BOTANICAL

GARDEN. J la | E ,

LETO

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXIV. ^ JULY, 1890. 283.

THE CETACEA.

BY E. D. COPE.

£o Cetacea, as the inhabitants of the water areas of the earth's

surface, have had ample space for variation and multiplication

of forms, an opportunity of which only a moderate advantage has

been taken. The conditions have been more uniform than those

to which lanc.mammals have been subject, and a corresponding

uniformity prevails in this order. Owing to their habitat, op-

portunities for their preservation have been better than in the case

of animals of the land, and accordingly great deposits of their

bones exist, notably on the east coast of the United States, and in -

certain deposits of Belgium and Italy. Among the species

brought to light in these localities, as among those now existing,

we find examples of the most gigantic, not only of the Mammalia,

but of the Vertebrata. The exising Balenoptera borealis reaches

a length of over one hundred feet ; and several other species, in-

cluding the sperm whale, attain to eighty feet.

The order of Cetacea is one of those of whose origin we have

no definite knowledge. It appears sparingly in the Zeuglodontidz

in the Eocene period, and has its greatest multiplication in the

ages of the Miocene. The Zeuglodontide are the most gen-

eralized family, and forms intermediate between them and the

modern Cetacea are found in Miocene beds. Modern types are,

however, contemporaries of the latter, and these have achieved a

multiplication of forms in Pliocene and modern times.

600 | The American Naturalist. [July,

The line of successional modification of the Cetacea is found in

changes in (1) the shape of the skull; (2) the extinction of the

dentition ; (3) the shortening of the cervical vertebrae ; and (4) in

the separation of the ribs from articulation with the vertebral

centra. The modification of the shape of the skull is related to

the gradual transfer of the external nostrils to more and more

posterior positions, until they remain, in the extreme types, above,

or even behind above, the eyes. In this process the nasal, frontal

and parietal bones become excessively abbreviated, so that in the

modern toothed whales, they form a narrow band between the

nostrils and the superior border of the occipital bone.

The order is naturally divided into three sub-orders, which are

defined as follows :

External nostrils on the superior side of the muzzle;

teeth present; ribs with two heads; Archeoceti.

External nostrils above gullet; teeth generally pres-

ent; no whalebone; some of the ribs with two

heads ; Odontoceti.

External nostrils above gullet; teeth wanting; the

gums supporting “whalebone” ; ribs articulating

by tubercle only ; Mysticeti.

All of the above, characters are those of divergence from the

principal mammalian stem, and have relation to the conditions of

aquatic life. Thus the posterior position of the nostrils permits in-

spiration without the elevation of the muzzle above the water-level,

which is rendered difficult, if not impossible in the most specialized

types, by reason of the extreme flatness and inflexibility of the cervi-

cal vertebra. The absence of teeth is appropriate to the habits of

the types which lack them. Thus the Physeteride among Odon-

toceti feed principally on squids, whose soft bodies are swallowed

whole. The Mysticeti feed on minute Crustacea and Mollusca,

which they retain in the mouth by straining the water through

their bristly whalebone, or baleen. The disarticulation and dis-

appearance of the heads of the ribs in the Mysticeti, is appropriate

to the support which all the viscera derive from the fluid medium

in which these large animals live. Strong articulation of the head

of the ribs to the vertebral column is no longer necessary.

1890.] The Cetacea. 601

Paleontology confirms the inference derivable from their anat-

omy, that the phylogeny of the Cetacea has followed the order,

Archezoceti, Odontoceti, Mysticeti.

The mechanical causes which may have given origin to the

modifications which measure this succession, may be suggested as

follows: The shortening and obliteration of the neck is probably

due to disuse, since the genera! mobility of the body in a watery

medium renders much flexibility of the neck unnecessary, the

entire body being readily turned about. It may have resulted,

also, from the increase in the relative proportions of the head,

which renders it extremely difficult to handle ; a function which is,

in the modern Cetacea, quite aborted. The early and rapid reduc-

tion, and in some lines, extinction of the dentition, is a result of dis-

use consequent on the increasing percentage of soft or minute food

used by the more modern types. So the loss of the rib-heads in

the Mysticeti may be traced to disuse, since, as above remarked,

they lack the strain caused by the weight of the thoracic and ab-

dominal walls and the contained viscera, which they experience in

animals which are not supported by some external medium. The

same reduction took place im the ocean-dwelling Plesiosauria,'

and in those terrestrial reptiles in which the weight of the body

is borne on the earth, as the lizards proper, and snakes. As re-

gards the gradual transfer posteriorly of the external nostrils, the

following mechanical hypothesis has been suggested. They have

been used as a discharge pipe for air and water from the lungs

and mouth, and, of course, facility of exit is directly as the short-

ness of the conduit. It is possible that the constantly recurrent

presence of a column of air and water on the posterior inferior

wall of the nareal canal has literally pressed back this obstructive

roof, until it has ceased to resist the outflow by becoming vertical.

I. ARCHÆOCETI.

This suborder embraces but one known family, which is de-

fined as follows : :

Frontal bones with flat, expanded supraorbital re-

gion; teeth two-rooted posteriorly, one-

rooted anteriorly ; Zeuglodontide.

1 It must be remarked I that th y marine en have two-headed

ribs, but chet of equal length, close together, e.

602 The Amerwan Naturalist. (July,

The species of this family belong to the genus Zeuglodon? Owen,

although when the Z. drach hyspondylus Müll. is better known it

may be found to be referable to a distinct genus, Doryodon Gibbes.

The longer known Z. cetoides Ow. is distinguished by many pecu-

liarities. Its skull presents a long symphysis of both premaxil-

lary and mandibular bones. The cervical and dorsal vertebrae

are of similar and medium length, while those of the lumbar

region are remarkably elongate. The fore-limb was short, and

in its cubital region quite narrow (teste Müller). The enamel of

the teeth is wrinkled, and the posterior two-rooted teeth have

coarsely serrate cutting edges fore and aft. The animal could not

have been less than seventy feet in length. Bones of species of

Zeuglodon have been found in the Upper Eocene of Arkansas

and the Gulf States (in the White Limestone of Alabama), and

of England and Egypt. It is also recorded as occurring in the

Miocene of Malta.

II. ODONTOCETI.

This group is the most numerously represented by species, re-

‘cent and extinct. The families differ as follows:

I. Teeth of two types, one and two-rooted.

Neck longer; teeth in both jaws; Squalodontide.

II. Teeth uniformly one-rooted,

a, Ribs nearly all two-headed.

Teeth in both jaws; neck generally longer; Platanistide..

Teeth in lower jaw only; neck short; Physeteride.

aa, Four or five anterior ribs only two-headed.

Teeth in both jaws; neck short; Delphinide.

The SQUALODONTIDE ae the ons in the form and

character of their teeth, but the form of the skull is very different.

They nevertheless, by their intermediate position, indicate the an-

cestral relation of the Zeuglodontidz to the other Cetacea. But

little is known of the skeleton of the Squalodontide. The species

occur in Miocene beds of North America and Europe. They did

not attain such huge proportions as the Zeuglodons, and did not

exceed thirty feet at the most. The genera known are two, as

follows :

2 Basilosaurus Harl.

1890.] | The Cetacea. 603

The posterior molars two-rooted; ^ Squalodon Gratel.

Some of the oix Eae superior molars three-

rooted ; Trirhizodon Cope.

E rual grateloupü Pedroni and S. antverpiensis Van Ben. are

the most abundant European species. In America the S. at-

lanticus Leidy has been found in New Jersey and Maryland, and

the S. kolmesti Leidy, a species with more delicate teeth than the

last, has been discovered in South Carolina.

vertebræ, tw HEEE E

FIG. 1. d

size; a, from below ; 2, lumbar from side ; ¢, cervical from front. Type; original; pun

Miocene of Maryland.

The greater number of the PLATANISTIDE are extinct. The

genera differ much among themselves in the number and form of

the teeth, and the relative form of the neck. Some of the species

reach the size of the smaller whales, as the Cetophis heteroclitus

Cope; but most of the species have the average dimensions of

the dolphins. The genera differ as follows:

I. Teeth with roots extended transversely.

Teeth with lateral basal lobes; lumbar diapophy-

ses wide; Inia Geoffr.

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

II. Teeth with cylindric roots.

a, Caudal vertebr& plano-convex.

No caudal diapophyses ; Cetophis Cope.

aa, Caudal vertebrze plane.

f, Lumbar diapophyses spiniform.

Lumbar and caudal vertebra slender ; Zarhachis Cope.

Lumbar and caudal vertebr& short; Ixacanthus Cope.

* BB, Lumbar diapophyses wide, flat.

Muzzle elongate, slender ; cervical verte-

brz long; Priscodelphinus Leidy.

Muzzle slender; cervical vertebrz shorter ; Pontoporia Gr.

III. Teeth with longitudinally flattened roots.

Teeth in entire length of maxillary bone; sym-

physis connate; | Stenodelphis Gerv.

Teeth on all the jaws ; symphysis not connate ;

an erect osseous crest on posterior part of

maxillary ; Platanista Cuv.

Teeth at the base of the maxillary only ; muzzle

produced into a sub-cylindrical beak ; Rhabdosteus Cope.

IV. No teeth ; an alveolar groove.

Muzzle depressed, elongate ; Agabelus Cope.

The recent species belong to the genera Inia, Pontoporia and

Platanista. The two first are found in the rivers of S. America,

and the Platanista gangetica in the rivers of India. Their posterior

ribs are one-headed. The genera with spiniform diapophyses of

the posterior vertebrz are only known so far from N. America.

The Zzacanthus celospondylus Cope was a short robust species

about the size of a white whale. Another line of modification is

seen in the attenuation of the vertebral column. The most

remarkable elongation of the vertebrze is found in Zarhachis, a

character which is only paralleled in Zeuglodon. Of the other

genera, Stenodelphis, with its single species S. canaliculatus (Del-

phinus, von Meyer), has been so far found in the middle Miocene

of Central Europe. Priscodelphinus occurs in the Miocene of

North America and Europe. The P. grandaevus Leidy (Figs. 2

and 3), of the Miocene of New Jersey has a slender muzzle, with

a full series of curved cylindric teeth; a neck like that of a seal

1890.] The Cetacea. 605

in proportions, and a long slender body. The first sternal seg-

ment is T-shaped, and the ribs are slender, compressed, and

mostly two-headed. The paddles are unknown. Other species

of the genus are found in the Miocene beds of Maryland. The

species of the remaining five genera have been found thus far

only in the Miocene of North America. Nineteen species of

Platanistidze have been described from the latter region.

FIG. 2.—Priscodelphinus grandaevus Leidy, erteb a, from side; 4, from

below. Original; from Miocene of Cumberland County, N. J- ~ One-third psi size.

One line of modification observable in the extinct genera is

towards the extreme which is seen in Rhabdosteus Cope. Here

the muzzle reaches an extraordinary elongation, and for the

greater part of its length forms an edentulous cylinder, which re-

sembles the beak of the sword-fishes. The few teeth which remain

at the base of the muzzle are like those of Platanista, with roots

compressed so as to be longitudinal, and crowns com so

as to be transverse, to the axis of the skull. The R./atiradir Cope

(Fig. 4.), is not uncommon in the Miocene beds of Maryland. Its

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

skeleton is unknown. The nearest approach to Rhabdosteus is

made by the genus Stenodelphis. In Cetophis, the caudal centra

have one face very convex, offering greater flexibility than is pos-

sible in any other genus. The C. keteroclitus is from the Mary-

land Miocene. A genus Lophocetus has been established for the

Delphinus calvertensis of Harlan, also from the Maryland Miocene.

Its position is uncertain ; the skull resembles that of Inia, but the

roots of the teeth are cylindric.

The temporal and occipital

ridges are very strong. Skele-

ton unknown. Delphinodon

Leidy is represented by teeth

only, from N. American local-

ities, but a skull is described

by Burmeister from Buenos

Ayres, which shows that the

nostrils are much more anter-

ior in position than in Lopho- -

cetus.

Extinct and recent forms

about equally divide the PHY-

SETERIDE, but the largest

dimensions are reached by the

recent sperm whale, Physeter

macrocephalus L. The modi-

T fications of the family type

Fic. 3—Priscodelphinus grandaevus are chiefly those of the denti-

eid cartes eure N. lira) = tion, but the skull develops

5, do. proximal extremity; c, mambrium Crests of a peculiar character

e emcees espa galas € in a number of the genera.

These are distinguished as Stowe:

I. Lower jaw with numerous teeth.

4, Teeth with crown and root continuous, and without

enamel nion and temporal ridges forming a crest

| which encloses a basin-shaped cavity of the front.

i Zygoma complete; symphysis mandibuli long; Physeter® Linn.

E Eucetus DuBus. ; Physetodon McCoy ; Stenodon VanBen= Orycterocetus Leidy.

PLATE XX.

Choneziphius semijunctus Cope.

PLATE XXI.

Delphinapterus leucas Pallas.

1890.] The Cetacea. 607

Zygoma interrupted ; symphysis short ; Cogia * Gray.

aa, Teeth fusiform, with enameled crown.

Cement coating thick ; Physodon? Gerv.

aaa, Crown and root of teeth distinct; crown with

enamel.

Cement very thick ; Hoplocetus Gerv.

II. Low jaw with very few teeth.

a, Maxillary bones with vertical longitudinal crest be-

hind.

A tooth at the extremity of each ramus man-

dibuli ; Anarnacus* Lacep.

FIG. 4.—Rhabdosteus latiradix Cope (type) ; two-ninths natural size; original; from

Miocene of Maryland. 1, muzzle from above; ra, do.left side; 2, 24, tooth from side;

2a. do,

pas from a different specimen from that represented in the rest of the figures. Teeth

also separate; two-thirds natural size.

aa, Maxillary without vertical posterior crests.

Two aa at the extremity of each mandibular

Berardius Less.

Mandibular ramus with a terminal tooth; Chonesiphius Duv.

‘Mandibular ramus with a median tooth ; Mesoplodon Gerv.

As already remarked, the extinct sperm whales do not equal

in dimensions the single recent species. Their teeth differ a good

deal from those of the latter. Thus the American form, which

Leidy called Orycterocetus, have the crowns quite slender, and

the pulp-cavity large. They occur in the Miocene beds from

* Physeterula Van Ben.

5 Scaldicetus DuBus [?]; Balenodon Owen. s ödon Lacep.

608 The American Naturalist. (July,

Maryland to North Carolina. The species from the Miocenes of

Belgium and Australia have the pulp-cavity very small. The

Kogias or pigmy sperm whales are found in all southern and

tropical seas. A single extinct species, the A. dubusa Van Ben.

has been found in the Miocene beds of Belgium. Hoplocetus

carolinensis Leidy is from the phosphatic deposits of South Carolina,

But one extinct species of Anarnacus (Hyperoödon) (Fig. 5), has

FIG. 5.—Anarnacus rostratus Wesm, from a photograph taken at Newport, R. I.

been yet found (in Belgium), but species of Choneziphius are

abundant in the Miocene beds of both Europe and North Amer-

ica, Five species have been described by Leidy from the South

Carolina phosphatic beds, of which the most conspicuous is the

C. trachops. Mesoplodon is represented in the same formations

by one species, the M. prorops Leidy. A species of each genus

still lives on the coast of the United States, the Choneziphius

gs Cope (Plate XX.), and the Mesoplodon bidens Sow-

erby.

1890.] The Cetacea. 609

The DELPHINIDÆ are preéminently a modern type (Fig. 6).

They display a tendency to the reduction of the rib heads, which

is completed in the whale-bone whales, and the nostrils are far

posterior, and the nasal bones mere tuberosities. The dentition

differs within moderate limits; the killers, as the carnivora of the

sea, having it powerfully developed, while in the grampus and

Globiocephalus many of the teeth are shed. Monodon develops

a large incisor with which it breaks the ice in Arctic regions.

The genera differ as follows:

I. Cervical vertebrze mostly distinct.

a, Incisors not differentiated.

Teeth few, caducous ; Delphinapterus! Lac.

aa, Superior incisors of one side forming a straight tusk.

Teeth few, deciduous ; Monodon Linn.

II. Cervical vertebrae mostly coössified.

A. Flippers short, with less than'twelve phalanges in

the second finger.

a, A dorsal fin.

Teeth few; very robust; palate not grooved ; Orca Gray.

Teeth medium, numerous, acute ; palate not

rooved ; Lagenorhynchus? Gray.

Teeth medium, numerous, acute; palate

grooved ; Delphinus Linn.

Teeth numerous; premaxillae elevated in

front of nares; palate plane ; Sagmatias? Cope.

Teeth few, easily shed; Grampus Cuv.

Teeth compressed, spatuliform ; Phocena Cuv.

aa, No dorsal fin.

Teeth numerous, not caducous ; Leucorhamphus” Lilly.

Teeth flat, spatuliform ; Neomeris Gray.

AA. Flippers long, falciform; index with twelve or

. more phalanges.

A dorsal fin; teeth few, caducous ; Globiocephalus Gray.

7 Beluga Gray.

8 Tursiops and Prodelphinus Gerv.

? Dorsal fin unknown.

10 Delphinapterus Less. nec Lacep.

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

But few species of this family are known from terranes of earlier

than Pliocene age, and they belong to existing genera. Extinct

species of Delphinapterus and Orca have been found in the

Italian Pliocene, and of Orca and Globiocephalus in England.

In North America the Delphinapterus orcinus has been des-

cribed from the Miocene of North Carolina, and the D. vermont-

3

; FIG. 6.—Prodelphinus crotaphiscus C. pe (fi

tion of muzzle. About one-fifth natural size.

anus has left its remains in the so-called Champlain clays of the

drainage basin of the St. Lawrence river, which are perhaps of

Plistocene age (Plate XXI).

MYSTICETE.

This suborder embraces but a single family, the Balenide,

whose characters may be summarized as follows :

Nareal canal oblique, overroofed by the short horizontal

nasal bones, and underroofed by the elongate ptery-

type); 1, above, 2, from side; 3, sec-

189o.] The Cetacea. 611

goids; no longtitudinal or transverse crests of

the skull; Balenide.

The family of the whalebone whales is represented by many

species both recent and extinct. These fall into a number of

natural genera, which display several affinities towards different

extremes. Thus the fin-backs (Balanoptera) have developed

speed through increased length of bgdy ; the humpbacks (Megap-

tera, have developed especial length of the fore limbs, while the

right whales (Balzena) have acquired a huge oral cavity and the

. greatest length of whalebone. The fin-backs pursue and devour

great numbers of fishes of small and medium dimensions, and

their maw derives an especial capacity for containing them,

through the presence of numerous expansible longitudinal folds

of its inferior walls. The Balznz, on the other hand, take in

enormous quantities of water, which contains their minute mol-

luscous food, and so enjoy an especial advantage in this direction,

BALENIDE are abundant in the Miocene, having an origin

prior to that of the Dephinide. They would seem to have derived

their descent from some form allied to the Squalodontidz, since

their nasal bones are more elongated than those of the Odonto-

ceti, and in Plesiocetus the superior cranial bones show some of

the elongation of that family. The genera of Balenide differ as

follows :

I. Frontal and parietal bones elongated on the median line.

Cervical vertebrz distinct ; Plesiocetus Van Ben.

Frontal and parietal bones much abbreviated in the

median line.

A, Cervical vertebrze all distinct; fingers four.

a, Numerous gular folds ; vertebral canal not enclosed ; A

No coracoid; manus long; Megaptera Gray.”

A coracoid; manus not elongate ; Cetotherium Brandt.”

Mandible with a long angle ; coronoid large; Herpetocetus Van B.

11 The external characters of Cetotherium and Herpetocetus are unknown.

12 Poescopia Gray, Burtinopsis Van Ben.

13 Eschrichtius Gray. Cetotheriophanes Brandt.

612 The American Naturalıst. [July,

aa, Numerous gular folds; vertebral canal enclosed by

diapophyses and parapophyses ;

Both coracoid and acromion; manus short; a

coronoid process ; a dorsal fin ; Balenoptera.

aaa, Only two gular folds ;

No dorsal fin; an acromion ; Rhachianectes Cope.

agaa, External ch@acters unknown; maxillary bones

very narrow.

Manus short; Mesoteras Cope.

AA. Cervical vertebrze more or less coossified.

Anterior three cervicals only united ; Paleocetus, Seeley.”

All cervicals coössified; fingers five; no

gular plicae; no coronoid process; Balena, Linn.”

The genus Plesiocetus is intermediate in its characters, and

as it is generalized in structure, it is probably the ancestral type

from which modern Balenida have been, by’ a process of differ-

entiation, derived. Four species have been described from

Belgium. The largest of these, P. drialmontii Van Ben., was

some sixty feet in length; while the P. brevifrons Van B. and

P. affine Van B. were twenty feet and less in length. Cetotherium

is more nearly allied to Balenoptera (the finners). The number

of species appears to have been considerable, several having been

described from Southeastern Europe, one from Italy (C. capellinit),

and others from Belgium and England. Corresponding species

have been found in the Miocene beds of the Eastern States of

North America. The C. cephalus Cope is about thirty feet in

in length, the head being nine feet; and its flippers short. The

ear bulla is noticeably compressed, somewhat incurved, and with

a nearly parallelogrammic outline from the side; (Fig. 7). The

skeleton was found in Charles Co., Maryland. (Plate XXII)

There have been described several species, probably of this

genus, from the same region and horizon, of smaller size, the

least, C. pusillum Cope, having been about fifteen feet in length.

14 Physalus Gray.

15 Eubalsena, Macleayius, and Halibalena Gray; Balzenula and Balzenotus Van

16 The difference between Neobalzena Gray and this genus is not yet known.

1890.] The Cetacea. 613

Species of Balzenoptera and Megaptera occur in the European

and probably in the American Miocenes. Those of Belgium

correspond in various respects with the existing species. Thus

Balenoptera goropiü is compared by Van Beneden with the com-

mon existing finner, B. musculus; the B. dorealina Van B. with

the B. borealis of the Atlantic; and the JB. emarginata Owen

with the small pike whale, B. rostrata. Three species of Belgium

and England are referred to the hump-backs, or Megaptera. A

remarkable genus is Herpetocetus Van B., of which a single

species of rather small size has been found in Belgium.

Fic. 7.—Cetotherium cephalus Cope, otic bulla. One-half natural size; original;

mm Miocene of Maryland.

Forms more or less nearly related to the right whales occur

in Miocene beds on both sides of the Atlantic. Mesoteras Cope

has the characters of the finner whales (Balenoptera) with the

narrow maxillary bones of the true Balenz. A large species

with a skull of about eighteen feet in length was found by Prof. |

W. C. Kerr in Eastern North Carolina, and was named by the

writer Mesoteras kerrianus. It is distinguished by an enormous

thickening of the superciliary part of the frontal bone. The peri-

otic bones are peculiar for their very short proportions, and

balzni-form bulla. A small balanoid with only partly co-

Ossified cervical vertebra has been found in the boulder clay

of England and named Paleocetus sedgwickii by Prof. Seeley.

The P. insignis Van Ben. from Belgium is also a small species.

True Balenz have been found in various parts of Europe.

DIA, The American Naturalist. [July,

In Western Europe three species are recorded from the Miocene,

and two from later beds. Of the former, B. affinis Owen is

similar in size and character to the right whale, B. mysticetus,

and B. primigenia Van Ben. to the shorter headed type repre-

sented by the 2. cisarctica of the middle Atlantic (Plate XXIII.).

The 2. dalenopsis Van B. is not over twenty feet in length.

In the Plistocene beds of Sweden a true Balzna of the B. cisa-

retica type has been discovered, and has been named 2. sveden-

borgiana. It is thus evident that many species of whalebone

b

FIG. 8.—Cetotherium cephalus eye two-fifths natural size; individual represented

in Fig. 7. Original; from Miocene of Maryland.

whales have become extinct, some of them in comparatively

modern times. Such is the Cetotherium robustum Lilljeborg,

which is known from a few fragments, not fully fossilized, from

an island in the Baltic, and from Cornwall, England.

List OF THE Extinct CETACEA OF NORTH AMERICA.

BASEERBBSAUNIDEL. -o 5.2.05 3

Basılosaurus cetoides Owen. Ala., Miss.

Doryodon serratus Gibbes. Ala., Fla.

PLATE XXII.

BRAIN: Hon.

20000003 A as rat p |

PLATE XXIII.

Pe eee

tica Cope.

ctsarc.

N

:

à

` 1890.] The Cetacea. 615

SQUALODONTIDÆE v4 seio uu 6

v atlanticus Leidy. N.J, M

vinearius Leidy. Mass. Moe s Vineyard.)

? holmesu Leidy. S. C.

: pelagius Leidy. S.C.

* — $ygemus Müller. S.C.

> protervus Cope. S. C.

PLATANISTIDE 61703 4 47.2 O

Delphinodon mento Cope. S.C.

> wymanü Leidy. S.C.

* venustus Leidy. S. C.

Lophocetus calvertensis Harlan. Md.

ee ya grandevus Leidy (=P. harlanı Leidy). N.J.

lacertosus Cope. Md. -

* gabbii Cope. im

" ureus Cope. N.

5 ruschenbergerit (doge. Md.

Zarhachis flagellator Cope. Md.

> tysoni Cope. "Md

4 velox Cope. N. J.

Ixacanthus celospondylus Cope. Md.

» spinosus Cope.

" atropius Cope. Md.

" conradi Leidy. Va., Md.

" stenus Cope. Md.

Rhabdosteus latiradix Cope. Md.

Agabelus porcatus Cope. N. J.

INCERTJE SEDIS. 2 204.006 2

Cetophis heteroclitus Cope. Md.

Saurocetus gibbsii Agass. S.C.

PHYSETERÍIDA, . 0 v u . io

Ph erh vetus Leidy. N.C.

“ cormutidens Leidy. N. C., Md.

.* quadratideus Leidy. N. C.

Hoplocetus obesus Leidy. S. C.

Choneziphius trachops Leidy. S. C.

, Am. Nat.—July.—2.

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

Choneziphius liops Leidy. | S. C.

n celops Leidy. S. C.

" macrops Leidy. S. C.

x chonops Leidy. S. C.

Mesoplodon prorops Leidy. S. C.

DELEON DA [KE uem 5 2

EL, vermontanus Thompson. Vt., Canada.

orcinus Cope. N.C

Dephinus occiduus Leidy. Cal.

: BALENIDE, 2.2.0200... 208

Cetotherium pusillum Cope. Md.

expansum Cope. Md.

priscum Leidy. Va.

> polyporum Cope. N.C.

mysticetoides Emmons. N. C.

F cephalus Cope.- Md.

leptocentrum Cope. Va.

Balenoptera paleatlantica Leidy. Va.

* davidsonii Cope. Cal `

Mesoteras kerrianus Cope. N. C. -—

Total nembe UE ale: 5. o eor eoe veis „52

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE XX,—Choneziphius semijunctus Cope. One-tenth natural size.

From photographs of the type in the Museum of Charleston, S. C., taken by

. Vogdes, U.S.A. Fig. 1. Cranium from above; 2, cranium from

below; 3, extremity of the mandible, with teeth

PLATE XXI.— Delphinapterus leucas Pallas. One-thirteenth natural size.

From a skeleton in the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia, obtained by Dr. I. I. Hayes, from Baffin’s Bay. Type of

Beluga concreta Cope.

PLATE XXIL-— Cetotherium cephalus Cope. Restoration, one-eighteenth

, natural size; the portions shaded are the actual specimens of one individual

found in the Miocene of Maryland, and now in the Museum of the Academy

of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Described by E. D. Cope in its Pro-

ceedings, 1867, p. 148.

PLATE XXIIL— Balena cisarctica Cope. Type specimen as mounted in

the Museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia; one-

thirty-seventh natural size. Fig. 1, side view; Figs. 2, 3, 4, periotic bones

from side, end, and below ; Fig. 5, cervical vertebrze, oblique inferior view.

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 617

THE CONCRESCENCE THEORY OF THE VERTE-

BRATE EMBRYO.

BY CHARLES-SEDGWICK MINOT.

(Continued from page 516).

The Meroblastic Embryo—-Considerations of practical conven-

ience have led to the custom of distinguishing in the develop-

ment of meroblastic ova the embryonic from the extra-embryonic

portions. The distinction is in reality entirely arbitrary, for the

whole of the ovum is included, morphologically speaking, within

the body of the embryo. Custom has led to designating the

two parts as the embryo and the yolk; the student should be

careful not to allow himself

to be misled by these terms. EN to oN

In the laboratory it is a gen- >

eral practice to remove the

so-called “ embryo ” from the

yolk, and in doing this the

entodermic cavity loses its

inferior wall, to wit, the ento-

dermic yolk. Let the rela-

tions be represented by the

accompanying diagram, the

embryo being drawn very

much too large in proportion

to the yolk for the sake of

clearness. Suppose the lay-

PP y Fic. 1o.—Diagram showing a relations of a

ers to be cut through on the vertebrate ovum with an embryo in cross-section

Pr

lines, x x’; we could then groove ; i EMEN. £ é» mern

: M arc enteric ca’ , ectodermal

remove the embryonic por- vein, where. da Scene —— ur dio

tion. This is whatis actually °

done in practice. It is very important to understand clearly that

the yolk is part of the embryo, and that our sections usually

represent only a torso.

618 The American Naturalist. [July,

Structure of the primitive streak —For our purposes it is con-

venient to give 1°,a general comparative account; 2°, a more

detailed description of the mammalian ovum up to the stage with

completed primitive streak.

1°. Vertebrate primitive streak —It is advisable to begin with

the consideration of the arrangement as we find it in eggs of

marsipobranchs, ganoids, and amphibians, since these eggs are

probably more primitive in their mode of development than those

of other vertebrates. The points of most importance in my

judgment are illustrated in Fig.11, A and B. In A, we have a

section through the middle portion of a partly-formed primitive

tions of axolotl eggs: after Bellonci. A, frontal section somewhat an-

FIG. 11.—Sec

terior to the blastopore, from an egg in which the archenteron was partly formed, but the

anus of Rusconi not delimiated. B, frontal section of an older ovum with well marked

but anus of Rusconi; the section passes just in front of the blastopore. Æc, ecto-

derm ; Zn, entoderm ; Mes, Mesoderm ; Ae, archenteric cavity ; Pr, primitive streak.

streak of an axolotl, the streak still requiring considerable additions

at its hinder end before attaining its full length ; the archenteric

cavity, Ae, is a large space bounded above by an epithelium, ez,

and below by the large mass of yolk-cells; the two-layered

ectoderm, Ec, everywhere bounds the section; above the archen-

teron and below the ectoderm lies the accumulation of cells con-

stituting the primitive streak, pr ; the lateral prolongations, Mes,

of the streak represent the commencing mesodermic outgrowths ;

whether the mesoderm grows out from the primitive streak, and

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 619

subsequently expands solely by its own proliferation, or whether

it receives at its periphery accretions from the yolk-cells, is uncer-

tain. I am inclined to think that the mesoderm does at first receive

additions from the yolk. - In B we have a similar section, but of

an older stage, and through the hind end of the nearly full-grown

streak; the general arrangement is the same as in A; we note

the following differences: the primitive streak, Pr, is very thick,

and composed of numerous small cells, and its lateral mesodermic

expansions, Mes, extend further around the ovum. In both sec-

tions we see that the cells of the primitive streak are not marked

off from those of the adjoining. entoderm. Ina longitudinal sec-

tion, as is illustrated by that of a sturgeon, Fig. 7, ante, p. 510,

we see that the mesoderm or tissue of the primitive streak runs

way forward, and is thickest around the blastopore. The dispo-

sition of the parts and the appearance of the cells vary in the

three groups we are considering, but for our purpose it is un-

necessary to describe these secondary differences. The points

essential to note are that the primitive streak is formed by

mesoderm, whichis accumulated along the line, and is thickest

around the blastopore, and which spreads laterally between the

ectoderm and entoderm; in the axial region the mesoderm is

not separated from the entoderm; the blastopore passes through

the thick hind end of the streak.

In elasmobranchs the differentiation of the axial tissues begins

in the embryonic rim before concrescence takes place, so that while

the type affords peculiarly conclusive evidence of concrescence, it

is less convenient for the study of the primitive streak since the

hind end of the primitive streak is, as it were, divided, being con-

tinued as the embryonic rim right and left. The degree of dif-

ferentiation varies extremely ; in Pristiurus the mesoderm grows

out from the embryonic rim; in Scyllium the mesoderm grows

out, and the differentiation of the notochord begins; in Torpedo

. (Rückert, 48, 101) the myotomes appear in the embryonic rim be-

fore concrescence, as in Elacate among teleosts. The relations

are further complicated by the advance in development of the

axial structures while concrescence is going on, so that, as for in-

a

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

stance in Pristiurus, Rabl, 44, 116-129, the notochord may be

differentiated while the mesoderm is still developing in the em-

bryonic rim. The precocious changes in the embryonic rim de-

mand especial attention when the origin of the mesoderm is dis-

cussed. The ectoderm, as soon as it becomes one-layered, con-

sists of high cylinder cells. As development progresses the ecto-

derm thins out except at either side of the axial line. The meso-

derm arises from the entoderm, close to the ectental line, and is

there quite thick, but as it stretches away it thins out. ' Now, if

it be remembered that the ectental IIne becomes the axial line

when concrescence takes place it is evident that this mesodermic

thickening of the entoderm is in reality axial thickening, and

when concrescence takes place it fuses with the corresponding

thickening of the opposite side and constitutes an actual axial

thickening or true primitive streak ; but inelasmobranchs as soon

as the anterior axial structures have concresced we find by preco-

cious development that the notochord and medullary groove ap-

pears ; now, as I have shown elsewhere, the appearance of these

structures causes the division of the axial mesoderm into com-

pletely separated right and left portions. It is only by keeping

the process of concrescence and the precocious development of

the parts constantly in mind that we can understand the develop-

ment in elasmobranchs or compare it rightly with that of other

types. From what has been said it is clear that a section of the

blastodermic rim from which the mesoderm was just growing out

would correspond to half a section of, say, a bird’s ovum through

the primitive streak, and upon comparison it will be found that all

the essential relations are identical.

The structure of the primitive streak in birds has been re-

peatedly investigated and the subject of much discussion. As

the observations of Duval, 77, 18, appear to me the most

thorough, and as my own preparations have enabled me to

confirm many of his statements, I follow in the main that author.

Duvals statements have also, been verified in many essential

points. by Zumstein, 69. Other important authorities to be con-

sulted are Kölliker in both his text-books; His 25, 26, 29, ete,

1890.] Conerescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 621

Koller, 37; Disse, 75, z6; Waldeyer, 64, 65; M. Braun, 72;

Gasser, 27, 22; Rauber, 26 ; C. Rabl, gz.

The following descrip-

tion applies to the hen’s

egg. Whenthe egg is laid

the centre of the segmen-

ted blasto-disc presents a

circular area of lighter

color; during the first

few hours of incubation

this area pellucida, as it

is called, becomes more

distinct; as concrescence

goes on the area pellu-

cida expands, and the

primitive streak appears

in it excentrically be-

tween : the eighth and 12.—AÀrea pellucida Ss a hen's egg with

; compiete marc ive furrow; after Duval. do, area

twelfth hour. By the opaca , anterior cre escent P area pellucida;

sixteenth hour the primi- 7^ primitive gita

tive streak has its full length. The rate of development is ex-

_ tremely variable, autumn eggs developing more slowly than

- spring eggs; the eggs vary also individually, and are moreover

much influenced by the temperature of their incubation. For

a fuller discussion of these variations see His, 25, 56-63. Seen

from the surface the area pellucida with completed streak presents

the following features: the area pellucida, ap, is considerably

elongated and somewhat pear-shaped, being widest at the anterior

end of the primitive groove, 77; this groove is well marked as

a narrow and shallow furrow, which begins some distance from

the anterior edge of the area, and ends just before reaching the

posterior edge of the area; the front end of the furrow usually

bends slightly to the left, but not invariably, as Koller and Rabl -

have maintained, for it sometimes bends to the right or is quite

straight; a line of granules is sometimes noticeable above the

primitive groove; they were seen by Sharon 4. c., and are called

by Duval, 77, p. 15, the flament épiaxial, e Gasser, 74. The

+

622 The American Naturalist. [July,

portion of the area pellucida immediately around the primitive

groove appears slightly darker than the rest. The anterior

portion of the pellucida is further distinguished by the ante-

rior crescent, ct, the “vordere Aussenfalte" of His, 25, and

other German writers. The anterior crescent is a temporary ap-

pearance due, according to Duval, to a series of folds of the ento-

derm, which forms a curving row of shallow pockets, that, shining

through, mark out the crescent. The crescent disappears a little

later, and there arises, nearly if not quite in its place, a new fold,

the amniotic. The similarity of position has led to the anterior

crescent being identified by some authors with the true amniotic

fold.

E

era

>

Fic. 13.—Longitudina! section of ar region of the primitive streak. of s Den. s ovum

incubated six hours; after Duval. SE,

tails x D, with higher t magnifica tion; Ec, ectoderm; Mes, sobs eg iat, 'ento-

dem: Z, blastopore ; & w, germinal wall (keim wall); Ach, uliMénterie cà vity.

Longitudinal and transverse sections are very instructive. We

begin with the examination of a longitudinal section of a some-

what younger stage, in which the blastopore is open. Later the

ectoderm closes behind the primitive streak, as already stated,

and spreads backward over the yolk. The section shows that

the yolk is not divided into cells, although nuclei are scattered

through it; the nuclei are represented as black dots in A and C.

The cavity of the archenteron, Ach, is enlarged by the formation

of a en pit in the yolk, while the posterior half of the cavity

Be,

FERAL Ue SERCO nt em

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 623

remains a narrow fissure between the cellular entoderm, Ent, and

the yolk; the archenteron communicates with the exterior by

the blastopore, M. The entoderm is a loosely put together

stratum of ¢ells, which passes over anteriorly into a ridge of the

yolk in which cells are being produced around the already

accumulated nuclei; this ridge, £ zv, is the germinal wall. Poste-

riorly the cell layers are much thicker, A ; the ectoderm is clearly

differentiated from the underlying cells, which are all more or

less alike, though they represent both the entoderm and meso-

derm. From this connection and from the fact that the con-

nection between the ectoderm and mesoderm, which is so well

known to exist after the primitive streak has attained its full

2 SUN ERE

NE i N

FIG. 14.—Transverse sections = a germinative area with half formed primitive streak ;

after Duval. e ara ge the anterior region of the area pellucida; 2, through the prim-

ea streak; C, part of A en eed. Ec, ectoderm; Mes, mesoderm : ; Ent, entoderm ;

w, germinal wall — Ach, archenteric cavity ; Pr, primitive groove; Pi, yolk.

length, Duval concludes that the mesoderm arises primitively

from the entoderm. Transverse sections afford additional informa-

tion. The accompanying figure, 14, represents cross sections of

a germinal area the primitive streak of which has attained about

one-half its full length. The first section, Fig. 14, A, passes

through the anterior region of the area pellucida; it shows the

large cavern, Ach, of the archenteron hollowed out in the yolk;

the entoderm, £z, above the cavity is a thin layer of cells, con-

nected laterally with a projecting shelf of yolk, Zw (the dourrelet

entodermo-vitellin of Duval), which is rich in nuclei, and subse-

ps

«ud

*

624 The Amerwan Naturalist. [July

quently expands very far and acquires a more cellular character;

this shelf is the commencement, therefore, of the Kezmwall of

German writers. Immediately above the entoderm and intimate-

ly connected with it are a few cells which belong to the meso-

derm, C, Mes; the ectoderm is quite thick, C, Æc, and consists

of high columnar cells; towards its periphery the ectoderm thins

out, and its edge rests upon the yolk, with which it has no con-

nection. In the region of the primitive streak, Fig. 14, 2,

the fundamental relations are the same, but there are important

differences to note. The entodermic cavity, Ach, is very much

smaller ; the mesoderm is much thicker, and in the axial region

fuses with both the ectoderm and entoderm, thus forming the

Achsenstrang (axial cord) of German writers; the mesoderm also

spreads out over the yolk far beyond the archenteric cavity, about

one-third of the way from the axial line to the distal edge of the

ectoderm; the ectoderm is disposed about as in the previous

section, except that in the centre it merges into the mesoderm

and presents externally a small notch corresponding to the section

of the primitive groove. There appears to me no satisfactory

evidence that the mesoderm receives, as some writers have main-

tained, peripheral additions from the yolk. In both sections the

yolk under the blastoderm contains numerous nuclei near its

surface.

Modifications very soon ensue in the Sauropsida (birds and rep-

tiles) by which the disposition of the mesoderm is considerably

changed, especially in three respects, namely: by the appearance

of the so-called head process (Kopffortsatz), by the axial connec-

tion of the mesoderm with the ectoderm, and by its losing in part

its connection with the mesoderm. During these changes the

archenteron expands rapidly, the archenteron expands rapidly,

the entoderm becomes very thin in the region of the are apellucida,

and passes more and more abruptly, as development progresses,

into the so-called germinal wall of the area opaca; finally the

ectoderm becomes thinner peripherally ; so that the axial thicker

part is gradually marked off more and more abruptly. Sections

of a stage with a primitive groove at its maximum,—a stage

which is usually found towards the end of the first day of incu-

1890.] Conerescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 625

bation,—show three changes clearly. A cross section through

the area opaca in front of the area pellucida shows the thin ecto-

derm, the thick cellular entoderm overlying the archenteric

cavity and charged with yolk granules ; the entodermic nuclei are

very variable in form and irregular in distribution; the cell boun-

daries are indistinct. There is no mesoderm. A cross section

near the front of the area pellucida likewise shows only ectoderm

and entoderm ; the former is a high cylinder epithelium over the

area pellucida and thins out towards the opaca on each side; the

latter is a thin layer over the area pellucida, and passes quickly

but not abruptly into the very thick yolk-bearing entoderm (or

Keimwall) of the area opaca. Sections a short distance in front

of the primitive groove show that the head process (Aopfortsatz)

is a forward prolongation of the primitive streak and consists of an

FIG. 15.— Transverse section of the anterior region of a fully develoyed primitive

streak of a hen's ovum. Er, ectoderm; mes, mesoderm; Ent, entoderm; Pr. g, primi-

tive groove. The black dots represent yolk granules.

axial accumulation of the mesodermic cells, fused with the ento-

derm, and having broad extensions sideways to form the mesoderm

beeween the outer and inner germ-layers ; the lateral portions of

the mesoderm have no connection with the outer germ-layers, and

at its distal edge the mesoderm thins out and rests upon the ento-

derm of the opaca, but without being connected with it; I cannot

find any satisfactory evidence that it receives any additions from

the opaca entoderm, as many authors have maintained. The ecto-

derm in the region of the Kopffortsatz resembles that further

forward, but it very soon shows a faint median furrow, the so-

called dorsal groove (Rückenrinne), which is the commencement

of the medullary groove. In the anterior half of the primitive

streak the relations are similar to those in the head process, ex-

626 The American Naturalist. Uuly,

cept that the ectoderm shows the primitive groove, Fig. 15,

and is fused with the axial cord (Achsenstrang) of the mesoderm,

so that in the axial region the three layers are united. In the

posterior region of the primitive groove the connection of the

mesoderm with the inner germ layer is dissolved, but the connec-

tion with the entoderm is retained. Behind the primitive groove

the mesoderm extends, but lies free between the ectoderm and en-

toderm. To recapitulate:—There is a long axial mesodermic

thickening, which has the primitive groove over its posterior two-

thirds ; the thickening in front of the groove is united with the

entoderm and is called the head process; the thickening under

the front half of the groove is united with both the ectoderm and

entoderm ; the thickening under the hind half of the groove is

united only with the entoderm, it is to be remembered that the

mesoderm arises from the entoderm, and its connection with the

ectoderm is, it seems to me, to be considered secondary.

A comparative examination of the primitive streak, as described

for various classes in the preceding pages, shows that it has a re-

markable uniformity of organization. In alltypes it consists of

an axial accumulation of mesodermic cells; this mesodermal

axial cord overlies the archenteron, and sends out mesodermic

tissue in a widening sheet between the ectoderm and entoderm,

headwards, sideways, and backwards; the mesoderm is thickest

posteriorly, z. e., in the region of the blastopore; when it first ap-

pears it is intimately connected with the entoderm except in the

neighborhood of the blastopore, where both entoderm and meso-

derm unite with ectoderm. The mesoderm constitutes an axial

mass, and offers no trace of a bilateral division or origin. Such

a division is produced secondarily by the meeting of the medul-

lary and notochordal grooves. The ectoderm in the region of

the primitive streak consists of high cylinder cells, but it gradu-

ally thins out toward the embryonic rim. The entoderm on the

dorsal side of the archenteron consists of discrete cells, which

soon acquire a distinctly epithelial arrangement; laterally and in

front it passes over into the yolk, which may be cellular or a

multinucleate mass. These features recur in all the types we

have studied, though the variations are very great. In the imme-

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 627

diately following stages there is a rapid expansion of the meso-

derm, in all directions, and also an expansion of the archenteric

cavity, which is especially noticeable in meroblastic ova. The

relations of the blastopore are discussed below.

2°. Mammalıan primitive streak—The description of the primi-

tive streak has to be preceded by an account of the changes in

the blastodermic vesicle from the close of segmentation to the

appearance of the primitive streak.

Mammalian blastodermic vesicle —After the close of segmenta-

tion we find that the inner mass becomes flattened out, and in the

region it occupies we can distinguish three layers of cells, as

previously described, first, counting from the outside the thin

layer of cells known as Rauber's “ Deckschicht;” second, a

middle layer of cylindrical cells, which becomes the ectoderm ;

third, an inmost layer of thin flattened cells, which belong to the

entoderm; the “Deckschicht” continues round the whole

vesicle as a single layer; the others layers do not so continue.

The next step in development is the formation of a second

layer which spreads out in all directions from the region of the

inner mass; hence as far

as the new layer reaches

the blastodermic vesicle be-

comes two-layered. Mean-

while the “ Deckschicht ”

disappears, leaving two lay-

ers in the region of the inner

mass; it is to be remarked

that the “ Deckschicht ” is

retained in certain rodents,

undergoing special modifi-

cation as described in the

section on inversion of the

er 16. Hecate pe vesicle of a rabbit rid germ-layers. The stage in

ys. ag, area germinativa or embryon à : 2

shel: gé, line, above which the vesicle is iac which the vesicle is partly

= two-layered, while the

“ Deckschicht” is still present, is exemplified in Fig. 16.

Blastocyst of the rabbit of six days. —The development is ex-

628 The American Naturalst. Uuly,

ceedingly variable, so that exact times cannot be given. The gen-

eral appearance is illustrated by Fig. 16. from Kölliker. The

vesicle figured was 4.4 mm. in length ; the envelopes of the ovum

are not shown, though they were still present; at the upper pole

is the small embryonic shield, corresponding in position to the

inner mass; it is marked out by the greater thickness of the

walls of the vesicle; the developing second layer extends over

more than half the vesicle, reaching to the line ge.

The following is a summary of Ed. van Beneden’s description,

2, 185-200, of the blastodermic vesicle of a rabbit at 6 days, 1%

hours after coitus. The vesicle measured 3.2 mm. in diameter ;

it was nearly spherical; the wall of one hemisphere consisted of

one layer of cells; the other hemisphere had two layers of cells,

and besides in its central portion a third layer intervening between

the other two. The area with three layers van Beneden desig-

nates as the tache embryonnaire ; it showed no trace of the primi-

tive streak ; it was oval in outline, and had one point, which the

author identifies as Hensen’s knot, where the layers adhere to-

gether closely. Transverse sections show that the outermost

layer of cells is a low cylinder epithelium, which at the edge of

the area passes into a thin epithelium quite abruptly ; it corre-

sponds to Rauber’s “ Deckschicht,’ and has been said by him to

flatten out and disappear, leaving the cells underneath as the outer

layer of the embryonic vesicle in later stages, compare the fol-

lowing paragraph. The cells of the innermost layer are thin and

wide; they are called the hypoblast (entoderm) by van Beneden ;

the cells themselves have round nuclei, around each of which is

accumulated a court of granular protoplasm ; the adjacent courts

are connected by a coarse meshwork of protoplasmic threads ;

treatment with nitrate of silver brings out the cell boundaries,

and divides the reticulum into polygonal areas. The cells of

the present outermost layer have distinct boundaries and contain

granules, and long bacilliform bodies, which van Beneden saw

also in the fresh specimens, and found to be constant appear-

ances. Similar bodies are found in the germinal vesicles of

sheep, and are held by Bonnet, 70, to be derived from the uterine

milk; the rabbit is not known to have uterine milk. The histo-

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 629

logical peculiarities of these two layers in about the same from

the fifth to the eighth day. The middle layer consists of rounded

cells with numerous granules; seen from the surface their di-

ameter is greater than that of the cells outside them, but much

less than that of the cells underlying them. While we know

that the middle layers are ectodermal, it is uncertain whether the

inner layer is really entodermal or really belongs with the two

outer layers as part of the primitive blastoderm or ectoderm;

in the latter case, the true entoderm of the archenteron must arise

later, as we must consider probable also for the reason that the

primitive streak is not yet formed.

HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.

BY E. L. STURTEVANT.

(Continued from p. 332.)

ROCKET SALAD. Brassica eruca L.

pue strong and to most persons offensive plant has been long

under culture, and is even now highly esteemed by the

Greeks and Turks, who prefer it to any other salad! It was cul-

tivated by the ancient Romans. Albertus Magnus? in the thir-

teenth century speaks of it in gardens; so also does Ruellius? in

1536, who uses nearly the present French name, rogueta. In

1586 Camerarius' says it is planted most abundantly in gardens.

In 1726 Townsend’ says it is not now very common in English

gardens, and in 1807 Miller's Dictionary? says it has been long

rejected. It was in American gardens in 1854 or earlier,’ and

is yet included by Vilmorin? among European vegetables.

1 Walsh. Hort. Trans., VI., 5

? Albertus Magnus. De Veg., Jessen Ed., 1867, 5o7.

3 Ruellius. De Nat. Stirp., 1536, 513.

1 Camerarius. Epit., 1586, 306.

5 Townsend. Seedsman, 1726, 18.

$ Miller's Dict., 1807.

7T Brown. Pat. Off. Rept., 1854.

8 Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 541.

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

Rocket or Rocket Salad is called in France, roguette, cresson de

fontaine, salade de vingt-quatre heures; in Germany, rauke,

senfkohl ; in Flanders, Zrapkool; in Holland, rakette kruid ; in

Italy, ricola, ruca, ruccola, ruchetta, rucola ; in Spain, Jaramago,

oruga, raqueta ; in Portugal, finchao,? in Greece, aromatos,

euzomaton, roka ; in Egypt, djaerdjir ; in Arabic, gergyr

ROSEMARY. Rosmarinus officinalis L.

This aromatic herb, whose leaves are sometimes used for sea-

soning, had many virtues ascribed to it by Pliny, and it is also

mentioned by Dioscorides and Galen. It was also familiar to

the Arab physicians of Spain in the thirteenth century, and is

mentioned in an Anglo-Saxon herbal of the eleventh century."

The first notice I find of its use as a condiment is by Lignamine

in 1475,” who describes Rosemary as the usual condiment with

salted meats. In 1783 it is described by Bryant? as so common

in gardens as to be known to every one, and it also finds men-

tion in nearly all the earlier botanies. In 1778 Mawe'* names

four varieties, the common narrow-leaved, broad-leaved, the

silver-striped, and gold-striped leaved. It was in American gar-

dens in 1806 or earlier.

Rosemary is called in France, romarin, encensoir, herbe aux

couronnes ; in Germany, rosmarin ; in Flanders and Holland,

rozemarijn ; in Denmark, rosmarin ; in Italy, rosmarino ; in

Spain, romero ; in Portugal, alecrim;” in Greece, dendrolibanon ;'5

in Arabic, iyl, aselbam," vkleelul-jilbal, hasalban-achsir ;* in

India, bubureeah,” in Tagalo, romero?

9 Pickering. Ch. Hist., 281.

3 Delile. Fl. Aeg. Ill.

12 Lignamiine. De Conserv. Sanitatis, 1475, c. 81, quoted from Pharmacog., l.c.

3 Bryant. Fl. Diet., 1783, 141.

16 Hogg. Hooker's vr of Bot., 1., 134.

en Fl. Aeg., Ill,

Birdwood. Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 65, 242.

1 Spocde, Ind. Handb, of Gard., 186.

20 Pickering. Ch. Hist., 459.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 631

RUE. Ruta graveolens L.

The leaves of Rue, although of a strong odor, disagreeable to

some people, are occasionally used for seasoning, and the

Italians and Greeks are said to eat them in salads. It was for-

merly in request, and the Romans seem to have appreciated it

highly; and Pliny? devotes more than a just space in enumerat-

ing its virtues, and speaks of wine flavored with Rue as among

the viands distributed to the populace by a Roman consul. In

the book on cookery by Apicius" in the third century we find

Rue used among ‘the condiments. In the thirteenth century

Albertus Magnus” describes Rue among garden esculents, and

praises it. At a later period its garden culture is mentioned in

the early botanies and in the earlier works on gardening. In

1806 McMahon™ mentions it among the medicinal herbs for

American gardens. Two varieties, the broad-leaved and the

narrow-leaved, were known to Burr? in 1863, to Mawe" in Eng-

land in 1778, and apparently to Tragus" in Germany in 1552.

Rue or herb grace is called in France, rue; in Germany,

raute, weinraute ; in Holland, wijnruit; in Spain, ruda;,? in

Norway, vünrude ;* in Italy, ruta; in Greece, peganos,;” in

Arabia, schedab ;”" in India, satoora, aloodu;" in Japan, mats

kase so.

RUTA-BAGA. Brassica napo-brassica.

The Ruta-bagas of our gardens include two forms, the one with

white flesh, the other with yellow. The French call these two

classes chou-navets and Ruta-bagas. The chou-navet or Brassica

napo-brassica communis A. P. DC. has either purple or white

21 Pliny. Lib., XX., c. 51; XIX., 45.

» eR Les PL Pot., =

31 Forskal. Fl. Aeg. Arab., CXI.

32 Speede. Ind. Handb. of Gard., 185.

3 Thunberg. Jap., 180.

Am. Nat.— July. —3.

632 The American Naturalist. [July,

roots; the Ruta-baga or B. napo-brassica Ruta-baga A. P. DC.

has a more regular root, round or oval, yellow both without and

within.* In English nomenclature, while now the two forms are

called by a common name, yet formerly the first constituted the

turnip-rooted cabbage. In 1806 the distinction was retained in

the United States, McMahon” describing the turnip-rooted cabbage

and the Swedish turnip or Roota-baga. Asa matter of con-

venience we shall describe these two classes separately.

The first description of the white-rooted form that I note is by

Bauhin® in his Prodromus, 1620, and it is. named again in his

Pinax,” 1623, who calls it xapo-brassica. In 1686, Ray? appar-

ently did not know it in England, as he quotes Bauhin's name

and description, which states that it is cultivated in Bohemia and

is eaten, but Morison? in 1669 catalogues it among the plants in

the royal gardens. In France it is named by Tournefort,® in

1700, Brassica radice napiformi or chou-navet. In 1 778 these were

called in England turnip cabbage with the turnip underground,

and in the United States, in 1806, turnip-rooted cabbage, as noted

above.” There are.three varieties described by Vilmorin,“ one

of which is purple at the collar, and apparently these same

varieties are named by Noisette* in 1829, and the white, and the

red-collared by Pirolle* in 1824, under the names chou-navet, chou

turnip, and chou de Lapland. This class, as Don* says in 1831,

is little known in English gardens, though not uncommon in

French horticulture.

The Ruta-baga is said by Sinclair, in the account of the system

‚of husbandry in Scotland, to have been introduced into Scotland

about 1781-2, and a quotation in the Gardeners’ Chronicle,® says

** Decandolle. Mem. on Brassica, 1821, 25.

35 McMahon. A Kal., 1806.

% Bauhin. Prodromus, 1671, 54.

“Don. Gar. and Bot. Dict., I., 241.

55 Gard Chron., 1853, 346.

1890] . History of Garden Vegetables. 633

it was introduced into England in 1790. I find no earlier

references. It is mentioned in 1806 by McMahon as in American

gardens, and in 1817 there is a record of an acre of this crop in

Illinois.“ The vernacular names all indicate an origin in Sweden

or Northern Europe. It is called Swedish turnip or Roota-baga

by McMahon in 1806, by Miller's Dictionary in 1807, by Cob-

bett in 1821, and by other authors to the present time. Decan-

dolle in 1821 calls it zavet jaune, navet de Swede, chou de

Laponie, and chou de Suede. Pirolle in 1824 Ruta-baga or chou

navet de Suede,as does Noisette in 1829. In 1821 Thorburn

calls it Ruta-baga or Russian turnip, and a newspaper writer in

1835” calls it Ruta-baga, Swedish turnip, Lapland turnip. The

foreign names given by Don in 1831 include many of the above-

named and the Italian zavoze di Laponia. Vilmorin,“ in his Les

Plantes Potageres, 1883, describes three varieties, one with a

green collar, one with a purple collar, and a third which is early.

The modern names for the species are: In English, Swedish

turnip, Ruta-baga ; in England also, turnip-rooted cabbage and

Swede ; in France, chou-navets, chou-rave en terre, chou turnep ;

in Germany, kohlrube, erd-oder unter-kohlrabi, wruekenrube ; in

Flanders, steekrapp; in Holland, oolraapen onder den grond ;

in Denmark, zoe; in Italy, cavalo navone ; in Spain, col nado,

nabicol; in Portugal, couve abo ;* in Sweden, rot-kal;* in

India, Zal shulghum.®

SAFFRON. Crocus sativus L.

This plantis hardly deserving of mention, as its presence in

the kitchen-garden is scarcely ever noted. Saffron, however, ds

a medicine, condiment, perfume, or dye, has been highly prized by

mankind from a remote period. Under the Hebrew name, car-

com, the plant is alluded to by Solomon; and as rokos by

Homer, Hippocrates, Theophrastus, and Theocritus. Virgil and

Columella mention it, and Cilicia and Sicily are both alluded to

by Dioscorides and Pliny as localities celebrated for this drug.

4 Pat. Of. Rept., 1854, 198.

4T zn Farmer, May 15, 1845.

. Hort. Culin., 1764.

cand Ind, Handb. of Gard., 138. .

eu SR The American Naturalist. [July,

Throughout the middle ages frequent notices are found of its

commerce and cultivation. A most interesting resumé of the

history of Saffron may be found in the Pharmacographia by

Fluckiger and Hanbury

Saffron is calledin France, safran ; in Germany, saframpflance ;

in Italy, zafferano ; in Spain, azafran ;” in Greece, rokos ; in

Egyptian, methaio,” in Arabic, koorkum szafran; in Burma,

thauwen ; in Hindustani, sofran keysur ; in Malay, saffaron coon-

yer ; in Persian, kerkum ; in Sanscrit, Aasmirajamma, kunkuma ;

in Tamil, Ahoongoomapoo ; in Telegu, Ahoonkoomapoo, bubuma 8

SAGE. Salvia officinalis.

This is one of the most important occupants of the herb gar-

den, being commonly used for seasoning, and also in domestic

medicine. It has been under cultivation from a remote period,

and is considered to be the eelisphakos of Theophrastus, the

elelisphakon of Dioscorides, the salvia of Pliny, and its medicinal

virtues are noted by Oribasius, and others of the early writers on

medicine. In the middle ages it found frequent mention, as by

Albertus Magnus in the thirteenth century, and the plant and its

uses are noticed in nearly all of the early botanies. Although but

one variety is now grown in our gardens, yet formerly a number

of sorts are noted, the red, green, small, and variegated being

named by Worlidge? in 1683. Sage was in American gardens

in 1806* and doubtless long before, and six varieties are de-

scribed by Burr? in 1863, all of which can perhaps be included

among the four mentioned in 1683, and all by Mawe in 1778.

Sage is called in France, sauge officinale, grande sauge, herbe

. sacree ; in Germany, salbei ; in Flanders and Holland, sale ; in

Italy, salvia ; in Spain, salvia ; in Portugal, molho ;* in Norway,

54 McMahon. 1

5 Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., ore

% Vilmorin. Les. Pl. Pot., 546.

58 Syst. Hort., uh W. Gent, 1689, pe

Am. Gard. Kal

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 635

salvie ;” in Greece, sphakos, sphakelos ;* in India, seesta, salbeea ;”

in Hindustani, salbia.”

SALSIFY. Tragopogon porrifolium L.

In the thirteenth century Albertus Magnus“ describes a wild

plant, Oculus porce or flos campi, which commentators identify

with the salisfy, as having a delectable root, which is eaten, but he

makes no mention of cultivation. It is described, but apparently

not under kitchen garden culture by Matthiolus in 15 70and 1598,”

but not mentioned by him in 1558, when he refers to the yellow-

flowered species; there is no mention of culture by Camerarius?

in 1586, but in 1587 Dalechamp™ says itis planted in gardens.

In 1597 Gerarde® describes it, but apparently as an inmate of

the flower garden. In 1612 Le Jardinier Solitaire speaks of it

as under kitchen garden culture in France, and in 1616 Dodo-

naeus,* J. Bauhin” in 1651, and Ray" in 1686, refer to it as ap-

parently cultivated. After this period its culture seems to have

been quite general, as it is referred to in the works on gardening,

beginning with Quintyne, in 1693. It was in American gardens

priorto 1806. There are no varieties, and the drawings of an

early period indicate as improved a root as is now commonly

rown.

The Salisfy or oyster plant is called in France, sadsifis, cercifix,

salsifix blanc, barberon ; in Germany, haferworzel; in Flanders,

haverwortel ; in Denmark, havrerod; in Italy, barba di becco,

salsifia ; in Spain, salsifi blanco; in Portugal, cercifi ; in Brazil,

57 Schubeler. Culturpfi., 8

Hogg. Hook. Jour. of n I, 134.

59 Speede. Ind. Handb., of Gard., 182.

e um Epit., ae w

6 J. Bauhin. Hist., II., 1059.

6 Ray. Hist., 1686, 252.

636 The American Naturalist. [July,

cercefin ,? in Greece, trihoura;" in Norway, havrerod ;™ in the

Mauritius, sa/szfis.”

The yellow-flowered species, Tragopogon pratense L? seems

formerly to have been cultivated. The use of the root is noted

by Matthiolus in 1558. In 1597 Gerarde notes it as a wild plant

of England. In 1640 Parkinson recommends it as excellent for

the table, and cultivated for this purpose. Vilmorin, in 1883, -

also mentions a yellow-flowered form as under occasional cul-

ture, but he does not refer it decisively to this botanical species.

SAMPHIRE. Crithmum maritimum L.

The shoots of this seaside plant are pickled in vinegar, and it

is even an object of garden culture for this purpose. The first

merition of its culture that I find is by Quintyne,” in France, in

1690; it is again mentioned by Stevenson,” in England, in 1765;

and its use as a pot-herb by the poor, as well as a pickle, is no-

ticed by Bryant? in 1783. It is noticed in American gardens in

1821.7

Samphire, Sampier, Sea Fennel, or Sea Samphier is called in

France, perce-pierre, baeile, christe marine, crete marine, Fenouil

des marais, fenouil marin, herbe de St. Pierre, passe-pierre, saxi-

Jrage maritime ; in Germany, meer-fenchel, steinbrech ; in Flan-

ders and Holland, zeevenkel ; in Italy, bacicci, erba san-pietro,

sassifraga ; in Spain, hinvjo marino, pasa piedra; in Portugal,

Juncho marino ;” in Greece, almura or £retamon??

SAVORY. Satureja sp.

But two species of Savory are now included among the

cultivated sorts, but it is not long since that four species occurred

6 Vilmorin. Les. Pl. Pot., 543.

10 Pickering. Ch. Hist., 625. |

"1 Schubeler. Culturpfl., 85. ^

7 Bojer. Hort. Maur., 190.

76 Bryant. Fl. Diet., 1783, 136.

TI Cobbett. Am. ‚1821

7$ Vilmorin: Les Pl. Pot., 402.

% Pickering. Ch. Hist., 294.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 637

in our „books on garden esculents, and yet another by earlier

writers. This class of aromatics were known to the ancient Ro-

mans, and were referred to under the name of satureia cunila and

thymbra.

The European names given to the Savory are: In France,

sarriette ; in Germany, die saturei ; in Holland, £ez/ ; in Italy,

sautoreggia ; in Spain, ajedrea ; in Portugal, segurelha ; in Rus-

sia, tschaber ; in Denmark, saer; in Poland, ozadi.”

Satureja hortensis L.

This species seems to be the satureja of Palladius" in the

third century, and of Albertus Magnus” in the thirteenth, and is

mentioned in England by Turner? in 1538, which would indicate

its presence there at this date. It was.also well known to all the

earlier botanists, and is mentioned as a common pot-herb by all

the earlier writers on gardening. In 1783 Bryant“ says that

besides being used as a pot-herb, it is frequently put into cakes,

puddings, sausages, etc. It was in American gardens in 1806 or

earlier, and as an escape from gardens is now sparingly found

in Ohio, Illinois, Nevada, etc The whole plant is highly odori-

ferous, and it is usually preferred to the other species.

Summer Savory is called in France, sarriette annuelle, sarriete

commune, herbe de St. Julien, sadree, savouree ; in Germany,

bohnenkraut, pfefferkraut, kollkraut ; in Flanders and Holland,

boonenkruid ; in Denmark, sar; in Italy, santoreggia ; in Spain,

ajedrea comun, sojulida; in Portugal, segurelha ;" in Norway,

sar ,? in the Mauritius, sarriette ®

% McIntosh. Book of the Gard., II., 238.

81 Palladius. Lib., III., c. 24.

82 Albertus Magnus. De Veg., Jessen Ed., 559.

8 Turner. Libellus, 1538.

% Bryant. Fl. Diet., 1783, 143.

Gard

99 Bojer. Hort. Maur., 248.

633 The American Naturalist. Uuy,

Satureja montana L.

A species known to the earlier botanists, and probably known

to the ancient culture, although I do not find it identified with

any certainty. It is mentioned in Turner's Herbal in 1562, and

this is as far back as we have printed registers; but there can be

little doubt but that this, with the summer savory, was much cul-

tivated in far earlier times in England.” It was in American

gardens in 1806.9 The uses are the same with the preceding

species.

Winter Savory is called in France, sarriette vivace, sarriette des

montagnes; in Germany, winter bohnen-oder pfefferkraut; in

Spain, hisopielo®

Satureja capitata L.

This species is omitted from our most modern books on gar-

dening, although recorded in American gardens as late as 1863.”

It is mentioned as under culture in many of the early works on

botany and gardening.

Headed Savory is called in France, thim de Crete.

Satureja viminea L.

A native of Jamaica, and introduced in Britain in 1783, and

has two varieties. It was recorded by Burr in 1863, as in

American gardens, but as little used. It is said to be much used

for seasoning in its native country. It is not now recorded as in

European cultivation.

Satureja juliana L.

This Savory is mentioned by Gerade, in 1597, as sown in gar-

dens. It is a native of the Mediterranean countries, called in

Greece, ussopo, in Egyptian, pesalen.* Its name has disappeared

from our seed catalogues.

99 Miller's Dict., 1807.

N Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 1863.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 639

SAVOY CABBAGE. Brassica oleracea bullatta DC.

. This race of cabbage is distin guished by the blistered surface

head. Iam inclined to believe that the heading cabbages of the

ancient Romans belonged to this class, as in their descriptions

there are no indications of a firm head, and at a later period this

form is named as if distinctly Roman. Thus Ruellius? in 1536

describes under the name Romanos a loose heading sort of cab-

bage, but does not describe it particularly as a Savoy. This sort

probably is the Brassica italica tenerrima glomerosa flore albo fig-

ured by J. Bauhin” in 1651, its origin, judging from the name,

being ascribed to Italy, and also figured by Chabraeus," 1677,

under the same name, and with the additional names of Chou

d'Italie and Chou de Savoye. In the Adversaria” and elsewhere

this kind is described as tender, and as not extending to the

northern climates. I do not know of this form, so carefully pic-

tured, as existing under culture, and it has doubtless been super-

seded by better varieties.

In the Savoy class three types are to be seen. The most

common is the spherical-headed, next the long-headed or ellipti-

cal, and lastly the conical. There are a number of varieties. In

1883 Vilmorin describes fifteen in.his Les Plantes Potageres, and

names others. In the report of the New York Agricultural Ex-

periment Station for 1886, thirteen varieties are described.

The SPHERICAL-HEADED. This race is the most common, and

occurs in various degrees of blistering, and in a large number of

varieties. The following synonymy embraces this type:

Brassica crispa. Matth., 1558, 247; Pin, 1561, 162; Cam.

epit, 1586, 249; Pancov., 1673, n. 614.

B. alba crispa. Lugd., 1587, L, 520.

B. patula crispa. Sabauda zstiva. Lob. ic, 1501, I., 244;

Chabr., 1677, 269.

B. sabauda. Ger., 1537, 247.

B. sabauda crispa. Ger., l. c.

% Ruellius. De Natura Stirpium, 1536, 477.

-

98 Pena and Lobe, Adv., Rn 9r.

640 The American Naturalist. [July,

B. sabauda rugosa. J. Bauh., 1651, Il., 828.

The ILLIPTICAL-HEADED. This race has also a syonomy, and

has been long known.

Brassica sabauda hiberna. Lob. ic., 1591, L.,

B. alba capite oblongo non penitus ale G. ur Phytopin.,

1596, 176; Pin., 1623, III

B. sabauda. Dod. Pempt., 1616, 624.”

The ConicaL-HEADED. Of this type I know of but one form,

the Conical Savoy,the French synonyms chou milan a tete longue,

chou frise pointu, and chou milan pain de sucre. This variety

finds mention in French works on gardening in 1824, 1826, and

1829.'”

The modern names of the Savoy Cabbage are: In France,

choux de milan, chou milan, chou cabus frise, chou cloque, chou de

Hollande, chou pancalier, chou de savoie; in Germany, wirsing,

savoyerkohl, borskohl; in Flanders and Holland, savooikool ; in

Denmark, savoykal; in Italy, cavolo di milano, verza; in Spain,

col de milan, col risada, col lombarda ; in Portugal, sadora ; in

India, stkoree £obee?

. In ancient times it was called: In English, savore cole, Ger.

1597, savoy cabbage, Ray, 1686; in France, chou de savoye,

Lyte, 1586, choux vers, Pin., 1561 ; in Germany, koel, Pin., 1561,

krauskol, Cam. Epit., 1586; in Dutch, savoy koolen, Lyte, 1586;

in Italy, cavoZ, verza, Pin., 1561, cavolo crespo, verza crespa, Cam.

Epit., 1586; in Spain, colles or covves, Pin., 1561.

A more minute examination would serve to identify nearly all

of our sub-varieties with kinds named preceding 1830.

SCARLET RUNNER BEAN. Phaseolus multiflorus Willd.

This bean, a native of South America, was described and fig- -

ured by Cornutus" in 1635, under the name Faseolus puniceo

Jore ; but it appears in Johnson's edition of Gerarde, 1633. It

was first cultivated as an ornamental plant, and the first mention

Beatie eects. but the

100 L H'ort. Fran., 1824; Petit. Silos face, 1826; Noisette, Man., 1829. _

101 Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 121.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 641

I find of its use as a vegetable is by Townsend™ in 1726, who

says “the cods are eaten sometimes like other kidney beans,” and

Stevenson,’ in 1765, gives directions for kitchen-garden culture.

In America, in 1806,'% it was cultivated exclusively for orna-

ment, and first appears in the vegetable garden about 1819.7

At the present time five varieties are given by Vilmorin, but one

of these, the black, I have neither seen nor found recorded for

American gardens, and the hybrid is not clearly described.

The synonymy of the different varieties is as below:

I. Phaseolus flore coccineo. Ray, 1686, I., 884.

P. multiflorus coccineus. Lam. ex Martens, n. 123.

Large Scarlet Climber. Mawe, 1778.

Haricot d' Espagne rouge. Vilm., 1883, 276.

Scarlet Runner. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 1883, n. 56;

1874, n. 89.

IL Faseolus puniceo flore. Cornutus, 1635, 184.

Phaseolus indicus flore miniato, semine nigro. Titius, 1654, ex

Mart.

P. multiflorus niger. Martens, 1869, n. 121.

Haricot d’ Espagne a grain completement noir, Vilm., 1883, 277.

III. Phaseolus multiflorus bicolor. Anabida, 1827, ex Mar-

tens, 83. :

Haricot d' Espagne bicolor. Vilm., 1883, 227.

Painted Lady. N.Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept., 1884, n. 9o.

IV. Phaseolus indicus flore et semine albo. Titius, 1654, ex

Martens.

Phaseolus multiflorus albus. Martens, 1869, 82.

Large White Climber. Mawe, 1778.

White Dutch Runners. Gardiner and Hepburn, 1818, 68.

White or Dutch Runner. N. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept, 1834,

n. 9I.

This synonymy establishes the dates at which each variety ap-

peared, and the varieties have kept true since then. The seed of

1^ Townsend. Seedsman, 1726, 83.

105 Stevenson. Gard. Kal., 1765, p

106 McMahon. Am. Gard. Kal

107 Practical Am. Gard., Baltimore, 1819, 84.

642 oS The American Naturalist. [July,

each produces its own variety, unless the blooms have been cross-

fertilized. Under these circumstances I have noted the Scarlet

Runner seed producing the White Runner; the White Runner

seed producing the Scarlet Runner, the Painted Lady, and

another form which I think is the Haricot d'Espagne hybrid of

Vilmorin. There have appeared in these crossed plants no inter-

mediate types whatsoever, and I believe that the mixed seed tends

to revert ultimately to the original variety, having purged itself

of its contamination.

The names under which the species is known are: In France,

haricot d'Espagne ; in Germany, arabische bohne ; in Holland,

tursche boon ; in Italy, fagivolo di Spagna ; in India, lal loba or

lal lobeca.™

SCOLYMUS. Scolymus hispanicus L.,

This plant is supposed by authors to be the skolumus and

leimonia of Theophrastus, 322 B.C., and its root recorded as

edible; the scolymus of Pliny A.D. 79, recorded as a food plant.

The wild plant was seen in Portugal and Spain by Clusius™ in

1576. The plant was described by Gerarde™ in England in

1597,but he does not appear to have grown it. It was in the

botanic gardens at Oxford"? in 1658, but receives no other than

a quoted mention from Clusius by Ray!* in 1686. It appears

not to have been in English culture in 1778, nor in 1807," and

in 1869 is recorded as a new vegetable.” In 1597 Gerarde™

mentions its culture in Holland, and in 1616 Dodonaeus!'? says

it was planted in Belgian gardens, In France, in 1882, it is said

not to be under culture, but that its long fleshy root is used as a

kitchen vegetable in Provence and Languedoc." In 1883 it is

included among kitchen esculents by Vilmorin!5 It is accorded

198 Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 276.

109 Speede. Ind. Handb. of Gard.,

125.

110 Clusius. Hisp., 1576, 448; Hist., 1601, 2, 153.

H1 Gerarde.

75 Ray. Hist., 1686, 257.

14 Mawe.

ac

118 Vilmorin. Les Pl, Pot., 1883, 547.

189o.] History of Garden Vegetables. 643

by Burr'? for American gardens in 1863, and its seed was offered

in American seed catalogues of 1882, perhaps a few years earlier.

Scolymus, Spanish scolymus, Spanish oyster plant!" or golden

thistle is called in France, scolyme d’ Espagne cardouille, cardousse,

epine jaune ; in Holland, varkens distel ; in Italy, barba gentile,

cardo scolimo ; in Spain, escolimo, cardilla ;"* at Constantinople,

by the Greeks, Zephalaggalho.2

SCORZONERA. Scorzonera hispanica L.

This plant was not mentioned by Matthiolus™ in 1558, but in

1570 was described as a new plant, called by the Spaniards

scurzonera or scorzonera. In 1576, Lobel” says the plant was in

French, Belgian and English gardens from Spanish seed. Neither

Camerarius™ in 1586, nor Dalechampius™ in 1587, nor Bauhin!”

in 1596, nor Clusius'” in 1601, indicate it as a cultivated plant, and

Gerarde,'® in 1597, calls it a stranger in England, but growing in

his garden. In 1612 Le Jardinier Solitaire"? calls it the best root

which can be grown in gardens. The use of the root as a garden

vegetable is recorded in England by Meager™ in 1683, Worlidge™

in 1683, by Ray™ in 1686, etc. Quintyne'? in France, in 1690,

calls it “one of our chiefest roots" Its cultivation does not,

therefore, extend back to the sixteenth century. No varieties are

recorded under culture. It was in American gardens in 1806.

The back oyster plant, black salsify, Spanish salsify, or scorzo-

nera, is called in France, scorsonere, scorzonere d' Espagne, corcion-

naire, ecorce noire, salsifis noir ; in Germany, scorsoner, schwarz-

49 Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 1863, 94

120 Vilmorin. The Veg. Gard., 1885, 249.

123 Lobel. Obs.,

124 Camerarius. Epit., 1586, 314.

Matth. Com., bue 1570, 370 ; 1598, 409.

1576, 298.

131 Syst. Hort., by J. W. Gem, 1683, 186.

132 Ray. Hist., 1686, 24

133 Quintyne. Comp. rei 1693, 200

"

644 The American Naturalist. [July,

wurzel; in Flanders and Holland, schorseneel; in Denmark,

schorsenerrod ; in Italy, scorzonera ; in Spain, escorzonera, sal-

sifi nero, in Portugal, escorcioneira ;\ in Norway, skorsoneerrod.'®

SCURVY GRASS. Cochlearia officinalis L.

The wild plant, as an antiscorbutic salad, has long been in re-

quest, and received especial commendation in Holland, where, on

account of its abundance, it does not seem to have been culti-

vated. In 1586 it is mentioned as common in gardens by

Camerarius ; in 1597 it was grown in England by Gerarde'”

and a few others; in 1598 it was only found in gardens in Ger-

many; in 1616 recorded in the gardens of Brabant by

Dodonaeus.'® In1686 called the Garden Scurvy by Ray.“ In

the United States it is recorded among garden vegetables by

Burr™ in 1863.

Scurvy Grass is called in France, cochlearia officinal, herbe au

scorbut, herbe aux cuillers ; in Germany, loffelkraut; in Flanders,

lepelkruyd ; in Holland, Zepelblad; in Denmark, kokleare ; in

Italy and Spain, coclearia; in Portugal, cochlearia ;'* in Norway,

cochleare

SEA KALE. Crambe maritima L.

Although this plant is recorded as wild on the coast of

Britain, and as fit for food, by Pena and Lobel,“ Dalechampius,'”

Gerarde,^ and Ray," yet it was brought into English culture

from Italy'* a few years preceding 1765, and the seed sold at a

1% Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 548.

185 Schubeler. Culturpflanz., 85.

, 381.

paint 1616, 593.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables, — 645

high price as a rarity. In 1778'* it is said to “ be now culti-

vated in many gardens as a choice esculent,” and in 1795'”

was advertised in the London market. According to Heuze™ it

was first cultivated in France by Quintyne, the gardener to Louis

XIV., but I do not find it mentioned in my edition of Quintyne

of 1693; it, however, is mentioned in the French works on gar-

dening of 1824 and onward. The Sea Kale is named in

American gardens in 1806," and by seedsmen in 1829 and on-

wards, and in 1809 is recorded as cultivated near Boston, and in-

troduced to the public in 1813." At the Mauritius it was

cultivated in 1837.5 It is even now but rarely grown in the

United States. There are no varieties.

Sea Kale or beach-cole is called in France, crambe, chou marin ;

in Germany, meer-kohl, see-kohl; in Flanders and Holland,

zeekool, meerkool ; in Denmark, strandkaal ; in Spain, soldanela

maritima, crambe, col marino ;* in Italy, crambe marina."

SHALLOT. Allium ascalonicum L.

The askalonion krommoon of Theophrastus, and the cepa

ascalonia of Pliny, are usually supposed to be our Shallot, but

this identity can scarcely be claimed as assurred. It is not estab-

lished that it occurs in a wild state, and Decandolle is inclined to

believe it a form of A. cepa or onion.'® It is mentioned and fig-

ured in nearly all the early botanies, and many repeat the state-

ment of Pliny that it came from Ascalon, a town in Syria, whence

the name. Indeed, Michaud, in his History of the Crusades,

says that our gardens owe to the holy wars Shallots, which take -

their name from Ascalon.? Amatus Lusitanus, in 1554, gives

149 Mawe.

150 Times, Apr., o, Ss quoted from Gard. Chron., May rs, 1886, 626.

151 Heuze. Les Pl. Alim., IL., 667.

152 L'Hort. Franc., ve; Noisette, Man., 1859, etc.

153 McMahon. Am. Gard. Kal., 1806.

157 McIntosh. Book of the Gard., II., 116.

58 Decandolle. Orig. Des Pl. Cult., 56.

159 Michaud. Hist. of the Crusades, 1853, III., 329.

160 Amatus Lusitanus, in Diosc., 1554, 287.

646 = The American Naturaust. [July,

Spanish, Italian, French, and German names, which goes to show

its culture in these countries. In England, they are said to be

cultivated in 1633," but McIntosh’ says they were introduced

in 1548, but they do not seem to have been known to Gerarde in

1597. In 1633, Worlidge'? says “ eschalots are now from France

become an English condiment" They are enumerated for

American gardens in 1806.% Vilmorin? mentions one variety

with seven sub-varieties little differing

The Shallot or eschalot is called in France, eschalote, chalote, ail

sterile ; in Germany, schalotte, eschlauch ; in Flanders and Hol-

land, sjalot; in Denmark, skalottelog ; in Italy, scalogno ; in

Spain, chalote, escaluna ; in Portugal, eschalota , 16 in Norway,

skalotlog ;* in the Mauritius, echallotte „" in China, Aiai ;'® in

Cochinchina, cay nen; in India, gundhuna, gudheenk.™

AN AMERICAN TERRESTRIAL LEECH.

BY S. A. FORBES.

PNEU leeches are normally aquatic worms, terrestrial

species of various genera occur in many parts of the world—

Ceylon, Java, Summatra, Australia, Japan, Chili, and Brazil—and

some properly aquatic leeches (Trocheta subviridis of Europe, for

example) leave the water in pursuit of earthworms and other prey.

I cannot find, however, that either the terrestrial habitat or the

earthworm habit has been reported for any North American leech

—a fact which gives especial interest to a hitherto unnoticed species

occurring commonly in Illinois, and found, so far as known, only

in moist earth.

161 Miller's Dict., 1807.

162 McIntosh. Book of the Gard.

163 Syst. Hort:, by J. W. Gent, 1683, 193.

164 McMahon. Am. Gard. Kal., 1806, 190.

Loureiro. Cochinch., 202. :

170 Speede, Ind. Handb, of Gard., 159.

1890.] An American Terrestrial Leech: ~ 647

This terrestrial leech was first obtained by me in April, 1876,

at Normal, McLean county, Illinois, where it was dug up ina

house garden about a dozen rods from the nearest rivulet. An

example sent the following year to Prof. A. E. Verrill, with some

remarks on its superficial characters, was by him identified, provis-

ionally and with some hesitation, as his Semzscolex grandis, orig-

inally described! from three aquatic individuals obtained from

Lake Huron and Lake Superior and a river in Connecticut. I

have now, however, fifty-six specimens of this leech, all from the

earth in central Illinois, sometimes half a mile or more from

water, and representing collections made at different times from

April, 1876, to June, 1890; while, on the other hand, it has not

once occurred in the course of a large amount of aquatic work

done in the same regions during these fifteen years. It has,

moreover, constant characters which clearly distinguish it from

Semiscolex grandis, as far as one may judge by a comparison

with Verrill’s description, and I do not doubt that it is unde-

scribed. Its only known food is earthworms of various genera, and

these it swallows entire—as I have repeatedly found by dissec-

tion, and demonstrated likewise by feeding experiments on leeches

in captivity. Indeed, my serial sections have this peculiarity :

that they present the structure of three worms in one section—

that of the leech itself and of two earthworms in its stomach.

From the fact that all my specimens were obtained during the

early months of the year—from March to June—it is probable

that this leech, like the earthworm, penetrates to considerable

depths during the midsummer drouths.

Diacnosis: Semiscoler terrestris, n. sp. This is one of the

largest of our leeches, my contracted alcoholic specimens reaching

a length of seven inches, a width of three-fourths, and a depth of

three-eighths of an inch. In form, it is heaviest posteriorly, be-

1 Synopsis of the North American Fresh-Water Leeches. By A. E. Verrill. U. S.

Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Part II. Report of the Commissioner for 1872 and

1873, p.672 (Published in 1874.) This species clearly belongs to Kinberg's genus Semis-

colex, but on the other hand there seems little, except the very rudimentary condition of

the pharyngeal jaws, to ve it from Aulastoma, Moqu. (See Diesing, Systema Hel-

minthum, Vol. I., p. 461; Apathy, Süsswasser-Hirudineen, in Zoologische Jahrbücher,

Band III., p. 793), but in = absence of material for a comparison of these genera, I have

followed Verrill in using Kinberg's name.

Am. Nat.—July.—4.

648 ^o The American Naturalist. [July,

ing widest at about the eighth annulus in front of the acetabulum,

but tapering very gradually, or scarcely at all, thence forward to

the antierior fourth, and thence more rapidly to the mouth. Its

transverse section is depressed oval, flattened beneath the margins

of the body obtuse.

The color is sooty drab, varying to plumbeous black, some-

what lighter beneath, uniform in tint, and quite without spots or

mottlings of any sort. A darker median longitudinal stripe,

very conspicuous and well defined, is almost invariably present ;

a paler marginal stripe, often approaching buff,little less con-

stantly so, anda ventral submarginal stripe of the same color as

the dorsal one, likewise quite frequent. The surface is every-

where smooth, and I find no external trace of segmental papilla.

There are ninety-nine complete annuli from the mouth to the

posterior sucker, four imperfect annuli in the cephalic lobe, and

one such just before the vent—104 in all. All the perfect annuli

are very distinct, except the first two,which,while well distinguished

dorsally, are almost completely fused beneath to form the posterior

border of the mouth. In front of the first annulus is the upper

lip, divided by a delicate median groove. There are, conse-

quently, eleven such grooves meeting the margin of the mouth,

its posterior boundary being formed by the undivided ventral por-

tion of the fifth annulus. The eyes are ten in number, placed

upon the first, second, third, fifth, and eighth annuli, representing

somites one to five. The acetabulum is broad oval, wider than

long, and measures about ten mm. in its greatest diameter. The

vent is large and surrounded by irregular radiating grooves.

The first nephridial pore is at the anterior margin of the

tenth complete annulus—the fourteenth in all—and the last or

seventeenth pore at the anterior margin of the ninetieth ventral

annulus—the ninety-fourth of the full series. These pores open

on the ventral surface just within the dark ventral line, and con-

sequently at some little distánce from the margin of the body.

The male sexual opening is on the posterior part of the twenty-

eighth entire annulus, and the female opening on the thirty third.

Within the buccal cavity is a prominent circular fold. Maxille

three, rudimentary, distinguishable only in sections, with an ill-

1890.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 649

defined armature of teeth. The pharynx presents ten to fifteen

longitudinal folds, the number varying in different parts—the

average twelve or thirteen.

I have seen no specimens of Semiscolex grandis Verrill, but

draw from the author’s description distinctions in the number of

annulations (“about ninety” in grandis), the markings of the

upper lip, the positions of the sexual orifices (in grandis in the

twenty-fifth and thirtieth annuli respectively), and in the color

markings—grandis being without stripes, and spotted or blotched

with dark, in Verrill’s specimens.

«

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

“AGASSIZ, and C. O. WHITMAN.—The irme of Osseous Fishes. History

of the Egg from Fertilization to Cleavage. emoirs Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol.

XIV., 1889. Pu Á. Agassiz.

ALBRECHT, DR.—Uber den gamers der Raubthiere. Sitzungsbericht der

Physicalisch-ókonomischen Gesellschaft zu Konigsberg, 1879.

ALLEN, W. F., and D. E. SPENCER.— Higher Education in Wisconsin. Bur. of Ed.,

Cir. or Int No. 5 t

Annual Report Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur., Canada, Vol. III., 1887-88, with maps.

Annual Report Ohio Agri. Eper. Station, 1888.

Annarulü Binroulin gr An: Anul V., at I

Annarulü logicü, Anul II., 1885.

Barus, C.—On the "Thermo-Electri ectric EN of High Temperatures, Bull.

U. S. Geol. Sur., No, 54, 1889. From the Dept. Int.

BECKER, G. F.—Geology of the Quicksilver Deposits of the Pacific Slope. Mono-

U. S. Geol. Sur., Vol. XIII.

BOULENGER, G. A.—Descriptions of a New Snake and Two New Fishes obtained by

m H. von A in Brazil.—Descriptions of New Typhlopidæ in the British Museum.

f New Reptiles and Batrachians from M. r. Extracts Ann. and

Mag. Nat, Hist., 1889 ‚—Description of a New Batrachian of the Genus Leptobrach:

obtained by M. S. Fea in the Karens Mts, Burma. Ext. Ann. Mus. Civ, di Sto. "ic

BURMEISTER, H Be Fossilen Pferde der Pampasformation, 1889. Fromthe author.

Celebration du Centenaire de M. Chevreul. Brongniart.

Circular No. 6, Am. Soc. Psychical Research.

Circular No. 6, No. 8, No. 10, University of Texas,

LARKE, F. W.—Report of Work Done in the Division of Chemistry and Physics,

1886-87. Bull. U.S. Geol. Sur., No. = From the Dept. Int.

D' AGINCOURT, D2—Methodes de Cartographic Geologique Employées par U. S.

Geol. Sur. 1, Appendice

` DIXON, S. G—Education in America. Extract Med. and Surg. ao 1890.

EIGENMANN, C. H.—Notes on the Specific Names of ft

EIGENMANN, C. H.—On the Genesis of the kenne Piste Extract West

Am. Sci., 1889.

650 The Amerwan Naturalist, [July,

EIGENMANN, R. S.—Description of a New Species of Euprotomicrus. Extract Proc.

Cal. Acad. Sci., Vol. III. From the author.

rins ANN, B. W.—Birds T Carroll rages Indiana.' Extract Auk, Vol.VI., 1889.

EVERMANN, B., and C. H. BOLLMAN.—Notes on a Collection of Fishes from the

tern iver. From the ae

EVERMANN, B., and O. P. JENKINS. —Notes on Indiana Fishes. Extract Proc. U.

S. Nat. ies 1888.

; FONTAINE, W. M.—The Potomac or Younger Mesozoic Flora. Monograph U. S.

Geol. Sur., Vol. XV., Parts I. and II.

FORSYTH, C. J.—L'Ossario di Olivola in Val di Magra. Extract Dal Processo Della

Soc. nee Sci. Nat., 18

—Dr. Bronn's fera und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs. Sechster

Band, m bean: Vögel, A

GALLOWAY, B. T Fonnt of the Black Rot of the Grape. Circ. No. 6, U. S.

Dept. A

GILBERT, C. H.—Notes on the fet gt of Gillichthys y-cauda, at San Diego,

Cal. Vasen Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII.

A.—Entwickelungeschicte des a, (Petromyzon fluviatilis)

x

GREGORIO, A. DE.—Iconografia Conchiologica Mediterranea Vivente et Terziaria.

Ann, de Geol. et de Paleontol,, 1889. From the author

Hay, mte Geological Reconnaissance in S GOBWesterh Kansas. Bull. U. S.

Rurcicocs, c. H acp iade. cad s Boon Age in North America, and its Bearings on the

Antiquity of M

ORDAN D.S .— Descriptions of Fourteen Species of Fresh-Water Fishes Collected

by the U.S. Fish Com. in 1888. — Description of a New Species of Callionymus from the

Gulf of Mexico. Extracts Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1888.

JORDAN, D. S.— Report of Explorations Made During 1888 in the Alleghany Region

of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Western Indiana, with an Account of the

Fishes found in Each of the River Basins of Those Regions. Extract Bull. U. S. Fish

Com., Vol. VIII., 1888

JORDAN, D. S., and C. H. BOLLMAN.—Descriptions of New Species of Fishes Col-

lected at the Galapagos Islands and along the Coast of the United States of Colombia,

1887-'88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol XII., pp. 149-183. From the Smithsonian

Institution.

JORDAN, D. S., and B. W. EVERMANN— Description of the Yellow-finned Trout of

Twin Lakes. Extract Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., 1889. From the author.

JORDAN, D.S., and B. W. EVERMANN.— Food Fishes of Indiana. Extract Rep.

Com. Fish and Fisheries 1882-83.

JORDAN, D. S., and B. W. EVERMANN.—Description of the Yellow-finned Trout of

Twin Lakes, Col. Extract Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIL., 1890.

JORDAN, D. S., and C. H. EIGENMANN.—Notes on a Collection of Fishes sent by C.

7.

C. Leslie from Charleston, South Carolina. Extract : at 188

JORDAN, D. S., and C. H. GILBERT.—Description of a New Species of Thalassoph-

ryne from ta and Panama. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. X.

EYES, C. R.—Lower Carbonic Gastropoda from Burlington, Ia.—The American

Species of Polyphemopsis. Sphserodoma: A Genus of Fossil xtracts Proc.

Sci., Phila., 1889.— Variation Exhibited a Carbonic Gastropod.—The

Groups of Naticopsis. Extract Am. Geol., O-

Subgeneric 1889.— The ( ni

per of the Mississippi Basin. Extract Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIIL, 1889. From

Fe F. H.—Fossil Wood and Lignite ofthe Potomac Formation. Bull. U.

S. Geol. Sur., No. 56.

Kunz, G. F.—Precious Stones. Extract Appleton's Phys. Geog.

1890.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. ^ 651

LAWRENCE, G. N.—An Account of the Breeding Habits of Pufinus auduboni in

the Island of Grenada, West Indies, with a Note on Zenaida rubripes. Extract Au

Vol. vs 1889.

H, O.—Uber Brom und Jodmagnesium. Inaugural Dissertation der Hohen

Flecken Facultät der Universität Rostock. From the author.

LERCH, O., and W. F. CUMMINS.—A Geological Survey of the Concho Country.

Extract Am. Geol., 1890. From the author.

List Aiari. Committee Balfour Memorial,

Liste Générale des Membres Congres Geol. International, 1888.

, B. S.—A Geol. and Top. Map of the New Boston and Morea Coal Lands

in Schuylkill d Pa.

MEEK, S. E., and R. Sess —A Review of the Species ofthe Genus Esox. Ex-

tract Proc. Phila. Aon; Nat. Sci., 1885.

MEYER, O.—Upper Tél Invertebrates from West Side of Chesapeake Bay.

Extract Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1888. From the author

MILLER, S. A., and F. E. Gurley.— Description New Getta and Species of Echino-

dermata, from the Coal-Measures and Sub-Carboniferous Beds of Indiana, Missouri,

and Iowa. From the authors

NEHRING, HERR, —Uber -den Schädel agin Frisqueiro Stags aus Brasilien.

Si adeps ta Freunde zu Berli

Photographs of Bones of Castoroides ohioensis, found near ited. Indiana.

From das Joseph Moore.

PAVLOW, M.—Hipparion de la Russie.—Chevaux Pléistocénes de la Russie et leurs

rii aves les Chevaux des autres ra Extract Bull. de la Soc. Imper. des Natur-

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für Experimen ntal ipeni zu Berlin, 1888.

Proc. er Convention Empire State Ass. for Deaf Mutes, at Rochester, 1888,

From F. L. Seline

REINHARDT, i O. WINGE, H. WINGE.—Memoirs on Animal and Human Bones

found in Brazilian Limestone Caves, now in the Paleon. Dept. Copenhagen University.

Vol. I. Published by C. F. Lütken, 18

Report of the Board of Regents z Ae Smithsonian Institution for the Year Ending

June 30, 1886.

Report of the Committee ee reed 6, 1888, by the Am. Philosoph. Soc., to

assist the Commission on Am

Rice, W. N.— Science Teaching in n the EEE From the author.

c: Acum E. N. S.—The Calceocrinide, Extract Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol.

SCRIBNER, F. L.—Report on the Experiments made in 1888 in the pec of the

Downy Mildew and Black Rot of the bac iae: Bull. No. 1o, Dept.

STEARNS, R. E. C.—On Certain Parasites, Commensals, and D ent in the

Pearl Oysters Meleagrinse. Extract eh Report Smithsonian Institution, 1886. From

the author.

SWINHOE, C., and COATES, E. C.—A Catalogue of the Moths of India. From

trustees of the Indian Museum

TURNER, W.—On the Placentation of Halicore dugong. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin-

burgh, Vol. XXXV. From the author

Vocabulario Tzotzil Espafiol disléeto de los Indies de la parte Orienta del Estado de

WEBER , R.—Uber Patinabildung. Sondeg-abdruck aus Dingler’s Polytechnischem

Journ., 1882. From O.

WRIGHT, G. F.—The Nampa Image. Extract Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol.

