared with the skull of a

crocodile (Fig. 214). Both are from the same locality, Biscayne,

ida. The length of the alligator to which this skull belonged

was nine feet ten inches, and that of the crocodile was ten feet

eight inches, the figure being taken from the skull of the female

here described.

I append the following measurements, in inches, of the three

largest crocodile skulls. The first is that of the male 14 feet in

length ; the second that of the female 10 feet 8 inches in length;

and the third, that of the Lake Worth specimen, 9 feet 10 inches

in length.

Wxtrome Onr of head, o . 63s 6. BR 214 22

Length of skull from occiput, . . . . . 243 1 18

Greatest width behind, = > > « r ... ] i i 10

Width of forehead before, . ..... 55 4

M oe be behind, . ne. 4 43

Breadtratnoteh, < e ke ee ee 3

" ** 10th tooth, following curve, i a if

t & 14th éé te s. i 1 Q

Nuthher of tocth aboro n wo e eae 1 1 19

= a SY OW ees eee « 1 1 15

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

GEOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN CoLor AMONG SQuiRRELS.— We

have previously, in papers by Messrs. R. Ridgway and J. A. Allen,

presented our readers with the latest views on the subject of the

geographical variation in size, proportions and color among North

American birds, and now reproduce in part a recent paper by Mr.

J. A. Allen on the same subject, particularly variations in color

as applied to the squirrels of America north of Mexico, published

in the “ Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History”

(vol. xvi, Feb. 4, 1874). This is a subject to which local col-

lectors can very largely contribute by the transmission of marked

varieties or specimens possessing any peculiarities in size, pro-

portions or color to the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cam-

bridge or to the Smithsonian Institution, where they can be stud-

ied to the best advantage, as large numbers of the commonest

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 505

species are indispensable in studying the variation of animals.

Regarding color variations we quote the following remarks :

“ First, in respect to the increase in intensity of color from the

north southward. Among the squirrels this increase is finely illus-

trated in Sciurus Hudsonius and in Tamias striatus, representatives

of which from the southern parts of New York an nnsylvania

are much more highly colored than are those from northern New

England and the British Provinces. Sciurus Carolinensis is per-

of the parallel PP. aj ermophilus tridecem-lineatus furnishes a

od illustration of the differences in occur between

by the considerably greater breadth of the light spots and stripes

in the specimens from the plains.”

oe * = + * *

“But two of the most instructive and interesting groups of the

Sciuride, in this connection, are those of which the common Sci-

urus Hudsonius, and Tamias quadrivittatus are respectively famil-

iar examples, t

continent, and the latter extending over the western half of North

Ameri tern Asia. In the Sciurus Hudsonius group, we

have at the east the well-known chickaree (S. Hudsonius), extend-

ing westward to the Plains, and northwestward to Alaska, with its

506 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

brighter and smaller southern form in the eastern Atlantic States.

the Rocky Mountains, between latitude 43° and 47°, where it be-

gins to pass by insensible stages of gradation into the so-called

Sciurus Richardsoni of the Rocky Mountains north of 45°, and

the so-called Sciwrus Fremonti of the Rocky Mountains south of

about the same parallel. In the collections made in Western Wy-

oming, near the Yellowstone Lake, occur many specimens which

forms on the other. To the southward of this district we soo

pass into the region of the typical Fremonti, and to the fava

the country about the sources of the Gros Ventres Fork of the

Snake River, is already within the range of the true Richardsoni.

The habitat of S. Richardsoni extends from the main chain of the

Rocky Mo seiner. north oi latitude 44°, to the Cascade Range. _

Here it becomes mixed with S. Douglassi, which ra differs

from S. D aadik paa aars in being a little darker above, and in

having the ventral surface more or less strongly tinged with buff,

varying in different specimens from cinereous to pure buff. This

gradual and eeg NORE In this group we have hence

four forms which, in thei treme phases of mutual divergence,

oppa as ereraad as four ome congeneric species need to, but

which, at points where their respective habitats join, pass into

onde other as gradually as do the physical ee tae? of the locali-

ties at which their extreme phases are develope

The Tamias quadrivittatus group! rikate an equally or even

more striking range of variation in color, and also varies to an

usu

are quite undistinguishable from mea s from Northeastern

Asia, o "e se alled Tamias “ Pallasi” (T. Pallasi Baird=T.

striatus ye st European authors). This form is found to only

a limited cnet south of the northern boundary of the United

anthors

1 Tamias quadrivittatus, T. Pallasi, T. Townsendi and T. d

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES. 507

pallidus nobis,—see beyond), and farther westward into the true

T. quadrivittatus of the Rocky Mountains, and still further west-

ward into the so-called T. Townsendi of the Pacific Coast. In

d in th

In the central portions of the Rocky Mountains (Colorado and

portions of New Mexico) a form is developed distinguished by its

generally bright, strong colors, but especially for the rich fulvous

tints of the sides of the body, to which there is but a slight ten-

dency either in the northern form or the pallid form of the plains.

Both, however, very gradually pass into the rufous-sided type, the

pallid form wherever the plains approach the mountains (as along

the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, the Uintah, Sierra Ne-

ing fulvous, while the darker northern form grades into the larger

fulvous race of t

tains in Montana and Ida This larger fulvous race west of the

main divide soon begins to assume a duller, more fuscous shade,

deepening finally into the very fuscous form ‘ownsendi) of

of specimens I have had the opportunity of examining in a geo-

graphical series, or arranging them simply according to their local-

ities, a most thorough and minute intergradation becomes at once

apparent. The difference in size, too, between northern and south-

ern specimens is also unusually great; the pale, southern form of

the plains, and the extremely bright, fulvous form of Colorado

and New Mexico, being very muche smaller than the northern,

s me

fuscous type of Tamias quadrivittatus occur the dark types of

Sciurus Hudsonius, and the dark-backed form of Spermophilus

plains occur pallid forms of Sciurus “ludovicanus,” Sciurus Hud-

sonius, Tamias quadrivittatus, and Spermophilus Richardsoni.

508 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

With the fulvous type of Tamias quadrivittatus occurs a rufous

of Spermophilus grammurus ; but the form of Sciurus Hudsonius

occurring over the same area, veggies the alased condition

of a minimum amount of rufo

Respecting the mammals and birds of the continent as a whole,

Mr. Allen recognizes at least five more or less well marked areas

characterized by certain peculiarities of color variation, and finds

a striking correlation between these areas and the prevalent ten-

dencies of color-increase and the amount of aqueous precipita-

“The first region we propose now to define is that of the Atlantic

Slope, which will include not only the country east of the Allegha-

nies, but a large part of the British Hobie reba extending west-

ward at least as far as Fort Simpson, and thence northward and

westward to Alaska, “ekme, apperawtly, all of that territory

north of the Alaska Mountains, with an annual rainfall through-

out the whole of this extended region of about thirty- five to forty-

sie inches. oe this region (to Which we ay give the general

kveriué or sonia A type, pienas of oitis regions beg either of a

diminished or increased intensity.

The second region will snes the Mississippi Valley, or more

properly thie Mississippi Basin, and may hence be termed the Mis-

sissippi Region. Here the annual rainfall reaches forty-five to

fifty-five inches, and over a small area ts of the Lower Missis-

ceeds si e

reaching their maximum in the li nite area of caus senator,

ut a general increase in intensity of color is also more or less

characteristic of the region. A third region embraces the central

rtion of the Ro bei t

Region. The te tendency herè again, as compared with the imme-

diately adjoining districts, is to a general increase of intensity of

color, with also a marked inclination to the development of rufous

and fulvous tints, this region being also within the influence of a

comparatively high temperature, at least in summer. The hu-

fined, the annual aqueous precipitation amounting to only about

twenty-four to thirty inches; but it is yet greatly in excess of that

of the districts immediately Sei he i

The fourth Depe e ay be regarded as made up of the arid

plains and deserts of the great central piste of the Continent,

including not uly the “Great Plains,” usually so called, but the

BOTANY. 509

deserts and plains of Utah, Nevada, Western Colorado, New Mex-

ico, Arizona and southwestward to Lower California, and may

hence be appropriately termed the Campestrian Region. The an-

nual rainfall is generally below fifteen inches, but ranges, at dif-

re e

paleness of color is the distinctive feature. The fifth region be-

gins .on, the Pacific Coast at about the 40th parallel, embracing a

comparatively narrow belt along the coast from Northern Cali-

fornia to Sitka. Its peculiarities are most strongly developed

west of the Cascade Range, north of 45°; they also prevail east-

The district between the Cascade Range and the main chain of

the Rocky Mountains presents features that may almost entitle it

to rank as a distinct region, as might also the region of maximum

rainfall in the Mississippi Region. The southern half of Florida

color. It may also be necessary eventually to recognize as

tinct districts the almost rainless portions of the Campestrian

Region.”

* * * * * *

After looking at the subject in this broad way the reader need

not feel surprised at the suppression of a good many nominal spe-

cies. In 1857 Professor Baird reduced the number of species of

Sciurus from twenty-four to ten, with two doubtful ones; Mr.

Allen now reduces them to jive, with seven geographical varieties

in addition. The number of North American species of Sciuride

in all is twenty-five.

BOTANY.

Tue Srarca or Zamrs.—-The roots of Zamia pumila yield a

large per cent. of starch. The plant grows abundantly at the

head of Biscayne Bay, Florida. I also found it, though not abun-

dantly, at New Smyrna and Cedar Keys, Florida. The soil at the

head of Biscayne Bay is full of loose pieces of limy rocks ; between

the interstices of these the plant grows; this kind of soil suits it

t. The leaves have the general appearance of ferns; its roots

are rough, of a gray color, and of the shape and size of parsnips.

Not only is it abundantly reproduced from seed, but any piece

left in the ground grows. It could be cultivated and made prof-

itable,

510 BOTANY.

The root yields two kinds of starch, white and yellow; alsoa

poisonous substance. The white starch is very nutritious and

makes excellent puddings, much nicer than sea moss, farina or

corn starch ; in fact, it is equal to any starch for domestic or man-

ufacturing purposes. The yellow starch is much lighter than the

white, and can be easily separated.

The roots yield a larger per cent. of white starch during the dry

season, when the plant is at rest; when growing it produces more

yellow starch. If used at this period a good slice is taken off

the top and bottom, containing mostly yellow starch, which is

feed to chickens and hogs. They, however, never get fat, as the

substance contains but little nourishment. If the root is used

in the dry or resting season, the very tip of the root is taken off,

and a very thin slice with the leaves.

After the roots are washed clean and deprived of the neces-

sary slice from top and bottom, they are then ground into a

pulp, mixed with water and which is passed through a screen.

This process carries off the poisonous matter as it is run off.

The yellow, being so light and not adhesive to the white starch,

is easily taken off. Both kinds dry easily in the sun. If the

water and starch remain together long, fermentation takes

place, and the two grades of starch will not separate. It is

therefore best to grind the roots quickly, draw off the water and

separate the starches promptly, as a pure white article is required

for commerce.

The Seminole Indians make but little starch for sale ; they have

not the facilities for separating and drying ; but they make a good

deal for their own use, as they are not particular about leaving

the less nutritious yellow with the white. The Indians make it

into mush, either separate or mixed with flour; they also make

bread of it, using the starch mixed with corn meal or flour. There

are several mills among the white settlers of Biscayne Bay for the

manufacture of this starch.

The seed of this plant is covered with a bright orange pulp,

which, if eaten, has a dangerous narcotic effect. The leaves of

the Zamia are the favorite food of that beautiful butterfly Zumeuws

Atala, which surpasses in beauty all other butterflies of Biscayne

Bay ; it is more numerous than any other; it is not exaggeration

to say that it equals in number all the other species of butterflies

in that region. They fly low, with a slow, measured motion,

ZOOLOGY. 511

alighting rather suddenly upon the leaves, are taken easily, as

they are not shy nor easily disturbed. - This plant is very common

in the pine woods; often in botanizing I have seen but few other

plants, consequently the Atala would be very numerous. Often

three or four occur on one plant. Their eggs, well-matured pupæ,

cocoons and caterpillars, are found upon the same plant.

This plant is commonly called Compte, and the starch goes b

that name, while the Atala butterfly is called “Compte Moth.”

The inhabitants readily recognize the caterpillars, as they an

their parent are unlike any other of the butterflies of Biscayne

Bay. Several chrysalides were placed in a box, part of them had

nearly completed their transformation, others were not so ad-

vanced. The first hatched in five days, the others in seven days.

Whether they would have hatched in that time if left upon the —

plant is more than I can tell. I noticed this insect feeding upon

the banana leaves in the gardens, but upon no other plant did it

‘seem to feed, other than its natural one, the Zamia pumila. — E.

PALMER.

ZOOLOGY.

ON AN UNDESCRIBED ORGAN IN LIMULUS, SUPPOSED TO BE RENAL

IN irs Naturr.!—In dissecting the king crab one’s attention is

directed to a large and apparently important gland, conspicuous

from its bright red color contrasting with the dark masses of the

liver and the yellowish ovary or greenish testes, and presenting

the same appearance in either sex. The glands are bilaterally

symmetrical, one situated on each side of the stomach and begin-

ning of the intestine, and each entirely separate from its fellow.

One of these glands consists of a stolon-like mass, running along

close to the great collective vein, and attached to it by irregular

bands of connective tissue, which also holds the gland in place.

From this horizontal mass, four vertical branches arise, and lie

between and next to the partitions at the base of the legs, divid-

ing the sides of the body into compartments. The posterior of

these four vertical lobes accompanies the middle hepatic vein from

its origin from the great collective vein, and is sent off opposite

the insertion of the fifth pair of feet. Half-way between the ori-

1Read at the Philadelphia Meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, held in

Nov., 1874

512 ZOOLOGY.

gin of the vein and the articulation of the foot to the body, it

turns at a right angle, the ends of the two other lobes passing a

little beyond it, and ends in a blind sac, less vertical than the

others, slightly ascending at the end, which lies just above the

insertion of the second pair of feet. The two middle lobes are

directed to the collective vein. Each lobe is flattened out some-

what and lies close to the posterior wall of the compartment in

which it is situated, as if wedged in between the wall, and the

` muscles between it and the anterior portion of the compartment.

Each lobe also accompanies the bases of the first four tegumentary

nerves. I could not by injection of the gland, make out any gen-

eral opening! into the cavity of the body or any connection with

the hepatic or great collective vein ; Uo attempts to inject the

gland from the veins failing. The four lobes certainly end in

blind sacs. The lobes are irregular in form, appearing as if

twisted and knotted, and with sheets and bands of connective tis-

sue forming the sheaths of the muscles among which the gland

lies. Each lobe, when cut across, is oval, with a yellowish interior

and a small central cavity, forming, evidently, an excretory duct.

The gland externally is of a bright brick red. The glandular

mass is quite dense, though yielding. It is singular that this con-

spicuous gland, though it must have engaged their attention, has

not been noticed by Van der Hoeven, Owen or A. Milne-Edwards

in their accounts of dissections of this animal.

When examined under a Hartnack’s No. 9 immersion lens and

Zentmayer’s B eye piece, the reddish external cortical portion

consists of closely aggregated irregularly rounded nucleated cells

of quite unequal size, and scattered about in the interstices be-

tween the cells are dark reddish masses which give color to the

gland. They are very irregular in size and form, and twenty

hours after a portion of the parenchyma was submitted to micro-

scopic examination vibrated to and fro. I am reminded in the

vibrating movements of these bodies, of Siebold’s (Anatomy of

the Invertebrates) description of similar bodies in the renal

organs of the Lamellibranchs, i.e., the gland of Bojanus. He

says in a foot-note, p. 214 (Burnett's Translation), “If the walls

of these organs are prepared in any way for microscopic examin-

1 Leydig (Naturgeschichte der Daphniden) states that several anatomists, oa

aiig ai + n CO. E 6d S YTR i au oh o glan

ZOOLOGY. 513

ation, a part of their parenchyma separates into a vesiculo-granu-

lar mass, the particles of which have a very lively dancing mo-

tion. The motions are due to portions of ciliated epithelium

adhering to the cells and granules.”

In other portions of the outer reddish part of the gland, where

the pigment (?) masses are wanting, the mass is made up of fine

granular cells, not nucleated. Other cells have a large nucleus

ed with granules and containing nucleoli.

In the yellowish, or, as we may for convenience call it, the

medullary portion, are scattered about very sparingly what are

probably the round secreting cells. The nucleus is very large and

amber colored, with a clear nucleolus; others have no nucleolus,

and the small ones are colorless.

am at a loss to think what this gland with its active secreting

cells, filled with a yellowish fluid, can be, unless it is renal in its

nature. This view is borne out by the fact of its relation with

the hepatic and great collective vein. If future examination shows

some outlet into the venous circulation, then its renal nature

would seem most probable. No other organ that can be renal in

its nature exists in Limulus. In its general position and relations

it is probably homologous with the green gland of the Decapod

Crustacea, and its homologue in the lower orders of Crustacea,

which is supposed also to be renal in its nature. It may also

possibly represent the organ of Bojanus in the Mollusca, which is

said to be renal in its function. It perhaps represents the gland-

ular portion of the segmental organs in worms. That so large

and important a gland is an embryonic gland, in adult life aborted

and disused, is not probable, nor is there any good reason for re-

garding it as analogous to the suprarenal capsule of the verte-

brates, analogues of which are said by Leydig to exist in Paludina

and Pontobdella.

Reasoning from their histological structure, and by exclusion, it |

seems not improbable that these glands are renal in their nature

and homologous with the green glands of the normal Crustacea.

They seem also homologous with the organs described by M.

A. Giard in the Rhizocephala, and said by him to be “situated on

each side of the middle part of the animal, and generally colored

yellow or red (primitive kidneys ?).” Annals and Mag. N. H.,

Nov., 1874, p. 383.

I may add that all these observations were made on living Lim-

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

514 ZOOLOGY.

ulus Polyphemus, in the laboratory of the Anderson School of

Natural History at Penikese Island, Mass.—A. S. Packarp, Jr.

Brrps BREEDING ON Penrxese Istanp.—The following birds

have been observed by me, breeding upon the island during the

summer months of July and August, 1873, and ’74.

Hirundo horreorum Wils. Barn swallow. Several nests have

been found in the barn and beneath several old sheds, and may be

called common.

Petrochelidon lunifrons Cab. Cliff swallow. One nest found on

the outside of an old shed. Rare.

Cotyle riparia Boie. Bank swallow. A small colony on the-

northwest. side of the Island in a small sand’ bank. Common or

not rare.

Passerculus Savanna Bon. Savanna sparrow. Found breeding

on the ground all over the Island. Common.

Pooecetes gramineus Bd. Grass finch, bay-winged bunting.

Several nests have been taken. Not common but may be found

more abundantly.

Melospiza melodia Bd. Song sparrow. Several nests have been

found. Not rare.

Agelaeus pheniceus Vieill. Red-winged blackbird. Nests in the

sedge grass, not very abundant, on the north shore of the larger

Island. Not rare.

Sturnella magna Vieill. Meadow lark. Breeds in the fields of

the larger Island in several places. Common.

Tyrannus Carolinensis Cuv. Kingbird, bee martin. One nest

of four eggs was found by me in the bow of an old sail boat on

the north side of the island in 1873. have seen none since.

Tringoides macularius Bon. Spotted sandpiper. A few pairs

have been found breeding along the shores and in the grass near

the shore. Common or not rare.

[ Tachycineta bicolor was found breeding on the island in the

summer of 1873, by Mr. A. S. Scott, as we are informed by Mr.

C. O. Whitman.—Ebs. ]

Sterna hirundo Wils. Wilson’s tern. Breeds abundantly all

along the shores and in the grass near the shores.

Sterna paradisea Law. Roseate tern. Breeds with the former,

but perhaps not quite so abundantly, but both breed by hundreds,

though they are fast leaving for more secure quarters.

ZOOLOGY. 515

Sterna supercilliaris Vieill. Least tern. I add this on the

authority of Mr. C. O. Whitman by whom a young bird was found,

probably bred here in former years.!

Other forms may possibly be found, though owing to the small-

ness of the island I rather doubt it.— W. STEARNS.

Prairie Mice.— Last fall, some boys out hunting, for lack of

larger game, chased some prairie mice into an old stump. With

the aid of the dog the stump was quickly demolished, exposing

the winter quarters of some eight or ten mice. Two of the little

fellows were captured alive; tied into a mitten and brought to

me. They were placed in a tin box; in the evening the box was

set on the table and the cover removed. The mice soon became

so tame that they would leave their box, play over the table and

take morsels of food from our hands; but they would never allow

us to catch them. In fact that seemed an impossibility, although

often attempted ; our hands would invariably be found empty and —

the mice sitting on the opposite side of the table coolly washing

their hands, seeming to enjoy our discomfiture. These mice had

eyes and ears much larger than those of the house mouse; the

hair on the throat, abdomen and feet, pure white. Their motions

were all exceedingly quick, they never walked but darted or

jumped from one position to another. When performing their ab-

lutions their comical appearance invariably excited laughter; one

little paw would be moistened and drawn over the ears and face, so

rapidly that it required sharp eyes to follow the motion, the other

paw alternating till a satisfactory state of cleanliness was ob-

tained. As a final touch to the toilet, the long, slender tail, was

switched through the mouth from base to tip with lightning speed.

I observed one habit in our mice that I do not remember to

have seen noticed before in any of the Muridæ. When frightened

they would make a clear, quick, rattling noise, by alternately

lifting their fore feet and vibrating them against whatever they

were resting on. Occasionally a loosely folded paper was laid on

the table for the mice to hide in; they sprung their rattle much

more frequently when on the paper than when hiding behind books

on the table; probably because they found the paper a better

medium of sound than the solid table with its cloth cover. Ina _

1 There were some twenty pair of this bird there 1: breeding

516 ZOOLOGY.

hollow log or stump, this noise probably proves an effectual means

of communicating alarm to each other. After keeping our pets

about three months they escaped from us; we never knew how or

where; the lid was pushed from the box and they were gone.—J.

M. MILLIGAN.

BEARS, ETC., IN Artzona.—In Dr. Coues article on ‘“ The

Quadrupeds of Arizona” (Am. Naruratist, vol. 1, No. 7, p. 354),

I find but two species of the Ursidæ mentioned as residents, and

one variety, U. horriæus, as extending into Mexico. While at-

tached to Lt. Wheeler’s Expedition as Naturalist in-1871, I saw

large numbers of bear skins amongst the Coyoté Apachés, then

living at Camp Apaché in Eastern Arizona.

Black skins appeared most abundant, next grizzly, and occa-

sionally that of the cinnamon bear. The latter hides were in such

bad condition that I declined trading for them, although half a

` pound of ** Army plug” would have secured one.

The Indians, as well as the officers at the Post, informed me

that bears were abundant in the Mogollon Mts., but the former

seldom attack a grizzly. Dr. Soulé, Post Surgeon, said, that

while taking a horse-back ride up the wooded banks of the Rio

del Sal one day, he suddenly came upon four large grizzly bears,

and as they did not show any disposition to leave, he suddenly re-

traced his tracks to the Post. One large bear, of the same species

also, upon another occasion had the curiosity to cross the ravine

and go about the parade ground, until fired at by the sentinels,

when he trotted off, threw himself over the precipice (on the river

side of the post) into the water, swam across and disappeared

amongst the pines.

At Bill Williams Mt., we shot one grizzly, and found numerous

tracks around the springs. Wild Turkeys were occasionally seen,

and as we approached Postal’s Ranche, about twenty miles north

of Ft. Whipple, we saw and chased several herds of Antelope.

While in the mountains we also obtained five specimens of Cervus

macrotis Say, which appeared rather abundant. There is another

mammal, the beaver (Castor Canadensis Kuhl.), quite abundant

near Camp Verde. Five miles northeast of the Post, Beaver

creek contains numerous dams, and colonies of these animals and

many pelts are annually collected, though a few years will suffice

to exterminate a race, covering so small an area, and hemmed in

by waterless deserts and rocky cañons.— W. HOFFMAN, M.D.

ZOOLOGY. 517

ALBINO Fisnes. —Two interestitig cases of albinism in fishes

have recently fallen within my observation. The first was a

specimen of the common haddock (Melanogrammus ceglefinus),

taken off Barnegat, N. J., May 7th, by the schooner ‘ White

Cloud,” of New London, and shown to me by my friend, Mr.

Blackford, of Fulton Market, New York. This fish, which was

thirty-one inches long, was normal in every particular except in

color. Its general ‘ae was APRE with a pearly _ ae

instead of the usual brownish-gray. The and top of t

head were slightly darker, men k a cag light iced

color. The black stripe which usually marks the lateral line and

the blackish-brown blotch, behind and above the pectorals—the

traditional mark of the thumb of the disciple Peter— were entirely

absent. The fins throughout were yellowish white with a tinge of

red, except the ventrals which were a shade darker. The slightest

trace of the normal ashy tint of the belly might be discovered

just below the origin of the pectorals.

The second instance is a specimen of the common eel (Anguilla

Bostoniensis) taken in salt water at Noank, Conn., in December,

1874, and presented to the U. S. National Museum, by Capt. Elihu

Potter. In this the color is a dull, pale yellow above, becoming

nearly white beneath.

According to M. Dareste albinism is not uncommon among

European eels. It appears, however, to be very exceptional in

our waters. I have never seen or heard of an instance besides

the case just cited. True albinism is especially uncommon among

the members of the family to which the haddock belongs. The

ground color of the cod and haddock varies much witk the bot-

tom on which they are taken, but I have never known of a case

in which the spots and other markings were obliterated. A fa-

miliar instance of the influence of the color of the bottom is found

in the rosy “trock-cod” of the coast of Maine, which is usually

taken in the neighborhood of ledges covered with the bright red

alge such as Ptilota serrata and Delesseria sinuosa. In a similar

manner the ‘butter-fish” (Hnneacentrus ouatalibi) and the

“ grouper” (Epinephelus fasciatus) are influenced by the white

coral-sand bottoms about the Bermuda Islands, but though they

assume a very pallid hue, the character of their markings is quite

unchanged.— G. Brown Goope, University Museum, Middletown,

onn,

518 ZOOLOGY.

[In the Fish collection of the Peabody Academy of Science

there are examples of both of the above mentioned albinos. The

haddock, agreeing with the description given by Prof. Goode, was

taken off Newburyport some years ago, and sent to the Museum

by Mr. Johnson of that place. The “white” eel was collected

under the following peculiar circumstances: During the severe

gale of Nov. 7, 1865, in Mass. Bay, a small Cyclopterus (lump

fish) and the eel were washed aboard the schooner ‘‘ Hero,” Capt.

Small, who found them on his deck after the gale and brought

them to the Museum on his arrival at Salem the next day.—F.

W. P.]

CHLORAL As A Preservative.—As it is very desirable that a

substitute for alcohol be found for the purpose of preserving spec-

imens, we copy the following from the New York ‘‘Tribune,” trust-

ing that trials of the experiment will be reported.

The “ Philadelphia American Times” contains an article by Dr.

W.W. Keen upon the anatomical, pathological, and surgical uses of

chloral, in which he recommends this substance very strongly for

the preservation of objects of comparative anatomy and natural

history. It is used by injection into the blood vessels, or by im-

mersion, and in his opinion it is likely to supersede many of the

preparations now in use. Its special advantage is that the color

of the object is preserved perfectly, and all the parts have a nat-

ural consistency, while there is nothing either poisonous or corro-

sive to affect the general health of the experimenter or to injure

instruments.

For preserving a subject for dissection, half a lb. of chloral will

suffice at a cost of a dollar or less. A solution for preserving

specimens of natural history of ten or twelve grains to the ounce

of water is quite sufficient, is much cheaper than alcohol, and the

bottles instead of being hermetically sealed are closed by glass

stoppers, or even ordinary corks. Dr. Keen has thus kept pus

from various substances, and diseased growths of various kinds of

other specimens for months, and found no change whatever in their

character. Chloral is extremely antagonistic to fungi and infuso-

ria, a very weak solution of it killing them instantly.

The deodorizing as well as the antiseptic properties of chloral

are equal in Dr. Keen’s opinion to those of any substance now

known.

ZOOLOGY. 519

EXTRAORDINARY Auriewarton OF GENERATIONS. — Leptodera

appendiculata lives in Arion ater as larva (mouth and vent closed ;

tail with two long cuticular bands). If the snail is laid in water,

or stimulated forcibly to muscular contractions, these small nema-

toids are expelled in great numbers, and rapidly develop in the

water or any slimy substance; the bands are lost, mouth, genital

orifice and vent become opened through the casting off of the en-

tire cuticle, generative elements are developed and copulation

takes place. The rapidly developing embryos do not attain the

size of the parasitic generation, want the bands, and are in other

respects unlike, but adopt the characters of the genus Rhabditis.

They do not need any change of condition for attaining sexual

maturity ; they copulate, produce a third generation, ete. In this

manner an indefinite series of generations may follow, until the

nutritive substance is exhausted, when encystation takes place.

The migration into the snail and the presumed transformation into

the Leptodera-form of these encysted Rhabditis worms, was not

observed. Between male and female individuals of the Leptodera-

and Rhabditis-generation, no copulation will take place. There is

some analogy (in spite of the great difference) between this

extraordinary ‘‘ alternation of generations” and that of Ascaris

nigrivenosa Claus. — Zoological Record for 1872.

A TACHINA PARASITE OF THE SQuasH Bue.—It appears that

the squash bug (Coreus tristis) is frequently infested by a maggot,

the larva of a Tachina fly, as numerous specimens have been taken

from the bodies of the males by Mr. Knollen, to whom we are in-

debted for specimens. The larvæ are very large, one specimen

only occurring in the body of the Coreus, which seems apparently

healthy, and performs its sexual functions in spite of the presence

of so large a parasite. They are seldom found in the Hemiptera,

though Pentatoma has been attacked by them.

Dovs_e Monsters.—M. Dareste, in reply to the discussion

which his paper on double or twin monsters (as given in a former

number) had called forth, explains the nature of the observations

on which his deductions were based. It would appear that after

submitting nearly 8,000 hens’ eggs to the process of artificial in-

cubation, he obtained nearly 4,000 anomalies or monstrosities, but

of these only about thirty were double embryos or twin monstrosi-

ties. A similar result has been observed in the case of osseous

”

520 GEOLOGY.

fishes; and Jacobi, who was the first to discover (in the course of

the last century) the mechanism of fecundation among these fishes,

had noted the proportion of twin monsters in fishes eggs. His

observations and those of Lereboullet coincide with the result

obtained by M. Dareste, that while external conditions may often

determine the formation of simple monsters, they are absolutely

without effect in regard to the evolutions of double monstrosities.

— Nature.

IMPORTATION OF USEFUL INsEcTs.— At a recent meeting of the

London Entomological Society, Mr. Dunning stated that he had

received a communication from Mr. Nottidge, of New Zealand,

asking if it were possible to send over humble-bees, in order, by

means of cross fertilization, to procure seeds from clover, which

plant remained infertile in the colony, failing suitable insect agency

to aid its fertilization. It was suggested that by procuring a suffi-

cient number of humble-bees when in a dormant condition, and

keeping them in that state (by means of ice) during the voyage,

the result might be obtained. Mr. McLachlan mentioned that he

had received a letter from Capt. Hutton, from the same colony,

stating that indigenous Aphides did not, apparently, exist there,

but imported species were becoming very destructive, and he asked

if it would be possible to import Chrysopa.— Entomologist s

Monthly Magazine, Jan., 1874.

NESTING OF THE PRAIRIE WARBLER IN New Hampsurre.—lI ob-

tained in northern New Hampshire, at the latitude of Mt. Wash-

ington (442°), a nest of the prairie warbler, containing four eggs,

which differ from all other specimens that I have ever seen. It

is also a summer resident there, though Lynn, Mass., in 423° lati-

tude, has hitherto been generally accepted as the northern limit

at which this bird breeds.—H. D. Mivor.

GEOLOGY.

ELDEN Hore, Dersysuire.— We copy the following abstract

from “ Nature” of a paper read by Mr. R. Pennington before the

Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester, Jan. 26, as of

interest in its bearing upon the formation of: similar nealied

bottomless _ in this country.

“ Near the road from Buxton to Castleton, and about four miles

from the eda place, stands Elden Hill, in the side of which is

MICROSCOPY. 521

of September, 1873. At a distance of 180 feet from the top a

landing-place was reached, although not a very secure one, as it

was inclined at an angle of about 45°. Thence a cavern ran

point to enable one to sketch or read. The party then scrambled,

or rather slipped, into the cavern for some few yards, during which

they descended a considerable distance: it was of a tunnel-like

Shape; then it suddenly expanded into a magnificent hall about

one hundred feet across and about seventy feet high. The floor of

this hall sloped like the tunnel, and like it was covered with débris.

t the lower side they were about sixty feet below their landing-

place, and therefore about two hundred and forty feet beneath the

surface. The entire roof and walls of this cavern were covered

with splendid stalagmitic deposits. From the roof were hung fine

stalactites, whilst the sides were covered with almost every conceiv-

able form of deposited carbonate of lime. In some places it was

smooth and white as marble, in other places like frosted silver,

whilst the rougher portions of the rock were clothed with all sorts

of fantastic shapes glistening with moisture. From this cavern

no opening of any length or depth was found save the one by

which the party had entered it. There can be no doubt, the au-

thor believes, that this chasm has been formed by the chemical ac-

tion of carbonic acid in water, and that it has attacked this

in the strata. There is nothing, however, in the position of Elden

ole to lead one to suppose that any stream has ever flowed

through it; no signs of such a state of things appear anywhere

any

around. It is not related to any valley or ravine, or to run-

ing water, and there is, as observed, an absence of any well-de-

fined exit for water at the om. No mechanical action of a

flowing stream can therefore have assisted the process e-

ment. The author thinks it must be due to the gradual silent

solvent properties of rain-water falling on the surface, and escap-

ing through jointings and insignificant channels in the hard rocks

below. Whether the excavation took place from above or below

is uncertain.”

MICROSCOPY.

ArmospHertc Microcrapuy.—To the already valuable contri-

butions of Drs. Cunningham and Lewis, who were sent to India

by the British government to investigate as thoroughly as possi-

ble the causes of cholera and other diseases prevalent there, there

522 MICROSCOPY.

is now added, from Calcutta, a memoir by Dr. Cunningham on

« Microscopic Examinations of Air,” which derives importance

not less from the moderate and unprejudiced tone of the author

than from his evident familiarity with the minute organisms in-

volved in the investigations. In looking for some perceptible

connection between the prevalence of certain forms of disease and

the occurrence of any particular bodies in the air, the dust accumu-

lated on shelves, etc., was avoided as too liable to error, and the

solid particles were collected directly from the air by a modification

of Dr. Maddox’ apparatus, a glass slip painted with glycerine be-

ing arranged five feet above the ground in such a manner that the

painted surface should be exposed vertically to a stream of air.

Some sixty observations were made between February and Sep-

tember, 1872, including both dry and rainy seasons; and powers

of from 400 to 1,000 were generally used. The following synopsis

of microscopic deposits found is condensed from Rev. M. J. Berk-

ley’s review in the Quart. Jour. Mic. Science.

1. Particles of silicious matter.

2. Particles of carbonaceous matter.

3. Fragments of hair and other animal substances.

4. Fragments of cellular tissue of plants.

5. Pollen grains; of several common grasses, and a few of other

plants. No seeds positively recognized.

6. Alga, few; but besides ‘those lower genera which appear

Oscillatoriæ, Desmidiacez, Closterium, and possibly Diatomacez.

7. Sporidia of lichens; frequent.

8. Spores or sporidia of fungi. These are by far the most

abundant bodies; which is more remarkable by contrast with

Ehrenberg’s observations on the dust of the trade winds. Many of

the fungoid organisms are easily referred to familiar genera, Mac-

rosporium, Cladosporium, Sporidesmium, Puccinia, etc. Much

the most common are sporidia of Spheriaceze frequently in a state

of germination, both in dry and hot seasons. True Torule do not

appear to be present, but the yeast fungus, which after proof that

it is nothing more than a condition of certain species of Penicil-

lium, Aspergillus, and Mucor, is so often referred to Torula, or to

- Algæ, frequently occurs, either in scattered particles, or branched.

Probably several of the bodies are spores of Myxogastre, the

Amæbæ which appear in certain specimens of pure rain water being

MICROSCOPY. 523

very probably the mere development of Myxogastres-spores, ac-

cording to the well known observations of Prof. DeBary. Some

spores of the higher fungi may possibly be recognized.

The air of sewers was repeatedly examined, taking care to ex-

clude the external air (a probable source of error in some previous

investigations), and only spores of Aspergillus and Penicillium

were definitely recognized, these in half the cases being accompa-

nied by Bacteria. The abundance of Bacteria, which are seldom

recognizable in common atmospheric dust, accords with Cohn’s

observation on their conveyance by watery vapor, and suggests

the theory that they are not absent or rare in common atmospheric

air, but only so dry as to lose their characteristic appearance.

They were present in pure rain water; and appeared abundantly

when dry dust was added to fluids capable of putrefaction.

The author was able to trace no connection “ between the num-

bers of bacteria, spores, etc., present in the air and the occurrence

of diarrhoea, dysentery, cholera, ague, or dengue, nor between the

presence or abundance of any special form or forms of cells and

the prevalence of any of these diseases. The abundance and va-

riety of fungus-spores in such an unexpected position are interest-

ing, especially as so many of them were in a state of germination.

ree they would rarely be taken up by the air in this condition, and

any possible germination on the slide during its twenty-four hours’

exposure would not account for all the cases, Dr. Cunningham is

inclined to believe that germination may take place while the

Spores are being wafted through the air.

Respecting the presence of pollen in the air, the editor of the

“Quart. Journal of Microscopical Science” gives the following note

on Mr. C. H. Blackley’s interesting studies on the connection be-

tween the pollen grains of grasses and hay-asthma. ‘ They were

commenced in April, and continued till the end of July. In one

series the air of a meadow at the average breathing level, 4 feet’9

with a thin layer of a non-drying liquid, was exposed horizontally.

