AMEKICAN NATURALIST.

THE STATUS OF THE ALGO-LICHEN HYPOTHESIS.

BY THOMAS A. WILLIAMS.

I" treating this subject it will not be out of place to give first a

short history of the growth of knowledge concerning lichens

and their structure. The earlier lichenologists knew but very little

of lichens as now understood, and comparatively nothing as to their

internal structures. Asthe magnifying power of microscopes was in-

creased, so the knowledge of the lichen thallus was increased. The

affinities of lichens to the discomycetous fungi on theone hand and

to the algee on the other were early noticed and commented upon,

and some species have been alternately placed among the fungi,

then among the lichens, and others have been repeatedly changed

from lichens to alge, and vice versa. Later authors, as Cornu and

Tulasne, consider the lichen very near if not belonging to the As-

comycetes, while De Bary, Krabbe, and others place them among

the Ascomycetes without any doubt as to that being the proper place

for them.’ Lately Cora and several other genera have been placed

among the lichens under the name of Hymenolichens—1.e., lich-

1 Stahl found the reproductory organs of Collema to be very similar to

those of the Discomycetes.* Borzi confirmed Stahl’s observations by his

own. Fiinfstiick, after a study of the development of the apothecia of Pel-

tigera and Nephroma, believed that ‘‘ the reproduction is by apogamy,

with rudimentary sexual organs, as in Podosph:xra among the Discomy-

cetes.” De Bary says (Morph. and Biol. of Fungi, etc.): ‘‘ The formation

of the perithecia of lichens from the primordial coils of hyphz follows in

general the same course as that of Xylaria, Polystigma, etc.” This is con-

firmed by the observations of Krabbe, Fiisting, and others who have made

an extended study of the Cladoniz, Sphyridium, Lecanora, Lecidea, etc,

A

2 _ The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis.

ens which, according to Johow, are made up of the hyphal ele-

ments of a hymenomyceteous fungus and an alga. Massee claims to

have discovered a Gasterolichen. So that now we have lichens

placed among the Ascomycetes and the Basidiomycetes, and by

good authority.

Wallroth (1825) was the first to make any study of the gonidia.

He was followed by Koerber (1839), who studied them more fully

than did Wallroth. But not until 1851 was made anything like an ex-

planation as to their probable origin and subsequent growth. This.

was done by Bayrhoffer. He asserted that the gonidia came from

the *‘ fibrous stratum, the fibres of which swelled at the top and

produce male gonidia." Speerschneider, who was the next to study

the gonidia, differed from Bayrhoffer on some points, but agreed as

to their probable origin. Schwendener, in his earlier works, took a

similar view, basing his argument on the fact that the gonidia,

many of them, seemed to be connected with the ends of the hyphe.

De Bary, in his work of 1865, agreed with Schwendener as to the

heteromerous lichens, but in case of such species as belong to the

Collemaces, etc., he said: ‘‘ Either the lichens in question are the

perfectly developed states of plants whose imperfectly developed

forms have hitherto stood among the alge as Nostocacee and

Chroococces, or the Nostocaces» and Chroococcee are typical algæ,

which assume the form of Collema, Ephebe, etc., through certain

parasitic Ascomycetes penetrating into them, spreading their myce-

lium into the continuously growing thallus and becoming attached

to their phycochrome-containing cells." This gave to Schwendener

the idea of dualism which he afterward formulated and presented

tothe world. Such wasthe beginning of the much-debated ** Algo-

Lichen hypothesis." Schwendener in this famous theory declares.

that all lichens, so-called, are dual organisms, consisting of a fungus,

parasitic upon an alga,whole colonies of which it envelops with hyphe..

These alge he divides into two classes, Phycochromaces, or those

with bluish-green coloring matter, phycochrome, and Chlorophyl-

laceæ, or those containing chlorophyll. The first of these he di-

vides into five types: 1, Sirosiphones ; 2, Rivularies ; 3, Scytone-

mem; 4, Nostocaces ; 5, Chroococces. The latter he separates

into three types : 1, Gotiferteoód: 2, Chroolepides ; 3, Palmellaces.