XXIV., 1889.—A Moraine of Retrocession in Ontario. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

I. From the author.

+

652 The American Naturalist. [July,

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

Asia.—The Great Central Trade Route.—Mr. Mark S. Bell

(Proc. Roy. Geog., Feb., 1890) contributes a lengthened and inter-

esting account of his journey along the Great Central Trade Route,

which leads from Peking to the remote province of Kashgaria. Two

routes connect the east of China with Kashgaria, viz: The Alashan

route, along which Mr. Younghusband was the first Englishman to

travel, and the above-mentioned Great Central Trade Route, traversed

y Mr. Bell in 1887. The latter route was gone over in 1874-'75 by

Colonel Losnoffsky, who reported that it represented all conditions for

becoming the most important artery between Russia and China. It is

by no means the straightest route possible, since it first trends consider-

ably to thesouth to the Wei valley, and then proceeds northwestward to

the line of Chinese towns of the province of Kansu. From Peking to

Paw-Ting-Fu (218 miles) the road passes over an alluvial plain ; thence to

Khavailu (157 miles) it lies upon the hills between Chili and Shansi ;

rises to a height of 4500 feet, and then descends to Tai-Yuen-Fu, the

capital of Shansi. The road is entirely on metal, and from Khavailu

to Si-Ngan-Fu, the capital of Shensi, consists of nothing more than

ruts at the bottom of a gully in the pliable loess of the district. Tai-

Yuen-Fu hasa population of 5,000, and its nearest port is Tientsin.

From Tai-Yuen-Fu to Ping-Yong-Fu (185 miles) the road passes down

the valley of Fuen-Ho. Ping-Yong-Fu has a population of about

20,000; between it and Si-Ngan-Fu, the capital of Shensi, intervene

253 miles, still over the loess. The last-named city was the capital of

China for more than 2,000 years, from 1122 B.C. to 1127 A.D. The

Yellow River is crossed at Tung-Kwan,93 miles before reaching Si-Ngan-

Fu. Tung-Kwan is a very important place, since it is situated on the

main line of traffic between the east and west of China at the point

where that line is crossed by the chief route from the southeast to the

northwest of the kingdom. No commercial route of importance

crosses the Hoang-Ho north of Tung-Kwan. With such roads as have

been described, and no railways, it may well be conceived that land-

carriage in China is very costly&in practice, 30 miles upon land is in

expense equal to 600 to 800 milés of water-carriage. The province of

1890.] Geography and Travel. 653

Shensi is in great parta vast wheat field, and is exceedingly rich in

coal, iron, androck-salt. From Singan-Fu to Lan-Chau-Fu,the capital of

Kan-Fu, the road traversesa hilly country, usually 6,000 or 7,000 feet

above the sea, and sometimes rising to 8,000 or 10,000, for a distance

of 449 miles. Kan-Fu is, asit were, a wedge of China driven to the

northwest between Mongolia and Kashgaria, from which it is, however,

separated by a portion of the desert of Gobi. Formerly it joined the

best portion of Tangut, which was destroyed by Genghis or Chenghz-

an. From that period until now it has formed an integral portion

of the Chinese Empire, and its importance has been recognized by all

Chinese dignasties. The great wall was carried northwards to Kia-Yu-

Kwan, 500 miles to the north of the capital, Lan-Chau-Fu, with a view

to its protection. Previous to the Mohammedan rebellion, during which

Kashgaria was for awhile independent under the rule of Yakub Beg,

the population of Kansu was about 1,500,000, but during the wars

which ensued before that rebellion was finally squelched the inhabi-

tants were reduced to some 200,000, and all settlements except a

few of the largest walled towns were deserted. The Mohammedans in-

spired the greatest fear in the Chinese settlers, who fled before them

almost without resistance. It is acommon mistake to suppose that the

rebellion was finally put down by the bravery of the Chinese troops,

whereas the most potent weapons were really bribery, the starvations

of the garrisons of the town, and the distributions of buttons of

rank to traitorous leaders. The recovery of Kansu is at present but

al. Only the richest oases are in cultivation. The pop-

ulation is exceedingly degraded, opium-smoking is almost universal,

young girlsare regularly sold. Sodomy is common, and during the

rebellion cannibalism was resorted to. From Lan-Chau-Fu to

Urumtsi, which the Chinese have made the strategic centre of their

new province of Kashgaria, thirteen hundred miles have still to

be traversed. The Wei, an important tributary of the Yellow River

from the west, is crossed at Sien-Yang-Nsien, where it is one hundred

and fifty yards wide. Oneof the chief graneries of Lan-Chau-Fu,

which is a town of 40,000 inhabitants, has fine shops, and is in trade

with Russia, is An-Ting-Nsien, at the junction of three valleys, and the

others are the valleys of Ho- and Sing-Ning. Lan-Chau-Fu stands at an

elevation of 5,500 feet, and the Yellow River is here 250 yards wide.

Comparatively easy roads lead from Lan-Chau to Lhassa, the sacred cap-

ital of Tibet. The hilly western districts of the kingdom of Tangut

did not become subject to China until about 1718. The native Tan-

guts much resemble the gypsies. To Su-Chau-Fu (482 miles) the road

654 The American Naturalist. [July,

traverses for a portion of the distance anarrow wedge of cultivation

intervening between the Nan-Shan mountains and the desert, but the

last portion of the way passes over a barren salt plain or on low hills.

An elevation of 9,000 feet is reached from two places. Along the cul-

tivated strips coalis plentiful; the main cropsare various kinds of

millets. After leaving Lan-Chau the pigs in the villages are as numer-

ousas the men. From Sci-Chau to Ngan-Si-Fu, on the edge of the

actual desert of Gobi, is 178 miles; and the town of Hami, on a small

rich oasis, is 240 miles further. From Hami to Peking there is a camel

route, which can be traversed by those animals in 70 to 8o days, but

this is only used for the conveyance of war material. To reach

-Urumtsi (408 miles) the Tian-Shan mountains must be crossed at their

easy easternmost pass, at an elevation of 9,000 feet. There are some

fertile oases on the way. At this point Mr. Bell diverged to Tok-Sien,

the most eastern town of Yakub Beg’s former domain, 103 miles from

Urumtsi, and on the opposite side of the Tian-Shan mountains, Be-

tween this point and Karashahar (150 miles) Lake Baghrash, a fresh-

water lake with an abundance of fish, is passed. The whole of this

eastern portion of Chinese Turkestan or Kashgaria is in truth nothing

more than a desert, with fertile oases at intervals, each more or less

thickly populated and containing atown. As we proceed westward

the Turkish element commences to predominate over the Tungusian

and the Chinese. Thus the fertile oasis of Khur has 2,000 Turkish

ae 5o Tungusian, and 10 Chinese. Aksu, 373 miles beyond

Karashahar, is the centre of a district with 180,000 people. From

Aksu to Kashgar, in which district there are 160,000 families, is 310

miles. The district of Yarkand is still more populous, and is credited

with 300,000 families. From the extreme length of the route from

Peking to Kashgaria, the great number of days required to reach the

most populated districts from the eastern: seaboard, the proximity of

those districts to Russian Turkestan, and the identity of race between

the subjects of the two countries on both sides of the border, it seems

evident that Mr. Bell is correct in his conclusion that unless China

promptly constructs a railway to connect this outlying province with

her main body, it must fall into the hands of Russia whenever it suits

the convenience and finances of the latter to take it, Not that the

Turks particularly dislike the Chinese rule, which is rather loose than

severe. Several routes lead from Yarkhand to Kashmir and Hindoo-

stan, but the Kilian route is, since the enclosure of the Mustagh, the

one universally used. Before reaching Kashmir this route goes over

the following passes: Kilian, 17,000 feet; Suget, 17,100 feet; Kara

1890.] Geography and Travel. 655

Kowm, 18,500 feet ; Sasir, 17,800 feet; Karawal Dawin, 14,100 feet,

Kharching, 17,700 feet above sea. A considerable number of Hin-

doos have penetrated into Chinese Turkestan and are engaged in

commerce.

Polar Regions.—The Geographical Society of Australasia has

offered £5000 towards defraying the expenses of an Antarctic Expe-

dition, and to this sum Oscar Dickson has added another £5000.

Baron Nordenskjold has lectured upon the desirability of such an ex-

pedition before the Swedish Academy, but he will not himself take the

command of it.

Dr. Fridtjof Nansen, who has justly achieved celebrity by his suc-

cess in crossing South Greenland, has recently expounded his views

respecting an expedition to the North Pole before the Geographical

Society of Norway, at Christiana. Dr. Nansen stated that he believed

De Long was quite correct in his idea of endeavoring to penetrate to

the pole by means of the warm current that flows up Behring Strait.

Three years after De Long’s expedition articles belonging to the

Jeannette were picked up on the west coast of Greenland. These

must have drifted across by Spitzbergen, down the coast of Greenland

and up the west. A piece of wood, identical in kind with that used

by the natives of Alaska to make their bows, had been found on the

coast of Greenland. The Esquimaux of Greenland fish up drift tim-

ber belonging to the Siberian larch, and to the red and white pines of

the west coast of North America. He believed that the warm current

flowed up Behring Strait, past the New Siberian Isles, across the pole,

between the pole and Franz Josef’s Land, and then between Spitzber-

gen and Greenland. The thing needed to reach the pole was to

have a vessel built extraordinarily strong, and with sloping sides, so

that she could not be crushed in the ice, but would be simply lifted

upward by it. In such a vessel he proposed to go through Behring’s

Strait, then to the New Siberian Islands, and then to plow onward

northward through the ice, going with the current, packed up safe, not

caring for being frozen up. With few men and good, and plenty of

provisions, such a course did not offer extraordinary risks. Even

should the vessel be crushed, many experiences have shown that a crew

can safely take to the ice. Dr. Nansen then dwelt on the scientific re-

sults, geographical, meteorological, etc., that would flow from the suc-

cessful accomplishment of such a journey.

Australasia and Polynesia.—According to a convention between

England and Germany, the latter power not only has possession of the

northern half of the eastern part of New Guinea, but has the right to

656 The American Naturalist. [July,

extend its rule over all unclaimed islands in the Eastern Pacific. This

gives Germany the Admiralty Isles, New Hanover, New Ireland, New

Britain, the Solomon Archipelago, the Gilbert or Kingsmill Islands,

the Ellice and the Phoenix groups, also the Samoan and ‚Tongan.

Complications, as is well known, have already arisen over the Samoan

Island, and, as the German fleet in Pacific waters is by no means

sufficient to enforce the proper treatment of white men by the natives

of all these scattered groups, trouble may be expected in other quar-

ters. No power but Germany has a right to interfere to enforce order

in any of these islands, except as circumstances may compel modifica-

tions.

The Carolines.—A recently published work upon the Caroline

Islands gives the results of the studies of J. S. Kubary in the Caroline

group, which he first visted in 1868, as agent for the Godeffroy Mus-

eum at Hamburg. The group lies between five and ten degrees of

north latitude, and stretches from 130 to 160 of east longitude. The

population is rapidly diminishing, largely on account of the hiring of

native labor by the whites. The current cash of these islands is for

the most part formed of shells, and the natives are very particular in

limiting each kind to its special purpose. Thus in Vap equal-sized

disks made out the shells of the Spondylus, and polished, form a money

not in use among the general public, but accumulated by the chiefs to

_ purchase canoes or weapons to resist or attack. The Spondylus is only

found in the east and north of the island of Yap, is used on this and

some other isles, and is traditionally the oldest form of money—it oc-

curs in old graves of the Ladrone chiefs. The next most valuable

money consists of disks of arragonite, obtained from the due

Islands. These are called pa/an, and are known as “ men's money.’

A third variety, formed of small threaded nacreous shells, is called

yar, and known as ** women's money.’

In the Pelew Islands beads, called andouth, and probably obtained

by trading, form the currency. Each variety of bead has a different

value, and payments are made in specifically prescribed forms. Thus

forty to fifty beads that are in the hands of one or two of the kings

have a value representing £10 to £12 each. If a debtor does not

possess the correct money in which to make payment, he has to borrow

the right kind. Herr Kubary believes that this system must have been

acquired from the Malayan States. There is a strong diversity between

the textile arts, the methods of tattooing, the stature, the appearance,

and the general physical characters of the natives of contiguous islands

in this group.

1890.] Geography and Travel. 657

New Guinea.—The proceedings of the Royal Geographical So-

ciety for April of this year contain Sir W. Macgregor’s account of his

expedition to the culminating point of the Owen Stanley range of New

Guinea. Ona trip to Doura, a district northwest of Port Moresby,

he was told of a river named Vanapa. On April 20 he found an open-

ing hidden in a bend of the inlet, and held his way up the river until

the 27th, when the rapids became very strong, and the party were

compelled to take the shore. Somewhere about this point was found

a most ingenious native bridge of V-shape, at a spot where the stream

was 70 yards in width. The structure was supported by a banyan-tree

atone end, and by a small tree and a post at the other. The bottom

was composed of four rattans, above which, at a height of about two

feet six inches were two rattans on each side, and two feet three inches

above these were three on one side and four on the other. The rat-

tans were kept in position by split canes worked in. The distance

between the upper rattans was about three and a half feet. Platform

approaches were made at both ends,

The advantages offered by the Venapa as a basis from which to as-

cend the Owen Stanley range were evident, and Sir W. Macgregor re-

solved to avail himself of them. Considerable trouble was, however,

experienced with the native porters, who objected to ascend the

heights, These difficulties were at last surmounted, and the Governor,

with one or two companions, eventually succeeded in following the

main ridge to its culminating eastern extremity, now known as Mount

Victoria. The difficulty of obtaining provisions was great, and the

woods swarmed with the scrub-itch insect and with ticks, while in

ground ‘soaked with rain and warmed in the sun great numbers of

leeches were encountered, of two kinds, one thin and wire-like, three-

quarters of an inch in length, the other as thick as a goose-quill, and

about two inches long. The mountains were found to be of slate, in-

tersected with quartz veins. The summit called Mount Knutsford,

11,100 feet high, was reached on June 6th, and this point proved to

be the best from which to follow with the eye the course of the Vanapa,

which drains the entire south side of the Owen Stanley range from

Mount Victoria to Mount Lilley. After a descent, the next summit,

Winter Height, was ascended (11,882), then Dickson Pass (10,844)

was crossed, and the highest peak (13,127-13,205 feet) was climbed.

Alpine plants were not met with until within about 570 feet of the

summit.

658 The American Naturalist. [July,

Africa.—Dr. Meyer’s Ascent of Kilima-njaro.—Dr. Meyer

has recently made a second and entirely successful attempt to climb

the great ice-dome of Kibo, the main summit of Kilima-njaro. The

principal reasons for the failure of the former attempt were the diffi-

culties of procuring provisions sufficient for the continued stay needed,

and the want of ice-axes and rope to aid in surmounting the steep wall

of ice met with near the summit. To remedy the former, Dr. Meyer

made friends with the young chief Mareale, of Marangu, with whom .

he established a camp of substantial huts for the shelter of his caravan ;

a second camp was formed at a height of 9,515 feet, where eight por-

ters were left. A tent was pitched upon the saddle connecting the

peaks of Mawenzi with Kibo, at a height of 14,270 feet. Each day

three or four men brought provisions from Marangu to the middle

camp, and two men climbed to the upper camp, so as to keep the

travelers supplied. In order to conquer the ice-slope, Dr. Meyer had

secured the services of Herr Purtsheller, an experienced Alpine moun-

taineer, provided with ice-axes and other essentials. These two spent

in all sixteen days among the higher peaks, while a faithful negro

stayed all the while at the upper tent. On the first occasion they left

the upper camp at 2.40 A.M., and by breakfast time had left the peaks

of Mawenzi below them. There was less snow (October) than had

been found on the previous ascent (July, 1887). At 15,980 feet a.

lava dyke, with evidences of glacial action, was encountered, and the

first patches of snow were found at 16,400 feet. At 17,650 feet the

travelers reached the ice-slope, with an angle of 35°, conquered it in

two hours, and in another hour and a quarter reached the summit-

ridge, and found themselves upon the edge of an immense circular

crater. The point where they stood was not the highest portion of

the jagged rim, and it was not until three days later, after a return to

their tent, that the travelers, using their former steps and sheltering

themselves for a night in a cave, the temperature of the interior of

which was 12° C., succeeded in reaching what Dr. Meyer pen

states is ** probably the highest point of the German possession

This point is estimated (by aneroid only) at 6,000 metres, or 19,684

feet. The diameter of the crater is at least 2,200 yards, and the depth

of the floor 65o feet. Upon the north and east the ice descends in

terraces to the bottom, but on the west and south steep lava cliffs break

out of the ice-cap. In the centre a cone of brown ashes, with the top

bare, rises to a height of 500 feet. The girdle of ice and snow

wreathed around this cone sweeps out overa gap in the western wall

of the crater-rim in the form of a glacier about a mile and a half long

1890.] Geography and Travel. 659

(including the part within the crater), which terminates at the height

of 17,900 feet. A great portion of the crater is filled with neve,

assuming the form called in the Andes nieve penitente, from the fancied

resemblance of the hardened masses left standing above the general

level to the figures of kneeling penitents. The highest trace of

humanity found upon the mountain was a hunter’s bivouac at 15,400

feet.

Dr. Meyer made three attempts at the Mawenzi peaks, reaching a

height of 16,260 feet, though he did not attain the highest pinnacle.

The broken and fantastic peaks of this group surpass description in

their rugged magnificence, and are evidently the skeletal remains of a

volcanic crater far older than that of Kibo. On the eastern flank one

looks from a precipice of 6,500 feet to the country below. Our

traveler believes that the former crest of Mawenzi stood southeast of

the present highest point, and that its original height approximated

that of Kibo. Numerous flowers and grasses ascend the sheltered

slopes of Mawenzi to a height of 15,750 feet, and elk and antelope

from the northern side come over the saddle to browse upon them.

The slopes on the southern and eastern side from 6,500 to 9,750 feet

are covered with primeval forest, which is continued as a narrow

interrupted belt on the north side of Mawenzi, but vanishes altogether

on that of Kibo. Below the forest, upon the southern slope of the

entire mountain, extends the fertile and well-watered plain of Ohagga ;

while to the north are waterless, ^ aid sloping plains, with grass

and wild brush, inhabited by the Masa

The mountain land of Uguene, to “which Dr. Meyer took a ten

days’ trip after his ascent, is a gneiss range to the west of Lake Jipe.

The inhabitants are known as Waguene. South of Uguene lies

Usangi.

Before leaving the neighborhood, Dr. Meyer made an excursion to

Madjame, previously visited by Van der Decken. On his way he

traversed the districts of Uru, Kindi, Kombe, and Maruma, and

crossed two large rivers, one of them the Weri-Weri, which takes its

origin from the foot of the glacier that escapes from the crater of

Kibo. The Ngorube draws off all the water from the melting ice of

the south side of the mountain, and flows to Pangani. Dr. Meyer

falls into raptures about the magnificent aspect of the mountain from

Madjame, with the typical volcanic curve exhibited by its 6,000 feet

of ice-cap, and with the grand ravine of the Weri-Weri leading upward

to the glacier.

660 The American Naturalist. [July,

A map or plan and a bird’s-eye view of the crater of Kibo accom-

pany Dr. Meyer’s account of his ascent in Petermann’s Mitteilungen,

1890, Pt. I. The cone of ashes occupies a northern position in the -

depression, while the glacier and beds of névé fill in the southern part.

The rim to the northward is swathed in ice, but the highest ice-covered

peak is inferior in elevation to ** Kaiser Wilhelm Spitze,’’ on the south

side, where the peaks are free from ice.

Lake Leopold.—The April issue of the Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc.

contains an account of H. H. Johnston's journey to Lake Leopold,

Rukwa, or Rukuga, north of Lake Nyassa. This lake is but the shrunken

vestige of a much greater body of water, yet it extends much farther

to the southeast, and is longer than was supposed. On its southern

and western sides a level plain extends to a width of from twenty-five

to thirty miles, but on the east side the mountains rise direct from the

shore. The basin is girdled with mountains, and on the southeast

there is a remarkable bay or inlet of the lake penetrating into them.

The only affluent of the lake from the south is the Sengive, which

rises near the more important Songeve, a tributary of Nyassa. On the

west shore, about the middle of its length, enters the Saisi, a large

river with many affluents. The lake, which swarms with hippopotami,

crocodiles, and fish, is at a level of 2,900 feet above the sea. Not-

withstanding the unlovely character of its shores, they are frequented

by elephants, buffalo, zebra, many species of antelopes, guinea-fowl,

francolins, ring-doves, etc. Nothing can be grown, and the natives

live entirely by rapine or by the chase. Mr. Johnston was the first

white to visit the region, and he came among them suddenly with 150

followers without asking permission.

In 1889 Dr. Abbott and T. Stevens found a stream coming from the

east side of Kilima-njaro, and running into the Tsave river. They

followed it upwards into a cafion, and farther still until its course was

covered over by a lava-stream. They discovered a nest of small

extinct craters, and among them one that held a lovely lake, bordered

with palms, and containing abundance of fish, at ı00 feet below its

rim. Probably this is a pool in the course of the subterranean river,

which is marked higher up by astreak of black lava. The lake is

3,000 feet above sea level. These travelers speak a good word for the

much abused Masai, call them jolly good fellows, and deny some of

the strange customs usually attributed to them.

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 661

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Origin of Petroleum and Gas. — The following state-

ments bring before us the principal views as to the origin of petroleum,

viz:

1. Petroleum is produced by the primary decomposition of organic

matter, and mainly in the rocks that contained the organic matter. Of

this view, Hunt is one of the chief advocates.

2. Petroleum results from the distillation of organic hydrocarbons

contained in the rocks, and has generally been transferred to strata

higher than those in which it was formed. Newberry and Peck

have been quoted at length in support of this general theory. New-

berry holds that a slow and constant distillation is in progress at low

temperatures. Peckham refers the distillation of the petroleum of the

great American fields to the heat connected with the elevation and

metamorphism of the Appalachian mountain system.

These views as to the date of the origin of petroleum and gas are

seen to cover almost all the possibilities in regard to the subject. Hunt

believes petroleum to have been reduced at the time that the rocks that

contain it were formed, once for all. Newberry believes it to have been

in process of formation, slowly and constantly, since the strata were

deposited. Peckham refers it toa definite and distant time in the

past, but long subsequent to the formation of the petroliferous strata,

e supposes it to have been stored in its subterranean reservoirs from

that time to the present.

In these several statements as to origin, two questions are seen to be

especially prominent, viz: What particular kinds or classes of rocks

‘are the sources of petroleum? and, What is the value of the chemical

processes involved in its production ?

In answering the first question, we find the views of Hunt and New-

berry distinctly opposed to each other. Hunt counts limestones the

principal source of petroleum, and denies that it has been produced by

distillation from bituminous shales; while Newberry finds in these

shales the main source of both oil and gas, and vigorously opposes the

view that limestones are ever an important source of either.!

It is not necessary to follow the discussion in relation to these points

further. It is enough to say thatin the light of present knowledge

each statement is sustained as to its particular affirmations and incon-

clusive as to its general denials. Petroleum is undoubtedly indigen-

1 Rept. Geol. Survey Ohio, Vol. I., p. 159.

662 The American Naturalist. [July,

ous to and derived from certain limestones, as Hunt has so strongly

asserted. On the other hand, Newberry’s doctrine that the great sup-

plies of the Pennsylvania field are derived from Devonian shales is be-

coming more firmly established and widely accepted every year,

though it seems likely that he has laid too much stress on bituminous

shales. In other words, the theories are not incompatible with each other.

Different fields have different sources. We can accept without incon-

sistency the adventitious origin of the oil in Pennsylvania sandstones,

and its indigenous origin in the shales of California or in the lime-

stones of Canada, Kentucky, or Ohio.

The double origin of petroleum from both limestones and shales—

and it is not necessary to exclude sandstones from the list of possible

sources—deserves to be universally accepted. In confirmation of this

double origin, it is coming to be recognized that the gas and oil de-

rived from them two sources—limestones and shales—generally differ

from each other in noticeable respects. The oil and gas derived from

limestones contain larger proportions of sulphur and nitrogen than

are found in the oil and gas of the shales. Nitrogen renders the oils

unstable, and sulphur compounds impart to them a rank and persistent

odor from which they can be freed only with great difficulty. In the

case of the oil-bearing shales of California, the petroleum is evidently

derived from the animal remains with which the formation was orig-

inally filled. In composition this oil agrees with the limestone oils

already described. It contains more than four times as much nitrogen

as the Mecca oil of northeastern Ohio, and its percentage of sulphur

is very high. Peckham says of the Pennsylvania oils :?

** The exceedingly unstable character of these petroleums, consid-

ered in connection with the amount of nitrogen that they contain and

the vast accummulations of animal remains in the strata from which

they issue, together with the fact that the fresh oils soon become filled

with the larvae of insects to such an extent that pools of petroleum be-

come pools of maggots, all lend support to the theory that the oils are

of animal origin.”

He speaks again of this class of petroleums as formed of animal

matter that has not been subjected to destructive distillation.?

It now appears as if oil and gas derived from animal remains can be

distinguished from those of the bituminous shales by the characters

above described. Certain it is that the *«limestone oils’’ differ in

physical characteristics from the Pennsylvania oils, for example, in a

? Op. Cit., p. 69.

3 Ibid., p. 71.

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 663

marked degree. They are dark in color; they are heavy oils, their

gravity generally ranging from 34° to 36° Beaumé, though sometimes

falling to 40° or even 42°; they have a rank odor, arising from the

sulphurous compounds which they contain. The oils of Canada, Ken-

tucky, Tennessee, and of the fields in northwestern Ohio all agree in

these respects, and the oil and gas of the Utica shale and Hudson

River group of the state fall into the same category.

In the preceding statements the organic matter of the bituminous

shales has not been positively referred to a vegetable source. Such a

source is highly probable, but it cannot be said to be fully demonstrated

until the origin of the so-called Sporangites of the shales is finally de-

termined. There are a few geologists who are inclined to refer these

forms to hydroid zoophytes (animal) rather than, with Dawson, to

marine rhizocarps (vegetable). Whatever their origin, they give rise to

petroleum and oil of a definite character, which is in marked contrast

to that of the limestone oils.

Which of these theories as to the mode and time of origin of petro-

leum has the most to commend it? š

In conclusion, a few of the previously stated propositions in regard

to the origin of petroleum that seem best supported will be concisely

summarized: `

1. Petroleum is derived from organic matter.

2. It is much more largely derived from vegetable than from animal

substances.

3. Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from the organic

matter of bituminous shales, and is of vegetable origin.

4. Petroleum of the Canada and Lima type is derived from lime-

stones, and is of animal origin.

5. Petroleum has been produced at normal rock temperatures (in

Ohio fields), and is not a product of destructive distillation of bitum-

inous shales, -

6. The stock of petroleum in the rocks is already practically com-

plete.—Zdward Orton in Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Survey, 1886-87.

(Published 1890).

_ Production of Salt in the United States.—In 1887 the pro.

duction of salt in the United States was 7,831,962 barrels of 280

pounds each. Of this, the value was estimated at $4,093,846. Mich-

igan produced 3,944,309 barrels; New York, 2, 353,560 barrels ; Ohio

and West Virginia, about 600,000 ; Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia,

about 200,000 ; or about 7,000,000 barrels in all produced from the

evaporation of brines. In addition, Louisiana produced 225,000 bar-

Am. Nat.—July.—5.

664 The American Naturalist. [July,

rels from the quarries of rock salt at New Iberia; Utah, 325,000 bar-

rels, mostly from the waters of Salt Lake, but a small portion from the

quarries of rock salt in Jaub and Sevier counties. California produced

in former years over 200,000 barrels, chiefly from the evaporation of

sea-water in San Francisco Bay, but in 1887 the production was only

28,000 barrels, in consequence of a combination of the operators to .

reduce the output and enhance the price

In Kansas a discovery of rock salt has recently been made, which

promises to be an important addition to the resources of the State.

The salt beds lie near the base of the Trias, and occupy a large area

in the southern portion of the State, extending into Texas. In seven

localities cited by Mr. Robert Hay, in the biennial report of the Kan-

sas State Board of Agriculture, the rock salt lies at depths varying from

450 to 925 feet, and the thickness is from 75 to 250 feet. The pro-

duction in 1888 was about 2,000 barrels.

In New York the production of salt is about equally divided between

the reservation at and about Syracuse and the Warsaw district in

Western New York, the latter having increased with great rapidity.

The salt from the Onondaga Reservation is obtained from the evap-

oration of the brine of about 40 wells; these wells have an aver-

age depth of 330 feet, and the strength of the brine is about 70 per

cent, of the salometer.

In the Warsaw district there are about 50 wells in operation, from

800 to 2,500 feet indepth. According to the report of Dr. F. E

Englehart the entire production in 1887 was 6,072,000 bushels.

The well at Piffard, belonging to the New York Salt Company, is

producing rock salt, and is the pioneer enterprise of this kind in the

State. The first bed of salt was reached at a depth of 938 feet. This

bed is two feet in thickness, and is separated from the second bed, 12

feet in thickness, by 4 feet of shale. The third salt bed was 6 feet

thick and 28 feet below the second ; and the fourth bed, 9 feet below

the third, was 58 feet in thickness.—/7. S. Newberry, in Transactions

of the N. Y. Academy of Sciences, Nov., 1889.

. Geological News.—General.—O. Feistmantel, in his account

of the geology of South Africa, parallels the Karroo formation with

the Gondwana of Hindustan. The upper beds of this formation he

considers equivalent to the Mesozoic coal-measures of Eastern Aus-

tralia, the middle Karroo to the Hawksbury beds, and the lower

Karroo to the upper coal-beds and upper marine beds, which last are

probably representative of the Permian and Carboniferous of general

geology, so that the upper and middle Karroo may represent respec-

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 665

tively the Lias and the Trias. The cape formation is paralleled with

the Vindhya of Hindustan, which probably represents the lower Car-

boniferous and Devonian. The South African primary includes meta-

morphic and archaic.

The Imperial Geological Survey of Japan has publised a reconnais-

sance map, scale 1—400,000; sectional maps, scale I-200,000 ; and

agronomic maps of twice the latter scale. The reconnaissance sheets

comprise North Japan between 138° E. and 38° N., and N.

Japan from 38° to 40° N., while the sectional maps include the prov-

inces of Shikoaka, Fuji, Kofu, Veda, Nagano, Izu, Yokohama, Tokio,

Mayebashi, Nikko, Kakusa, Chiba and Mito. T. Harada, writing of

the geotectonic ** membering’’ of Japan, states that the outer oceanic

curve of the islands, though poor in volcanoes, is rich in seismic

activity, while the inner side is rich in recent eruptive masses, active

volcanoes and thermal springs. The Japanese Sea is a great ** Kessel-

bruch ’’ (chaldron-fissure), and the archipelago is its eastern border.

Palzozoic—The Geological Magazine for March, April, and May ot

this year contains notes on the palzontology of Western Australia.

A. H. Foord describes the gastropods, brachiopods, etc., including the

new species of Spirifera, while G. J. Hinde gives the corals and polyzoa,

with anew genus of the former.

In a recent number of the Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc. T. Rupert Jones

describes many new species of palzozoic Ostracoda from North Amer-

ica, Wales, and Ireland.

G. J. Hinde describes (Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc., Feb. 1, 1890) a new

genus of siliceous sponges from the lower calcareous grit of York-

shire, and names it Rhaxella, Small globules of silica take the place

of elongated spicules in this sponge.

Mesozoic.—In the Wealden near Hastings Mr. R. Lydekker iden-

tifies five distinct species of Iguanodon, viz: Z. bernissartensis Dollo,

I. mantelli, I. dawsoni Lyd., 7. fittoni Lyd., and 7. hollingtoniensis

yd. Healso maintainsthe existence in the English Wealden of two

species of Megalosaurus, one of which is M. dunkeri, while the other

is yet undescribed.

Comoliosaurus a) een j been proved to range

upwards to the middle Pur

G. Cotteau has a the study of the cretaceous echini of

Mexico on six species collected by S. R. Castillo, the director of the

666 The American Naturalist. [July,

mines. Three of these forms, Psewdocidaris saussurei Loriol, Holectypus

castillo Cotteau, and Heteraster mexicanus, are peculiar to Mexico, but

the three others have previously been found outside of that country.

Diplopodia malbosi is common enough in France in the aptian, as is

also Salemia prestnesis Desor. Laniera lumen, from the higher cre-

taceous beds, is sufficiently common in Cuba.

According to M. A. de Grossenore, the callovian beds east and west

of the primitive mass of La Vendee have some fossils, unlike those of

the Paris basin, but like those of the callovian of the Alps and Car-

pathians. Terebratula antiplecta occurs here, and is also found in the

Tyrol and in Galicia. There also occur Terebratule of the groups

nucleata and bivallata, and Rhynchonella acutiloba. The callovian of

Cape Mondago (Portugal) is analogous.

Tertiary.—The discovery of a new mandible of Dryopithecus has

recently led M. A, Gaudry to compare it with the lower jaw of man

and of the existing apes, with the result that it proves to be inferior in

type, not only to the former, but to most of the latter. The length-

ened jaw and the contracted space left for the tongue are the two

points chiefly dwelt upon. In these respects the gorilla is below the

orang, which again is inferior to the chimpanzee. M. A. Milne-Ed-

wards stated that the Dryopithecus was nearer to the gorilla than to

any other existing ape, and that the prognathism of the jaw was so

_ excessive that one might suppose the animal to have been quadrupedal.

A giantexample of a fossil tortoise, with a carapace five feet and

a half in length and rather more than three feet nine inches wide, has

been discovered by M. Deperet in the red clays of the upper Miocene

of Mont Leberon. Portions of this species had been previously found

by M. A. Gaudry, but the present specimen was in astonishingly com-

plete preservation, the body standing nearly in a natural position in

the side of a ravine. The carapace was somewhat crushed with the

superincumbent weight. This tortoise is larger than any other known

living or fossil form except 7: aflas of the Himalayas. It is, however,

so very near in all important characters to Testudo perpiniana, which

occurs in the environs of Paris, and has been found with a length of

four feet, that it may probably be best regarded as a variety of that

species. Though 7. ferfiniana is of Pliocene age, and the new fos-

sil was found in the uppermost beds of the Miocene, the resemblance

is great.

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 667

Ina recent issue of the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society

of London, Mr. R. Lydekker treats of the presence of the Striped

Hyena in the Pliocene beds of the Val d'Arno, describing the re-

mains in answer to the assertion that they belonged to Æ. crocuta. It

is curious that these two species do not now exist in the same localities,

though in ancient times they seem to have done so ; also that they have

to a considerable extent interchanged their localities,

Recent.—Capt. A. W. Stiffe recently read a paper before the Geo-

logical Society of London concerning the glaciation of the Sind and

Jhelam valleys in the Himalayan mountains of Kashmir. He stated

his belief in the gigantic character of the ancient glaciation and gave

a general description of the features of the Sind valley and of the ex-

isting glaciers near Sonawarg. At this point there are snow fields at a

lower level than the foot of the glacier, which is rather unusual. Very

perfect typical older terminal moraines exist at Sonawarg, some of

them four miles below the present termination of the glaciers, and at

an elevation of 10,000 feet. These once blocked up the Sind River,

and the sections cut by the rivers through these moraines are remark-

able. The glaciated appearance of the gorge below Sonawarg is very

striking, and the entire Sind valley presents a continual succession of

moraines. The hillsides of the valley exhibit a comparatively rounded

outline to a height of 2000 feet or more, while above this they are

rugged. >

The existing lakes of the Kashmir district were referred by the

writer to glacial action—they were the remains of a former much more

extensive alluvial lake which had been largely silted up; he then

treated of the supposed glacial deposits of the Jhelam valley, and

stated that the whole valley from Baramilla to Mozufferabad contained

extensive glacial or moraine deposits. In conclusion attention was

drawn to the great deposits of travelled granite blocks at Rampoor,

blocks which from their size, and from their difference from the neigh-

boring rocks, must certainly have been carried thither by the action of

glaciers.

668 The American Naturalist. [July,

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

Petrographical News.—A contribution to the knowledge of

the geology of South America has recently been made by Bergt?

through the study of thin sections of rocks collected in the Sierra

Nevada and the Sierra de Peryá in the United States of Columbia.

Bergt has confined himself to a description of a large number of rocks

that were collected by others, and therefore he has not been able to

do more than indicate the interesting results which follow from a close

study of their thin sections. Among the facts of general interest dis-

covered may be mentioned the formation of secondary epidote from

augite and olivine in melaphyre, and the production of an epidosite

theréfrom ; the occurrence of lamellz in uralite of syenite, that have

became curved through the pressure exerted upon them by a feldspar

crystal during its growth; the existence of a rim of brown hornblende

around a grain of uralite, and the occurrence of secondary brown mica

as a product of the alteration of augite. The writer also discusses the

nature of uralite, and suggests that the name uralitite be used asa

comprehensive one for those rocks containing secondary hornblende,

whose original nature cannot be determined.—Goller3 describes

in a very careful article a number of lamprophyre dykes cutting

gneiss and crystalline schists in the Vorspessart in Germany. The

erystalline schists consist of dioriticand “ augen ’’ gneisses, produced by

pressure from eruptive rocks, and other gneisses, the history of whose

origin is unknown. They are cut by dykes of camptonite and ker-

santite, whose characteristics are minutely described by the author.

Both contain large quartz and orthöclase grains that are supposed to

be the remnants of dissolved inclusions, and smaller quartzes that have

crystallized from the magma. Two varieties of augite were observed ;

one alters into talc and tremolite through green hornblende, and the

other into serpentine through the same intermediate product. The

original quartz is supposed to owe its origin to the physical conditions

prevailing during the solidification of the rock mass—principally pres-

sure and the presence of water.— — Still other instances of the occur-

rence of young rocks with the characteristics of old ones'are de-

scribed by Reiser* from four localities in the northern Alps. They are

typical diabases and diabase porphyrites of Eocene age. They con-

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

? Min. u. Petrog Mitth., 1889, X., p. 271.

? Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VI., p. 485.

4 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., X., 1889 p. 50o.

1890.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 669

sist of plagioclase, augite, apatite and secondary substances, and occur

with the typical structure of granular and aphanitic diabases. They

are characterized by the zeolitization of the plagioclase. Among the

zeolites formed are natrolite and analcite, of which the latter has been

separated and identified by chemical means. —— Thin veins of diabase

with tachylite borders have produced fusion along the edges of the

slates through which they cut. According to Rutley? the glassy rim

produced by the fusion is darker in color than the tachylite selvages of

the dyke rock. N. H. and H. V. Winchell ® propose a new theory

for the origin of the iron ores of Minnesota, in opposition to the iron `

carbonate theory? of Irving. The new theory follows the same lines

as does Hunt's crenitic hypothesis. It is based entirely on theoretical

suppositions, which, so far as is known, can have little foundation in

facts.

Mineralogical News.—Aare Minerals.—In an article on the

minerals of Fiskernäs, in Greenland, Ussing® has given the crystallo-

graphic and optical properties of several rare minerals. Sapphirine

has for its axial ratio a: 6: ¢==.65: 1: .93. f5—79? 30°. The axis

of least elasticity is inclined 8° 30’ to the vertical axis, and 2Vna =

68° The indices of refraction are a — 1.7055, /$—1.7088, y =

1.7112. The mineral is negative, and is pleochroic with A colorless,

and B and C= blue, or 4 = light greenish blue, 3 — dark bluish

green, and C — yellowish sap green. An analysis of the mineral

yielded :

Emo. “ALO, FeO, FeO MgO Los

12.83 65.29 -93 .65 10.75. .3%

Kornerupine is orthorhombic with a: ? — .854: 1. It has a specific

gravity of 3.273, is colorless in ‚thin section, and has ec P& as the

plane of its optical axes, with c the acute bisectrix, which is negative.

The optical properties of gedrite and pargasite are also investigated. In

a few general remarks on the properties of the former mineral the

author states that it is more probable that the optical angle of the

orthorhombic hornblendes increases with the increase in the percentage

of silica rather than with the increase of iron. Atelesite, analyzed

by Busz,? yielded :

As,O; Bi,O, Feo, H,O

14.12 82.41 .51 1.92

5 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1889, p. 626.

8 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1889, XV., p. 596.

9 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1889, XV., p. 625.

670 The American Naturalist. [July,

The axial ratio, recalculated from von Rath's measurement, is a : 2: c=

en i Fea ia 3 A=69° 35°. New measurements by Busz gave

Pr 396 * PET EN ar Kobellite, from the

oo abes 1 Mine, en, Colorado, has been analyzed by Kellar. Its

composition is:

"S B -S0 Ph Ag Cu Fe Zn Gange

18.39 28.40 7.55 36.16 3.31 2.59 1.50 .39 45,

which may be represented by z(Pb.Ag,Cu,) S.(BiSb),S, It differs

‘in composition from the mineral called kobellite by Rammelsberg

(Pb,BiSb,), but is like that to which the name was first given by Sel-

terberg. The same author suggests the name ///anite for a substance

of the composition 3(PbAg,) Bi,S, described by himself!! several

years ago. JVivemife is a rare mineral associated with fergusonite

and gummite at the gadolinite locality in Llano County, Texas. It

is described by Genth as velvety black, with a brownish streak. It

is easily soluble in nitric acid, and possesses the composition :

HU .UO IhO, Y,O, etc FeO, PbO Ign Ins SpGr

46.75 19.89 7.57 11.22 .58 16.105 253 142 201

It is allied to bróggerite (3RO.UO,) and cleveite (6RO.2UO,.3H,0)

in containing a large proportion of uranium. Its hardness is 5.5,

and its composition is represented by (gRO.4UO,.3H,O). Two

varieties of fergusonife have been found in the same locality. The

first corresponds to Cb,O,.R,0,.H,O, and the second to Cb,O,. R,O,.

3H,O. The two are tlocely associated. The first is ptobebly tetra-

gonal, with a bronzy lustre on a fresh fracture. It is infusible,

decrepitates when heated, and changes to an olive green color. The

second variety is deep brown in color. Its streak is greenish gray.

Upon ignition it turns light brown but does not decrepitate.

Hydrocerussite (2PbO, + Pb(OH,) corresponding to azurite

among the copper salts, has been produced by Bourgeois, ? by acting

upon lead acetate with ammonium carbonate. The little crystals thus

formed have all the properties of the natural substance. By means of

them the composition of the mineral has been determined. The white

lead of commerce is found by the author to be a mixture of two sub-

stances with the composition respectively of cerussite and hydrocerus-

site. Percylite and caracolite are briefly mentioned by Fletcher ™

10 Zeits. f. Kryst., 1889, XVII., p. 67.

V Jour, Amer. Chem. Soc., Vol. VIL, No. 7.

~ Amer. ji P. 474-

Min. Magazine, 1889, P. $»n.

1890.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 671

as among the many lead salts produced by the decomposition of

bournonite and galena at the Mina Beatriz, Sierra Gorda, Chili.

Miscellaneous. —Pseudomorphs of talc after quartz, magnesite and

calamine are found not uncommonly ina talc layer at Göpfersgrün, near

Wunsiedel in the Fichtelgebirge, near a contact of granite and lime-

stone, that has suffered dolomitization as the result of the action of

magnesian solutions emanating from the eruptive rock. The genesis

and growth of the talc pseudomorph after quartz are carefully described

by Weinschenck as taking place in the following manner. The

quartz crystals are first traversed by numerous capillary cracks, run-

ning parallel to the prismatic faces and rarely parallel to the rhombo-

hedral planes. Along the sides of these, little plates of talc are devel-

oped. From certain points within the crystal other fissures then begin

to form, and along the sides of these more talc is formed, until finally

there remain only a few isolated areas in which the original mineral

can be detected. The production of the new mineral along the

cracks leads to the supposition that the change is due entirely to the

medium of circulating water, a view that is substantiated by experi-

mental researches. An important contribution to the discussion of

optical anomalies has been made by Erb in a study of sodium acetates

of copper, magnesium, nickel, and other metals. When allowed to

crystallize slowly these salts form at first uniaxial crystals belonging to

the hexagonal system. As they increase in size the crystals become

twinned according to certain orthorhombic laws. In thin section

they show twinning lamelle, which disappear when the temperature is

raised to 65?. The etched figures produced in both the simple and

twinned crystals are of the same shape. They lie in the same relative

positions, and are not symmetrically developed about the twinning

planes of the lamellz, but they have the symmetry belonging to the

hexagonal system. The twinned crystals are pyroelectric, but upon

assuming the isotropic condition they lose this property entirely. To

account for these anomalies the author thinks that a strain has been

superinduced in them during their growth. If they are mimetitic forms

it is odd that the crystals should possess a certain grade of symmetry when

small, and assume it again when heated.——Upon treating freshly

precipitated ferric hydroxide at 250? with water, to which a trace of

ammonium fluoride has been added, Bruhns V obtained little plates of

hematite with hexagonal cross sections. Freshly precipitated alumina

35 Zeits. f. Kryst., XIV., p. 305.

16 Neues Jahrb. f. Min. etc., B. B. VL, p. 121.

V Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1889, I1., p. 62.

672 The American Naturalist. Lid

when treated in the same way at 300°, yielded little crystals of corun-

dum with pyramidal terminations. Quartz crystals with rhombohedral

terminations were produced by heating pulverized glass or amorphous

silica to 300° under the same conditions. Microcline gave Zrzdymife

plates. A mixture of metallic iron, iron oxide and amorphous silica

produced litte black amorphous plates of z/menite and crystals of

magnetite. The syntheses are of importance as indicating the possi-

bility of the formation of contact minerals at a low temperature in

the presence of traces of fluorine. Johnston P has subjected mus-

covite and biotite to the action of pure water and to that of dilute

carbonic acid for the length of one year. The muscovite undergoes

no change in this time except slight hydration, in consequence of

which it becomes a hydro-muscovite resembling margarodite in com-

position. Biotite during this time becomes bleached under the in-

fluence of the carbonic acid. It loses some of its magnesium and

iron, assumes water, and passes like the muscovite into a hydromusco-

vite. Anhydrous micas when they undergo hydration increase in bulk,

a fact that may help to explain the cause of the rapid weathening of

micaceous sandstones. Bruhns # has succeeded in obtaining genuine

&lass inclusions in quartz by heating in a bath of molten granite speci-

mens of phrase and pieces of quartz containing inclusions of fibrolite.

The resulting glass is entirely surrounded by quartz, and is not merely

a portion of the granitic substance filling cracks produced in the

mineral by heating. The inclusions are arranged in straight and

curved lines, and have all the properties of inclusions found in porphy-

ritic quartzes. A brief comparison of the shapes of the etched figures

in diopside and spodumene is made by Greim?. The depressions

found on the co P faces of the first mineral are nearly triangular, with

their apices inclined toward the positive hemi-pyramid. Mr. Lane

describes a method of determining the values of the optical angles of

minerals in thin sections of rocks without the use of converged light.

18 Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., May, 1889, p. 363.

19 Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1889, L., p. 268:

20 Miner. Magazine, May, 1889, p. 252.

21 Amer. Jour. Sci., Jan., 1890, p. 53.

1890.] Botany. 673

BOTANY.

Some Elementary Botanies.—That there is a dissatisfaction

with the commoner methods of teaching botany as set forth in the text

books, is indicated by the numerous attempts of various teachers to

give us better books. In no other science is there to-day such diver-

sity of opinion as to the best method of introducing the pupil to the

subject to be studied. As a result we havea multiplication of elemen-

tary books, each designed to lead the pupil into his work bya different

route. For twenty years the little books by Miss Youmans have stood as

a sort of protest against mere ** book botany.” ‘Though faulty in many

particulars, they were valuable in showing that there are other ways of

teaching botany than the stereotyped ones. A recent book, *'* De-

scriptive Botany,” by the same author, has much in it to commend.

At the very beginning the pupil is told to supply himself with his own

material for examination. He is told to ‘‘gather a variety of leaves;

and to begin their study by comparing them," etc., etc. Further on

we find this: *« Pull up any herb which has a distinct stem, and com-

pare the stem with the root,’’ and so on repeatedly. This is excellent,

and the pupil cannot fail to be greatly benefited by such a course.

There is too marked an emphasis given to technical terms, which are

needlessly printed in italics, and too frequently there is a dictionary-

like brevity, as when we read that ‘‘ The leaf of a fern is called a

frond,” and ** The stalk or petiole of a frond is called a sz;e." Why

this is so is not hinted. The ‘‘ Popular Flora ”’ is just what it pretends

to be—popular—and will be useful to the beginner who has prepared

himself aright to take it up. It contains brief but plain descriptions

of the more common flowering plants including cultivated as well as

wild species. It is pleasant to note that the Gymnosperms are as-

signed to their proper place between Angiosperms and the Pterido-

phytes. It is not so pleasant, however, to note that the explanation of

the structure of the flowers of the Conifers (the sole representatives of

the Gymnosperms) is wholly erroneous. — There has been an attempt to

carry the old and discarded ideas as to floral structure over into the

new classification. The Conifers as described in this book should go

back into their old position, sandwiched between the Monocotyledons

and Dicotyledons !