The daily results are tabulated. The highest number of- pollen

grains obtained on a surface of a square centimeter in twenty-four

hours was 880 on June 28. Sudden diminutions in the quantity

of pollen, when these occurred in the ascending scale between May

28 and June 28, were invariably due to a fall of rain, or to this

and a fall in the temperature combined. The amount of pollen

§24 NOTES.

in the higher strata of the atmosphere was examined by means of

a kite, which being attached to other kites sometimes attained an

elevation of 1000 feet. Pollen was found to be much more largely

present at the upper levels than at the ‘ breathing level,’ in the pro-

portion, in fact, of 19 to 1. Abundant proof was obtained of the

presence of fungoid spores in large quantities in the air. In one

experimen t the spores of a cryptogam, at 1,000 feet, were so numer-

an that they could not be counted; at a rough estimate they could

not be less than 30-40,000 to the square inch. That these organ-

ized contents travel through the air to a considerable distance

was proved by a series of experiments made in the outskirts of

Manchester, but within the boundary of one of the most densely

populated parts, and in no direction within less than one-third of

a mile of grass land. The quantity of pollen was about one-tenth

of that collected in the country.”

NOTES.

THE ÅMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ‘hid ERE OF

Scrence.—The twenty-fourth meeting of the Association was

held in Detroit, Mich., beginning on Wednesday, August 11, and

ending on Tuesday night following. In attendance, the meeting

was not as large as the one preceding, about 170 members report-

ing themselves as present, in place of 225 the previous year; 96

new members were elected, while last year 118 elections were

made. The falling off in attendance is unquestionably due to the

want of arrangements with the railroads, by which the usual reduc-

tion in fares was not very generally secured, and to the late day

at which the announcement relating to railroads was made. Per-

haps in no previous year has the necessity for reduction in travel-

ling expenses, caused by the general business depression, been so

greatly felt as in the present one. As the cities inviting the As-

sociation to hold its meetings from year to year, do so in a most

cordial manner, with the anticipation of large meetings, it be-

comes an important duty of the Local Committees that are formed

every year to give the matter of transportation early attention.

Railroad companies carry on their work by a complicated system

of agencies, and it takes a long time to obtain the consent and

issue of proper orders from the right parties. The companies, aS

a rule, are inclined to grant return passes to members attending

the meetings, when the matter is properly laid before them, an

NOTES, 526

the way of attaining the desired end is by application of the Local

Committee several months in advance of the meeting, so early in

fact, as to allow the circular issued by the Committee being re-

ceived by members during the month of June, before the general

migration from places of residence takes place.

Of the 136 papers entered, 2 were read in General Session in

full, and 2 by title, 1 was given as an evening lecture, 24 were

read in Section A; 19 in the Sub-section of Chemistry; and 71

were read in Section B, including those of the Sub-section of

Geology, formed on the last day of the meeting. Of the remain-

ing 17 nothing was heard, and they were probably withdrawn by

their authors or failed to pass the Several Committees.

The general character of the papers read was certainly above

the average of many previous meetings, and the various Commit-

tees were well up to their work. The only drawback we noticed,

being that of the formation of a Geological Sub-section on the

last day, which resulted in a number of important papers being

hastily read, or passed over by title, before a small audience. We

think a great mistake is made by the Sections not agreeing on

what Sub-sections are necessary on the first day, though not neces-

sarily forming them until later in the meeting, and thus enable the

Committees to so arrange the business as to give all the papers a

fair chance. This could easily be done if members would make

it a rule to enter their papers not latet than the first day of the

meeting. We understand that the feeling in the Standing Com-

mittee was very strong in favor of giving precedence, at future

meetings, to those papers entered up to the first day, and as the

Committee is now composed of so large a permanent body, the les-

sons taught at one meeting will not be lost at the following. An

important moye was made in forming a permanent Sub-section of

Anthropology, on the principal of that of Chemistry in Section A.

This will greatly relieve the pressure for time next year in Section

B, and will undoubtedly be the means of bringing a very large

number of Archzologists and Ethnologists to the next meeting.

The new constitution was thoroughly tested at the meeting and

the business matters went on smoothly and saved much time for

scientific work. We did not hear a word of complaint among the

members in regard to the action of the present rules, and every

one was evidently satisfied that under them the Association would

move along with the least possible amount of friction. Several —

526 NOTES.

of the past presidents were present, and their advice in the Stand-

ing Committee was evidently of great benefit. As alluded to in

the closing remarks by President Hilgard, the several summer

schools, and government and state surveying expeditions and

special commissions, which are unusually numerous this year, pre-

vented a number of the formerly constant attendants from taking

part in the meeting, but as their work in the field shows what

is being done to advance science, and as the results which they

attain will, in part, naturally be brought before the next meeting,

those present at the past meeting could not complain of the ab-

sence of many who were, nevertheless, much missed.

The citizens of Detroit did all that could be expected in the

way of social entertainments, excursions, and provision for the

meetings, though it was evident, as is often the case, where the

Association goes for the first time, that they did not, in general,

fully appreciate the importance of the meeting until it had been

several days in operation. This was noticeable in the compara-

tively small attendance of citizens at the several sessions, though

it is not to be questioned that quite a number were very much in-

terested, and the seeds sown during the Association week will bear

fruit in encouragement to the few workers who have so recently

established the very promising and important “ Scientific Associa-

tion of Detroit,” and it is certainly no small object gained for the

advancement of science if the meetings of the Association thus

tend to develop the formation of local societies for scientific re-

search. While speaking thus of the citizens as a whole, it must

not be supposed that the usual warm hearted welcome and appre-

ciation, so characteristic of the west, was wanting in a number of

gentlemen and ladies of Detroit who entered with spirit into the

work and objects of the meeting. The very cordial welcome €x-

tended by Mr. Walker, on Wednesday morning, in behalf of the

citizens, and the graceful remarks of Mr. Wells at the close of

the meeting, both illustrated the interest in, and respect for, the

_ objects which the Association has in view.

The address of the retiring President, Dr. LeConte, is printed

in full in this number of the Naturaist, and we propose to give

those of the Vice Presidents in the next.

The results of the donation by Mrs. Thompson were presented

to the meeting in the form of a printed quarto volume, containing

a Monograph of Fossil Butterflies by Mr. Scudder, and was 5°

NOTES. 527

well received that the committee, who have had the matter in

charge since the donation was made at the Portland meeting, must

have felt satisfied with the performance of their duty.

As was naturally to be expected much feeling was evinced as to

the next place of meeting, and the invitations received from Nash-

ville, Philadelphia, and Buffalo were thoroughly discussed. The

selection of Buffalo we think is most judicious, as all the benefits

of the centennial year will be secured to the Association without

the extra expense to the members and the reduction of Scientific

work which the selection of Philadelphia would most likely have

occasioned. Nashville was asked to keep its invitation open, as

the feeling was very strong in favor of an early meeting there as

due the Southern members, though for the next year it was felt

that advantage should be taken of the great wave that would move

from all parts of the country towards Philadelphia, and the meet-

ing should therefore be located at some convenient point to that

city. From the former meeting at Buffalo we have every reason

to believe that the citizens will be alive to all that is expected of

them for the centennial year, and for the quarter centennial

(counting by meetings) of the Association, when the members

will again assemble under the presidency of Prof. W. B. Rogers,

of Boston, who called the Association to order at its first meeting

in 1848.

The other officers for the next meeting are C. A. Young, of

Hanover, Vice Président of Sec. A; E. S. Morse, of Salem, Vice

President of Sec. B; G. F. Barker, of Philadelphia, Chairman of

Sub-section of Chemistry ; L. H. Morgan, of Rochester, Chairman

of Sub-section of Anthropology ; T. C. Mendenhall, of Columbus,

General Secretary; F. W. Putnam, of Salem, Permanent Sec-

retary; A. W. Wright, of New Haven, Secretary of Sec. A; A.

H. Tuttle, of Columbus, Secretary of Sec. B; T. T. Bouvé, of

Boston, Treasurer. A committee was also appointed for the

purpose of obtaining the presence of as many scientists as possi-

ble at the next meeting, and another committee was appointed to

bring the formation of the Anthropological Sub-section before

those specially interested in that department. In this way it is

believed that the Association will secure a proper expression of

science for the centennial year; and we understand that many

of the citizens of Buffalo are resolved to make the meeting an

extraordinary one in several particulars.

528 BOOKS RECEIVED.

Tue President and Fellows of Harvard College voted, some

time since, to accept the fund accumulated by the Agassiz Memo-

rial Committee for the use of the Museum of Comparative Zool-

ogy. In announcing the acceptance, President Eliot wrote:

“It will be a grateful duty for the President and Fellows, in

executing the trust which h the Com mittee have laid upon them, to

of Prof. Agassiz, while et build up and enlarge the Museum of

Com tae Mg pies to the full proportions which his prophetic

zeal imagined for it. The continuous growth of the museum is

sanered n r the successful labors of the committee.”

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Om Skuringsmerker, Glacial formationen, Terrasser og Strandlinier samt ied APs fjeldets

To ig ag megtighed i Norge. By Theodor Kjerulf. IL, Sparagmitfjeldet. thristi-

The Land and Fresh Water Shells of La Salle County, Illinois. By W. W. Calkins. Chicago,

1874. seer pte te Academy of Natural Sciences, pp. 48. 8v

Catalogue of Land and Fresh Water Shells, W.W. Calkius. “Chicago, 1574. pp. 11. 8vo.

Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France. 3me Serie, 3me Tome, No.4, Paris, 1875.

Aegyptischen Denk n St. Petersburg, Helsingfors, Upsala und Copenhagen. a J.

Lieblein. Sy pane 1873. s "2. 8vo.

Enumeratio Insectorum j Aerio Fas.l. By H, Siebke, Christiania, 1874. BP

ian Tiira sig Annual Report of the Board of Managers of the Zoological Society of po istphia.

pp. 33;

Memoirs o the “Geol ogical Survey of India. Vol.i, Parts 2 & 3, and vols. ii-xi, 1, Calcutta, 8v0.

ologia Indica. Series ii-x. 1, 4to.

sam mea Geological Pur vay a gr i Vols. i-vil. 8yo.

Society Entomologique de Belgique. Serie ii. a 13. 1875. 8vo.

The Journal of the Quekett Microscopical Club, on, March, 1555. No. 28. 8vo.

The Geological gone may London, May, 1875. Vor ii, No.5. 8vo.

Tidsskrift for Populære Fremstillinger af Naturvidenskaben, Copenhagen, 1875, Vol. il, Part

Grevillea. London, 1875, No. 28. 8vo.

ree icke's Science Gossi ssip. London. 1875,

Fie d For Devoted to General N ae Se l Pitstory. Bulletin of the Potomac Side Nat-

baby Club. Charles R: Dodge, Ed. Washin. on 1875. Vol. i, No.1, pp.8, 8vo.

Circulars of Information of the Bureau of Education, Washin ar 1875. Nos. 1 and 2.

Pamphlets. 8vo.

Zoological Record for =p an G Te John Van Voorst. London.

Seventh Annual Repor TOUS, peg aa r m other p mia of the State of Missourt.

P Charles V. Riley, Somes Poteter 575. pp a

Eighth A n al Report of the Provo: lito tie sustees ns the Peabody Institute of the City of Bal-

timore. Baltimore, go . 43. Svo.

Seventeen th Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the Mercantile Library Association of

the Cit. oo gre om Biockivi, 1875. pp. 24. 8vo.

Cata rum Generis Scolia, By Henricus de Saussure and rr Sichel. Geneva,

n J rH

Bulletin de l institut National “or evots.. G neva, Is 1s i Tome XX. pp. vo.

Zeitschrift fur die Gesammten Naturwissens 4 2 Berlin, 1874. Rieke:

- VO.

~~ Mensuel de la Societe d' Acclimation. Paris, No. 11, 1874, No.1, 1875. 8vo. ile

aux des membres de la Societe, De }Utilite d'Introduire la Sericiculturea la Nouvel

Caledonie, By M.C. Raveret. Wattel.

Verhandlungen der k. k. Zoologisch Botanischen Gesselschaft in Wien. 1874. Band xxiv. PP»

O.,

The Mo pri oo Srina al. London, 1875. June. 8vo. 1873-1974.

ot tea fo joh ‘By Prinerpai Daven. . 8. the

On so i Unyutae By E. D. Cope, DD

T eB

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— OCTOBER, 1875.— No. 10.

CTCF ORWOD I~

ADDRESS

J W. DAWSON?”

Or the leaders in Natural Science, the guides and teachers of,

some of us now becoming gray, who have in the past year been

stricken by death from the roll of workers here, and have en-

tered into the unseen world, two rise before me with special

vividness on the present occasion :—Lyell, our greatest geological

thinker, the classifier of the Tertiary rocks, the summer up of the

evidence on the antiquity of man; but above all the founder of

that school of geology which explains the past changes of our

globe by those at present in progress; and Logan, the careful and

acute stratigraphist, the explorer and DER of the Lauren-

tian system, and the first to announce the presence of fossil re-

mains in those most ancient rocks. What these men did and what

dying they left undone, alike invite us to the consideration of the

present standpoint of Geological science, the results it has

achieved and the objects yet to be attained; and I propose ac-

cordingly to select a small. portion of this vast field and to offer

to you a few thoughts in relation to it, rather desultory and sug-

gestive however, than in any respect final. I shall therefore ask

your attention for a short time to the question—* What do we

know of the origin and history of life on our planet?”

This great question, confessedly accompanied with many diffical-

* Before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Detroit, 1875.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1875, by oy PEABODY ACADEMY oF

SCIENCE, in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington

A NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 34 (529)

530 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ties and still waiting for its full solution, has points of intense

interest both for the Geologist and the Biologist. In treating of

it here, it will be well, however meagre the result, to divest it of

merely speculative views, and to present as far as possible the

actual facts in our possession, and the conclusions to which they

seem to point.

“Tf,” says that greatest of uniformitarian geologists, who has.

so recently passed away, ‘‘the past duration of the earth be finite,

then the aggregate of geological epochs, however numerous, must

constitute a mere moment of the past, a mere infinitesimal portion

of eternity.” Yet to our limited vision, the origin of life fades

away in the almost illimitable depths of past time, and we are

ready to despair of ever reaching, by any process of discovery, to

its first steps of progress. At what time did life begin? In what

form did dead matter first assume or receive those mysterious

functions of growth, reproduction and sensation? Only when we

picture to ourselves an absolutely lifeless world, destitute of any

germ of life or organization, can we realize the magnitude of these

questions, and perceive how necessary it is to limit their scope if

we would hope for any satisfactory answer.

I shall here dismiss altogether that form in which these ques-

tions present themselves to the biologist, when he experiments as

to the evolution of living forms from dead liquids or solids—an

unsolved problem of spontaneous generation which might alone

occupy the whole time of this Section. Nor shall I enter on the

vast field of discussion as to modern animals and plants opened

up by Darwin and others. I shall confine myself altogether to

that historical or paleontological aspect in which life presents

itself when we study the fossil remains entombed in the sediments

of the earth’s crust, and which will enable me at least to show why

some students of fossils hesitate to give in their adhesion to any

of the current notions as to the origin of species. I may also

explain that I shall avoid, as far as possible, the use of the term

evolution, as this has recently been employed in so many senses

as to have become nearly useless for any scientific purpose, and that

when I speak of creation of species, the term is to be understood

not in the arbitrary sense forced on it by some modern writers,

but as indicating the continuous introduction of new forms of life

under definite laws, but by a power not emanating from within

themselves, nor from the inanimate nature surrounding them.

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 531

If we were to follow the guidance of those curious analogies

which present themselves when we consider the growth of the in-

dividual plant or animal from the spore or the ovum, and the de-

velopment of vegetable and animal life in geological time—analo-

gies which, however, it must be borne in mind éan have no scien-

tific value whatever, inasmuch as that similarity of conditions which

can alone give force to reasoning from analogy in matters of sci-

ence, is wholly wanting—we should expect to find in the oldest

rocks embryonic forms alone, but of course embryonic forms

suited to exist and reproduce themselves independently.

I need not say to paleontologists that this is not what we actu-

ally find in the primordial rocks. I need but to remind them of

the early and remarkable development of such forms as the Trilo-

bites, the Lingulide and the Pteropods, all of them highly com-

plex and specialized types, and remote from the embryonic stages

of the groups to which they severally belong. In the case of the

Trilobites, I need but refer to the beautiful symmetry of their parts

both transversely and longitudinally, their division into distinct

regions, the complexity of their muscular and nervous systems,

their highly complex visual organs, the superficial ornamentation

and microscopic structure of their crusts, their advanced position

among Crustaceans, indicated by their strong affinities with the

Isopods. All these characters give them an aspect far from em-

bryonic, while, as Barrande has pointed out, this advanced po-

sition of the group has its significance greatly strengthened by the

fact that in early primordial times we have to deal not with one

species but with a vast and highly differentiated group, embracing

forms of many and varied subordinate types. As we shall see,

these and other early animals may be regarded as of generalized |

types but not as embryonic. Here then meets us at the outset

the fact that in as far as the great groups of annulose and mol-

luscous animals are concerned, we can trace these back no further

than in a period in which they appear already highly advanced,

much specialized and represented by many diverse forms. Either

therefore these great groups came in on this high initial plane, or

we have scarcely reached half way back in the life history of our

planet. :

We have here, however, by this one consideration attained at

once to two great and dominant laws regulating the history of a

life. First, the law of continuity, whereby new forms come in

EREA 7"

952 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

successively, throughout geological time, though as we shall see

with periods of greater and less frequency. Secondly, the law of

specialization of types, whereby generalized forms are succeeded

by those more special, and this probably connected with the grow-

ing specialization of the inorganic world. It is this second law

which causes the parallelism between the pny of successive

species and that of the embryo.

`* But there are great masses of strata known as Lower Cambrian,

Huronian, Laurentian, which have made as yet few revelations as

to the life which may have existed at the time of their deposition.

In these rocks we know the problematical Aspidella of Billings

from Newfoundland, the worm-burrows or Scolithus-like objects

which occur in the Pre-silurian rocks of Madoc, the Hozoon Bava-

ricum of Gumbel, and the Eozoon Canadense, first made known

by Logan, in the Laurentian of Canada. The first of these names

represents a creature that may have been a mollusk, allied to Pa-

tella, or some obscure form of crustacean. The cylindrical holes

called worm-burrows, are of course quite uncertain in their refer-

ence. They may represent marine worms in no respect different

from those now swarming on our shores, or sponges, or corals, or

gea-weeds. In any case they afford little help in explaining the

teeming life of the primordial seas, and we can only hope that the

vast thickness of sediments which has afforded these few traces of

life may prove more fertile in the future. One slender beam of

light in the darkness is, however, afforded by the Eozoon Bava-

ricum of Gumbel. If truly a fossil, this creature-is closely con-

nected with the still older Hozoon of the Laurentian. It there-

fore points backward to what is to us the dawn of life, but has no 3

close link of connection with the succeeding fauna. On the other

hand Aspidella and Scolithus may be held, if obscurely, to point

forward. Thus the Huronian and early Cambrian become a pe-

riod of transition from the Protozoa of the Laurentian to the

higher marine life that succeeds—a passage to be more fully ex-

plained perhaps, and its great gaps filled by future discoveries ;

but which may, as in some later periods, be complicated with a

contemporaneous transition from oceanic to shallow-water condi-

‘tions in the localities open to exploration.

It will be observed that I take for granted the animal nature of

Eozoon. If we reject this, we stand face to face with the bare, —

bald mystery of the abrupt manifestation of the Primordial fauna,

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 533

without even so much of preparation as may be supposed to arise

from the previous appearance of Protozoa.

How then stand the facts as to the Proto-foraminifer? In an-

swering this question, we should, I think, endeavor to divest

ourselves of certain prejudices, and to give due weight to some -

probabilities and analogies which may in one way or another sway

our opinion.

First, we must be prepared to find that those old crystalline

rocks which we call Laurentian, have no real affinity with intru-

sive granites and other igneous masses, but are most nearly allied

to modern sedimentary deposits. That the original chemical char-

acter of some of these ancient sediments may have differed to

some extent from that of more modern sediments I do not doubt.

Yet it is true that the more common of them, as the gneisses, `

diorites and mica-schists, consist of precisely the same elements

which now appear in modern clays and sands, and that where local

alteration has affected more modern rocks, we see these passing

by insensible gradations into similar metamorphic beds. Farther

when the old crystalline rocks are subjected to subaerial disinte-

gration, they resolve themselves again into the most common sedi-

mentary materials.

Another consideration here is the unequal manner in which

sediments become altered according to their composition, and

to the extent to which they are permeable by heated waters

and vapors. For"this reason, contiguous beds of rock will often

‘be seen to differ very much in the degree of their alteration. |

Farther, some beds, and more especially limestones, continue to :

retain traces of organic structure long after these have perished —

from neighboring beds of different chemical composition. More

especially when, in limestone, the cavities and pores of the fossils

have been penetrated with other mineral matter, it would appear

that nothing short of actual fusion will serve to obliterate them.

Again, microscopic structures are often well preserved when the

external forms have been lost, or are completely inseparable from

the matrix, and in the present state of microscopical science there

is little danger that in such specimens any experienced microsco- _

pist will fail to perceive the diffefence between organic and crys- |

talline structures. ee

Having freed ourselves from misconceptions of these kinds, we

may next turn to certain presumptions established hy the consti-

534 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

tution of the Laurentian rocks, and the minerals contained in

The limestones of the Laurentian system are of great thickness

and of vast geographical extent. Sir W. E. Logan has traced

/ and measured three principal bands of these limestones, ranging

in thickness from 60 to 1,500 feet, and traceable continuously in

one district of Canada for more than one hundred miles, while

their actual horizontal area must be enormously greater than this

distance would indicate. These limestones are also associated

with gneissose and schistose beds, exactly in the same way in

which Paleozoic limestones are associated with sandstones and

shales; and some of them are ordinary limestones, while others

are more or less dolomitic, in which also they resemble the palæo-

zoic limestones. Every geologist knows that the beds which in

the succeeding geological periods are the representatives of these

Laurentian lintestones, are not only fossiliferous, but largely com-

posed of the débris of oceanic organisms, and that it is to the

purer and more crystalline beds that this statement most fully ap-

plies. May we not reasonably infer that the great Laurentian

limestones are of similar origin.

One feature of these beds which has sometimes received a very

different interpretation, I would here place in this connection. It

is the association of Hydrous Silicates, and especially of Serpen-

tine and Loganite, with the limestones, an association not universal

but by no means uncommon in the Laurentian, and which may

now be affirmed to occur throughout the whole series of marine

organic limestones, up to the chalky foraminiferal mud now accu-

mulating in the depths of the ocean. It is true that the silicates

found in different formations differ somewhat in composition, but

Dr. Sterry Hunt has shown that the Serpentines, Jollite, Loganite

and the various Glauconites constitute a single series, whose mem-

bers graduate into each other, and some of the modern Glauco-

nites are not essentially distinct from the most ancient Serpentine.

This association is not accidental. It arises in the first place

from the facility afforded for the combination of Silica with bases,

arising from the presence of organic matter in the sea-bottom,

and secondly from the abundance E soluble Silica in the hard —

arts of Diatoms, Radiolarians and Sponges, while these form the

chief food of animals building their own skeletons of Carbonate

of Lime, and consequently having no need of Silica. In this —

. Ca

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 535

point of view the Hydrous Silicates may be regarded as a sort of

coprolitic matter, rejected by Foraminifera and other humble ma-

rine animals having calcareous skeletons. I hold, therefore, that

the association of Serpentine and Loganite with the Laurentian

limestones affords an additional reason for regarding them as

organic, while it also explains the favorable conditions in which

Foraminifera exist for the permanent preservation of the struc-.

tures of their tests.

But again, there are vast quantities of Carbon in these lime-

stones and the associated beds. The quantity of carbon in some

large regions of the Lower Laurentian in Canada, is, as I have

elsewhere shown, comparable with that in similar thicknesses of

the Carboniferous system. But what geologist refers the carbon

of the Paleozoic rocks to any other than an organic origin. True

it is that this carbon of the Laurentian is in the state of graphite

and destitute of organic structure; but this applies to similar

material in other altered rocks, for example, to the graphitic

shales of the Silurian of Eastern Canada and to the coal of Rhode

Island.

Lastly, ought we not to attach some value to that generalization

of Dr. Sterry Hunt, which affirms that the grand ‘agent in the

reduction and solution of the Peroxide of Iron has been organic

matter. In this case what incalculable quantities of perished

carbonaceous matter must be represented by the great beds of

Magnetite in the Laurentian.

If, then, it is not unreasonable to believe that the Laurentian

limestones may be of organic origin, the next question that occurs

relates to the state of preservation jn which the remains of such

supposed organisms may occur. It would be conceivable that the

process of crystalline rearrangement of particles might have pro-

ceeded so far as entirely to obliterate all traces of organie form or

structure ; but judging from other cases of altered limestones, this

would be scarcely likely. In such limestones it is true, the fossils

are often so obscure as to make little appearance on a fresh frac-

ture of the stone, but they may present themselves distinctly on

the weathered surfaces, in consequence of some difference either

in resisting powervor hardness, between the fossil and the matrix.

In some cases also they can readily be developed by the action of —

an acid, and still more frequently their microscopic textures re-

main when the external forms are entirely concealed. There are —

536 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

few crystalline marbles, once fossiliferous, that do not exhibit in-

dications of their true nature in one or other of these ways.

It was precisely in the ways above indicated that Eozoon Cana-

dense was first brought to light. The casts of its flattened cham-

bers filled with Serpentine, Loganite or Pyroxene, project from the

weathered surfaces of the Laurentian limestones, exactly as silici-

fied Stromatopore do in the Silurian. Such specimens, collected

by the explorers of the Canadian Survey, first gave the idea that

there were fossils in these ancient rocks, and the microscope soon

confirmed the indications afforded by external form, and demon-

strated the place of the organism in the animal kingdom. `

Into the description of the forms and structures of Eozoon it

would be out of place to enter here. The details of these may be

found in publications specially devoted to its description. I would

merely insist on the entire conformity of the microscopic struc-

tures as I have myself examined and described them, and as they

have been farther scrutinized by Dr. Carpenter and others best

fitted to judge, with those of the calcareous tests of Foraminifera,

and especially of the Nummuline group, and on the harmony of

these structures with what the general considerations already re-

ferred to wold lead us to expect.

It is, however, appropriate to ourpresent subject, to inquire as

to the position of Eozoon in the scale of animal existence, and

its possible relations to preceding or succeeding types of life.

With reference to these questions, it is obvious that we can predi-

cate nothing as to the relation of our proto-foraminifers to the

varied life of the Primordial or to any other group of animals than

its own. We do not know that Eozoon was the only animal of its

time. It may be merely a creature characteristic, like some of

its successors, of certain habitats in the deep sea. Foraminifera

have existed throughout the whole of geological time; but we

have no positive evidence that any animal of this class has ever

been transmuted into anyother kind of creature. These consid-

erations oblige us to restrict our inquiries to the relation of

Eozoon to other forms of Foraminiferal life. We may the more —

excusably take this ground since even Heckel, in his gastrula

theory, has so strenuously maintained the distinctness of the Pro-

tozoa from all higher forms of life. Viewed in this way, we find

that the proto-foraminifer was the greatest of all in point of mag-

nitude, one of the most complex in regard to structure, compre,

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 537

hensive in type, as connecting the groups now recognized as the

Nummulines and the Rotalines, and if inferior in any thing only

in less definiteness of habit of growth, a character in which it is

paralleled by the sponges and other groups of higher rank. Thus

if Eozoon was really_the beginning of Foraminifers, this, like

other groups in later times, appeared at first in one of its greatest

` and best forms, and its geological history consists largely in a

gradual deposition from its high place as other and higher types

little by little took its place ; for degradation as well as elevation,

belongs to the plan of nature. Eozoon here brings under our

notice another phase of a creative law, which is Aese by

other forms of life in the succeeding periods. It i j: ew

types do not usually appear in their lowest forms, oe in some-

what high if generalized species. The fact that Foraminifera, al-

lied to Eozoon, have continued to exist ever since, introduces us

to still another, namely, that though species and individuals die,

any large group once introduced is very permanent, and may con-

tinue to be represented for the remainder of geological time.

But let us leave for the present the somewhat isolated case of

Eozoon, and the few scattered forms of the Huronian and early

Cambrian life, and go on further to the Primordial fauna. This is

graphically presented to us in the sections at St. David’s in South

Wales, as described by Hicks. Here we find a nucleus of ancient

rocks supposed to be Laurentian, though in mineral character

more nearly akin to our Huronian, but which have hitherto af-

forded no trace of fossils. Resting unconformably on these is a

_ series of partially altered rocks, regarded as Lower Cambrian, and

also destitute of organic remains. These have a thickness of al-

most 1,000 feet, and they are succeeded by 3,000 feet more of

similar rocks, still classed as Lower Cambrian, but which have

afforded fossils. The lowest bed which contains indications of

life is a red shale, perhaps a deep-sea bed, and possibly itself

organic origin, by that strange process of decomposition or dis- _

solution of foraminiferal ooze, described by Dr. Wyville Thomson

as occurring in the South Pacific. The species are two Lingulelle,

a Discina and a Leperditia. Supposing these to be all, it is re-

markable that we have no Protozoa or Corals or Echinoderms, and —

that the types of Brachiopods and Crustaceans are of compara-

tively modern affinities. Passing upward through another 1,000

feet of barren sandstone, we reach a zone in which no less than

588 ; VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

five genera of Trilobites are found, along with Pteropods and a

sponge. Thus it is that life comes in at the base of the Cambrian

in Wales, and it may be regarded as a fair specimen of the facts

as they appear in the earlier fossiliferous beds succeeding the

Laurentian. Taking the first of these groups of fossils, we may

recognize in the Leperditia an ostracod Crustacean closely allied

to forms still living in the seas and fresh waters. The Lingulelle,

whether we regard them as molluscoids, or with our colleague,

Professor Morse, as singularly specialized worms, represent a pe-

culiar and distinct type, handed down, through all the vicissitudes

of the geological ages, to the present day. Had the Primordial

life begun with species altogether inscrutable and unexampled in

‘succeeding ages, this would no doubt have been mysterious; but

next to this is the mystery of the oldest forms of life being also

among the newest. One great fact shines here with the clearness

of noon-day. Whatever the origin of these creatures, they repre-

sent families which have endured till now in the struggle for ex-

istence without either elevation or degradation. Here again we

_ may formulate another creative law. In every great group there

are some forms much more capable of long continuance than oth-

ers. Lingula among the Brachiopods is a marked instance.

But when, with Hicks, we surmount the mass of barren beds

overlying these remains, which from its unfossiliferous char-

acter is probably a somewhat rapid deposit of arctic mud, like

that which in all geological time has constituted the rough filling -

of our continental formations, and have suddenly sprung upon us

five genera of Trilobites, including the fewest-jointed and most

many-jointed, the smallest and the largest of their race, our as-

tonishment must increase, till we recognize the fact that we are

now in the presence of another great law of creation, which pro-

vides that every new type shall be Se extended to the ex-

treme limits of its power of adaptatio

Before considering these laws, gece er, let us in imagination

transfer ourselves back to the Primordial age, and suppose that,

we have in our hands a living Plutonia, recently taken from the

sea, flapping vigorously its great tail, and full of life and energy;

an animal larger and heavier than the modern king-crab of our

shores, furnished with all that complexity of external parts for

_ which the crustaceans are so remarkable, no doubt with instinets

and feelings ana modes of action as pronounced as those of its

Tt a SECS Pre ey oP ee r re ae

= = x OO ERE af

So hh see rc

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 589

modern allies, and if Woodward’s views are correct, on a higher

plane of rank than the king-crab itself, inasmuch as itis a com-

posite type connecting Limuli with Isopods. We have obviously

here in the appearance of this great crustacean, a repetition of

the facts which we met with in Eozoon; but how vast the interval

between them in geological time, and in zoological rank. Stand-

ing in the presence of this testimony, I think it is only right to

say that we possess no causal solution of the appearance of these

early forms of life; but in tracing them and their successors up-

ward through the succeeding ages, we may hope at least to reach

some expressions of the laws of their succession, in possession

of which we may return to attack the mystery of their origin.

First, it must strike every observer that there is a great same-

ness of plan throughout the whole history of marine invertebrate

life. If we turn over the pages of an illustrated text-book of

geology, or examine the cases or drawers of a collection of fossils,

we shall find extending through every succeeding formation, rep-

resentative forms of crustaceans, mollusks, corals, ete., in such a

manner as to indicate that in each successive period there has

been a reproduction of the same type with modifications; and if

the series is not continuous, this appears to be due rather to

abrupt physical changes; since sometimes where two formations

pass into each other, we find a gradual change in the fossils by

the dropping out and introduction of species one by one. Thus

in the whole of the great Palæozoic Period, both in its Fauna and

Flora, we have a continuity and similarity of a most marked

character.

It is evident that there is presented to us in this similarity of

the forms of successive faunas and floras, a phenomenon which

deserves very careful sifting as to the qestion of identity or di-

versity of species. The ‘data for its comprehension must be ob-

tained by careful study of the series of closely allied forms occur-

ring in successive formations, and our great and undisturbed

Palæozoic areas in America, as Nicholson has recently pointed out,

seem to give special facilities for this, which should be worked,

not in the direction of constituting new species for every sighily

divergent form, but in striving to group these forms into large spe

cific types. The Rhynchonellæ of the type of R. plena, the Orthide ‘

of the type of O. testudinaria, the Strophomene of the types __

of S. alternata and 8. rhomboidalis, the Atrypx of the type of A

540 VICE PRESIDENI’S ADDRESS.

reticularis, furnish cases in point among the Brachiopods. There

is nothing to preclude the supposition that some of these groups

are really specific types, with numerous race modifications. My

own provisional conclusion, based on the study of Palzeozoic plants,

is that the general law will be found to be the existence of distinct

specific types, independent of each other, but liable in geological

time to a great many modifications, which have often been re-

garded as distinct species.

While this unity of successive faune at first sight presents an

appearance of hereditary succession, it loses much of this char-

acter when we consider the number of new types introduced with-

out apparent predecessors, the necessity that there should be simi-

larity of type in successive faune on any hypothesis of a contin-

uous plan; and above all, the fact that the recurrence of repre-

sentative species or races in large proportion marks times of

decadence rather than of expansion in the types to which they

belong. To turn to another period, this is very manifest in that

singular resemblance which obtains between the modern mammals

of South America and Australia, and their immediate fossil prede-

cessors—the phenomenon being here manifestly that of decadence

of large and abundant species into a few depauperated represent-

atives. This will be found to be a very general law, elevation

being accompanied by the abrupt appearance of new types and

decadence by the apparent continuation of old species, or modifi-

cations of them.

This resemblance with difference in successive faunas also con-

nects itself very directly with the successive elevations and de-

pressions of our continental plateaus in geological time. Every

_ great Paleozoic limestone, for example, indicates a depression

with succeeding elevation. On each elevation marine animals

were driven back into the ocean, and on each depression swarmed

in over the land, reinforced by new species, either then introduced

or derived by migration from other localities. In like manner on

every depression, land plants and animals were driven in upon

insular areas, and on reélevation again spread themselves widely.

Now I think it will be found to be a law here that periods of ex-

pansion were eminently those of introduction of new specific |

types, and periods of contraction those of — and also of

continuance of old types under new varietal for

It must meee be borne in mind that all the ek types of in-

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 541

vertebrate life were early introduced, that change within these was

necessarily limited, and that elevation could take place mainly

by the introduction of the vertebrate orders. So in plants, Cryp-

togams early attained their maximum as well as Gymnosperms,

and elevation occurred in the introduction of Phenogams, an

this not piecemeal, but as we shall see in the sequel, in great force

at on i

Anais allied fact is the simultaneous appearance of like types

of life in one and the same geological period, over widely separ-

ated regions of the earth’s surface. This strikes us especially in

the comparatively simple and homogeneous life-dynasties of the

Paleozoic, when for example we find the same types of Silurian

Graptolites, Trilobites and Brachiopods appearing simultaneously

in Australia, America and Europe. Perhaps in no department is

it more impressive than in the introduction in the Devonian and

Carboniferous Ages of that grand cryptogamous and gymnosper-

mous flora which ranges from Brazil to Spitzbergen, and from Aus-

tralia to Scotland, accompanied in all by the same groups of ma-

rine invertebrates. Such facts may depend either on that long

life of specific types which gives them ample time to spread. to all

possible habitats, before their extinction, or on some general law

whereby the conditions suitable to similar types of life emerge at

one time in all parts of the World. Both causes may be influen-

tial, as the one does not exclude the other, and there is reason to

believe that both are natural facts. Should it be -ultimately

proved that species allied and representative, but distinct in origin,

come into being simultaneously everywhere, we shall arrive at one

of the laws of creation, and one probably connected with the

gradual change of the physical conditions of the world.

nother general truth, obvious from the facts which have been

already collected, is the periodicity of introduction of species.

They come in by bursts or flood-tides at particular points of time,

while these great life-waves are followed and preceded by times

of ebb in which little that is new is being produced. We labor in ~

our investigation of this matter under the disadvantage that the

modern period is evidently one of the times of pause in the crea-

tive work. Had our time been that of the early Tertiary or early

Mesozoic, our views as to the question of origin of species mighi

have been very different. It is a striking fact, and in illustration

of this, that since the glacial age no new species of mammal can

542 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

be proved to have originated on our continents, while a great num-

ber of large and conspicuous forms have disappeared. It is pos-

sible that the proximate or secondary causes of the ebb and flow

of life production may be in part at least physical, but other and

more important efficient causes may be behind these. In any case

these undulations in the history of life are in harmony with much

that we see in other departments of nature.

It results from the above and the immediately preceding state-

ment, that specific and generic. types enter on the stage in great

force and gradually taper off toward extinction. They should so

appear in the geological diagrams made to illustrate the succession

of life. This applies even to those forms of life which come in

with fewest species and under the most humble guise. Whata

remarkable swarming, for example, there must have been of Mar-

supial Mammals in the early Mesozoic, and in the Coal formation

the only known Pulmonates, four in number, belong to: as many

generic types.

I have already referred to the permanence of species in geolog-

ical time. I may now place this in connection with the law of

rapid origination and more or less continuous transmission of va-

rietal forms. I may, perhaps, best bring this before you in con-

nection with a group of species with which I am very familiar,

that which came into our seas at’ the beginning of the Glacial

age and still exists. With regard to their permanence, it can

be affirmed that the shells now elevated in Wales to 1,200, and

in Canada to 600 feet above the sea, and which lived before the

last great revolution of our continents, a period vastly remote as

compared with human history, differ in no tittle from their mod-

ern successors after thousands or tens of thousands of genera-

tions. It can also be aflirmed that the more variable species ap-

pear under precisely the same varietal forms then as now, though

these varieties have changed much in their local distribution. The

real import of these statements, which might also be made with

regard to other groups, well known to paleontologists, is of so

great significance that it can be realized only after we have

thought of the vast time and numerous changes through which —

these humble creatures have survived. I may call in evidence —

here a familiar New England animal, the common sand clam, Mya

arenaria, and its relative Mya truncata, which now inhabit together

all the northern seas; for the Pacific specimens, from Japan and

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 543

California, though differently named, are undoubtedly the same.