To some one of these types, he Sarnia, the gonidia of every lichen

could be referred.

About this time Famentzin and Baranetzky by cultivating the

gonidia of several lichens Ka [ T'heloschistes] parietina, etc.)

The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 3

produced zoospores. ‘These in time developed into unicellular alge,

and by judicious management they produced several generations.

Although they drew different ideas from this the Schwendenerians

immediately took this as an argument for the dualism of lichens.

Later (1872) Woronin confirmed the observations of Famentzin and

Barentzky by his own experiments made with Parmelia pulverulenta.

When Schwendener propounded his theory one of the first to

accept it was E. Bornet. He immediately began a series of obser-

vations and experiments to prove it. In his treatment of this sub-

ject (An. de Sc. Nat., vol. 17, ser. 5) he divides his observations

into two divisions corresponding to those of Schwendener—i.e.,

those made upon lichens with chlorophyll-bearing gonidia, and lich-

ens with phycochrome-bearing gonidia. Under the chlorophyll-

bearing gonidia he found those belonging to such genera as Tren

tepohlia, Phyllactidium, Protococcus, Cystococcus, Pleurococeus, etc.

He found the gonidia of several of the Opegraphe, as O. varia, to be

Trentepohlia. The branches of the alga were found ramifying the

tissues of the bark, frequently going so far that the hyphe of the

lichen-fungus could not follow them. As they near the outer sur-

face of the bark the hyphe and alge became more and more inter-

laced until they reached the thallus proper. When studied at all

ages of the thallus the nature of the relations between the two were

easily seen to be such as to preclude every chance of the one being

developed from the other. The study of other lichens with simi-

lar gonidia, as Verrucaria nitida, Rocella phycopsis, Chiodecton nigro-

cinctum, etc., led to the same conclusions.

The gonidia of Opeg. felicina he found to bea Phyllactidium. The

broad thallus of this alga was so large that the hyphe did not en-

tirely envelop it, but by gradually branching, surrounded parts of it.

and even sent small branches into it. He found in an old thallus

of Opegrapha varia the normal filaments of Trentepohlia together

with sporangia, showing that it could not be the ‘‘ first stage of the

lichens," but was an entirely separate plant. He sowed the spores

of Physcia (Theloschistes) parietina on Protococcus viridis, and

found that the hyphe of the germinating spores readily enveloped

the algæ, and did not envelop any other objects with which they

came in contact. He also sowed spores apart from the alge, and

although germinating and producing hyphe as did the others, they

produced no gonidia and died as soon as the nourishment from the

spore was consumed. He obtained similar results with Biatora

muscorum.

E The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis.

As to those lichens containing phycochromgonidia, he found

that Colothrix furnished gonidia for Lichina pygmea and confinis;

Scytonema and Lyngbya were found in such genera as Pannaria,

Erioderma, and Stereocaulon (Cephalodia); Nostoc was found in Col-

lema and allied genera; Etigonema in Ephebe, Spilonema, etc. ; and

Gloocapsa in Synallisa, Cora, Omphalaria, and similar genera. Some-

times he found the alga to be very little changed by the parasitism

as in Ephebe and Spilonema; at others they were so changed as to be

recognized only with difficulty. Two modes of contact were noticed :

1. Where the hyphæ are applied simply to the surface of the algz, as

in Peltigera, Stictina, etc. 2. Where the hyphai branches enter the

algal cells, as in Physcia, Omphalaria, etc. From these observations

he draws the following conclusions: that since Trentepohlia, Phyllac-

tidium, etc., are so complex in their nature, and since no instance

of the hyphe enlarging and producing them has been found, and

since these alge (Phyllactidium, Trentepohlia, Nostoc, Protococcus,

etc.) are found in the free state, there can be no doubt of the dual

nature of those lichens containing them, and that, 1st, all gonidia

can be referred to some algal type; and, 2d, the relations between

hyphz and gonidia are such as to exclude all possibility of one be-

ing produced from the other, and the theory of parasitism alone can

explain these relations satisfactorily.