In many points the ** High School Botany," prepared by H. B.

Spotton for the use of Canadian students, has a considerable resem-

674 The Amerwan Naturalıst. [July,.

blance to Miss Youmans’s work noticed above. There is the same

admiration and following of Henslow’s ‘‘schedules’’ for analysis, the

same examination of representative plants, while in each there are sev-

eral chapters given to generalizations. Most of the work of preparing

this volume appears to be well done, but there are evidences here and

there of haste. Thus while the true nature of the lichens is recognized

on page 202, alittle further on (p. 206) we have the old statement that

* the lichens, from their peculiar constitution, may be regarded as tran-

sitional between the Algz and the Fungi." Here we have alittle new

wine (p. 202) in a very old bottle (p. 206). The ‘ Flora for the Use

of Beginners” in this book is much like Miss Youmans's “ Popular

Flora." It is really a very useful little manual.

A recent English book, Edmonds’s “ Elementary Botany,” has been

placed before the American public by Longmans of New York. Itis

a much more scientific book than either of the’ preceding, although

like them it teaches botany by observation. The principal difference

is that the observation in this book is more profound, and is directed

to essential rather than to superficial characters, The student is brought

to study the plant as a living thing, rather than an object to be classi-

fied and labeled. We find that while 153 pages are given to structure

and physiology, but 35 are devoted to classification. A few orders are

selected, and in eacha typical plant is suggested for study, while a few

others are cited ascommon examples. The book is a very good one.

Dr. Campbell's ** Structural and Systematic Botany," which has re-

cently been brought out by Ginn & Co., is an attempt to supply a small

and handy introduction to all parts of the vegetable kingdom. It is

based upon, and to a certain extent is an abridgement of, Goebel’s

** Outlines of Classification and Special Morphology of Plants,’’ a work

of great usefulness to the student in spite of its considerable cost.

This introduction will be welcome to many a teacher and student who

cannot afford the larger work.

After a few introductory pages devoted to methods of work, and a

brief examination of the cell, the Protophytes are taken up, nine pages

being devoted to them. Then follow i in order the Algæ, Fungi, Bryo-

phytes, Pt ytes. Very good outline drawings,

largely original, accompany the text. A commendable feature of the

work is the adoption of Eichler's arrangement of the flowering plants.

Here and there slips, due doubtless to haste, are noticed. us

the figures B, C, and D, on page 132, are certainly not of “ year-old

— of Scotch Pine," and on page 131 the relation of scale and

** ovule-bearing leaf’’ are badly confused. There is also a looseness in

1890.] Botany. 675

the quotation of the titles of works of reference and the names of

authors and publishers on pp. 235-6. We note further that Ustilago

is persistently spelled Ustillago.—CHARLES E. BEssEY.

The Completion of Saccardo's Sylloge Fungorum.—Eight

yearsago the first volume of this great work appeared, and this has

been followed by others in rapid succession until now we have the

eighth and final volume of the series. In these thick volumes, which

aggregate more than eight thousand pages, nearly thirty-two thousand

species have been described (exactly, 31,927). The completion of so

great a labor in so brief aspace of time must excite at once our wonder

and admiration. We have herea work of vast extent, whose first and

last volumes are near enough together in time, so that they are not ap-

preciably separated by any change in plan, due to a change of view on

the part of the authors. Whatever we may say of the plan of the

work, and however much we may wish that a different one had been.

adopted, it is comfortable to know that here at least is a book comple-

ted upon the lines laid down by its author less than a decade ago. It

is cheerful, also, to think that a generation has not died during the

publication of the work, but that nearly all who saw its beginning have

seen its completion. Thus the depressing influence of De Candolle's

** Prodromus,” dragging its way through fifty years to incompletion, is

counteracted, and we may again hope to see great undertakings inau-

gurated.

If we take the great masses of families as worked in this book, and

make a distribution in an approximately natural system, we get a better

idea of the numbers and extent of thefungi. For convenience of ref-

erence the number of species in each family is given, and the total

number in each order or class.

PROTOPHYTA.

MyxomyceTtE®.—(Vol. VIL)—Monadinacez, 49 species; Soro-

phoracez, 9 ; Myxomycetacez, 383. Total, 441 species.

ScHIZOPHYTA.—Schizomycetacez, 659 species. (Vol. VIII.)

ZYGOPHYTA.

CowJUGATJE.—Protomycetacee, 19; Chytridiacex, 132. (Vol.

VIII.) ; Entomophthoracex, 20; Mucoracex, 200. (VoL VIL);

Total, 371 species. (Vol. VII.)

OÖPHYTA.

C«OELOBLASTEJE.—Saprolegniacez, 80 ; Peronosporacez, 96. Total,

176 species. (Vol. VII.)

676 The American Naturalist. [July,

CARPOPHYTA.

ASCOMYCETEE.

PyRENOMYCETEZ.—(Vols. I., IL, and Add.)—Perisporiacez, 481;

Spheriacex, 5448; Coryneliaceze, 2; Hypocreacex, 640; Dothidi-

aces, 351 ; Microthyriacez, 65 ; Lophiostomacee, 213; Hysteriacee,

372; Hermihysteriacez, 3. Total, 7575 species.

HypopERME#.—(Vol. VII.)—Uredinez, 1224 ; Ustilagineze, 284.

Total, 1508 species.

Phymetospheriacee, 16; Onygenacee, 6; Laboulbeniacezm, 15.

Total, 37 species. (Vol. VIII.)

SPH#ROPSIDEZ.—(Vol. III.) —Spherioidacez, 3690 ; Nectrioidacez,

44; Leptostromacex, 203; Excipulacee, 143. Total, 4080 species.

Melanconiacez, 606 species, (Vol. III.).

HyPpHomYcETE2.—(Vol. IV.)—Mucedinacee, 1147; Dematiacez,

1579; Stilbacex, 344; aace, 594. Total, 3664 species.

, 30 species. (Vol. VIII.)

DiscomycETE&.—(Vol. VIII. )—Caliciacex, 78; Gymnoascacez,

51; Cordieritacez, 5; Patellariacex, 161; Phacidiaces, 268; Stic-

tacez, 229; Bulgariacee, 152; Dermateacex, 255; Ascobolacee,

130; Pezizacez, 1948; Heloellacex, 169; Cyttariacee, 7. Total,

3453 Species.

TUBEROIDE&.—(Vol. VIIL)— Elaphomycetacez, 21; Cenoccoca-

cee,1; Tuberacee, 102; Endogonacez, 6. Total, 130 species.

BASIDIMYCETEE.

GASTEROMYCETEZ.—(Vol. VII.)—Hymenogastracex, 78; Lyco-

perdacez, 426; Nidulariacez, 61; Phallacez, 81. Total, 646 species.

HYMENOMYCETE.E,—(Vols. V. and VI.)—Tremellacex, 258; Clava-

riacex, 371; Thelephoracex, 884; Hydnacex, 427; Polyporacee,

1972; Agaricacez, 4639. Total, 8551 species.

There are thus 1100 species of Protophytes; 371 of Zygophytes;

176 of Oöphytes, and 30,280 of Carpophytes. Of the latter again

there are 12,703 Ascomycetex ; 9,197 Basidiomycetex, with 8,380

probably, but not certainly, imperfect stages of the former.

CHARLES E. BESSEY.

The Preparation of Vegetable Tissues for Sectioning on

the Microtome.—Vegetable tissues vary so much as to the amount

of protoplasm, cellulose, and other substances contained, that the

1890.] Botany. 677

methods used for obtaining good sections from them must vary greatly.

I have prepared and sectioned fungi, lichens, the cotyledons, plumules,

hypocotyledonary stems, roots, and root-tips of the cucumber, young

pine cones, young wheat blades, lilac buds, and bean stems, with vary-

ing degrees of success.

Lichens, and the young firm cotyledons of the cucumber could be

dehydrated, and permeated with paraffine much more rapidly than

young meristemic tissue, or tissue composed largely of cellulose and

water. The former may be placed in 50 per cent., 75 per cent., 9o per

cent., and roo per cent. alcohol, chloroform, chloroform and paraffine,

and finally in paraffine, at a temperature of 55? C., remaining in each

from two to twelve hours, and good results may be obtaise

But the meristemic and the thin-walled watery tissue must be

treated differently, or the tissue will come through very much shrunken

and distorted—worthless biologically.

I have had the most success following the method described by Dr.

J. W. Moll, in the Botanical Gazette for January, 1888. I have

obtained good sections from all the material that I have treated in this

way. I used a ı per cent. solution of chromic acid and 20 per cent.,

35 per cent., 5o per cent., 75 per cent., and go per cent. alcohols for

dehydrating. The chromic acid seems to fix the protoplasm, and

macerate the cellulose, allowing the alcohols to pass more freely. I

allowed the specimens to remain in the several per cents. of alcohol

from two to twenty-four hours, according to their size and texture. As

as rule, I found that the more gradually the specimens were dehydrated

the better. From absolute alcohol, the specimens were placed in a

solution of equal parts of turpentine and paraffine. The solution con-

taining the specimens was then raised gradually from a temperature of

20°+ C. to about 45? C. They were then placed in melted paraf-

fine, kept as nearly at 50° C. as possible. Small specimens will be

permeated in one or two hours, but large specimens require from four

to six hours.

From the 75 per cent. alcohol I placed the specimens in a stain.

The stains I tried were alum cochineal, hzematoxylin, fuchsin, methyl

green, methyl blue, methyl violet, and ammonia carmine. I found

alum cochineal a good stain for fungi, plumules, stems, roots, and root-

tips, but it would not penetrate the cucumber cotyledons, Fuchsin

would penetrate anything I tried ; but as it is soluble in alcohol it is

necessary to over-stain the specimens, and then allow the coloring to

come out until it is about right. Haematoxylin stained all the tissue

that I tried except the young cucumber cotyledons. This stain gives

678 The American Naturalist. [July,

large specimens a dark blue color on the outside, and a purplish pink

color on the interior, The nuclei and the cell walls are brought out

clearly. I did not have good success with the methyl colors, as they

were easily dissolved out by the alcohol.

If specimens have not taken sufficient color, or if the alcohol has

removed too much of the color, sections can be stained upon the slide,

after they are cut. Any stain can be used, but none that I tried differ-

entiated the parts sufficiently. Fuchsin will give enough color in a

few seconds, The sections must stand in hematoxylin from two to ten

minutes, and in alum cochineal from ten to twenty minutes, If it is

intended to stain upon the slide, an alum fixative will be found better

than collodion.

I heated the slides in the gas flame to melt the paraffine, and poured

on turpentine to wash it out. The specimens were then mounted. in

balsam dissolved in chloroform. Air bubbles that appear when sections

are first mounted, will disappear after the slides stand a few hours. If

the razor or knife used for cutting is very sharp, small specimens may

be cut 1-2500, or even 1-5000 of an inch in thickness. But larger

specimens cannot be cut more than 1-600 to 1-1500 of an inch thick

without crowding the tissues together, and giving them the appearance

of being shrunken.—A. J. McCLATCHIE, Lincoln, Neb.

ZOOLOGY.

The Ontogeny of Limulus.—The following is preliminary to

a more detailed account, with ample illustrations, which will be pub-

lished soon. The work was done in the Marine Biological Laboratory

at Woods Holl, Mass., during the summers of 1889 and 1890. In

my views of the earlier stages, as seen from the surface, I fail to cor-

roborate Osborn's account!in many particulars. The eggs were arti-

ficially fertilized, and were carried through until hatching.

(1) The segmentation nucleus is subcentral, and is surrounded by a

thin pellicle of protoplasm. It undergoes several divisions before any

signs of segmentation are visible from the surface. The products of

this division migrate more rapidly toward that pole of the egg where the

germ is subsequently to appear than to any other portion of the surface.

Forty hours after impregnation the egg itself CM id a. ve

this segmentation has in its general app harac

1 Johns Hopkins University Circular, No, 43, 1885.

1890.] Zoölogy. 679

recalling to a slight degree Metschnikoff’s,? Pl. XIV., Fig. 5. The

result of this yolk segmentation is to divide the egg into a number of

yolk cells, in the center of each of which there is a nucleus with its

thin layer of protoplasm.

(2) The result of migration of the products of egg and nuclear seg-

mentation is the formation of a blastoderm at first on one side of the

egg, the cells of which are smaller and less charged with yolk than

those of the rest of the ovum. At this time surface views show no

traces of regularity. At one pole are numbers of poorly-defined small

cells, while at the other the cells are greatly larger and fewer in

number. The blastoderm thus formed produces a lighter spot on one

side of the egg, which strikingly resembles the primitive cumulus of the

Arachnids, With the formation of this blastoderm the secretion of

the blastodermhaut (amnion of Packard, deutovum of my former

paper?) begins

(3) In from ‘Gah to eleven days after impregnation (the period

varies in eggs of the same lot) a small circular pit appears in the center

of the primitive cumulus. This I regard as the blastopore. . This soon

becomes triangular and then elongates, while on the next day a

second cloud appears behind the first, but connected with it. At first

the second cloud is smaller, but it rapidly attainse quality with the prim-

itive cumulus, and soon surpasses it. During this process the outlines

become indistinct, more so than in Balfour’s* Pl. XIX., Fig. 1,

which in other respects, except in length, agrees well. During this

process the blastopore increases in length backwards, in the shape of a

shallow groove (primitive groove), the enlarged anterior end of which

continues to mark the original site of the first appearance of the

structure. This primitive groove runs back into the posterior cloud

and fades out behind. A second lighter area hasnow become promi-

nent along the margins of the blastopore and its posterior continua-

tion, produced by the proliferation, as shown by sections, of meso-

dermal cells from the margins. These wander in between the rest of

the blastoderm (ectoderm) and the yolk (entoderm) cells which occupy

the interior. Gastrulation produces no entoderm.

(4) In fifteen days this primitive groove has become less distinct;

through the flattening of its walls; while the germinal area, now out-

lined by the limits of the extension of the mesoderm, has become di-

vided by the appearance of a transverse groove into cephalic and post-

? Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool., XXI, 1871.

3 Quarterly four. Micros. Sci., XKV., 1885.

* Q. 7. M. S., XX., 1880.

Am. Nat.—July.—6.

680 The American Naturalist. [July,

oral plates, the anterior being smaller and more sharply limited than

the other. In twelve hours more a second groove appears behind the

. first, cutting off a narrow ridge, the first post-oral somite. At this

stage the embryo is readily comparable with Metschnikoff's Pl. XVII, -

Fig. 3, except in the following particulars: The two ends of the

embryo are more nearly equal, the single somite developed is much

shorter, and the median groove is fainter and extends into both cephalic

and caudal plates. Successive somites are added by budding from the

caudal plate until the number six is reached. The embryo now closely

resembles Balfour’s Pl. XIX, Figs. 32 and 34, except that it covers

far less of the surface of the egg, the first somite is separate from the

cephalic plate, the primitive groove extends across the somites, its

anterior end terminating at the mouth, while posteriorly it runs into

the caudal plate: the caudal plate is much smaller than in Balfour's

figure. |

(5) Just after six somites are formed, paired thickenings, the rudi-

ments of legs, arise near the outer margins of each. Then six pairs

arise simultaneously. I have seen no traces of Osborn’s semicircular

groove.

(6) Almost simultaneously with the outgrowth of the legs, paired

thickenings for the nervous system appear. There are a pair of

these in each somite of the body, while tbree pairs appear in the ceph-

alic plate. A few days later a series of six pairs of segmentally

arranged sensory thickenings arise outside of the legs, and extend in a

line from the cephalic lobes backwards, as briefly described by Patten?

These have different fates. The first pair gives rise to the median

ocelli of the adult; the second to a peculiar sense organ as yet unde-

scribed, occurring on the thin skin just in front of the first pair of

appendages; the third soon disappeares ; the fourth forms the ‘ dorsal

organ” of Watase, which persists longer than the third ; the fifth gives

rise to the paired compound eyes; while the sixth is evanescent. At

first these are all similar and are plainly sensory. These organs are

connected with each other and with the brain by a longitudinal nerve,

which takes an undulating course between the organs and the bases of

the legs.

(7) There is a precocious separation of ectoderm and entoderm

(yolk cells) during the formation of the blastoderm. Blastopore and

primitive groove produce no invagination of entoderm cells. The

entoderm retains its primitive character as a solid mass of large yolk

cells until after the caudal spine appears. The yolk cells are not true

5 Jour. Morphology, 111.

1890.] Zoölogy. 681

vitellophags. They metabolize the yolk which is contained in each,

but the cells themselves are directly converted into the lining epithe-

lium of the mid gut. By this process a lumen is formed, first at the

anterior end. The stomodeal-mesenteric wall is first to break through ;

the opening into the proctodeum appears much later. The procto-

deum is very short, not extending far from the anus.

(8) In embryos at the time of hatching the sternal artery has arrived

at the condition found in the adult scorpion. It consists of a tube

lying on the upper surface of each half of the cesophageal nerve ring.

Not until much later than my studies have gone does it attain the in-

vesting character of the adult.

(9) Packard's ** brick-red gland ” is of mesodermal origin, It con-

tains in its interior the cavity of the fifth post-oral somite. Its inner

end is terminated by a thin layer of flattened epithelium. It soon be-

comes folded on itself, and the region of the bend grows rapidly for-

ward. The outer limb of the fold becomes in turn folded at four points,

and these new bends grow out in each body segment, giving rise to the

lobes characteristic of the organ in the adult. With the folding

numerous fusions of the walls occur, followed by perforations, giving

rise to the peculiar anastomosing structure of the adult organ.

These points, so briefly summarized, go far, I think, toward the sup-

port of that view which would recognize a close relationship between

Arachnids and Limulus, while at the same time they serve to remove

the Merostomata more widely from the Crustacea,—]. S. KINGSLEY,

July 17, 1890.

A Review of Some ofthe North American Ground Squir-

rels of the Genus Tamais.—By J. A. Allen. —Bull. Am. Mus. Nat.

Hist., Vol. III.—This paper is a revision of the ** Zamais asiaticus

group of a former monograph of the genus Tamias, made necessary by

the accumulation of a variety and quantity of new material during the

last five years. It is a valuable contribution to mammalian literature.

The material in hand seems to require the provisional recognition of

not less than twenty-four forms, of which thirteen are here for the first

time described. These twenty-four forms fall into several more or less

well-marked groups, as follows :

1. The Aindsii group, consisting of (1) T. hindsii, (2) T. townsendii,

(4) x. ee (4) T. senex, (5) T. quadrimaculatus, (6) T.

merriamii.

2. The dorsalis group, consisting of (1) T. dorsalis, (2) T. obscurus.

3. The zmdrinus group, consisting of (1) 7. umórimus, (4) Z7.

cimereicollis, (3) T. bulleri.

682 The American Naturalıst. LJuly,

4. The quadrivittatus group, consisting of (1) guadrivittatus, (2)

T. luteiventris, (3) T. affinis, (4) T. neglectus, (5) T. borealis, (6)

possibly also 7. graecis. ;

5. The minimus group, consisting of (1) 7: minimus, (2) T. consobri-

nus, (3) T. pictus.

6. The frater group, consisting of (1) T. frater, (2) T. amænus.

T. speciosus is a rather isolated species, more closely resembling 7.

frater than any other form. T. asiaticus has no close affiliation with

any of the American forms.

A table of measurements, a ‘“‘key” giving the salient features of

the various forms of Tamias, and a diagram indicating the status, re-

lationships, and lines of probable intergradation, accompany the paper,

and make it a complete exposition of the group considered up to date.

PHYSIOLOGY.

Functions of Central Nervous System of Invertebrates.

—Steiner! endeavors to determine experimentally what ought to be

regarded as the the brain of those invertebrates that possess a supra-

cesophageal ganglion, cesophageal commissure, and ventral ganglia.

He regards the brain as characterized by the presence of the general

motor centre in connection with at least one of the nerves of the

special senses. In the crustaceans (Astacus, Carcinus, and Maja)

removal of one-half of the supra-cesophageal ganglion, or cutting of

the cesophageal commissure, caused circular movements toward the un-

injured side. This indicates the presence of the general motor centre

in the ganglion, and since it also gives origin to the nerves of the higher

senses, the author regards it as the brain of the crustaceans. Experi-

ments on insects (Blatta, Blaps, Carabus, Geotrupes, Musca, Vespa,

Pieris, Papilio), and on myriapods (Julus), gave similar results. In

molluscs (Pterotrachea, Pleurobrachea, Aplysia) destruction of even the

vhole £*the cnnra hs. 1 1: ar POET. o ti nts, but

the latter ceased as soon as the pedal ganglion was destroyed. In

Octopus, after destruction of the dorsal ganglion, the movements took

place normally, but only after stimulation, never spontaneously. This

ganglion hence appears to perform the part of a cerebrum instead of a

whole brain, Among annelids (Ophelia, Eunice, Diopatra, Nephthys)

cutting the cesophageal commissure caused disturbance of movement.

1 Sitzber d. königl. Preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1890, IL, p. 39. Cf,

Centralb. f. Physiologie, Bd. IV., p. 180, 1890.

1890.] Entomology. 683

In the author’s sense, then, the supra-cesophageal ganglion is a proper

brain only in the arthropods; in the molluscs and annelids it is only

a sense centre, In arthropods, especially crustaceans, evidence was

obtained of a crossing of the nerve-paths in the sub-cesophageal gang-

lion, analogous to the decussation of the pyramids in the medulla of

vertebrates,

Cerebral Localization.—The well-known statistician, Bertillon,

was deaf in his left ear from his tenth year, and was also left-handed.

Manouvrier? publishes the results of a detailed examination of his

brain, The right superior temporal convolution (position of centre of

hearing) was narrow, straight, and poorly developed, while that of the

other side was broad, winding, and provided with secondary sulci. In

accordance with the presence of left-handedness, the speech centre

was to be looked for upon the right side; and accordingly Broca’s

convolution on that side was considerably more developed than upon

the left. Bertillon, therefore, ‘‘ spoke with his deaf hemishere,’’ which

must be regarded as an unfavorable relation, and with this must be

associated the difficulty of speech from which he suffered in life. The

right sight centre was especially strongly developed, which is regarded

by the author in the light of a compensation for the poor sense of

hearing. The results go far to confirm the localization theories.

ENTOMOLOGY.

The Black Harvest Spider.—In a lot of Phalangiidz, received

from Mr. Lawrence Bruner, and collected at Lincoln, Nebraska, I

found a number of specimens of the species described by Say and

Wood as Phalangium nigrum. Its characters at once place it not only

out of the genus in which it is at present retained, but also out of the

sub-family Phalangiine, as it belongs to the Sc/erosomatine, being the

first species of this sub-family to be recognized in our fauna. It ap-

parently falls into the genus Astrobunus Thorell, and hence should be

known as Astrobunus nigrum Say.

The literature of this Harvest Spider is quite limited. Originally

escribed in 1821 by Thomas Say,! who reported it as ** not uncom-

mon in the Carolinas and Georgia,’’ it received no further mention

-3 Bull. d. I. Soc. d. Psychologie Physicol., 1889, p.24. Cf. Centralblatt f. Physiologie,

IV., p- 180, 189o.

1 Jour. Phila. Acad., VL, pp. 66-67. Compl. Writings, IL, p. 14.

684 The American Naturalist. [July,

until 1868, when Dr. H. C. Wood again described it? from specimens

collected in Nebraska and Texas. Bibliographical references to it

have also since been published by Professor L. M. Underwood? and

myself.*

It is a little strange that this species does not occur in collections of

Phalangiide from North Carolina and Alabama, kindly sent me by

Professor Geo. F. Atkinson. As already noted, Say says it is not un-

common in the Carolinas and Georgia. Dr. Wood says of his Texas

and Nebraska specimens: ** The form just described has been recog-

nized as P. nigrum Say, but as there are some slight disagreements

with the description of that authority, and the localities are widely

separated, it is possible that it is a distinct species." My specimens

are undoubtedly the form described by Wood, and if another species

should be discovered in the region mentioned by Say—agreeing with

his brief description and differing from the Western form—the latter,

of course, would have to be re-named.

This species may be described as follows :

Male (plate).—Body, 6 mm. long; 3.5 mm. wide; Palpi 4 mm.

long. ELS HE D. IL, 180m. ; IIL, 1x mm.; IV. 1

Black : Ventrum of cephalothorax (including coxa), trochanters,

and base of femora, brown. In some specimens the apical portion of

the legs and more or less of the ground color of the dorsum is brown-

ish black. Dorsum thickly studded with small hemispherical black

granules or tubercles. Segmentation of abdominal scutum indicated by

faint impressed lines. Eye eminence longer than high ; not canalicu-

late; covered with black tubercles like those on the dorsum. Palpi

biek, except coxal joint, which is brown; all the joints slightly

surface of abdomen brownish black, granulate. Genital organ *'slen-

der, proximally sub-cylindrical, then flattened and slightly expanded,

then rapidly expanded into a broad, somewhat circular, very thin, alate

portion, then suddenly contracted and bent at an obtuse angle, end-

ing in a very fine point.” 5

Female.—Body, 9 mm. long; 5 mm. wide. Legs, I., 11 mm. ; II.,

20 mm. ; IIL, 11 mm. ; IV., 19 mm. Besides its larger size, it differs

from the male in having less black on the ventral surface, which is

? Communications Essex Institute, VI., pp. 34-35.

3 Canadian Entomologist, XVII., p. 168

* Bull. Ill. St. Lab. Nat, Hist., III., p. ros.

5 Wood, /. c.

1890.] Entomoldgy. 685

cinnamon rufous, spotted with black; mandibles brown, black above ;

and the outer margins of the dorsum smooth, without the black tuber-

cles which form a large, distinct, quadrangular, plate on the middle of

the abdomen, and a transverse plate on each of the three posterior

segments. The smooth margins are dark brown.

Described from eight males and one female collected at Lincoln,

Nebraska. The species is well illustrated, both natural size, and with

the parts magnified (at Plate XXIV), the drawings for which have been

prepared for my assistant, Miss Freda Detmers.—CLARENCE M, WEED.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fic. 1. Astrobunus nigrum Say, male, natural size.

Fic. 2. Parts of same, magnified: a, dorsal surface of body; 4, eye

eminence, side view; c, eye eminence, front view; d, palpus, side view ;

e, claw of palpus, side view.

The Live Oak Caterpillar.—In a recent number of Zoe, a new

biological journal published at San Francisco, H. H. Behr adds an-

other insect to the list of those which the English sparrow indirectly

protects. He says: ‘‘ There exists around our bay a moth, Phrygan-

ıdia californica, which lives exclusively on live oak, though I have

lately found some stray larve on Quercus lobata. When, in 1853, I

first found the caterpillar of this species I considered it a great prize,

so rare was the little thing. Gradually the insect became less rare, -

and as soon asa sufficient number of shot-guns were placed in the

hands of boys who shot little birds, I had ample opportunities to fill

the empty spot in my collection that for years had only the male of the

species on a pin.

“I have counted four generations of the insect in one summer.

Nevertheless they did not endanger the life of the trees inhabited by

them. There existed still a sufficient number of insect-feeding birds

to decimate the four broods, especially a species of titmouse, then

rather common in our surroundings, and very frequent in Marion

county, which took care of the eggs and the adult caterpillars. This

bird managed in some way to escape destruction by the shot-gun ; but

then the English sparrow was introduced by some well-meaning but im-

perfectly instructed people. The sparrow soon drove away the titmouse.

The titmouse no more decimated the Phryganidia egg and larva, at

both of which the sparrow looked with a contemptuous smile. The

Phryganidia multiplied in mathematical progression ; the leaves of the

live oaks, for instance, at San Rafael, disappeared four times a sum-

686 The American Naturalist. . | [July,

mer; some trees survived, other succumbed ; and so the introduction

of the English sparrow destroyed our California live oaks. The best

proof of this is that the destruction coincides with the spreading of the

sparrow.” i

Bibliography of Economic Entomology.—The first three

parts of the Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to

American Economic Entomology, which has been in preparation by

the U. S. Department of Agriculture since 1882, have just been issued.

They comprise the writings of B. D. Walsh (Part I.); Walsh and

Riley (Part IL), and C. V. Riley (Part III.) ; there being in the first

385 entries, in the second 479, and in the third 1556. The work has

been prepared by Dr. Samuel Henshaw, and bears evidence of having

been carefully done. It is accompanied by a very complete index,

which will be appreciated by every working entomologist.

Entomological Notes.—The current number of the Transactions

of the American Entomological Society (Vol. XVIL, No. 1) contains

two valuable papers by Dr. G. H. Horn on the North American species

of Heterocerus and Octhebius ; a similar discussion of the species of

Dendroctonus by Dr. W. G. Dietz ; descriptions of three new species

of North American Odonata, and notes on three others, by Philip H.

Calvert; descriptions of a number of new species of Agrotis, by John

B. Smith; and a valuable paper by H. F. Bassett on new species of

Cynipidz.

Prof. G. F. Atkinson's excellent paper on Nematode Root-Galls

(Heterodera radicola) has been republished in the Journal of the

Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society (Vol. VI., pp. 81-130).

In the same journal (pp. 134-147), Prof. W. L. Poteat presents some

interesting notes on the architectural and feeding habits of a tube-

building spider (Afpus niger Hentz).

Mr. E. A. Schwarz has published (Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington, Vol.

L, pp. 237-247) an important paper on the Myrmecophilous Coleoptera

found in temperate North America. A list of the beetles and their

hosts is given.

Prof. J. B. Smith has published, as Special Bulletin K, of the New

Jersey Experiment Station, an extended report upon the cranberry

NS of that State.

Bulletin No. 1 of the Colorado Biological Association contains a

valuable paper on the Hymenoptera of Colorado, by William H. Ash-

1890.] . Archeology and Ethnology. 687

mead. This isa part of the natural history survey of the State under-

_ taken by the Association, and the paper is based largely upon material

furnished by the Secretary, Mr. T. D. A. Cockerell. Three new

genera are characterized, viz., Neolaraa, of the family Bembecidz ;

Microbracon, of the Braconidz, and Dolichopselephus, of the Ichneu-

monida. Sixty-seven new species are described, the descriptions of

forty-one of which were drawn up from single specimens. The hymen-

opterous fauna of the State, so far as it is now known, includes 33

families, 247 genera, and 897 species.

ARCHJEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

On the Use of the Phonograph Among the Zuni Indians.

—Ever since I began my work with the phonograph as a means of pre-

serving the language of the American Indians, I have looked forward

with great interest to a visit to some of those tribes which still remain

in approximately the same condition that they were when first visited

by white men. Such tribes it is almost impossible to find now in the

confines of the United States. But there are some which have been

very little changed.

have been particularly anxious to make observations among the

Pueblo Indians, which still possess many interesting features of great

antiquity. Of*all the Pueblos, except possibly the Moquis, the Zuñi-

ans, or A’sheewee as they are called in their own tongue, have been

least changed from their original condition by contact with Europeans.

Living at a distance from the railroad, inhabiting isolated regions diffi-

cult of access, these people have preserved the ancestral traditions and

customs in their primitive form. In many ways they offer an unparal-

lelled opportunity for the study of the religious and secular celebra-

tions of Pueblo Indians, slightly modified from the olden time.

A previous visit to Zufii, in the summer of 1889, had inspired in me

a wish to attempt to record on the cylinders of the phonograph the

songs, rituals, and prayers used by these people, especially in those

most immutable of all observances, sacred ceremonials. I was par-

ticularly anxious to record the songs connected with the celebration of

the mid-summer dances, which occur at or near the summer solstice.

By the help of Mrs. Hemenway, of Boston, it was possible for me, in

the interest of the Hemenway Expedition, to visit Zufii Pueblo at this

time, and I have been fortunate enough to take on the phonograph,

688 The American Naturalist. (July,

from the lips of the Zufiians, a series of records illustrating the songs

used in their sacred and secular observances. An extended paper, with

illustrations of the dances, has been prepared for publication, and will

be printed as soon as the music can be written out by an expert from

the cylinders of the phonograph. Although I prefer not to publish

my final contribution until the illustrations are prepared from my pho-

tographs, a brief notice of some of the phonographic records which I

have may not be without interest.

One of the most interesting of the songs sung at this dance, which is

called the Kea’ kok’ shi or good dance, is that of the Ko ko. This song

I took directly from the lips of one of the participants in the dance. I

have reason to believe that this song is improvised each year, as the

music this summer is quite different from that of a year ago. I was

told by the Zufiians before the dance that they did not know what the

song was to be, and that no one knew except the participants. There

is, however, a general resemblance, yet still great variety, in all these

** Ko kd songs,’’ and I have indelibly taken on phonographic cylinders

as many as possible for a comparative study at a more favorable

opportunity.

The possibility that the songs of the Ko ko were originally imitations of

the wind blowing down the fireplace or around the house, is a fascina-

ting idea which hardly seems capable of proof or the contrary. There

are often strains in the Ko ko songs that remind one of the wind, and

itis right appropriate that such imitations should occur in dances

instituted for rain, which is ordinarily associated with the wind. At

this place it may be well to mention the fact that there is introduced

into the dance an implement to imitate the wind. On the entrance of

the Kö kō into the Pueblo, and during the dances, the clowns or other

persons, generally the clowns, have a small stick fastened to a buckskin

thong, which they whirl about in a circle, making the sound of the

wind. This implement, which is the exact counterpart of the ‘ bull

roarer,’’ so well known to boys in some English communities, is called

the wind. I cannot discover that itis used in thesacred ceremonies to

frighten the women and children, or those who do not take part in the

dance. Sometimes it is even used as a plaything by the Zufi boys. _

In Australia an instrument almost exactly similar is used in sacred

ceremonies to frighten those who do not take part, or to let them

know that exercises are in progress, for which purpose its use was not

unknown among the ancient Greeks. :

Four days before the dance, on the afternoon before the departure

of a delegation of priests to offer feather plumes at the “ Sacred

189o.] Archeology and Ethnology. 689

Lake,’’ Tay jay po une, a ceremony takes place in the Pueblo, which

may be called the ** Ducking of the Clowns." This observance is

known to the Zufiians as the Dumächimche, from the words of the

song by the Ko yea mashi, or mudhead clowns, on whom, in the

course of the celebration, water is poured from the housetops by the

squaws. This song has internal evidence of antiquity, and I am told

by the Indians that both song and ceremony is very ancient. Al-

though a musical critic might not find in it great beauty, as an

undoubted specimen of ancient aboriginal music it is very interesting.

I shall commént on the meaning of the Dumächimche in another place,

when the ceremony will be described at length.

A survival of the old practice of communal hunting still exists in

some of the Pueblos in the so-called rabbit hunt. Several of these

hunts have taken place during my residence in Zufíi, It has seemed to

me that it is a semi-religious observance connected with summer

dances, and I have therefore taken records of the song and prayer

used by the hunters for future study.

While my observations have been particularly directed to the lin-

guistic features of the solstitial dances in summer, I have not wholly

neglected the great wealth of other material all about me for linguistic

study by means of the phonograph.

The well-known celebration called the Sha’ la "ko, at which the Zufii

house is consecrated, is the occasion of an elaborate ceremonial, in

which figures a song or chant and a prayer, said to be very ancient.

I have never witnessed the celebration of the Sha’ la 'ko, but have

been able to obtain the chant and prayer from one of the natives.

This capture had to be made secretly, unknown to the other Indians.

It was found necessary to take it late at night, in a room darkened

with blankets at the windows to prevent suspicion, and sentinels sta-

tioned about the house to warn us of the approach of intruders. On

Sa’ hla 'ko on the phonograph. It is now, however, permanently

recorded in the wax, and can be reproduced at pleasure, or what is

of more importance to philological study, can be written out and

studied at leisure under better conditions. I am told that it is next

to impossible to get any of the Zufiians to sing the Sha’ la "ko out of

season, and as the celebration regularly comes in November, a record

of it in July is a fortunate acquisition. Certain of their winter songs

they will’not sing in summer, because to do it prevents the qua

from growing. I do not know whether or not the chant of the

Sha' la 'ko is one of these.

690 The American Naturalist. : [July,

The phonographic record to which I look forward with the greatest

hope is that of a Zufii ritual to which writers have from time to time

referred. This ritual, which has been designated by the dignified title

of a Zufii Epic, is of considerable length, and is regarded with great

reference by the Zufii people themselves. Haluta, the reciter of it at

the time of its delivery, is said to be regarded as a most sacred per-

sonage, and when, prior to its recital, he is brought into the Pueblo

his feet, it is said, are not allowed to touch the ground. It is thought

probable that a phonographic record of the ritual would be an addition

to our knowledge of Zufian mytholo

The extracts from this ritual, which are tidy translated from memory

by Mr. Cushing in his interesting paper on Zuñi Fetishes, indicate that

it is a valuable account of the mythological history of the race. He

had not at his command an ifistrument to record the words of those

portions of the ** Kaklan ’’ which he heard, and consequently was un-

able to give it in the original diction in which it is given before the

members of certain priesthoods, to whom alone itis recited. He sa

that many of the words are in old Zufii, not understood at present.

The records which I have are good enough to enable me to write out

the ritual, which, however, at the present state of my knowledge ot

the language I am unable to translate. With the help of those who

understand the language, as well as English, I have no fear but that in

my final paper I can. publish a translation of the ritual as told by

Haluta on the cylinder of the phonograph.

I have, after several failures, been able to get this recital on the pho-

nograph, where it fills a long series of cylinders. Before the value of

this record, both linguistic and mythological, can be appreciated, it

must be carefully written out and studied. This will take a long time,

as many of the words are old Zufiian, and the task of extracting the

meaning from the ritual will found to be a difficult one. A permanent

preservation of it is, however, a step in the interpretation, and when

once indelibly fixed on phonographic cylinders its true character and

significance can be investigated.

One of the most interesting of the Zufii songs is that of the hunters.

This song has many beautiful parts in it, and outside of its interest in

the study of the customs of the hunters, is well worth preserving as a

specimen of aboriginal music. I have thought it worthy of a place in

my collection, and with it I have also preserved certain of the prayers

to the fetishes used in the hunt, some of which have been written out

and translated by Mr. Cushing. The harvest which a study of the

_ hunting customs of the Zufiians offers is great, and the collection of

1890.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 691

data bearing on this subject is highly important, since the decrease in

game may on as New Mexico is more and more thickly settled, and

the hunting ceremonials be more or less modified as time goes on.

I have not encountered in my experience in taking records with the

phonograph any very great difficulty among the Zufiians. Their real

impressions of the instrument it is very difficult to divine. One of them

asked if a person was hidden in the machine, and another thought

the phonograph bewitched. Indians are so stolid that it is very diffi-

cult to discover what impression such a novel instrument as the phono-

graph really makes. They are so accustomed to incomprehensible

machines used by Americans that this last triumph of inventive genius

affects them no more than many others which might be mentioned.

Certainly they are not afraid of it, and there is no difficulty in getting

them to talk into the instrument. The great difficulty in getting them

to repeat their sacred songs and prayers does not come so much from

their fear of the instrument as of secularizing what is sacred to them.

They will readily respond with any of their secular songs, or with

those sung in public, but those belonging to the secret ceremonials of

the Estufa they will not divulge.—]. WALTER FEWKES, Zuni, New

Mexico, July 5th, 1890.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Biological Society of Washington.—May 31.—The following

communications were read: Characteristics of the Halosauroids or

Lyopomes ; Dr. Theo. Gill. Exhibition of Specimens of New Spe-

cies of North American Mammals ; Dr. C. Hart Merriam. Cou/foredla

a New Genus of Composite; Dr. J. N. Rose. Organisms in the St.

Peter's Sandstone; Prof. Joseph F. James.—FrEDERIC A. Lucas,

Secretary.

Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—May 3,

1890.— The following paper by Mr. Chas. W. Long was read: Staten

Island Fire Flies.—No one will have failed to notice the abundance

on Staten Island of the beetle commonly known as the firefly, As it

is seen in early summer, in the words of Longfellow:

“ Flitting cit dp the dusk x evening,

With the twinkle of its candl

Lighting up en ie beaten and Besen,

it constitutes one of the peculiar charms of our latitude. It has been

described by many a poet as well as naturalist, and those who have .

692 The American Naturalıst. [July,

watched it through a warm June night will not wonder that the natu-

ralist, like Mr. Silas Wegg, may be tempted to ‘‘ drop into werse."'

No prose can perfectly represent the mazy evolutions of its flight, but

the following from the pen of Mr. Philip Gosse will be found the most

accurate : “ They fly slowly, and as they fly, emit and conceal their

Aight at intervals of two or three seconds ; making interrupted lines of

light through the air, gleaming slowly along for about a yard, then

suddenly quenched, and appearing again at the same distance ahead.’’

He, like Longfellow, compares the light to candles in the woods. In-

deed he says though told what they were, at every one that appeared,

the same idea would come across his mind, but the comparison is not

so apt with us, for we rarely see them singly, and it rather seems as if

they were stars moving through the bushes, or twinkling in some deep

valley as we look into it from the hillsabove. ‘They resemble thestars,

too, in the thought of infinite number they suggest. It would be a

hopeless task to count the number one can see in a single summer

night. And considering the countless summer nighis that have elapsed

since the first firefly appeared on the globe (fossil Lampyrid are found

in Miocene rocks) the total of all the motions that they have made

since then may well suggest a number approaching to mathematical

infinity.

Apart from their beauty, our fireflies possess a great interest from the

entomologist’s point of view, for we find in them some characters spe-

- cialized to an extraordinary extent. It is unfortunate that among the

nine or ten species represented on Staten Island, of which I append a

descriptive list, the special sexual characters are not developed as fully

as in the Southern species and in the English “ glow worm." . In the

latter, the light organs of the female reach their highest point and she

is destitute of wings, while the male possesses normal wing power and

very large eyes; clearly indicating the relation of the characters to the

reproduction of the species. The light organs of the male are feeble,

being useless as an attraction to the female, able only to crawl slowly

in the grass. The same characters are found in some of our Texan

species, but the only approach to it among the Staten Island species is

in Photinus scintillans, our most abundant **firefly," of which the

. female is wingless. The eyes, however, and the light organs are

equally developed in each sex.

The antennz also present some curious forms, none more so than

those of Phengodes plumosa, a southern species whose occurence on

Staten Island was discovered by Mr. W. T. Davis, to whom I am

indebted for my specimen. Here the antennz consist as usual of

1890.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. : 693

eleven linear joints, from each of which proceed two branches, as long

as the entire antennz, curved and fringed both sides with long hair.

The branches become shorter toward the outer extremity, and the

effect is very similar to a white ostrich plume. The females of this

and all the species of Phengodes are unknown. Beyond these charac-

ters, the fireflies resemble the general coleopterous form. It is not

difficult to catch and examine one, for they frequently rest on a stalk of

grass, continuing to give out the intermittent yellow gleam, thus guid-

ing one to the spot. In the hand the insect will be found to consist,

seen from above, of the thorax in front, a semicircular piece orna-

mented with rosy patches and a black spot, and two ‘ elytra,” parallel

yellowish pieces, comprising the greater part of the dorsal aspect.

Beneath will be found the head, concealed from above by the hood-

_ like thorax, with biting jaws ; the six legs possessed by all beetles ; and

the abdomen, divided into segments, from the last three proceeding

the light which gives the family its name and renown. The light may

be watched, throbbing and pulsating, as the small creature silently tells

that it, like its captor, lives and breathes. If it be crushed, the light

still continues for a time, but gradually dies away. In the dried speci-

mens these segments are cream colored. The physical cause of the

luminosity in fireflies is unknown, Dr. Leconte cites some partially

successful experiments to isolate the actual luminous substance by Dr.

Phipson and others, and the name ‘‘ Noctilucine’’ has been

applied to it, and its existence stated in varied forms of marine life, in

Myriapoda and in putrid fish, but I am not aware that positive results

have been reached.

The larve of these insects are also somewhat luminous, and are

found in the grass in summer. They are carnivorous, and are to be

reckoned among the beneficial insects.

The description of the firefly is taken particularly from the species

common in gardens, and the flight of that insect (P. scintillans) is also

described, and as Mr, Davis has mentioned to me that the larger

species have a more rapid flight, it is proper to so state here to guard

against error.

This list of our species includes all known to me from the neigh-

borhood of New York, and Phengodes is new to the fauna of the

vicinity. Being the result of the observations of two persons only, it

would be hazardous to represent it as complete, particularly in view

of the warm and sandy character of the southern end of the island,

where we may hope to find additions to our list. They may be

sought by jarring the leaves and branches of shrubbery where they

remain during the day.

694 The American Naturalist. [July,

LIST OF THE SPECIES OF SUB-FAMILY LAMPYRID&,

Head more or less covered by the hood-like thorax ;

antennz not plumose :

Head completely covered ; 2d joint of antennz small ;

transverse ;

Antennal joints very broadly compressed ; color

black ; sides and apical margin of thorax ful-

vous, .28-.44 ins,

Antennal joints not broadly compressed ;

Eyes small; color black; thorax fulvous, with

disk and sides black; last dorsal segment in

male rounded, .28-.54 ins, 2. Ellychnia corrusca.

Eyes small ; last dorsal segment in male bisinuate

and truncate ;

Prothorax with black disk and reddish yellow

sides, .2 3. Pyropyga nigricans.

Prothorax vim black disk and edge, ut ins.

4. Pyropyga decipiens.

Eyes large; prothorax subcarinate ; aves with

wide side margin ;

Elytra black, margin and suture yellow ; thor-

ax like No. 2, .30-.50 ins.

I. Lucidota atra.

yractomena angulata.

Eyes large; prothorax not carinate ; elytra with-

out wide margin ;

Larger species; female elytra long like male,

:36-.52 ins. 6. Photinus pyralis.

Smaller ge: female wingless, elytra short,

.22-.32 in 7. Photinus scintillans.

Head only Re covered ; 2d joint of nans

not transverse, as long as 3d.

Color dull yellow; prothorax red on disk, with a

dark medial stripe, elytra dull yellow, more or

less striped with black, .42-.60 ins. 8, Photuris pennsylvanica.

Head exposed ; antennæ plumose ;

Elytra subulate, color testaceous, .50 ins. 9. Phengodes plumosa.

The length of the insect in 1ooths of an inch is indicated before the

name. The species numbered 4 and 5 are northern insects and rare

with us, and No. 9 is, as stated above, a southern species. The light

organs are more feeble in ı to 5, and more strongly developed in 6 to

8, which are the common “ fireflies.”

1890.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 695

A preliminary list of the mosses of Staten Island, compiled by Mrs.

N. L. Britton, was presented, which will be published as an extra.

‘Mr. Arthur Hollick showed dried specimens of Clematis ochroleuca,

collected during the past month at Richmond, which is a new locality

for this interesting plant, or perhaps only an extension of the previously

known localities on Todt Hill and at Egbertville. It was in great

abundance, accompanied, as usual, by Cerastium arvense, var. oblon-

gifollum in dense clusters, particularly where the serpentine had been

exposed. Mr. Hollick also showed staminate catkins of Sadix fragilis,

from a tree in Richmond, which were bi- and tri-furcated. This pecu-

liar state of the catkins of this willow was noted some years since on

a tree at Prince’s Bay (See Bull. Torr. Bot. Club, VI., 312), and it is

not unlikely that it may be looked for in other places.

Mr. L. P. Gratacap presented a block of Potsdam sandstone, beau-

tifully ripple-marked, from the drift at the base of the bluff on the

shore at Tottenville. Also clay ironstone containing plant remains

and nodules of pyrite from the same locality, and lignite from the clay

beds near Kreischerville.

Mr. Ira K. Morris read a paper upon ‘‘ Some Old Staten Island

Springs.”

American Association for the Advancement of Science,

1889.— REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE,

WITH SPECIAL REFERENGE TO THE Brain.—During the past year some

of the members of the Committee have given to the subject intrusted

to them as much time as their regular duties would permit. They

agree upon one point, viz., the advantages, other things being equal,

of mononyms (single word terms) over polynyms (terms consisting of

two or more words). Before making specific recommendations or

presenting a final report, the Committee think it advisable that they

and other anatomists should have an opportunity of discussing at lei-

sure the simplified nomenclature which they are informed is employed

in certain treatises which will be published during the coming winter.

They therefore ask to be continued.

URT G. WILDER, Chairman.

HARRISON ALLEN,

FRANK BAKER,

Henry F. Osporn,

td. B. STOWELL,

Committee.

Am. Nat.— July.—7.