Mya truncata appears in Europe in the Coralline Crag, and was

followed by M. arenaria in the Red Crag. Both shells occur in the

Pleistocene of America, and their several varietal forms had al-

ready developed themselves in the Crag, and remain the same to-

day ; so that these humble mollusks, littoral in their habits, and

subjected to a great variety of conditions, have continued perhaps

for one or two thousand centuries to construct their shells pre-

cisely as at present. Nor are there any indications of a transition

between the two species. I might make similar statements with

regard to the Astartes, Buccinums and Telline of the drift, and

could illustrate them by extensive series of specimens from my

own collections.

nother curious illustration is that presented by the Tertiary

and modern faunz of some oceanic islands far separated from the

continents. In Madeira and Porto Santo, for example, according

to Lyell, we have fifty-six species of land shells in the former, and

forty-two in the latter, only twelve being common to the two,

though these islands are only thirty miles apart. Now in the Pli-

ocene strata of Madeira and Porto Santo-we find thirty-six species

‘in the former, and thirty-five in the latter, of which only eight per

cent. are extinct, and yet only eight are common to the two

islands. Further there seem to be no transitional forms connect-

ing the species, and of some of .them the same varieties existed in

the Pliocene as now. The main difference in time is the extine-

tion of some species and the introduction of others without known

connecting links, and the fact that some species, plentiful in the

Pliocene, are rare now and vice versa. All these shells differ from

those of modern Europe, but some of them are allied to Miocene

species of that continent. Here we have a case of continued ex-

istence of the same forms, and in circumstances which the more

we think of them the more do they defy all our existing theories

as to specific origins.

Perhaps some of the most remarkable facts in connection with

the permanence of varietal forms of species, are those fanina

by that magnificent flora which burst in all its majesty on t

American continent in the Cretaceous period, and still survives

among us even in some of its specific types. I say survives; for

we have but a remnant of its forms living, and comparatively little Da

that is new has probably been added since The confusion whi ich

_ vallia tenuifolia of Eastern Asia

544 | VICE PRESIDENT'S ADDRESS.

obtains as to the age of this flora, and the discussions in which

Newberry, Heer, Lesquereux and recently Mr. G. M. Dawson, have

taken part, obviously arise, as the latter has I think conclusively

shown, from the fact that this modern flora was in its earlier times

contemporary with Cretaceous animals, and survived the gradual

change from the animal life of the Cretaceous down to that of the

Eocene and even of the Miocene. In a collection of these plants

from what may be termed beds of transition from the Cretaceous

to the Tertiary, I find among other modern species two recent

ferns most curiously associated. One is the common Onoclea sen-

sibilis, found now very widely over North America, and which in

so-called Miocene times lived in Europe also. The other is Da-

a fern not now even generically

represented in North America, but still abundant on the other

side of the Pacific. These little ferns are thus probably older

than the Rocky Mountains and the Himalayas, and reach back to

a time when the Mesozoic Dinosaurs were becoming extinct and

the earliest Placental mammals being introduced. Shall we say

that these ferns and along with them our two species of American

Hazel and many other familiar plants, have propagated themselves

unchanged for half a million of years?

Take from the western Mesozoic a contrasting yet illustrative

fact. In the Jurassic or Cretaceous rocks of Queen Charlotte’s

Island, Mr. Richardson, of the Canadian Survey, finds Ammonites

and allied cephalopods similar in many respects to those discov-

ered further south by your California survey, and Mr. Whiteaves

finds that some of them are apparently not distinct from species

described by the Paleontologists of the Geological Survey of

British India. On both sides of the Pacific these shells lie en-

tombed in solid roek, and the Pacific rolls between as of yore.

Yet these species, genera and even families, are all extinct—why,

no man can tell, while land plants that must have come in while

the survivors of these cephalopods still lived, reach down to the

present. How mysterious is all this, and how strongly does it

show the independence in some sense of merely physical agencies

on the part of the manifestations of life.

Such facts ‘as those to which I have referred, and many others

which want of time prevents me from noticing, are in one respect

_ eminently unsatisfactory, for they show us how difficult must be —

_ any attempts to ‘explain the origin and succession of fife. For

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 545

` this reason they are quietly put aside or explained away in most

of the current hypotheses on the subject. But we must as men of

science face these difficulties, and be content to search for facts

and laws even if they should prove fatal to preconceived views.

A group of new laws, however, here breaks upon us. (1) The

great vitality and rapid extension and variation of new specific

types. (2) The law of spontaneous decay and mortality of spe-

cies in time. (3) The law of periodicity and of simultaneous ap-

pearance of many allied forms. (4) The abrupt entrance and

slow decay of groups of species. (5) The extremely long dura-

tion of some species in time. (6) The grand march of new forms

landwards, and upwards in rank. Such general truths deeply im-

press us at least with the conclusion that we are tracing, not a

fortuitous succession, but the action of power working by law.

I have thus far said nothing of the bearing of the prevalent

ideas of descent with modification, on this wonderful procession of

life. None of these of course can be expected to take us back to

the origiw of living beings; but they also fail to explain why so

vast numbers of highly organized species struggle into existence

simultaneously in one age and disappear in another, why no con-

tinuous chain of succession in time can be found gradually blend-

ing species into each other, and why in the natural succession of

things, degradation under the influence of external conditions and

final extinction seem to be, laws of organic existence.- It is use-

less here to appeal to the imperfection of the record or to the

movements or migrations of species. The record is now in many

important parts too complete, and the simultaneousness of the

entrance of the faunas and floras too certainly established, and

moving species from place to place only evades the difficulty. The

truth is that such hypotheses are at present premature, and that

we require to have larger collections of facts. Independently of

this, however, it appears to me that from a philosophical point of

view it is extremely probable that all theories of evolution as at

present applied to life, are fundamentally defective in being too

partial in their character; and perhaps I cannot better group the

remainder of the facts to which I wish to refer than by using them

to illustrate this feature of most of our larger attempts at generali-

zation on this subject.

First, then, these hypotheses are too partial, in their tendency

to refer numerous and complex phenomena to one cause, or to a

. AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX.

546 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

few causes only, when all trustworthy analogy would indicate that

_ they must result from many concurrent forces and determinations

of force. We have all no doubt read those ingenious, not to say

amusing, speculations in which some entomologists and botanists

have indulged with reference to the mutual relations of flowers

and haustellate insects. Geologically the facts oblige us to begin

with Cryptegamous plants and mandibulate insects, and out of

the desire of insects for non-existent honey, and the adaptations of

plants to the requirements of non-existent suctorial apparatus, we

have to evolve the marvellous complexity of floral form and color-

ing, and the exquisitely delicate apparatus of the mouths of haus-

tellate insects. Now when it is borne in mind that this theory

implies a mental confusion on our: part precisely similar to that

which in the department of mechanics actuates the seekers for

perpetual motion, that. we have not the smallest tittle of evidence

that the changes required have actually occurred in any one case,

and that the thousands of other structures and relations of the

plant and the insect have to be worked out by a series ef concur-

rent evolutions so complex and absolutely incalculable in the

aggregate, that the cycles and epicycles of the Ptolemaic astron-

omy were child’s play in comparison, we need not wonder that the

common sense of mankind revolts against such fancies, and that

we are accused of attempting to construct the universe by meth-

ods that would baffle Omnipotence itself, because they are simply

absurd. In this aspect of them indeed such speculations are

necessarily futile, because no mind can grasp all the complexities

of even any one case, and it is useless to follow out an imaginary

line of development which unexplained facts must contradict at

every step. This is also no doubt the reason why all recent at-

tempts at constructing “ Phylogenies” are so changeable, and why

no two experts can agree about almost any of them.

A second aspect in which such speculations are too partial, is in

the unwarranted use which they make of analogy. It is not un-

usual to find such analogies as that between the embryonic devel-

opment of the individual animal and the succession of animals in

geological time placed on a level with that reasoning from anal-

ogy by which geologists apply modern causes to explain geological

formations. No claim could be more unfounded. When the ge-

ologist studies ancient limestones built up of the remains of corals,

and then applies the phenomena of modern coral reefs to explain

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 547

their origin, he brings the latter to bear on the former by an anal-

ogy which includes not merely the apparent results but the causes

at work, and the conditions of their action, and it is on this that the

validity of his comparison depends, in so far as it relates’ to simi-

larity of mode of formation. But when we compare the develop-

ment of an animal from an embryo cell with the progress of

animals in time, though we have a curious analogy as to the steps

of the process, the conditions and causes at work are known to be

altogether dissimilar, and therefore we have no evidence whatever

as to identity of cause, and our reasoning becomes at once the

most transparent of fallacies. Farther we have no right here to

overlook the fact that the conditions of the embryo are determined

by those of a previous adult, and that no sooner does this hered-

itary potentiality produce a new adult animal, than the terrible

external agencies of the physical world, in presence of which all

life exists, begin to tell on the organism, and after a struggle of

longer or shorter duration it succumbs to death and its substance

returns into inorganic nature, a law from which even the longer

life of the species does not seem to exempt it. All this is so plain

and manifest that it is extraordinary that evolutionists will con-

tinue to use such partial and imperfect arguments. Another illus- ,

tration may be taken from that application of the doctrine of

natural selection to explain the introduction of species in geologi-

cal time, which is so elaborately discussed by Sir C. Lyell in the

last edition of his “ Principles of Geology.” The great geologist

evidently leans strongly to the theory, and claims for it the “‘ high-

est degree of probability,” yet he perceives that there is a serious

gap in it; since no modern fact has ever proved the origin of a

new species by modification. Such a gap, if it existed in those

grand analogies by which we explain geological formations through ;

modern causes, would be admitted to be fatal.

A third illustration of the partial character of these hypotheses

may be taken from the use made of the theory deduced from

modern physical discoveries, that life must be merely a product of .

the continuous operation of physical laws. The assumption, for

it is nothing more, that the phenomena of life are produced merely

by some arrangement of physical forces, even if it be admitted to

be true, gives only a partial explanation of the possible origin of

life. It does not account for the fact that life as a force or com-

bination of forces is set in antagonism to all other forces. It

548 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

does not account for the marvellous connection of life with or-

ganization. It does not account for the determination and ar-

rangement of forces implied in life. A very simple illustration

may make this plain. If the problem to be solved were the origin

of the mariner’s compass, one might assert that it is wholly a

physical arrangement both as to matter and force. Another

might assert that it involves mind and intelligence in addition.

In some sense both would be right. The properties of magnetic

force and of iron or steel are purely physical, and it might even

be within the bounds of possibility that somewhere in the uni-

verse a mass of natural loadstone may have been so balanced

as to swing in harmony with the earth’s magnetism. Yet we

would surely be regarded as very credulous if we could be induced

to believe that the mariner’s compass has originated in that way.

This argument applies with a thousand fold greater force to the

origin of life, which involves even in its simplest forms so many

more adjustments of force and so much more complex machinery.

Fourthly, these hypotheses are partial, inasmuch as they fail to

account for the vastly varied and correlated interdependencies of

natural things and forces, and for the unity of plan which per-

vades the whole. These can be explained only by taking into the

account another element from without. Even when it professes

to admit the existence of a God, the evolutionist reasoning of our

day contents itself altogether with the physical or visible universe,

and leaves entirely out of sight the power of the unseen and

spiritual, as if this were something with which science has nothing

to do, but which belongs only to imagination or sentiment. So

much has this been the case, that when recently a few physicists

and naturalists have turned to this aspect of the case, they have

seemed to be teaching new and startling truths, though only re-

viving some of the oldest and most permanent ideas of our race.

From the dawn of human thought, it has been the conclusion alike

of philosophers, theologians and the common sense of mankind,

that the seen can be explained only by reference to the unseen,

and that any merely physical theory of the world is necessarily

partial. This, too, is the position of our sacred Scriptures, and

is broadly stated in their opening verse, and indeed it lies alike at

the basis of all true religion and all sound philosophy, for it must

necessarily be that “ the things that are seen are temporal, the

things that are unseen, eternal.” With reference to the prim

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 549

aggregation of energy in the visible universe, with reference to

the introduction of life, with reference to the soul of man, with

reference to the heavenly gifts of genius and prophecy, with ref-

erence to the introduction of the Saviour himself into the world,

and with reference to the spiritual gifts and graces of God’s peo-

ple, all these spring not from sporadic acts of intervention, but

from the continuous action of God and the unseen world, and this

we must never forget is the true ideal of creation in Scripture and

in sound theology.. Only in such exceptional and little influential

philosophies as that of Democritus, and in the speculations of a

few men carried off their balance by the brilliant physical discov-

eries of our age, has this necessarily partial and imperfect view

been adopted. Never indeed was its imperfection more clear than

in the light of modern science.

Geology, by tracing back all present things to their origin, was

the first science to establish on a basis of observed facts the ne-

cessity of a beginning and end of the world. But even physical

science now teaches us that the visible universe is a vast machine

for the dissipation of energy; that the processes going on in it

must have had a beginning in time, and that all things tend toa

final and helpless equilibrium. This necessity implies an unseen

power, an invisible universe, in which the visible universe must

have originated and to which its energy is ever returning. The

hiatus between the seen and the unseen may be bridged over by

the conceptions of atomic vortices of force, and by the universal

and continuous ether; but whether or not, it has become clear

that the conception of the unseen as existing has become neces-

sary to our belief in the possible existence of the physical universe

itself, even without taking life into the account.

It is in the domain of life, however, that this necessity becomes

most apparent; and it is in the plant that we first clearly perceive

a visible testimony to that unseen which is the counterpart of the

seen. Life in the plant opposes the outward rush of force in our

system, arrests a part of it on its way, fixes it as potential energy,

and thus, forming a mere eddy, so to speak, in the process of dis-

sipation of energy, it accumulates that on which animal life and

man himself may subsist, and assert for a time supremacy over the

seen and temporal on behalf of the unseen and eternal. I say,

for a time, because life is, in the visible universe, as at present

‘constituted, but a temporary exception, introduced from that un-

550 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

seen world where it is no longer the exception but the eternal

rule. In a still higher sense then than that in which matter and

force testify to a Creator, organization and life, whether in the

plant, the animal or man, bear the same testimony, and exist as

outposts put forth in the succession of ages from that higher

heaven that surrounds the visible universe. In them, too, Al-

mighty power is no doubt conditioned or limited by law, yet they

bear more distinctly upon them the impress of their Maker, and,

while all explanations of the physical universe which refuse to

recognize its spiritual and unseen origin, must necessarily be par-

tial and in the end: incomprehensible, this destiny falls more

quickly and surely on the attempt to account for life and its suc-

cession on merely materialistic principles.

Here, again, however I must remind you that creation, as main-

tained against such materialistic evolution, whether by theology,

philosophy or Holy Scripture, is necessarily a continuous, nay, an

eternal influence, not an intervention of disconnected acts. It is

the true continuity, which includes and binds together all other

continuity.

It is here that natural science meets with theology, not as an

antagonist, but as a friend and ally in its time of greatest need ;

and I must here record my belief that neither men of science nor

theologians have a right to separate what God in Holy Scripture

has joined together, or to build up a wall between nature and re-

igion, and write upon it “ no thoroughfare.” The science that

does this must be impotent to explain nature and without hold on

the higher sentiments of man. The theology that does this must

sink into mere superstition.

In conclusion, can we formulate a few of the general laws, or

perhaps I had better call them the general conclusions respecting

life, in which all Palzontologists may agree. Perhaps it is not

possible to do this at present satisfactorily, but the attempt may

do no harm. We may, then, I think, make the following affirma-

tions :—

1. The existence of life and organization on the earth is not

eternal, or even coeval with the beginning of the physical universe,

but may possibly date from Laurentian or immediately pre-Lau-

-rentian times.

2. The introduction of new species of animals and plants has

_ been a continuous process, not necessarily in the sense of deriva-

-VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 551

tion of one species from another, but in the higher sense of the

continued operation of the cause or causes which introduced life

at first. This, as already stated, I take to be the true theological

or Scriptural as well as scientific idea of what we ordinarily an

somewhat loosely term creation.

3. Though thus continuous, the process has not been uniform ;

but periods of rapid production of species have alternated with

others in which many disappeared and few were introduced. This

may have been an effect of physical cycles reacting on the pro-

gress of life.

4. Species like individuals have greater energy and vitality in.

their younger stages, and rapidly assume all their varietal forms,

and extend themselves as widely as external circumstances will

permit. Like individuals,also, they have their periods of old age

and decay, though the life of some species has been of enormous

duration in comparison with that of others; the difference appear-

ing to be connected with degrees of adaptation to different condi-

tions of life.

5. Many allied species, ‘constituting groups of animals and

lants, have made their appearance at once in various parts of the

earth, and these groups have obeyed the same laws with the indi-

vidual and the species in culminating rapidly, and then slowly

diminishing, though a large group once introduced has rarely dis-

appeared altogether.

6. Groups of species, as genera and orders, do not usually begin

with their highest or lowest forms, but with intermediate and gen-

eralized types, and they show a capacity for both elevation and

degradation in their subsequent history.

7. The history of life presents a progress from the lower to the

higher, and from the simpler to the more complex, and from the

more generalized to the more specialized. In this progress new

types are imtroduced and take the place of the older ones, which

sink to a relatively subordinate place and become thus degraded.

But the physical and organic changes have been so correlated and

adjusted that life has not only always maintained its existence,

but has been enabled to assume more complex forms, and that.

older forms have been made to prepare the way for newer, so that | ss

there has been on the whole a steady elevation - culminating in

man himself. Elevation and specialization have, however, been

secured at the expense of vital energy and range of TEET

Dog VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

until the new element of a rational and inventive nature was in-

troduced in the case of man.

9. In regard to the larger and more distinct types, we cannot

find evidence that they have, in their introduction, been preceded

by similar forms connecting them with previous groups ; but there

is reason to believe that many supposed representative species in

successive formations are really only races or varieties.

10. In so far as we can trace their history, specific types are

permanent in their characters from their introduction to their ex-

tinction, and their earlier varietal forms are similar to their later

ones.

11. Paleontology furnishes no direct evidence, perhaps never

can furnish any, as to the actual transformation of one species

into another, or as to the actual circumstances of creation of a

species, but the drift of its testimony is to show that species come

in per saltum, rather than by any slow and gradual process.

12. The origin and history of life cannot, any more than the

origin and determination of matter and force, be explained on

_ purely material grounds, but involve the consideration of power

referable to the unseen and spiritual world.

Different minds may state these principles in different ways, but

I believe that in so far as paleeontology is concerned, in substance

they must hold good, at least as steps to higher truths. And now

allow me to say that we should be thankful that it is given to us

to deal with so great questions, and that in doing so, deep humil-

ity, earnest seeking for truth, patient collection of all facts, self-

denying abstinence from hasty generalizations, forbearance and

generous estimation with regard to our fellow-laborers, and reli-

ance on that divine Spirit which has breathed into us our intelli-

gent life, and is the source of all true wisdom, are the qualities

which best become us. While thanking you for the honor which

you have done me in inviting me to deliver this address, and in

conveying to you the kindly regards and good wishes of all your

fellow-workers in the Canadian Dominion, allow me to express the

fervent hope that we all may be one in our patient and earnest

search for the truth.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

; _—wHe—

VIII. THE TUNICATA.

Lire the Polyzoa and Brachiopods; the Ascidians may be said

to be worms in disguise. The singular test easily confounded

with the mantle of mollusks, the excurrent and incurrent orifices

like those of the clam, led naturalists to regard them as low shell-

less mollusks, but the structure of more important organs, and

the mode of development of these animals, so unlike that of mol-

lusks, has led some of our leading naturalists to decide that they

should be placed among the worms.

One of the most important characters indicating the true affini-

ties of the ascidians, is the pharynx, a sieve-like prolongation of

the digestive canal, resembling that of Balanoglossus. The ner-

vous system, like that of many low worms consists of a single

ganglion, and not a chain of them surrounding the cesophagus as

in the mollusks. In the tad-pole like Appendicularia, which re-

sembles the larval ascidians, there is a chain of caudal ganglia

from ten to eighteen in number, united by means of a nerve sent

out from the ganglion in the head. Moreover the heart is a sim-

ple tube like that of some articulates. Besides the vermian char-

acters there are some remarkable larval organs which suggest an-

affinity with Amphioxus and the lower vertebrates. It would thus

seem that except in the more secondary external, superficial char-

acters there is no good reason for the prevalent Fig. 216.

opinion that ascidians are mollusks.

At first sight the typical ascidians look like any-

thing but worms. Fig. 216 (from Verrill’s Report)

represents Molgula Manhattensis of the natural

size. It looks like a double-necked bottle when

the two orifices are thrust out. The viscera are

enclosed by a thick test or tunic, whence the name

of the class, Tunicata. This test is rendered

tough and dense by the presence of cellulose, a substance secreted

usually by vegetable cells, and very rarely found in animals.

There are two orifices, the most anterior corresponding to the |

(553)

Molgula.

554 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

mouth, and the posterior leading into the anus. The alimentary.

canal is much bent on itself. The opening of the pharynx is sur-

rounded by a fringe of tentacles, arising from the peritoneum or

lining membrane next to the outer test. The capacious pharynx

is perforated with slits, and serves as a respiratory cavity compar-

able with that of the worm, Balanoglossus. At the bottom of this

respiratory sac opens the true mouth, which communicates by an

cesophagus with the stomach, while the intestine is twisted so that

the anus opens near but posterior to the mouth. There is a ner-

' vous ganglion on the dorsal side of the body situated at a point

between the two external orifices, sending threads to the two

openings in the test and the pharynx. The heart is a short tube

open at both ends. Its action may be beautifully seen in the

transparent Perophora of our coast. The current of blood is

momentarily reversed, so that each end becomes, as Huxley re-

marks, ‘‘ alternately arterial and venous.”

Such in general terms is the structure of a typical simple

ascidian as well as the compound ascidians, and the Pyrosoma

and Salpa. The aberrant Appendicularia is, as has been observed,

_ provided with a tail, and resembles the tailed young of the onan

ascidians.

_ The ascidians are, for the most part, hermaphrodites, the ovary

and testis being lodged in the same individual.

Development. While Milne-Edwards discovered that the larvæ

of certain ascidians were tad-pole like, Kowalevsky, in 1866,

studied the development of the ascidians and threw a flood of

light on their history. The following account is an abstract of

his classic memoir. The early stages of most ascidians is typified

by the mode of growth of Phallusia mamillata Cuv., while the

mode of. growth from the free swimming larval period to the adult

was traced in Ascidia intestinalis. Kowalevsky’s discoveries were _

confirmed by Kupffer and others, while exceptional modes of de-

velopment were pointed out by Lacaze-Duthiers and also Kupffer,

who found that the larve of Molgula have no tail.

While some ascidians, such as Perophora, increase by budding,

creeping by stolons along the fronds of sea-weeds, the common

method of reproduction is by eggs and sperm cells. The eggs of

Phallusia and the ascidians consist of a yolk, not protected by a

yolk-skin, but surrounded by a layer of jelly containing yellow”

cells.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 555

After fertilization by the sperm cells, which enter the substance

of the egg tail foremost, the yolk undergoes total segmentation.

The next step is the invagination of the ectoderm, a true Gastrula

state resulting. Fig. 217, A (after Kowalevsky), represents the

Gastrula; h, the primitive digestive cavity ; a, the primitive open-

ing, which soon closes ; and c, the segmentation-cavity or primitive

body-cavity. After this primitive opening (a) is lost to view,

sometime before the embryo has reached the stage B, another

cavity (n) appears with an external opening. This cavity is

Fig. 217.

Embryo Ascidian.

formed by a union of two ridges which grow out from the upper

part of the germ. This is the central nervous system, and in the

cavity are subsequently developed the sense-organs. We thus

see, says Kowalevsky, a complete analogy in the mode of origin

of the nervous system of the ascidians to that of the vertebrates,

the nervous cavity, where the embryo is seen in section, being

situated above the digestive cavity in both types of animals.

The next important stage is the formation of the tail. The pear-

shaped germ elongates and contracts posteriorly until of the form in-

‘dicated at Fig. 217, B (i, pharynx ; ¢, epithelium forming the body-

wall). At this period appears the axial string of nucleated cells, —

called the chorda dorsalis, as it is homologous with that organ in

. system consists of a mass of cells extending halfway into the

tail and directly overlying the chorda, but extending far beyond

_the end of the latter as seen in the figure. The nerve-cavity (B, n)

after closing up forms the nerve-vesicle, a large cavity (Fig. 218, a)

in which the supposed auditory organ (e) and the supposed eye (a)

arise ; this cavity finally closes, and the sense-organs are indicated

556 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

by the small masses of pigment cells in the fully grown ascidian

As the embryo matures, the first change observed in the cord is

the appearance of small, highly refractive bodies between the cells.

Between the neighboring cells soon appear in the middle minute

highly refractive corpuscles which increase in size, and press the

Fig. 218.

Veg

v1)

Wales

peee a aa a a

aseeenn

canoe

-_~ oe,

8. i =

s_} ae i ` i

EN A

RQ’ by

SY, 4

oe ae

Larval pene

cell-contents out of the middle of

the cord. After each reproduc-

tive corpuscle grows so that the

central substance of the cell is

forced out, it unites with the oth-

ers, and then arises in the mid-

dle of the simple cellular cord a

string of bodies of a firm gelati-

nous substance which forms the

support of the tail. After this co-

alescence the substance develops

farther and presses out the pro-

_toplasm of the cells entirely to

the periphery. The cord when

by a cellular sheath which is

formed of the remains of the

cells originally comprising the

rudimentary cord. The cells ly-

ing under the epithelial layer

form a muscular sheath of which

the cord (Fig. 218, c) is the sup-

port or skeleton.

The alimentary cavity arises

from the primitive cavity (Fig.

217, A, k) ; whether the primitive

opening (Fig. 217, A, a) is closed

or not, Kowalevsky says is an

interesting question. According to analogy with many other ani-

mals it probably closes. In Sagitta, Amphioxus, Phoronix, Lim-

nus, Echinus and others, we know peg the e which remains

after the first invagination becomes the anus.

“The larva hatches in from ADEN a sixty hours after the

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 557

beginning of segmentation, and is then of the form indicated by

Fig. 218 (copied with some additions and omissions from Kupffer’s

figure, being partly diagrammatic). This anatomist discovered

in the larva of Ascidia canina, which is more transparent than

Kowalevsky’s Phallusia larva, not only a central nervoùs cord

overlying the chorda dorsalis and extending well into the tail,

while in the body of the larva it becomes broader, club-shape

and surrounds the sensitive cavity (a), but he also detected three

pairs of spinal nerves (s) arising at regular intervals from the

spinal cord (h, h’) and distributed to the muscles (not represented

in the figure) of the tail; Kupffer calls f the middle and g the

lower brain-ganglion. The pharynx (b), or respiratory sac, is now

very large ; it opens posteriorly into the stomach and intestine (i) ;

æ represents one of the three appendages by which the larva

fastens itself to some object when about to change into the adult,

sessile condition; ¢ indicates the body-wall consisting of epi-

thelial cells.

We will now, from the facts afforded us by Kowalevsky, trace

the changes from the larval, free-swimming state to the sessile

adult Ascidia, which may be observed on the New England coast

in August. After the larva fastens itself by the three processes

to some object, the chorda dorsalis breaks and bends, the cells

forming the sheath surrounding the broken axial cord, The mus-

cular fibres degenerate into round cells and fill the space between

the chorda and the tegument, the jelly-like substance forming a

series of wrinkles. With the contraction and disappearance of

the tail begins that of the nerve-vesicle, and soon no cavity is

left. The three processes disappear; the pharynx becomes quad-

rangular ; and the stomach and intestine are developed, being bent

under the intestine. A heap of cells arises on the anterior end be- .

neath the digestive tract, from which originate the heart and peri-

cardium. In a more advanced stage two gill-holes appear in the ~

pharynx, and subsequently two more slits, and at about this time

the ovary and testis appear at the bottom, beyond the bend of the

alimentary canal. The free cells in the body-cavity are trans-

formed into blood cells, and indeed the greater part of those which

composed the nervous system of the larva are transformed into

blood corpuscles. Of the embryonal nervous system there re-

mains a yery small ganglion, no new one being formed. The

558 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

adult ascidian form meanwhile has been attained and the very

small individuals differ for the most part only in size from those

- which are full-sized and mature.

It will be seen that some highly important features, recalling

vertebrate characteristics, have occurred at different periods in the

life of the embryo ascidian. Kowalevsky remarks that “the

first indication of the germ, the direct passage of the segmenta-

tion cells into the cells of the embryo, the formation of the seg-

mentation cavity, the conversion of this cavity into the body

cavity, and the formation of the digestive cavity through invag-

ination— these are all occurrences which are common to many

animals and have been observed in Amphioxus, Sagitta, Phoronis,

Echinus, etc. The first point of difference from other animals in

the development of all vertebrates is seen in the formation of the

dorsal ridges and their closing to form a nerve-canal. This mode

of formation of the nervous system is characteristic of the verte-

brates alone, except the Ascidians. Another primary character

allying the Ascidians to the vertebrates, is the presence of a

chorda dorsalis, first seen in the adult Appendicularia by J.

Miller. This organ is regarded by Kowalevsky to be functionally,

as well as genetically, identical with that of Amphioxus. This

was a startling conclusion, and stimulated Professor Kupffer of

Kiel to study the embryology of the ascidians anew. He did so, and

the results this careful observer obtained, led him to fully endorse

the conclusions reached by Kowalevsky, particularly those regard-

ing the unexpected relations of the ascidians to the vertebrates,

and it would appear from the facts set forth by these eminent ob-

servers, as well as Metschnikoff, Ganin, Ussow and others, that the

vertebrates have probably descended from.some type of worm re-

sembling larval ascidians more perhaps than any other vermian

type, though it is to be remembered that certain tailed larval Dis-

tome appear to possess an organ resembling a chorda dorsalis,

and farther investigation on other types of worms may lead to

discoveries throwing more light on this intricate subject of the

ancestry of the vertebrates. At any rate, it is among the lower

worms, if anywhere, that we are to look for the ancestors of

the vertebrates, as the Coelenterates, Echinoderms, the Mollusks,

Crustacea and Insects, are too circumscribed and specialized

groups to afford any but characters of analogy rather than affinity. |

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 559

For example, the cuttle fish, with its ‘‘bone” and highly devel-

oped eye, is far more remote from the lowest fish, Amphioxus, than

the Appendicularia or larval Ascidia.

Not all Ascidians have tailed larve; three species of Molgula

have been found to have no tailed young and to attain maturity

by direct growth. The young have five temporary, long, slender

processes. Now as in other types of animals, as we have already

seen, some forms have a metamorphosis and others attain the

adult condition by direct growth. Professor Kupffer tells us that

in Ascidia ampulloides, as observed by Van Beneden, the young

has a tail, a chorda dorsalis and pigment spots, which are want-

ing in the’ young of several species of Molgula, but it has the

five long, deciduous appendages: o Fig. 219.

served in young Molgule. Among the

compound Ascidians, Botryllus and Bo-

trylloides have tailed young, while in

other forms there is no metamorphosis.

Besides the normal mode of reproduc-

tion, from eggs, it was discovered by

Chamisso, in 1819, that the singular

Salpa reproduced by budding; that in

other words there was an alternation of

generations, there being a sexual, soli-

tary individual which gives rise by bud-

ding to chains, or aggregations of simple

individuals, which reproduce by eggs.

The startling announcement of the poet-

naturalist, “ that a Salpa mother is not

like its daughter or its own mother, but

resembles its sister, its granddaughter and its grandmother,” was

combated at first, but stated to be true by Sars, Krohn and

others.

Our Salpa Cubotii! can be found in great numbers floating on

Salpa Cabotti Des.

the surface of the ocean on the southern coast of New England, |

and any one can study the solitary and social, or aggregated in- _

dividuals, and satisfy himself of the truth of Chamisso’ s SEEE

1 e ga Rat Ap ERE T ASEEN ture chain. ti enlarged; a pos- we

opening; b, anterior or aaah open ing; C, a by which the

papel redsaps of the chain were united; hk, heart; n, neryous s ganglion; o, nucleus; Ao

gill. After A. Agassiz, from Vante Report. ae

560 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

The Tunicates undergo, then, the following changes :

1. Morula state, or total segmentation of the yolk.

2. Gastrula. -

3. Free-swimming tailed larva (or as in Molgula, no metamor-

phosis).

4, Adult, reproducing sometimes by budding (Parthenogenesis).

LITERATURE.

Chamisso. De Animalibus quibusdam e classe Vermium, etc. Berlin, 1

Milne-Edwards. Observations sur les Ascidies composées des Côtes de a ‘Manche.

Paris, 1841.

Kowalevsky. Entwickelungsgeschichte der einfachen Ascidien. (Mem. Acad. St.

Petersburg. X. No. 15. 1866).

Kupfer. Die Stammverwandtschaft zwischen Ascidien und Wirbelthieren.

(Schultze’s Archiv fiir micr. Anat., vi,

Zur Entwickelung der een Ascidien. (Schultze’s Archiv. viii, 1872).

Consult also papers by Sars, Krohn, Huxley, Leuckart, Vogt, Lacaze- Duthiers and

Uss

IX. GEPHYREA (Sipunculus).

There are two points of interest connected with these singular

worms, į. e., the fact that they were formerly associated with the

Holothurians, and that their free-swimming Actinotrocha larva so

closely resembles the young Echinoderms. The Sipunculus usu-

ally lives in broken shells, building out the mouth with a tube of

sand; the anus is situated near the mouth, while in Priapulus it is

situated at the end of the body. In none of these worms are

there bristles, or indications of segments, and they in their gen-

‘eral appearance with their tentaculated mouth, resemble certain

Holothurians, as Synapta. Most of these worms are bisexual,

Sipunculus however, or at least certain species of the genus, being

hermaphroditic.

Whether the Gephyrea should be regarded as a separate division

equivalent to the Annulata or as a subdivision of the latter, is a

matter of uncertainty.

Development. The free-swimming larva of Sipunculus was first

discovered and named “ Actinotrocha” by J. Müller. It is re-

lated closely in form to Echinoderm larvze, as well as to the Pili-

dium and other larvee of the Nemertian worms. The fully grown

larva is much like the larval Nemertian noticed on p. 365, fig. 171,

the disposition of the digestive canal being the same, while on

the head is a large umbrella-like expansion, and behind the mouth

and on the end of the body is a ciliated band and twelve ana atc

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 561

projections, like those in certain Echinoderm larve. In all re-

spects the Actinotrocha is a true Cephalula

We wi

e will now, with Metschnikoff, follow the life-history of the `

Actinotrocha. The earliest stage he observed was when the larva

had a transparent, ciliated body, with an umbrella-like expansion

on the head, covering the mouth region, while the end of the body

was truncated. The young at this stage was much like a Phoronis

larva. Soon four projections arise at the end of the body, and

twelve long, arm-like projections grow out by the time the larva

becomes mature.

When the larva is about to transform into the Sinaia: the

end of the intestine bends up, opening outwards near the mouth.

The umbrella is gradually withdrawn into the mouth, so that

finally only a crown of short tooth-like projections surrounds the

mouth. Finally the whole umbrella disappears in the esophagus,

is actually swallowed, while the arms on the end of the body

are absorbed and disappear, and the end of the intestine projects

far out from the body behind the mouth. By this time the Sipun-

culus form is clearly indicated, the body being long and slender

and the mouth surrounded by a crown of short tentacles, and the

anal opening is withdrawn within the head. The change from the

free-swimming larva to the sedentary worm is effected in a very

short time.

The Sipunculus, then, so far as its history is known, passes

through a Cephalula stage before transforming into the adult

worm.

LITERATURE.

Müller. Archiv fiir Anatomie, p. 1

haben ikoff. Ueber die pene sag aba apn Seethiere. (Siebold und Kölliker’s

~~ =e . 244, 1871.)

lso papers by Wagener, Krohn, Schneider, Kowalevsky and Claparède.

X. ANNULATA.

The life-history of Balanoglossus, a peculiar worm found in fine

sand along our whole coast from Cape Ann to — North

Carolina, is one of singular interest. Its free a

regarded by Miller, who discovered and called it hake as the

young of some starfish, Later studies by eminent naturalists only

seemed to confirm this opinion, until in 1869 Metschnikoff sug-

gested that it might be the larva of the worm, first described

under the name of Balanoglossus, or whale’s tongue, by Delle

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 36

562 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

Chiaji, and Mr. A. Agassiz fully confirmed the suggestion, giving

an account of the intermediate stages between the larval and adult

` condition.

The Tornaria 1 (Fig. 220? after A. Agassiz) seems in many re-

spects like some echinoderm larvæ, differing from any yet known,

however, in having an organ, the so-called heart (h) situated at

the base of the canal leading from the water system to the dorsal

pore. The water system is ‘very fully developed. Mr. Agassiz

says that the natural position of Tornaria in the water while mov-

ing, is usually with the eye-specks uppermost. ‘‘They revolve

quite rapidly upon their longitudinal axis, and at the same dh comer,

bi 220,

Fig. 221.

Balanoglossus

(immature).

Tornaria, or young Balano-

glossus,

inclining this axis, advance by a motion of translation, or revolve

upon either of the extremities as a fulcrum. Previous to the

transformation of Tornaria it is quite transparent; the brilliant

carmine, violet or yellow pigment-spots are closely crowded along

the broad belt of anal vibratile cilia, as well as smaller spots on

the longitudinal bands of smaller cilia. The eye-specks are black

and extremely prominent. The large and powerful cilia of! the |

broad anal belt move comparatively slowly, more like the cilia of

the embryo of mollusks, as has already been observed by Müller.”