Reess made a series of cultivations with spores of Collema glauces-

cens sown with Nostoc lichenoides. By careful manipulation he

produced a complete Collema thallus, butlacking the fruits. Hesaw

the germinating spores ‘‘send out hyphs which branched and

forced themselves into the Nostoc."

Treub used the gonidia of one species of lichen and the spores of

another. His success was similar to that of Reess

Stahl uses the hymeneal gonidia and spores of Endocarpon pusil-

lum and spores of Thelidiwm minutulum. He succeeded in produ-

cing a fully developed thallus, showing that these hymenial gonidia

are ejected at the same time as the spores, to serve as gonidia for the

young plants. He cultivated these hymenial gonidia separately, and

found them to grow and divide just as do the undoubted unicellular

alge. Lately Bounier has succeeded in producing a complete lichen

thallus with mature fruits by using lichen spores and alge.

Among the botanists in the United States who have favored

Schwendenerism in their later works are Dr. Asa Gray, Dr. Bessey,

H. Willy, ete.

Most of the English lichenologists, together with Koerber, Nyland-

The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 5

er, and Th. Fries, oppose the theory of ‘‘ dualism of lichens.”

There are, however, several different ideas as to the origin of the

gonidia, Fries holding one opinion, Nylander another, and Crombie,

taking a mean between the two, seems to believe either. Muller

supports the **micro-gonidia" theory of Dr. Minks, as did the la-

mented Professor Tuckerman. Nylander, while acknowledging the

external similarities between lichens and ascomycetous fungi, asserts,

as does Crombie, that there are too many differences between them

to admit of their being placed together. ‘‘ The hyphz of lichens,”

he says, ‘‘ are perennial, tough, thick-walled, straight, and insoluble

in hydrate of potassium, while the hyphe of all fungi are soft, thin-

walled, flexuous, immediately dissolved in hydrate of potassium."

Besides the ** Lichenian reaction " is seen in all lichens and in none

of the fungi. Both these points are denied by many eminent lichen-

ologists and fungologists. De Bary has found the **Lichenian re-

action” in several undoubted fungi. Hartog, de Seynes, etc., say

that fungal hyph are no more soluble in hydrate of potassium than

are lichen hyphe.

Nylander also speaks of the ‘‘ improbability " of the lichen hyphe

being endowed with the reason and sagacity necessary to search out

a peculiar kind of alge which it may imprison and press into ser-

vice.” 1 He further urges, as does Crombie and others, that no alge

will grow in such bare, exposed places as those chosen by most lich-

ens. Cooke, who uses this same argument, says further that those

lichens that do grow in low, wet places, as Collema, etc., are by

some authors supposed to be alge themselves and therefore should

not be used in an argument for Schwendenerism. Nylander, how-

ever, takes an opposite view and places many of the alg: of Schwen-

dener and Bonet, etc. (such as Sirosiphon, Scytonema, Stig: nema,

Nostoc, Trentepohlia, etc.) among the lichens, as he has found fruits

upon them. But he finds no hyphe. From these discoveries he

argues that even if there is parasitism, itis not that of a fungus upon

an alga, but rather of a lichen upon a lichen. He was one of the

first to place Cora among the lichens.

Crombie says that finding and producing of zoospores in free

gonidia does not prove that gonidia are identical with alge, but that

they are only similar to them.

The autonomists raise quite an objection as to the relative size of

1 Why isit that any parasite, either vegetable or animal, is generally limit-

ed to but one or at most to but a few species upon which it feeds ?—Heredity,

etc.