696 The American Naturalist. [July,

The Association of American Anatomists.—PRELIMINARY

REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON ANATOMICAL NOMENCLATURE, ADOPTED

DECEMBER 28, 1889, BY THE ASSOCIATION.—The Committee recom-

mend :

1. That the adjectives dorsal and ventral be employed in’ place of

posterior and anterior as commonly used in human anatomy, and in

place of. upper and lower as sometimes used in comparative anatomy.

2. That the cornua of the spinal cord, and the spinal nerve-roots,

be designated as dorsal and ventral rather than as posterior and anterior.

3. That the costiferous vertebrz be called ¢horqec rather than dorsal.

4. That the hippocampus minor be called calcar ; the hippocampus ma-

Jor, hippocampus ; the pons Varolit, pons; the insula Retlit, insula;

pia mater and dura mater, respectively pia and dura.”’

Signed by all the members. . ; Joseren Lemy, Chairman.

HARRISON ALLEN,

FRANK BAKER,

Tuomas B. STOWELL,

Burr G. WILDER.

Thomas Dwight was added to the committee.

The Committee desire frank and full expressions of opinion from

scientific and medical journals, from individuals who receive copies,

and from any others who are interested in the subject.

Burr G. WILDER, Sec’y.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Alvarenga Prize, of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia,

consisting of one year’s income of the bequest of the Sefior Alvar-

enga, of Lisbon, has been awarded to Dr. R. W. Philip, of the Vic-

toria Dispensary for Consumption and Diseases of the Chest, Edin-

burgh, for his Essay on Pulmonary Tuberculosis, which will be pub-

lished by the College.

Entomological Club, A. A. A. S.—The Entomological Club

of the A. A. A. S. will meet at Indianapolis, August 20, at 9 A. M.

There should be a large attendance of entomologists at this meeting,

especially of those in the West. „The officers are: Professor A. J.

Cook, President, and F. M. Webster, Secretary, and both are doing all

in their power to make the meeting a success. Professor Cook writes :

** Please urge a large attendance from both Canada and the es

States. All are invited to be present, and to bring or send papers.”

PLAIR XXIV.

Fig. |

Fig. 2.

Astrobunus nigrum (Say).

& Torr»

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXIV. AUGUST, 189o. 284.

THE EXTINCT SIRENIA.

BY E. D. COPE.

T HE Sirenia occupy an especial place in the mammalian econ-

omy, which is only shared by the seals. They are denizens

of the coasts of the sea and its branches, and of the larger rivers.

Their present distribution differs from that of the seals in that it

especially includes the tropics, where seals are rare; and excludes

the polar regions, where seals abound. Extinct forms occur,

however, in all the northern temperate regions that have been

explored, and there is no reason to doubt that the order was of

world-wide distribution during the early and middle parts of

Czenozoic time.

The derivation of the Sirenia is shrouded in mystery. They

have evidently diverged from land mammals of primitive placental

type, and have become specialized in accordance with their

peculiar modes of life, and have in many respects degenerated.

Rudiments of pelvis and posterior limbs are present in most of

them, and they are especially large in some species of the extinct

genus Halitherium. Part of such a pelvis from South Carolina

is represented in Plate XXV, Fig. 6. The dentition has become

more and more reduced, till the enamel layer is lost in Halicore,

and the teeth have all disappeared in Rhytina. The least gen-

eralized form is Prorastomus Owen, of which remains of a single

species (P. sirenoides) have been found in the late Cenozoic beds

of certain islands of the West Indies. Here the dentition is

stated by Lydekker to be: 1.3; C.¢; M. $?.

p

698 The American Naturalist. [August,

The families of this order are the following :

Incisors present in normal number; canines pres-

ent; molars numerous, rooted, and enamel-

covered ; Prorastomide.

Incisors, in less than normal number ; no canines ;

molars in normal number, rooted, and enamel-

covered ; Halitheride.

No incisors; molars present, covered with enamel,

and in increased number ; Manatide.

Incisors present; molars prismatic, without enamel,

and in reduced number ; Halıcoride.

Teeth none ; Rhytinide.

The ProrAstomip# includes but the one genus, Proras-

tomus Owen, and this the single species P. sirenoides Owen.

This is a highly interesting form, having a dentition inter-

mediate between that characteristic of other members of the

order and the typical mammalian formula. This is especially

true in the normally constituted incisor and canine teeth. The

molars are, like those of the manatees, cross-crested grinders,

and in larger number than that normal to mammalia generally.

The single species has been found in beds of uncertain but

probably Eocene age in the West Indian Island of Jamaica.

The greater number of extinct Sirenia belong to the HALI-

THERIIDE, and they occur alike in the old world and in the new.

The genera are as follows:

Incisors 3; molars?; Dioplotherium Cope.

Incisors 4; molars 6 or 7, the last superior .

the most complex; symphysis decurved, com-

pressed ; Halitherium Kaup.

Incisors 1; premolars, 3; molars, 4, the last

superior reduced, simple ; Miosiren Dollo.

Incisors i; molars?; symphysis long, not de-

curved, cylindric; Anoplonassa Cope.

The incisors in the first three genera are tusk-like; in the last

they are in the lower jaw, with short root, and are easily shed.

Six or seven species of Halitherium are known from the Miocene

and Pliocene beds of Western and Southern Europe. The

1890.} The Extinct Sirenia. 699

H. schinzii Kaup from the lower Miocene of Germany (Fig. 1a) is

about as large as the manatee, while the Æ. forrestii Capellini is

much larger, and is from the lower Pliocene of Italy. The Miosiren

kocku Dollo is known from a skeleton from the Miocene of

Belgium. It was rather larger than the manatee, and was

nearest to the Halitheria. The principal difference is seen in

FIG. r.—Dentition ot Halitheriidz, two-thirds natural size, from Dollo. Fig. a

Helithet tum schinzii; 6, Miosiren kockii.

the reduced last superior molar tooth, which shows indications

of the reduction in number which took place in the dugong

(Fig. 14). The largest species supposed to belong to the family

is the Hemicaulodon effodens Cope, from New Jersey, which is

known from a large superior tooth only. The dentine of this

tooth has regular transverse ridges, which are also traceable in

a Halitherium (Z7. capgrandi Lart.), and it is covered by a layer

of cementum. As the molar teeth are unknown, the reference

of this animal to this family remains uncertain. The most primi-

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

tive form of the Halitheriidae known is the genus Dioplotherium

Cope, with two superior incisors. D. manigaultü is a large

species which was found near Charleston, S. Carolina, by Dr. G.

Manigault of that place (Plate XXV). The first incisor lacks the

distal expansion of that of Halitherium. The molars are unknown.

Another and still more remarkable form has been discovered

in the phosphatic deposits of South Carolina. This is the’ genus

Anoplonassa Cope, in which the symphysis of one of the jaws is

much elongated, is semi-cylindrical, and is not decurved as in the

other members of the family. The premolar and molar teeth

are shed at maturity, leaving indistinct traces, except, perhaps, the

anterior incisor, which is represented by a large, shallow alveolus,

and is perhaps not shed (Fig. 2). The muzzle is adapted to

egit

FIG. 2.—Anoplonassa forcipata Cope; one-fourth natural size. Original; from South

Carolina.

being inserted deep into mud in order to draw thence mollusca

or other kinds of food. But one species is known, the Axoplo-

nassa forcipata Cope. It is by no means certain that it belongs

here, and it may be a Cetacean.

The Manatip& are remarkable for the number of their molars.

In the genus Manatus there are eight in the permanent dentition,

and a ninth anterior tooth, which is early shed. "These molars

are all alike, and with two transverse crests in the upper jaw and

three in the lower. There is a minute incisor in the upper jaw,

which is shed early. Besides the three living species of Mana-

tus but few extinct species are known. Teeth resembling those

of the Floridan species have been found in the Charleston de-

posits, and have been named by Leidy M. fossis. A form

from the Eocene of Egypt has been named by Owen EZotherium

egyptiacum. Filhol does not distinguish the molars from those of

Manatus as to their structure, but their number is unknown.

PLATE XXV.

WW \ :

m

NG

\

RB |

Dioplotherium manigaultii Cope.

PLATE XXVI.

N3

^ D ‘em

> F .- a zu b

3 eere ce CA EI for URN HN

4 & 2t A un

Lj u T C

Halicore dugong Cuv.

1890.] The Extinct Sirena. 701

Fossil HALIcoRID are unknown, except some bones of very

FIG. 3.—Manatus americanus Cuv.; skull one-twelfth natural size; from Cuvier. *

ight side; 2, from above. a, Premaxillary bone; 5, foramen infrantitole; c, m. £

d, frontal; e, molar; /, ieee process of EEE g, parietal

late Tertiary age found in Australia. In the genus the

dental formula is I. 1; C. $; M. 3, and the molars are prismatic

and of cylindric or oval capes. as in some Edentata. (Plate

XXVI) The Ruytinips# are represented thus far by the typical

genus and species only, the R. gigas Zimm., which dwelt on

the coasts of Behring Sea up to a late period of human history.

It is one of the large species of mammalia exterminated by man,

and its bones are found in considerable abundance on Behring's

Island, Commander's Island, etc. Nearly complete skeletons are

702 The American Naturalist. [August,

preserved in the Museums of St. Petersburg, London, and Wash-

ington.

The lines of descent of the Sirenia may be expressed as fol-

lows:

Manatus. Miosiren. Rhytina.

Halitherium. Halicore.

Dioplotherium.

*

Prorastomus. .

x

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE XXV.—Dioplotherium manigaultii Cope. Three-eighths natural

size. Figs. 1-4, part of premaxillary bone with incisor alveoli, and I. 1 in

place; 1 outside; 2 inside; 3 front; 4 from below; a alveolus of external

incisor. Original; from type in Museum of Charleston, S. C. Figs. 6-7,

os innominatum of unknown Sirenian, from Charleston. Reduced.

PLATE XXVI.— Ha/icore dugong Cuv. Skeleton, from Cuvier.

THE CONCRESCENCE THEORY OF THE VERTE

BRATE EMBRYO.

BY CHARLES-SEDGWICK MINOT.

(Continued from page 629.)

Blastodermic Vesicle with Two Layers—Of this stage we have

several descriptions; for the rabbit by Kölliker (Grundriss, p. 89),

Hensen, 24, C. Rabl, 44, 141, as well as the older accounts by

Bischoff, 6, and Coste, rz, and the brief mention by Heape in

Foster and Balfour's Embryology, 2d edition, 316-320; for the

mole by Heape, 23; for the dog by Bischoff, 7; for the cat by

Schafer, 52; for the sheep by Bonnet, zo; and for several ro-

dents as indicated in the section on inversion of the germ layers,

Ky

; 1890] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 703

The two-layered stage is found in the rabbit about seven, in

the sheep about thirteen days after coitus. The dimensions for

the sheep are about 4 mm. for the greatest diameter and 2~3 mm.

for the lesser diameter.

The two layers form each a closed sack; the embryonic

shield is well marked asa round spot less translucent than the

walls elsewhere. The outer layer has everywhere a distinctly

epithelial character; in the region of the shield its cells are col-

umnar with spherical nuclei; in the rabbit the cells are low, and

the nuclei lie nearly at one level (for a good figure see Heape, 23,

Pl. xxı, Fig. 49); in the sheep the cells are taller, and the nuclei

are at various levels; in the mole and in various rodents there

are several layers apparently, but perhaps in them also the epi-

thelium is columnar, as it certainly is later; at the edge of the

shield there is an abrupt change to a very thin layer, with widely :

expanded cells; consequently in the region of the shield the nu-

clei are close set, while outside the shield they are wider apart.

The change at the edge of the shield is at first less abrupt, but

at the present stage is very marked. A similar difference exists

in the inner layer: although its cells are very much thinned out

everywhere, yet the layer is slightly thicker in the region of the

shield; the nuclei of the inner layer are everywhere somewhat

flattened, arid they are larger and farther apart than the

nuclei of the outer layer, a difference which is very obvious in

surface views, hoth during this and the next following stages. The

inner layer has an epithelial character in the region of the shield,

but further away the cells move apart, and being connected by

processes resemble embryonic connective tissue (Bonnet, 70, 192;

Hensen, 24, Figs. 15 and 11B on Taf vii; E. Van Beneden, 2).

The relations are illustrated by the accompanying Fig. 17,

representing the shield in the sheep at thirteen days, and of a

vesicle measuring 4 mm. by 2 mm.; at the left of the figure the

layers are folded back over the shield.

The next changes which occur are principally those of growth,

both of the vesicle as a whole and of the embryonic shield;

which also begins to arch up; the vesicle and shield both become

oval; usually the oval shield lies lengthwise, but in the deer, as

704 The American Naturalist. [August,

shown by Bischoff, it lies transversely of the vesicle. The size of

the shield is quite nearly uniform among the placented mammals

in which it has been studied, but the size of the vesicle varies ex-

tremely ; especially noteworthy is the excessively rapid elonga-

Fic. 17.—Transverse section of the embryonic shield of the blastodermic vesicle of

a sheep, en days pregnant, after Bonnet. a, outer layer of shield; 4, inner layer of

shield.

tion in ungulates (pig, sheep, goat, and deer) ; in the sheep, for ex-

. ample, it trebles or sextuples its length in less than a single day

after the shield appears. The next step is the appearance of a

middle layer, at least in sheep (Bonnet, 70, 192-196, 17, 42),

which shows in the fresh specimen as a slight turbidity of the

vesicular walls just outside the edge of the shield, while in the

region of the shield there is no middle layer whatever. Sections

show that the new layer consists of loosely scattered cells con-

nected by anastomosing processes. It is everywhere absolutely

distinct from the outer layer, but merges at many pojnts with the

inner layer. From this connection Bonnet concludes that the

middle layer is derived from the inner layer by what must be

called a process of delamination. So far as known to me, noth-

ing analogous to this middle layer has yet been observed other

mammals. The next important step, again according to Bonnet,

10,195, is the appearance of Hensen's knot, which takes place

while the peripheral middle layer is developing. The knot is at

first a small thickening on the under side of the outer layer; it is

situated on the middle line of the shield, a little nearer one end

than the other. It is distinctly separated from the inner layer,

but is connected with the cells of the middle layer, which have

now developed themselves in the middle region of the shield

also. Bonnet maintains that the knot gives off cells which con-

tribute to the formation of the middle layer. The knot marks

. the front end of the future primitive streak. :

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 705

The appearances in a sheep’s ovum at this stage are illustrated by

Fig. 18 of a vesicle of 12-13 days from a sheep; the vesicle meas-

ured 55 mm. in length by about 1.5 in breadth, but the length of

the vesicle is extremely variable at this stage; the specimen had

been stained to bring out the small close-set nuclei of the outer

layer, and the larger, more widely-set nuclei of the inner layer.

The upwards-arching embryonic shield, SZ, shows Hensen’s knot,

kn, and the beginning primitive streak, around the edge of the

shield the middle layer makes an irregular shadow, mes.

A condition of the blastodermic vesicle similar to that described

is figured by Coste for the rabbit, by Bischoff for the rabbit 6, Taf.

IX, Fig. 42, C,—for the dog,

7, Taf. nr, Fig. 28, B; and the

gradual extension of the second

layer is recorded for the mole by

Heape, 23. Since it is known to

occur in rodents, carnivora, and

. insectivora, it is probably true of

all placental mammals that the

one-layered vesicle becomes two-

layered by the outgrowth of cells

for the *inner mass" found at

the close of segmentation; this

is the first step of development

after segmentation.

Rauber's Deckschicht has evi-

: dently great importance. It was

ceca ie portion of a sheep’s first described by him in the

O

ic vesicle of 12-13 days. Sh, : ? :

M. Messer knot, wey, * Mews rabbit, 25 ; and was also dis-

Shield; 4”, H

blasthof” ; after Bonnet, 34 diams. covered by E. Van Beneden, 7,

who, however, made the blunder of considering it as the perma-

nent ectoderm, and the true ectoderm below it as the mesoderm ;

this error has been amply corrected by Kölliker, and is now

admitted by Van Beneden (see Van Beneden and Julin, 7). Its

disappearance in the rabbit has also been studied by Lieberkühn,

41. Balfour (Comp. Embryol, II., 219), from investigations on the

rabbit by himself and Heape, concluded that the cells of the deck-

706 The American Naturalist. [August,

schicht disappear by being incorporated in the true ectodermal

layer, becoming at the same time columnar; this view is verified

by Lieberkühn, 42, 400-401. As already stated, the rodent

modification of the deckschicht is discussed below, page 711. In

the rabbit the deckschicht disappears before the second layer of

cells grows completely round the vesicle.

Blastodermic Vesicles with Primitive Streak—The knot of Hen-

sen becomes the front end of the primitive streak, which lengthens

backward ; during the same period the vesicle as a whole en-

larges; in ruminants the enlargement is enormous and very rapid.’

= The primitive streak always lies in the

long axis of the shield. The formation

of the primitive streak begins with the

union of Hensen’s knot with the inner,

layer, so that at the knot all three layers

are actually united, —the condition origi-

nally discovered by Hensen, 24, 268.

The union of the knot with the inner

layer spreads backward along the line

which is to become the primitive streak ;

soon the axial growth reaches the edge

of the shield, and the streak and shield

elongate together, the latter becoming

Pid sd rn nic shield POinted at its hinder end. We thus have

of a rabbit's ovum of five days, a pear-shaped shield, with the primitive

een streak running forward from its pointed

m', m"; after Kölliker, 2g end; the anterior end of the primitive

Ren streak is somewhat enlarged, and the

posterior end is considerably thickened; the three layers are

united along the primitive streak. Figure 19 represents the

embryonic shield of a rabbit embryo; the shield measured 1.34

mm. in length, and 0.85 mm. in width; the primitive streak is a

broad band, corresponding to the axial thickening, and extends

about two-thirds of the length of the shield; the middle layer,

m’, m", occupies a circular area around the hind end of the streak ;

! Bonnet states that in the sheep the blastodermic vesicles must elongate during this

period at the rate of one centimetre an hour.

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 707

for a similar stage in the opossum see Selenka, 57, Taf. xvi,

Fig. 6; in the mole, Heape, 23, Pl. xxvi., Fig. 12; in the sheep,

Bonnet, zo, Taf. x., Figs. 39, 40. Cross sections show: the con-

crescence of the three layers in the axis; the greater width of the

streak in front (to this wide anterior end of the streak the term

Hensen’s knot continues to be applied); and show also the

increasing thickness of the streak posteriorly. The primitive

groove, which is a shallow depression of the outer layer, appears

first over Hensen’s knot, and thence extends gradually backward

along the median line of the primitive streak. A transverse sec-

tion through about the middle of the streak at this stage in the

mole is represented in Fig. 20, and may be considered thoroughly

typical.

Ua Sere

RAN)

LONDON

HD ^

X OO GrP

RG

;

FIG. 20.—Section of the primitive streak of the mole; rg., primitive groove;

Ec., éctoderm; mes., mesoderm; Zs.,entoderm; Pr., primitive streak; after Heape.

(In sections nearer the hind end the groove Pr. does not appear; and the inner layer is

distinct, though not separated axially from the middle layer.)

Blastodermtic Vesicles with Primitive Streak and Head-Process.—

In the stage we are now considering the axial thickening

becomes sub-divided into two parts, an anterior known as the

head-process, (Kopffortsatz), and the true primitive streak. The

two are distinguished by the fact that the axial thickening in the

region of the process is separated from the outer layer, but fused

with the inner layer, while in the region of the streak it is united

with the outer layer. At this stage we find further that, except at

the anterior end, 7. e., in the region of Hensen’s knot, the axial

thickening of the streak is not connected with the inner layer.

Hence cross sections may give us three different appearances,

according to the level at which they are taken.

The head-process was first distinguished, so far as I am aware,

by Kölliker, 32, also (Entw. ges., 1879, p. 271). Lieberkühn, 42,

708 The American Naturalist. [August,

first showed that in it appears a small longitudinal canal, the

walls of which form the notochord. Heape, 23, discovered that

the hinder end of this canal opens exteriorly in the mole, and

Bonnet, zo, made the same observation on sheep. Strahl

describes the “ process ” in the rabbit incidentally in his paper on

cloaca, 63 ; additional information is given by Bonnet, 77, 65—75,

concerning the sheep, and by C. Rabl, 74, concerning the rabbit.

Especially valuable is Fr. Carius’ dissertation, z3. In the guinea

pig, according to Carius, after the formation of the primitive

streak, the middle layer grows out in al directions, and lies free

between the inner and outer layers. In front of the primitive

streak the outgrowth takes place in three divisions, one median,

two lateral The median outgrowth is the head-process, and it

becomes later united with the inner layer, but at first lies entirely

free (embryo of 13-14 days). The first indication of the forma-

tion of a canal is an alteration of form in the cells, which elongate

in directions at right angles to the axis of the head-process, so

that their oval nuclei are radially placed. The change begins

posteriorly and progresses forward; while it is going on, the

anterior extremity of the head-process fuses with the inner layer.

The radial cells moveapart, so that there arises a longitudinal canal ;

subsequently the canal loses its inferior wall,sothat it becomes con-

tinuous as a cavity with the cavity ofthe vesicle formed by the inner

layer. In the rabbit the head-process is always free at first, but very

early unites with the inner layer, in which condition it was found

by Carius, 73, 18-19, at 71% days? In the rabbit Hensen's

knot presents at this stage a small depression (the front end of the

primitive groove), into which a small plug of tissue projects up

from the underlying axial thickening (Carius, Fig. 7); Van Bene-

den homologizes this with the anus of Rusconi and its plug of

yolk matter, but inasmuch as the rabbit and bats are the only

mammals known to have such a plug, and as theanus of Rusconi

is necessarily at the hind end of the primitive streak, Van Bene-

2? C. Rabl UHR sedo re INE expressly that in the rabbit the axial thickening is not

RSEN qut den

were probably defective ; indeed his own m un at once that the inner layer has

been artificially separated from the overlying on

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 709

den’s homology seems to me utterly baseless, The relations of

the head-process in the sheep are very much as in the rabbit,

Bonnet, 77, 65-67 ; the cells of the middle layer are at first free

as they grow forward to form the process, but subsequently are

found united with the inner layer.

The head-process (cf. Lieberkühn, 43) probably always grows,

as is certainly the case in the guinea pig, at its hinder end and at

the expense of the primitive streak; it is, I think, in this manner

that the often-noticed shortening and final disappearance of the

streak is effected. The back growth of the process establishes

the necessary condition for the growth of the notochord at its

hind end.

Homologies of the Mammalian Blastocyst.—There is at present

no satisfactory and generally accepted interpretation of the parts

of the mammalian blastocyst as compared with the corresponding

stages of other vertebrates. The principal difficulties are two,

namely: 1, the development of the two-layered stage; 2, the

identification of archenteric cavity.

I. The two-layered stage is said to develop by an zuzer layer

growing out in all directions from the inner mass of cells left at

the close of segmentation. Now we must look on this statement

with great suspicion, because in a// other vertebrates it is the ecto-

derm which grows over the ovum; it is therefore improbable

that in mammals it is the entoderm; and, in fact, I cannot find

anywhere any definite observations to show that it is the inner

layer the spreading of which renders the blastodermic vesicle

two-layered. If the current statement proves erroneous, then we

shall gain much towards a direct comparison of mammalian de-

velopment with that of other vertebrates.

2. The permanent archenteric cavity arises from two sources,

namely: the large space of the vesicle enclosed by the inner

layer, and secondly, the so-called chorda-canal of the Kopffort-

satz. Concerning the homologies of the latter, three views have

been advanced: 1, it is the homologue of the tubular noto-

chord; 2, it is the true archenteric cavity (E. Van Beneden, 3);

3, it is the blastoporic canal (Minot, 1887, Buck’s Reference

Handb., VL, p. 247). The third view is the one which I adopt.

710 The American Naturalist. [August,

Against'the first view it is to be urged that the tubular stage ot

the notochord does not appear actually, but is assumed for lower

vertebrates, because the chorda appears in them as a groove and

as afterwards separated off, and although it is then a solid rod of

cells it has been considered to represent an epithelial tube ; more-

over, this stage occurs after the notochord is permanently sepa-

rated from the entoderm, and finally the whole of the rod of cells

(or walls of the chordal tube) participates in the formation of the

notochord. The mammalian “chorda-canal” is a true tube,

which the notochord is not; it fuses with the entoderm, and the

true notochord is separated off subsequently, only the dorsal

part of its walls produces notochordal cells. These characteris-

tics are, on the other hand, precisely those which belong to that

hinder portion of the archenteron which we call in other verte-

brates the blastoporic canal ; this canal produces the notochordal

cells from its dorsal wall; it passes through a mass of cells, and

lies in Sauropsida (the vertebrates nearest the mammals) above

the archenteric cavity proper. Against the second view—E. Van

Beneden’s—that the “ chorda-canal”’ is the archenteron, it is to be

remarked that the archenteron is bounded above by entodermal

cells and below by the entodermal yolk, and the representative of

the yolk is not to be found in the lower wall of the “ chorda-

canal.” Hence it seems to me clear that Minot’s view is the only

defensible one, for the chorda-canal agrees in its essential features

with the blastoporic canal of vertebrates, and only with that

canal.

If this homology is correct then the canal must lead into the

archenteron; hence the large space within the inner layer must

be homologous with the archenteron, because the chorda-canal.

opens into it. This leaves us still entirely in the dark as to how

the development of the mammalian entodermal canal is to be

homologized with its development in other vertebrates.

According to the view I have advocated, the blastoporic canal

of mammals is peculiar in persisting for a long time as a separate

canal above the archenteron, and then losing its lower wall along

_ a considerable stretch at once; in other vertebrates it loses in front

as fast as it grows behind, so that it is always short.

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 2

As regards the homologies of the layers, I consider that the

outer layer of the vesicle is ectoderm, and the thickening which

constitutes the embryonic shield corresponds to the ectodermal

thickening of the embryonic area in Sauropsida; the inner layer

and the lining of the “chorda-canal” (blastoporic) is the

entoderm ; the remaining tissue of the primitive streak and head-

process, together with the middle layer, constitute the mesoderm.

In order not to prejudge the question, the names of the germ-

layers have not been used in the preceding description of the

blastodermic vesicle.

Inversion of the Germ-Layers in Rodents—In many but not all

rodents the outer layer, Rauber's Deckschicht, of the embryonic

shield undergoes a remarkable hypertrophy immediately after the

close of segmentation proper; the deckschicht, together with the

ectoderm underlying it, becomes a plug which pushes in the other

layers, thereby profoundly altering the topography of the ovum.

In the mole, Heape, 23, the hypertrophy is not very great, and

the plug disappears soon, so that there is no great change; in

guinea pigs, mice, and Arvicola the plug becomes very large, and

remains for a long time. The plug is very long, and the ovum

elongates with it, changing into an almost cylindrical vesicle

(Selenka's Keimcylinder). The plug becomes hollow, and the

cells corresponding to the deckschicht become separated from

those which are to form the ectoderm of the embryo. Three mod-

ifications of the hollowing out of the plug and of the separation

of its two parts are known. The changes referred to are very clearly

illustrated by Selenka, 56, Taf. xvr., ina series of comparative dia-

grammatic figures. In the simplest case, Fig. 21, the plug acquires

a single cavity, 2; the cells around the upper end, D, correspond to

the deckschicht, and serve partly to attach the ovum to the uterine

walls ; the cells, £c, around the lower end of the .cavity become

the embryonic ectoderm; all the cells around the cavity, a,

are homologous with the outer layer of the embryonic shield of

other mammals. The cavity, c, of the vesicle is very much re-

duced; the inner side of the shield, z. e., of the plug, is lined by

an inner layer, ez, which gives rise to the entoderm. The outer

layer of the vesicle is very thin, and is found to unite very closely

712 The American Naturalist. [August,

with the walls of the uterus. Hence, when the uterus is opened

only the hollow plug and its covering of entoderm can be removed;

as it makes a two-walled vesicle, it was considered to represent by

itself the two-layered stage of the blastodermic vesicle. Thus it

came that Bischoff believed that in various rodents the ecto-

derm lies inside, the entoderm outside. Bischoff’s observations,

4, 9, which have been confirmed by Reichert, 77, are correct, but

the inversion of the layers is apparent, not real. The actual

homologies were not discovered until the im-

provements in microscopic technique enabled

Selenka, 55, 56, and Kupffer, 38, to make

An

9

o

0,0508 sections of uteri with ova in situ, and in their

9.8 o 2 : \ :

| (eS coos sections to find the true outer layer. Their

OR 996

^

observations removed at once the apparent

anomaly in the position of the germ-layers.

Their results have been in the main confirmed

by Fraser, 20, and extended to another species

by Biehringer, 5.

IEn In Mus decumanus the ectodermal cells

early become a separate spherical mass, thus

dividing the plug into two parts; a cavity

appears in each part; these two cavities soon

aticus, after Selenka. become confluent, and the inner layer of cells

, having meanwhile developed, the relations

blastodermie vesicle; become essentially identical with those in

En, entoderm, ol, Mus sylvaticus, Fig. 21. In Mus musculus the

outer layer. gaye : = j

ie

o

b)

so.

Qo

29

"o6 0

o0

a Q

p t is similar, butthere i

peculiarity that the deckschicht is regularly invaginated at first,

so as to form a small pit, into which living tissue grows. In

Arvicola this invagination is more marked and lasts longer, but

in both cases it is early obliterated.

Arvicola represents the second modification mentioned above;

it has not only the invagination to distinguish it, but also the very

early formation of the cavity of the plug as a fissure between the

deckschicht and the true ectoderm cells.

The guinea pig offers the third modification, and is characterized

by the early complete separation of the plug into its two parts;

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 713

the deckschicht remains at one end of the ovum and forms the

träger ; it acquires an independent cavity of its own; the ecto-

dermal portion of the plug forms a solid spherical mass, which is

transported to the opposite pole of the ovum ; it subsequently be-

comes hollowed out, presenting a space, which, as the later devel-

opment shows, is the amniotic cavity. The inner layer passes

from the edge of the träger around the sphere of ectoderm ; if

the two parts of the plug were connected the relations of the inner

layer would be the same as in Mus sylvatieus, Fig. 21.

The subsequent development of the rodents with inverted

layers is modified in various secondary features, which it will be

unnecessary for us to study. In all typical respects the embryonic

development agrees with that of other mammals, even as to details.

Blastopore—The blastopore is the small opening which is

situated at the end of the primitive streak, and leads into the

archenteric cavity ; the portion of the archenteron, which is next

the blastopore, is a narrow passage through the thick mass of cells

which make the posterior part of the primitive streak; this pas-

sage is called the blastopore canal; from its dorsal wall the cells

arise which form the notochord.

While concrescence is going on the blastopore ne its

position, being always at the end of the archenteron ; after con-

crescence is completed the archenteron expands so as to extend

below the primitive streak, behind the blastopore; hence the blas-

toporic canal appears as shown in Fig. 22, like a separate tube;

it must not, however, be forgotten that it is part of the archenteron.

The blastoporic canal remains open in marsipobranchs,

ganoids, amphibians, and selachians, and is well known. It is

also found in all the amniota, but the recognition of its occur-

rence in this group was long hindered by the fact that it does not

exist at first as a canal. The blastopore is the opening of a tube

through the primitive streak ; now if the cavity of this tube is

obliterated by its walls growing together, then the primitive

streak would become a solid mass of cells; this is the condition

we actually find in the amniota, Fig. 22 A; since the posterior part

of the primitive streak is morphologically the thick walls of the

blastopore, the homologies are not altered by the temporary ob-

Am. -Nat.—August.—2.

[August,

The American Naturalist.

Its development has been especially studied in reptiles

literation of the canal, which moreover appears as such in later

714

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1 890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 715

Concrescence involves necessarily the gradual recession of the

blastopore; in most vertebrates the blastoporic canal merges at

its front end into the main archenteric cavity, but in mammals, if

the homologies I have drawn above be correct, the canal persists

for a considerable period as the “chorda-canal” of German

writers.

The blastopore is not homologous with the gastrula mouth,

but is merely a small portion thereof; in front of it the gastrula

mouth is closed by concrescence ; while concrescence is going

on there will be a part of the gastrula mouth open behind the

blastopore ; when concrescence is completed the blastopore is at

the end of the elongated gastrula mouth, the lips of which are

united throughout the remainder of their length. The blastopore

is not a fixed point, being merely the opening of the closed

archenteron, and as by concrescence the archenteron is elongated,

in precisely the same measure the blastopore travels backward,

AUTHORITIES CITED.

I. BENEDEN, Ep. VAN. La maturation de l'oeuf, ia fécondation et les

premières phases du développement embryonnaire des mammifères d'après

vin recherches faites chez le Lapin. Journ. Zool., V., 10-56, 1876.

——. Recherches sur l' embryologie des mammifères. La formation

ds uiet chez le Lapin. Arch Biol., I., 136-224. Pls. IV.—VI., 1880.

3- . Untersuchungen über die Blätterbildung den Chordakanal und

die Gastrulation bei den Säugetieren. Anat. Anz., III., 709-714, 1888.

4. BENEDEN, ED. JULIN, CHARLES. Recherches sur la formation des

annexes foetales chez les mammifères (Lapin et Cheiroptéra). Arch. Biol.,

V., fasc. 3, pp. 369-434. Pls. XX.-XXIV., 1884

5. BIEHRINGER, JOACHIM. Ueber die ing der Keimblätter bei

der Scheermaus (Arvicola amphibius Desm,). Arch. Anat. Physiol. Anat.

Abth., 279-286. Taf. XVII., 1888.

6. BiscHorr, THEO. L. W. Entwickelungsgeschichte des Kanin-

cheneies Braunschweig, 4°, pp. X., 154. 16 Taf., 1842.

Entwicklungsgeschichte des Hunde-Eies. Braunschweig, 134

PP-, LER pr o 1845.

Entwicklungsgeschichte des Meerschweinchens. Giessen, 4°,

pp. 2 3 Taf. vili. 1852.

9. Neue Beobachtungen zur Entwicklungsgechichte des Meer-

schweinchen. Abth. Bayr. Akad, cl.2. X., 115-166. Taf. VIL-X., 1870.

716 The Amerwan Naturalist. [August,

to. BONNET, R. Beiträge zur Embryologie der Wiederkäuer gewonnen

am Schafei. Arch. f. Anat. u. Entwick. Anat. Abth., 170-230. Taf. IX.-

XL, [EA

Beiträge zur Embryologie der Wiederkäuer gewonnen am

Sehati (Fortsetzung). Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. Anat. Abth., 1-106, Taf. I.—

VI., 1889.

. BRA Die Entwicklung des Wellenpapageis (Melopsittacus

FRE s nee L-II. Arb. zool., zool. Inst. Würzburg, V., 161-204 ;

205-341 Taf. VIIL-XIV., 1882.

13. CARIUS, FR. Ueber die Entwicklung der Chorda und der primitiven

Rachenhaut bei Meerschweinen und Kaninchen. 8vo, pp. 33, Taf. I.

Marburg (Inaug. Diss.), 1888.

14. COSTE, JEAN JACQUES. Histoire générale et particuliére du Devel-

oppement des corps organisés. 4°, L, Il. (une fascicule,) 1859. Atlas

folio, 50 Pl. Paris. Victor Masson, 1847.

15. DISSE, J. Die Entwicklung des mittleren Keimblattes im Hühnerei.

Arch. f. mikr. Anat., XV., 67-94. Taf. V., 1878

16. ——. Die Enstehung des Blutes und ersten Gefässes im Hühnerei.

Arch. f. mikr. Anat, XVI., 545—592. Taf. XXVI.-XXVIII., 1879.

17. Duvar, M. Études sur la ligne primitive de I’ embryon du poulet.

Ann. Sci. Nat., 7 Ser. VIL, Art.7 48 pp., Pls. XIII-XVIII., 1878.

18. ——. Dela formation du Blastoderme dans l' oeuf d' oiseau. Ann.

Sci. Nat. Zool., XVIII., Ser. 6, 1—208, Pls. I.-V., 1884.

19. Études histologiques et morphologiques sur les annexes des embryon

d'oiseau. Robin's Jour. Anat.et Physiol., XX., 201-241, Pl. IX.-XII., 1884.

20. FRASER, A. On the Inversion of the Blastodermic Layers in the

Rat and Mouse. Proc. Roy. Soc. London, XXXIV., 430-437, 1883

21. GassER, E. Ueber den Primitivstreif bei Vogelembryonen. Sitzb.

ye Beförd ges. Naturw. Marburg. 100-103, I

Der Primitivstreifen bei Vogelembryonen (Huhn and Gans).

Schsiten Ges. Beförd. ges. Naturw. Marburg., II., 1-98. Taf. I.-X., 1879.

23. HEAPE, WALTER. The development of die mole ( Talpa europea).

The formation of the germinal layers, and development of the medullary

groove and notochord. ©. J. M.S., XXIII., 412-452, Pl. XXVIII.-—XXXI.

Studies Morph. Lab. Cambridge, II., 29-75, Pl. VI.-IX., 1883.

HENSEN, VICTOR von. Beobachtungen ueber die Befruchtung und

Entwickelung des Kaninchens und des ee Zeitschr.

Anat. Entwick., L, 211-213; 353-423. Taf. VIL-XII

25. Hıs, WILHELM. Untersuchungen über die erste ee des Wirbel-

thierleibes. Die erste Entwickelung des Hiihnchens im Ei. Leipzig, 237

pp., 12 Taf., 1868.

26. ——. Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung der Knochenfische,

besonders über diejenige der Salmens. Z. f. Anat. u. Entwick., I., 1-39,

Taf. I.-II., 1876.

)

1890.] Concrescence Theory of the Vertebrate Embryo. 717

27, . Ueber die Bildung der Haifischenembryonen. Zeitsch. f. Anat,

u. Entwick., II., 108-124. Taf. VIIL, 1877.

28. . Neue Untersuchungen über die Bildung des rg

I. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., Anat. Abth., 112-187. Taf. V.-VI.,

29. ——. e Lehre von einem Bindesubstanzkeim Parse Ruck-

blick nebst Aci) Ai einiger neuerer entwicklungsgeschlichtlicher

Arbeiten. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys., Anat. Abth., 12-108, 1882.

30. KOLLER,C. Beiträge zur Kenntniss des Hühnerkeims im Beginne der

Bebrütung, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss., LXXX., III Abth., 316-329. Taf. I., 1879.

Zt. . Untersuchungen über die Blatterbildung am Hühnerkeim.

Archiv. f. mikr. Anat., XX., 174-211. Taf. X.-XII., 1882.

32. KOLLIKER, A. Ueber die Chordahölle und die Bildung der Chorda

beim Kaninchen. Sitzb. Würzburg Phys. Med. Ges., 2-9, 1885.

33. KoLLMANN, J. Gemeinsame Entwickelungsbahnen der Wirbelthiere.

His, Arch., 279-306. Taf. XII., 1885.

34. KUPFFER, C. Untersuchungen über die Entwicklung des Harn- u

Geschlechts-systems. Arch. f. mikr. Anat., II. ,473-489. Taf. XXIV., 1866.

LT . Beobachtungen über die Entwicklung der Knochenfische.

M. Schultze’s Arch. f. mikr. Anat., IV., 209-272. Taf. XVI.-XVIIL, 1868.

36. Die Gastrulation an den Meroblastischen Eiern der Wirbel-

thiere und die Bedeutung des Primitivstreifens. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys.,

Anat. Abth., 1-28, 139-154. Taf. I.-IV., VIIL-IX , 1882.

a . Ueber active Betheiligung des Dotters am Befruchtungsacte

bei Bufo variabilis und vulgaris. Sitzb. Münch. Acad., XII., 608-618, 1882.

38. Das Ei von Arvicola arvalis und die Verineintliche Umkehr

der Keimblätter an demselben. Sitzb. math.-phys. Klasse, Münchener

Akad., 621-637. ı Taf., 1882.

39. ——. Die Gastrulation an den Meroblastischen Eiern der Wirbel-

thiere und die Bedeutung des Primitivstreifs. Fortsetzung. Arch. f. Anat.

u. Physiol., Anat. Abth., 1-40. Taf. 1.-II., 1884.

41. LIEBERKUHN, N. Ueber die Keimblatter der Säugethiere. Gratula-

tionschrift zur 50-jahrigen Doctor-Jubelfeier des Herrn Hermann Nasse.

Funzigjahe Doctor-Jubelfeier Hetrn Hermann Nasse. Marburg, 4°, 26 pp.

1 Taf., 1879.

42. . Ueber des Chorda bei Säugethieren. Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys.,

jns Abth., pp. 399-438. Taf. XX.-XXI., 1882.

——. Ueber die Chorda bei Säugethieren. Fortsetzung, Arch. Anat.

gu Anat. Abth., pp. 435-452. Taf. XIX., 1884.

44. RABL, C. Theorie des Mesoderms. Morph. J. B., XV., 113-250. Taf,

VII.-X., 1889.

45. RAUBER, A. Die erste Entwickelung des Kaninchens. Sitzb. Leip-

zig nat. forsch. Ges., 103, 1875.

718 The American Naturalıst. [August,

46. ——. Primitivrinne und Urmund. Beitrag zur Entwicklungsgeschichte

des Hühnchens. Morphol. Jahr., II., 550-576. Taf. XXXVII.-XXXVIIL,

1876.

47. REICHERT, C. B. Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeshichte des Meer-

schweinchens. Abhand. k. Akad. Wiss., Berlin, 97-216, 1862

48. RÜCKERT, J. Ueber die Anlange des mittleren Keimblattes und die

erste Blutbildung bei Torpedo. Anat. Anz., II. (4) 97-112; (6) 154-176

1887.

49. RYDER, J. A. Development of the Silver Gar (Belone longirostris),

with observations on the genesis of the blood in embryo fishes, and a com-

parison of fish ova with those of gem vertebrates. Bull. U. S. Fish.

Comm., I., 283-335. Pl. XIX.-XXI.,

50. The archistome theory. gone NATURALIST, XIX.,

Dw 1885.

On the formation of the embryonic axis of the teleostean

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1876.

53. Schwarz, D. Untersuchungen des Schwanzendes bei Embryonen

der Wirbelthiere. Zeitschr. wiss. Zool, XLVIIL, Aft. 2, 191-224. Taf.

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1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 719

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Abth., pp. ı-43. Taf. I., 1833.

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Primitivstreifen bei der Entwicklung der Hühnerembryo. Z. rat M

XXXIV., 159-178. Taf. X.-XI., 1869.

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Microscop. Science, N. S., XVIIL, Pls. XII.-XV., 1878.

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the question of the formation of the vertebrateembryo. Q. J. M. S., XXIII.,

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THE HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.

BY E. L. STURTEVANT.

(Continued from page 646.)

' SKIRRET. Sium sisarum L.

HIS plant seems to have been unknown to the ancients; cer-

tainly no mention can be found of an umbillifer with

grouped and divergent roots, the peculiarity of the Skirret alone

among European cultivated plants of this order. In the six-

teenth century the name siser was applied to the carrot as well as

to the Skirret, as by Camerarius' who describes siser, the sisaron

of the Greeks, as a correct Skirret, and under siser alterum, Ital-

ian carota bianca, German gierlin, Spanish chirivias, French

chervy or girolles or carottes blanche, as a carrot, and other illus-

trations of this period and earlier might be given. Fuchsius? in

1 Camerarius. Epitome, 1586, 2e6, 227.

2 Fuchsius. De Stirp., 1542, 752-

720 The American Naturalıst. [ August,

1542 figures the Skirret, as does also Ruellius? in 1550, Tragus*

in 1552, and many others after this time, and it was well known

in Europe as a plant of culture at this period. It perhaps came,

says Decandolle,> from Siberia to Russia, and from thence into

Germany. It is not named by Turner® in 1538, but isin 1551,’ and

in 1570 the Adversaria gives the English name as scyrret. It was

in American gardens in 1775? There are no varieties described.

The modern names of the Skirret are: In France, chervis,

chirouis, giroles; in Germany, Zuckerwurzel; in Flanders,

suiberwortel ; in Denmark, sukkerrod ; in Italy, szsaro ; in Spain,

chirivia tudesca ; in Portugal, cherivia ;? in Scotland, crummock ;"

in India, cheena aloo ;" in Japan, muskago nisin sjakuna.”

- The ancient names, as given by J. Bauhin,? are: For Germany»

gierlin, gierlen, geyerlein, gorlin, gerlin, klingei, rublin, garten

rapunzel, zam rapunzel, klein morellen, klingel mohren, girgele,

girgehn, and, above all others, zucker wurtsel; in Belgian,

suycker wortelen, serillen; in French, esthervis, chervits, chervy,

gyroles ; in Italy, sisaro,; in Spain, cherivias, chirivias, chirimas ;

in English, seyrret.

SNAILS. Medicago scutellata All.

This plant is not edible, but like the caterpillar-plant is grown

on account of the singular shape of its seed-vessels. It was in

Belgian and German gardens preceding 1616, and in American

gardens in 1863 or before.”

Called in France, macon; in Germany, schnirkel-schnecke,

schneckenklee ; in Spain, caracol.

EIER "ipte: 1550, 239

Burr. Field and Gard. V. c d 398.

Y Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., we

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 721

SOJA BEAN. Soja hispida Moench.

This leguminous plant, although popular in eastern countries,

can scarcely be expected to obtain a foot-hold in European or

American gardens. According to Bretschneider,” a Chinese

writing of 163-85 B.C. records that Shen nung, 2800 B.C,

sowed the five cereals, and another writing of A. D. 127-200 ex-

plains that these five cereals were rice, wheat, Panicum italicum,

P. miliaceum, and the Soja. The same are also mentioned in the

“Classics.” The use of this bean as a vegetable is also recorded

in authors of the fifth, fourteenth, and sixteenth centuries. The

first mention of Soja that I note is by Kæmpfer, who was in

Japan in 1690, and in his account of his travels he gives con-

siderable space to this plant. It also seems to be mentioned by

Ray” in 1704. It is much cultivated in China and Cochin-

china.” There are a large number of varieties —“ as many as you

have of beans,” as a Japanese friend informed me. Seed was

brought from Japan to America by the Perry Expedition on its

return, and were distributed from the U. S. Patent Office” in

1854. I have since then received some of the seed from the

South under the name of the cow-pea. In France the seed re-

ceived distribution in 1855.” In 1869 Martens? describes thir-

teen varieties,

` The Soja Bean is called in France, soja, pots oleagineux de la

Chine ; in Germany, soja-bohne ; * in Japan, daidsu or mame,

the send miso ;* in China, yeou-teou.

In some of its varieties this bean may be found useful for for-

age purposes, or perhaps for field culture.

SORREL. Rumex sp.

The Sorrels are much used in many parts of Europe, but they

do not seem to be popular in English-speaking countries. A

V Bretschneider. Bot. Sin., 75, 78, 52, 59.

18 Kæmpfer. Amoen., 1712.

1 Ray. Hist. Suppl., 1704, 438.

2 Loureiro Cochinch., 441.

722 The American Naturalist. [August,

number of species have been brought under culture, but the

varieties referred to Rumex acetosa, R. montanus, and R. scutatus

are now the only ones described by Vilmorin as under European

vegetables.

Rumex acetosa L.

This species is very extensively used in France, and has four

varieties.” It was formerly much cultivated in England for its

leaves, which were used as spinach or in salads, and are agreeably

acid. It is mentioned in nearly all the earlier botanies, and by

Gerarde” in 1597, as under culture in England, who also figures

the blistered variety. It is spoken of in nearly all the later wri-

ters on garden subjects, and was in common use in 1807, but in

1874 is said to have been for many years entirely discarded, the

French Sorrel having usurped its place? The broad-leaved form

was in American gardens in 1806.%. This plant is in great

favor with the northern natives, as the Laplanders,” the Hebride-

ans,” etc., and in its varieties is largely cultivated.

The common sorrel, sorrel, or green sauce? is called in France,

oseille commune, aigrette, oseille longue, surelle, surette, vinette ;

in Germany, Sauerampfer, Sauerling ; in Flanders and Holland,

zuring ; in Denmark, almindelig syre; in Italy, acetosa, acetina,

erba perpetua ; in Spain, acedera, agrella ; in Portugal, azedas ;*

in Greece, zunethra, zinitra, oxalithi ;** in the Mauritius, oseille ; 9

in India, oov/aeeta choo£a *

Rumex scutatus L.

This species is mentioned in England by Gerarde™ in 1597,

but he does not indicate its general cultivation; he calls it oxalis

28 Vilmorin. Les Pl: Pot., 393. j

7! Gerarde. Herbal., 1597, 319.

31 Lightfoot. Fl. Scot., I., 191.

9% Jour. of Agr., Il., 379.

33 Johnson, Useful PL, 222.

* Pickering. Ch. Hist., 365.

% Bojer. Hort. Maur., 272.

"Speede. Ind. Handb, of Gard., 154.