The Tornaria soon throws off its disguise of a young Echino-

derm, and now begins its strange transformations. Previous to

2a, anus; b, branch of water system leading to dorsal pore, d; e, dank a

gills; k, heart; i, intestine; m, mouth; m', muscular band from eye to water tube; 0,

cesophagus; s, oe’ r alimentary canal; u, lappet of stomach; u’, sank band of »

cilia; w, water syste

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 563

any other change two gills develop from the round bag-shaped di-

verticula of the cesophagus, and afterwards three more pairs of gill-

slits arise, somewhat as in the-young Ascidian. Agassiz then re-

marks that the ‘‘ passage of Tornaria with the young Balano-

glossus is very sudden, taking place in a few hours; but unlike

the transition from the Pluteus ipto the Echinoderm, there is no

resorbition of any portion of the larva.” The body lengthens,

proboscis is indicated and assumes much of the form of

the adult, the four pairs'of gills are well developed, the cilia drop

off first, the longitudinal bands and finally the transverse ones,

and then the collar becomes well marked. The young worn, for

it rapidly assumes the adult Balanoglossus likeness, though much

shorter proportionally, now instead of swimming “ creeps rapidly

over the bottom by means of its proboscis, which acts as a sort of

propeller taking in water at the minute opening of the anterior

extremity of the proboscis, and expelling it through an opening

on its ventral side immediately in front of the mouth.”

Fig. 221, after Agassiz, represents the youngest stage found in

the sand, but it differs from the adult simply in the shorter body

and less distinct development of the collar, with fewer gills and

other unimportant points of difference.

re is considerable difference of opinion regarding the affini-

ties of this worm. On first digging it out of the sand at Beaufort,

We G it seemed to us a most anomalous form, the large soft pro-

oscis, the singular gills, and the absence of setiform feet, appa-

rently forbidding its relationship to the true Annelides. Yet its

true position appears to be between the leeches and setiferous An-

nelides, with some Nemertian analogies. The reader can choose

between the opinion of Gegenbaur that this worm is the type of

an order equivalent to the Annelides, or a true Annelid allied to the

Terebrellide, Clymenide and allied Annelides, as suggested by

Metschnikoff and Kowalevsky ; or that of A. Agassiz who regards

it as the type of a family intermediate between tubicolous Annel-

ides and Nemertians.”

Turning now to the lowest Annulata, the leeches, in which there

are no bristles or gills, while each end of the body terminates in a

sucker, it has been found by Rathke and Kowalevsky that their —

embryology is nearly identical with that of the earthworm, in

which there are bristles. In the leeches the sexes are united in

the same individual, except in the genus Malacobdella, The eggs

564 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

after fertilization undergo total segmentation. There is a primi-

tive band much as in insects, and the adult form is attained before

the animal is hatched. There is no metamorphosis. So with the

earthworms. Kowalevsky studied the mode of development of

two species. As nothing has heretofore been known of the life-

history of so common a creatuse we will delay a moment to learn

the results of the Russian naturalist’s observation. The eggs of

the European Lumbricus agricola were laid while the worm was in

confinement in January and February. They were laid in nu-

merous capsules, sometimes as many as fifty eggs in a capsule,

though usually only three or four embryos were found in a capsule.

e egg-capsules of Lumbricus rubellus were found in dung.

They were much smaller and contained but one egg.

Segmentation is total, and after the embryo-cells are arranged

in two layers, the innermost layer (endoderm), invaginates and

forms a primitive cavity. The embryo at this time seems, then,

not to correspond to the gastrula condition of other worms, al-

though as in other worms, the Ascidians, Insects and Vertebrates,

there are two primitive germ-lamelle. Later in embryonic life,

a primitive band like that of insects (which will be described

farther on), rests on the outside of the yolk, as in the leach (Hirudo

medicinalis). Finally, the form of the earthworm is attained

before it breaks through the egg-shell, and it hatches without un-

dergoing a metamorphosis, in a condition differing but slightly

from that of the adult worm so familiar to us, the body being pro-

portionately shorter and thicker near the middle.

e now come to the sea worms, or Annelides, in which there

are external gills and often a complicated locomotive apparatus,

consisting of fleshy oar-like projections, from the body, and strong

bristles. They have free-swimming larvæ, which by a complicated

metamorphosis, comparable with that of the Nemertian worms,

attain the adult worm-condition.

A singular type is Phoronis, which lives in a membranous tube

attached to rocks, and recalls strikingly the appearance of a Poly-

zoan, as it has a true lophophore and the intestine opens externally

near the mouth. It is in fact a connecting link between the Annel-

ides and the Polyzoa. Its life-history as told by Metschnikoff is

nearly identical with that of Sipunculus.

We will now in a fragmentary way study the mode of develop-

ment of certain typical Annelides, beginning with the lower forms.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 565

The common Spirorbis spirillum (Gould) whose minute nautilus-

like shells cluster on the common Fucus of our coast, lays its eggs

Fig. 224.

_ Egg of

Spirorbis.

Larva of Spirorbis.

Older larva of Spirorbis.

in strings formed of two rows (Fig. 222, after A. Agassiz), and

laid on the sides of the Fig. 225.

body within the shell. The

young ciliated erhbryos may

be seen in the eggs, the

eye-spots being very dis-

tinct. Fig. 223 (this and

Figs. 224, 225, after A.

Agassiz), represents the

embryo just after hatching.

It will be seen that it is

already far advanced before z

paa

leaving the egg, and Agas-

siz thinks that the free- zo

swimming life of the larve

does not last more than

from eight to ten hours, as

“it frequently happens dur-

ing a night that the smooth

sides of the vessel are com-

pletely covered with small

limestone tubes, formed by

the young Spirorbis hatched the evening before.” Fig. 223 repre-

sents the young Spirorbis soon after its escape from the egg,

Young Spirorbis.

566 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

having only one tentacle (t) developed on the right side. In a

succeeding stage (Fig. 224) the opercular tentacle (to) which is

destined to act as a door to the hole of the cell, begins to grow

out, and there are two pairs of bristles. Shortly after this the

young Spirorbis hatches, and before building its limestone tube

assumes the form indicated by Fig. 225, in which there ‘‘ are nine

rings,” with tentacles nearly as branching as those of the adult,

and a well formed operculum which with advancing age loses all

trace of its former tentacular nature.” The subsequent changes

are very slight.

The metamorphoses of the other sea worms are well marked,

and the larval forms present a great variety of shapes. As a

rule, perhaps, the eggs undergo total segmentation, and the em-

bryo leaves the egg in the Cephalula condition, the head-end

being large and full, with the alimentary canal more or less flexed.

In some cases, as in Terebrellides Stroemii Sars, observed by

Willemoes-Suhm, the young leaves the egg as a Trochosphere,

(‘‘ Atrocha” of Claparède and Metschnikoff, who observed the

Fig. 226. same stage in Lumbrjconereis ?). like

that of: certain mollusks and the Poly-

zoa, being spherical, with a long, ce-

phalic tuft of cilia, two eye-spots, and a

zone of cilia, but without any bristles.

Others, as in Leucodora, are similar, but

provided with a few long sete, which act

as oars.

The early stages of the embryo have

not yet been studied, so that we are not

in possession of any certain knowledge

regarding the development of the em-

bryonal membranes and the presence or absence of a gastrula

condition,

Soon after the larva leaves the egg, branches of bristles appear

and the body is divided into segments. Fig. 226 (this and Figs.

227, 228, 229, 230, 231, after A. Agassiz), represents an advanced

larva of Polydora. Fig. 227 and 228, illustrate the early stages

of Nerine. :

The early stages of Phyllodoce maculata are indicated by figures

229, 230, 231. The subsequent changes are not important, COn-

sisting chiefly of the addition of a great number of segments an

Young Polydora.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 567

the growth of smaller bristles. How the adult forms appear may

be known by a glance at the accompanying figures of certain sea

worms of our coast described and figured by Prof. Verrill, from

Young Nerine,

Older Nerine.

whose reports the figures are taken. Fig. 232, represents Cly-

menella torquata, 233, Euchone elegans, and fig. 234, a not un-

common and very elegant worm, Cirratulus grandis.

Besides the normal mode of reproduction by eggs, certain

Fig. 231.

Young

NAO Side view of

Fig. 229.

Advanced young

of Phyllodoce.

worms reproduce by self-division or budding ; such are Nais,

Sabella, Filograna, Protula, Syllis, Autolytus, and others. In the

latter worm as well as in Syllis there is, according to A. Agassiz,

568 BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS.

an alternation of generations, an asexual form giving rise to male

and females, while these sexual and asexual forms are so unlike

each other as to pass for different species and even genera.

The Annulata, then, to sum up what is known of their life-

A 4 M

Clymenella tor-

quata.

Euchone elegans,

history, besides reproducing by budding and parthenogenetically,

usually lay eggs, and pass through the following stages :

1. Morula state.

?2. Gastrula (not observed).

. Atrocha or Trochosphere.

. Cephalula.

. Adult.

aA o

LITERATURE.

oegtermeeste Observations sur le Dévelopment des Annélides. (Ann. Sc. Nat.

ae ‘cate

rg. T.i, 11, 1845).

cet _Beobachtungen ueber Anat. und Entwickelung pests Wirbelloser Thiere.

Berlin, 1851.

Rathke.

Watt. an Seek nl 1 q. ‘tr: At,

Leipzig, 1862.

BIOGRAPHIES OF SOME WORMS. 569

A. Agassiz. On alternate Generations in Annelides. (Jour. Bost. Soc., N. H. vii,

1862.

Claparéde. Beobachtungen ueber Anat. und Entwicklungsgeschichte Wirbelloser

Thiere, etc. Leipzig, 1863.

—________ and Metschnikof. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Entwickelungsgeschichte

der Chetopoden. (Siebold and Kölliker’s Zeitschrift, 1868)

Compare also the writings of Lovén, A. Agassiz and Kowaleysky, already cited, and

papers by Krohn, Leuckart and Pagenstecher, Frey and Leuckart, Schultze, J. and

Max. Miiller, Busch and Willemoes-Suhm.

“SS

MANASES

SUC Hest try,

MEN

CES VUO

MAN

J Vas fa

44 | VIE A A

DY Kiam

| eli en

Cirratulus grandis.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

A Late Parer on Birps.1— Mr. William Brewster’s recent

visit to West Virginia results in a series of notes on a hundred

species of birds, one-fifth of which are Sylvicolide, and one-eighth

Fringillide. The observations were made from about the begin-

ning to the height of the “season,” and include some extended

biographical sketches of certain species with which the New

England ornithologist is less familiar than he is with some others,

such having naturally attracted the writer’s special attention.

Thus we have good notices of such birds as the Polioptila, Thry-

othorus ludovicianus, Helmitherus vermivorus, Dendreca cerulea,

Seiurus ludovicianus, Oporornis formosus, Icteria virens, Myiodi-

octes nictratus, Cardinalis, etc. The writer dwells upon the song,

bringing to this matter an appreciative ear; and indeed it may be

said that the whole paper is marked by results of unusually close

and well-directed observation, showing the author’s trained capac-

ity for good sound field work. The list takes, without question, a

fair place in our faunal series, and very acceptably complements

the previous one written by Mr. Scott,? from a locality close at

hand.

The “ Annals of the Lyceum,” in which this paper appears, are

“looking up” in ornithology, at least so far as number of authors

‘are concerned, and promise to become a more favorite medium of

publication than they have hitherto been. In saying this, we do

not overlook Mr. Lawrence’s widely known and fully appreciated

series, of fifty or sixty papers, which for many years has given the

“ Annals” their chief ornithological weight, as Mr. Cassin’s did the

Philadelphia ‘* Proceedings.” The prompt appearance of the sig-

natures of late, and the admirable typographical execution of the

Salem Press, are strong points in favor of the “ Annals.’ The

present paper appears to have been carefully read in the proof,

and the more we see of scientific printing, the more we are satis-

fied that care bestowed upon details of typography is pains well

taken. Comeliness of appearance is well worth a thought; and

maae

1 Some Observations on the Birds of Ritchie County, West Virginia. <Ann. Lyc.

Nat. Hist., N. Y., xi, 1875, pp. 129-146.

2 Partial List of the Summer Birds of Kanawha County .... <Proc. Bost. Soc.

Nat. Hist. xv, pp. 219, Ai

Se (570)

BOTANY. 571

attention to the shape of names tends to this result. The specific

name of the house-wren is aédon not wdon; the generic name of

the wood-warblers is Deridreca, not Dendroica. Occasional airing

of the Greek roots is as good for the health of the outgrowing

words, as stirring the soil about the roots of a tree is for its vigor.

In writing Mniotilla instead of the customary Mniotilta, did Mr.

Brewster intend to revert to the original Vieillotian spelling ?

For that is the way Vieillot spells the word, if we remember

tightly, in the Ency. Meth. —E. C.

Morsr’s First Book or Zootocy.!— This charming little book

will, we imagine, be immensely liked by young people, whether

they use it as a text-book or receive it as a holiday present. It is

designed for boys and girls, and presupposes an entire ignorance

of animals on the part of the student. The plan is to teach by a

study of the objects themselves. The writer tells young people

how and where to look for specimehs. After an excursion in

search of shells, insects, ete., the author as it were, sits down by

the reader with his or her hands full of the different objects, and

draws their attention to the difference between them, and to the’

main points in their structure. There is little method in the plan

of the book, and the reader is not bewildered with a ‘natural

system” before he has learned something about the animals com-

posing it.

The drawings are with few exceptions original, while all have

been engraved expressly for the book. They add much to the

attractiveness of the text. The illustrations of the parts of

insects, the mode of growth of shells, and the anatomy of verte-

brates, are strikingly original. The chapter on vertebrates presents

matter that we think will be new to many teachers of comparative

anatomy. The book is sumptuously printed and bound.

BOTANY.

SEQUOIA SEMPERVIRENS.— At a recent meeting of the California

Academy of Sciences, Dr. A. W. Saxe made a preliminary report

on a grove of colossal redwood trees that have been discovered on

the course of the San Lorenzo, which takes its rise near Saratoga,

in Santa Clara County, and debouches into the Bay of Monterey,

1 First Book of Zoology. By Edward S. Morse, Ph.D. New York. D. Appleton &

Co., 1875. 12mo. pp. 190, with 158 woodcuts. $1.

572 BOTANY.

at Santa Cruz. The trees are in a forest around the head-waters

of the stream. One of them eclipses all that have been discovered

on the Pacific Coast. Its circumference as high as a man can-

reach, standing and passing a tape line around, is a few inches

less than one hundred and fifty feet. This is beyond the measure-

ment of any of the Sequoias (gigantea) in the Calaveras Grove.

The height is estimated at one hundred and sixty feet, and a part

of the top lying on the ground riven off by lightning, or a

tornado, is over one hundred feet in length. The other trees in

the vicinity are not as large, but all are of immense girth. Ti

Saxe promised to get information more in detail from the Pres-

ident of a flume company in that section.

This region has but recently been explored, and what other

marvels of vegetation it contains, remains to seen. The

stumps of redwood trees of immense proportions, have been re-

ported, from time to time, to the Academy, by explorers in the Mt.

Diable range along the hills back of Oakland, but now we are

likely to have further discoveries of these majestic conifers in all

their glory, height, diameter and foliage. —R. E

Suttrvantra Onronis, Torr. & Gray.—I have just been col-

lecting a large quantity of this rare and beautiful little plant.

It grows in great abundance about four miles from the college, in

a dark, well-wooded ravine, known as “Clifty Ravine.” It is

found clinging to the damp limestone cliffs just above Clifty Falls,

and is rapidly spreading down the ravine. It is a charming little

plant and is invariably found with its roots buried in a bunch of

damp moss, as if to prove to us that it belongs to Dr. Sullivant

and loves what he did. In the description, as given in Gray’s

Manual, there is omitted one character which is always the first

one to attract the attention, even of the casual observer. Upon

. showing fresh specimens to persons I have never failed to hear

the exclamation, ‘‘ what pretty shiny leaves!” And it is a fact,

for there is always a beautiful gloss upon the leaves as if covered

with a fine coat of varnish. Clifty Falls, Jefferson Co., Ind., must

now be added to Highland Co., Ohio, and the Wisconsin river.

— Jons M. Courter, Hanover College, Hanover, Ind., July 21st.

PUCCINIA MALVACEARUM, has probably been for many years in

the United States. Some thirty years ago I found the hollyhock

in all old gardens where it used to self-sow, annually, and take

ZOOLOGY. GEOLOGY. - 573

care of itself generally. A few years after I endeavored to intro-

duce the improved ‘‘Cater” hollyhocks from England. They

did remarkably well the first year, but the next were attacked by

a small fungus which destroyed the leaves almost as fast as they

appeared ; and it was with difficulty they could be had to retain

strength enough to flower at all. Finally, they were all destroyed

before flowering, as were the common single ones in the gardens.

Since the discovery in England that Puccinia malvacearum causes

a disease like this, I have endeavored to find a specimen in order

to identify the species, but I have failed, as the whole race of

hollyhock about here seems to have disappeared. — THOMAS

MEEHAN.

ZOOLOGY.

OPORORNIS FORMOSUS BREEDING IN EASTERN New York.—A few

days ago, while out collecting with a friend, we were attracted by

the alarm note of a bird, which he shot, and it proved to be a

male of the Kentucky warbler. In passing out of the woods,

which were overgrown with ferns and other perennials, we

started a female from the ground, and after a careful search we

found the nest, which was slightly elevated from the ground, com-

posed of dry chestnut leaves and coarse grass, and lined with horse

hair. The eggs, which were three in number, weré white, thickly

marked with small reddish-brown spots on the largerend. The

nest was scarcely more than twenty feet from the public road.

As I have not heard of its nest being found before in New York,

I thought it might possibly be interesting to some of your readers.

—A. K. Fisuer, Sing Sing, N. Y., June 19, 1875.

Tue Purrre QALLINULE.— À fine specimen of the Purple

Gallinule, was shot at “ Henry’s Pond,” “South End” Rockport,

Mass., on April 12th, by Mr. Robert Wendel.—G. P. WHITMAN.

CALOPTENUS SPRETUS IN MassacHuseEtrs.—Specimens not differ-

ing in any appreciable respect on comparison with Californian exam-

ples occurred in September at Amherst, Mass.—A. S. PACKARD, Jr. ,

GEOLOGY.

InrteREsTING Fossis FROM ILLINOIs.— Àt a recent meeting of

the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Professor Cope

574 GEOLOGY.

stated that he had recently received from Mr. John Collett, of the

Geological Survey of Indiana, a number of vertebrate remains

from some point in Illinois. The specimens were taken from a

blackish shale and consist of separate vertebræ, and other parts

of the skeleton, often in a fragmentary condition. Although the

absence of information as to the mutual relations of the pieces

renders the identification difficult, yet the interest attaching to

them, in consequence of their peculiar forms and the locality of

their discovery, renders it important to determine their zoological

position. Mr. Collett informed Prof. Cope that all the specimens

were found near together and at the same horizon.

A remarkable peculiarity of all the vertebra of the series is a

longitudinal perforation of the centrum, a character which exists

in the living lizards of the genus Sphenodon of New Zealand.

The bones of the limbs and scapular arches are so decidedly rep-

tilian, and so unlike those of any Batrachia with which we are yet

acquainted, that they probably belong to the former class. They

constitute the first definite indication of the existence of reptiles

of the order Rhynchocephalia, in the Western Hemisphere. They

belong to two species of two new genera which were named re-

spectively, Cricotus heteroclitus and Clepsydrops Collettii.

Associated with these saurians were found teeth of two species

of fishes, which are important in the evidence of the position of

the beds in which they occur. One of these is a new species of

Ceratodus and the other a Diplodus. The former genus is charac-

teristic of the Triassic period in Europe, one species having been

found in the Oolite. It still lives in North Australia. In both

these respects the lizards mentioned present a remarkable coinci-

dence. They also belong to the horizon of the Trias in Europe,

and the only living species is found in New Zealand. Thus it

would seem that a fragment of this fauna, so ancient in the

Northern Hemisphere and so remarkably preserved in the South-

ern, has been brought to light in Illinois. It must be added, in

reference to the geologic age of the fossils, that the genus Dip-

lodus has not yet been discovered above the carboniferous, and

that one genus of the family of lizards described belongs to the

Permian in Germany. It cannot therefore be determined at

present whether the formation in which they occur is Triassic or

Permian.

MICROSCOPY.

SPENCER Miıcroscores.— Charles A, Spencer & Sons of Can-

astota, N. Y., announce the transfer of their enterprise to the

Geneva Optical Co., of Geneva, N. Y., and state that almost un-

limited facilities will enable them to supply customers with genu-

ine Spencer workmanship with ordinary business Sionpin a.

promise which will prove attractive to those who have learned by

experience that microscope-work, on the average, can be more

safely ordered as a legacy for one’s heirs than with any reasonable

expectation of its being received in time to be of any use to him-

self. Besides their usual forms of stand, and the more useful ac-

cessories, the Spencers announce two series of objectives,—a series

of from 4 inch to y% inch focus, of extremely large angle and

price to match, and a series of. very judiciously chosen low angles

at a very moderate price. The name of Spencer is connected,

more radically than any other, with the development of the modern

high-angled objective, and it is interesting, though of course not

decisive, to know that the distinguished workers bearing this name,

so far from having lost faith in the fact or the utility of extreme

angles, continue to announce the almost incredible angles of 50°

for the 1 inch, and 175° for nearly everything from the 4 upwards.

The acceptance of the term ocular in place of eye-piece is a nota-

ble contribution to an improved nomenclature.

Mountine Srarnep Leaves.—Mr. G. Pim exhibited, at the

January meeting of the Dublin Microscopical Club, leaves mounted

in Deane’s Gelatine, which were so transparent that the tissues

throughout could be readily examined by merely focussing down

to the required level. They were bleached in a solution of chlo-

rate of potash, one drachm to half an ounce each of water and

nitric acid, and after washing stained with carmine solution.

CoLtorinc Marrer or “Rep snow.”— This minute vegetable

organism, Protococcus nivalis, whose growing form is green, but

whose bright red resting spores have given to it its familiar name,

has been recently examined under the micro-spectroscope by Dr.

J. G. Hunt, who states that its coloring matter leaves unchanged

the red, orange and yellow portions of the spectrum, but entirely

absorbs the violet portion.

(575)

NOTES.

Tue meeting of the BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT

or SCIENCE, held at Bristol during the last week in August, is

pronounced a decided success in all of its many sections. Over

2200 persons belonging to the Association, consisting of members,

associates and ladies, were present, and a very large number of

papers were read, many of the sections holding until the last hour

of the meeting. The arrangements of the committees having

charge of the meeting, and the hospitality of the citizens of

Bristol, are said to have been all that could be desired. The

address of the President, Sir John Hawkshaw, is most instructive

and interesting, and the addresses of the several gentlemen pre-

siding over the sections are what would be expected of men so

distinguished in their respective departments. We cannot do

better than to advise our readers to peruse the very full reports

of the addresses and more important papers given in “ Nature,”

for Sept. 2, and following numbers. |

The next meeting will be held in Glasgow, on Sept. 6, 1876,

under the presidency of Sir Robert Christison.

An Onto State ÅRCHÆOLOGICAL CONVENTION, was organized

at Mansfield, Ohio, on Sept. 1. We have only seen an account of

the proceedings of the first day, and do not yet know what results

were attained towards a permanent organization. About fifty dele-

gates were present. Papers were read and discussed and speci-

mens exhibited. |

Tue FRENCH ÅSSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE,

held its meeting at Nantes, during the last of August, and was

largely attended. Many papers were read in the several sections

and the meeting was regarded as quite successful. Full reports are

given in the “Revue Scientifique” for Aug. 28, and following weeks.

Tue Iowa Acapemy or Scrences was organized in August last.

Its headquarters will be at Iowa City. The present officers are :—

President, Prof. Bessey, of Ames ; Vice President, Dr. Middleton, of

Davenport ; Secretary and Treasurer, Prof. Preston, of Iowa City.

(576) i

ke oe

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.— NOVEMBER, 1875. — No. 11.

LT EDGORVOD I>

ADDRESS

PROF. H. A. NEWTON,*

VICE PRESIDENT FOR SECTION A.

MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE-

MENT OF SCIENCE:

I rHank you heartily for the honor you have done me in calling

me to preside over this section.

The first of the subjects named as belonging to section A, is

athematics. In the few words I shall say, I wish to ask for that —

branch the real primacy which has thus in form been given to it.

I plead for more study of mathematics by AM men of

„science.

I do not speak of its pasi in education. Whatever interest we

may have in schemes of education, we are not discussing them

here. That there has been, and is, a notable lack in the amount

of American contributions to mathematics has been so fully shown

by my predecessor in this office in a recent number of a leading

review, that I need not repeat the sto :

It is not, perhaps, to be wondered at that in a new country iis

flora and fauna, its physical and geological features, should have

more attraction at first than the exact sciences. hen, too, there |

have be@m in this country large rewards to labor, especially to — ;

Before the American desgelada for the Advancement of Science, at Detroit, 1875.

Entered, according to Act of Cong in the year 1875. by the PEABODY ACADEMY or

SCIENCE, in the Office of the Librarian of ongress, at Washington.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 37 (577)

578 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

skilled labor. Livings and prizes have enticed men to work where

practical results are directly in view, in the applied rather than in

the pure mathematics.

But whether these reasons or others have caused it, the unpleas-

ant fact is that the. American contributions to the science of quan-

tity have not been large. Three or four volumes, a dozen memoirs,

and here and there a fruitful idea having been selected from them,

there is left very little that the world will care much to remember.

I refer, of course, to additions to our knowledge, not to the orderly

arrangement of it. To make first-rate text-books, or manuals, or

treatises, is a work of no mean order, and I would not underesti-

mate it. In good mathematical text-books we need not fear com-

parison with any nation. But so few additions have been made to

our knowledge of quantity, that I fear that the idea has been quite

gencral among us that the mathematics is a finished science, or at

least a stationary one, and that it has few fertile fields inviting labor,

and few untrodden regions to be explored. Hence many bright

minds, capable of good work, have acted as though the arithmetic,

the algebra, and the mechanics which they studied covered all that

is known of the science. Instead of going on in some path out to

the bounds of knowledge, as they had perhaps the ability to do,

they dug in the beaten highways, and with care planted seed there,

hoping for fruit. How much such ill-directed thought has been

spent on the theory of numbers, on higher equations, on the theory

of the tides, &c., which if rightly expended on some untrodden

though humble field of the science, might have added really to

human knowledge! And yet hardly any science can show on the

whole a more steady progress, year by year, for the last fifty years,

or a larger and healthier growth, than the science of quantity.

Here too, as in every other science, the larger the field that has

been acquired, the longer its boundary line from -which laborers

may work out into the region beyond.

An individual may wisely neglect one science, in order to work

in another. But a nation may not. For the healthy growth of all,

each science should be fostered in its due proportion. But the

mathematics has such relations with other branches, that neglect.

of it must work in time wider injury, I believe, to the@cause of

science, than neglect of any other branch. I will give a few

reasons for this belief.

pees I appeal to your experience. Am I wrortg in mippoeing i that

VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 579

each of you has, at one time or another, been arrested by lack of

sufficient knowledge of the mathematics in a line of research that

seemed promising? Would not each of you join me in urging a

young student in almost any branch of science to acquire first of

all such a knowledge of geometry, analysis, and mechanics, that

the main ideas in them shall ever be familiar to him, and their pro-

cesses at need be easily recalled? Certainly so often has the

regret of a want of such knowledge been expressed to me by

successful men of science, that I have little doubt of your answer.

Again, I argue from a natural law of succession of the steps of

discovery in the exact sciences. We first see differences in things

apparently alike, or likeness’ in things apparently diverse, or we

find a new mode of action, or some new relation supposed to be

that of cause and effect, or we discover some other new fact or

quality. We frame hypotheses, measure the quantities involved,

and discuss by mathematics the relations of those quantities. The

. proof or disproof of the hypotheses, most frequently depends upon

the agreement or discordance of the quantities. To discover the

new facts and qualities has sometimes been thought to be higher

work than to discuss quantities, and perhaps it is. But at least

quantitative analysis follows qualitative. It is after we have

learned what kind that we begin to ask how much. The investi-

gator is lame if he is not prepared to follow up the Gincoreren

relations of the quantities.

Again, throughout the sciences of this section, the laws are more

and more assuming a mathematical form. In physics I need hardly

= mention the increasing rule which rational mechanics is acquiring

in reducing classes of phenomena to varieties of forces and motions.

In chemistry, mathematical laws must govern the combinations of

the elements, both in the processes and in the results of chemical

union. Though we may not how explain chemical action as one

branch of mechanics, yet the mathematical sciences of heat and

light cannot be made complete without extending mathematics

over large provinces in chemistry. Even in the sciences of sec-

tion B, the mechanical and other quantitative ideas are punog a

‘sure places

The dhwisdom of neglecting the mathematics is again seen by

considering some of the problems, which appear to be in their na-

ture capable of a mathematical solution. To explain by thé ac-

cepted laws of rational mechanics all the forces and motions of the

580 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

ultimate particles of matter, of inorganic matter even, may very

well be beyond the powers of the human mind. But that some of

those forces and motions will be explained, even at an early day,

seems to be almost certain. So the essential differences in the

chemical elements may not be beyond discovery and explanation.

Each line in the spectrum has its definite place, and those places

are the results of certain laws of structure of the substance that

gives the spectrum, and of its consequent action upon the light

that comes from or traverses the substance. The time seems near

for a Kepler who shall formulate those laws, and for a Principia

which shall unite them in their most general mathematical expres-

sion. In like manner along the line that in astronomy and physics

separates the unknown from the known, there are hundreds of

questions whose solution, if they are to be solved at all, must be

in part mathematical.

It is with some hesitation that I leave the more familiar ground

of this section and speak of the laws of quantity in the other |

sciences. But there is good reason apparent to even the outside

observer, for the belief that the mathematics will in the future

(of course, in some cases, the very distant future) have much to

do in fields from which it is now very properly shut out. Indi-

rectly, through physics, it has already a foothold in some of them.

Political economy is in its ultimate nature a branch of applied

mathematics, and even in its present condition we are entitled to

distrust the guidance in it of one who has not clear conceptions of

the relations of quantity. In fact, most of the questions in social

science seem to have a two-fold character, the one moral, and the

other mathematical. In geology how many problems are rising

into importance whose solution depends upon mathematics! The

geometry of animal and vegetable forms is a subject as yet almost

untouched by the mathematician. Yet in the nature of the case

each form is the result of definite forces, and similarity and law in

the forms represent like properties in the forces producing them.

There is, moreover, a large possible field of applied mathematics

-in the seience that shall explain the relations between the facts of

the outside world and the impressions which they make through the

organs of sense on the mind. The Greeks solved practically one of .

its problems when they made the lines of the Parthenon curved

that they might appear straight. Another is met by the astrono-

mer when he has to apply to his own observations a personal

VICE PRESIDENTS ADDRESS. 581

equation. When we can explain the correction which one color

needs because of its nearness to another color, we may perhaps

have more hope of applying to color a unit of measure, and so

treating of its quantity. Music has its mathematical basis, and

_ differences in sounds have submitted to analysis and measurement.

The physiological theories of vision and hearing must, as they

develop by experiment, furnish many problems to be solved by

mathematics.

Even in the sciences beyond the domain of this Association

there is some evidence of the sovereignty of number and measure.

Some of those who have most thoroughly studied the theory of the

beautiful, believe that mathematical laws will yet be found to lie `

at the basis of that theory. The recognition of a more and a less

in all our mental powers, impressions, and actions; of a law of

obedience to the strongest motive; of an inseparable connection,

of the greatest good with right moral action; what are these but

the indications of the existence of quantitative laws in mental and

moral sciences?

at there is a growing conviction that mathematical relations

run through all subjects of thought is proved by the increasing use

of the word force. Men speak of vital forces, mental forces,

moral forces, social forces, force of will, foree of passions, of af-

fections, of appetites, force of words, force of public opinion, force

of conscience, force of character, and so on, through all the

range of thought. The word force can hardly be used, even as a

metaphor, without implying, to some extent, the idea of a cause

and an effect, each poensis the attribute of quantity, and each

related quantitatively to the other, anA we cannot in our pres-

ent ignorance measure the one or the othe

Is all this a mere fancy, or a PEPR of the linsgipition,

rather than a sober conception of science fitted to this occasion? If

it so seems to you, look at the actual history of one kind of quantity,

that of probability. * Quantity of probability differs from most —

kinds of quantities, in that it is an impression on the mind that has

no necessary correspondence with the facts of the outside world.

It is, to use the mathematical term, a function of finite knowl-

edge, depending for its magnitude entirely upon what we know,

or think we know, changing with every accession of knowledge,

real or supposed, becoming certainty in the presence of full knowl- _

~ €dge, and having no existence where there is no knowledge at all. —

582 VICE PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS.

This mental impression of the more and the less probable mathe-

maticians learned to measure. Its theory was first applied to

simple games of chance, but it has grown in these two hundred

years until it is now the firm basis on which rest pecuniary con-

tracts for many thousands of millions of dollars in insurance. It

guides and controls, by the method of least squares, approximate

measurements in all branches of exact knowledge, and going over

into mental science requires logic to be rebuilt from the bottom.

Has the thought arisen in any of your minds that this idea of

a possible extension of the science of quantity is derogatory to

those other sciences over whose domains it may some time claim a

qualified sovereignity—that it puts the good and the beautiful

even alongside of the masses which we weigh and the bulks which

we measure? Pure mathematics is not a science of matter. Itisa

mental science, dealing solely with mental conceptions. I am in-

clined to accept Prof. Peirce’s extension and definition of it, that it

is the science that draws necessary conclusions. But however we

may extend or limit the science, it expresses necessary laws of our

thinking, and it is not derogatory therefore to our highest knowl-

edge that it is made subject to it. Moreover, our conceptions of

the Creator become higher, as we are led on by our studies to em-

phasize the words of the Hebrew wise man, ‘‘ Thou hast put

together all things in measure, and in number, and in weight.”

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR. ;

i SINRA

Havıxe left the worms, we come now to a more circumscribed

group of articulated animals, in which the jointed body is protected

by a more or less dense tegument bearing jointed organs. The

barnacles, water fleas, shrimps and crabs are tolerably familiar

forms, and therefore we will not pause to discuss the anatomy and

classification of these animals, merely premising our account of

their development with the following tabular view of the main

divisions of the group:

` CRUSTACEA.

SUBCLASS I. SUBCLASS II.

DECAPODA oios 4 and Ciabs). TRILOBITA.

ao POD. (Sow. Bugs, Beach | MEROSTOMATA (King Crab).

ere

iah 1;

PHYLLOPODA (Leat: ‘toute a Shrim, ae

CLADOCERA (Water-fleas).

OSTRACODA (Bivalv d es ater-fleas). : t

COPEPODA, including SIPHONOSTOM

CIRRIPEDIA including RHIZOCEPHAI. A

(Barnacles),

Development of the Barnacles. Before we turn to the life-his-

tory of the barnacles, let us look for a moment at the mode of

development of those strange parasites, the Rhizocephala, whose

larval feet become by a retrograde process of development con-

verted into long irregular root-like extensions which ramify in the

` body of their host. The animal itself, as it adheres by means of

its root-like feet to the under side of the abdomen of the crab on

which it lives, would be readily mistaken for a large wart or _

sausage-like bunch. This shapeless mass is the mature Rhizo-

cephalon, apparently the last term in the series of degradational —

forms so numerous among the lower Crustacea. This sac-like body

is filled with eggs.

After total segmentation the embryo rapidly grows and Paias

in an oval form with no distinct head, but with an oval shield-like

disc covering the insertion of the three pairs of jointed swimming

feet, ending in long bristles which aid in locomotion. This larval

Rhizocephalon is aope with the young of the water-fleas or

584 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

copepods, called ‘ Nauplius’ (see also Fig. 256), but differs

rom them in the shield-like expansion of the body, and in the

presence of a distinct abdomen ending in a movable caudal fork.

But however well developed is the body generally, the young root-

barnacles, as we may term them, have no mouth, or so far as

known, stomach or intestine, so that after swimming about freely

for a few days, they change into the ‘* pupa” state, in which they

bear a remote resemblance to the bivalved Ostracodes.

The broad shield of the larva has now become folded together

like the covers of a pamphlet, enclosing the body of the pupal

root-barnacle. The foremost limbs (to avail ourselves of Fritz

Miller’s description in his ‘Facts’ for Darwin”) have become

transformed into very peculiar adherent feet (prehensile antennæ

of Darwin). From the ends of these feet grow out two filaments

which are possibly, as Miller suggests, the ‘‘commencements of

the future roots.” The two following pairs of feet are rejected,

six pairs of forked swimming feet have meanwhile grown out on

the abdomen, while the tail ends in two short appendages. These

pup are also mouthless and soon attach themselves by means of

their adherent feet to the abdomens of crabs and hermit crabs.

The other feet drop off, the filaments grow down into the body of

their host, entwining around the intestine or ramifying through

the liver. ‘The only manifestations of life which persist in these

non plus ultras in the series of retrogressively metamorphosed

Crustacea, are powerful contractions of the- roots, and an alter-

nate expansion and contraction of the body, in consequence of

which water flows into the brood-cavity and is again expelled,

through a wide orifice ” (Müller).

Such is the ordinary history of a Peltogaster or Sacculina, but

Mr. Darwin tells us of another form (Cryptophialus minutus)

which undergoes the larval state in the egg, hatching in the pupa

condition, while another form (a species of Peltugaster?) also

leaves the egg in the pupa form.

The barnacle has a somewhat similar life-history. It passes

through a stage of total segmentation of the yolk and hatches as

a Nauplius-like free-swimming larva, but differs from the Rhizo-

cephalus larva in having a mouth, stomach and intestine, while —

the body is covered by a triangular shield, the anterior corners of

oo which are prolonged into horns, while the posterior angle extends

a = ond the = the forked —— th down below

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 585

long spine. The anterior feet (corresponding to the anterior an-

tennz) are simple, while the two pairs of posterior feet are forked,

ending in long bristles.

These well armed creatures swim vigorously about on the sur-

face of the water for a season, moulting several times before as-

suming the bivalve, pupal condition.

The pupa is almost identical in appearance with the bivalved

Sacculina, having no mouth, and with a similar arrangement of

limbs, except that no filaments are developed on the anterior pair

of limbs, and they possess a pair of compound eyes.

The pupal condition is so much alike in the two groups, as

stated by Fritz Müller, that we scarcely see why they should be

separated as different groups, as Miiller is disposed to regard them,

but prefer to consider them as subordinate groups of Cirripedia.