6 The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis.

“ Parasite" and ** Host,” and insist that there can be no such @

thing as a * mutual benefit" parasitism in nature as is claimed to

be present in case of the lichen-fungi and the algæ. The latter ob-

jection Sargent explains (Am. Mo. Mic. Jour., Feb., 1887) by say-

ing that while the alge furnish the necessary nourishment for the

fungus, the latter in turn protects the former from excessive dry-

ness and sunshine, allowing only enough softened light as is neces-

sary to decompose the carbon dioxide, and, by acting as a sponge,

takes up water readily and retains it, thus insuring at least a mod-

erate supply of water for the alge even in dry weather ; moreover,

it is a well-known fact that fungi in growing give off carbonic diox-

ide. This the lichen hyphe furnish to the alge, and they in turn

give back oxygen, etc., to the hyphe. As to the fact that some

lichens grow in comparatively dry places. he thinks that this is not

& very serious objection, since in some lichens we have hymenial

gonidia which are ejected together with the spores; in others sore-

dia, by means of which new plants can be formed without the aid of

spores. Again, the species of alge supposed to act as gonidia are

those species that have become adapted to the frequent dry spells

incident to terrestrial life. He further insists that the differ-

ences between the fungal-algal elements of a lichen and free-living

fungi and alge are just those differences that would result from the

parasitical relationship claimed by the dualists.

Nylander says that in no case do the gonidia arise from the

hyphæ, but from the parenchymatous cortical cells observed by him

in the prothalline filaments of germinating spores. Crombie for-

merly held that the gonidia might come from the hyphs or the

hyphe from the gonidià. Later, he says the gonidia are of thalline

origin. He claims to have seen the germination of spores and growth

of young lichen thalli on rocks, etc., where no alge or gonidia could

be seen. At first only the young hyphs were seen. Later. go-

nidia were found. These he believes to have originated in certain

glomerules noticed on the young hypothallus. These glomerules

he claims contain gonidia in various stages of development. They

finally become thicker and form the cortical layer. He then uses

Nylander’s explanation as to the free state of the gonidia in the in-

terior of the thallus: *‘ The cortical stratum gradually increasing and

extending is at the same time dissolved (resorbed. physiologically

speaking) beneath, and the gonidia consequently become free.”

Crombie says further that “the contact between the hyphs and

gonidia is in no way genetic or parasitic. . . . The gonidia are

The Status of the Algo-Lichen Hypothesis. 7

neither adnate to or penetrated by the hyphæ, but only adherent to

them by the lichenin. . . . Imall cases the apparent union is

simply amylaceous adherence, and the fancied penetration the result

of erroneous observation.” He says that Stahl’s observations are of

no account, as he is a very careless observer, etc.

Koerber, who is one of the best of observers, while he opposes

Schwendener, admits that ‘‘ the germinating spores must have free

gonidia belonging to the same species in order to develop a complete

thallus,” but that * these gonidia are not algæ belonging to the lich-

ens as a fungus, but gonidia previously separated from the thallus

and which have become ‘asynthetic.’” He practically admits the

* whole thing.

Hartog says, speaking of Crombie's arguments, that he either

utterly ignores the strongest points in favor of **l'arasitism " or

laughs at them and says **improbable," or that they are the result

of ** poor work " and * erroneous observation." 'To use a favorite

Cookian phrase, both Cooke and Crombie answer many of the

best arguments in favor of ** Dualism of Lichens” simply by ** rhet-

oric."

It is a noticeable fact that in a new country where new groves of

trees are being planted, before the trees show any signs of lichens

they are covered, especially on the north side, by ** green slime,” and

the thicker the **green slime” the more rapid is the growth of the

liehens when they doappear. Again, it is noticeable that when lich-

ens begin to grow on fences and trees they take the dampest, cool-

est, shadiest places first, and gradually, if it all, extend to the dryer

places, as seen on fences where boards cross the posts, where the

lichens may be seen to extend a short way from the post along the

centre of the board, avoiding the dry, windy edges. Our largest

lichens are almost always found in the darkest woods. These facts

show that lichens in general are not the ** lovers of light, dry places,"

as one author claims. But on the contrary, while they do not choose

such places as do the saprophytic fungi, they generally choose places

where plenty of the lower algæ are to be found.

Most of the botanists who have made any experiments with spores,

gonidia, and alge have obtained results conclusive enough to con-

vince them that Sehwendener is right.