® McMahon. Am. Gard Kal : 1806, 320.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 723

franca seu romana. It is more acid than the preceding species,

and has displaced it largely from English culture. It is men-

tioned by many of the early botanists, and is under extensive

culture in continental Europe.” It was in American gardens in

1806,” but is now scarcely cultivated, as would seem from its

absence from our seed lists.

French sorrel® round-leaved sorrel? buckler-shaped sorrel” or

Roman sorrel” is called in France, oseille ronde, petite oseille ; in

Germany, romischer sauerampfer; in Italy, acetosa romana,

acetosa tonda”

Rumex montanus Desf.

This species occurs in French gardens under two varieties, the

green-leaved and the crimped-leaved. The wild form, R. art-

folius L., is often met with in France. In 1863 Burr^ describes it

among American garden esculents. In India it is said by

Firminger “ to be an excellent ingredient to use abundantly in

soups, and to serve to impart a peculiarly fine flavor to omelettes.

Mountain sorrel or maiden sorrel? is called in France,

oseille vierge, oseille sterile ; in Italy, acetosa vergine."

Rumex alpinus L.

A species sometimes grown in France, but which does not

appear to have entered American culture. It was grown in

England by Gerarde in 1597 for use in ^ physicke," and is de-

scribed as cultivated there in Miller's Dictionary, 1807. It is

eaten as a herb in China."

Pyrenean sorrel® is called in France, oseille des Alpes, oseille

des Pyrnees. à

Rumex pulcher L.

This species is said to be planted in gardens in France for use

as a pot-herb, but the leaves to become very hard in summer.*

It is, however, scarcely to be considered a garden plant.

37 McIntosh. Book of the Gard., II., 139.

38 Vilmorin. The Veg. Gard., 526.

3 Mawe. Gard., 1778.

“Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 308.

4l Firminger. Gard. in Ind., 142.

" Smith. Mat. Med. of China, 87.

# Flore Nat. et Econ., etc., Pt. IL, p. 497.

724 The American Naturalist. [August,

Rumex sanguineus L.

This weed of waste and cultivated grounds of America is men-

tioned, under the name Bloodwort, by Josselyn,* about the middle

of the seventeenth century, as introduced. As Gerarde ? in 1630

says it was sown in his time for a pot-herb in most gardens, and

as Ray “ in 1686 also says it was planted in gardens as a vege-

table, we may believe that it was in former use in colonial gardens

in Massachusetts. Its use is as a spinage, and for this purpose

the leaves of the wild plant are occasionally collected at the

present time.

Bloody-veined dock is the name under which the wild plant is

now known,

SOUTHERNWOOD. Artemesia abrotanum L.

This aromatic plant is inconsiderably cultivated for its agree-

able taste and tonic properties.” To some people its fragrance is

very grateful. It is cultivated in most parts of China for the use

of the young shoots made into cakes with meal.“ It was appar-

ently known to the ancients, but the references are not as clear

as might be. It was described as under cultivation by the

herbalists of the sixteenth century, and Turner“ in 1538 gives

its English name as Suthernwoode. In 1859 Gray" says it is

found in some American gardens.

Southernwood, called in Anglo-Saxon, sethrenewudu or suthern-

wude,” is called in France, aurone, aurone des jardins, aurone

male, citronelle, garde-robe, herbe royale, vrogne; in Denmark,

ambra, in Italy, abrotano, abrotino ; in Greece, pikrothanos ;

in Egypt, semsæk, or ms@k, or meskeh ; " in China, yin-chin-hau.®

SPINAGE. Sfinacea oleracea L.

This plant was unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans,

but appears to have been early used by the Arabs, and by the

nye Rar., 114.

55 Gerarde. ., 1633,

e Hist, 1686, 174.

audin. Man., IV., 239; Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 28.

MM Mat. LN a, 25.

# Turner. Libellus,

9? Gray. Man. of Bot. tiso, 228,

5! Pickering. Ch. Hist.,

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 725

Moors carried to Spain, from which it gradually spread to the

rest of Europe.” The first notice I find is its occurrence in

China in the seventh or eighth century,® and one of its names is

Po-ssu-ts'ao, Persian herb.* In the Nabathean agriculture in

Spain, in the twelfth century, it is called by /én-al-awan, the

prince of vegetables.” Albertus Magnus, who lived in Bavaria

in the thirteenth century, describes the sfinachia with spiny

seed. Ammonius,” a Bavarian physician writing in 1539, says it

was mentioned by Avicenna, an Arab author born in Persia in

981, and is perhaps the aspenach of Serapio, another Arab

author of the same period. In 1536 Ruellius says it was called

spinacia in France, and sfinachia by the modern Greeks. In

England it is mentioned by Turner ? in 1538, who calls it Atriplex

hispaniensis of some, spinachia of the English. It was new in

Italy in 1558, according to Matthiolus.” We thus find its pres-

ence universal in Europe in the early part of the sixteenth

century. Indeed its use has become for some time so extended

as to supplant many other vegetables formerly grown as pot

herbs.

Two races are now known in our gardens ; the one with

_ prickly seed, and the other with smooth seed. These have been

described as species.

Spinacia spinosa Moench.

Spinachia. Alb. Mag., 13th Cent., Jessen Ed., 563 ; Fuchsius,

1542, 666, cum ic; Dod., 1616, 619, cum ic.

Binetsch, Spinat, Spinacia. Roszlin, 1550, cum ic.

Olsus hispanicus. Trag., 1552, 325, cum ic.

Spinacia. Matth., 1570, 342, cum ic; Lob. Obs., 1576, 129,

cum ic., 1591; ic, 1591, L, 257; Lugd., 1587, 544, cum ic.; Ger.,

1597, 260, cum ic.

52 Targioni-Tozzetti. Hort. Trans., 1854, 148.

53 Bretschneider. Bot. Sin., 79.

54 Bretschneider. On the Study, etc., 16.

5 Heuze. Les Pl. Alim., I., IV. >

56 Albertus Magnus. De Veg., Jessen Ed., 1867, 563.

or a. Med. Herb., 1539, 323.

55 Turner. Libellus, 1538.

M abiha, Com., 1558, 246.

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

Spanachum. Cam. Epit., 1586, 245, cum ic.

Lapathum hortense alterum, seu spinacia semine spinoso. Bauh.

Phytopin., 1596, 183.

Spinachia mas. J. Bauhin, 1651, II., 964, cum ic.

Spinacia oleracea L. var. A. Lin. Sp., 2d ed., 1456.

Epinard d’Angleterre. Vilm., 1883, 203.

Large Prickly or Winter Spinage. Vil., 1885, 533.

Spinacia inermis Moench.

Spinachia nobilis, Tragus, 1552, 324.

Lapathum hortense alterum spinacia, semine non spinoso. Bauh.

Phytopin., 1596, 184.

Spinacia II. Ger., 1597, 260.

Spinachia femina. J. Bauh., 1651, II., 964.

Spinachia semine non pungente, folio majore rotundiore. Ray,

1686, 162; Chabr., 1677, 303 cum ic.

Spinacia glabra. Mill. Dict., 1733.

Spinacia oleracea, L. var. B. Lin. Sp., 1762, 1456.

Epinards a graine ronde. Vil., 1883, 204.

Round-Seeded Spinage. Vil., 1885, 534. i

Spinage was in American gardens in 1806.? There is but one

variety of the prickly-seeded described by Vilmorin,® and five of

the smooth-seeded form.

Spinage is called in France, epfinard; in Germany, spinat; in

Flanders and Holland, spinazie; in Denmark, spinat; in Italy,

spinaccio ; in Spain, espinacia; in Portugal, espinafre ;* in Nor-

way, spina® ——

In Arab, sebanakh,® tektera,* ispanaj,® isfanadsch,® esbanach ;

in China, po-ling, fo-ts ai, po-ssv-ts'ao ; " in Hindustani, sag-paluk ;

in Persia, zspanaj.™

room Am. Gard. Kal., 1806.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 727

SQUASH, PUMPKIN, AND GOURD.

The Squash.

The word squash seems to have been derived from the Ameri-

can aborigines, and in particular from those tribes occupying the

northeastern Atlantic coast, and seems to have been originally

applied to the summer squash, as by Wood, when he says, “ In

summer, when their corn is speht, zsguotusquashes is their best bread ;

a fruit much like a pumpkin.” Roger Williams ® writes the

word « Askutasquash, —their vine apples —which the English,

from them call sguashes ; about the bigness of apples of several

colors." Josselyn™ gives also a new form to the word, writing

“Squashes, but more truly squoutersquashes, a kind of mellon

or rather gourd; for they sometimes degenerate into gourds.

Some of these are green; some yellow; some longish, like a

gourd; others round, like an apple; all of them pleasant food,

boyled and buttered, and seasoned with spice. But the yellow

squash—called an apple squash (because like an apple), and

about the bigness of a pome water—is the best kind." This

apple squash, by name at least, as also by the description so far

as applicable, is even now known to culture, but is rarely grown

on account of its small size" Van der Donck, after speaking of

the pumpkins of New Netherlands (1642-53), adds, “ The natives

have another species of this vegetable peculiar to themselves,

called by our people guaasiens, a name derived from the abo-

rigines, as the plant was not known to us before our intercourse

with them. It is a delightful fruit, as well to the eye on account

of its fine variety of colors, as to the mouth for its agreeable

taste. . . It is gathered early in summer, and when it is

Slanted i in the middle of April, the fruit is fit for eating by the

first of June. They do not wait for it to ripen before making

use of the fruit, but only until it has attained a certain size. They’

gather the squashes, and immediately place them on the fire

without any further trouble." " In 1683 Worlidge" uses the

68 Wood. _ New Eng. Prosp., Pt. II., c. 6.

89.

"l Burr, Field and Gard. Veg., 1863, 207.

72 Quoted from A. Gray, Am. Jour. of Sci., ze 1883, p. 377-

73 Systema Horticulture, by4J. W. Gent, p. 2

728 The American Naturalist. [August,

word squash, saying, “ There are lesser sorts of them [pompeons]

that are lately brought into request that are called sguashes, the

edible fruit whereof, boyl'd and serv'd up with powdered beef, is

esteemed a good sawce," and Kalm"* in his Travels says distinctly

that * The squashes of the Indians, which now are cultivated by

Europeans, belong to those kind of gourds which ripen before

any other." These squashes of Néw England were apparently

called sitroules by Champlain” in 1605, who describes them “ as

big as the fist" Lahontan™ in 1703 calls the squashes of

southern Canada citrouilles, and compares with the melon, which

indicates a round form.

These “squashes,” now nearly abandoned in culture, would

seem to be synonymous, in some of their varieties at least, with

the macock of Virginia and the Virginian watermelon described

in Gerarde's Herbal” as early as 1621.

The Perfect Gem Squash, introduced in 1881, seems to belong

to this class, and is very correctly figured by Tragus in 1552,?

who says they are called Mala indica, or in German /ndianisch

opf/el, and occur of four colors, saffron yellow, creamy white,

orange, and black. He also gives the name Summer opffel, which

indicates an early squash, and the names succo de Syria and zucco

de Peru, which indicate a foreign origin. To identify this

claimed recent introduction as synonymous with Tragus’ Cucumis,

seu Zucco marinus may seem rather improbable. The Perfect

. Gem and Tragus plant have the following points in common:

Fruit of like form and size; so also the leaf, if the proportions

between leaf and fruit as figured may be trusted; seed sweet in

both ; rn alike, * Quae candida foris and quae ex pallido lutea

sunt poma." The plants are runners in both. Compare also

with the description of the Maycock, and it appears to be the

same in all but color. A curious instance of survival seems to

be here noted, or else the ine of a lost form through atavism.

™ Kalm. Trav., 1748, L.,

5$ Champlain. Voyages. Price Coll., pp. 64, 75.

76 Lahontan. Nouv. Voy., II.

7 Gerarde. Herb., 1633, pp. > odi

Tragus. De Stirpium, 1552, 835.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 729

A careful comparison with the figures and the description

given would seem to bring together as synonyms:

Cucumis marinus. Fuchs., 1542, 699; Roszlin, 1550, 116.

Cucumis vel zucco marinus. Trag., 1552, 835.

Cucurbita indica rotunda. Lugd., 1 587.1. 116,

Pepo rotundus minor. Dod., 1616, 666.

Pepo minor rotundus. Bodzns, 1644, 783.

Cucurbite folio aspero, sive zucche. Icon., IV., Chabr., 1673,

130.

The Maycock. Ger., 1633, 919.

The Perfect Gem, 1881.

The distinctions between the various forms of Cucurbits seem to

have been kept in mind by the vernacular writers, who did not

use the words pumpion, gourd,etc,as synonyms. Thus in 1 535

Cartier" mentions as found among the Indians of Hochelega,

now Montreal, “ pompions, gourds." In 1 586 Heriot * mentions

in Virginia * pompions, melons, and gourds," and Captain John

Smith * pumpions and macocks; Strachey, who was in Virginia

in 1610, mentions macocks and pumpions as differing. * Pum-

pions and gourds” arenamed by Smith ® for New England in

I614. In 1648, at the mouth of the Susquehanna, mention is

made of “symnels and maycocks.” **

The word squash in its early use, we may hence conclude, ap-

plied to those varieties of Cucurbits which furnished a summer

vegetable, and was carefully distinguished from the pumpkin.

Kalm ® in the eighteenth century distinguishes between pump-

kins, gourds, and squashes. The latter are the early sorts; the

gourd includes the late sorts useful for winter supplies; and the

pompion or melon, the latter name and contemporary use giving

the impression of roundness and size; and Jonathan Carver *

soon after gives indication of the confusion now existing in the

Cartier. Pink. Voy., XII., 656.

® Pink. Voy., XII., 596.

82 Strachey. Trav. into Va., 72.

® Smith. Desc, of New Eng., II., 16.

** A Description of New Albion. Force Coll., II.

$ Kalm. Trav., 1770-1, I., 140.

% Carver. Travels in the Northwest in 1776, p. 211.

Am. Nat.—August.—3.

730 The American Naturalıst. [August,

definition of what constitutes a pumpkin and a squash when he

says, “the melon or pumpkin, which by some are called squashes,”

and he names among other forms the same variety, the crook-

neck, or crane-neck as he calls it, which Kalm classed among

gourds.

At the present time the word squash is only used in America,

gourds, pumpkins, and marrows being the equivalent English

name,” and the American use of the word is so confusing that it

can only be defined as applying to those varieties of Cucurbita

which are grown in gardens for table use, while the word pump-

kin applies to those varieties grown in fields for stock purposes,

and the word gourd to those ornamental forms with a woody rind

and bitter flesh, or to the Lagenaria.

This class of Cucurbits belongs to Cucurbita pepo, Cogn. in

in DC. Monog, IL, p. 545.

Other forms distinctively known at present as squashes are

added in proper sequence.

The form of Cucurbit now so generally known as Bush or

Summer Squash is correctly figured in 1673 by Pancovius,* under

the name of Melopepo clypeatus Tab. What may be the fruit

was figured by Lobel® in 1591, and by Dodonzus” in 1616,

and similar fruit with the vine and leaf by Dalechamp in 1587,"

Gerarde™ in 1597, Dodonzus in 1616, and by J. Bauhin ? in

1651. By Ray“ in 1686 it is called in the vernacular “Zhe

Buckler or Simnel-Gourd.” This word cymling or cymbling, in

use at the present day in the Southern States for the Scalloped

Bush Squash in particular, I find used in 1648 in *A Description

of New Albion," but spelled Symnels. Jefferson ® wrote the

word “cymling.” In 1675, Thomson, in a poem entitled New

England's Crisis, uses the word “ cimnel, " and distinguishes from

81 The Vegetable Garden. Vilmorie-Andrieus. Trans.by W. Robinson. London, 1885.

8 Pancovius. Herbarium, 1673, No

9? Dodon:eus, Pompi, stab, 667.

His . d., 1587, I., 618.

9 Gerarde. Herbal, 1597, 774.

"E Bauhin. Hist., 1651, IIL., 224.

Hist., 1686

95 Jeiferson' s Noii on Virginia; 1803.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 731

the pumpkin. Whence the origin of the word I find no clue, but

it was very possibly of aboriginal origin, as its use has not been

transferred to Europe. In England it is called Crown Gourd and

Custard Marrow; in the United States generally the Scalloped

Squash, from its shape; or locally, cymling or pattypan,—this latter

name derived from the resemblance to a crimped pan used in the

kitchen for baking cakes. It was first noticed in Europe, so far

as I can ascertain, in the sixteenth century, and has the following

synonymy :

Cucurbita laciniata. Lugd., 1587, L, 618.

Melopepo latior clypeiformis. Lob., ic., 1591, I., 642.

Pepo maximum clypeatus. Ger., 1597, 774.

Pepo latus. Dod., 1616, 666

. Pepo latiorus fructus... Dod., 1616, 667.

Cucurbita clypeiformis sive Siciliana melopepon latus a nonnullis

vocata J. B., 1651, IL, 224. (First known to him in 1561.)

Melopepo bfaddus. Pancov., 1653, n. 920.

The Buckler or Sr Ray., Hist., 1686, L , 648.

Summer Scalloped.

This forms belongs to the Cucurbita melopepo, Lin. sp., ed. 2,

.P- 1435, C. pepo, Cogn; l.c.

The Bush Crookneck is also called a squash. Notwithstanding

its peculiar shape and usually warted condition, it does not seem

to have received much mention by the early colonists, and to

have escaped the attention of the pre-Linnean botanists, who

were so apt to figure new forms. The most we know is that

Summer Crooknecks appeared in our garden catalogues in 1828,

and it is perhaps referred to by Champlain in 1605. It is now rec-

ommended in France rather as an ornamental plant than for

kitchen use.” This form belongs to Cucurbita pepo Naudin,

Ann. Sc. Nat., Ser. 4, V., 6, p. 29.

The Winter Crookneck squash seems to have been first recorded

= by Ray,? who received the seeds from Sir Hans Sloane and

planted them in his garden, and this was the variety now known

% Thorburn’s Cat.

9% Vilmorin. Les. Pl. Pot., 1883, 184.

98 Ray. Hist., 1686, I., 642.

732 The American Naturalist. [August,

as the Striped. It has apparently been grown in New England

from the earliest times, and often attains a large size. Josselyn ®

refers to a Cucurbit that may be this, the fruit “longish like a

gourd,” the very comparison made by Ray. Kalm’ mentions a

winter squash in New Jersey called “crooked neck,’ and Car-

ver ' speaks of “ crane-necks " being preserved in the West for

winter supply. A sub-variety, the Puritan,"? answers to Bever-

ley's '? description of a form which he calls Cushaw, an Indian

name recognizable in the Ecushaw of Heriot, 1586. This form

was grown at the New York Agricultural Experiment Station in

1884 from seed obtained from the Seminoles of Florida, and ap-

pears synonymous with the Neapolitan, to which Vilmorin applies

the French synonym of Courge de la Florida.

This form of squash belongs to Cucurbita moschata, Cogn., 1.C.,

p. 546.

The Pine Apple squash, in its perfect form, is of a remarkably

distinctive character, on account of its acorn-shape and regular

projection. As grown, however, the fruit is quite variable, and

can be closely identified with the Pepo indicus angulosus of Ge-

rarde," and is very well described by Ray in 1686. This

variety was introduced in 1884 by Landreth, and, as I am in-

formed, the seed came originally from Chili. Itisa winter squash,

creamy white when harvested, of a deep yellow at a later period.

It belongs to Cucurbita pepo, Cogn., l.c.

The Turban squash is easily recognized by its special form, to

which it is indebted for its name. In France this is classed with

the Giravmons, and one of its trivial names is Citroville iroquoise.

It is possibly the Chilian mamillary Indian gourd of Molina ™ in

1787, described as with spheroidal fruit with a large nipple at the

end, the pulp sweet and tasting like the sweet potato. In 1856

% Josselyn. Rar., 8

100 Kalm. Trav., 1670, I, 347

101 Cary, Trav

, 1776.

102 Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 1863, p. 221.

M? Beverley. Hist. of Va., 1705, 124.

» 1597, 774.

686, I., 641.

106 Molina. Hist. of Chili, 1808, I., 93-

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 733

Naudin'" describes Le Turban Rouge, and Le Turban Nouveau du

Bresil, the latter of recent introduction from South America. Its

description accords with the Cucurbita clypeiformis tuberoso and

verrucoso, seen by J. Bauhin '® in 1607. The Zapillito, from

Brazil, advertised by Gregory in 1880, and said by Vilmorin to

have reached France from South America about 1860, resembles

the Turban squash in shape. This evidence, such as it is, points

to South America as the starting point of this form.

It belongs to Cucurbita maxima, Cogn., l.c.

The squashes of our markets, par excellence, are the Marrows

and the Hubbard, with other varieties of the succulent stemmed.

These found representation in our seed catalogues in 1828,' in

the variety called Com. Porter's Valparaiso, and which was

brought from Chili shortly after the war of 1812. In the New

England Farmer, Sept. 11., 1824, notice is made of a kind of

melon squash or pumpkin, of moderate size, from Chili, a few seeds

being received in Boston, and which is possibly the Valparaiso.

The Hubbard squash is said by Gregory, its introducer in 1857,

to be of unknown origin, but to resemble a kind which was

brought by a sea captain from the West Indies. The Marblehead,

also introduced by Mr. Gregory and distributed in 1867, is said

directly to have come from the West Indies. The Autumnal

Marrow or Ohio was introduced in 1832, and exhibited at the

rooms of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society.

This class is to be referred to Cucurbita maxima, Cogn., l.c.,

and does not appear in any of the figures or descriptions of the

herbalists, so far as we can ascertain, except as hereinafter noted

for Lobel.

The Pumpkin.

The word pumpkin is derived from the Greek pepon, Latin

pepo. Inthe ancient Greek it was used by Galen as a com-

pound to indicate ripe fruit, as swkwopepona, ripe cucumber, as

also by Theophrestus peponas, and Hippocrates sikuon peponia.""

107 Naudin. Ann. Des. Sc. Nat., 4th ser., VI., p. 20.

108 J. Bauhin. Hist., 1651, II., 227.

109 'Thorburn's ( 3

n's Cat.

10 See Bodzeus a Stapel. Theoph., 1644, 781.

734 The American Naturalist. [August,

The word epo was transferred in Latin to large fruit, for Pliny!"

says distinctly that “ caucumeres,’ when of excessive size, are

called “ pepones.” By the commentators the word pepo is often

applied to the melon. Fuchsias'” in 1542 figures the melon

under the Latin name pepo, German pfeden; and Scaliger ™ in

1566, Dalechamp"* in 1587, and Castor Durante *” in 1617

apply this term pepo or pepon likewise to the melon. The

derivatives from the word pepo appear in the various European

languages, as follows :

Belgian: pepoenem, Lob. Obs., 1 576; pompoen, Marcg., 1648,

Vilm., 1833.

English: pepon, Lyte, 1586; pompon, Lyte, 1586; pompion,

Ger. 1597; pumpion, J. Smith, 1606 ; pumpkin, Townsend, 1726.

French: pompons, Ruel., 1536; pepon, Dod. Gat., 1559.

Italian: popone, Don, 1834.

Swedish: pumpa, Tengborg, 1764 ; pompa, Webst. Dict.

In English the word melon and million was early applied to the

pumpkin, as by Lyte in 1586, Gerarde in 1597 and 1633, and by

a number of the early narrators of voyages of discovery. Pump-

kins were called gourds by Lobel in 1586, and by Gerarde in

1597, and the word gourd is at present in use in England to em-

brace the whole class, and is equivalent to the French courge.

In France the word courge is given by Matthiolus in 1558, and

Pinzus in 1561, and seems to have been used as applicable to

the pumpkin by early navigators, as by Cartier in 1535. The

word courge was also applicable to the Lagenaria in 1536, 1561, |

1586, 1587, 1597, 1598, 1617, 1651, 1673, 1772, and is now

shared with the pumpkin and squash in 1883. |

Our earlier travelers and historians often recognized in the

pumpkin a different fruit from the courge, the gourd, or the melon.

Cartier, on the St. Lawrence in 1584 discriminates by using the

words “gros melons, concombres, and courges 35," "" or ina

m Pliny, lib. XIX., c. 23, Grandsagne Ed., p. 196.

J? Fuchsius. De Stirp., 1542, 701.

H3 Scaliger. In Lib. de Plant. Arist., 1566, 79, 110.

n4 Hist. Gen. Lugd., 1587, I

115 Castor Durante. Herb. Noa. 1617.

H6 Cartier. Bref. Recit., etc., 1545. Reimpr. Tross., 1863.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 735

translation “ pompions, gourds, cucumbers.” ™ In 1586 a French

name for what appears to be the summer squash is given by Lyte

as concombre marin. With this class we may interpret Cartier’s

names into “gros melons” pumpkins, “ concombres” summer

squashes, and “courge” winter crooknecks, as the shape and

hard shell of this variety would suggest the gourd or Lagenaria.

In 1586 Heriot, in Virginia, 5 names “ macokner, according to

their several forms, called by us pompions, melons, and gourds,

because they are of the like forms as those kinds in England.

In Virginia such of several forms are of one taste, and very good,

and do also spring from one seed. They are of two sorts: one is

ripe in the space of a month, and the other in two months.”

Heriot apparently confuses all the forms met with with the ma-

cock, which, as we have shown in our notes on squashes, appears

identical with the type of the Perfect Gem Squash, or the Cucu-

mts marinus of Fuchsius. The larger sorts may be his pompi-

ons, the round ones his melons, and the cushaw type his gourds,

for, as we shall observe, the use of the word pompion seems to in-

clude size, and that of gourd, a hard rind. Acosta"? indeed

speaks of the Indian pompions in treating of the large-sized

fruits. Capt. John Smith,” in his Virginia, separates his pumpi-

ons and macocks, both planted by the Indians amongst their

corn, and in his description of New England in 1614 speaks of

pumpions and gourds. This would seem to indicate that he had

a distinction in his mind, and we may infer that the word pom-

pion was used for the like productions of the two localities, and

that the word gourd in New England referred to the hard-rind or

winter squashes, for Master Graves ™ refers to Indian pompions,

Rev. Francis Higginson™ to pompions, and Wood™ to pom-

pions and isquouter-squashes in New England soon after its

colonization, and Josselyn '? about the same period names also

M Cartier. Pink. Voy., XII., 656.

U8 Heriot. Pink. Voy., XII., 596.

119 Acosta. Nat. and Mie. Hist. of the Indies, 1604, 264.

120 Smith. Va. Pink. Voy., XIII.,

2n Macs. Hist. Soc. Coll., rst ser., I., 118, 124.

736 The American Naturalist. [August,

gourds, as quoted in our notes on the squash. Kalm,™ about the

middle of the eighteenth century, traveling in New Jersey,

names “squashes of the Indians,” which are a summer fruit,

“gourds,” meaning the winter crookneck, and “ melons,”

- which we may conclude are pumpkins; Jonathan Carver ™ in

1776 of the melon or pumpkin, called by some squashes, and

says the smaller sorts are for summer use, the crane-neck for

winter use, and names the large oblong, and in 1822 Woods ™

speaks of pompons, or pumpions, in Illinois, as often weighing

from 40 to 60 lbs.

The common field pumpkin of America is in New England

carried back traditionally to the early settlement, and occurs

under several forms, which have received names which are usually

quite local. Such form-varieties may be tabulated alphabetically,

as below as taken from Burr :

Canada. Form oblate. 14 in. diam., 10 in. deep. Deep

orange yellow.

Cheese. Flattened. 16 in. diam., ro in. deep. Deep reddish.

orange.

Common Yellow. Rounded. 12 in. diam, 14 in. deep.

Clear orange yellow.

Long Yellow. Oval. Io in. diam, 20 in. deep. Bright

orange yellow.

Nantucket. Various. 18 in. diam., 10 in. deep. Deep green.

The Canada Pumpkin is of an oblate form inclining to conic,

and is deeply and regularly ribbed, and when well grown of com-

paratively large size. It is somewhat variable in size and shape,

however, as usually seen. We think we are justified in the fol-

lowing synonymy :

Cucurbite indiane and peregrine. Pin., 1561, 191.

Cucurbita indica, rotunda. Lugd., 1587, L, 616.

Pepo rotundus compressus melonis effigie. Lob. Obs., 1576,

308; ic., 1591, L, 642.

(?) Pepo indicum minor rotundum. Ger., 1597, 774.

14 Kalm. Trav., om -a 347.

125 Carver, Trav.,

126 Woods. Tue Cin. 122.

3

# p*

1

ME

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 737

Pepo silvestris. Dod., 1616, 668.

Melopepo. Tourn., 1719, t. 34.

Canada Pumpkin. Vermont Pumpkin.

Cheese Pumpkin. Fruit much flattened, deeply and rather

regularly ribbed, broadly dishing about cavity and basin. Varies

somewhat widely in the proportional breadth and diameter.

Melopepo compressus alter. Lob. ic., 1591, L, 643.

Pepo maximus compressus. Ger., 1597, 774

Cucurbita genus, sive Melopepo compressus alter, Lobelio. J. B.,

1651, IL, 266.

Large Cheese. Fessenden, 1828; Bridgeman, 1832.

Cheese.

This variety, says Burr, was extensively disseminated in the

United States at the time of the American Revolution, and was

introduced into New England by returning soldiers.

Common Yellow Field. Fruit rounded, a little deeper than

broad, flattened at the ends, rather regularly and more or less

prominently ribbed.

Cucurbita indica. Cam. Epit., 1586, 293.

Melopepo teres. Lob. ic., 1591, L, 643.

Pepo maximus rotundus. Ger., 1597, 773-

Cucurbita aspera, Icon. I. J. B., 1651, IL, 218.

Cucurbita folio aspero, zucha. Chabr., 1673, 130.

Common Yellow Field Pumpkin.

Long Yellow. Fruit oval, much elongated, the length nearly

or often twice the diameter, of large size, somewhat ribbed, but

the markings less distinct than those of the Common Yellow.

Cucumis Turcicus. Fuch., 1542, 698.

Melopepo. Roszlin, 1550, 116.

Pepo. Tragus, 1552, 831.

Cucurbita indica longa. Lugd., 1587, I., 617.

Pepo maximus oblongus. Ger., 1597, 773-

Pepo majer oblongus. Dod., 1616, 635 ; Bodæus, 1644, 782-

Cuourbita aspera, Icon. II. J. B., 1651, IL, 218.

Cucurbita folio aspero, sucha. Chabr., 1673, 130.

Long Yellow Field Pumpkin.

738 The American Naturalist. [August,

The “ Jurumu Lusitanus Bobora” of Marcgravius and Piso!3

would seem to belong here, except for the leaves, but the figure

is a poor one.

These forms we have just mentioned have all that something

in their common appearance that at once expresses a close re-

lationship, and to the casual observer does not express differences.

We now pass to some other forms also known as pumpkins,

but to which the term squash is sometimes applied.

The Nantucket Pumpkin occurs in various forms under this

name, but the form I refer to, and of which I have examined

specimens, belongs to Cucurbita pepo, Cogn. l.c. and is of an

oblong form, swollen in the middle and indistinctly ribbed. It is

covered more or less completely with warty protuberances, and is

of a black green color when ripe, becoming mellowed toward

orange in spots by keeping. It seems closely allied to the Courge

Sucriere du Bresil of Vilmorin. It is not the Cuuerbita verrucosa

of Dalechamp, 1587, nor of J. Bauhin; 1651, as in these figures

the leaves are represented as entire, and the fruit as melon-formed

and ribbed.

In 1884 there appeared in our seedsmen’s catalogues, under the

name of Tennessee Sweet Potato Pumpkin, a variety very dis-

tinct, of medium size, pear-shape, little ribbed, of a creamy white

striped with green color, and the stem swollen and fleshy. Of

its history I have ascertained nothing, but it bears a quite strong

likeness in shape to a tracing of a piece of “ pumpkin ” pottery

exhumed from the Western mounds, and sent me by Lucien

Carr, connected with the museum at Cambridge, Mass. In

Lobel’s history, 1576, and in his plates, 1591, appear figures of a

plant which in both leaf and fruit represents fairly well our

variety; and these figures are of interest as being the only ones I

have yet found in the ancient botanies which represents a fruit

with a swollen herbaceous stem. I think I am justified in the

following synonymy :

Pepo oblongus vulgatissimus. Lob. Obs., 1576, 365.

Pepo oblogus. Lobel, ic., 1 591, L, 641.

Tennessee Sweet Potato Pumpkin.

127 Piso, Hist. Nat. Bras., 1648, 44.

P5 Piso. De Ind., 1658, 264.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 739

A quite numerous series of pumpkins are known to our seeds-

men’s catalogues, and some of a form quite distinct from those

here noticed, but I have not as yet sufficiently studied these so

as to form an opinion. I think, however, that much may be yet

learned through the examination of quite complete sets of varie-

ties within each of the three described species of Cucurbita which

furnish fruits for our consumption. Notwithstanding the ready

crossings which are so apt to occur within the ascribed species,

there yet seems to exist a permanency of types which is simply

marvellous, and which would seem to lend countenance in the

belief that there is a need of a revision of the species, and a

closer study of the various groups or types which appear to have

remained constant during centuries of cultivation.

If we consider the stability of types, and the record of varia-

tions that appear in cultivated plants, and the additional fact that

so far as determined the originals of cultivated types have their

prototype in nature" and are not the products of culture, it

seems reasonable to suppose that the record of the appearance of

types will throw light upon the country of their origin. From

this standpoint, we may hence conclude that, as the present types

have all been recorded in the Old World since the fifteenth cen-

tury, and were not recorded before the fourteenth and succeed-

ing centuries, there must be a connection between the fact of the

discovery of America, and the fact of the appearance of pump-

kins and squashes in Europe. i

The Gourd.

The word gourd is believed to be derived from the Latin

curcurbita, but it takes on various forms in the various European

languages. It is spelled gowrde by Turner in 1 538, gourde by

Lobel in 1576, and gourd by Lyte in 1586. In France it is

given as courgen and cohurden by Ruellius in 1 $36, but appears

in its present form, courge, in Pinaeus, I 561. Dalechamp used

coucourde in 1587, aname which now appears as cougourde in

129 See A Study of the Dandelion. AM. NAT., Jan., 1886.

See History of Celery. AM. NAT., July, 1886

See A Study in Agr. Botany. Proc. of the Soc. for Prom. of Agr. Sc., 1886.

See History of the Currant. Trans. of West N. Y. Hort, Soc.

740 The American Naturalist. [August,

Vilmorin. The Belgian name appears as cauwoord in Lyte,

1586; and the Spanish name, calabassa, with slight change of

spelling, has remained constant from 1561 to 1864, as has the

zucca of the Italians and the £zrs of the Germans.

The /agezaria is but rarely cultivated in the United States,

except as an ornamental plant, and as such shares a place with

the small hard-shelled cucurbita which are known as fancy

gourds. In some localities, however, under the name of sugar

trough gourd, a lagenaria is grown for the use of the shell of the

fruit for the purposes of a pail; and what is worthy of note, this

type of the fruit does not exactly appear in the drawings of the

botanists of the early period, nor in the seed catalogues of Europe

at the present time. In the Tupi Dictionary of Father Ruiz

de Montaga,'” 1639, among the gourd names are “ iacvi-gourd,

like a great dish or bowl," which may mean this form. When

we examine descriptions, this gourd may be perhaps recognized

in Columella's account, “Sive globosi corporis, atque utero

minium quae vasta tumescit,”"! and used for storing pitch or

honey; yet a reference to his prose description’ rather contra-

dicts the conjecture, and leads us to believe that he only describes

the necked form, and this form only seems to have been known

to Palladius? Pliny ?* describes two kinds, the one climbing,

the other trailing. Walafridus Strabo," in the ninth century,

seems to describe the g/ebeia of Pliny as a curcurbita, and the

cameraria as a pepo; the former apparently a necked form, and

the latter one in which the neck has mostly disappeared, leaving

an oval fruit. Albertus Magnus,'* in the thirteenth century, de-

scribes the cucurbita as bearing its seed “in vase magno," which

implies the necked form. The following types are illustrated in

the various herbalists which I have in my library :

130 Quoted by Gray and Trumbull, Am. Jour. of Sci., May, 1883, 372.

131 Columella. Lib. X., c. 383.

132 Columella, Lib. XI., c. 3.

183 Palladius. Lib. IX., c. 9.

14 Pliny. Lib. XIX., c. 24.

135 Walfridus Strabo. Hortulus in Macer Floridus, Ed. of Silling., 1832, pp. 146, 147.

136 Albertus Magnus. Jessen Ed., 1867, 500

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 741

I. Cucurbita oblonga. Fuchs., 1542, 370.

Cucurbita plebeia. Roszlin, 1550, 115.

Cucurbita. Trag., 1552, 824.

Cucurbita longa. Cardanus, 1556, 222.

Cucurbita. Matth., 1558, 261; Pinaeus, 1561, 190; Cam.

Epit., 1586, 292.

Cucurbita sive zuccha, omnium maxima anguina. Lob. Obs.,

1576, 366; ic., 1591, L, 644.

Cucurbita cameraria longa. Lugd., 1587, I., 615.

Cucurbita anguina. Ger., 1597, 777.

Cucurbita oblonga. Matth., 1598, 392.

Cucurbita longior. Dod., 1616.

Zucca. Castor Durante, 1617, 488.

Cucurbita anguina longa. Bodaeus, 1644, 784.

Cucurbita longo, folio molli, flore albo. J. Bauh., 1651, IL, 214;

Chabr., 1673, 129.

Ceurge massue tres longue. Vilm., 1883, 190.

Club Gourd.

II. Ruellius frontispiece, 1536.

Cucurbita minor. Fuch., 1542, 369.

Cucurbita. Trag., 1552, 824; Matth., 1558, 261; Cam. Epit.,

1586, 292.

Cucurbita marina, Cardan, 1556, 222.

Cucurbita lagenaria. Lob. Obs., 1576, 366; ic., 1591, I, 644;

Matth., 1598, 393.

Cucurbita cameraria. Lugd., 1587, I., 615.

Cucurbita lagenaria sylvestris. Ger., 1597, 779.

Cucurbita prior. Dod., 1616, 668.

Zucca. Cast. Dur., 1617, 488.

Courge pelerine. Vilm., 1883, 191.

Bottle Gourd.

III. Cucurbita calebasse. Tourn., 1719, t. 36.

Courge siphon. Vilm., 1883, 190.

Dipper Gourd.

IV. Cucurbita major. Fuchs., 1542, 368.

Cucurbita cameraria. Roszlin, 1550, 115.

Cucurbita. Tragus, 1552, 824; Matth., 1358, 261.

742 The American Naturalist. [August,

Cucurbita cameraria major. Lugd., 1587, I., 616.

Cucurbita lagenaria. Ger., 1597, 777.

Cucurbita major sessilis. Matth., 1598, 393.

Cucurbita lagenaria rotunda. Bodaeus, 1644, 784.

Cucurbita latior, folio molli, fore albo. J. Bauh., 1651, L, 215;

Chabr., 1673, 129.

Sugar Trough Gourd. -

V. Cucurbita. Matth., 1558, 261; Lugd., 1587, L, 615.

Courge plate de corse. Vilm., 1883, 19r. 3

This classification, it is to be remarked, is not intended for

exact synonymy, but to represent the like types of fruit-form.

Within these classes there is a wide variation in size and propor-

tion. .

Whether these lagenaria existed in the new world before the

discovery by Columbus, as great an investigator as Gray con-

siders as worthy of examination, and quotes Oviedo for the

period about 1526, as noting the long and round or banded, and

of all the shapes they usually have in Spain, as much used in the

West Indies and Terra Firma for carrying water, and indicates

that there are varieties of spontaneous growth as well as those

under cultivation. The occurrence, however, of the so-called

fancy gourds of the Cucurbita pepo species, of hard rind, of

gourd shape, and often of gourd bitterness, renders difficult the

identification of species through the uses. The relation of the

voyage of Amerigo Vespucci, 1489, mentions the Indians of

Trinidad and of the coast of Paria as carrying about their necks

small dried gourds filled with the plant they are accustomed to

chew, or with a certain whitish flour; but these records might as

well be made from the Cucurbita pepo gourds as from the

lagenaria gourds. The further mention that each woman carried

a cucurbita of water might seem to refer to gourds. Acosta’

speaks of the Indians of Peru making floats of gourds, for

swimming, and says: “ There area thousand kinds of Calebasses ;

some are so deformed in their bigness that of the rind cut in the

181 Gray and Trumbull. Am. Jour. of Sci., May, 1883, 370.

33$ Quoted from Gray and Trumbull, 1. c.

139 Acosta. Hist. of Indies, Eng. Ed., 1604, 177, 238.

1890.] History of Garden Vegetables. 743

midst and cleansed, they make as it were, baskets to put in all

their meat, for their dinner ; of the lesser, they make vessels to

eat and drink in,” etc. Bodaeus’' quotation, in Latin, reads

differently in a free translation: “ They grow in the province of

Chili to a wonderful size, and are called capallas. They are of an

indefinite number of kinds; some are monstrous in their immense

size, and when cut open and cleaned, furnish various vessels.

Of the smaller they most ingeniously make cups and saucers.”

In 1624 Bodaeus received from the West Indies some seed which

bore fruit * quae humanum crassitudinem and longitudanem

superaret," which fully justifies Acosta’s idea of size. The

Anonymous Portugal of Brasil!“ says: “Some pompions so big

that they use them for vessels to carry water, and they hold two

pecks or more" Baro'? in 1647 also speaks of “ Courges and

calebasses si grandes and profondes qu'elles servent comme de

magazin,” and Laet!? mentions “ Pepones tam vastae, ut Indi-

genae iis utantur pro vasis quibus aquam aggerunt" These

large-sized gourds were not, however, confined to America.

Bodaeus, as we have noted, grew fruits deformed in their bigness,

to use Acosta's term, from West Indian seed, and Cardanus '* says

he has seen gourds (for he gives a figure which is a gourd)

weighing 80 and 122 lbs.; Bauhin ™* records the club gourd as

sometimes three feet long, Ray !^ as five or six feet long, and

Forskal! the bottle gourd as 18 inches in diameter. These

records of size are all, however, of a date following the discovery

of America, and the seed of these large varieties might have

come from American sources, as is recorded in one case by

Bodaeus.

The gourd is of old world origin, for water-flasks of the

lagenaria have been found in Egyptian tombs of the twelfth

49 Bodaeus a Stapel. Theophrastus, 1644, 784.

Ml Anonymous Portugal of Brasil. Purchas, Lib. 7, c. L, p. 1310, Quoted from

Sloane's Cat., 1696, 100. i

14 Baro in Morisot, p. 294. Quoted from Sloane's Cat., 1696, r00.

43 Laet, Lib. 15, c. ro, p. 566. Quoted from Sloane's Cat., 1696, 100.

14 Cardanus. De Rerum Varietate, 1556, 222.

744 The American Naturalist. [August,

dynasty, or 2200 to 2400 years B.C., and they are described by

theancient writers. That the gourd reached America at an early

period, perhaps preceding the discovery, ^ we cannot doubt, for

Marcgravius notes a cuCurbit with a white flower, and of lagen-

arian form, in Brazil in 1648; but there is not sufficient evi-

dence, so it seems to us, to establish its appearance in America

before brought by the colonists. What the calabazas were which

served for water-vessels, and were apparently of considerable

size, we can at present but surmise. It is possible that there are

varieties of Cucurbita pepo not yet introduced to notice that would

answer the conditions, It is also less possible that gourd-shaped

clay vessels might have been used, and thus recorded by not

over-careful narrators aS gourds. In 1595, Mendana, on his

voyage to the Solomon Islands, saw “Spanish pumpkins "^" at

the islands of Dominica and Santa Cruz, or according to another

translation, * pumpkins of Castille.’ It would seem by this

reference that, whether the “calabaza ” of the original Spanish

referred to gourds or pumpkins, it did not take many years for

this noticeable class of fruits to receive a wide distribution, and

it might further imply that Mendana, setting forth from the

western coast of America, discriminated between the American

pumpkin, or pumpkin proper, and the Spanish pumpkin or

gourd.

188 Schweinfurth. Nature, = a 1883, 314.

149 Fruits of the lagenaria are at present carried to the coast of Iceland by ocean

; ^u» PR. Hist. Nat. Bras., 1648, +

151 Mendana. Dalyrmple, Voy., L., 72, 88.

152 De Morga. Phillipine Is., Hat, Soc., Ed. 68, 70.

1890.] The Notes of Some of Our Birds. 745

THE NOTES OF SOME OF OUR BIRDS.

BY JOHN VANCE CHENEY.

RED-EYED VIREO.

HIS lively, tireless singer, running rapidly after insects in the

tops of the forest trees, singing as he goes, is heard more

hours in a day and more days in the season than any other bird.

There is no difficulty in distinguishing him,—the bird so easy to

hear and so hard to see. The clear, high tones of his rich voice

are a constant repetition of a few triplets, but so ingeniously ar-

ranged as not to become wearisome:

Ba OK Wr - NCC EEE a=

ip — A —S- a m ar 553 TASS OS YEDI AARNE A RE OE ORNL ET

A LS eae ee — ,dd-—LLt—m

This illustration, containing the substance of the red-eyed

vireo's song, has much in common with the music of other

birds. The nest is after the fashion of the oriole's, hanging, as I

have found it, beneath the fork of small beech limbs, five or six

feet from the ground. It is a nice little pocket, as the cow-bird

well knows.

INDIGO BIRD.

I had very little acquaintance with this bird, and knew nothing

of his singing, till I sought him for study in a sunny nook near

the entrance of the beautiful cemetery at Lynn. There a pair

spent the season, giving me frequent opportunities to listen to the

singer. His song was brief, plain, and without variation, and I

supposed it to be the family song; but, to my surprise, though I

have heard indigo birds sing many times since, not one of them

sang that first song, the only one I have been able to copy.

Am.

at.—

746 The American Naturalist. [August,

The exact tones were:

At first the tonic was not quite distinct, but, after several per-

formances, I caught this:

axi.

Fi i |

ia 1] w

The conclusion, then, was that the key was F. In the repeti-

tions the last two tones were added about one time in six ; just

often enough to keep in mind the true key, which, by the con-

stant use of sharp 4, might be lost sight of.

The form, then, was as follows:

This little visitor sang frequently and earnestly ; with most

fervor in the hot noon-day sun, when the birds generally were

silent.

PARTRIDGE.

The partridge is said to be a general inhabitant of North America,

but, familiar as I have been with almost all parts of Vermont for .

more than thirty years, I have only seen one quail in the state,

and he was evidently a “tramp.” I heard him just at night, the

first day of July, 1884. Did not get sight of him till the next

morning, when he came out into the sun, stood on the top rail

of a fence, warmed himself, and whistled his spirited, forceful

tune, his solid little body swelling and throbbing at every note,

especially when he rose to the tonic.:

I was prepared for him, and made an exact copy of what he

gave me:

D. D i = A r> ^^ =>

Bob, Bob White, Bob White, Bob, Bob White.

1890.] Editorial. x 747

After the performance he stood, evidently listening for a reply;

none came, and, without another note, he disappeared, to be seen

no more.

The partridge is about one-half the size of our grouse, and

resembles it in plumage and style of flight. It seems a little

strange that the time of incubation should be four weeks, while

the grouse and the domestic hen sit only three weeks. A

nest that I found in Iowa in 1874—on the ground—seemed

rather small and too deep, the sixteen eggs being piled one upon

another for three layers, at least. I was told that they were all

sure to hatch.

Our eastern partridge are plump, fine-looking birds, but there

are two varieties in California, the “mountain” and the “ valley

partridge," more beautiful than ours.

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

[^ and the newspapers form the staple of the reading of

the American people. Serious books which treat of matters

of fact have fewer readers; and exact or scientific books fewer

still. In the estimation of some people this is an unfavorable

state of affairs, and speaks ill for our intellectual condition. We

take a somewhat different view of it. The newspapers treat

mainly of matters of fact, and they are only worthy of complaint

when they give undue prominence to trivial matters, and to the

evil that men do, and not enough to those events which make

for human development and progress. This criticism may be

justly applied to many newspapers. Also there is fiction and

fiction. A class of French fiction, which has imitators in other

countries, on pretence of being "realistic," is evil and only evil,

and should be, in our estimation, like the * Kreutzer Sonata” of

Tolstoi, excluded from the mails. But much fiction is instructive,

both in the facts of human character and in those of nature, and

is of great utility as conveying much truth, sugar-coated, to the

unsuspecting reader. Besides, were fiction abolished the number

748 The American Naturalist. [August,

of readers would be greatly diminished. Fiction, in fact, is the

pioneer of the intellectual life, and many persons, more’s the

pity, never get beyond it. Without it, they would never get so

far. But many readers of fiction do better. Interest in a thou-

sand subjects is suggested, especially history, biography, geogra-

phy, metaphysics, social science, and what not. Some who

begin by scoffing at science remain to pray at her shrine. And

it is quite possible that society will ere long have a surfeit of

fiction. Froth and sponge serve as an inflator of the mental

stomach for a time, but they are apt to generate a taste for some-

thing more solid as time passes on. If fact, mankind at large

will, ere long, begin to suspect that the raw material of reality

out of which the frail structures of fiction are built, must be of as

much interest as are its products. On a little inspection they will

find that truth is really stranger than fiction, as has been often

said, and that there is an inexhaustible supply of it. From

being readers of Balzac and Zola, they will become subscribers

to and readers of the AMERICAN NATURALIST.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

, G.—Our Digestionssekretionem hos Insekter och este Bihang.