The shield of the bivalved ‘ pupal ” barnacle becomes converted

into the multivalved barnacle, the solid shell of the latter, as in

the true sessile barnacles becoming so unlike the thin bivalves of

the pupa, that, as is well known, even Cuvier supposed them to

be mollusks, though there was the jointed feelers and the articulate -

plan of the nervous cord as witnesses of their crustacean affini-

ties. The swimming feet of the larval barnacle become the long

slender * cirri” which serve to draw in the food, creating currents

setting in towards the mouth. Strange as is this retrograde

development, we shall see it paralleled among the fish lice.

To sum up, the barnacles and root-barnacles, which are her- -

maphrodites, except in one family (Abdominales) pass TAR the

following stages of development :

1. Morula.

2. Nauplius or larva.

3. A þivalved “ pupal” stage. `

4. Adult retrograde condition.

LITERATURE.

ann Zoological Researches and Illustrations I. i. 1828-29.

ae eister Rankenfiisser. Berlin, 1834.

rwin. É nong raph of the subclass Cirripedia London, 1851-54.

ar “gs “tte we Rhizocephalen. (Archiv für ig hee 1862.) nS

Recherches sur I’ riper eared des Crustacés. JII. (Bulletin de

; ie ay, peba 1870.)

Development of the Copepods. As the true Copepods and their

_ allies, the fish-lice or Siphonostomatous Copepods, travel the same _

586 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

developmental road until the larval stage is completed, the early

stages here deséribed apply to the species of both groups. The

embryonic tien se: however, is very simple. The sexes are

distinct, and the females (Fig. 235, Cy-

clops quadricornis, after Clark) in many

cases swim about as seen in the figure,

with a sav of eggs attached to each side

of the body.

The embryo in those species of Cope-

pods which have been examined, is formed

in the following manner, as observed by

E. Van Beneden.

The egg undergoes total segmentation,

resulting in a layer of blastodermic cells

surrounding the yolk. These cells in-

crease in length on one side, forming the

blastodermic disc, or ‘‘ primitive streak.”

On the ventral surface of this disc, viz.,

the side pointing outwards, the three pairs

of limbs arise simultaneously, and the

Nauplius (or larva) directly hatches, its

body more or less oval and rounded.

In this simple condition, with no sepa-

ration of the body into a head-thorax or

abdomen, and with a simple unpaired eye

and a labrum, it swims around. ‘The

farther transformations can be traced by any one who will take

the pains to keep these water-fleas in aquaria.

Before the larval Copepod leaves the egg it moults twice; the

first is the ‘‘blastodermie skin” secreted by the blastodermic cells

and exuviated before the limbs bud out. This blastodermic moult,

comparable to the serous membrane of Arachnides and the true

insects, has been observed by Van Beneden to be the larval mem-

brane of Gammarus, and he has recognized it as surrounding the

embryo of Sacculina, Leptomera, Caprella, Nebalia and Crangon.

The second or Nauplian moult takes place after the larval form

is attained, but before the embryo hatches. ‘The skin peels off

when the appendages are of a certain length and before they are

joint d.

At the aninda of birth, says Van Beneden, the appendages

Cyclops.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 587

are distinctly jointed and provided with simple or branched bris-

tles. The alimentary canal is distinct, so is the eye; and the

Fig. 236. nerve-ganglion is recognizable, while the blood circu-

t / lates in the body-cavity.

> ee While most Copepods leave the egg in this per-

fected, Nauplius condition, the embryo Anchorella and

Hessia, according to the researches of Van Beneden,

/ _ pass through a Nauplius state in the egg, then three

| | pairs of abdominal. feet grow out, and an abdomen,

| consisting of five well marked segments, is differenti-

ated from the cephalothorax. This stage is called the

cyclopian stage by Van Beneden. Now this embry-

onic stage of the Lernzans, or fish lice, corresponds

to the stages undergone by the free swimming young

of Cyclops and other Copepods.

The Nauplius of Cyclops in growing to maturity

elongates, mouth-appendages, abdominal segments

| and appendages arise after successive moults, until

| the adult form is attaine

| In the parasitic genera, p the larva is either a Nau-

| plius, as in Achtheres and Chondracanthus (in Actheres

the young has but two pair of appendages) or, as in

Anchorella and others, a cyclops-like being, which

after swimming around for awhile fastens Fig. 237.

itself by its appendages to the gills of 3

some fish. Then begins the race be-

tween the organs of vegetative and ani-

mal life, the former far outstripping the

latter. As in the Lernæa of the cod the

appendages grow deep into the flesh of

its host like twisted and gnarled roots,

while the shapeless sac-like body is, as

in the Sacculina, a simple sac filled with

eggs. Or the body is still without seg-

ments, as in Lerneonema radiata (Fig.

236, from Verrill’s Report) and ends in

two attenuated ovaries; or as in Actheres

Carpenteri, Fig. 237 (from Hayden’s Re- Fish louse.

port), which lives on trout, the deformation is less, and the body

is divided into a head and abdomen, the latter in the female Leah

ing two ege-sacs.

Fish Louse.

—

588 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

To recapitulate the changes undergone by the Copepods in

attaining maturity, they pass through the following phases of

development :

1. Morula.

2. Nauplius.

3. Cyclopian (in certain genera embryonic) stage.

_ 4, Adult Copepod, in some forms being a degraded more or less

amorphous parasitic condition.

LITERATURE.

iy gee Mikrographische Beiträg geschichte der Wirbell Thi

Berlin,

sey pe den Bau und die Entwicklung einiger parasitischer Crustaceen.

Cassel, 1858.

Van Beneden, E. Recherches, IV. (Bul aie Spee 1870.) See also Fritz

Müller’s Facts for Darwin. Translation. eraa

Development of the Ostracodes and Cladocera. Of the life-his-

tory of the bivalved Ostracodes we only know from Claus’ studies

Fig. 238.

Taps

oe eal at

Sida. 2

that “the youngest stages are shell-hbearing Nauplius forms.” It

seems evident that these creatures undergo no metamorphosis.

: Of the development of the Cladocera, such as the fresh-water —

: “Depkoia and Sida (Fig. 238, from Hayden’s Survey) we have |

: EX certain Biore The eggs are borne by the SE "

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 589

so-called brood-cavities on the back under the shell. The females

bring forth two sorts of eggs, i.e., the “summer eggs,’ which are

laid by asexual females, the males not appearing until the autumn,

when the females lay the fertilized ‘‘ winter eggs,” which are sur-

rounded by a very tough shell.

Dohrn observed the development of the embryo in the summer

eggs. At first the embryo has but three pairs of appendages,

representing the antennz and two pairs of jaws. It is thus com-

parable with the Nauplius of the Copepods, and thus the yan

may be said to pass through a Nauplius stage in the

Afterwards more limbs grow out, until finally a ge is

provided with the full number of adult limbs, and hatches in the

form of the mature animal, undergoing no farther change of form.

dee Mies fh

LITERATURE.

Dohrn. Untersuchungen ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Arthropoden, Leipzig,

1870.

Development of the King Crab (Limulus). Here we must turn

aside from the true Crustacea to study the development of the

king crab, so unlike in its organization to the normal Crustacea,

and remarkable for being an ally of the trilobites.

2 Fig. 239. Fig. 240.

2 al

che”

‘Embryo of King Crab.

Unlike most Crustacea the female king crab buries her eggs in

the sand between tide marks, and there leaves them at the mercy

of the waves, until the young hatch. The eggs are laid between

the end of May and early in July, and the young are from a month

to six weeks in hatching.

After fertilization the yolk undergoes partial segmentation,

much as in the insects. When the primitive disk is formed (much

as in the spiders and certain crabs) the outer layer of blasto-

590 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

dermic cells peels off soon after the limbs begin to appear, and

this constitutes the serous membrane (Fig. 239, am) which is like

that of insects.

Then the limbs bud out. the six pairs of cephalic limbs appear

at oncé as ın Fig. 239. Soon after the two basal pairs of abdomi-

nal leaf-like feet arise, the abdomen becomes separated from the

front region of the body, and the segments are indicated as in Fig.

240. A later stage is signalized by the more highly developed

dorsal portion of, the embryo, an increase in size of the abdomen,

and the appearance of nine distinct abdominal segments. The

segments of the cephalothorax are now very clearly defined, as

also the division between the cephalothorax and abdomen, the

Fig, 241. Fig. 242.

King Urab shortly before hatching; trilobitic stage.

latter being now nearly as broad as the cephalothorax, the sides

of which are not spread out as in a later stage.

At this stage the egg-shell has split asunder and dropped

off, while the serous membrane has increased in size to an’ unusual

extent, several times exceeding its original dimensions and is filled

with sea water in which the embryo revolves.

At a little later period the embryo throws off an embryonal

skin, the thin pellicle floating about in the egg. Still later in the

life of the embryo the claws are developed, an additional rudi-

mentary gill appears, and the abdomen grows broader and larger,

with the segments more distinct; the heart also appears, being a

pale streak along the middle of the back extending from the front

edge of the head to the base of the abdomen.

Just before hatching the head-region spreads out, the abdomen —

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 591

;

being a little more than half as wide as the cephalothorax. The

two compound eyes and the: pair of ocelli on the front edge of

the head are quite distinct ; the appendages to the gills appear on

the two anterior pairs, and the legs are longer.

The resemblance to a Trilobite is most remarkable, as seen in

Figs. 241 and 242. It now also closely resembles the fossil king

crabs of the Carboniferous formation (Fig. 243, Prestwichia ro-

Fig. 213. Fig. 244.

Sia dat ie iad eas S A T EEE E E cd Ng eS OOA wail a one See a

sp aes 5 Gilat

Prestwichia. ' Euproéps.

ER W ee A ag eT EN ee Pes ge en T

=~ tundatus, 244, Euproips Dane, from Worthen’s Paleontology of

Illinois). oe

In about six weeks from the time the eggs are laid the embryo

hatches, It now differs chiefly from the previous stage in the

abdomen being much larger, scarcely less in size than the cephalo-

=~ thorax; in the obliteration of the segments, except where they

= Are faintly indicated on the cardiac region of the abdomen, while

E the gills are much larger than before. The abdominal spine is

Every rudimentary ; it forms the ninth abdominal segment.

= The reader may now compare with our figures of the recently

hatched Limulus, that of Barrande’s larva of Trinucleus ornatus

(Fig. 246, natural size and enlarged). One will see at a glance

` that the young Trilobite, born without any true thoracic segments,

and with the head articulated with the abdomen, closely resembles

the young Limulus. In Limulus no new segments are added after

_ birth; in the Trilobites the numerous thoracic segments are added

during successive moults. The Trilobites thus pass through a

592 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

well marked metamorphosis, though by no means so remarkable

as that of the Decapods and the Phyllopods.

The young swim briskly up and down in the jar, skimming

about on their backs, by flapping their gills, not bending their

bodies. In a succeeding moult, which occurs between three and

four weeks after hatching, the abdomen becomes smaller in pro-

portion to the head, and the abdominal spine is about three times

as long as broad. At this and also in the second, or succeeding

moult, which occurs about four weeks after the first moult, the

Fig. 245. s

Fig. 245.

—

Larva of a Trilobite.

Larva of the King Crab.

young king crab doubles in size. It is probable that specimens

an inch long are about a year old, and it must require several

years for them to attain a length of one foot.

The stages of growth, to recapitulate, are as follows : —

1. Peripheral or partial segmentation of the yolk.

2. No true Nauplius stage, but the six legs appear simulta-

neously.

3. Trilobitic stage.

4. Adult Limulus form attained before hatching.

LITERATURE.

ackard. The Development of Limulus Polyphemus. (Memoirs Boston Society of

er History. :

Consult also papers by Lockwood, Dobrn, and E. Van Beneden.

Development of the Pialiopots: We will now return to the true

Crustacea, and trace the mode of growth of the leaf-footed forms,

beginning with Limnadia (Fig. 548, L. Agassizti Packard, in Hay- _

den’s ea a form with whose Jarolopment we are sennaintad: F

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 593

These shelled crustaceans live in pools which often dry up in

summer. The eggs after leaving the oviduct are arranged above

the back under the carapace, where they remain for one or two

days in midsummer, or for several days during September. The

eggs of the European L. Hermanni are irregular in form and en-

closed in a solid’ calcareous shell composed of two valves. So

thick is the shell that Lereboullet was unable to study the devel-

opment of the embryo. :

The young are hatched in from five to ten days after the expul-

sion of the eggs from under the carapace. The freshly hatched

larva is a nauplius, with the body rather long and with two pairs

of appendages bearing bristles, the anterior pair being forked;

there is a single eye in the middle of the head and an enormous

labrum. Lereboullet states that the larve “have a great resem-

Fig. 247.

Limnadia Agassizii.

blance with the larvæ of other branchiopod crustacea, among oth-

ers with those of Branchipus and Artemia. But the larvee of these

two genera have antennze, which are wanting in the larve of Lim-

nadia, while also the larvee of Artemia have no labrum.” About

the beginning of the second or third day, the two halves of the car-

apace begin to grow out from the sides of the base of the abdomen. `

They finally unite over the back forming a sort of a hinge, and at

length enclose the body, with the exception of the head and extrem-

ity of the abdomen. When the creature is fully grown, the head

and tail are entirely covered by the shells of the carapace. I have

found the young of L. Agussizii about half a line in length in a

pool on Penikese Island early in August. The pool a few days

after dried up, and these young met the fate so common to these

Phyllopods, but the eggs, protected by their solid calcareous cov-

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. 38°

594 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

ering, undoubtedly withstand the desiccation for over one year,

and thus the species is preserved.

The larval development of Apus (Fig. 248, A. equalis Packard,

in Hayden’s Repert) has been studied by Zaddach. We know

nothing of the embryology of this animal. I have, however, been

able to discover that the blastodermic skin, like that of Limulus,

consists of a single layer of moulted cells. Zaddach represents

the chorion, er egg-shell, as splitting apart just as in Limulus, and

Fig. 248.

Fig. 249.

Brine Shrimp, Artemia.

Apus equalis.

the embryo surrounded by an inner membrane, which is the blas- —

todermic skin.

The young breaks out of its blastodermie skin in the nauplius

form. with two pairs of appendages. After a moult a third pair is

added and the larva appears as in Fig. 250, b. ‘The numerous —

foliaceous feet, to the number of sixty, are added during subse-

quent moults.

Of the embryological development of Branchipus and Artemia

x g 249, A. gracilis, after V -a we also kso uot.. ng: The :

Mery

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 595

young is hatched in a nauplius condition (Fig. 250, a) but with

: three pairs of limbs. I have observed a similar nauplius-brood in

the Artemia fertilis of Great Salt Lake. Fig. 250.

As in Apus, new pairs are added at sub- b

sequent moults until the adult form is

attained. Siebold has shown that the

summer broods of females reproduce by

budding, as is probably the case in Lim-

nadia and also Branchipus and Artemia,

the males not appearing until towards

autumn, though I have found males of

Artemia fertilis in great abundance in

Great Salt Lake late in July. Fig. 251

represents Branchipus (Branchinectes)

Coloradensis (Packard, in Hayden’s Re-

port), the female being distinguished by if

the short clasping antennze, and the long . Larva of Apus; a, Artemia.

egg-sac at the base of the abdomen.

The Phyllopods, then, with whose embryological development we

are not acquainted, after hatching pass through a nauplius stage,

and the adult condition is attained after a number of moults.

LITERATURE.

Joly. Histoire ee petit rusinos Co salina), etc. (Annales des Sc. N ag , 1840. )

Zaddach. De Anatome et Historia Evolutionis. Bonn. I8f1.

Lereboullet. Observations sur la Génération et le Developpement de la Pine :

Hermanni. (Annales des Sc. Nat., 1866.) i

Development of Nebalia. A great degree of interest attaches

to the life-history of this animal, which is not uncommon in deep

water off our coast. It is a relict of a group still older than the |

king crab, being represented in the primordial rocks by Hymeno-

caris, and in lower Silurian strata by Discinocaris and Peltocaris,

and in the upper Silurian by Ceratiocaris and other*forms, gigantic

in size (some of them being about seven inches long) compared

with the recent Nebalia, which is about half an inch in length.

Nebalia is regarded by Metschnikoif as a Decapod; it may b> re-

garded at least as a connecting link between the Phy llopods and-

Decapods, and as a prophetic type preceding, in paleozoic time, te o

introduction of the mesozoic Decapods.

Judging py the plates of Metschnikoff’s memoir, for the text is

Written in Russian (a sealed language to us), the early develop- E

596 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

ment of Nebalia is apparently identical with that of Oniscus, as

studied by Bobretzky, and probably all the Tetradecapods, and

also with that of perhaps the majority of the Decapods. As in

Oniscus the segmentation is partial, the blastodermic cells arising

from the subdivision of a polar cell, finally forming a blastodermic

disk consisting of a few large cells. At first but three pairs of

appendages arise; these corresponding to the two pairs of an-

tennz and the third to the mandibles. At this period the abdo-

Fig. 251.

Branchinectes Coloradensis and front view of head of the male.

men is distinct from the cephalothorax, but on the whole the em-

bryo may be said to pass through a nauplius stage.

Then the two pairs of maxille and two pairs of feet arise si-

multaneously, the abdomen increases considerably in length, when

the ten other pairs of foliaceous feet spring forth. Meanwhile

the bivalved carapace grows out from behind the eyes, covering

the cephalothorax and base of the abdomen. The young hatches

soon after the shield is developed and the further changes are but

slight.

The Nebalia, then, in brief, passes through the following stages:

1. Partial segmentation of the yolk.

2. Nauplius stage (in the egg).

3. Larval form like the adult; with no metamorphosis.

LITERATURE.

Metschnikof. The History of the Development of Nebalia. (In Russian.) St. Pe-

tersburg, 1868.

Development of the Tetradecapods. Much good work has been

done since the days of Rathke, on the mode of growth of the fresh

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 597

and salt water sow-bugs, etc. (Isopods), and the beach fleas (Am-

phipods). The development of the Asellus aquaticus of Europe

has been studied by E. Van Beneden. He found that the seg-

mentation of the yolk is partial; that after a blastodermic moult

the two pairs of antennz are formed before the mandibles and

maxillz, the embryo passing through a Nauplius phase. At this

time the embryo moults again. Like all Tetradecapods the young

hatch in the form of the adult, there being no metamorphosis. Per-

haps the most careful study of the embryology of the higher crus-

tacea, with the improved means of examination instituted mainly

‘by Kowalevsky, is that of Oniscus murarius, a sow-bug, by Dr.

N. Bobretzky, a student of the eminent Russian zoologist. The

following is an abstract of his paper. The egg is provided with a

chorion and yolk skin. The first change after fertilization is the

origin of the formative or original blastodermic cells, which arise

at one pole of the eg As a result of the self-division of the

single primitive iastodunte cell, there arises a disk corresponding

to the primitive streak of other articulates, consisting of a single

layer of large spheres of segmentation. It thus appears that the

segmentation is partial.

Before one-half of the surface of the egg is covered, the middle

and inner germ-layers are indicated by a mass of cells in the con-

cavity of the outer layer, resulting from the division of some cells

of the outer layer. This primitive mass is the first indication of

the innermost (third) and middle layers. The third or inner layer

consists of large cells mingled with the yolk cells, among which

they press. (He finds this to be the case also in Crangon and

Palemon.) There are, then, three germ-layers as in the verte-

rates.

The primitive disk, or streak, then forms by the cells of the

outer layer assuming a cylindrical form. The first indication of

the intestine is an invagination of the hinder end of the primitive

band. A larval skin, like that of Asellus and other crustacea,

arises when the first traces of the appendages appear. Bobretzky

finds that, contrary to Kowalevsky’s opinion, the inner germ-layer

in the crustacea agrees with that of vertebrates. Soon after the

limbs grow out, a cross-section shows that it is due to a bulging

out of the outer germ-layer, the cavity being filled with cells of

the middle layer. Now appear the first indications of the liver, a

layer of large cells forming the liver sac. After the appendages

598 4 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

appear, the nervous cord arises as a thickening of the outer layer

on the ventral side of the primitive band, and consists of three or

four layers of roundish cells. Fig. 252 (this and Fig. 253, after

Fig. 252. Bobretzky) is a transverse sec-

tion of an embryo in nearly the

same stage as the embryo Am-

phipod (Fig. 254); d indicates

the intestine, and /, the two lobes

of the liver; g, a transverse sec-

tion of the nervous cord, and h,

the walls of the body (hypoder-

mal layer). The opening of the

liver into the intestine is shown

in another section made and

drawn by Bobretzky.

One of the most difficult prob-

lems to solve in the embryology

of the Arthropods is the origin of the large intestine. It is

known that it arises out of the yolk sac, but how and where it

takes its origin remained without an answer. “After I had as-

certained, ” says Bobretzky, ‘in the Astacus and Palemon the

_ peculiar relation of the intestino-glandular cells to the yolk, I

could, in these Crustacea, follow step by step the origin of the epi-

thelium constituting the walls of the large intestine. This

epithelium first appears in the liver sac.” He found the same

‘mode of origin in Oniscus. The next step is the disappearance

of the yolk, while the large intestine is fully

formed, but there is as yet no communication

with the stomach, there being a double wall of

cells shutting off the large intestine.

The heart is the last to be formed; it arises

from thé middle layer, though Bobretzky was

unable to study its early development. Fig.

253 is a transverse section of the body show-

ing the viscera; A, indicates the heart ; hp, hy- y

podermal layer, or body wall; m, muscular Section of advanced

wall of the intestine ; e, epithelial lining of the embryo Sow-bug.

intestine ; p, the dividing wall between the heart and the intestine ;

l, the two lobes of the liver; g, ganglion, the clear space being

filled with the fine granular substance of the ganglion. Nothing

Section of Embryo Sow-bug.

Fig. 253.

has been said of the development of the external parts. The two

antenne in Oniscus and Asellus are the first to bud out (Nau-

plius stage) and then the remaining appendages of the head and

thorax appear together, and subsequently the abdominal feet are

formed. The abdomen is curved up and backwards, while in the

Amphipods it is bent beneath the

ody, as in Fig. 254, and this is

really, as Fritz Müller observes, the

only important difference between

the embryos, at an early gtage, of

the two groups. ‘lhe embryo Isopod

at the time of batching closely resem-

bles the adult, there being no meta-

morphosis.

The development of the Amphi-

pods or beach fleas, is nearly identical

ee 254.

Embryo of an Am

with that of the Isopods. The eggs 4, head; aa" antennee ; k pT n

~ | : outh-parts.

of certain species undergo total seg-

mentation, while those of other species of the same genus (Gam-

marus) partially segment, as in the spiders, and in a less degree

the insects, showing the slight importance to be attached to this

matter, and that Heeckel’s term Morula when used for the total

segmentation of Crustacea is of little significance, how much it

may be in the lower animals. It should be borne in mind that it :

has been used in the present work mainly as a convenient term to

avoid circumlocution.

Fig. 254, after Müller, represents the embryo of a Che

magnified ninety diameters, in which all the limbs are developed.

Summary of changes :—

1. Segmentation of the i partial, or total orula).

2. Nauplius state in the eg

8. Larva hatching i in the ea of the adult with the full number

of feet; no metamorphosis.

LITERATURE.

Van Beneden; Ẹ. L Oenf. Brussels, 1870.

3 I. (Bull. Acad. Bruxelles, 1869.)

rn. Die embryonale Batwickelung des Asellus aquaticus, (Siebold and Kö Ni-

weg cee ak i 185

2 Zur Morphologle, Reisebemerkungen aus Taurien. Leipzig.

Untersuchungen gra die Bildung und Entwickelung der ‘wanda j

thke.

Tram aquaticus). Leipz

3 Chrift.

ig, 1 ae

Bobretzky. Zur Embryologie. en Oniscus murarius. (Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeits-

1874.)

600 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

Development of the Decapods. When we come to the stalk-eyed

Crustacea, such as the shrimps and crabs, we are introduced to

a group of animals in which there is a most striking metamor-

phosis, as first shown by Thompson. The life-history of a Deca-

pod is full of interest and significance, as the phases which some

present from the larval stage up are as varied and astonishing as

the biography of any animal known. In the group as a whole,

we have species in which the metamorphoses are performed in

great detail and complexity of form, the animal shifting its garb

as if an actor with many parts to perform in the drama of life,

while in its co-species these phases may be mostly suppressed, and

the few it does undergo, rapidly assumed and discarded within

the narrow compass of the egg-shell.

One Decapod, the shrimp Penzus, studied by Fritz Müller, on

the coast of Brazil, is an exception to all other stalk-eyed Crus-

tacea in hatching as a true nauplius, and then by a complicated

series of metamorphoses assuming the zoéa and finally adult

life. On the other hand, there is the common lobster, or fres

water craw fish, whose free nauplius and zoéa stages are sup-

pressed, undergone in the egg, and which hatches in nearly or

quite a similar form to the fully grown animal. Between these

stages there are all grades in other Crustacea.

As regards the development of the embryo, there is in those

species which undergo a metamorphosis, a quite similar mode.

The yolk so far as known (Scyllarus, Astacus, etc.) undergoes

partial segmentation: no case of a total division is as yet known.

After the formation of a short round primitive streak, or band,

the limbs arise. In several cases observed by Dohrn, the three

anjerior pairs of limbs, namely, the two antennæ and the mandi-

bles were developed simultaneously and before the others appear.

The embryo may with truth, then, as Dohrn states, be said to pass

through a nauplius condition in the egg, as much as a mammal

passes through a fish-like stage. He observed this nauplius-stage

in the embryo of Scyllarus, Pandalus and Galathea. I have ob-

served it in Lupa hastata at Charleston, S. C., and Libinia canali-

culatd. It is not improbable that most crabs pass through a

nauplius state. As if in proof of the supposition held that this

is a true nauplius in embryo, we have the fortunate discovery, by

Fritz Müller, of the fact that a Brazilian shrimp (Penzus, allied to

P. setiferus of Florida) leaves the egg “with an unsegmented

- ovate body, a median frontal eye, and three pairs of natatory feet,

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 601

of which the anterior are simple, and the other two biramose ; in

fact, in the larval form, so common among the lower Crustacea,

to which O. F. Miller gave the name of Nauplius. No trace of

a carapace! No trace of the paired eyes! No trace of masticating

organs near the mouth which is overarched by a helmet-like hood !”

Let us, with Miller, follow the subsequent history of this young

shrimp. After passing through the nauplius condition (Fig. 255)

it acquires several pairs of appendages (maxillæ and maxillipedes),

but as yet no true legs. It is now a typical zoéa (Fig. 256) hav-

ing two compound eyes, a carapace and a jointed body. The next

Fig. 255.

Nauplius, or larva, of a Shrimp.

important step is the appearance of the five pairs of thoracic feet,

and soon the mature form of the prawn is attained.

Most true Decapods, namely, the shrimps and crabs, are hatched

as zoëæ (Fig. 257 after Thompson, represents the zoea of Car-

cinus menas), and swim about awhile in this state, the swimming

feet being the antennz and jaws and foot jaws, which afterwards

acquire a digestive function.

Now one species of the genus Alpheus, observed by the writer at

Key West, is hatched in a more advanced condition ; in what may be

Called a super-zoeal state, namely, it possesses not only five pairs

of thoracic feet, but also five pairs of swimming, biramose abdom-

inal feet, with the characteristic large claw! Here we have a sup-

602 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSEOTS.

pression of a true zoéal free swimming condition, just as we have

seen to be the case in all the other groups of the animal kingdom,

where one species may be born in an extremely imper ect condi-

tion, and another, even of the same genus, is born in a very per-

fect state, the intermediate phases being rapidly assumed and as

rapidly discarded in the em

ont

ryo.

A less extreme case is that of the lobster, which hatches without

abdominal feet, but still with well developed thoracic legs. The

Zoéa of the same Shrimp.

larva is super-zoéal. The most extreme case, namely of an entire

absence of a metamorphosis, is the cray-fish (Astacus and Cam-

barus), which hatches exactly in the form of the parent.

These facts are paralleled by the metamorphosis of the insects,

where the terms “larva” and “pupa” are exceedingly arbitrary,

the larval bee or fly attaining maturity only after a series of sur-

prising changes, while the larval grasshopper simply differs from

e adult in having no wings.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 603

Crabs breed all through the spring and summer. At Charleston,

S. C., on the 12th of April, I found the eggs Fig. 257.

of the edible crab, Lupa hastata, containing

embryos in all stages of development from

the nauplius to the zoéa. The fiddler crabs

(Gelasimus pugnax) at Fort Macon, N.

during the middle of May, carried eggs in

which the polar cells, or formative cells of

the blastoderm, were present, while others

contained zoéz, with the two claws alike,

and it is probable that the strange inequality

in size of the claws in these animals does

not show itself until after one or more

moults.

The development of the lobster has been

studied with much care by Prof. S. I. Smith. eee SANS, o

_ The lobster breeds between April and November. Fig. 259! rep-

resents the embryo just before hatching. After hatching it swims

Fig. 258.

Embryo of the Lobster.

around with the thoracic feet. After eai the abdominal feet

haf ees A ee th

ms i

and shown ini a side view, enlarged 20 diameters. aa, dark green yolk mass still un-

Absorbed; b, lateral margin of the carapax marked with many dendritic spots of red —

i cheli

Pigment; ¢, eo

Which forms the big claw of the adult; h, outer swimming branch of the same; i, the ,

four ambulatory e with their exopodal branches; &, intestine; /, heart; m, bilobed

tail seen edgewise. Smith.

604 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

arise. After a second moult it is half an inch lon z and loses its

Fig. 259.

Zoéa of the Common Crab.

Fig. 260

7 -Megalops of the Common Crab.

formerly Mysis-like appearance and closely resembles the adult.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 605

Soon after this it leaves the surface of the water and seeks the

bottom. Speeimens three inches long are quite like the adults.

Besides the zoéa stage, many crabs pass through a stage inter-

mediate between the zoéa and adult. This is called the Megalops

stage, as it was supposed to be an adult animal and described

under this term, just as early observers mistook the Nauplius and

Zoéa for adult Crustacea. Fig. 259 a (this and 260 after Smith)

represent the zoéa of the common Crab (Cancer irroratus) in the

last stage just before it changes to the megalops condition, and

Fig. 260 the megalops of the same, magnified thirteen diameters.

In two cases, Eriphia spinifrons, and a species of Gecarcinus, or

the land crab of the West Indies, there is no metamorphosis, the

young being like the adult.

Summary of the life-history of the Decapods:

1. Partial segmentation of the yolk.

2. Nauplius stage; either free swimming or undergone in the

egg.

3. Zoéa stage; sometimes suppressed.

4. Megalops stage; in many crabs; in a few cases no meta-

morphosis.

5. Adult.

LITERATURE.

Rathke. Untersuchungen ueber die Bildung und Entwickelung des Flusskrebses.

Leipzig, 1829.

ompson, J. V. On the double metamorphosis in the Decapodous Crustacea.

Dohrn. Untersuchungen ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Arthropoden. (Siebold

and Kölliker’s Zeitschrift. 1870. Jenaischen Zeitschrift. V. 1871.

mith. The metamorphoses of the lobster and other Crustacea (in Baird’s Report

on Fish and Fisheries, U. S. 1873).

With papers by Thompson, Rathke and Claus.

II. THE INSECTS. (Tracheata.)

Under the term Insecta may be included the three groups of

Myriopods, Arachnids and true six-footed insects, or Hexapoda.

All differ from the Crustacea in having, as a rule, for there are ex-

ceptions among the mites, a distinct head, separate from the tho-

rax, and in breathing by internal air-tubes (tracheæ) instead of —

external gills. Without spending much time in describing the

metamorphoses of the winged insects, accounts of which may be

found in any entomological work, we will briefly describe their

_ embryological development, from sources less generally accessible.

606 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

Development of the Myriopods. Though Newport’s classical

memoir on the development of Julus will be fountl useful for the

post-embryonic stages, the indefatigable Metschnikoff has recently

cleared up the embryological development of these animals, so that

we are now in possession of a life-history of these creatures, the

early phases of whose existence had thus far eluded the scrutiny

of embryologists. 7

We will now follow Metschnikoff in his studies, beginning with

the history of a Polydesmus-like form, Strongylosoma Guerinii,

an inhabitant of the island of Madeira. The eggs were laid dur-

ing a period extending from February to the end of May. Before

ovipositing the female buries herself in the earth one or more

inches below the surface, then depositing one or two hundred eggs

in the manner of several other Myriopods. The eggs are spherical,

yellowish-white, and from 1-3 mm. in diameter. :

The egg undergoes total segmentation, the process beginning in

six or eight hours after it is laid, and ending on the fourth or fifth

day. By this time the primitive band rests on the outside of one-

half of the egg. A furrow next arises (as in the first figure of the

Podurid, Isotoma) on,each side of which the primitive ridges

afterwards swell up. The two germ-layers now arise, the inner

originating in a small mass of cells on each side of the furrow.

The antenne bud out, and subsequently three additional pairs,

namely, the mandibles, the second maxillæ (the first pair wanting

in the Chilognaths as in the Poduridee) and the first pair of legs ;

and now the two ends of the body meet over the yolk as in the

Podurids, the head touching the tail.

The brain is now formed from the outer germ-layer (ectoderm),

the mouth and anal opening also being formed by an invagination

of the same outer layer, the inner layer constituting ultimately

the muscular walls of the digestive tract, while the epithelial lin-

ing of the large intestine also arises from the inner germ-layer.

On the fifteenth, and early on the sixteenth, day the ‘boring

apparatus,” a chitinous point by which the embryo cuts open the

- shell, appears on the head. The legs now assume their form, the

fourth and fifth pair belonging to a single segment. The embryo

‘now moults, the skin forming a cuticle enveloping the embryo

after the shell splits asunder. The nervous cord arises from the

middle portion of the upper germ-layer, though the division of the

-layer into an epidermal and nerve-layer has not yet taken place. —

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 607

By the sixteenth, the chorion is cut through by the point of the

- egg-shell breaker when it splits apart, and the embryo thus remains

covered by this membrane until the larva is ready to creep about,

a curious fact first observed in Julus by Newport.

_By the seventeenth day nine or ten true segments are formed,

and the appendages begin to show articulations, while beneath

the skin, the fourth, fifth and sixth pairs of feet arise as little sacs,

opening in the middle line of the body. The two stigmata arise

as a fine tube with a small opening on the basal end of the third

pair of feet, the walls of the tube (trachea) being due to an in-

pushing of the outer germ-layer. The epidermis is now well de-

fined and the nervous cord is isolated from the skin, while on the

nineteenth, or last day of embryonal life, the hairs arise over the

ody. The embryo would now easily be mistaken for a Podurid

_ so remarkable is the resemblance, owing to the similar number of

body-segments, and the large head, wanting in both animals the

true maxille.

On the twentieth day the larva breaks through the membrane,

and the head is clearly separated from the body. The larva closely

resembles the young Julus, being as yet cylindrical, and having

but nine rings besides the head. ,

In Polydesmus complanatus of the Madeira islands, the egg also

undergoes total segmentation, but the embryo develops more rap-

idly, being by the fifth day covered wt: a membrane.

Meanwhile the antennæ have appeared, and on the sixth

day five additional pairs of limbs bud out, namely, the

mandibles, second maxillz (labium) and three pairs of

legs. There is no shell breaker, the shell bursting, how-

ever, on the tenth day. The mandibles are very large,

almost covering the labium. The larva is cylindrical,

the body (the head excepted) consisting of seven seg-

ments

The development of the singular Polyxenus lagurus,

a little short creature with the body covered with fasci-

cles of hairs, was observed by the Russian embryologist

in Switzerland.

` The egg undergoes total segmentation, but the blastoderm is

restricted to one pole o” the egg, being disk-like. The antennæ

-and mouth-parts arise as in the foregoing genera, but the three

_ pairs of legs appear ener: — found am@æ-

608 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

boid bodies, like those in the mites, moving about in the egg,

having previously separated from the blastoderm.

e now come to the development of the Thousand-legs (Fig. 262)

which was first studied by Newport. Our skilful Russian embryol-

Fig. 202, ogist, with all the advantage of modern means of inves-

tigation, and possibly by observing more transparent

eggs than those studied by the famous English zoolo-

gist, has thrown a flood of light on the embryonic

stages of a species (Julus Morelettii) observed by him

in Madeira. The eggs were laid in November, rarely

in the spring, and not at all in the summer, being de-

posited in rounded masses under the surface of the

earth, as in the other Chilognathic myriopods. They are

oval, dirty greenish white. with the shell unfortunately

more opake than in the other genera mentioned. Here,

also, as in the others, the segmentation was total, a

thing not known to occur in the Hexapods (the Pod-

urids excepted), and rarely in the Arachnids, chiefly in

the mites. The primitive band arises on one side.

Julus. There is a blastodermic moult, like that of many Crus-

tacea, and corresponding to the ‘*deutovum” of certain Acari.

The two germ-layers were observed to arise as in the other

genera, while the three cephalic appendages (antenne, man-

dibles and second maxille) appear as in the other Myriopods.

The shell splits, as first observed by Newport,

and the retort-shaped embryo remains enveloped

in the blastodermic skin, remaining connected

with the chorion by a fine structureless mem-

brane. By this time four additional pairs of

limbs, like little buds, are visible under the lar-

val skin, which is homologous with that of the

Isopods. The head is free from the thorax, and

the body composed of eight segments. The

embryo before hatching is as in Fig. 263 (after

Newport), there being no feet on the third ring

from the head. This, however, is not apparently

a fact of much morphological importance, as in

Geophilus the embryo has a pair of feet on each body segment.

In the figure, a indicates the rudiments of the new limbs, and b,

the six new rings growing out from between the penultimate and

last ring of the body.

Fig. 263.

Larva of Julus.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 609

Metschnikoff discovered in all the embryo Myriopods studied by

him certain paired bodies which he names ‘‘ primitive-vertebree-

like bodies.” He has also noticed them in the Scorpion, the Pha-

langids, Araneids, Mysis and some other Crustacea, Termes and

several Oligochete worms.

en we turn to the embryology of the Poduride we ‘shall see

how much alike those insects and the Chilognaths are in the mode

of development of the embryo, and should also bear in mind the

fact that the Poduras also have but a single pair of maxillee, while

Scolopendrella is half insect and half Myriopod. The conclusion

that the Myriopods are a subclass of the class of insects is thus

based on morphological and embryological grounds.