In conclusion, we now have lichens belonging to the Ascomycetes,

the Hymenomycetes, and the Gastromycetes, according to most of

our latest and best authors. "The gonidia are pretty conclusively

proven to be algæ, notwithstanding Crombie's ** rhetoric ;” and the

8 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales.

parasitism of the fungus hyphe on the alge has not only been

shown to be possible but quite probable, and to be the only way to

explain the peculiar relations existing between hyphe and alge sat-

isfactorily. Schwendenerism, like ‘‘ The Heterocism of Rusts,” may

be considered as a settled fact, and our ‘‘ beloved lichens” must

sooner or later be placed among the fungi, where they rightly be-

long.

The University of Nebraska, Dec., 1888.

AMONG THE ANCIENT GLACIERS OF NORTH WALES.

BY F. JOHNSTON EVANS.

quce are few spots in the British Isles which present so many

attractions to the geological tourist as that most picturesque of

localities into which the traveller by rail from Holyhead is suddenly

ushered when the “‘ Wild Irishman ” express, which had been rush-

ing at the rate of some sixty miles an hour across the Island of An-

glesea, after emerging from the Menai tunnel, somewhat abruptly

pulls up at Bangor station. Around on every side are piled strange

rock formations, tilted and upturned in every conceivable fashion.

Within a comparatively short distance are the famous slate quarries

of Penrhyn, in themselves a beautiful study; while in nearly an op-

posite direction are visible the lofty summits of Snowdon and Cader-

Idris. Let the reader accompany me in imagination into the midst

of this magnificent mountain region, our special object being to

wander and speculate, for a brief space, among the ancient glaciers

of North Wales. Proceeding through the Vale of Llanberris, we per-

ceive, lying high above the road, near the top of the pass, a huge block

of stone which has long attracted the notice of even the least obser-

vant traveller. It is perched on the edge of a rock a few hundred

feet above the bottom of the valley, on its northern flank—that is

to say, on the left hand of the traveller who is ascending the pass.

It is from fifteen to twenty feet long, and six or seven feet high,

sharp and angular as on the first day that it was detached from the

parent mass. It rests on a face of rock which, for a few feet, slopes

sharply towards the valley beneath, and then ends in a perpendic-

ular face of rock, and it is so lightly poised on its narrow base, that

Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 9

a finger-touch would seem sufficient to dislodge it from its precari-

ous position. The thought involuntarily occurs, how came it there?

What agency could have transplanted it thither without rounding

or breaking off a single corner, and left it where it stands, with so

cautious and gentle a hand that it rests securely not at the edge

but on the side of a steep and smooth incline? It is utterly impos-

sible that it could have rolled thither; for if so, the momentum

which carried it to its present position, must have precipitated it

down the cliffs below. In all probability, any force which could have

moved it three inches from the top of the incline on which it rests

would have been sufficient to send it crashing down to the bottom

of the valley. Hardly any traveller can have passed up the vale—

from one part of which this rock forms a very conspicuous object—

without having had some such thought presented to his mind.

Those, however, who are aware that the existence of a great glacier

in this valley at some remote period is a geological certainty, will be

at no loss to recognize in this rock a remarkable and most charac-

teristic specimen of those transported blocks whose occurrence in

various parts of the world, at great distances from the parent for-

mation, was so long a mystery to the philosophic inquirer, but

which are now recognized as among the surest indications of glacial

action.

Climbing now from the high road to the block I have been de-

scribing, we perceive that it is only one—although much the larger—

of a great number of similar blocks, which are deposited in thesame

manner on the sides and at the edges of the sloping or precipitous

faces of rock which flank the northern side of the Vale of Llanber-

ris. The greater part of these extend in a well-marked and toler-

ably regular line, and at elevations varying from 300 to 500 feet

above the course of the stream, for perhaps a mile further down

the valley—until, in fact, its sides become too steep and precipitous

to admit of such deposits being made. Clambering along this side

of the valley, we examine the faces of the rock around and beneath

these blocks, and find many of them—especially such as have not

been exposed to the action of the water-courses which trickle down

here and there into the stream below—deeply scored with the char-

acteristic strie of glacial action. If we now cross to the opposite or

southern side of the valley (the flank which lies beneath Snowdon),

we shall find all the indications of glacial force—the deep notchings

of the stris, the polished and rounded surfaces which continental

geologists term rochers moutonnés, and the transported blocks poised

10 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales.