Till k pact Vet. Akad. Handlingar, Band 16, 1890.

ALLEN, I. A.—On the Maximilian Types of S S.A. Birds. Ext. Am. Mus. Nat Hist.

N. Y., 1889.

BAUR, G.—Revision meiner Mittheilungen im Zoologischen Anzeiger mit Nachträ-

Separat-Abdruck aus dem Zoologischen Anzeiger, No. 306, 1889. peu:

dur ceci Reptilien. Separat-Abdruck Zoologischen Anzeiger, No. 298, 1889.—Die

Stellung von Dermochelys Blainv. Sonderabdruck aus Pine te

en "Band IV., 1889. From the author.

BEAN, T. H.—Description of a new Cottoid Fish collected by the U. S. Fish Com.

Ext. Proc; U. S. — Vol. XII

——. tes on Fishes EEE at Cosima, Yucatan, by U. S. Fish Commission,

with TET of New Species. Ex. from Bull. U. S. Fish Commission, Vol. VIII.

From the ai

KER, G. 'F.—Silicic Acids. Ext. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIII., 1889. From

the author.

BOETTGER, O.—Die Entwicklung der Pupa-Arten des Mittelrheingebiets in Zeit

und Raum buda Abdruck aus den Jahrbüchen des Nassauischen Vereins für Natur-

kunde, Jahrgang 42,

BOGNE, E. A = Study of the Visible Changes that take Ess during the pleni

ment of Human Teeth and their Alveoli. Ext. Dental Cosmos, 1889. From J. M. White.

1 890.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 749

BRIDGE, T. W.—The Air-Bladder and Weberian Ossicles in the Siluride. Ext.

Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLVI. From the author

BRINTON, D. G.—Aims and Traits of World- -Language. Ext. Werner's Voice Mag.

BROWN, H. 'P.—The Commercial Efficiency of the Leading Systems of Electric

Lighting.

Bull. No. 9, "D Experiment Station, Kansas ecc College.

Bull. No. 20, U. S. Department Agriculture, The ot Disease of the Peach,

Orange, and pews Plants i in Florida rom ER

BusH, G.—History of Né in Florida. Hiisi of Education, Cir. of Inf.

No, 7, 1888,

Contributions to American Educational History, giam 2,4, 5, a

eg of the Geological Society America mJ A A as

IN, F. W.—Contributions to the Geology ob the pide. ee I. Extract

Bull. Wasim College Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. II., 18

CR H.—Die Stegocephalen und Saurier aus dem Rothliegenden des Plau-

enischen se ndes bei Dresden. Besonderer Abdruck aus der Zeitschrift der deutschen

re ee ee bass XLI., 1889. From the author.

Da 1; w Species of Fossil Brugg from the Siluro-Cambrian at

Little Mie eng Ber Soc. Can., Vol. VII.

. Notes on the Cretaceous of the Bi Columbian Region—The Nanaimo

Group. Extract Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXIX.,

On the Earlier Cretaceous grin "d the Northwestern Portion of the

Dominion of Canada. Extract Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIII., 1889.—Glaciation of

British Columbia. Extract Geol. Mag., 1889.

ON, W., AND D. P. SRM —On the Pleistocene Flora of Canada.

Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. L, pp.

en of t Principles of ^ Som, of Individualists, 1890.

EDERLEIN, L.—Bericht = die Zoologische Arne des Museums für Jahre

din "e vg Nofofhistórieciws useum der Stadt Strassbur

Ec . G.—Evolution ine the Mind. Modern Secon Essayist, Vol. 1., 1889

From dnd a aiu:

EIGENMANN, S H., and R. S. EIGENMANN.—Additions to the Fauna of San Diego.

Ext. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sciences, Vol. 1II.

Description aod a New Species of Cyprinodon.—A Review of the Erythrininz.

Ea C4 Cal. Acad. Sci.,

A alba = the Edutulous Genera of Curimatine. Ext. Ann. N. Y.

Acad, Sch, ipe AN:

California Fishes, with D ipti f NewS ies. Ext

pt

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1888.

—. Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory. The Fishes of Cortez

——. Preliminary Notes on South American Nematognathi. Ext. Proc. Cal.

Acad. Sci., 2d Ser., II. From the authors.

Evolution.—Popular Lectures and Discussions before the Brooklyn Ethical Associa-

rium el a Garden at Boston, 1889.

FÜRBRINGER, M.—Uber die Stellung von Stringops, der Papageien, und von Jynx

A , H. W.—The Prehistoric Archeology of North Am. Chap. VI., Vol. L., of

Narrative and Critical Hist. of Am., edited by Justin Winsor.

author.

ADDEN, A. C.—A Revision of the British Actinize, Part I. Trans. Roy. Dub. Soc.,

Vol. IV., 1889.

750 The American Naturalist. [August,

HEAD, F. H.—Shakespeare’s Insomnia. From the au

HECTOR, J.—On the Be - ie of New [SS RA Ext. Proc. Wellington

Philos. Soc., 1873. From

HILL, R. T.—Relation P = Be ger Beds of the Eastern and

Southern U.S. Ext. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIIL., 1889.

deni a H.—Reply to C. V. Rile ey on ee

‚ G. B.—Additional Observations wi: the Intranarial Epiglottis. Ext.

ja Pase ndi Physiol, Vol. XXIII. From thea

eig . E.—Education in Georgia. votanti pA Information, No. 4, Bureau of

Eggs

K, J.—Die Königlich Böhmische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften i in Prag.

eg der Königl. Bohm. Geschellschaft der Wissenschaften für das Jahr., 1889.

KEISER, E. H.—On the Combustion of Weighed RRA tities of u and the

Atomic Weight of Oxygen. Ext. Am. Chem. Jour., V

LAWRENCE, G. N.—A New Nome for the Species of Sporophila from Texas. Ext.

Auk, Vol. VI.—Description of a New Species of Wren from Tobago, W. Ind. Ext.

Auk, Vol. V.—Description of a New Secs of Bird e the Genus Catharus, from

Ecuador. Seen U. S. Nat. Mus., 1887.

ANGLEY, S. P.—Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June

1889.

" LEBOUCQ, H.—De la Soudure Congénital de Certains os du Tarse. Ext. Bull. d

l'Acad. Royal de Médecine de Bruxelles, 1890,

ber Nagelrudimente au der Fötalen Flosse der Cetacean und Sirenier. Sonder-

Abdruck aus Anatomıscher Anzeiger IV . Jahrgang, 1889. From the author

LECHE, W.—Dr. H. G. Bro i fines und Ordnungen des hus AER Wis-

senschaftlich Dargestellt in Wort und Bild. Sechster Band. V. Abtheilung.

DTH DE JEUDE, TH. W. VON.—On a Collection 4 Snakesfrom Delhi. Ext. Notes

Leyden Mus., Vol. XII. From Ae author.

List Publications Johns Hopkins Universi

Macalester College Contributions, No. 6. „Notice of : a pos $ Washington Portrait;

also Descriptions of Some Copper Relics of the T. H. Lewis Col

MALLERY, G.—Israelite and Indian. Ext. Pop. Sci. er 1889. From the

author.

MERRIAM, G. H.—Revision of the North American Pocket Mice.—Descriptions of

Fourteen New Species and One New Genus of A. Amer. Mammals. North Am. Fauna,

No.1. From U.S. Dept. Agri,

MILLER, S. A.—North American Geology and Palzontology. From the author.

MOURLON, M.—Sur le Gisement des Silex Taillés Attribuér à l'Homme Tertiare,

aux Environs de Mons. Ext. Bull. de l'Acad. Roy. de Belgique, Tome XVII., 1889.

From the author.

MONTGOMERY, E.—Mental Activity. Ext. Mind, Vol. XIV.

ker A.—The Society and the “ Fad.” Fact and Theory Papers No. 11. From

MysTRÖM, E—Om en | urne Form af Cottus scorpius Lin. Bihang Till K.

^

Akad.

NEWBERRY, J. S.—Sketch of Pres. F. A. P. Barnard, LL.D., S.T.D., L.H.D. Re-

from Necrology Report of the University Convocation of the State of New York

pens 9-11, ge

The Oil-Field of Colorado. Ext. School of Mines Quarterly, Vol. X.,

No. 2, 2, Jan, 1889.

Laramie Group. —The Rock Salt ne Salina Group in

Westen N. y. Exts. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. IX.

Fossil Fishes and Fossil Plants of the Triassic Rocks of New Jersey and

the a Valley. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey, Vol. XIV.

1890.] Recent Literature. 751

——. e Paleozoic Fishes of North America. Monograph U. S. Geol. Survey,

Vol. E: = the author.

PALMER, C. T.—Artificial Persons: A en View of the Law of Corpora-

tions. ‘beni Open Court, 1888. F

OHLIG, H.—Dentition and Kranol Bisher antiquus mit Beitrágen über

ogie

Elephas primigenins Blum. und Zlephas ee Nesti. Nova Acta der Ksl.

Carol. Akad. der Naturforscher, Band LIII. a

Piirönlich of Swine Plague by Inoculation. From F. S. Billings & Co.

eport Arkansas Geol. Surve

8-'89.

Report of the Curator Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., 1888- 89

Report of the nn State wesen pa for the year ending Oct. ı, 1888

Report of the Germantown Science and Art Club at the Tenth Annive md 1890.

Reports of ee of a Tainan Congress on Classification and

DE

rt of the Trustees of the Australian Museum for 1889.

Ribera: E.—Philippe de la Harpe, Sa Vie, et ses Travaux Scientifiques. Tiré du

Bull. Soc. Vaud. Sc. Nat., Vol. XXV. From the author.

RoTH, S.—Catalogue No. A Fossiles de la Pampa ‘Amérique du Sud.-Avis.

l

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Remarks upon Extinct Mammals.

—— Seon nen upon gr Osteology of the Men > and Steganopodes.

Ext. Proc. U.S. Nat , Vol. XL, 1889.—Osteological Studies of the Sub-Family

Ardeine. Ext. Jaenal geuds Med. and Surg., 1 =.

Observations upon the Osteology of the Larus and Grebes. Ext. Journal

Anat. and Phy., Vol. XXIV.

On the es Ae ee in the System. Reprint Journal Morph.,

Vol. III ; B; 3. From the:

Sketch of the T pH ‘Biological Research of the Brooklyn Institute

SMITH, C. L.—History of Education in North Carolina. Bureau of Ed., Cir. of

Inf. s es 1888.

ANESCU, G.— Mémoire Relatif à la Geologie du Judet del Doljin. Annarulü

dise aig pe 1882-'83, No. 4.

TAVEL, F. VO: N- Contributions to the piens a I Development of Pyrenomy-

cetes. dm Journal Mycology, 1889. From m J. M

RECENT LITERATURE.

Eimer on Evolution.'—This work reaches the scientific men of

English-speaking countries at a time when the views of Weismann are

being read, and it serves as a source of evidence on the opposite side

of the interesting question which they discuss. Professor Eimer has

taken a broader view of the field than is done by that large class of

biologists whose knowledge is limited by the use of the microscope,

and he is therefore in possession of a class of facts which are apt to

1 Organic Evolution as the Result of the Inheritance of Acquired Characters, Accord-

ing to the Law of Organic Growth, by G. H. Theodor Eimer, Professor of Zoology and

tive Anatomy at the University of Tübingen. Translated by I. H. Cunning-

iuis, MA: F.RS.E. London: MacMillan & Co., ‘and New York, 1890. 8vo, pp. 435-

752 The American Naturalist. [August,

escape the researches of the histologists and embryologists. While

using the many important and essential facts brought to light by the

latter class of investigators, he has not neglected researches which do

not require the mechanical appliances which give a somewhat factitious

value to the pursuits of microscopy and telescopy. Prof. Eimer is

already well known through his important investigations on the dis-

tribution and origin of color-markings in insects and reptiles; his

discussion. of the variations of the wall lizard of Europe (Lacerta

muralis) being a model of this kind of work. From these and similar

researches on the variations in the colors of caterpillars, and imagines

of various Lepidoptera, he has shown conclusively that color-variations

are not promiscuous or fortuitous, but follow certain definite directions.

This result is in entire harmony with those derived from similar studies

which I have made on the coloration of certain snakes, and of which

I have published, especially the case of the North American Ophibolus

doliatus.2 The author then proceeds to discuss the effects of physical

agencies as causes of variations, as light, temperature, humidity, etc.

Of the effects of use and disuse he says (p. 153): “It isa self-evident

physiological fact that practice or use strengthens and improves the

organs of the body, while disuse causes them to deteriorate." He

then adds: ‘That characters acquired through use or disuse are in-

herited, and must therefore aid in the formation of new species, can be

proved more easily than any of the propositions I am maintaining. If

I were to bring together all the facts which could be used as evidence

on this point, I should never come to the end of them, for I should

have to refer to all the facts of anatomy and physiology. But I intend

to show in particular that use and disuse by themselves must lead to

the formation of new permanent characters, without the aid of selec-

tion, for even this I hold to be a physiological necessity." Accord-

ingly, the author cites many facts in support of this view. Among

these he relates some interesting cases of the inheritance of mutilations

and abnormalities.

Considerable space is devoted to the question of the origin and

transmission of mental characteristics, and here especially Prof. Eimer

shows himself an acute observer and thinker. His residence has

grounds attached to it, where he has been accustomed to have under

his eye animals both domestic and wild, and his observations on the

habits of these are highly interesting. He coincides in opinion with

most observers on this subject, that mental habits are readily trans-

mitted by inheritance, and his observations on young chickens and

other birds are very instructive,

? Proceeds, U. S. National Museum, 1888, p. 381. Bulletin do., I. 1875, p. 3.

1890.] Recent Literature. 753

Prof. Eimer takes occasion frequently to criticise the opinions of

Prof. Weismann. The following is a sample of this polemic :

* In the paper previously mentioned, * Retrogression in Nature,’ .

Weismann replies with greater detail and precision than on previous

occasions to the objections which may be made—as they have been

made by me—to his theory on account of the facts of the degeneration

of organs in consequence of disuse.

* Starting from the proposition that *the adaptation of living

beings, in all their parts, depends on the process of natural selection,’

he infers that this adaptation must be maintained by the same means

by which it was produced, and that it must again disappear as soon

as this means, natural selection, fails to act.

* In other words, he says: Through natural selection alone forms

have come to be what they are. By the continuation of natural selec-

tion only are they maintained in their present state. If selection

ceases, they of necessity retrograde. But selection with respect to a

particular organ obviously ceases as soon as that organ is no longer

necessary (*the reverse side of natural selection' ); its cessation,

therefore, produces the degeneration of organs.

“It is, according to my view, self-evident that the cessation of

natural selection can as little cause the retrogression of an organ as

natural selection can cause it to develop. Selection is, I must ever

repeat, no physiological factor which could produce any thing new,

or whose cessation could annul anything existing. Organs are pro-

duced by external stimuli, or by use acting upon the material given in

a given case, with the aid of general and of sexual selection."

In this position the author is in entire harmony with the views of

the Neo-Lamarkian school in America and England ; and he supports

it with an array of facts which fill a great part of the 435 pages

which comprise the volume. We regret that he has not been appar-

ently acquainted with the opinions entertained by his co-workers on

this side of the Atlantic, as he might have derived some facts of use

to him. To paleontology, that mine of evidence for the evolutionist,

he makes but little reference ; and, in fact, this subject has not been:

within the scope of his researches, which have been so abundant in

other directions.

With respect to the cause of variations, he adduces the following

example : |

«Oscar Schmidt points out further that numerous [other] cases in

sponges have been described by Haeckel and himself, in which the

| organisms are beginning to change into new species by the disappear-

y The Amerwan Naturalist. [August,

ance of certain forms of skeletal structures. And I am able to add

that in the markings of animals—e.g., butterflies—characters every-

where degenerate whose present or former use cannot be discerned,

which we must regard as non-essential.

‘ Weismann supposes that even in those cases in which adaptation

is not demonstrated it is really present. But such an assumption

belongs to the domain of faith.

** We ought, on the contrary, to say: We know that definite stimuli

must produce an effect on or in the organism ; that they must give rise

to definite changes of form, definite character, whether these be use-

ful to the organism or not.

«When we maintain this we take our stand, not on mere assump-

tions, but on physiological facts. Normal physiology and pathology

in like measure speak for us with the weight of all their fundamental

truths.

** Thus there is certainly a physiological basis for the belief that the

above-described variations of the sponge-skeleton are simply to be as-

cribed to changes of external, z.e., of nutritive conditions, of the

material composition of the body."

The translator has performed an excellent service. We cannot but

agree with him in some remarks in his preface as to the editorial con-

duct of the English periodical Wature. He complains of the exclusion

of articles which do not coincide with the views of the editor of the

department of Natural History. On this we observe that such ex-

clusions, no doubt, often occur, but though it may not be commended

as judicial, it is within editorial right. But mutilation or alteration of

articles, as is sometimes practiced by that periodical, is clearly not

within editorial right, and to this practice exception may be still more

fairly taken.— EZ. D. Cope.

Geddes and Thompson on the Evolution of Sex.'—In

this book we have a systematic résumé of what is known on the subject

of sex, with inferences which appear to the authors reasonably to flow

from the facts. The work is divided into four ** books," viz.:

I. Male and Female; II. Analysis of Sex,—organs, tissues, cells ;

III. Processes of Reproduction; IV. Theory of Reproduction. The

. work done in this direction has been very large in the last few

years, and the time was ripe for the presentation to the public of just

such a work as the present. The subject is not only intrinsically

interesting, but it has the closest relation to the general question of

1 The Evolution of Sex. By Prof. Patrick Geddes and J, Arthur Thompson. 8v0,

PP. 322. From the Contemporary Science Series. London: Walter Scott.

Y

1890.] Recent Literature. . FS

evolution. Further, the essential nature of sex-character has the

greatest practical bearing on human affairs, and its thorough compre-

hension cannot fail to be of great utility to society. In fact, such

knowledge is the one thing needful to regulate the unbridled fancies

of the uneducated mind which attempts to deal with the subject, and

which has produced innumerable absurdities since the human imagina-

tion began to be active.

The authors have produced a book which has not only scientific

but literary merits, and many of its bright passages indicate the artist

as well as the thinker. The more delicate parts of the subject are

handled with a tact that cannot give offence to persons of most oppo-

site views, ; and a judicious reserve is maintained in the presence of

unsolved social problems, with the discussion of which the volume

closes.

The fadiga character of sex-diversity is demonstrated, and is

traced in the characteristic peculiarities of the germ-cells of the sexes,

as at present existing. The superior activity of the male cell (sperma-

tozoöid), with its expenditure of energy in segmentation so long as

material for its nutrition is accessible, is taken as reflected into the

male character generally. The large, inactive female cell (ovum),

abounding in nutritive material, which is ready for active functioning

on the accession of male energy, is thought to be reflected more or

less in the general habit of the female. The facts in evidence which

sustain this position are as numerous as are the phenomena of life,

and a large number of them are recorded in the present work. The

views of the authors are more expressly stated in the following extracts :

** Without multiplying instances, a review ofthe animal kingdom, or

a perusal of Darwin’s pages, will amply confirm the conclusion that

on an average the females incline to passivity, the males to activity.

In higher animals it is true that the contrast shows rather in many

little ways than in any one striking difference of of habit, but even in

the human species the contrast is recognized. Every one will admit

that strenuous, spasmodic bursts of activity characterizes men, especi-

ally in youth, and among the less civilized races; while patient con-

tinuance, with less violent expenditure of energy, is as generally asso-

ciated with the work of women.

** For completeness of argument two other facts, which will after-

claim full discussion, may here be simply mentioned: (a). At

the very threshold of sex-differences we find that a little active cell or

spore, unable to develop of itself, unites in fatigue with a larger, more.

quiescent individual. Here, at the very first, is the contrast between

756 The American Naturalist. [August,

male and female, (2). The same anthithesis is seen when we contrast,

as we shall afterwards do in detail, the actively’ motile, minute male

element of most animals and many plants with the larger, passively

quiescent female cell or ovum. '

“ While it is easy to point to the general physiological import of large

size and the reverse, physiology is not yet far enough advanced to afford

firm foot-hold in dealing with the details of secondary sexual char-

acters. It is only possible to point out the path which will eventually .

lead us to their complete rationale. This path will appear less vague

if reverted to after some of the succeeding chapters have been grasped.

The point of view is simple enough. The agility of males is not a

special adaptation to enable that sex to exercise its functions with

relation to the other, but is a natural characteristic of the constitutional

activity of maleness; and the small size of many male fishes is not an

advantage at all, but simply again the result of the contrast between the

more vegetative growth of the female, and the costly activity of the

male. So, brilliancy of color, exuberance of hair and feathers, activity

of scent-glands, and even the development of weapons, are not, and

cannot be (except teleologically), explained by natural selection, but

in origin and continued development are outcrops of a male as

opposed to a female constitution. To sum up the position in a para-

dox, all secondary sexual characters are at bottom primary, and are

expressions of the same general habit of body (or to use a medical

term, diathesis), as that which results in the production of male ele-

ments in the one case, or female elements in the other,

“< Three well-known facts must be recalled to the reader's mind at this

point; and firstly, that in a great number of cases the secondary

sexual characters make their appearance step by step with sexual

maturity itself. When the animal, be it bird or insect, becomes em-

phatically masculine, then it is that these minor out-crops are ex-

hibited. Thus the male bird of paradise, eventually so resplendent, is

usually in its youth comparatively dull and female-like in its coloring

and plumage. Very often, too, whether in the wedding-robes of male

fishes or in the scent-glands of mammals, the character rises and wanes

in the same rhythm as that of the reproductive periods. It is impossi-

ble not to regard at least many of the secondary sexual characters as

part and parcel of the sexual diathesis,——as expressions, for the most

part of exuberant maleness. Secondly, when the reproductive organs

are removed by castration, the secondary characters tend to remain

undeveloped. Thus, as Darwin notes, stags never renew their antlers

after castration, though normally of course they renew them each

2999] Recent Literature. 757

breeding season. Tne reindeer, where the horns occur on the female -

as well, is an interesting exception to the rule, for after castration

the male still renews the growth. This, however, merely indicates

that the originally sexual characters have become organized into the

general life of the body. In sheep, antelopes, oxen, etc., castration

modifies or reduces the horns; and the same is true of odoriferous

glands. The parasitic Crustacean Sacculina has been shown by

Delage to effect a partial castration of the crabs to which it fixes itself,

and the same has been observed by Giard in other cases. In two such

cases an approximation to the female form of appendage has been ob-

served. Lastly, in aged females, which have ceased to be functional

in reproduction, the minor peculiarities of their sex often disappear,

and they become liker males, both in structure and habits,—witness

the familiar case of ‘ crowing hens.’

** From the presupposition, then, of the intimate connection between

the sexuality and the secondary characters (which is indeed every-

where allowed), it is possible to advance a step further. Thus in re-

gard to color, that the male is usually brighter than the female is an

acknowledged fact. But pigments of many kinds are physiologically

regarded as of the nature of waste products. Such, for instance, is

the guanin, so abundant on the skin of fishes and some other animals.

Abundance of such pigments, and richness of variety in related series,

point to preéminent activity of chemical processes in the animals that

possess them. ‘Technically expressed, abundant pigments are ex-

pressions of intense metabolism. But predominant activity has been

already seen to be characteristic of the male sex ; these bright colors,

then, are often natural to maleness. In a literal sense animals put on

beauty for ashes, and the males more so because they are males, and

not primarily for any other reason whatever.

«We are well aware that, in spite of the researches of Krukenberg,

Sorby, MacMunn, and others, our knowledge of the pigments is still

very scanty. Yet in many cases, alike among plants and animals, pig-

ments are expressions of disruptive processes, and are of the nature of

waste products, and this general fact is at present sufficient for our

contention, that bright coloring or rich pigmenting is commonly a

tural expression of the male constitution. For the red pigment so

abundant in tre female cochineal insect, which appears to be of the

nature of a reserve and not a waste product, and for similar occur-

rences, due exception must be made.

“In the same way, the skin-eruptions of male fishes at the spawning

eason seem more pathological than decorative, and may be directly

s :

758 The Amerwan Naturalist. [August,

connected with sexual excitement. One instance of a way in which

the reproductive maturity is known to effect a by no means obviously

related result may be given. Every field-naturalist knows that the

male stickleback builds a nest among the weeds, and that he weaves

the material together by mucous threads secreted by the kidneys. The

little animal is also known to have strong passions ; it is polygamous

in relation to its mates, and most pugnacious in relation to its rivals.

Professor Möbius has shown that the male reproductive organs (or

testes) become very large at the breeding season, and that they press in

an abnormal way upon the kidneys. This encroachment produces a

pathological condition in the kidneys, and the result is the formation

of a mucous secretion, somewhat similar to what occurs in renal dis-

ease in higher forms. To free itself from the irritant pressure of this

secretion the male rubs itself against external objects, most cgn-

veniently upon its nest. Thus the curious weaving: instinct does not

demand nor find rationale in the cumulative action of natural selection

upon an inexplicable variation, but is traced back to a pathological

and mechanical origin in the emphatic maleness of the organism. The

line of variation being thus given, it is of course conceivable that

natural selection may have accelerated it.

‘So, too, though again the physiological details are scanty, the

superabundant growth of hair and feathers may be interpreted, in

some measure, through getting rid of waste products, for we shall see

later how local katabolism favors cell multiplication. Combs, wattles,

and skin excresences point to a predominance of circulation in the

skin of the feverish males, whose temperatures are known in some

cases to be decidedly higher than those of females. Even skeletal

weapons like antlers may be similarly interpreted; while the exag-

gerated activity of the soglasni | is another —— for excreting

waste,

‘t [In regard to horns, feathers, and the like, in association with vigor-

ous circulation, two sentences from Rolph may be quoted: ‘The

exceedingly abundant circulation which periodically occurs in the at

first soft frontal protuberances of stags admits and conditions the

colossal development of horn and ensheathing velvet.. . . In the

same way the rich flow of blood in the feather papillae conditions the

immense growth of the feathers, . . . and the same is true of hairs,

spines, and teeth.

** Some of the even subtler differences bet th are of interest

in illustrating the general antithesis. Ell in the love-lights of the

Italian glow insect (Luciola) the color is said to be identical in the

1890.] Recent Literature. 759

two sexes, and the intensity is much the same. That of the female,

however, who is in other respects rather male-like in her amatory

emotions, is more restricted. It is interesting further to notice that

the rhythm of the light in the male is more rapid, and the flashes are

briefer, while that of the female is longer, and the flashes more distant:

and tremulous. This illustration may thus serve, in conclusion, as a

literally illumined index of the contrasted physiology of the sexes.

* We are now in a better position to criticize*Mr. Darwin’s theory.

On his view, males are stronger, handsomer, or more emotional,

because ancestral forms happened to become so in a slight degree. In

other words, the reward of breeding success gradually perpetuated and

perfected a casual advantage. According to the present view, males

are stronger, handsomer, or more emotional, simply because they are

males,—/. e., of more active physiological habit than their mates, In

phraseology which will presently become more intelligible and con-

crete, the males live at a loss, are more katabolic,—disruptive changes

tending to predominate in the sum of changes in their living matter

or protoplasm. The females, on the other hand, live at a profit, are

more anabolic,—constructive processes predominating in their life,

whence, indeed, the capacity of bearing offspring.”

Thus it is evident that the authors of the present work hold the

tenets of the Neo-Lamarkians in maintaining the direct influence of

physical causes as producing variation, and jn the belief that acquired

characters are inherited. The reasons for the adoption of these views

are often stated, and with a good deal of force. The reasons why

promiscuous variation and natural selection are inadequate to explain

evolution, are also clearly set forth.

In the last chapter the question of population raised by Malthus is

considered. Writing in a country which is, so long as the unequal

distribution of land continues, fulty populated, the authors admit the

necessity for some method of restraining the increase of families. They

consider the propositions of the Neo-Malthusians for limiting the

increase by various artificial measures, and decide in favor of a dif-

ferent course. They observe: ‘‘ It seems to us, however, essential to

recognize that the ideal to be sought after is not merely a controlled

rate of increase, but regulated married lives. Neo-Malthusianism

might secure the former by its more or less mechanical methods, and

there is no doubt that a limitation of the family would often increase

the happiness of the home ; but there is danger lest, in removing its

result, sexual intemperance become increasingly organic. We would

urge, in fact, the necessity of an ethical rather than a mechanical

760 The American Naturalıst. [August,

* prudence after marriage ; '

ing on husband and wife as chastity on the unmarried. . . . We

need a new ethic of the sexes ; and this not merely or even mainly as

an intellectual construction, but as a discipline of life; and we need

more. We need an increasing education and civism of women,—in

fact, an economic of the sexes very different from that nowadays so

common, which, while attacking the old coóperation of men and

women because of'its manifest imperfections, but offers us an un-

limited and far more mutually destructive industrial competition

between them instead. . . . And while our biological studies of

course for the most part only point the way towards deeper social

ones, they afford also one luminous principle toward their prosecu-

tion,—that thorough parallelism and coincidence of psychical and

material considerations, upon which moralist. and economist have

been too much wont to specialize." s

The authors do not state clearly what their ** new ethic’’ is to be,

excepting that it is to be based on a thorough recognition of the

basis of biologic fact which underlies the problem. They are evi-

dently not in sympathy with the entrance of women into either

industrial or political competition with men, nor do they see in the

present position of woman anything more than the natural outcome

of natural evolution. “‘ Instead of men and women merely laboring

to produce things, as the past economic theories insisted, or competing

over the distribution of them, as we at present think so important, a

further swing of economic theory will lead us round upon a higher

Spiral to the direct organic facts. So it is not for the sake of prodüc-

tion or distribution, of self-interest or mechanism, or any other idol of

the economists that the male organism organizes the climax of his life's

struggle and labor, but for his mate ; as she, and therefore he, also, for

their little ones. Production is for consumption; the species is its

own highest, its sole essential product. The social order will clear

itself as it comes more in touch with biology."

of a temperance recognized to be as bind-

1890.] Geography and Travel. 761

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVELS.

Mexico.—In a communication made to the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, at a recent meeting, Professor Heilprin

placed on record his barometric determinations of the heights of the

four loftiest summits of the Mexican Republic,—Orizaba, Popocatepetl,

Ixtaccihuatl, and the Nevado de Toluca, From these it would appear

that considerable corrections will have to be made in geographies of

the recorded heights of these far-famed giants of the South. All the

observations were made by means of a carefully tested aneroid barome-

ter, and the data computed from almost simultaneous observations

made at the Mexican Central Observatory of the City of Mexico, and

from barometric readings made at the sea level at Vera Cruz. The

The equable condition of the atmosphere at the time these observa-

tions were made rendered the possibility of the occurrence of possible

errors of magnitude almost 2.

HEIGHT oF PopocaTEPETL.—The height of Popocatepetl, com-

monly accepted as the highest peak, was recorded by Alexander

von Humboldt in 1804 as 17,720 feet. Several measurements have

been made since the date of the grigonometrical observations of

the distinguished German traveler, and with results varying from

17,200 feet to somewhat over 18,000 feet. Professor Heilprin’s

measurements give 17,523 feet, or 200 feet less than the estimate of

Humboldt, as corrected by his astronomical associate, Oltmanns. The

significant fact, however, pointed out, that while geographers have

almost universally accepted Humboldt’s determinations and figures,

they have neglected to take account of the newer data which have

been made possible through the leveling of the Mexican Railway,

which was constructed a few years since. These show that the esti-

mate of the elevation of the City of Mexico (7,470 feet) and of the

adjoining plateaus, which have served as a basis for most of the angle

measurements of the mountains, have been placed 123 feet too high.

Allowing for this excess, a striking correspondence is established

between the early measurements and those obtained in the spring of

the year by the Philadelphia expedition.

Am. Nat.—August.—5.

762 The American Naturalıst. [August,

The ascent of the peak was made on the 16th and 17th of April by

Professor Heilprin and Mr. F. C. Baker, the rim of the crater being

reached at 11.30 o’clock on the morning of the 17th, and the culmi-

nating point early in the afternoon of the same day. Little difficulty was

encountered in the ascent beyond that which is due to the incon-

venience arising from the highly rarified atmosphere. The snow field

was found to be of limited extent, and not more than from five to ten

feet in depth, and was virtually absent from the apex of the mountain.

The surprisingly mild temperature of the summit, 45 degrees Fahren-

heit, rendered a stay of several hours in cloudland very delightful.

THE Mountain OF ORIZABA.—With regard to the elevation of

what is commonly supposed to be the second highest summit of the

Mexican Republic, the peak of Citlaltepetl or Orizaba, the results of

Professor Heilprin’s determinations show more marked variations from

those of most of the earlier investigators, and more particularly from

those of Humboldt. The latter determined the height of the moun-

tain, by means of angles taken from near the town of Jalapa, to be

17,375 feet, while a still earlier determination by Ferrer, in 1796, and

recorded in the transactions of the American Philosophical Society,

gave 17,879 feet. The latter estimate has been generally adopted by

German geographers, and Humboldt himself has considered it more

nearly representing the truth than his own measurement. The Mexi-

can geographers, on the other hand, have adopted the measurement of

Humboldt, or that which was obtained by the National Commissions of

1877, and which indicated a height of 17,664 feet.

Professor Heilprin, with three of his scientific associates and eleven

guides, made the ascent of the mountain on the 6th and 7th of April,

or ten days before the ascent of Popocatepetl. The last camp, at a

height of some 13,000 feet, was left shortly before five o’clock in the

morning of the second day, and after a difficult and continuous strug-

gle of twelve hours through loose boulders, sand, and a much cut-up ice

cap, the party—or rather the fragment which succeeded in holding

out—finally reached the rim of the crater.

A photograph was here obtained of the depression which marks the

summit of this most symmetrical cone of the North American conti-

nent. Professor Heilprin’s measurement, which was made at a point

about 120 feet below the apex of the cone, indicates a total height of

the mountain of 18,206 feet, or some 325 feet in excess of the measure-

ment of Ferrer, and upwards of 800 more than that of Humboldt.

The equal conditions of the atmosphere under which the measure-

ments of both the peaks of Orizaba and Popocatepetl were made, and

*

1890.] Geography and Travel. 763

the fact that the two measurements were made with the same instru-

ments, after an interval of only ten days, appear to leave but little

room for doubt that the latter determination is within close limits the

correct one. There thus seems no question but that the first place

among Mexican volcanoes must be accorded to the ‘‘ Star Mountain.”’

The sense of excessive fatigue which marked the ascent of this

mountain as compared with that of Popocatepetl was considered in

itself a sufficient index of the much greater elevation. Messrs. Witmer

Stone and F. C. Baker, two of Professor Heilprin’s associates, were

compelled to desist from the final attack upon the mountain when not

more than some 300 ‘feet below the summit. Mr. Le Boutillier’s

strength failed him at an elevation of about 14,000 feet.

As upon Popocatepetl, the snow cap upon Orizaba, although arising

2,400 feet, or nearly half a mile, above the summit of the highest peak

of the Alps, was a comparatively insignificant development. Only a

quarter of an hour was passed on the crest of the mountain when the

difficult descent through the numerous seracs of the ice was made.

The camp was reached at a little after eight o’clock in the evening,

thus completing a remarkable round of mountain-climbing of fifteen

successive hours.

The views from the slopes of the mountain are described as being

surpassingly grand, far exceeding anything that Professor Heilprin had

hitherto seen in his travels. Far off to the west the giants Popo-

catepetl and Ixtaccihuatl were clearly outlined against the sky at a

distance of about 100 miles, while to the east and south the eye wan-

dered over a seemingly endless expanse of plateaus and lowlands,

penetrating through a series of successive cloud-planes.

ASCENT OF IXTACCIHUATL.—The ascent of the third highest peak

of the Republic, Ixtaccihuatl, was made on the 27th of the same

month on which the two other ascents above noted were also made.

In its general features, this mountain differs broadly from the two

peaks before mentioned. Although the remains of a volcano, it no

longer presents either the symmetry or conical outline of its more

famous rivals. A strong, flowing crest, covered with a heavy deposit,

* some 75 or 100 feet in thickness, of snow and ice, serves readily to

distinguish the familiar ‘‘ White Woman ” of the plain of Auahuac.

Above what is now the highest point there at one time arose the

crater wall, but the destruction through natural causes of :he summit

has completely obliterated all traces of both the crater and wall. The

heavy cap of snow, a true firm, or neve, feeds one or more glaciers

which descend the western slopes. Across one of these glacial ice

764 The Amerwan Naturalist. [August,

sheets, whose nature was now for the first time made known to the

Mexicans, the dangerous ascent was accomplished. Huge crevasses

at short intervals barred the progress of the march, but the point, esti-

mated to be about 75 yards below the summit, was reached about 10.30

o’clock in the morning. Two impassable crevasses, cutting the crest

of the mountain at right angles, prevented a nearer approach to the

apex.

Professor Heilprin’s measurements determined the height of this

mountain to be 16,962 feet, or from 800 to 1,300 feet above that which

is accorded to it by Mexican geographers. This determination, on

the other hand, accords very closely (within 11 feet) with the very

careful, but now generally overlooked, trigonometrical measurements

made in 1857 by Sonntag, under the auspices of Baron von Miiller.

It is difficult to account for the low value of the height of this

mountain given by Humboldt and the Mexican geographers, in view

of its close proximity to Popocatepetl. So nearly do they appear of

equal height that the eye at first fails to distinguish which of the two

summits is the highest. German geographers, however, in a few cases,

have adopted Sonntag’s measurements, neglecting, however, as in the

cases of Popocatepetl, to make allowances for the error, in this case

of 125 feet, which is indicated by the leveling of the Mexican Railway.

The temperature on the summit of Ixtaccihuatl was found to be

much lower than on either of the other peaks, being 32 degrees

Fahrenheit.

ASCENT OF NEVADA DE ToLuca.—The fourth highest summit of

the Republic, the Nevado de Toluca, was ascended by Professor

Heilprin and Mr. Baker on the 25th of April. This mountain, owing

to its lesser elevation, has a much easier ascent than the others. In

fact, it can be ascended by horseback to within about 6oo feet of the

apex. The rim of the broken crater is extremely ragged and narrow,

descending with almost equal abruptness to the inner and outer faces

of the volcano. At some points the crest is so attenuated that it can

be readily straddled. This feature recalls the famous Polnischer

Kamm of the Carpathian Mountains, which Professor Heilprin

ascended in 1878, and from which there is obtained a precipitous*

descent on the one side into Gallicia, and on the other into Hungary.

The barometric determination of the Nevada de Toluca gave a

height of 14,952 feet, and gave approximately the mean between the

determination of Humboldt and those of a class of students from the

School of Engineers of the city of Toluca.

-*

1890.] Geography and Travel. 765

In regard to the position which the peak of Orizaba holds to the

mountains of the North American continent generally, it may be said

that its only rival without the Mexican domain is Mount St, Elias,

situated on approximately the ı4ıst parallel of latitude, and whose

summit is claimed both by Great Britain and the United States

(Alaska) as their possession.

So broadly divergent, however, are the results of the measurements

of this mountain that as yet it has been impossible to obtain even

remote concurrence in the views of geographers. Thus the early

measurements of La-Pérouse, made in 1786, give less than 13,000 feet.

The British Hydrographic Chart of 1872, with its data borrowed from

still earlier charts, gives 14,970 feet, and this estimate is the one which

is generally followed by the English and a number of American

geographers. Malespina in 1791 determined the height by means of

angles, taken from near the position of Fort Mulgrave, to be 17,851

feet, which figure is reduced by Tebenkoff by somewhat more than

goo feet.

The most recent carefully conduct:d series of measurements are

those which were made by Mr. W. H. Dall, under the auspices of the

United States Coast Survey, in 1874. These yielded results ranging

from a little more than 18,000 to nearly 20,000 feet. The measure-

ments were made from distances of 69, 127, 167 miles, and it is more

than likely that the discrepancy in the results obtained is due to the

very small angles of measurements, and to an uncertainty regarding

the actual position of the mountain.

The extreme variation of nearly 2,000 feet in a mountain less than

four miles in height renders the correctness of the determinations ex-

tremely doubtful. With little doubt Mount St. Elias is considerably

(14,975 feet), but in how near it approaches the height of the Mexican

volcanoes is still a question for future solution. The existing evidence

seems to point to the “Star Mountain " of Mexico, the peak of

Orizaba, with its 18,200 feet, as the culminating point of the North

American continent.— PA//ade/phia Ledger.

766 The American Naturalist. [August,

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Origin of the Sycamore.—The American origin of our

sycamore was long denied by European botanists, and was'only ren-

dered certain by its discovery in a fossil state by Prof. Lesquereux in

a late deposit of the Mississippi valley. Specimens were sent to that

great authority on these subjects, Dr. Oswald Heer, of Zurich, who

could find no characters by which to distinguish the fossil from the

living form, and who regards this as a final settlement of the question.

But through the researches of Lester Ward we now learn that the

genus itself, the entire type of vegetation to which the plants belong,

is American, and that numerous and strange archaic forms of this :

type formed umbrageous forests on the shores of the great inland 4

Laramie sea where the Rocky Mountains stand, and of the ocean at a

time when it extended northward across what are now the great plains

of the United States and Canada. (Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XL)

M E aL ú;

ae Ere EE Ay.

The Cuboides Zone.—In a paper read before the Geol. Soc. -

Am., Dec. 28, 1889, by H. S. Williams, the author concludes, after he

a study of the Cuboides zone and the Tully limestone, that within

narrow limits, geologically speaking, the point in the European time

scale represented by the beginning of deposition of the Cuboides

Schichten of Aixla Chapelle and Rüdesheim, is represented in New

York sections by the Tully limestone ; and second, that the representa-

tive of the fauna of the Cuboides zone of Europe is seen in New York,

not only in the Tully limestone, but in the shaly strata for several

hundred feet above. :

. Therefore, if we wish to express precise correlation in our classifica-

tion of American rocks, theline between Middle and Upper Devonian

formations should be drawn at the base of the Tully limestone, to cor-

respond with the usage of French, Belgian, German, and Russian

geologists, who include the Frasnian, Cuboides Schichten, and cor-

related zones in the Upper Devonian.

. In discussing the subject Mr. C. D. Walcott remarked: “ Prof. p

Williams' paper is of unusual interest, as he has shown very clearly

that the theory of Huxley that there is no homotaxial relation between

the sub-division of the geologic systems on the American and Euro-

pean continents is not altogether correct. This study of the Cuboides

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 767

zone has shown one limited horizon, at least, that is widely distributed

in Europe which is also readily recognized in the state of New York.”

The Echinodermata of the Carboniferous—C. R. K f

in the Am. Jour. Sci., Sept. 1889, discussing the Carboniferous

Echinodermata of the Mississippi basin, recapitulates as follows :

It appears that (1) the most characteristic faunal group was pre-

eminently dual in its general aspect, the Crinoidea greatly predomi-

nating during the first part and the Blastoidea during the latter por-

tionjof the period; (2) that a large proportion of the genera of Echi-

noderms became extinct toward the close of the Keokuk; (3) that of

the Crinoidal genera represented in the St. Louis and Chester, nearly

one-half of the number did not occur in the earlier epochs; (4) that

among the Crinoidea in general the abrupt and extensive differentia-

tion in certain anatomical features toward the end of the Keokuk

are suggestive of decided changes in the biological and physical con-

ditions of environment ; (5) that the faunas of the Burlington and

Keokuk are very closely related genetically, the two being practically

continuous ; (6) that if the members of the Lower Carboniferous of the

Mississippi are to be synchronized with the two divisions of the Ap-

palachian Lower Carboniferous, the line of demarkation is far more

apparent at the close than at the beginning of the Keokuk epoch.

A Recent Find of Castoroides.—Interest attaches to a

recent find of Castoroides ohioensis, since the species, though known

since 1838, has heretofore been studied from rather meagre fragments.

This find, which was made in Indiana is well nigh a complete skeleton.

The parietal and occipital regions of the skull are wanting, but they

have been well studied already. The dentition, however, is perfect,

both above and below, and is more fully developed than in the Clyde

skull found in 1840. The vertebre in front of the pelvis are all

present, except two of the dorsal and four of the cervical. The two

. most important, the atlas and axis, were found.

The shoulder-blades, clavicles, and fore-legs, minus the feet, show an

animal powerfully developed anteriorly. The tail is proportionally

about as long as that of the beaver. Everything about it indicates

that it was an important and powerful member. In the middle and

more posterior region the transverse processes are broad, heavy, and

bifurcate, as in the beaver, but relatively not nearly so long. If its

tail was flat it was not so wide as that of the beaver. It was five-

toed and plantigrade.

768 The American Naturalist. [August,

The fourth metatarsal is the longest and stoutest bone of the series.

The fifth does not join to the tarsus, but articulates with the outer

under side of the base of the fourth. It could hardly have the skele-

ton of the foot in so many respects like that of the beaver, and not

have been web-footed. The entire length of the foot must have

.been fully twelve inches.

The general size and character of the skeleton sustain the conclu-

sions of Dr. Wyman and others that the animal was ‘‘as large as a

black bear.’’—JosEPH Moore, Richmond, Ind. —

Geological News.—General.—H. A. Wasmuth maintains that

in “bedded "" mineral deposits no ** inversion ’’ or ** overlapping ’’ of

the strata can take place without fracture and more or less dislocation ;

and that, in general, the dislocations of the strata take place in one

of two ways: either the portion of a mineral deposit on the hanging

wall of the fracture or fault is in a lower position than the portion on

the foot wall, or it is in a higher position. Occurrences of the former

sort are called **transverse faults; " of the id ** longitudinal

faults," or overlaps. (Jour. Franklin Insti., Aug. 1887.

Prof. N. S. Shaler suggests that the origin of the Florida uplift is in

all probability the same as that.of the ** Cincinnati anticlinal," and

that the peculiar sand-ridges found in the lake district have been

shaped beneath ocean waters affected by strong currents. If this

latter theory is true, then we are compelled to believe that the eleva-

tion of the area above the sea level took place with extreme sudden-

ness. The problem in this field is substantially like that which we

have in the Kame districts along the southern shore of New Eng-

land. (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI., No. 7.

It is proposed by F. H. Knowlton (Proc. Nat. Mus., Vol XII., pp.

601—617), in his revision of the Araucarioxylon, to separate Cordaites

from the other Paleozoic woods; and, in accordance with Felix's sug-

gestion, to adopt Endlicher's name Dadoxylon for the remainder, and to

restrict the use of Araucarioxylon to the Mesozoic and Tertiary forms.

Cretaceous.—R. T. Hill has published an annotated check-list of

the Invertebrate Fossils from the Cretaceous Formations of Texas. It

comprises 2 species of Protozoa, 8 Coelenterata, 16 Echinodermata, 5

Bryozoa, and 59 Lamellibranchiata.

J. S. Diller has discovered a number of sandstone dikes in the Sac-

ramento valley in California. Their position and the peculiar way in

which they intersect the Cretaceous sandstones and shales, their band-

ing and the appearance and position of the biotite in the dike rock,

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 769

afford conclusive evidence that these dikes record seismic movemen}

during the Tertiary. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol I.).

G. M. Dawson proposes (Am. Jour. Sci., March, 1890) the name

Nanaimo Group instead of Dr. White's ** Vancouver," to designate

the equivalent of the Chico Group in the Vancouver Island region.

In the Am. Jour. Sci., Oct. 1889, are some suggestions from G. H.

Eldridge as to a method of grouping the formations of the Middle

Cretaceous, He proposes to include in the lower of the more general

divisions the formations of the Fort Benton and Niobara; in the

upper, the Fort Pierre and Fox Hills ; for the former no better name

can be found than the one now in use, Colorado ; for the latter the

name Montana is now for the first time proposed. It is, however,

etymologically objectionable, because it is found principally on the

plains ! :

R. T. Hill does not concur in the proposed suggestion to abandon

the Meek and Hayden sub-division of the Upper Cretaceous. If the

beds lose their identity in Colorado, they appear in Texas in a manner

which only confirms the original Nebraska section in its characters

and succession. (Am. Jour. Sci., Dec. 1889.)