A later paper of Metschnikoff’s gives us, for the fir st time, the

life-history of Geophilus, one of the Centipedes or Chilopod

Iyriopods. He found that the yolk undergoes a total segmenta-

tion, and the primitive band surrounds one-half of Fig. 264.

the yolk. In the next stage observed the antenne

and three pairs of jaws were developed (for there are

besides the mandibles, two pairs of maxille, like

those of insects, in the Centipedes) besides twenty-

three segments. The anal opening was situated in

the unsegmented end of the body.: In the next stage

the primitive band is much longer than before, and

the head and tail approach nearer to each other,

while there are now from forty-four to forty-six body

segments, most of them bearing rudimentary appen-

dages, though there are none as yet on the end of the

body. In a succeeding stage the head is much larger,

the body longer and curved over the yolk, while the

egg-shell breaker is situated on the second maxilla.

In a following stage the body is still more elongated Geophilus.

and the joints of the antennz appear. The embryo now slips out

of the split shell, the body being very long and cylindrical, not

yet flattened as in maturity (Fig. 264 represents an American

. Geophilus), while the feet are not jointed, and resemble the ventral

cirri of annelides.

We see then that the Centipedes (Chilopoda) differ from the

Thousand-legs (Chilognaths) in the mouth-parts being of the same

number as in insects, and that the young are born with a pair of

feet on each of the three oameni hebing the head, while the

AMER. NATURALIÐT, VOL. IX

610 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

larva is provided with nearly the full number of feet on the rest

of the body, there being no metamorphosis. The body, at first

cylindrical, afterwards becomes flattened. Thus the Centipedes

may be said in some degree to pass through a Julus condition,

and at all events, both morphologically and embryologically, the

Centipede is a more highly developed creature than the Thousand-

legs, a view we have always taken, but felt was rather based on @

priori conceptions than on a sure basis of facts, now happily af-

forded by the beautiful researches of Metschnikoff. To sum up

the phases of development of the Myriopods we have, then : —

1. Morula stage.

2. A hexapod larva (Leptus form) as in the Thousand-legs ; or,

as in the Centipedes, there is no metamorphosis, the young being

like the parent.

3. Adult.

LITERATURE.

Ni rt. On the Organs of Reproduction, ana the Development of the Myriopoda.

(Phil. Trans. 1841.)

Metsch Embryologie der doppelt-fiissigen Myriapoden (Chilognatha). (Sie-

bold and KGlliker’s Zeitschrift. 1874.

——. Embryologisches ueber Geophilus. (Siebold and Kolliker’s Zeitschrift. 1875.)

Development of the Mites. Coming now to the mites and spi-

ders, we find some peculiar ‘features in the life-history of the

former which deserve attention, though space compels us to be

brief at the risk of being obscure. Most mites pass through a

metamorphosis, some undergoing striking changes within the egg.

For example, the Ataz Bonzi, which is a parasite on the gills of

fresh water muscles, first hatches in an oval form enveloped in

a membrane (deutovum). From this “ deutovum” is developed a

six-footed larva. In this second larva state it is free, moving over

the gills of the mussels, finally boring into the flesh of its host to

nndergo its next transformation. Here the young mite increases

in size and becomes round. The tissues soften, the limbs are

short and much larger than before, the animal assuming an em-

bryo-like appearance, and moving about like a rounded mass in

its enclosure. After a moult it assumes the so-called “ pupa-

state.” During this process the limbs grow much shorter and are

folded beneath the body, the animal being immovable, while the

whole body assumes a broadly ovate form, and looks like an em-

bryo just before hatching, but still lying within the egg.

In the genus Myobia, a parasite of the European field-mouse,

_ LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 611

there is not only a “ deutovum,” but also what Claparède calls a

‘* tritovum-stage,” there being two stages with distinct embryonal

membranes before the six-legged free larval state is assumed, the

larva when hatching having thrown off two membranes, as well as

the egg-shell. Certain bird-mites pass through four stages to

reach the male condition, while the females pass through as many

as five before attaining sexual Fig. 265.

maturity. Fig. 265 illustrates

the six-legged larva of the tick,

which is simply a large mite. The

eggs of the mites either undergo

total segmentation or a partial

one, as in the spiders.

The water-bears or Tardigrades

are born with four pairs of legs,

not undergoing any metamorpho- -

sis. Not so, however, with cer-

tain worm-like mites, which by

their parasitic life lose all resem-

blance to other mites and are

often mistaken for intestinal worms. I refer to the Pentastoma

and Linguatula. Here the metamorphosis is backwards, the young

after passing through a morula condition, being born as short,

plump, oval mites, provided with boring horny jaws, but with only

two short rudimentary legs.

Finally, we come to those problematical forms, the sea-spiders,

or Pycnogonide, which are often referred to the Crustacea, whose

development has been so faithfully studied by Dr. Dohrn. The

yolk undergoes total segmentation, and the young are hatched

with three pairs of legs, which after — attain in some spe-

cies an extraordinary length.

To sum up, then, certain mites pass through either—

1. A Morula state, or the yolk only partially divides.

2. Sometimes one or two embryonal stages (deutovum FA

tritovum).

3. A six-legged larval state.

4. a « pupal” state.

dul

Tick and Six-legged Young.

LITERATURE. :

Claparède. Studien an Acariden. (Siebold and K6lliker’s Zeitschrift. 1868.)

Bau und — der Pentastomen. Leipzig und

Heidelburg. 1860,

612 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

Dohrn. Untersuchungen ueber Bau und Entwicklung der Arthropoden. Heft. I.

187 i

Consult also papers by Dugès, Doyère, Müller, Van Beneden, Robin and others.

Development of the False-scorpions (Fig. 266). Some most un-

expected features occur in the life-history of these little tailless

Fig. 266. scorpion-like creatures, which are found

; living under the bark of trees, and under

stones, ete. The female runs about in

early summer pressing the eggs to the

under side of its body by means of its

claws or nippers.

Here, as in most mites, the segmenta-

tion of the yolk is total. The blastoderm

forms, and then a singular feature ensues,

False-scorpion. blastoderm, increasing the size of the egg

very materially and containing small bodies; suggesting an em-

bryonal membrane, though Metschnikoff does not regard it as

truly such. Soon the blastoderm becomes two-layered.

Next arise the rudiments of the two large claws, before any other

limbs appear; at the same time a huge projection forms on the

head, with indications of muscular bands. This strange appear-

ance is merely a sort of temporary upper lip,’ At this time the end

of the body is conical and curved beneath the abdomen. In this

imperfect stage the embryo sheds a skin and then breaks through

the delicate egg-membrane, becoming free, though the larva, kan-

garoo-like, is still attached to the under side of the mother Cheli-

fer, where it remains until it has completed its metamorphoses,

though of course it derives no nourishment from its mother.

Now the embryo-larva is nearly as long as broad, with the sin-

gular hood-like upper lip, and the rudiments of the first pair of

feet directly behind the enormous rudimentary nippers. Within

are no signs of a digestive sac or any other organs, simply a mass

of yolk cells.

In the second larva-state the body is broader than long, the

‘upper lip” diminutive in size, and the mandibles and four pairs

of legs are present. Here also, as in the scorpions and the spi-

ders, four pairs of deciduous abdominal feet appear (such as our

author has also seen in Phalangium and Forficula). There are

now seven segments in the abdomen.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 613

The larval skin is after a while ruptured, and the insect deserts

its parent, in a form like that of the mature animal.

It will thus be seen that the first larva of Chelifer is comparable

with that of certain low mites, but very different from the Scor-

pion, its nearest ally, the segmentation of the yolk being total, as

in most mites, the sea spiders, Pentastoma and the Tardigrades,

while the larval condition is on a still lower plane of existence

than the Nauplius of the lower Crustacea. The false-scorpion

differs much more from the spiders, the scorpion and other Pedi-

palps, than the harvest-man (Phalangium) Phrynus and the

Acarina.

The harvest-men, or daddy-long-legs, as the researches of

Metschnikoff and Balbiani show, develop as in the spiders, differ-

ing from them only in the want of a provisional post-abdomen and

the relatively smaller abdomen.

he false-scorpions pass through, then :

rula stage. .

2. Hatching in the’ first larval state, with but one pair of ap-

pendages (maxilla).

3. Second larval state, with all the limbs present, but envel- .

oped in a larval skin.

4, Throwing off the larval skin, becoming free and with the

form of the adult animal.

‘LITERATURE.

Metschnikof. Entwicklungsgeschichte des Chelifer. Siebold and Kélliker’s Zeits-

„Chrift fiir wedig Zoologie. Leipzig, 1871.)

Development of the Scorpions, etc. (Pedipalps). In a beautiful

memoir by Metschnikoff on the embryology of the Scorpion we

have full details regarding the embryonic life of this animal, which

brings forth its young alive early in summer; being one of the

very few viviparous insects known. His studies were made on

three species of Scorpio found in southern Europe. The females

are big with young at the end of spring or early in summer. I

have observed this to be the case with the scorpion of the Florida

Keys. :

The earliest phases of development take place in the follicles of

the ovary. The blastoderm is formed out of a few polar cells just

as in the higher crustacea (Isopods and Decapods). It is at first

a round disc, which eventually splits into o germ-layers. Soon

614 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

it becomes oval, the larger end being the head-end. The next

step is the formation of a primitive longitudinal furrow, and after-

wards of two transverse creases dividing the germ into three por-

tions, the anterior the head, the middle portion the thorax and

abdomen, and the third, the so-called post-abdomen.

e egg now leaves the follicle and descends into the oviduct.

The head grows broader, and by this time the germ is subdivided

into twelve segments, from which the appendages next bud out.

The mouth may be discerned, the claws are indicated, the post-

abdomen is folded on the body and the nerve-ganglia may be de-

tected arising from the outer germ-layer. , The embryo is now sur-

rounded by a membrane composed of two layers of quite dissimilar

cells.

A singular feature, also noticeable in other Insecta, is the pres-

ence of six pairs of deciduous abdominal feet, which directly as-

‘sume the form of horizontal plates, with a terminal button, which

finally disappear, the four pairs of stigmata taking their place ;

the second pair, however, become converted into the comb-like

tracheal gills, so that it is evident that these are exvaginate stig-

ma The germ (primitive band) is now broader, and the limbs

have a more definite outline and are jointed, while the head is

narrower than before, assuming the shape of that of the adult.

Metschnikoff claims that there are three germ-layers in the

Scorpion, homologous with those of the vertebrates.

A summary of the chief events in the development of the scor-

pion is as follows:

1. Partial segmentation of the yolk, the embryo developing

within the oviduct.

2. The young is brought forth by the mother, in a form exactly

like the adult, and about half an inch long, about a dozen being

produced in a season.

LITERATURE,

Rathke. Zur Morphologie. Reisebemerkungen aus Taurien. 1837.

Metschnikof. Embryologie des Scorpions. (Siebold and Killiker’s Zeitschrift. 1870.)

Development of the Spider. From the life-history of one spider

we may learn that of all, as there is much uniformity in the mode

of development of all those species whose growth has been yet

observed. The eggs are laid usually in silken cocoons. All un-

dergo partial segmentation of the yolk, which is surrounded by

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 615

a blastoderm, which thickens on one side forming the primitive

band, eventually becoming marked off into rings or zones, as in `

Fig. 267. Fig. 268. Fig. 269.

Development of the Spider. After Claparède.

Fig. 267. The primitive band elongates, new segments appear,

(Fig. 268) until finally the germ appears when drawn as if spread

out, as in Fig. 269. Besides the rudi- Fig. 270.

ments of the two pairs of head-appen-

dages (i.e., the mandibles and maxille)

and the four pairs of legs, there are at

first four, as in the figure, and subse-

quently six pairs of deciduous abdomi-

nal feet as in the Scorpion and two

other species of tracheate insects.

Soon the mouth-parts and legs grow

270. Finally, the head, originally dis-

tinct from the thorax, becomes soldered

to the thorax; the eyes appear and the

animal is rapidly perfected, the spider being hatched in a form

like the adult, differing only in size and its paleness of color; the

changes in after life being almost imperceptible. All spiders,

then, so far as known:

1. Undergo in the egg state a partial segmentation of the yolk,

and

2. Are hatched in the adult form, having no metamorphosis.

Advanced embryo of the Spider.

616 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

LITERATURE.

erold, De Marbur,

rekan a pierre ig sur Evolution des. ying ' Utrecht, 1862.

Development of the true Insect. While the history of the winged

insects before hatching is much the same in the different orders, —

there are some exceptional modes of development possessing a

high degree of interest on account of the resemblance to the mode

of embryonic growth of still lower animals. First I will give an

epitome of the changes observed by myself "oS the egg of a

272.

Fig. 274.

' Development of a Poduran,

oduran. The eggs were not studied until after the formation of

the blastoderm, but Ulianin of Moscow has ascertained that the

eggs of certain Podurids undergo total segmentation, in this fea-

ture, as indeed in some of the other phases of embryonic life,

closely resembling the Myriopods. Fig. 271 shows the primitive

band infolded at a, as in the Myriopod germ. A more advanced

stage (Fig. 272) shows the rudimentary appendages (1-3, I-III) the

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 617

second maxille or labium, not being present. (It will be remem- -

bered that a pair of maxille are also wanting in the Thousand-

- legs.) The next change is the clos-

ure of the body-walls over the yolk,

and the appearance of the rudiments `

of the ‘“‘spring.” By this time the

serous membrane is formed, being a

tough membrane enveloping the

` Fig. 275.

germ. In a su

intestine is formed and the rudi-

ments of the antennee and legs have

greatly increased in size. Still later,

the appendages begin to show traces

of joints. In a later period (Fig. 273, 274 a) the head is quite

Fig. 276.

g b

Platygaster.

Development of Platygaster. o

separate from the rest of the body, the antennæ (at) are of much

the sameřłshape as in the larva, while the upper lip (labrum)Jand

clypeus are clearly indicated, and the spring (sp) is fully formed.

Soon after, the “finishing touches” are, as it were, put on, and

the mandibles and maxilla (md and mæ) are withdrawn within the

+ a

618 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

head, when the embryo throws off the chorion and serous mem-

brane and runs about in a lively way.

oming now to the true winged insects, we are met with a very

exceptionable mode of development, observed by Ganin in certain

species of minute ichneumon flies, some of them egg-parasites.

The ovary of Platygaster (Fig. 275) differs from that of most other

insects in that it is a closed tube or sac. Hence it follows that at

Fig. 277. every time an egg is laid, the egg-

ʻ A tube is ruptured. The egg is a single

T ei cel. Outof this cell (Fig. 276 Aya,

arise two other cells, but the central.

cell (a) gives rise to the embryo,

which as seen at B, g, originates from

j the nucleus of A, a, while the circle

LY of cells, b, form an equivalent to the

serous membrane or blastodermic skin

of other insects and crustacea. The

oo:

OOPFOR

ite)

kas]

fgs]

te]

jæ

COCO@)S

ional larva (Fig. 277, m, mouth; at,

antennz ; md, mandibles; d, decidu-

a Ms ous organs). In -this condition it

i clings to the inside of its host by

si means of its temporary hook-like jaws

(md), moving about like a Ta

embryo. e nerves, blood vessels

and air tubes are wating: while the

alimentary canal is simply a blind sac,

remaining in an unorganized state.

It then passes into the second larval state (Fig. 278) like that of

the ichneumon flies, and the remaining changes into the pupal and

winged state are as usual.

In Polynema, the larva in its first stage is very small and mo-

tionless, and with scarcely a trace of organization, being a mere

-shaped sac of cells. After five or six days it passes into a

worm-like stage, and subsequently into a third stage (Fig. 279, tg,

three pairs of abdominal tubercles destined to form the ovipositer ;

l, rudiments of the legs; fk, portion of the fatty body; at, rudi-

First larva of Platygaster.

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 619

ments of the antenne; fl, imaginal disks or rudiments of the

wings).

Fig. 278. Fig. 279.

5 ME po

en SE,

T AROPE ee A De

E wo

g D

n -pe N

BEI

fy SD

Ly,

OO)

WAT,

ga ==-

Second larva of Platygaster. Third 1

Fig. 280. i

Development of Egg-parasites. 3 3

The larva of Ophioneurus is at first of the form indicated by

Fig. 280, E.. It differs from those genera already mentioned, in

620 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

remaining within its egg-membrane, and not assuming their

strange forms. From the non-segmented, sac-like larva it passes

directly into the pupa state.

The development of Teleas is like that of Platygaster. Fig.

280, A, represents the egg; B, C and D, the first stage of the

larva, the abdomen being furnished with a series of bristles on

each side. B represents a ventral, O a dorsal, and D a profile

view; at, antenne; md, mandibles; mo, mouth; b, bristles; m,

intestine ; sw the tail, and ul the under lip or labium. Not until

the beginning of the second larval stage is the primitive band

med.

In all the other insects whose early stages have been studied,

there is a remarkable uniformity, all travelling nearly the same

developmental road until just before hatching, when they assume

the characteristics belonging to the larval forms of their respec-

tive orders. For example not until very late in embryonic life

do the germs of a bee, a bug, a beetle or a fly, or even a dragon

fly, differ in any essential point.

We will, then, give a general and brief account of the mode of

` e

life thus originated by the appearance of a few polar cells; these

multiply and surround the egg with a single layer, thus forming

the blastoderm. The segmentation of the yolk is thus peripheral

and partial. On one side of the egg the blastodermic cells elon-

gate, forming a thickening, called the primitive streak or band,

which in some insects sinks into the yolk. By this time the se-

rous membrane (s) has moulted and envelopes the germ and yolk.

The germ soon splits into an outer (ectoderm) and inner layer

Fig. 281. (endoderm) and then sheds the true am-

nion, which as in vertebrates, peals off from

the primitive band or germ, and acts as a

protective membrane.

In Fig. 281. (after Kowalevsky) mpre

formed of two layers, h, the outer, and m, the inner. In the

LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS. 621

outer is subsequently formed the nervous cord and air vessels,

while from the inner arise the digestive canal and its glands and

Fig.282. the organs of circulation. The amnion (am) envel-

opes the germ. From the ventral side of the primitive.

band bud forth the appendages of the head, the thorax,

and as in the embryo caterpillar, the ten pairs of ab-

dominal legs, i.e., one to each ring, a portion of which

disappear before it hatches, no caterpillar having more

than five pairs of prop-legs. Fig. 282 (after Kowal-

evsky) represents the primitive band of the Sphinx,

with the four pairs of head appendages (c, upper lip ;

at, antennæ ; md, mandibles; mg, ma’ first and second

maxille), and the three pairs of thoracic legs (J, V 1’)

succeeded by the ten pairs of abdominal legs. The

observer will notice that all the appendages, whether

of the head or thorax or hind-body, are alike at first,

being simple outgrowths of the outer germ-layer.

When in a more advanced stage, as seen in the ac-

companying figure (283, am, serous membrane; db,

amnion; vk, forehead) of the embryo louse, the an-

tenn are longer than the mouth-parts, Fig. 283.

and the legs are still larger. After this

those features characterizing the differ-

ent orders of insects appear, and shortly

before hatching we can ascertain to

what group the embryo belongs.

As regards the development of the

internal organs, the nervous system is

the first to show itself, the alimentary

canal is next formed, and the stigmata

and air-tubes arise as invaginations of

the outer germ-layer. The development

of the salivary glands precedes that of

the urinary tubes, which, with the geni-

tal glands are offshoots of the primitive

digestive tract. Finally the dorsal ves-

sel is formed. Fig. 284 (after Kow-

alevsky) is a transverse section of the

embryo bee; g, is the nerve ganglia; i,

the alimentary canal ; m, muscular bands running to the heart (A) ;

Spninx.em-

bryo.

SEZ

Embryo of the Louse.

622 LIFE-HISTORIES OF THE CRUSTACEA AND INSECTS.

d is a gland, and ¢, indicates the trachea, its mode of origin being

illustrated on the left side of the figure where it is seen in com-

ection with a stigma or air-hole (s).

o far as we know (the Thysanura and certain minute ichneu-

mons excepted) there is in the winged insects a remarkable uni-

formity in their mode of development,

and it is difficult to determine what em-

bryological characters may be set down

as distinguishing even the different orders,

but they will probably be found, if any-

where in the form of the advanced em-

bryos.

Fig. 284

summary of the most important

events in the life-history of insects is as

ollows :

1. Peripheral (partial) segmentation

of the yolk (in the Podure a true Morula

_ condition).

. Larva hatched in the form of the adult, but (in Aphis and

Miastor producing young alive) wingless, and aniooni an in-

complete or complete metamorphosis.

3. Pupa state, more or less marked (in one species of Chiro-

nomus producing young):

4. Adult, usually winged, sometimes duor asexually.

Section of advanced Sphinx

embryo.

LITERATURE.

Herold. an de Animalium vertebris carentium in Ovo Formatione.

Kölliker. PERE mS de prima Insectorum Genesi. Turici, 184

Zaddach. Untersuchung ueber die Entwickelung und den Bau pt Gliedarthiere;

Berlin, 1854.

teacher’. Die Fortpflanzung und i. der Pupiparen nach Beobach-

kng an Melophagus ana “a le,

Huxley. On the Agamic iene and Mor PhOIOEY of Aphis. (Phil. Trans.

London, 1859.)

We . Die Entwickelung der Dipteren be Ei. (Siebold and Kölliker’s Zeits-

hag = 1864.) :

eee Embryologische Studien an Insecten. (Siebold and Kölliker’s Zeits-

aise: Beitrage zur Embryonalentwicklung der Insekten. (Archiv fiir Natur-

PAE 1869.

Beitrage zur Pp enpa der Libelluliden und Hemptertte

etc, gja ea Acad. Imp. = e

Ganin. ber die Embryonalhulie = peas ae und Levidupberess Embry-

onen. g napis pesg Imp. ri Petersburg, 1869.)

Beitrage zur Erkenntniss der Entwickelungsgeschichte bei dem Insekten.

(Siebold. ind Kölliker’s Zeitschrift, 1869.)

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Tenyey’s ELEMENTS or Zootoey.*—This is a profusely illus-

trated book, of convenient size and well adapted by its simple

style for instruction in schools. It is a decided improvement in

matter and illustration on the ‘t Manual of Zoology” by the same

author, as more attention is bestowed to anatomy and histology ;

this portion being illustrated by well selected engravings, mostly

taken from Milne-Edward’s ‘+ Zoology.”

MICROSCOPY.

Tue “REFLEX ILLUMINATOR” ror Drrecr ILLUMINATION.— Mr.

Samuel Wells, of Boston, communicates to the ‘‘ Cincinnati Med-

ical News,” his experience with Mr. Wenham’s last illuminator,

used upon transparent objects with transmitted light. Of course

to obtain the direct effect the object must be mounted in balsam

or other highly refractive medium, and the illuminator connected

with the slide with glycerine or otherwise. The lens must be an

immersion, and over 82° of working angular aperture, since noth-

ing under 41° of semi-aperture can be lighted by this arrangement.

Mr. Wells, among a large number of lenses, found only four capa-

ble of working with light at this angle,—a Powell & Lealand zy,

Tolles ;45, and Tolles’ four system 4 and ;4. All these are fa-

mous resolving lenses, and their performance with this light is

described as remarkably beautiful. An exactly similar use of the

enham Paraboloid has been a favorite method of high-power il-

lumination (differing only in angle and in not being limited to an

unilateral effect) and gives the same exquisite definition with a

perfectly corrected objective, though failing entirely with many

objectives that are called first class.

RELIABILITY oF THE Mrcroscore.— Mr. John Michels paper in

* Popular Science Monthly,” on the Microscope and its Misinter-

pretations, mainly by virtue of its title, largely contributes to

an exaggerated popular estimate of the general untruthfulness of

microscope teachings. The paper itself is a good popular synop-

sis of the Podura scale controversy, but has about the same rela- —

* Elements of Zoology. A Text Book. By Prof. Sanborn Tenney. Illustrated by

750 wood engravings. New York: Scribner, Armstrong & Co. 1875.

(623)

624 NOTES.

tion to the general credibility of microscopical science that a

dispute. about some confessedly difficult double star would have to

the science of astronomy. Experience is suggested as a safeguard,

and so are high powers, which are of undisputed value notwith-

standing that they chiefly, if not only, are liable to serious danger

of misinterpretation. The necessity of corroboration of results

in important cases by different observers is urged, to which the

editor of the ‘‘ Technologist” adds that varied methods of prepar-

ation are a stronger confirmation than a number of observers.

CONCENTRATED METHOD OF MOUNTING.—Mr. C. H. Robinson, of

Cleaveland, contributes to the “Postal Micro-cabinet Club,”

slide illustrating a method of mounting where the space under a

single large cover-glass is occupied by a considerable number of

small circles with an object in each. He makes the circles of

white zinc varnish, and sometimes adds a circle to the edge of the

cover-glass as a finish. This method of mounting, the appearance

of which i is decidedly handsome, is particularly applicable to dis-

playing several varieties of one species (as of selected diatoms or

of foraminifera) on one slide, or to presenting in contrast different

methods of preparing the same species.

NOTES. .

We noticed, in our last, that an Ohio State Association of

‘Archeologists had been formed, and we now have to record the

organization of similar State Associations in Indiana and Tennes-

see. These State Associations will be of great benefit if they

result in the establishment of permanent museums of Archeology

at the several capitals and foster careful research. It is also

greatly to be hoped that they will take action at once in relation

to the preservation of some of the most important of the ancient

earthworks of the west and south.

Important ANNOUNCEMENT !

Arrangements have been made by which Messrs. H. O. Hough-

ton & Co., will become F EAR of the American Naturalist,

beginning with Vol. X, 6. Farther announcements will be

made in our next Sen “Surpass for Volume X should

accordingly be sent to H. O. Houghton & Co., Boston, Mass.

3 EL H

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vol. IX.—DECEMBER, 1875. — No. 12.

COEGORVOD D2

ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH.!

BY PROFESSOR 0. C. MARSH.

Remarns of birds are among the rarest of fossils, and few have

been discovered except in the more recent formations. With the

exception of Archwopteryx from the Jurassic, and a single species

from the Cretaceous, no birds are known in the old world below

the Tertiary. In this country numerous remains ‘of birds have

been found in the Cretaceous, but there is no satisfactory evidence

of their existence in any older formation, the three-toed footprints

of the Triassic being probably all made by Dinosaurian reptiles.

The Museum of Yale College contains a large series of remains

of birds from the Cretaceous deposits of the Atlantic coast and

the Rocky Mountain region, thirteen species of which have already

been described by the writer. The most important of these re-

mains, so far as now known, are the Odontornithes, or birds with

teeth, and it is the object of the present communication to give

some of the more marked characters of this group, reserving the

full description for a memoir now in course of preparation.

he first species of birds in which teeth were detected was

Ichthyornis dispar Marsh, described in 1872.2 Fortunately the

type specimen of this remarkable species was in excellent preser-

vation, and the more important portions of both the skull and

t PohiichaaA

rt an Journal of Science, Vol. te November, 1875.

2 American Journal of insae Vol. iv, p. 344, and vol. yv, p. 7

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the dot len, by the PEABODY ACADEMY

SCIENCE, in the Otice of the Librarian of Congress, at ashington, or

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX ps (625) ~

626 ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH.

skeleton were secured. These remains indicate an aquatic bird,

fully adult, and about as large as a pig

he skull is of moderate size, and th eyes were placed well

forward. The lower jaws are long, rather slender, and the rami

were not codssified at the symphysis. In each lower jaw there

are twenty-one distinct sockets, and the series extends over the

entire upper margin of the dentary bone (Plate II, figures 1 and

2). The teeth in these sockets are small, compressed and pointed,

and all are directed more or less backward. The crowns are cov-

ered with nearly smooth enamel. The maxillary teeth appear to

a een numerous, and essentially the same as those in the

mandible. hether the premaxillary bones supported teeth, or

were covered with a horny beak, cannot be determined from the

present specimen.

The scapular arch and the bones of the wings and legs all con-

form closely to the true avian type. The sternum has a promi-

nent keel, and elongated aot for the expanded coracoids.

The wings were very large in proportion to the legs, and the

humerus had an extended ae crest. The metacarpals are coos-

sified, as in recent birds, thus differing widely from those of

Archeopteryx. The bones of the posterior extremities are slender, |

and resemble those of some aquatic birds. e centra of the

vertebre are all biconcave, the concavities at each end being dis-

tinct, and nearly equal (Plate II, figures 3 and 4). The sacrum

is elongated, and made up of a large number of codssified vertebrae.

Whether the tail was elongated or not cannot at present be de-

cided.

The jaws and teeth of this species ike it to have been carniv-

orous, and it was probably aquatic. Its powerful wings indicate

that it was capable of prolonged flight.

Another Cretaceous bird (Apatornis celer Marsh), belonging

apparently to the same order as Ichthyornis, was found by the

iter in 1872 in the same geological horizon in Kansas. The re-

mains preserved indicate an individual about the same size as

_ Ichthyornis dispar, but of more slender — The vertebree

are biconcave, and there were probably teeth.

The most interesting bird with teeth sa discovered is perhaps

_ Hesperornis regalis, a gigantic diver, also from the Cretaceous of

- Kansas, and discovered by the writer in 1870. The type specimen,

= which was found by the writer in 1871, and described soon after,

ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH. 627

consisted mainly of vertebræ and the nearly complete posterior

limbs, all in excellent preservation.1

A nearly perfect skeleton of this species was obtained in

Western Kansas by Mr. T. H. Russell and the writer in Novem-

ber, 1872, during the explorations of the Yale College party, ,

and several other less perfect specimens have since been secured,

and are now in the Yale Museum. These various remains

apparently all belong to one species.

The skull of Hesperornis has the same general form as that in

Colymbus torquatus Briin., but there is a more prominent median

crest between the orbits, ina the beak is less pointed. The brain

cavity was quite small. The maxillary bones are massive, and

have throughout their length a deep inferior groove which was

thickly set with sharp, pointed teeth. These teeth had no true

sockets, but between their bases there are slight projections from

the sides of the grooves. (Plate III, figure 2). The teeth have

pointed crowns, covered with enamel, and supported on stout

fangs. (Plate III, figure 1a). In form of crown and base, they

most resemble the teeth of Mosasauroid reptiles. The method of

replacement, also, was the same, as some of the teeth preserved .

have the crowns of the successional teeth implanted in cavities in

their fangs. The maxillary grooves do not extend into the pre-

maxillaries, and the latter do not appear to have supported teeth.

The external appearance, moreover, of the premaxillaries seems

to indicate that these bones were covered with a horny bill, as in

modern birds.

The lower jaws are long, and slender, and the rami were united

in front only by cartilage. The dentary bone has a deep groove

throughout its entire length, and in this, teeth were thickly planted,

as in-the jaws of Ichthyosaurus. The lower teeth are similar to

those above, and all were more or less recurved (Plate III, fig. 2).

he scapular arch of Hesperornis presents many features of

interest. The sternum is thin and weak, and entirely without a

keel. In front, it resembles the sternum of Apteryx, but there are

two very deep posterior emarginations, as in the Penguins. The

scapula and coracoid are very small. The wing bones are dimin-

utive, and the wings were rudimentary, and useless as organs of

either flight or swimming’

The vertebra in the cervical and dorsal regions are of the true

1 American Journal of Science, iii, 360, May, 1872.

628 ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH.

ornithic type, the articular faces of the centra being quite as in

modern birds (Plate III, figures 3 and 4). The sacrum is elon-

gated, and resembles that in recent diving birds. The last sacral

vertebra is quite small. The caudal vertebrae, which are about

twelve in number, are very peculiar, and indicate a structure not

before seen in birds. The anterior caudals are short, with high

neural spines and moderate transverse processes. The middle

and posterior caudals have very long and horizontally expanded:

transverse processes, which restrict lateral motion, but clearly in-

dicate that the tail was moved vertically, probably in diving.

The last three or four caudal vertebr are firmly codssified, form-

ing a flat terminal mass, analogous to, but quite unlike, the

“ ploughshare” bone of modern birds. The anterior two at least

of these caudals have expanded transverse processes.

The pelvic bones, although avian in type, are peculiar, and pre-

sent some well marked reptilian features. A resemblance to the

corresponding bones of a Cassowary is at once evident, especially

in a side view, as the iliam, ischium, and pubis all have their pos-

terior extremities separate. The two latter are slender, and also

free, back of their union with the ilium at the acetabulum. The

ischium is spatulate at its distal end, and the pubis rodlike. The

‘acetabulum differs from that in all known birds, in being closed

internally by bone, except a foramen, that perforates the inner

wall.

The femur is unusually short and stout, much flattened antero-

posteriorly, and the shaft curved forward, It somewhat resem-

bles in form the femur of Colymbus torquatus Briin., but the great

trochanter is proportionally much less developed in a fore-and-aft

direction, and the shaft is much more flattened. The tibia is

straight and elongated. Its proximal end has a moderately devel-

oped cnemial process, with an obtuse apex. The epi-cnemial ridge

is prominent, and continued distally about one-half the length of

the shaft. The distal end of the tibia has on its anterior face no

ossified supratendinal bridge, differing in this respect from nearly

_ all known aquatic birds. The fibula is well developed, and resem-

bles that of the Divers. The patella is large, as in Podiceps, and

in position extends far above the seh gin rotular process of the

tibia. :

The tarso-metatarsal bone is much compressed transversely, re

resembles in its main features that of Colymbus. On its anterio

ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH. 629

face there is a deep groove between the third and fourth metatarsal

elements, bounded on its outer margin by a prominent rounded

ridge, which expands distally into the free articular end of the

fourth metatarsal. This extremity projects far beyond the other

two, and is double the size of either, thus showing a marked

difference from any known recent or fossil bird. There is a

former. The existence of a hallux is indicated by an elongated

oval indentation on the inner margin above the articular face of

the second metatarsal. The free extremities of the metatarsals

have the same oblique arrangement as in the Colymbide, to facili-

tate the forward stroke of the foot through the water. There are

no canals or even grooves for tendons on the posterior face of the

proximal end, as in the Divers and most other birds; but below

this, there is broad, shallow depression, extending rather more

than half way to the distal extremity.

The phalanges are shorter than in most swimming birds. Those

of the large, external toe are very peculiar, although an approach

to the same structure is seen in the genus Podiceps. On the outer,

inferior margin, they are all deeply excavated. The first, second,

and third have, at their distal ends, a single, oblique, articular

increases the strength of the joints. The terminal phalanx of this

toe was much compressed. The third, or middle toe, was greatly

inferior to the fourth in size, and had slender, compressed pha-

langes, which correspond essentially in their main features with

those of modern Divers.

The remains preserved of Hesperoruis regalis show that this

sentially in size, the length from the apex of the bill to the end of

the toes being between five and six feet. The habits of this gi-

gantic bird are clearly indicated in the skeleton, almost every part

of which has now been found. The rudimentary wings prove that

flight was impossible, while the powerful swimming legs and feet

630 ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH.

were peculiarly adapted to rapid motion through the water. The

tail appears to have been much expanded horizontally, as in the

Beaver, and doubtless was an efficient aid in diving, perhaps com-

pensating in part for want of wings, which the Penguins use with

so much effect in swimming under water. That Hesperornis was

carnivorous is clearly proven by its teeth; and its food was prob-

ably fishes.

zoological position of Hesperornis is evidently in the

PE but the insertion of the teeth in grooves, the ab-

sence of a keel on the sternum, and the wide difference in the

vertebra require that it be.placed in a distinct order, which may

be called Odontolcæ, in allusion to the position of the teeth in

The t ns ae of birds with teeth would then be distinguished

as follow

Sub-Class, ODONTORNITHES (or AVES DENTATZ).

A. Teeth in sockets. Vertebre biconcave. Sternum with keel. Wings —

well developed.

Order, ODONTOTORM&.!

B. Teeth in grooves. Vertebre as in recent birds. Sternum without

keel. Wings rudimentary. 1

Order, ODONTOLCÆ.

In comparing Ichthyornis and Hesperornis, it will be noticed that

the combination of characters in each is very remarkable, and quite

the reverse of what would naturally be expected. The former has

teeth in distinct sockets, with biconcave vertebrz ; while the latter

has teeth in grooves, and yet vertebre similar to those of modern

birds. In point of size, and means of locomotion, the two pre-

sent the most marked contrast. The fact that two birds, so en-

tirely different, living together during the Cretaceous, should have

been recovered in such perfect a suggests what we may

yet hope to learn of life in that period

The are rs horizon of all the Gitontorwitthes now known is

the Upper Cretaceous. The associated vertebrate fossils are

mainly mabe reptiles and Pterodactyls.

1The name PPE first proposed for this order by the writer, proves to be

preoccupied, and Odontotormæ may be pubstitated. The name TE EAE may be

retained for the family.— O. C. M.

ODONTORNITHES, OR BIRDS WITH TEETH. 631

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate II. ise eat mes dispar Marsh. Twice natural size.

Figu seft lower jaw; side view.

Wigare . Same vertebra; front view.

Plate III. — Hesp ET O1 i. egalis i iar sh.

Figure L “Left lower jaw; side view; half natural size.

Figure la. Tooth; four times natural size.

Figure 2. ~eft lower jaw; top view; half natural size.

Figure 4. Same vertebra; frout view; natural size.

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

BY A. S. PACKARD, JR.

In the adult Amphioxus, we behold a vertebrate without a true

back bone, but a dorsal cord like that of certain larval Ascidians ;

with no brain, no true heart. but with a vascular system resembling

that of worms; with primitive kidneys like the segmental organs

of worms, and with the front end of the alimentary canal perforated

with gill-slits, like those of Ascidians and the Balanoglossus worm

rather than vertebrates. Viewing the body externally, it has no

true head as in fishes, nor appendages supported by bony axes, like

the fins and arms or legs of vertebrates. Yet on making a section

of the body, the relation of the chief anatomical organs is on the

vertebrate plan, a nerve-cavity being situated above the digestive

cavity, the vicarious back bone, or chorda dorsalis, separating the

two cavities.

Development of Amphioxus. Again when we study the develop-

ment of Amphioxus, we shall find, that while there are important

points in which the embryology of this animal differs much from

that of the higher vertebrates ; still, as observed by Balfour, ‘‘all

the modes of development found in the higher vertebrates are to

be looked upon as modifications of that of Amphioxus.”

For the life-history of the lancelet, we turn to Kowalevsky’s

classical memoir. He found the eggs issuing in May from the

mouth of the female, and fertilized by spermatic particles likewise

pouring out from the mouth of the male. The eggs are very small,

0.105 millimetres in diameter. The eggs undergo total segmenta-

tion, exactly as in the sponge, the ascidian, the mammal, an

even as in man, and leaving a segmentation cavity which becomes

the body-cavity.