Various widely scattered observations enable G. M. Dawson to state

Am. Jour. Sci., Aug. 1889) that a great earlier Cretaceous formation,

beneath the horizon of the Dakota, is more or less continuously devel-

oped over a vast tract of country, the eastern edge of which lies to the

east of the present line of the Rocky Mountains, from the 49th parallel

to the Arctic Ocean, and which is represented to the west as far as

the vicinity of the mouth of the Fraser River, the Queen Charlotte’s

Islands, and in the Yukon Valley beyond the r41st meridian, in the

| interior of Alaska.

Mesozoic.—After a thorough study of rocks from twenty-six locali-

' ties in the Connecticut valley, W. M. Davis and C. S. Whittle have

come to the conclusion that the eastern trap ranges present a uniform

association of the numerous characters of extrusive sheets, while the

western trap range as consistently manifests the several characteristics

of an intrusive sheet. (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI., No. 6.)

A recent communication from R. Lydekker to the Quar. Jour.

Geol, Soc., 1890, contains an account of Iguanodont remains from the

Wadhurst clay; a description of a metatarsus of a Megolausaurian

(M. dunkeri) from the same deposit ; and a note in regard to some

vertebr of a Sauropterygian. 2

770 The American Naturalist. [August,

In an address to the Cambridge Entomological Club, Jan. 10, 1890,

Mr. S. H. Scudder gave the following brief résumé of recent knowl-

edge of Mesozoic insects :

*'The horizon has been extended of late years by the thorough

discussion of the Bavarian insects by Deichmiiller and by Oppenheim;

by the careful exploitation of a new locality for Triassic insects at Dob-

bertin, Germany, by F. E. Geinitz; by the considerable number of

new generic and specific types of cockroaches from the secondary rocks

of England, described by myself; by the repeated though not

extensive discoveries of Fritsch in Bohemia, adding interesting material

for our very meager knowledge of Cretaceous insects; and by the dis-

covery at Fairplay, Colorado, of a collection of Triassic cockroaches of

special importance.’’

Palzozoic.—According to C. R. Keyes the remnants of an ex-

ceedingly rich and varied fauna that once tenanted the littoral zones

of a vast Carboniferous sea, are found in the vicinity of Burlington,

Iowa. The Gastropods of the Kinderhook beds include upwards of

fifteen genera and fifty species. But only two of the generic groups,

Platyceras and Straparollus, have thus far been recognized in the

Burlington strata, in which there occur eight species of the first genus

and two of the second. (Proc. Phila. Acad. Sci., Sept. 1889.)

S. A. Miller and F. E. Gurley have described (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat.

Hist, April, 1890) some fine Crinoids from the Coal Measures and

sub-Carboniferous rocks of Indiana, Nevada, and Iowa. A new family

name, Eupachycrinidz, is made to include the genera Eupachycrinus

and Delocrinus, each containing two new species, and Ulocrinus, con-

taining three. The remaining 45 new species are referred to 21 genera,

of which four are new. This paper embraces more important novelties

than any one recently published. It is well illustrated. —

In the Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc., May, 1890, two new species of

Rhachitomous Stegocephali are described and figured by R. Lydekker,

viz.: Macromerium scoticum, from the Carboniferous of Scotland ;

vs owenit, from the Karoo system of South Africa. The latter is

the first representative of the North American Stegocephali found at

the Cape.

W. B. Dwight has demonstrated from fossils collected in that region ©

that the Calciferous is one of the most prominent components of the

Millerton-Fishkill limestone belt.

Czenozoic.—In a paper entitled Structure and Origin of Glacial

Sand Plains (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 1890) W. M. Morris states that

1890.] Geology and Paleontology. 771

his observations of the New England sand plains are in accordance

with the generally accepted explanations.

E. T. Newton has recently described some Eocene siluroid fishes,

Arius crassus, Arius baroni, and Arius gagorides. (Proc. London Zool.

Soc., 1889.)

The Cernaysian Mammalia are reviewed in Proc, Phila. Acad. Sci.,

1890, by H. F. Osborn. The collection is in the private museum of

Dr. Victor Lemoine, and is not thoroughly known or appreciated

abroad, except by those who have had the good fortune to examine

the original types.

W. B. Clark (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I.) notes the strange com-

mingling of different faunas in the Tertiary deposits of the Cape

Fear region.

In a paper on Glacial Phenomena in Canada, Robert Bell discusses

the causes of changes in level, and remarks that the elevation of the

land still in progress in north polar regions indicates that we have passed

the period of greatest warmth, and that a colder condition has again

begun to creep upon us from the north.

G. F. Wright (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. L) defines the Oak Knolls,

a part of the ridge separating Lake Ontario from Lake Huron, as a

moraine of retrocession. This ridge probably existed as a long island

“n the great glacial Lake Erie-Ontario.

T. C. Chamberlin (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I.) presents some

additional evidences bearing on the interval between the glacial

epochs. These evidences are the trenching of the valleys of the

Mississippi, Ohio, Allegheny, Susquehanna, and Delaware Rivers.

The cutting of these trenches rudely measures the length of the inter-

glacial interval. j

At a meeting of the Phila. Acad. Sci., 1888, Otto Meyer deter-

mined a collection of fossil Tertiary invertebrates imbeded in sand

which filled the inside of a Balanus convexus Brown, found on the

west side of Chesapeake Bav. The list comprises 15 Gastropoda, 8

Lamellibranchiata, 1 Balanide, 1 Ostracoda, 3 Foraminifera.

R. Lydekker, in a recent paper (Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1890), sub-

mits sufficient evidence to prove beyond reasonable doubt the occur-

rence of the striped hyzena in the Tertiary of Val d’ Arno.

G. M. Dawson calls attention (Geol. Mag., Vol. I.) to the note-

worthy heights at which glaciation has now been found to occur on

some of the higher points in the southern interior of British Colum-

bia. These heights range from 4340 to 7200 feet.

772 Ihe American Naturalist. [August, .

A recent study of the corresponding series of beds in the Paris

and Hempstead basins leads Mr. A. Blytt to think that the attenua-

tion of strata was effected by a general cause, and it seems highly

probable that this cause is the precession of the equinoxes.

In the Proc. N. Y. Microscopical Soc., 1890, is found a synopsis of

thé Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey, compiled by Anthony

Woodward. The object of this paper is to bring together all the

work that has been previously done, and the observations that have

been made on the Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey from 1833

to 1889.

Joseph Moore (Jour. Cin. Soc. Nat. His., April, 1890) describes

the tooth of a gigantic rodent found in northern Georgia, Its striking

feature is the peculiar ribbing and flutting of the enamel through-

out the length of the tooth. He proposes the name Castoroides geor-

gemis. After an examination of the specimen, Prof. Cope states that

it is the inferior canine of the Hippopotamus amphibius.

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

Petrographical News.—A suite of rocks collected in Madagas-

car by Rev. R. Baron? has been examined by Hatch,? who separates.

them into gneisses, granitite, olivine-norite, pyroxene-granulites,

pyroxenites, and basalts. In the olivine-norite the plagioclase is per-

fectly transparent, and has an undulous extinction. The olivine is

surrounded by a reactionary rim consisting of an inner zone of hypers-

thene and an outer one of actinolite. The pyroxene-granulite is

evidently a basic eruptive that has suffered dynamo-metamorphism. It

contains pyroxent, hornblende, and garnet, besides the usual constit-

uents of granulite. Among the basalts many varieties are described.

In one variety, the augite and olivine, when present, are in porphyritic

crystals, slightly corroded, and including portions of the microlitic

ground mass. The augite is grouped around the olivine, which is

twinned. A few grains of quartz are present. A second variety con-

tains hornblende and biotite porphyritically developed. All the

augite of this rock is zonal, with a different extinction in the various

zones. In some the hour-glass structure was observed. Twinning is

frequent. A glassy basalt includes hornblende crystals and fragments

uartz. Some of the hornblende has been entirely dissolved, and

in its place has been formed an aggregate of augite and magnetite.

! Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby ae e Waterville, Me.

? Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., XLV., May, 1889; p.

1890.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 773

‘The quartz fragments are surrounded by zones of colorless glass con-

taining augite microlites, which are in turn surrounded by zones of

brown glass enclosing microlites and crystals of augite and granules of

magnetite. According to Vénukoff,* basalts play an important role

in the geology of Mongolia. They consist principally of feldspar,

augite, olivine, ilmenite, and magnetite. e feldspar is usually in

but one generation. When in two, the phenocrysts are anorthite and

the microlites labradorite. The augite is usually in two generations,

the larger crystals being violet in color, while the smaller ones are

green. In some cases the porphyritic augites are made up of an

aggregate of small grains grouped in such a way as to present the out-

line of crystals. These aggregates are sometimes surrounded by a rim

of grains of the second consolidation. Between the minerals above

mentioned there is often a little of an amorphous base containing

globulites and microlites, The quartz of an inclusion of granite in

this basalt is surrounded by a zone composed of augite and small,

light-colored microlites. The biotite of the granite has been trans-

formed into a granular mass of magnetite, quartz, and a light brown

opaque substance. Around it is often a zone of augite grains. Around

the feldspar the basalt paste becomes light colored, the crystal com-

ponents are more rare, and in their places are various microlites.

"Within this is a band of augite microlites, and within this band, imme-

diately surrounding the feldspar, is a zone of colorless glas. The

feldspar itself is much fractured. The greenstones® of Wicklow,

Ireland, occur in intrusive sheets and dykes. They are quartz-mica-

diorites (composed of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, biotite, horn-

blende, and a little malacolite, chlorite, and apatite), quartz-diorites,

diorites, augite-diorites (consisting of plagioclase and grains and

crystals of sahlite or malacolite), diabases, epidiorites, chlorite-schists

(produced by dynamic metamorphism from diabase), and serpentines,

derived from diabases. Mr. Somervail 5 regards the gabbros, green-

‘stones, granulites, and hornblende-schists of the Lizard, Eng., as parts

of the same rock-mass, the latter-named rocks, according to him,

having originated from the former by pressure, ——Mr. Marstens?

gives us a very brief description of diabases and diabase porphyrite

from among the Triassic traps of Nova Scotia ——-A few dykes®

3 Ib., p. 340.

* Proc. verb. soc. Bélg. de Géol., II., 1888, p. 441.

5 Geol. Magazine, 1889, p. 261.

— "Amer. Geol., Mch. 1890, p. 140.

3 Darton and Diller. Amer. Jour. Sci., Apr. 1890, p. 269.

774 The American Naturalist. [August,

occurring in the Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian beds of the

Appalachians in Highland Co., Va., consist of porphyritic basalt com-

posed of phenocrysts of augite and olivine in a ground-mass of plagio-

clase, augite, magnetite, and a few flakes of biotite. —— Sandberger ?

mentions cordierite occurring as an inclusion in the basalt of the

Calvarienberg, near Fulda, in Hessen. He also gives an analysis of

the phonolite of Heldburg, near Coburg. Holland ? has isolated

the porphyritic crystals from the basalts of Mull, Eng., and finds them

to correspond in composition and other properties with anorthite of

the composition AbAn,. In the phonolite of the Serra de Tingua,

Brazil, are coarse-grained patches with the structure of foyaite. They

have the form of leucite crystals, and are, according to Hussak,!!

nothing more or less than pseudo-crystals of this mineral. They con-

sist of a thin wall composed of crystals of orthoclase, surrounding a

coarse-grained aggregate of the constitution of foyaite. The external

form of the pseudomorphs is so perfect that the angles of leucite can

readily be detected upon them. C. W. Hall? records the fact

that the Trenton limestone of St. Paul and Minneapolis., Minn, is

composed of untwinned rhombohedra of caicite. An argillaceous bed

lying above the limestone contains many rhombohedra of calcite im-

bedded in its matrix. Dr. Lawson 5 describes an amygdaloidal trap

from the Animikie series of Thunder Bay, Canada, that contains about

2% of native copper.

Mineralogical News.—New Minerats.—/nesife.—At the mine

Hilfe Gottes and Ferdinand, near Nanzenbach in the Dillenburg region,

Germany, is a new manganese mineral associated with various ores of

this metal. The new mineral is a dense colorless to dark brown sub-

stance, whose hardness varies between 5 and 6, and whose streak is

yellowish-brown. Its fusibility is 3. In other specimens the mineral

occurs in radial aggregates of a flesh-red color, with a hardness of 6-7,

a specific gravity of 3.103, a white streak and a glassy lustre. It has

an extinction of 20° against one of its cleavages, and is regarded by

Schneider * as triclinic. Its composition is

SiO, ALO, FeO MnO MgO CaO H,O

SSO- -A9 .69 38.23 Be. 800 849

9 Neues Jahrb, f. Min., etc., 1890, I., p. 101.

12 Bull. Minn. Acad. ves rq 5 oath No. 1., p; 11x.

13 Amer. Geologist, M »

14 Zeits d. deutch gel aa XXXIX., 1889, p. 829.

1890.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 775

In many of its characteristics it resembles rhodotilite. Its axial ratio,

as calculated by Scheibe, is a : è : 0.9753: 1: 1.3208, with

oc—929 18' r2", f—132? 55' 54", y—93? 50° 42". Rhodotilite is

described by Flink* from the Harstig mine, Pajsberg, Sweden. It is

identical in all its properties with inesite, but is fresher. Its analysis

gave:

SiO, FeO MnO MgO CaO PbO H,O

4367 a . 39504 .15 9.38 9: 148,

which corresponds with the formula 2 (MnCa) SiO, - H,O. Recog-

nizing the similarity between zAodoti/ife and the mineral described by

Schneider under the name neste, Flink has determined to withdraw

the former name and has decided to adopt the one proposed by

Schneider. Lussatite is described by Mallard" as a milky-white

fibrous substance surrounding quartz crystals, occurring in the bitumi-

nous beds of Lussa, Pont-du-Chateau, France. The fibres are arranged

perpendicularly to the bounding planes of the quartz. They have a

density of 2.04, and contain 7.9-8.3% of water, which they lose when

heated without changing their optical behavior. The loss of water is

supposed to be due to a mixture of opal with the fibrous mineral, which

the author regards as crystallized silica differing from quartz and chal-

cedony, since it possesses optical properties that differ from those of

these minerals. Its index of refraction for sodium light is 1.446.

Heliophyllite, from Pajsberg is a shining, sulphur-yellow, flaky sub-

stance? accoompanying the zzesife (rhodotilite) from the Harstig

mine. It resembles, in appearance, a mineral described by Nor-

denskjöld ! as associated with ekdemite at Langban. The new mineral

is orthorhombic, with the plane of its optical axes normal to the

cleavage face. The axial angle is large, and the dispersion p > V.

The density is 6.886, and hardness 2. On the Langban mineral the

planes Pz and oP occur on twinned forms, with œP the twinning plane,

and a: 5: c—1.0343: 1: 2.2045. Heliophyllite has practically the

same composition as ekdemite, from which, however, it differs in its

crystallographic properties.

PbO | MnO.FeO AsO, Cl

Heliophyllite 80.70 .54 11.69 8.00

Ekdemite 81.28 : 12.03 8.63

15 Ref. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, I., p. 21.

15 Öfv. af. Kongl. Vetensk. Ak., För. 1888, Stockholm, p. 571. ref. Neues Jahrb.

- f. Min., etc., 1890, L., p. 22.

7 Comptes Rendus, 110, p. 245. Ref. Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 1890, p. 170.

15 Flink : sigh. af, Kongl. Vetensk. Akad. Förh., 1888, Stockh., p. 571-

1 Geol. Fóren. Förh., III., p. 381. Ref. Neues. Jahr? f. Min., etc., 1890, L, p. 23.

776 The American Naturalist. [August,

Barysite.—At the same Harstig mine Sjögren and Lundström ? have

found a lead silicate associated with garnet, calcite, tephroite, hedy-

phane and cerussite filling a vein in the iron ores. The mineral occurs

in silver-white hexagonal crystals, with a perfect cleavage parallel to oP,

and a less perfect one parallel to oP. Its double refraction is nega-

tive, streak white, hardness, 3, and specific gravity, 6.55. When

heated it becomes dark and melts to a brown glass. Dissolves in nitric

and hydrochloric acids with the separation of gelatinous silica, Its

composition (as a mean of two analyses) is:

SiO, PbO MnO FeO CaO MgO Ce Loss:

1707 79.26 . 3.5% .16 .41 .59 tr. .89

leading to the formula 3 (1 MnO+3 PbO) 2 SiO,

Miscellaneous.—The second part Hintze's ** Handbuch der Min-

eralogie ’’ 71 concludes the discussion of the topaz group of minerals, and

treats of the datholite and epidote groups, vesuvianite, gehlenite, and parts

of the tourmaline group. The fullness of treatment that characterized the

first part of this remarkable book is continued in the second part. If

the promise given by the two parts that haveappeared to date is carried

to its fulfillment, the complete volume will be a marvel of painstaking

labor and patience. A discussion of some of the facts known with

respect to the physical symmetry of crystals, together with some ob-

servations made upon the gypsum of Zimmerscheim, in Upper Alsace,

lead Beckenkamp 2 to the view that the molecules of crystals are polar,

2.¢., that they possess different powers at diametrically opposite points,

and that, other conditions being similar, a crystal face always possesses

a maximum tendency to growth in a certain fixed direction. Ina

conglomerate on the Coast of South Devon, near Torquay, England,

are numerous pieces of limestone, on the surface of which are botry-

oidal and spherulitic forms of chalcedony, known as beekite. These

are thought by Hughes? to have originated by the replacement of

portions of the limestone by silica, possibly through the influence of

organic substances. The author thinks that the same kind of action _

may have given rise to many of the old siliceous deposits like flint or

chert Mr. Dawson * has recently given a statement of the present

condition of mining in British Columbia, and a description of the minerals

of economic value occurring there, and Mr. Coste?* has issued a statistical

2 Ófvers. af. Kongl. Vetensk. Ak. Förh., p. 7. Ref. Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1899, I.,

a Dr.C. Hintze: Handbuch der wags i ad Lief. Leipzig. Veit and Comp., 1890.

22 Zeits. f. Kryst, XVIL., 1890, p. 32

23 Miner. Magazine, Ost, 1889, p. is.

* Ann. Rep. Geol. and Nat, Hist. Surv. of Can. for 1887-88. Reps. R and S.

AC er DUE E

z

1890.] Botany. n 777

report on the mineral products of Canada. In the tourmaline of the

. tourmaline granite of Striegau, Traube?* has discovered pleochroic

halos around inclusions of rutile and zircon, The color of the halos is

some shade of violet, and is independent of the color of the mineral in

which they lie. It disappeares upon heating. Garnet, apatite, and quartz

inclusions in the same tourmaline are not surrounded by halos.

Among the new instruments, and improvements upon old instruments,

used in crystallographic and mineralogical investigations, that have

been suggested during the last three months, mention may be made of

an apparatus % for the production of pressure figures in very small mica

plates; of a very simple reflection goniometer constructed by Prof.

Groth”; of an improved instrument” for cutting thin sections of

minerals in any desired position ; and an improved heating apparatus

for use with the reflection goniometer, invented and constructed by the

well-known mechanician Fuess.

BOTANY.

Note on a New Species of Actinoceps B. and Br.—In

the Sylloge Fungorum of Saccardo but a single species of Actinoceps

is recorded, and this is a native of Ceylon. Consequently it is inter-

esting to discover that another form, undoubtedly belonging to the

same peculiar genus of Hyalostilbeze, occurs rarely in Minnesota. In

April a number of moist chambers were prepared by Mr. E. P.

Sheldon in the botanical laboratory of the University of Minnesota.

In these chambers a large variety of nutritive substances were placed,

and a number of more or less interesting saprophytic fungi have since

developed.

The plant, referred to Actinoceps, developed upon the glandular

side of a putrescent orange-peel, and formed a little colony of some-

what less than a square inch in extent. The surface of this area, upon

examination, was found to be clothed with a thin layer of Bacillus

megaterium De By., together with other saprogenic bacteria. From

this thin layer of micro-organisms the Actinoceps plants arose in num-

3 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, I., p. 186.

?6 Steenstrup : Geol. Fören. Förh., Stock., 1888, p. 113. Ref. Zeits. f. Kryst., XVII..

TA Zen. f. Kryst., XVII., 1890, p. 396.

28 Ib. XVII., 1890, p. 44.

29 s Jahrb. f.

778 ` The American Naturalist. [August,

bers, although never so close as to touch each other. The networks of

hyphz at the base of each Actinoceps stipe were found to interlace _

among the bacilli, and to ramify somewhat widely through the nutri-

tive material. In general the appearance of each stroma was more

or less glaucescent, varying in a few individuals to a faint and very

light yellow color.

For comparison a transcription of the Saccardian description is

given here in English. The original will be found on p. 579 of Vol.

IV., and the single species described is ** No. 2747.”’

* Actinoceps B. and Br., Suppl. Fungi of Ceylon. . . Stipe hya-

line, cylindrical, composite; hyphze repeatedly branched and accu-

mulated in a globose head, with radiating spicules; hyphze sometimes

prolonged into radiating, vitreous, granulate spicules, again devel-

oped as very slender conidiophores ; conidia very minute hyaline.

“Actinoceps thwaitesii B. and Br. Stipe 400 to 500 » in length;

head, 140 to 160 in diameter ; spicules shaped as in sponges, cover-

ing the head rather loosely with spines ; spore-bearing hyphz repeat-

edly branched, sub-flexuose ; conidia elliptico-spheroid.

* Hab. In decayed, leathery leaves, Ceylon.’’

From this it will be seen that the genus Actinoceps differs little

from Stilbum, the spicules of the former constituting the diagnostic

character. Like Stilbum, the Actinoceps studied in Minnesota has the

conidia enclosed within a mucilaginous layer, so that the younger

plants generally present a somewhat shining aspect, while the older

ones are slightly desiccated, and appear sub-pulverulent.

Comparing the Minnesota Actinoceps with the description of the

Ceylonese form certain minor differences in size are noted. Since

spore and hypha measurements are omitted in the description of

Actinoceps thwaitesii, the comparison extends only to the stromatic

measurements. While the Ceylonese form shows a stipe 400 to 500 A

in length, that of the Minnesota form is from 700 to Joo». The

diameter of the head in Actinoceps thwaitesii is 140 to 160 p, while

that of the Minnesota form is much larger, measuring from 360 to 400

p. Additional measurements of the stalk showed its average diameter

to be between 45 and 55 4. From this it is apparent that the Minne-

sota specimens should be separated from the pad eg species, and a

description of the American form is appended.

Actinoceps besseyi n. s. Stalk 400 to 700 p long, 45 to 55 in diame-

ter, cylindrical, smooth, hyaline, compacted; head sub-globose,

pale glaucescent, armed loosely with projecting spicules, 360 to 420 #

in diameter ; spore-bearing hyphz repeatedly branched, sub-flexuose, 4

1890.] Botany. 779

win diameter, bearing the conidia occogenously. Conidia ellipsoid to

elliptico-spheroid, 4— 5 = 2— 2% p. Spicules with cell-walls some- :

what thickened, often septate prolonged, sometimes roo » beyond the

surface of the globose capitulum,

Hab. On putrid orange-skin among bacteria, Minneapolis, Minn.

It should be noted in passing that the specimens of ActHinoceps besseyi

observed by us were sometimes grown over by a cobwebby network of

Diplosporium filaments, which bore occasional spores, but were col-

lected more abundantly on the wet paper in the bottom of the moist

chamber, where they formed a luxuriant growth. The Diplosporium

was referred doubtfully to D. album Bon., from which it differs slightly

in the spore measurements.

The Actinoceps above described is dedicated to Dr. Charles E.

Bessey, the well-known botanist—Conway MacMILLan, University

of Minnesota.

Notes on the Canyon Flora of Northwest Nebraska.—Our

party left Lincoln June 17th, and arrived at the Pine Ridge Tunnel

early on the morning of the 18th. In the walk from there to Craw-

ford about the only thing of interest found wasa very large form of

Viola canadense L. with a very small flower. In many places this was

almost entirely killed by „Zeidium viole. In many cases the plant

leaves and stems were twisted all out of shape by the fungus.

From Crawford to Harrison brought nothing of interest. Leaving

Harrison we pitched our tent in War Bonnet Cafion. Here new things

and new variations were continually turning up. One peculiarity of

the cafion flora quite noticeable was the differertce—in many cases very

pronounced—between the floras of the different side cafions. Many

plants were found in one cafion and in that one only, though there

were many cafions very similar to it. In one cañon Pyrola chlorantha

Schwarz was found in a considerable quantity, but in one only. In

another Pyrola secunda L. grew. Some cafions have any quantity of

Populus tremuloides Michx., others scarcely any.

In nearly all of the cafions, especially the damper, darker ones,

Corallorhiza multiflora Nutt. grew quite plentifully ; while only the

darkest cations afforded the rare C. innata R. Br. In a small cafíon

at the head of Jim creek was found a lavender-yellow variety of the

former species. Habenaria bracteata R. Br. grew in abundance alohg

the low banks of all the cafion streams. The dry cliffs and slopes of

the cafions were covered with the lovely Calochortus nuttallii Torr. and

Gray. Fritillaria atropurpurea Nutt. occurred plentifully in a few

4

780 The American Naturalist. - [August,

localities, but was generally out of bloom. Mertensia lanceolata D.C.

was found growing among the short underbrush of the second banks

in War Bonnet Canyon.

The weather was too dry for lichens and most of the fungi. Of the

former, several interesting Cladonize were found together with two or

three species of Peltigera. On the north slopes of the dampest cafions

Parmelia olivacea (L.) Ach., and a sterile form of Usnea barbata (L.)

Fr., grew very plentifully on the pines everywhere.

Various species of Æcidium and Uromyces occurred generally in

large quantities ; the most plentiful being Æcidium abundans Pk., Ecid,

clematidis D.C., Acid. grossularie Schum., Uromyces trifolii f. glycyrr-

hise E. & E., and also Gymnosporangium clavariforme (Jacq.) Rees.,

L, was found quite plentiful in a small side cafion of the War Bonnet,

on Amelanchier canadensis. Along the higher lands and buttes above

the cations Ustilago carices (Pers.) Fück, was found in large quantities.

Out on the Hat Creek Basin Ustilago hyphodytes (Schlect) Fr., which

is considered a rare species, occurred in considerable quantities on

Stipa comata. Several interesting rock forms of lichens were found on

the rocks cropping out near the edge of the ‘bad lands ;’’ the most

plentiful as well as the most beautiful being Lecanora rubina (Vill.) Ach.

and Z. rubina var. opaca. Ach., Fr. and Placodium Sp., near P. elegans

(Linta) D.C. Many rocks being literally covered by these with a few

others.—Tom A. Wituiams, Ashland High School, Nebraska.

Botanical News.—Professor McLaren, of the Maryland Agri-

cultural College, has had his copies of Gray’s Manual bound in oil

cloth, a decided improvement over the soft and rather bibulous cloth

cover usually given the book by the publishers. Now if the margins

could be trimmed down it would improve it still more. . . . The

fourth number of the memoirs of the Torrey Botanical Club is devoted

to a paper by Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant on ** Seedless Fruits." Sixty-

one species are mentioned in the paper. The general result appears

to be thata tendency to seedlessness is an accompaniment of high

development. . . H. S. Jennings published an annotated list of

ninety-five parasitic fungi of Texas, in the ninth bulletin of the Texas

Agricultural Experiment Station.. . . G. N. Best has examined

(Torrey Bulletin for June, 1890) some of the North American roses—

those belonging to the group Cinnamomex,—and among other changes

reduces Rosa arkansana Porter, to a variety of Rosa blanda Ait., as

R. blanda Ait., var. arkansana (Port.) Best. This reduction, it will be

remembered, was suggested by Watson five years ago in Proc. Am.

1890.] Zoölogy. 781

Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol. XX., p. 336.. . . Masclef's Atlas des

Plantes de France utiles, nuisables et ornamentales has reached Part X.,

and continues its promise of excellence. The later numbers have con-

tained notably fine colored figures of Ononis spinosa, Medicago sativa,

Colutea arborescens, Pisum sativum, Coronilla varia, Amygdalus com-

munis, Persica vulgaris, Prunus spinosa, and Cerasus vulgaris., . .

Parts 44 and 45 of Engler and Prantl's Dre Waturlichen Pflanzenfamilien

continue the Euphorbiacez, complete the Myrsinacez, Primulaceg,

Plumbaginacez, and begin the Sapotacex. The last-named order is

elaborated by Engler, the others by Pax. . . . Professor Gardiner and

Mr. Brace published in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil. an interesting

provisional list of the plants of the Bahama Islands... . . Another of

the numerous valuable contributions from the Cryptogamic Laboratory

of Harvard University has made its appearance in Proc. Am, Acad. Arts

and Sciences, Vol. XXV., p. 53, by Wm. A. Setchell, on the ‘‘ Structure

and Development of Zwomeya fluviatilis, a red seaweed ( //oride@) inter-

mediate between Lemanea and Batrachospetmum. . . . The May num-

ber of Pittonia is an unusually interesting one, dealing as it does in its

peculiarly sprightly way with half a dozen or more topics. The

review of the new edition of G:ay’s Manual contains much plain

talking, some of which may be deserved, while much certainly is not,

ZOOLOGY.

Snakes in High Places !— A discussion occurred some time

ago in THE NATURALIST upon the question, ** Do Snakes Climb Trees ?”’

to which I contributed one or two items. But just now my farmer

friend, Hiram Carpenter, who lives three miles out of town, invited

me to call at his place and see where he ‘found a snake four feet and

three inches in length and one and a half inches in diameter. The

swallows nest under the eaves of his barn, which project some twenty

inches from the building. The rafters do not run out more than one-

half or two-thirds of this distance, the space between them being quite

thickly studded with the mud-nests of the swallows. One pleasant day

in June his son noticed quite a commotion among the birds, and called

him to the spot. They were amazed to see a large snake clinging to

the end of a rafter, with its head in one of the nests, evidently devour-

ing the young birds. The reptile was able to cling to the end of the

rafter by hugging it tightly, and was only dislodged after some effort.

782 The American Naturalist. [August,

It had swallowed two young birds, and another was part way down its

throat. The young man had not ** believed in killing snakes,” but on

this occasion he despatched the reptile forthwith. The barn is sheeted

up with rough pine boards, upon which there are two coats of paint,

and from the ground to the point whence the snake was dislodged the

distance is nineteen feet and four inches. How it managed to get to

the spot seems altogether a niystery. There was no hole through the

side of the barn nor under the roof boards, nor did it seem possible

for it to have worked its way from the top of the roof. Then, it was

quite as difficult for it to have found a way to the roof. Mr. Car-

penter is a most reliable observer of all natural phenomena,—an in-

vestigator, really, —but he was unable to form any opinion as to how

the reptile reached its prey. He described it as resembling the com-

mon garter-snake, except in the matter of its great size, hence I could

form no idea as to the species to which it belonged.— CHARLES ‘AL-

DRICH, Webster City, Lowa, July, 14, 1890.

Snakes in Banana Bunches.— Banana bunches brought from

tropical America sometimes contain snakes of the family Boide, tightly

wound round the central stem. A specimen of this kind was taken

in Savanna, Georgia, and was sent to the United States National

Museum. I identified it as the Zpicrates augulifer, a native of Cuba.

More recently a snake was found in a similar situation in a lot ot

bananas in Chicago, and was sent by Dr. J. L. Hancock to the Na-

tional Museum. Dr. Stejneger has identified it as the Boa imperator,

the common species of Central America and Mexico. The specimens

are always young, as adult boas of the genera named could not be con-

cealed in so,small a space.—E. D. Cope.

ENTOMOLOGY.

Recent Literature.—Several notable entomological articles have

been recently issued by the National Museum. Mr. Henry Edward's

Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North

American Lepidoptera, which forms Bulletin No. 35, is a very useful

compilation, and ought to stimulate the study of the earlier stages of

the group. There are 1,069 species included in the Catalogues, the

Tineide heading the list with 222 entries, and Zygenidx bringing up

the rear with 13 entries, ;

1890.] Entomology. 783

Another valuable paper is the Catalogue of the Described Aranex

of North America, by George Marx, which forms No. 782 of the

Museum Proceedings, and covers about one hundred pages. The

author deserves the thanks of all arachnologists for this careful piece of

work.

Other Museum Proceedings contain descriptions by Mr. Lawrence

Bruner of New Acrididz, including the characterization of the three

new genera, Dracotettix, Eritettix, and Boötettix; revision of some

Taniocampid Genera by John B. Smith; and descriptions of New

Ichneumonide by William H. Ashmead.

Professor Alfred Giard has publisned in the Bulletin Scientifique de

la France and de la Belgique an interesting article entitled Sur

Quelques Types Remarkables de Champignons Entomophytes. Three

colored plates, representing Znfomophora saccharina, E.calliphore, E.

Plusie, and Polyrhizium leptophyci infesting their respective hosts, ac-

company the paper.

The report of the U, S. Entomologist for 1889 contains accounts of

the Fluted Scale (Zrerya purchas? ), Six-spotted Orange Mite ( Zefrany-

chus 6-maculatus), Horn Fly (JZematobia serrata), and the Grain

Aphis (Siphonophora avene). A brief synopsis of the work of the

division and its agents is given.

Mr. Lawrence Bruner has published in the Bulletin of the Nebraska

Experiment Station (Vol. IIL, Article II.) an extended paper on

Insects Injurious to Young Trees on Tree Claims, which will prove

useful to western planters.

A New Phalangium.—In a lot of harvest-spiders received from

Mr. C. W. Woodworth, Entomologist of the Arkansas Experiment

Station, I found a number of specimens of a remarkable species of

Phalangium, in which the sexes are very different, the male having

extremely long palpi, and the second joint of its chelicere being

articulated with the first at the middle, so as to form a right angle,

while in the female the palpi are but little longer than usual, and the

second joint of the chelicerz is articulated with the first at the end in

the ordinary manner. The species may be called Phalangium longi-

palpis. This case is exactly analogous to that of Phalangium opilio of

Europe, in which the two sexes are similarly distinguished.

DzscniPTION.— Male.—Body 7 mm. long; 3.5 mm. wide. Palpi 20

mm, long. Legs: I. 3o mm. ; II. 47 mm.; III. 3o mm. ; IV. 38 mm.

Dorsum light mottled gray, with a darker central marking beginning

at the eye eminence, and expanding rapidly to margin of abdomen,

784 The Amerwan Naturalist. [August,

then suddenly contracting and again expanding on the first two

abdominal segments ; suddenly contracting on the third and running

as a broad stripe to posterior extremity. Scattered over the dorsum

of the cephalothorax are numerous tubercles, having whitish bases

and black tips, and generally having also a black spinose hair arising

on one side of the tubercle near the apex of the white portion, and

extending beyond the tip of the tubercle; a transverse row of similar

tubercles on each abdominal segment. Dorsum of abdomen covered

with numerous small black granules. Eye eminence gray, well devel-

oped, canaliculate, each carina surmounted by a well-marked series

of tubercles, whitish with black tips. Chelicerz large, light brown,

with tips of claws black; first joint long, cylindrical, convex, fur-

nished above with black spinose tubercles ; second joint very large,

smooth, except for some black spinose hairs, articulated at a right

angle with the first, prolonged above in the form of a large conical

horn, curved forward. Palpi slender, very long (three times as long

as body), smooth, except for rows of stiff black hairs ; light brown,

except middle portion of femur, which is black. Ventrum, including

cox, grayish white, with numerous black hairs. Trochanters light

brown, almost whitish, with a few tubercles. Rest of legs brown,

with femora darker; proximal joints with rows of spinose tubercles.

Female.—Body 7.5 mm. long; 4.5 mm. wide. Palpi 6.5 mm. long.

Legs: I. 21 mm.; II. 36 mm. ; III. 23 mm. ; IV. 32 mm.

Dorsum light mottled gray, with a rather distinct darker central

marking beginning at anterior border of abdomen, and expanding

rapidly on the first two segments; suddenly contracting on the third

segment and running as a stripe to the posterior extremity. Scat-

tered over the dorsum of the cephalothorax are numerous tubercles,

having whitish bases and black tips, and generally having also a black

spinose hair arising on one side of the tubercle near the apex of the

white portion, and extending beyond the tip of the tubercle. A trans-

verse row of similar tubercles on each abdominal segment. Dorsum

of abdomen having numerous small black granules. Eye eminence

well developed, gray, canaliculate, each carina surmounted by a well-

marked series of tubercles like those on the dorsum. Chelicerz light

brown, dorsal proximal portion of first joint mottled with chocolate

brown ; tips of claws and a blunt tubercle at base of outer claw, black ;

both joints furnished with scattered black, spinose hairs. Palpi rather

long (but very much shorter than in male), slender; very light brown,

almost whitish, with middle of femur black; all the joints furnishee

with well-developed spinose hairs, those on the tarsus being more

een

E aT a cee ex m

et) ok Saga RR.

PLATE XXVII.

Fig. 1.

Phalangium longipalpis.

1890.] Entomology. 785

slender than others ; claw of tarsus not denticulate, moderately robust.

Ventrum, including cox&, grayish white, with numerous black hairs.

Trochanters very light brown, almost whitish. Legs light brown;

femora provided with rows of spinose tubercles; tibiz angular, with

rows of fine hairs on angles.

Described from many specimens.

In the accompanying Plate, Fig. 1 represents the male, natural size,

while at Fig. 2 are shown the parts magnified, The letters a, 2, d, e,

and z show respectively a dorsal view of the body, and a side view of

the eye eminence, the palpus, the palpal claw, and the chelicera of the

male; while in Fig 3, d and g represent similar views of the palpus and

cheito of the female.—CLARENCE M. WEED.

Injuries of Buffalo Tree-Hopper.—This insect (Ceresa buda-

Zus) has become a serious pest in many parts of Ohio, It is only com-

paratively lately that it has attracted special attention as a destructive

insect, Professor Popenoe having described its work in Kansas about

five years ago. During the last winter I have received twigs injured

by the egg-punctures of the insect from three counties of the state, and

in each of the orchards much damage had been done. Apples and

BUFFALO TREE-HOPPER —a, back view; 4, side view, both slightly magnified; c,

apple twig showing egg-punctur

pears are both attacked. The insect is represented, slightly magnified,

at æ and 2 of the accompanying figure, while at c is shown a twig par-

tially covered with the egg punctures of the insect. —C. M. W.

The Maple Bark-Louse.—This insect (Pulvinaria innumera-

bilis), which was so destructive in the central western states about six

years ago, is again appearing above the danger line. In some of the

leading cities of Ohio it is present on the trees in great numbers, and

is causing considerable alarm»

Am, Nat.—August.—7.

786 The American Naturalist. ' [August,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

An important scientific expedition left Minneapolis on the 22d of

July. Messrs. D. C. Worcester and F. S. Bournes, lately pupils of

Professor J. B. Steere, of the University of Michigan, having secured

the financial assistance of Mr. L. F. Menage, of Minneapolis, and the

endorsement of the Minnesota Academy of Sciences, purpose spend-

ing two years or more in the Philippine Islands, where they will

devote their time principally to the collection of corals and birds. It

is their intention, however, to make frequent detours into the depart-

ments of zoology, and they have also determined to collect what fungi

they can, paying particular] attention to the Sphzrioidez and Gastro-

mycetes. Through the large liberality of Mr. L. F. Menage, the

expedition has been fitted out regardless of expense, and will go pre-

pared to prosecute investigations under the most favorable conditions.

The great mass of material secured will be studied at the Academy of

Sciences in Minneapolis, to which city Messrs. Worcester and Bournes

propose to return in 1892 or 1893.

"Very important results may be looked for from this expedition. It

is not designed merely as a collecting trip; for careful study of the

problems of distribution is projected, and doubtless some difficult

points will be settled. Both of the investigators are well known and

representative western scientific men, and much is hoped for from their

work in these little-known islands.

Mr. H. C. Bumpus, formerly Professor of Natural History at Olivet

College, Michigan, has been elected associate Professor of Zoology at

Brown University, Providence, R. I.

Mr, Ralph S. Tarr has severed his connection with the Geological

Survey of Texas.

Dr. Henry Orr, Professor of Natural History in the University of

Kentucky, has-been appointed Professor of Biology in Tulane Univer-

sity, New Orleans, La.

Dr. Langdon Frothingham, of Harvard Veterinary School, has been

appointed Instructor in Biology and Agriculture in the University of

Nebraska, at Lincoln.

Dr. T. H. Morgan has been appointed Bruce Fellow at the Johns

Hopkins University.

Drs. E. B. Jordan, S. Watase, and C. H. Eigenmann will hold fel-

lowships in Morphology at Clarke University during the coming year.

Mr. H. S, Brode has been appointed Instructor in Zoology in the

University of Illinois, at Champaign, Ill.

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vor. XXIV. SEPTEMBER, 1890. 285.

A MEANS OF PRESERVING THE PURITY AND ES-

TABLISHING A CAREER FOR THE AMERI-

CAN BISON OF THE FUTURE.

BY ROBERT C. AULD.

I,

HE American bison is, as it nearly always has been, and ever

will be, possibly the most interesting and attractive of all

mammals. The lamentable, outrageous war of extermination to

which he has been subjected is certainly one atrocious specimen

of man’s most wanton foolishness, for which he ought to blush.

Doubtless that extermination is at last regarded with the keenest

feelings of remorse; which, though now of so little avail, yet fill

those who have latterly championed his cause with fond desires -

for the recuperation of what is apparently almost a vanishing

race. The American bison is, in his royalty, gone,—“ passed

over" into history. The hardly even smoldering embers that

remain,—can they be nursed, fanned into a greater brilliance that

might give one the hope of their being revivified into a more

life-like, enduring flame?

From numbers that would have put into total insignificance the

combined forces of all the various bovine species (and races), for

instance, there now remain—how many? The very best that Mr.

W. T. Hornaday can figure, they can only be marshalledat a total of

one thousand and ninety-one in the entire world. This number

788 The American Naturalist. [September,

is less, positively, than that claimed by even some of our most

improved domestic bovine races. The enumeration takes into

account, of course, all individual and scattered specimens in dif-

ferent foreign Zoological Gardens, which are uninfluential on the

main body on which depends the fate—so doubtful now—of the

species. This main body, this specific entity, this restricted,

smothered force, on which the future fate of recuperation depends,

—that is, taking into account those only which we know of that »

can, or could, be utilized for ordinary breeding purposes,—the

most that we could liberally estimate such a force at would

not be far from about two hundred and fifty. Two-and-a-half

hundred: can we do anything for you to redeem the obloquy of

the past? Is it possible to preserve that trivial remnant? It

would seem presumption to make any assertion to that effect

in the face of the transforming rapidity of the extermination

from the many countless hordes to the few insignificant herds.

Those most interested in the fate of this remnant have, I

fear, dire misgivings as to the result. For an animal that

was so long so absolutely monarch of his prairie domain,—till the

relentless and vicious paleface and the no less destructively

inclined redman, finding him generally such an easy prey to their

various refined and rude means of murder, made so much more

resistless by an animal that had not yet learned the fear of, or to

beware of, man’s ruse or craft, reduced him to his present state

of insignificance,—for such an animal to be expected to re-create

itself into some more enduring adjunct of his old enemy's wants,

would seem unnatural. The products that were the incitement to

this awful slaughter had to be piled almost horizon-high, and

then it was not enough to subdue the insatiable, inconsiderate

greed of the so-called honorable hunter who followed such a

legitimate calling. The lucre-returning “product” was only a

trifling portion of the whole. The waste was outrageous, stu-

pendous in its extravagance. Hence the Assyrian-like destruc-

tion. For an animal that had reared itself through centuries’

implantation of nature’s own freedom, instinct, unrestraint, and

environment, to be dragged through such abject degradation, and

be asked to survive, would seem an insult to this lagger behind,

kd

1890.] The American Bison of the Future. 789

“superfluous on the stage,” left all alone. It would be a modern

incongruity, not an instance.

From the generally apparent characteristics and qualities of the

species, the sympathizer would entertain—regretfully entertain—

a decided negative. Yet often when there is least expectation

hope revives. .

The buffalo has had, even during all that destruction-dealing

process, before his death throes, observers who.have, incidentally

it would appear, recorded a certain number of facts about their,

too noble prey, which are now positively encouraging to us.

For instance, for an animal regarded to be an embodiment of mam-

malian ferocity, it would appear incredible that such an animal

should have any inherent traits of gentility or docility. But such

is, indeed, the fact. In his experiences with his bitter foe, as fore-

stated, ere the latter days of his regal existence,—before the

knowledge of that foe's contiguity engendered an idea of a

danger to flee from, which became an instinct and thence an

hereditary transmission,—he was indifferent, even disdainful, of

the feeling of his comrades at his side; proud, confident in the

midst of the great horde that, unaffected still, stood its ground.

During that period there are numerous records of calves which, in

the hunt or onslaught, having been left behind or become sepa-

rated from the main body, and particularly from their own dams,

were very easily, by simple means, attached to the destroyer of

his maternal and paternal mainstay, and “blindly” following at

the heels of the man-horse murderer, with all the same signs of

affection they would show to their own dams. That trait was,

surely, a strong one, indicating a strong nature or disposition,

shaped and controlled in the most pronounced manner by envir-

onment; just as sure in captivity to be influenced by the subdu-

ing, gentling power of man when exerted on an immediate object

and with certain kind solicitude, which was fully reciprocated in

4 that object, as in nature to be influenced by the overcoming

fierce, instincts of free environment, when that was provocative

of suspicion and antagonism to their worst, latterly forced-on-them,

natural enemy. Such calf-disposition was a strange concomi-

tant; and for us it isa starting-point in that which makes us hope.

.

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

Indeed, when we come to investigate further, we find that even

from the earliest times the great and ferocious American buffalo

had been subdued, domesticated in fact,and even crossed with the

farm bovine. This buffalo blood doubtless runs in the veins of

a proportion of the common bovines of to-day as another “alloy,”

showing how easily his type could be absorbed.

When we press this point to its utmost we find that the buffalo

is fully amenable, to the domesticating process; and further that

he demeans and conducts himself similarly and as truly as his

more sedate and cooler-blooded bovine cousins. What is suitable

to the one is suitable to the other.!

Leaving that most important point of domesticability, it might

yet be objected that we would have no use for the species. Well,

we assert that the buffalo, considering the conditions under which

he has been reared—as seen and delineated by Catlin—on his

native heath,’ is far and away ahead of the common bovine as a

beef animal, naturally fed. Compare this animal in his natural

bisontine condition with the fleshless results among the bovines

under the same conditions, in spring or at any period, on the

former’s prairie or the latter’s ranche or range, and our assertion

is at once borne out. This, remember, on “grass alone.” Here,

then, we have in the buffalo an animal exactly evolved out of his

environment to fill the true American beef-producing animal's

place, without any recourse to the tricks of shelter or winter

fodder, as conceived by man for the benefit of a more cosmo-

politan constructed bovine. We have gone far enough on these

two lines to bring us to the great conclusions as to the buffalo

necessary for our plea, viz:

1. His amenability to domesticity being perfect.

2. His economic value being incomparable.

1See article by the writer, "The American Buffalo: Its Past and Future,” in the

aa: M: number of Baily's Magazine of Sports and Pastimes. Vinton & Co., Lon- :

don, En

? See Report of National Museum, 1886-87, on '' The Extermination of the American

Bison," by William T. Hornada day.

1890.] The American Bison of the Future. 791

II.

Having come to this most important conclusion, that in the

American buffalo we have an animal superbly endowed by nature,

not by artifice, to fill the bovine requirements of this country,

made ready to hand, but his thorough adaptability unperceived

or selfishly overlooked, we have now to consider the possibility

of realizing our dream: z., establishing his destiny as an animal

of such utility as is proved he possesses. We can resign the old

romance, but we can not risk the reality in so far as that can be

preserved and enhanced. The buffalo, as he has been known,

will be known no more. Established in the place his destinators

would prepare for him, he will be an entirely different-natured—

and even nurtured—being from that from which he was forcibly

exiled; and, fulfilling the mission proposed for him, he will become

greatly modified from the noble monarch of old. This is inevi-

table and consequent. We see the effect of the same treatment

on the bovine species, which was also a wild species subdued at a

comparatively recent period. Even the wild white cattle of

Britain, kept in the parks from the earliest times, the most direct

descendants of Bos urus ( primigenius), are greatly modified from

their ancestors by the restricted area and nature of their confine-

ment. So itis with the truest representative of the buffalo in

Europe, the Aurochs (Bison priscus) of the Lithuanian forests.

But for all these instances we believe that in the buffalo of the

future we shall, as the result of our judicious interference, our

subduction and care, the resultant of his removal from his natural

environment, see arise a new race thoroughly capable of enacting

an undreamt-of career, and that with happier results than might