The blastoderm now invaginates and the embryo swims about as

a aga gastrula, comparable with that of the sponge, or Sagitta

(Fig. 179). The body is now oval, and the germ does not differ

rahe in appearance from a worm, starfish, snail or ascidian in the

same stage of growth. No vertebrate features are yet developed.

Soon the lively ciliated gastrula elongates, the alimentary tube

arises from the primitive gastrula-cavity, while the edges of the

(682)

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 633

flattened side of the body grow up as ridges which afterwards, as

in all vertebrate embryos, grow over and enclose the spinal cord.

By this time the transverse muscular bands appear.

By the time the embryo is twenty-four hours old it assumes the

form of a ciliated flattened cylinder, with both ends much alike.

It is now somewhat like the Ascidian embryo (Fig. 217, B, n);

there being a nerve-cavity, the nerye-tube, with an external open-

ing, which afterwards closes.

The vertebrate character, namely, the embryonic back bone

(chorda dorsalis) has now appeared, and extends to the front end,

beyond the end of the brain, instead of being confined to the pos-

terior portion of the body as in the Ascidians (Fig. 217, B, æ).

In the next stage observed by the Russian embryologist, the

Amphioxus-form was attained, the body being compressed and

deeper in the region of the mouth, though there is no true head.

The first gill-opening now appears, the mouth having previously

been formed, and afterwards twelve such openings appear; the

pharynx is thus provided with ciliated slits, as in the ascidians,

the Balanoglossus ; and, on the other hand, all embryo vertebrates.

The embryo lancelet is still ciliated, but these swimming-hairs

disappear eventually and the young animal seeks the bottom and

burrows finally in the sand. When the larval Amphioxus is still

very small, the body is not symmetrical, the mouth is far on one

side, and on the lower edge is a circle of external filaments sur- |

rounding the mouth, comparable with those of the ascidians, the

clam or certain worms.

It seems to result from these and other facts, not here presented,

that while the Amphioxus is a low, embryonic vertebrate, which

graduates into the fishes through the lamprey and myxine, the

early history of Amphioxus unmistakably points back to worm-

like parents; and on the other hand that of the vertebrates indi-

cates their descent from an Amphioxus-like ancestor.

Briefly recapitulating the chief events in the life of the lancelet,

we find the e REE well marked ~ s:

2. POFRE (ciliated).

3. Ascidian-like larva.

4. Adult. LITERATURE.

Ki levsky. _ ae EE S gsg a 2s a A ph x x M ires de

PAcad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Petersbourg, 1867).

634 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

These

oviparous or viviparous. The dog-fish brings

forth her young alive, while the skates

eggs like those of the skate (Fig

Development of the Sharks and Skates (Selachians).

fishes are either

and many sharks lay square

. 285, after Wyman), each corner

sending out a tendril by which it is attached to sea-weeds. The

yolk is not enclosed in any membrane like the vitelline membrane

ee, f birds, but lies freely

en i a viscid albumen fill-

ing the egg-capsule (Bal-

four).

We will now, in order

to make out a tolerably

complete life-history of a

Selachian, condense Bal-

four’s account of the early

stages of the dog-fish

(Mustelus), and close

with the latter stages of

the skate, as given by

the late Professor Wy-

man. The blastoderm or

germinal disk is a large

round spot darker than

the rest of the yolk and

marked off from the rest

of. the yolk by a dark

line (really a shallow

groove). Segmentation

Har ot tho BEAU. occurs much as described

the bony fishes, rep-

The upper germ-layer (epiblast) arises much as

in the bony fishes, the Batrachians and birds, while the two inner

germ-layers are not clearly indicated until a considerably later

tiles and birds.

stage. The segmentation-cavity is formed much as in the bony

fishes. i

There is no invagination of the outer germ-layer to form

the primitive digestive cavity and anus of Rusconi, as in Amphi-

oxus, the Lamprey, sturgeon and Batrachians, but the Selachians

agree with the bony fishes, the reptiles and birds, in having the

alimentary canal formed by an infolding of the innermost germ-

layer, and with no anus of Rusconi, the digestive canal remaining

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 635

in communication with the yolk for the greater part of embryonic

life by an umbilical canal. This

mode of origin of the digestive

cavity, Balfour regards as second-

ary and adaptive, no “ gastrula”

(Heckel) being formed as in Am-

phioxus, etc. e embryo now

rises up as a distinct, body from

the blastoderm, just as in other

vertebrates, and there is a medul-

lary groove along the middle line,

and by the time this has appeared

the middle and inner germ-layers are closely indicated. And now

development goes on much as in the chick.

t this time the embryo dog-fish externally resembles the young

trout; the chief difference is an internal one, the outer germ-

layer not being divided

into a nervous and epi-

dermal sub-layer as in

the bony fishes.

The next external

change is the division

of the tail-end into two

Embryo Skate.

Fig. 287.

Fig. 288.

caudal lobes. The no- y

tochord arises as a rod- a é

like thickening of the b

third germ-layer, from ~

which it afterwards en-

tirely separates, so that

the germ, if cut trans-

versely, would appear

somewhat as in the em- More iranan Em-

bryo bird (Fig. 304). :

Now the protovertebre arise, and about this time the throat

becomes a closed tube. The head is now formed by a singular

flattening-out of the germ, like a spatula, while the medullary

groove is at first entirely absent. The brain then forms, with its

three divisions into a fore, middle and hind brain. Soon about

twenty primitive vertebr arise, and by this time the embryo is

very similar, in external form, to any other vertebrate embryo, and

finally hatches in the form of the adult.

Side view of head of

Fig. 287.

636 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

Not so, however, with the skate (Raia batis) as it presents an

additional chapter in its life-history,

discovered by Professor Wyman.

Fig. 286 (this and those following

after Wyman) shows the young

skate resting on the large yolk-sac.

It is eel-shaped, the dorsal (c) and

(d) anal fins extending to the end

of the tail as in theeel. Fig. 287

represents a more advanced embryo,

showing at a and b the pectoral and

ventral fins, and at d, the temporary

anal. Fig. 288 is a side view of the

same enlarged (a, first branchial

fissure, largest at its outer end;

this enlarged portion corresponds with the future spiracle ; b, the

inner end; the first arch is in front of the fissure; b’, the second

fissure, in front of which is the second arch, bearing a fringe; c,

nasal fossa; d, projection of the optic lobes ; e, cerebral lobes.)

Soon after the embryo skate becomes shark-shaped, as in Fig.

289, while Figs. 290 and 291, represent a lateral and dorsal view

of the embryo (b, facial disk; a, pectoral; c, ventral fin ; `e, gill-

Fig. 289,

Shark-shaped embryo Skate.

Fig. 290.

More advanced embryo of Skate.

fringes). There are at first seven branchial fissures, the most

anterior of which is converted into the spiracle, which is the ho-

mologue of the Eustachian tube and the outer ear-canal; the

seventh is wholly closed up, no trace remaining, while the five

others remain permanently open.

Fig. 292 represents the newly hatched skate, when the form of

the adult is closely approached (a, yolk-sac in the cavity of the

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 637

abdomen, connecting with the intestine, b; c, embryonic portion

of the tail which disappears in the adult (Wyman).

A condensed summary of the chief events in the life of a Se-

lachian, is as follows :—

1. Partial segmentation of the germinal disk.

2. The embryo arises as a distinct body from the germinal

disk (the “ gastrula ”-condition being suppressed).

en? VES ed dag E

Dorsal view of Fig. 290.

Newly-hatched Skate.

3. The embryo appears like that of any other vertebrate, until

finally

4. The shark or skate form is assumed just before birth, or

hatching from the egg.

5. The skates pass through a shark-like form, before attaining

the adult shape.

LITERATURE,

Wyman. Observations on the Development of Raia batis. (Memoirs Amer. Acad

Sc., 1864). :

638 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

Bambeke. Recherches sur le Developpment du Pelobates fuscus (Mémoires couron-

nés ape sais ce 34, 1870.

Ba A preliminary Account of the Development of the Elasmobranch Fishes.

(Quart. Jone. a aaeiee. 1874.)

Development of the bony Fishes. During their reproductive sea-

son, the bony fishes, such as the strikleback, salmon and pike,

are more highly colored than at other times, the males being es-

pecially brilliant in their hues, while other secondary sexual char-

acters are developed. The female deposits her eggs either in

masses at the surface of the water, as in the cod’/and goose fish,

or at the bottom on gravel or sand as in most other fishes, the

male passing over them and depositing his ‘‘ milt” or spermatic

Fig. 293. Fig. 294.

me same as Figs. 294, 295,

=e Zai betore the egg- -sheli RPAN Blenny sega

The same as Fig. 294, The same as Fig. 294

seen in profile from seen in profile fr om

the right side. the left side.

particles. The egg has a thin transparent shell, and the yolk is

small, covered with a thick layer of the ‘* white.”

The eggs after fertilization undergo partial segmentation, the

primitive streak, notochord, nervous cord and brain developing

much as described in the section on the embryology of birds.

That the embryo before us is a fish is soon determined by the

2 absence of an amnion and allantois, and by the fact that the germ

lies free over the yolk like a band. Figs. 293, 294, 295, 296 (cop-

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 639

ied by Agassiz! from Rathke), represent an advanced stage of the

embryo Blenny (Zoarces viviparus) in various positions, with the

eyes, gill arches, fins and vitelline network of blood vessels on

the outer surface of the yolk sac.

In the pike the heart begins to beat about the seventh day, and

by this time the alimentary canal is marked out. The primitive

kidneys are developed above the liver. The air-bladder (probably

the homologue of the lungs of higher vertebrates) arises as an

offshoot opposite the liver from the alimentary canal, and the gall-

bladder is also originally a diverticulum of the intestine. The

urinary bladder in the fish is supposed to be the homologue of the

allantois of the higher vertebrates. The principal external change

is the appearance of the usually large pectoral fins.

The embryo pike hatches in about twelve days after develop-

ment begins and swims about with the large yolk bag attached,

and it is some seven or eight days before the young fish takes

food, living meanwhile on the yolk mass. The perch hatches in

twelve days after the egg is fertilized, and swims about for eight

or ten days before the yolk is absorbed. The vent opens in the

pike four days, and in the perch six days, after hatching. The

gills gradually develop as the yolk is absorbed.

The tail in most bony fishes (the Gadide excepted, according

to Owen), is heterocercal as in the maturer sharks, but subse-

quently after the fish has swam about for a while and increased in

size it becomes homocercal or symmetrical. The scales are the

last to be developed. i

In the large size of the pectoral fins, the position of the mouth,

which is situated far back under the head, the heterocercal tail, the

cartilaginous skeleton and uncovered gill-slits, the embryo salmon,

pike, perch, etc., as Owen observes, manifest transitory characters —

which are permanent in sharks (Selachii).

A summary of the changes undergone in the bony fishes is as

follows :

1. Segmentation partial.

2. A SEEE haben in the lamprey and marge? but not

in the bony fishes (trout, e

3. The embryo arises as in ny other vertebrate.

1The Structure and Growth of Domestionted: Animals,” 20th Ann. Report of the

C of the Massachusetts Bord of Agriculture. Boston, 1873. These were-

kindly loaned by Mr. C. L. Flint, the Secretary.

640 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

4. Adult form attained at the time of hatching or birth, in the

viviparous species; certain forms undergoing slight metamor-

hosis. °

LITERATURE.

Vogt. E S (in Agassiz, Hist. Nat. des Poissons d’’eau douce

de l'Europe Centrale.) Neuchatel, 184

Lereboullet. Recherches Wry oogi Comparée sur le Developpement der Bro-

chét, de la t’erche, etc. (Annales des Nat. Paris, 1855

Gllacher. Beiträge zur pp reap der Knochenfische, etc. (Siebold and Kolli-

ker’s Zeitschrift, 1873, ’7:

Kowalevsky, Owsjanniko of, und rei: Entwickelung der Störe (Sturgeon. Bulle-

tin Imp. Acad. St. Petersburg, xiv, 1873.)

With the writings of Kupffer, tae Ray Lankester and Owsjannikoff.

Development of the Amphibia. Passing by the Dipnoa (Cera-

todus, Protopterus and Lepidosiren) of whose development we as

yet are totally ignorant, and the Simosauria, Plesiosauria and

Ichthyosauria, we come to the salamanders and toads and frogs,

or Amphibia. The early history of the extinct Archegosaurus,

Dendrerpeton and Labyrinthodonts died with them, and we can

only predicate from the imperfectly known structure of the adult

forms that their young possibly developed in a manner like that

of the living batrachians.

As in the gin the batrachians are most highly colored during

the breeding season. The males of certain newts acquire the

dorsal crest a a broader tail-fin, aiding in the process of fecunda-

tion (Owen), and other. secondary sexual features are added, es-

pecially to the male during the reproductive season. After an

imperfect sexual union the salamanders deposit their eggs on the

leaves of aquatic plants. The eggs of the toad are laid in long

strings, those of the frog in masses. In these creatures each egg

is fertilized as it is-extruded, and the egg then swells greatly, the

yolk appearing as a dot in the large jelly-like mass surrounding it.

Jntil we have a detailed embryology of the Amphibians, studied

in the light of the newer school of embryology, the reader must

be content with the following summary of Owen’s account in his

“ Anatomy of Vertebrates.” ;

The segmentation of the egg in the Amphibia is total, the pro-

cess beginning usually about three hours after impregnation in

the

the notochord and nervous system then arise as in other craniated

= Vertebrates. After the appearance of the branchial arches, the

gills begin to bud out from them, finally cory the larger gills

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 641

of the tadpole. The embryo now rests on the large yolk sac,

much as in the embryo fish, but this is entirely absorbed before

the embryo leaves the egg. Before the yolk-sac is absorbed a

communication opens between the alimentary canal and the

branchial cavity in the head (bucco-branchial cavity of Owen),

“and this opens externally on the lower part of the head by a

vertical fissure, on each side of which a small protuberance buds

out, forming a special organ of adhesion—a pair of temporary

cephalic limbs.” (Owen.) Now the gills having got their growth,

the remnant of the yolk enclosed by the abdominal walls, and

the tail well developed, the tadpole bursts its egg membrane and

swims about freely. In Italy, Rusconi found that the tadpoles

hatched in four days, in England they hatch in five days, and the

period may be prolonged to four weeks by cold weather. Itisa

common sight in Maine to see frogs’ eggs laid in ponds still con-

taining ice and snow.

The tadpole is much less developed than the larval fish or any

other vertebrate ; the intestine is not yet formed, and in other im-

portant characters it is lower in organization than the freshly

hatched fish. | It is also a vegetarian, eating decaying leaves; the

mouth is small and round, the alimentary canal is remarkably long,

thé intestine coiled up in a spiral, the mouth is small, destitute of

a tongue and the beak unarmed with teeth. ‘About the middle

period of aquatic life the true or permanent kidneys begin to be

formed from and upon the primordial ones ; and the basis of the

ovaria, or testes, may now be discerned. The oviduct is soon

duct as the kidneys; their vasa deferentia communicate with re-

tained ceca of the primordial kidneys before penetrating the later

glands; the upper or anterior ends of the first remain for some

time behind the heart.” (Owen

“ Soon after the external gills have reached their full develop-

ment they begin to shrink, and finally disappear; but the branch-

ial circulation is maintained some time longer upon the internal

gills; these consist of numerous short tuft-like processes from the

membrane covering the cartilaginous branchial arches; they are

protected by the growth of a membranous gill-cover, which, as the

external branchiz are absorbed, leaves only one small external

orifice, by which the branchial streams, admitted by the mouth,

continue to be expelled. The chief distinction between the fully

AMER. NATURALISL, VOL. IX, 41

642 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

developed branchial circulation in the Batrachian larva and that of

the fish consists in the presence of small anastomosing channels,

between the branchial artery and vein of each gill, proximad of the

gill itself. The tongue makes its appearance when the fore limbs

are developed.”

The vertebra of the tadpole are biconcave, but in the change to

the adult are converted into cup-and-ball joints, by ossification of

the substance of the cavities, and its coalescence either with the

fore (Pipa) or back (Rana) part of the centrum. The remarkable

changes in the hyo-branchial apparatus and the skull are described

by Owen.

The accompanying figures (from Tenney’s Zoology) represent

the external changes of the toad from the time it is hatched until

the form of the adult is attained. The tadpoles of our American

toad, as observed in the European toad by Owen, are smaller and

blacker in all stages of growth than those of the frog. The tadpole

is at first without any limbs (Fig. 297) ; soon the hinder pair bud out.

After this stage (Fig. 298) is reached, the body begins to diminish

in size. The next important change is the growth of the front —

Fig. 298.

Fig. 301.

Metamorphosis of the Toad.

legs and the partial disappearance of the tail (Fig. 299), while

very small toads (Figs. 300 and 301), during midsummer, may be

found on the edges of the pools in which some of the nearly tail-

less tadpoles may be seen swimming about. When the tadpoles

are hatched late, the gills are often retained through the winter,

as large tadpoles of frogs are often found in pools by breaking

through the ice. It is three years, according to Owen, before the

Amphibia are capable of breeding.

“In the newts (Triton) the gills are in three pairs, larger and

more complex than in the frog; the fore limbs are the first to _

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 643

emerge, and the gills persist long after the hind limbs are devel-

oped.” (Owen). While as a rule the eggs of newts or salaman-

ders are laid in the water, the red-backed salamander lays its eggs

Fig. 302. in damp places on land, though the young

are provided with gills. Fig. 302 (after

Hoy) represents the young of Amblystoma

lurida on the tenth day after hatching, the

lower figure the natural size of the freshly

hatched young. In the Surinam toad and

Hyla of the island of Mauritius there is no

metamorphosis, the young hatching with the form of the adult.

The Siredon or Axolotl of Mexico, according to Dumeril, lays

eggs, though a larva, while, Fig. 303.

as in the Axolotl, the lar- &

va of Amblystoma mavor-

tium, originally described

as an adult animal under

the name of Siredon liche-

noides (Fig. 303, from Ten-

ney’s Zoology) has been

found by Professor Marsh

to drop its gills and assume its adult form when brought to the

sea level, its original habitat being the lakes situated in the Rocky

Mountains at an altitude of 4,500 — 7,000 feet.

Professor Owen has well summed up the wonderful changes

undergone in these metamorphoses, which are exactly paralleled

by those of the vegetarian larval gnat with biting jaws and gills

into the blood-sucking volant, air-breathing fly; entirely new

organs replacing the deciduous ones of the larva, and the body

in attaining ‘maturity being made over anew. ‘In the metamor-

phoses of the Batrachia,” says the distinguished comparative

anatomist, ‘we seem to have such process carried on before our

eyes to its extremest extent. Not merely is one specific form

Larval Salamander.

Siredon or larval Salamander.

changed to another of the same genus; not merely is one generic _

modification of an order substituted for another, the transmuta-

tion is not even limited by passing from one order (Urodela) to

another (Anoura) ; it affects a transition from class to class. The

Fish becomes the Frog; the aquatic animal changes to the terres-

trial one; the water-brenther becomes the air-breather ; an insect

diet is substituted for a vegetable one. And these changes, more-

644 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

over, proceed gradually, continuously, and without any interrup-

tion of active life. The larva having started into independent

existence as a fish, does not relapse into the passive torpor of the

ovum to leave the organizing energies to complete their work un-

troubled by the play of the parts they are to transmute, but step

by step each organ is modified, and the behavior of the animal

and its life-sphere are the consequence, not the cause, of the

changes.”

“The external gills are not dried and shrivelled by exposure to

the air, nor does the larva gain its lungs by efforts to change its

element and inhale a new respiratory medium. The beak is shed,

the jaws and tongue are developed, and the gut shortened, before

the young Frog is in a condition to catch a single fly. e em-

bryo acquires the breathing and locomotive organs—gills and com-

pressed tail—while imprisoned in the ovum; and the tadpole ob-

tains its lungs and land-limbs while a denizen of the pool; action

and reaction between the germ and the gelatinous atmosphere of

the yolk, or between the larva and its aqueous atmosphere, have

no part in these transmutations. The Batrachian is compelled to

a new sphere of life by antecedent obliterations, absorptions and

developments, in which external influences and internal efforts

ve no share.”

While the passage we have quoted is an attack against La-

marckianism, we do not see but that in a long course of genera-

tions of the ancestors of the present species of amphibians, the

metamorphoses may have become gradually established, finally be-

coming the normal history of each individual; the changes of the

individual epitomizing the successive steps in the collective life-

history of the entire group of Amphibians. That changes in the

physical surroundings induce important modification of structure

is seen in the exceptional mode of metamorphosis of the Surinam

Pipa, or the Hyla of Mauritius, and on the other hand, in the

prematurity of the axolotl, which near the level of the sea drops

its gills, while five or six thousand feet above the sea it retains its

gills and still produces young.

To recapitulate, we have the following stages of development

in the Amphibia:

1. Morula (segmentation total).

2, The embryo develops as in the bony fishes.

3. Young with external gills hatching with a fish-like form, but

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 645

much less advanced in internal organization; or, rarely, hatching

in the adult form, the metamorphosis being suppressed.

4. Larval forms retained as in the Menobranchus, Siren, Meno-

pona and Salamanders; or dropped, as in the toad and frog.

LITERATURE,

Swammerdam. Biblia Nature. 1737.

Reichert. Vergleich, Entwickelung hichte der nackten Amphibien. 1838.

Rusconi et Conjigliacht. Histoire Nat. Développement et Metamorphose de la Sala-

mandre terrestre. Pavia, . ?

Schultze. Observationes nonnullæ de Ovorum Ranarum Segmentatione, 1863. With

papers by Prévost and Dumas, Newport, Horne, Dumeril and Marsh.

Development of the Reptiles. We now come to study the embry-

ology of those vertebrates in which there is an important embry-

onal membrane, the amnion, developed, besides an allantois. The

eggs of reptiles from their abundant supply of yolk cells, and the

early stages of the embryo, are so much like those of birds that

the reader is referred to the account of the early stages of the

chick for a more complete account of the early phases of embry-

onic life in the reptiles.

As with birds, the eggs are enormous in size, and like those of

the ostrich they are laid in the sand, and are left by the parent to

be hatched by the warmth of the sun.

Professor H. J. Clark, in his “ Mind in Nature,” tells us that of

all eggs those of turtles are by far the most easily preserved in a

healthy state during the time of incubation. “All that is required

to obtain them is to collect a number of turtles in early spring,

before May, and keep them enclosed in some shady spot where

they can have easy access to water and soft earth, and to feed them

well with fresh herbage, such as plantain-leaves, lettuce, beet-

leaves, etc., etc., and in the course of time, usually in May and

June, they may be caught, at early dawn, digging holes in the

earth with their hind legs, and depositing therein their brood of

eggs, and then covering them up.”

The lizards, snakes, and crocodiles, lay their eggs in sand or

light soil, the iguana in the hollows of trees, while certain lizards

and snakes are viviparous. Agassiz has discovered the extraor-

dinary fact that in turtles fecundation does not appear to be an

instantaneous act, resulting from one successful connection of the

sexes, as it is with most animals, but ‘a repetition of the act, thrice

every year, for four successive years, is necessary to determine

f . i

646 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

the final development of a new individual, which may be accom-

plished in other animals by a single copulation.” From the same

source we learn that Chrysemys (Emys) picta does not lay its eggs

before the eleventh year. Our other turtles probably lay their

eggs from the eleventh to the fourteenth year, according to the

species. The operation takes place in the month of June, both at

the north and south, climatic differences not seeming to have any

effect upon this particular function.

Before segmentation of the yolk the nucleus, or germinal vesicle,

undergoes self-division. According to Agassiz and Clark ‘ this

takes place, at least to a certain extent, without the influence of

fecundation within a year, but at the same time has been seen only

in those eggs which have been expelled from the ovary. Finally

they become the original cells, ‘ the primitive embryonic cells ” en-

ged in the composition of the different organs of the body, In

the bony fishes, aecording to Œllacher, the germinal vesicle is

ejected bodily from the germinal disk, and Foster and Balfour

think this fate awaits that of the birds. In insects the germinal

vesicle is supposed to undergo self-division and form the nuclei

of the cells of the blastoderm.

The segmentation of the yolk has been fully observed in Glyp-

temys (Emys) insculpta. The process of segmentation is not so

regular, and there does not seem to be always, in the beginning,

a symmetrical halving of the embryonic area, as has been observed

among birds; but in other respects it resembles what takes place

within the eggs of the latter animals, and finally results in shap-

ing out the embryonic disk.” Agassiz and Clark, from whom we

have quoted, think, however, that, from certain phenomena ob-

served by them, the whole mass of the yolk becomes segmented.

The formation of the primitive streak, the amnion, allantois,

and chorda dorsalis, are much as observed in the chick, and for

an account of the early stages of the embryo reptiles, the reader

is referred to the chapter on the embryology of birds. The lungs

arise as hollow sacs projecting from the sides of the throat; the

liver is a thickening of the same membrane from which the stom-

ach is formed, while the reproductive glands ‘*arise in intimate

connection with the posterior end of the intestine.”

By the time that the heart has become three-chambered, the

= vertebræ have reached the root of the tail, the eyes have be-

~ come entirely enclosed in complete orbits, and the allantois begins

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 647

to grow. Soon after, the embryo turns upon its axis, and always

rests on its left side. The nostrils may now be recognized as two

simple indentations at the end of the head, and at first are not in

communication with the mouth, but soon a shallow furrow leads

to it.

The shield begins to develop by a budding out laterally of the

musculo-cutaneous layer along the sides of the body, and the

growth of narrow ribs extending to the edge of the shield. ‘*The

feet, or rather paddles, of the lower forms of turtles, the Chelon-

ioidæ, do not remain in a partially undeveloped state, as might be

expected from what is observed among other vertebrates, but un-

dergo what may be called an excess of development; the bones

of the toes becoming very much elongated, and the web—which

remains soft among some turtles with moderately elongated toes,

—is hardened by the development of densely packed scales, so

that the whole foot is almost as rigid as the blade of an oar. At

this time the embryo of Chelydra EERE snaps at everything

which touches it.

Of the development of the Saurians, or Nears, we have no com-

plete account. The advanced embryo of the lizard, as figured by

Owen (443), is like that of the turtle without its shell.

As regards the development of snakes, Owen, deriving his in-

formation from Rathke’s work, tells us that in the oviparous

snakes (Natrix torquata) the embryo partially develops before the

egg is laid, while the young hatches in two months after the egg is _

dipai By this time the amnion is perfected, “the head is

distinct, and shows the eye-ball and ear-sac; also the maxillary

and mandibular processes. The allantois is about as large as the

head.” The long trunk of the serpent grows in a series of de- `

creasing spirals, and when five or six are formed, the rudiment of

the liver and the primordial kidneys are discernible.” At the

latter third of embryonic life the right lung appres as a mere

appendage to the beginning of the left.

A summary of the changes in the egg undergone by the reptiles

is as follows:

1. Segmentation partial, possibly total (morula?).

2. The embryo develops much as in the bony fishes until the

embryonal membranes rise

3. Formation of an amnio

4. After the alimentary nea is sketched out, the allantois buds

out from it.

648 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

5. The shield of the turtle develops and the reptilian features

are assumed.

6. The embryo hatches in the form of the adult, there being no

metamorphosis.

LITERATURE.

Rathke. E SET n der Natter. Königsberg, 1837.

——. Entwickelung der Schildkröten. Braunsschwieg, 1848.

—. Ueber die Entwickelung und den Körperbau der Krokodile. Brauns-

schwieg a

gassiz and Clark. Embryology of the aaa in Agassiz’s Contributions to the

Natural peal of the United States, II, part iii, 1857.

Development of Birds. So much alike are all the living species

of birds that the embryology of a single kind is in all probability

a type of that of the others. The development of the domestic

fowl has been studied in more detail than any other vertebrate,

since it is easy to hatch the eggs artificially, and from their large

size they can be examined more readily than the eggs of fishes.

Our account of the embryology of birds will be taken from the

admirable account by Foster and Balfour in their “Elements of

Embryology,” and we shall freely use their work, often quoting

them, word for word, where it is not possible to farther condense

their language.

The eggs of the hen are fertilized in the upper extremity of the

oviduct, whether before or after the “ white” of the egg is depos-

ited is unknown, but at any rate before the shell is deposited

around the “ white

First day. As the first result of impregnation the germinal

vesicle disappears, probably being, judging from the analogy of

the bony fishes, bodily ejected from the germinal disk. Then be-

gins the process of segmentation of the yolk, which goes on at

about the time the shell is formed. Segmentation is partial, being

restricted to the germinal disk of the ovarian egg; the result is

the formation of the blastodermic disk, which is the beginning of

the embryo, resting on the upper surface of the yolk and appear-

ing as a pale round spot seen in the freshly laid egg. This blas-

toderm at first consists of two layers of cells, the upper made up

of nucleated cells, and the lower of irregular rounded masses

called “t formative cells.”

Now begins the marking out of the embryo, which develops in

the “area pellucida ” a transparent rim (encompassed by the

“area opaca”) surrounding the blastoderm. The first step is the —

- Ten of an inner t germ-layer, the two others ere BAR te:

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 649

arisen, so that we now have the three germ-layers found in all

vertebrates and in some invertebrates. From the outer layer

(epiblast) arises ‘the tegument and walls of the body, with the

nervous cord; while from the second (mesoblast) are formed

the heart and the vascular system or blood-vessels, and the stom-

ach and intestines. The third and innermost layer is called

the “ hypoblast.” By the sixth or eighth hour these three mem-

branes become definitely established. The middle layer now

thickens and thus causes the appearance known as the “ primitive

streak,” along the middle of which runs the depression known as

the “ primitive groove.” In front of the primitive groove appears

the ‘ medullary groove,” and below it the notochord or “ chorda

dorsalis” originates from the cells of the middle layer. This

notochord (Fig. 304, ch) lies directly beneath the medullary tube

Fig. 304.

vå

Section of an Embryo Hen.

(mr) and between the outer and third germ-layer in the form of a

flattened circular rod. The blastoderm is now folded anteriorly

like the letter S; this is called the “ head-fold,” and soon

the ‘‘tail-fold” is formed in a similar way. These two folds meet

in the middle thus forming the body of the embryo. »

Next the primitive groove and streak disappear as the sides of

the medullary groove rise up, when they finally meet, forming the

neural tube, or hollow in which the nervous cord is formed.

About this period the first pair of protovertebre make their

appearance. They arise from the mesoblast as two cubical masses

(Fig. 3041, u w) lying one on each side of the motochord. Two

More pairs appear behind the first pair before the first day is

4 hiatt

1Fig. 804; dd, third o h h, chorda

salis or notochord; uw, avi TA. or protovertebræ; uwh, cavity in the

artless ao, bor ive aorta; ung > Woran i 8p, split ait the middle-germ

soblast ) by w ch it ~ divided

1 het tipper

3 f.

öö 8

eoi +h x

layer (hpl) | being the eomatopleure T the two layers unite at mp ‘otters

mittelplatt); mr, medullary tube (riickenmark); #, outer site ted (hornblatt or

epiblast). ;

650 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

ended. ‘Out of the protovertebre are formed not only the per-

manent vertebræ, but also the superficial dorsal as well as certain

Fig. 305,

ag TA: ae?

Early stage of a Vertebrate (Fowl).

other muscles and the spinal nerves. The pair of protovertebree

first formed cor.esponds not with the first cervical vertebra of the

adult chick, but rather with the third or even fourth; for though

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 651

the majority of the protovertebre are formed regularly behind the

first pair, two or even three pair may make their appearance in

front of it” (Foster and Balfour).

Fig. 304 (from Kölliker) is a cross section through an embryo

chick of the second day magnified 90-100 times, showing the rela-

tions of the medullary tube, chorda dorsalis and protovertebre.

Meanwhile the middle layer has split into two layers ; the upper

(or outer) leaf is called the ‘¢ somatopleure,” so-called from its

giving rise to the body walls, while the lower (or inner) leaf is

called the “‘splanchnopleure,” as it is destined to form the ali-

mentary canal, and the liver and other glands originating from the

digestive cavity.

The amnion next arises from certain folds of the somatopleure.

As the embryo thickens and sinks into the yolk two folds grow

out of the head and tail end respectively (Fig. 305, 2, ks and ss).

These finally meet and coalesce on the fourth day over the back

of the embryo, forming the amniotic cavity (Fig. 805, 3, ah) in

which the embryo lies. The fluid which fills this cavity is called

the amniotic fluid.

The allantois arises as an appendage of the alimentary canal,

budding out at the hinder end of the embryo. It finally grows

(as in Fig. 305, 4, al) so large as to curve over the embryo, serv-

ing as a foetal respiratory organ.1

Second Day. By the time the embryo is thirty hours old the

outlines are bolder, more right and the tissues firmer, so that

1 Fig. 305. wits! schematio figures showing the development of a _ ogu mem

branes, where i

77. Pe | meer a

: wit l 1)

embryo. 2. Egg with the ‘first traces of the yolk sac (d) and amnion (ks, ss and am).

3. Egg with the amnion uniting and mn ing a sac; the allantois (al) budding ser Pg

Egg with the vili of the serous mem e (sz); the allantois larger; embryo

mouth and anal opening. 5. eli age the vascular layef of the allantois lies ine

to own into the villi of the same, constituting the true cho-

rion oa olk sac much Sekier. abont to be o se the cavity of the amnion,

d, yolk-skin; d’, villi of the yolk-skin; sh, serou i us

Fakes nt ae on (vascular layer of the panies chz, true villi of es chorion

(arising from the projections of the chorion and the sa rous membrane); am

Z nion; 8, hend: fora of the amnion; 83, tait-fold: z the amnion; se cavity a the am-

t be g of the embryo

anei from a thickening of a outer layer of the blastoderm a’ aa aparitia form-

ing the germ in the middle layer of the ae ra which at first only reached as

r as the germinal disk, an pie rwards fe he vascular layer of yolk-sac (af)

which connects with the intestino-muscular arai (darmfasery platte);

nalis; dd. intestino-glandular layer (darmarusenblatt ee arising out of a peer of i, the

inner layer of the blastod (aft Is the epitheli f the yolk-sac; kh, cavity of

652 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

the whole blastoderm can be removed from the egg with much

greater ease than before. The head-fold has now become more

prominent than before. The nerve-tube, at first of uniform thick-

ness dilates anteriorly forming the first cerebral vesicle, and the

second and third cerebral vesicles successively form, the proto-

vertebrze increase rapidly, and soon the embryonic chick presents

the appearance of the embryo rabbit of nearly the same age.

The alimentary canal commences as a cul de sac, closed in front

but widely open behind, situated below the anterior end of the

medullary tube. The heart originates also in the head-fold at

about the time the protovertebre are formed, and the rudiment is

situated below the fore gut or rudiment of the alimentary canal;

by the end of the first half of the second day it is flask-shaped,

with a slight bend to the right. ‘Soon after its formation the

heart begins to beat, its at first slow and rare pulsations beginning

at the venous and passing on to the arterial end.” Its movements

begin before the cells of which it is composed are differentiated

into muscle or nerve-cells. To provide channels for the flui

pressed out by the contractions of the heart, the heart divides into

the two primitive aorte, and connects with other embryonic tem-

porary arteries and veins. Meanwhile in the vascular area and

area pellucida, the arteries, capillaries and veins rapidly develop,

and blood disks arise as amceba-like cells separating from the adja-

cent cell-mass of the mesoblast (middle germ-layer), while the

vessels are contemporaneously forming ; the red blood corpuscles

not being true cells, but nuclei. The first half of the second day

ends with the rise of the rudiment of the Wolffian duct. ‘It is

important to remember that the embryo of which we are now

speaking is simply a part of the whole germinal membrane, which

is gradually spreading over the surface of the yolk. It is impor-

tant also to bear in mind that all that part of the embryo which is

in front of the most anterior protovertebre corresponds to the

future head, and the rest to the neck, body and tail. At this

the blastoderm, Tae e becomes ds, the cavity of the yolk-sac; penas way

of the yolk; al, alla embryo; r, original space between the amnion and cho-

rion, filled with ainminous fluid; vi, hase gal body-wall in the region of a heart; hh,

cavity of the heart without the heart

In Figs. 2 pee 3, the amnion is ie the mo of a oe ness Gpe as situated too

way from the embryo; so also the cavity of the is drawn too small and the _

I too | i in Fig. 5, they are only Foam Aea aaan. These

and Fig. 304, from Kölliker’s Entwickelungsg

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES, 653

period the head occupies nearly a third of the whole length of the

embryo” (Foster and Balfour).

In the second half of the second day, among the most important

. changes are the appearance of the second and third cerebral vesi-

cles, the optic vesicles, while the ‘first rudiment of the ear is

formed as an involution of the epiblast on the side of the hind

brain or third cerebral vesicle.”

Third day. This day is one of the most eventful, as the rudi-

ments of so many important organs now first appear. First, the

embryo, now almost completely enveloped by the amnion, turns

around so as to lie on its left side. The heart, originally formed

under where the brain is destined to lie, moves backward into the

trunk, and by this time (the third day) the neck has been formed,

in which appears the four branchial fissures, the most anterior

being formed first. It is these temporary fissures which corres-

pond to the branchial fissures of Amphioxus. ‘* On account of

this resemblance—in fact by some assumed as an identity both in

form and function—the fissures have been called by embryologists

the branchial fissures (compare Fig. 288) and the vessels [passing

between them] the branchial aorte, the former corresponding with

the passages between the gills of fishes, and the latter with the

vessels which supply the gills with blood” (Clark’s Mind in Na-

ture, p. 311).

In fact the embryo bird in some respects is now as far advanced

in organization as the Lancelet, and may be rudely compared with

that animal, though the incipient neck, head and brain are features

which the Lancelet lacks

The eye commences as a lateral outgrowth of the fore brain,

in the form of a stalked vesicle subsequently converted into the

of the body (outer germ-layer) over the front end of the optic

vesicle. The ear is also at first simply an involution of the outer

germ-layer (epiblast) formifg a pit, or “otic vesicle,” which is

destined to form the internal ear, containing the bones and other

parts of the inner ear. The nose'begins as two shallow pits

formed by the sinking in of the outer germ-layer. Each of these

pits is situated next to the olfactory vesicles (afterwards nerves), .

but at first there is no connection between the pits and the nerves

as between the pits and the mouth, which is in fact not yet formed,

since it arises afterwards as an extension inward of the cleft be-

654 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

tween the first branchial folds and its branch, as the jaws or max-

illæ arise from the first fold, the upper jaws being two branches of

the fold, the fold itself being the under jaw, while a lozenge-

shaped cavity between the fold and its branches becomes the

mouth.

Meanwhile, for all the changes in the different organs are going

on contemporaneously, the vesicles or lateral expansions of the

nerve-tube appear, the vesicles of the cerebral hemispheres devel-

oping, as well as the separation of the hind-brain into the cerebrel-

lum and medulla oblongata. The digestive cavity is during the third

day also, differentiated into the fore-gut and hind-gut, the former

farther subdividing into the cesophagus, stomach and duodenum,

and the hind-gut into the large intestine and cloaca. The lungs

arise as two pocket-like appendages of the alimentary canal im-

mediately in front of the stomach; while the liver is originally

two diverticula, and the pancreas a single offshoot from the duo-

denum.

Fourth day. With a decided increase in size by this day, the

amnion becomes more distinct, and the allantois is visible. The

wings and legs now appear as flattened conical buds arising from

the ‘‘ Wolffian ridge,” a low ridge running from the neck to the

tail, those forming the wings being scarcely distinguishable from

the rudimentary legs.

The olfactory grooves appear at this time and the partition

heretofore existing between the mouth and throat is absorbed and

disappears.

The protovertebrz have, by this time, increased in number from

thirty to forty. The upper portion (muscle-plate) having previ-

ously separated to form the muscles inserted in the skeleton (epi-

sketal muscles of Huxley), has left the remainder of each proto-

vertebra as a somewhat triangular mass, the upper angle of which

grows up and meets its fellow in the median line above, thus

enclosing the nerve-canal. On the lower side each protovertebra

sends out a similar growth enclosing the notochord. ‘ While the

‘inner portion of each protovertebra is thus extending inwards

around both notochord and neural canal, the remaining outer por-

tion is undergoing a remarkable change. It becomes divided into

an anterior or præaxial, and a posterior or postaxial segment.

The anterior, which is the larger and more transparent of the two,

is the rudiment of the spinal ganglion and nerve, while the pos-

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 655

terior, which remains more particularly connected with the exten-

sions round the neural canat and notochord, goes to form part of

the permanent vertebra. In this way each protovertebra, having

given rise to a muscle- plate, is farther subdivided into a ee

rudiment, and into a mass which we may speak of as a‘ primary’

vertebra, consisting as it does of a body or mass investing the

notochord, from which springs an arch covering in the neural

canal.” (Foster and Balfour.) The conversion of the primary ver-

tebree or membranous vertebral column into the permanent verte-

bre is “ complicated by a remarkable new or secondary segmenta-

tion of the whole vertebral column,” so that ‘* each permanent

vertebra is formed out of portions of two consecutive protoverte-

re. Thus, for instance, the tenth permanent vertebra is formed

out of the hind portion of the tenth protovertebra, and the front

portion of the eleventh protovertebra, while its arch, now attached

to its front part, was attached to the hind part of the tenth proto-

vertebra.” (Foster and Balfour).

By the sixth day the notochord begins to diminish and disap-

pear by the time the bird is hatched, while by the twelfth day the

ossification of the bodies of the vertebrae commences, the process

beginning in the second or third cervical, and thence extending

backwards. The ribs begin as a downward growth from the ex-

terior of the vertebra, at first separate from the bodies of the

vertebra.

Between the eightieth and one hundredth hour of incubation

the permanent kidneys arise, and previous to this the se

glands have arisen out of the middle germ-layer, from the germinal

epithelium lying at the upper end of the pleuroperitoneal cavity.

In this epithelium may be seen certain large cells, the primordial

ova, which are at first seen in male as well as female embryos, so

that in early stages it is impossible to distinguish the sexes. Be-

tween the eightieth and one hundredth hour, however, the pri-

mordial ova disappear in those embryos destined to be males,

while they enlarge and multiply in the female. “The large nu-

cleus of the primordial ovum becomes the germinal vesicle, while

the ovum itself remains as the true “ovum.” The testes begin —

to arise on the sixth day.

Fifth day. This period is signalized by the further growth of

the allantois, and by the appearance of the knee and elbow, and of

the cartilages which precede the formation of the bones of the

656 MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES.

digits and limbs; as well as the formation of the primitive skull,

with the development of the parts of the face, and the formation

of the anus.

The cranium, from the researches of Rathke, Parker and others,

is formed from the middle germ-layer, and in the fourth day is

simply membranous; after that time the tissue composing it be-

comes cartilage. After the fourth day the primitive skull consists

of two portions, i.e., a sheet of cartilage ensheathing the noto-

chord from its anterior end to the first vertebra. ‘* This sheet of

cartilage forms an wnsegmented continuation of the vertebral bod-

ies. It is to be considered as the most anterior portion of the

axial skeleton, in which the segmentation has become obliterated ;

and as such is equivalent not to one, but to a (hitherto not cer-

tainly determined) number of vertebree.” (Foster and Balfour.

For the farther changes in the development of the skull the reader

is referred to Parker’s memoir on the Development of the Skull

of the Common Fowl, or the excellent, illustrated abstract in

Foster and Balfour’s “ Elements.” )

Not until the sixth day are distinct bird-characters developed.

Hitherto it would be almost impossible to distinguish the embryo

from a reptile or mammal. During the sixth and seventh day the

wing and foot assume a bird form, the crop and intestinal ceca

make their appearance, “the stomach takes the form of a gizzard,

and the nose begins to develop into a beak, while the incipient

bones of the skull arrange themselves after the avian type. .. -

From the eleventh day onwards the embryo successively puts on

characters which are not only avian, but even distinctive of the

genus, species and variety.” By the ninth or tenth day the

feathers originate in sacs in the skin, these sacs by the eleventh

day appearing to the naked eye as feathers, the sacs however re-

maining closed as late as the nineteenth nie: though om are an

inch in lengt

The nails sind scales begin to appear on the thirteenth day.

“By the thirteenth day the cartilaginous skeleton is compli

and the various muscles of the body can be made out with ‘cia :

able clearness. Ossification begins, according to Von Baer, on the

eighth or ninth day by small deposits in the tibia, in the meta-

carpal bones of the hind-limb, and in the scapula. On the eleventh

or twelfth day a multitude of points of ossification make their ap-

~ pearance in the ibis in the oaoot and pelvic arches, in the

MODE OF GROWTH OF THE LOWER VERTEBRATES. 657

` ribs, in the bodies of the cervical and dorsal vertebree, and in the

bones of the head, the centres of ossification of the vertebral

arches not being found till the thirteenth day.”

While the blood is at first aerated by the allantois, and there is

a partial double circulation of the blood, as soon as respiration

begins a completely double circulation is formed.

After the sixth day muscular movements of the embryo proba-

bly begin, but they are slight until the fourteenth day, when the

embryo chick changes its position, lying lengthways in the egg,

with its beak touching the chorion and shell membrane, where they

form the inner wall of the rapidly increasing air chamber at the

broad end. On the twentieth day or thereabouts, the beak is

thrust through these membranes, and the bird begins to breathe

the air contained in the chamber. Thereupon the pulmonary cir-

culation becomes functionally active, and at the same time blood

ceases to flow through the umbilical arteries. The allantois shriv-

els up, the umbilicus becomes completely closed, and the chick

piercing the shell at the broad end of the egg with repeated blows

of its beak, casts off the dried remains of allantois, amnion and

chorion, and steps out into the world.” (Foster and Balfour).

brief summary of the changes undergone by the developing |

chick will be seen to be nearly identical with that of reptiles:

1. Partial segmentation of the yolk.

2. The embryo develops much as in the bony fishes until the

embryonal membranes appear.

3. Formation of an amnion.

4. After the alimentary canal is sketched out, the allantois buds:

out from it.

5. The avian features appear from the sixth to the tenth day.

6. The embryo leaves the egg in the form of the adult, and like

the reptile, is at once active, feeding itself.

LITERATURE,

Harvey. E st ta a ti. aaa London, 1651,

Malpighi. De Formatione Pulli in Ovo. London, 1

Haller. Sur la Formation du Cœur dans le Poulet. Ts. 1758.

. here peewor Fhysologim, Liber xxix 66.

MaA lle, 1759.

Pander, Dissertatio inauguralis sistens Historiam Re ge SAE quam Ovum

_ incubatum prioribus pate diebus subit. W reba, 38

Beiträge

im Eie. Würzburg

1817. z

Purkinje, Symbolæ ad Ovi Avium Historiam. Vratislav, 1825.

AMER. NATURALIST, VOL. IX. |

658. - PLANTS THAT EAT ANIMALS.

Von Baer, biter Fee hades a Og der Thiere. Königsberg, 1828.

Reichert. Das wicklungsleben im Wirbelthierreich. Berlin, 1840

Erdl. Die pees des Menschen und des Hiihnchens im Ei. Theil 1. Leipzig,

845.

Remak. Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Wirbelthiere. Berlin, 1855.

Parker. On the Development of the Skull of the Common Fowl (Phil. PEET CLYI,

er and Balfour. The Elements of Embryology, Vol.i. London, 1874.

With the works of Coste, Allen Thompson and others.

PLANTS THAT EAT ANIMALS.:

BY MRS. MARY TREAT.

VIDINTE

Tue Bladderwort is a common plant, growing in shallow ponds

and swamps; Dr. Gray in his “ Manual of the Botany of the

Fig. 306. United States,” describes twelve species found within

y this range, and almost every muddy pond contains

one or more of them. Some grow wholly or nearly

out of water; but the species which I am about to

describe are immersed, with finely dissected leaves

on long stems floating in the water. Scattered among

the leaves, or along the stems which are destitute of

leaves, are numerous little bladders, the use of which

we had supposed was to float the plant at the time of

flowering. The flowering stems of most of the spe-

cies are smooth and free from leaves or bladders, and

‘shoot up straight from the water to a hight of from

three to twelve inches, bearing at the top from one to

ten curiously-fashioned flowers of a yellow or purple

color. It has always been taken for granted that

showing although I had noticed that the stems most heavily

Natural size. laden with bladders sank the lowest in the water.

About a year ago (in Dec. 1873), a young man, now at Cornell

University, and myself, on placing some of the bladders under the

microscope, noticed animalcules— dead entomostraca, etc., appar-

ently imprisoned therein. But our attention was not sufliciently

Aat.

UF tue

1 This reprint with I ions fi he “ New Tribune,” has b yed

until the publication of Mr. Darwin’s last book gives fresh cause for its appearance,

Te are indebted to the “ Tribune” fi of the illustrations.

PLANTS THAT EAT ANIMALS. 659

aroused to follow-up the subject very closely ; we laughingly called

it ‘our new carnivorous plant.” But as the bladders always

seemed to be open, the significance of the fact of the imprisoned

animal was not very apparent. We thought it could hardly be for

the purpose of feeding the plant, but a kind of wanton cruelty.

Still, my curiosity was aroused. I soon found larger animals in

the bladders — dead larvæ of some aquatic insect — large enough

Fig. 308.

Fig. 307.

‘XZ

fi A

th SA

| yA W

| K eA

aq)

E Vi

ie j

Lie 3 }

<patce

and leaves,

destitute of blad-

The Bladder of Bladderwort. a, entrance; b, tun-

nel-like ar c, point e attachment; d,a stellate

ier s figure is magnified ‘with a low

pow

to be seen distinctly with the naked eye. But I was not aroused

to earnest work until I watched the movements of an imprisoned

living Jarva, and saw its struggles and final death. This was in

October, 1874, I now visited the ponds and procured abundant. : ;

material.

The plant that I experimented with mory was the one known

to botaninis a as Utricularia clandestina.

660 PLANTS THAT EAT ANIMALS.

My next work was to see what prevented the escape of the

animal from the bladder, and to this end I directed all my atten-

tion for several days. The animal that I found most commonly

entrapped was a Chironomus larva, about the length of the mos-

quito larva, but more slender and of lighter color. I have fre-

quently trapped these snake-like larvæ and seen them enter the

bladders. They seem to be wholly vegetable feeders, and specially

to have a liking for the long hairs at the entrance of the bladders.

When a larva is feeding near the entrance it is pretty certain to

run its head into the net, whence there is no retreat. A large

larva is sometimes three or four hours in being swallowed, the

process bringing to mind what I have witnessed when a small

snake makes a large frog its victim.

I worked with this larva for several days, determined, if possible,

to see him walk into the trap.

I put growing stems of the plant in a small dish of water with

several larve, and set it aside. In a few hours thereafter I would

find the living larve imprisoned. This served for another purpose,

but not for the object I was aiming at. Forced to give up this

plan of seeing the larve enter the bladder, I now directed my

attention to the smaller ones—animalcules proper,—I placed the

- bladders in water inhabited by numerous tiny creatures, and soon

had the satisfaction of seeing the modus operandi by which the

victim was caught.

The entrance into the bladder has the appearance of a tunnel-

net, always open at the large end, but closed at the other extrem-

ity. I find that the net is simply a valve turned in from the mouth

of the bladder, with the outer edge surrounded with a dense mass

of hairs, which impels the larva forward and prevents the possi-

bility of retreat. The little animals seemed to be attracted into.

this inviting retreat. They would sometimes dally about the open

entrance for a short time, but would sooner or later venture in,

‘and easily open or push apart the closed entrance at the other

extremity.. As soon as the animal was fairly in, the forced

entrance closed, making it a secure prisoner.

Entomostraca too were often captured — Daphnia, Cyclops and

Cypris. These little animals are just visible to the naked eyé, but

under the microscope: are beautiful and interesting objects. The

lively little Cypris is encased in a bivalve shell, which it opens at

~ pleasure, and thrusts out its feet and two pairs of antenne, with

tufts ~ ENERETT filaments. This little En was A r

PLANTS THAT EAT ANIMALS. 661

wary, but nevertheless was often caught. Coming to the entrance

of a bladder it would sometimes pause a moment and then dash

away; at other times it would come close up, and even venture

part way into the entrance and back out as if afraid. Another,

more heedless, would open the door and walk in; but it was no

sooner in than it manifested alarm, drew in its feet and antennz

and closed its shell. But after its death the shell unclosed again,

displaying its feet and antenne. I never saw even the smallest

animalcule escape after it was once fairly inside the bladder.

So these points were settled to my satisfaction — that the

animals were entrapped, and killed, and slowly macerated. But

how was I to know that these animals were made subservient to

the plant? If I could only prove that the contents of the bladders

were carried directly into the circulation, my point was gained.

This now was my sole work for several days, to examine closely

the contents of the bladders. I found the fluid contents to vary

considerably, from a dark, muddy, to a very light, transparent

color. Hundreds of these bladders, one after another, were put

to the test under the microscope, and I found that to a greater or

less extent, I could trace the same color that I found in the

bladder, in the stem on which the bladder grew, though the

observation was not so clear and satisfactory as I could wish.

After more critical examination I arrived at the conclusion that

the cells themselves and not their contents, change to a red color ;

the stems also take on this color, so as to make it appear as if a

red fluid was carried from the bladders into the main stem, which _

is not specifically the fact so far-as the observations yet made.

determine ; though the main point, that the contents of the bladders

are carried into the circulation, does not seem open to question.

The next step was to see how many of the bladders contained

animals, and I found almost every one that was well developed

contained one or more, or their remains, in various stages of diges-

tion. The larva of Chironomus was the largest and most constant

animal found. On some of the stems that I examined, fully nine

out of every ten of the bladders contained this larva or its remains.

When, first caught it was fierce, thrusting out its horns and feet

and drawing them back, but otherwise it seemed partly paralyzed,

moving its body but very little; even small larvee of this species

that hud plenty of room to swim about were soon very quiet,

although they showed signs of life from twenty-four to thirty-six

hours ‘after they were imprisoned. In about twelve hours, ee

662 REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

nearly as I could make out, they lost the power of drawing their

feet back, and could only move the brush-like appendages. There

was some variation with different bladders as to the time when

maceration or digestion began to take place, but usually, on a

growing spray in less than two days after a large larva was cap-

tured, the fluid contents of the bladders began to assume a cloudy

or muddy appearance, and often became so dense that the outline

of the animal was lost to view.

Nothing yet in the history of carnivorous plants comes so near

to the animal as this. I was forced to the conclusion that these

little bladders are in truth like so many stomachs, digesting and

assimilating animal food. What it is that attracts this particular

larva into the bladders is left for further investigation. But here

is the fact that animals are found there, and in large numbers,

and who can deny that the plant feeds directly upon them? e

why and wherefore is no more inexplicable than many another fact

in nature. And it only goes to show that the two great kingdoms

of nature are more intimately blended than we had heretofore

supposed, and, with Dr. a we may be compelled to say,

“our brother organisms — plant

About the Ist of ei after I had made most of my

observations, I wrote to Dr. Asa Gray and to Mr. Darwin, both

on the same day, telling them of my discovery. Dr. Gray then

informed me that Mr. Darwin had been engaged in the same work

on Utricularia, and also sent me a note from him, bearing date

Aug. 5. From this note it would appear that at that date he had

not worked the matter up as far as I had — at least had not found

so many imprisoned animals; but with his superior facilities he

~ may have far outstripped me.

REVIEWS AND BOOK NOTICES.

Aten’s STUDIES IN THE Facrat Recrion.!— Though these essays

are for the most part jottings from lectures delivered to dental

students, naturalists will take an interest in the last chapter on

- the “Nomenclature of the Teeth,” while the first chapter on the

“ Region of Expression,” is an interesting one.

1Studies in the Facial Region. By Harrison Allen, M.D. Ilustrated with a6 wood-

cuts. J. = Lippincott & Co. Philadelphia, 1875. 8vo, pp. 117.

ZOOLOGY.

CAVE-INHABITING SPIDERS. — Naturalists are paying fuch atten-

tion to cave animals, and the modification of their organs due to

their life either in twilight or total darkness. In some the eyes

are entirely wanting, while the appendages are variously modified

to remedy, as it were, the loss of eyesight. M. Simon of Paris has

lately published in the ‘¢ Annales of the Entomological Society of

France,” an interesting memoir on certain new spiders and allied

forms inhabiting either caves or subterranean abodes in the soil of

southern Europe. Some of these arachnids live simply in porous

soil, but at great depths, and probably in small galleries. Such

species he calls hypogeal (hypogés) and they belong to the same

genera as the cave-inhabiting arachnids, and often the species are

so nearly allied that it would seem as if the same species might live

both in caves and under the soil, and he thinks certain troglodyte .

arachnids may live also in porous soil. Several cave-inhabiting

arachnids want eyes, such are Anthrobia, Hadiles and Stalita, but

he thinks this-is a character of minor importance, since it is owing

to external conditions slowly produced after a series of genera-

tions. Thus M. Thorell has described a Stalita Schiodtii, which

taken at the entrance of a cave, living in twilight, has rudimentary

eyes, while the other species of the same genus living in total

darkness has none. All the light-shunning arachnids, both trog-

lodyte and hypogeal, have several features in common which show

at once their kind of life. Their skin is thin, colorless, without

the fine hairs usually clothing the body of other arachnids, but

furnished here and there with long stiff hairs, which doubtless in-

crease their sensitiveness. Their limbs are slenderer and longer

than in their congeners living in the light, as has been noticed by

American observers. Of this Stalita and Blothrus are striking

examples, as these two arachnids belong to two groups repre-

sented renal by Dysdera and Obisium, in which the limbs

are short and stubby. These long appendages, adds M. Simon,

thus modified, are perfectly adapted to a life in the dark; the

slender, long feet, garnished with stiff hairs, are organs of a

delicate sense of touch, which make up for the absence of Sa

The large fingers (cheliceres) are organs of distant prehens

which enable the ETE of the genus a ae (emotl ae

664 ZOOLOGY.

allied to the harvestmen) to detect at a distance prey, which they

are unable to pursue, while the nearest allied external form is a.

species of Trogulus in which the appendages of the head are so

short, that a slight advance of the front suffices to cover them.

Here we see specific and generic characters induced by differences

in the conditions of life, that are patent to the most casual ob-

server. Hence the most telling facts for the theory that the dif-

ferent forms of life are induced by changes in life and the environ-

ment of the plant or animal, are afforded by cave animals. Our

country abounds in such cases, and it is hoped that naturalists will

explore them thoroughly, as many novelties may be expected.

Dicrstion IN Insects. — M. Plateau finds that when the sali-

vary glands of insects are not diverted from their primitive func-

tion to become silk or poison glands, they secrete a neutral or

alkaline liquid, possessing at least as regards one pair, the prop-

erty characteristic of the saliva of vertebrate animals of rapidly

transforming starch matters into soluble and assimilable glycose.

The change is effected in a posterior dilatation of the esophagus.

At this place results in the carnivorous insects a transformation

of albuminous matters into soluble substances like peptone, and —

in vegetable-feeding species an abundant production of sugar out

of the starchy matter eaten. When digestion has taken place in

the cesophagus it is submitted to an energetic pressure in the

gizzard or proventriculus which is armed with teeth. It thus

seems that this is not an apparatus for crushing the food, but for

expressing the liquid from the food triturated by the jaws. In the

stomach, or middle intestine, as Plateau calls it, the food is again

submitted to the action of an alkaline or neutral liquid secreted

by local glands, present in the Orthoptera, or by a great number

of small glandular cæca as in many beetles, or by a simple lin-

ing of epithelial cells. This fluid has no analogy with the gastric

fluid of vertebrate animals. Its function differs according to the

group to which the insect belongs. In the carnivorous beetles

it makes an emulsion of the greasy matters; in the Hydrophilid

beetles it continues the conversion of starch into glycose, begun

in the cesophagus.: In the caterpillars of the butterflies and moths

it determines a production of glycose and makes an emulsion of

greasy; matters, and in the grasshoppers no sugar is formed in the

: : —- as r material i is P and absorbed in the cesopha-

“i

MICROSCOPY. 665

gus (jabot). The intestine proper is only a fecal reservoir. The

urinary or Malpighian tubes sometimes secrete calculi. No bile

has been found in the secretions of these tubes. A point of great

importance is touched upon by the author, namely: the passage

of the chyle from the stomach to the blood. It is well known

that there are in Articulates no lacteals as in Vertebrates to effect

this process. Plateau states that the products of digestion -pass

through the walls of the digestive canal by an osmotic action and

directly mingle with the blood.

Horny Crest ON THE MANDIBLE or THE FEMALE Waite PELI-

CAN AS WELL AS THE Mare.— In all the standard works on the

Birds of North America, it is stated that the horny crest or

“button” on the upper mandible of the white pelican (Pelecanus

erythrorhynchus) is exclusively a male appendage. I dissected,

pril 20th, 1875, an adult female of this species whose ovaries.

contained eggs in all stages of development. This bird was in

full plumage, having the feathers of the head and breast conspicu-

ously elongated and also having a full-sized horny “ bution ” on the.

upper mandible.— F. H. Snow, Lawrence, Kansas.

Tur Western Nonparem tn Micntean.—On the 15th day of

May last, Dr. H. A. Atkins of Locke, Ingham Co., Mich., shot

and sent me a fine specimen, male, of Cyanospiza versicolor, which

I have mounted and have now in my collection. Baird, Brewer,

and Ridgway’s “North American Birds” contains the following

note on this species: “This beautiful species has only doubtful

claims to a place in our fauna. It is a Mexican species and may

occasionally cross into our territory. It was met with at Boquillo,

in the Mexican state of New Leon by Lieutenant Couch. It was

procured at Guatemala by Dr. Van Patten and by Salvin, and is

given by Bonaparte as from Peru. It is also found at Cape St.

Lucas, where it is not rare, and where it breeds.”

It was shot in the vicinity of some Indigo birds, C. cyanea, on

the first day of their appearance in this locality. —J. M. B. SILL,

Detroit, Mich.

MICROSCOPY. =

Å NEW WARM STAGE FOR THE MICROSCOPE.— Prof. E. A. Schafer

of University College, London, finding the warm stages already

666 MICROSCOPY.

in use, such as Stricker’s, described by Klein in Sanderson’s Hand

Book, to be clumsy and difficult to manage with precision, has

contrived an apparatus which is moderately easy to prepare and

use, and extremely precise in its results. It consists essentially

of three parts, the stage, the hot-water reservoir, and the gas

regulator.

The stage is a hollow brass-box, closed at every point except an

inlet pipe at one end and an outlet pipe at the other. Through

the ‘centre of the stage is an opening or centre chamber for the

transmission of light through the object. This chamber is closed

above and below with cover-glasses, upon the upper of which the

object rests. It communicates with the external air by a hori-

zontal tubular opening through which a thermometer may be in-

troduced to test temperature, or tubes for the introduction of

gases or other reagents, but has no communication with the gen-

eral cavity of the stage.

The reservoir consists of a vertical brass cylinder, containing

hot water, which is heated by a gas flame below. From the top of

this reservoir the hot water passes with a slight ascent through a |

flexible rubber tube to one end of the stage, through the length of

the stage and back by a descending course through a rubber tube

to the bottom of the reservoir. This is a closed circuit entirely

filled with water, the hot water rising on one side and the cooled

water falling on the other, precisely as the water pipes in the

kitchen stove or range heat the copper boiler which supplies the

hot water pipes of our houses. The reservoir is made hollow for

the reception of the gas regulator.

The gas regulator is not unlike a thermometer with the top of-

the tube broken off. A steel tube with a narrow slit in one side is

cemented tightly into the top of the glass tube of the regulator,

and delivers the gas inside of the glass tube and some distance

below its upper end. The glass tube has a side opening above the

level of the bottom of the steel tube, from which the gas is carried

by a flexible tube to the burner beneath the reservoir. The regu-

lator is filled with mercury which, when the required temperature

has been attained, is adjusted so as to just touch the bottom of

the steel tube, the flame below the reservoir being only preserved

by the gas which escapes through the slit in the steel tube, but the

NOTES. 667 ©

least decrease in temperature allowing the mercury to fall and the

more freely escaping gas to increase the flame. The adjustment

of the mercury to the exact height required is accomplished by a

screw which works through a steel collar on the side of the glass

tube and which by working in or out gives the requisite change of

capacity to the reservoir. This adjusting screw is the most diffi-

cult part of the apparatus for construction by an amateur, and

may be omitted, the adjustment being accomplished by sliding the

steel tube up or down until its lower end just touches the mercury

after the desired temperature has been reached, in which case it,

of course, is not cemented into the glass tube but made to slide

into it through an air-tight packing. The proximity of the objec-

tive probably reduces somewhat the temperature of the object,

and if great exactness is essential,.an additional current of hot

water may be carried through a flexible tube which is coiled around

the objective. The apparatus is described and figured in the

“ Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.”

Cox’s TURNTABLE.— Miller Bros. of New York have made an

improved form of this excellent contrivance, which is marked by

its handsome iron stand and its careful adjustment of the centring

movements. If the real convenience of this table were known

its use would soon become general.

NOTES.

Messrs. Henry Horr & Co., New York, will publish in January

“ Life-Histories of Animals, including Man,” by A. S. Packard, Jr.,

‘containing the papers which have appeared during the past year in

the Narurauist, with additional chapters and some changes and

additions.

NOTICE TO SUBSCRIBERS.

As announced in our last number, the American Naturalist will,

after this issue, be published by Messrs. H. O. Houghton & Co.,

of Boston, Mass., the former proprietors having dissolved partner-

ship. It will hereafter be edited by A. S. Packard, Jr., with the

assistance of eminent men of science. aoe

It is hoped that, from the substantial interest taken in the con-

duct of the magazine by kind friends, a new lease of life awaits it.

` Much more matter, equivalent to over fifty pages, due to the —

increased size of the page, will be put in the next volume, and

: 668 BOOKS RECEIVED.

several new departments added, while the magazine will be more

popular in character than of late.

The January number, with an attractive table of contents, will

be sent out to past subscribers, and it is earnestly hoped that all

will give the next volume a trial, and induce others to subscribe.

BOOKS RECEIVED.

Om Skuringsmerker, Glacial formationen, Terrasser og Strandlinier samt om grundfjeldets

ms Fae laa Had megtighed i Norge. By Theodor Kjerulf. II, Sparagmittjeldet. Christi-

ania 4to

he Land and Fresh Water Shells of La Salle County, Illinois. Big . W. Calkins, Chicago,

4. Proceedings of the Ottawa Academy of Natural Sciences 48, 8vo.

Catalogue of ot tebe at! resh Water Shelis. W.W. Calkins. “Chicago. 13 g p. ll. _8vo.

Bulletin de la Societe Geologique de France. 3me Serie, 3ine Tome, No. 4. s. 1875. :

Die. Aegyptischen Denkinater z St, Petersburg, Helsingfors, Upsala und Coreia gen. By J.

Lieblein. Christiania, 1873. o.

Enumeratio Insectorum Meana, Fas. 1. By H. Siebke.- Christiania, 1874. pp. 72. 8vo.

re 5 i j a nnual — of the Board = Manager's of the Zoological Society of Philadelphia,

Da pe 6 VO.

Records of boats ie Sees of ala bh ox 8vo,

octety Entomologique de Belgique. Serie ii. 5 13. 1875. 8vo

alo ort Totton Wes pao r ondon, Mari reh „1813. No. 28, 8yo.

Gre vied: London, 1875. No. 28. 8vo.

Hardwickes Science-Gossip, London, 1875. No. 126. 127.

2 1

Field and Porm Devoted to General Natural History.

POF o, i ac Side Naturalists Club. Charles R. Dodge, Ed. Washington, 1875,

Circulars “oF Pi ormiilon soon the Bureau of Education. Washington, 1875, Nos, 1 and 2,

Pamphlets., 8vo.

timore. Baltimore, 1875 oS 8vo.

Seventes nnual Report of. the Board of Directors of the Mercantile Library Asean of

City pra Drea pe Brookly n. 1874, pp. 24. S8vo.

sen A a m Generis Scolia, By Henricus de Saussure and Julius Sichel, Geneva,

p 352 vo.

Circular og on War De epar rtment, Surgeon-General’s Office. A Re, Ppor the fe the

ates

Notice tiie SX Hed sur kdo ouard-Rene Claparede, par Hen ae fakes ure, . pp. 28. 4to.

Bulletin de V Institut National Daneta Geneva. 1875. To prii xx. pp. 304 va

A TUT r die Gesa pr Naturwissenschafien. By C. G. Giebel. Berlin, 1874. Band x,

eft 7- 8vo.

Bulletin Mensuel de la Societe d Acclimation, Paris. No. 11,1874, No.1,1875. 8vo. I. Tra-*

eaux des membres de la P De UV Utilite d'Introduire la Sericiculture a la Nouvelle Caledonie,

By M. C. Raveret, Watte

Verhandlungen der k. E Zoologisch Botanischen sere? in Wien. 1874. ‘Band xxiv. pp.

ghee

The Mon Me ag sae hig urnal. London, 1875. June.

Verhond? om oan ee arsa thing zu Hamburg.

B sig Pon ‘Semel, 1875,

Bint Parke No w et 5th year, Nos, 1,2. 4to.

Northwestern N ng, including Yellowstone National Park. 1873. By William A. Jones,

Washington, 1875. D. 337, 8vo,

Pa ections of. sie’ Charles Lyell, An intial Presidential Address of Natural History Society

of Mou noni for — By Principal igh gel pp. 8.

On sein ew Fossil Ungulata. By E. D. Cope. nel ya F

— Abstract of F: Results rh! a Study of ti ie Genera nalbe ial Thomomys: with addenda on the

Osteol b ed and on the Habits of Geomys Tuza, By Elliott Coues. Washington,

ns on the Birds of Ritchie County, West- Virginia, By ‘William Brewster.

danas et Nae Hist.. a York. 1875. 8vo,

Pid al and Natural B lory Sn Minnesota. - ied TE A TRT dig

aA ; N.H. Fonoi ‘St aul, i Ta 8yo ; BOE

ai E. Dox ndian: S

ar AA the ors n the West, 1869-72. By J. W. Powell. Svashington, 1875,

ee ARPE r the Determination and Classification ¢ Minerals found in the United States. By

: Janes U. Foye, Chicago, Jansen, McClung & Co., . 12mo, pp. 38. 75 cents.

: A Tea October, 1875, naea i tie New sae Society of Oran. ange, N. J.

INDEX TO VOLUME NINE.

Abies, 204.

Acanthocephali, 360

Another. enait, 18.

Æolis,

Agave, en

Alaskan mummies, 433.

Alge, bet ving, 252.

Alpheus , 601.

Ambly sian 427.

il eg

Amphio 632.

Gonhipicota. | 137.

Amphipod, 599

Animaleules, 89.

nihola. Sis, 276, 280.

Apertu ure, angular, 59, 185, 186.

giog

ni mauta, 2

Àr gy rosomus, is, 185,

Art 1, 5$

ote

Axinella, 97,

penn a 561.

Blood eon see i 124.

Botrychium, 463."

: Bougainvinia, 164, 166.

ontotherium, m,

Buco phala, 77.

Buck bean, 468.

kamin ula, 45.

Banting, ak 426.

But tiy; parni 426.

ee 3

abbage. butterfly, 426. _

Caloptenus, 573.

Catena, 354.

Gare’ aaa. 274, 278.

Caves, Indian remains in, 410.

Garo 294.

Cephalopods, 78. 303.

Cephalophori a, 292,

Cephalula, 283, 561.

Cer tod ose 574.

ae scab

razil, Indian cemetery of, 205.

Co > 1

Cope ;

Coral, 2

Cor dylanthus, 846.

goorn pe

Gona SADIS, 164.

Cowanin j 139.

bee kin g, 589.

| Cra

Granit, Perforation of, 473.

Crem

AES EAN

Tar Si.

Saamea th y

- à

670 ; INDEX.

Dugo one 189. Julus, 608.

Pane 375. Juniparus, 140.

Dust, čormical, 248.

Dysteri Kentucky, cave faùna of, 273, 278.

King crab, 5, 11, 589.

Eagle, or 75.

Earth sharin oo ME aE i

Echinodern Lake bas

Echinor hgnohus, 369, 370. ametit? sm mollusks, 282, 284.

$e us, 23; : Lark bose 426.

ardsia, "San. Leaves, ned, 575.

Elasmosani us, 55. j gon

Entomostraca, 110. Lens, condensing, =e

Eocene mammals, 182. Lepidium, 268

det gre 90, 93. sepidurus, 312.

Er, .episma scales, 63.

enna. 143, 350. Leptodera, 519

appar 41, 43. Lerneonema, 587.

orbia. 1 350. a ` Libinia, 600.

aoo ngylus , 368. Ligusticum, 271.

Evolution theory, ‘529. Limnadia, 593.

Limn , 301.

Filaria, 247. Limulus, 422, 511, 589.

Fern, ee 246, 417. Linguatula, 6

Fish, Linyphia, 275, 279.

Fish, a E 517. Lizards, fossil, 574.

Fish ‘louse, 587. Lobster, 603.

Flagellata, 38. Loligo, 30, 303.

Flora of Utah, 139, 199, 267, 346, Lotus, 178.

Flowers, bae ioy Tta of, 263. Louse, 621.

relations of to insects, 245, Lupa, 600.

Fluke, Lupinus, 270.

Fly, double ve larva of, 179.

Freder mals, Eocene, 182

ee y ioe ` 254. Mammoth i 274, 278, 410,

tah oped oy Ae 470. Mastod odoi

Funai ai one : Medus

Megatoteuthis, 21, 24.

Gaillardia, 273. 167.

Gallinule, 573. parat Si.

Garpike, fossil, 248. Metazoa, 06. 468,

Gastropoda, 293.

Gastrula, Ti 363. ona! 3.

Gentiana, 31 ek santos Club, 9;

Geology of Colora ro ft gh a

eology, summer ioni of, 118. Microme

Geophi us, 609. Microscope, €2

Gephyrea, 560. ; Mic scopical Booielias, 184,

Gilia, 146, 347. Mites, 6

Glaci 314. Molgula, 553

Glass, covering, 120. Mollusca, 282.

Gopher, 147. Monas, 38, 39, 44.

_ Grasshopper, 312, 573. a | Morula,

Mosses, 37

Halcampa, 22 Moths, A etai, 179.

Histrionicus, Te. Mound builders, 321, 393.

Humerus, perforation of, er: y, 499.

Hydra, 160, 162. Musk sheep, 247.

Hydr actinia, 164, Mussel, 288.

pog 160. s Myobia, 610.

Myriopods, 277, 606.

um,

Teather ornis s, 625. Mytilus, 288, 291.

; en plants ¢ of, 385.

tor, 62 Nanom 169.

Indian N, 205. a

Ind ill, 248. , Nauplius, 586, 601

dian remains, 410. Nebalia, 595.

Infusoria, 87. 7 Nelumbium, 178

Insects, 605. “rare 367.

digestion in, 664. ‘Nematoids, 470.

distribution of, 309. 483. `

mounting, ag Nemertes, 363.

of caves, 274, 278. Nesticus, 276, 279.

—- of to flowers, 245. | Noctiluca, 46.

Isotoma, 616. Nonpareil, 665.

Notholena, 140, 351.

Objectives, 253. 316.

een: 630.

ra,

Deorai nis, 573.

e tracodes, 588.

yster, 285.

oe 277.

Paramecium, 87.

Pec etinatell, "443.

Pelican, 6

Peltoguster, 584.

Pen 600,

phy isis šil, 592.

Phy ity

era, 355.

Plante, ore ‘ous,

ulation

verti cation of, 13i, 421.

respir: ation in, ‘1.

gaits, 167.

“oN Sapo , 354.

Platygaste r. 617.

Pleuroh ng — 223.

Podur Gib,

ay >

Radiates. 160, 218.

Red Snow. 575.

Reptiles, 645

:. pee disintegration of, 471.

ane Wr.

Sacculina, 584.

Scor

Seoriion: mise, 612.

Seon pae 315.

See

Selachians, 634.

Siphonophor es, 169.

paves ce 560.

Snail, tr 292, 301, 313.

Snake, 1, 424.

Snow, w red, >

Sow-bug.

Species, s distribution of, 181.

ambae

eae hilus i47

SARIAS, a

Spiders, 108, 614, 663

be age 274, 278.

Spirorbis,

RR 277.

ng clamp, 251.

Samamella; a.

palace rel, 504.

Sta ining t tissues, 121.

vood, 376.

Starfish, 229.

Stan ch, 193, 339, 509.

tenogramma, 311.,

entor, 89.

Sterna longipennis, 54,

nt pta anrai 161.

Sullivania, 5

mle cid , 156, 240.

S m armas 143, 272.

sym “ri aioe aaa

Tachina, 519.

Eaten 360.

‘amias, 504

356.

Trichina, 368.

671