in the most critical manner upon slopes which seem too steep to

give them support—still more clearly and unmistakably exhibited. :

The transported blocks and glacier scratches in the Vale of Llan-

berris are so well known to geologists that I simply refer to them to

call to the mind of the reader the general aspect of the phenomena

which I am about to describe as occurring in other parts of the

Snowdon district, where they are not so well known, or so univer-

sally ascribed to the action of an extinct system of glaciers. Just at

the top of the Vale of Llanberris, there is a hollow in the profile of

the ridge which forms its northern boundary. It lies exactly be-

tween the cluster of houses called Gorphwysfa on the south, and

the lake of Cym-ffynnen, at the base of the two Glyders, on the

north. A few hundred yards to the east or southeast of the lowest

part, at a distance of not more than 300 yards from the great block

of the Vale of Llanberris, there is a little round knoll of rock which

rises by itself above the neighboring parts of the ridge. It is some-

thing like an inverted basin, so that the ground falls away pretty

steeply on either side, and the top is nowhere less than fifteen or

twenty feet higher than the surrounding parts. Perched on the

very top of this knoll, resting on three points of contact at most, is

an irregular piece of rock, of a different formation from that upon

which it rests, seven or eight feet long, three or four broad, and as

many high. It has never been subjected to any process of abrasion

or rounding, for every corner is perfectly sharp and angular—pre-

senting in this respect a marked contrast to the rock on which it

rests, which is round and smooth, and somewhat weather-worn.

What could have brought this block to its resting-place? To have

rolled thither it must have rolled some twenty-five feet up-hill,

from whatever direction it had come. "The ridge, for some hundreds

of yards on either side of the knoll, rises but gently, and presents

an undulating surface, along which a sharp oblong, irregular block

of stone could by no possibility have preserved for any distance a

eonsiderable velocity: and between this knoll and the spur of the

Glyder Fawr—the only considerable altitude within a mile of the

spot—there is a hollow at least 150 feet in depth. But a little below

the top of the knoll, on its eastern slope, is a still more remarkable

block. 1t is about the same size as that which is seated on the

summit of the knoll, and similarly sharp and angular, but consists

of a coarse conglomerate of a very marked and peculiar kind, in

which large round white pebbles, apparently of quartz, are imbedded

in a kind of matrix, which looks like a coarse red sandstone. The

Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 11

most incurious person can hardly fail to be struck with the great

difference between the character of this rock and the clay slate upon

which it rests. If the observer casts his eye around him, he will be

unable to see in any direction traces of a similar geological forma-

tion in the neighboring rocks. A few feet further on, however, he

will observe a third angular block of stone, larger than the others,

but resting, like them, upon two or three points alone. He can

hardly fail to be struck with the fact that these three blocks are in

às exact and regular a line as if their places had been laid down by

the nicest measurement. They run nearly northwest and southeast

—about half a point to the west of N. W. and to the east of S. E.—

that being the general direction of the ridge which descends from

the spur of Glyder Fawr.

If we now remount to the top of the knoll, we shall perceive that

the side of the steep inclines towards the hollow referred to before,

is dotted here and there with large blocks of stone resting gently

upon the sloping rock, or imbedded in the turf. All these, on ex-

amination, will turn out to possess the same sharp and angular

character ; and all of these suggest the question: Is it possible

they could have rolled so far up hill; and were it possible, could

they be as sharp and unrounded as they are? Still. however, we

see no sign of the red conglomerate. As we pursue our way north-

west towards the spur of the Glyder, we find the ridge growing

rapidly steeper, but still we see this regular line of sharp blocks,

deposited often on their sharpest edges, and nearly on the edge or

backbone of the rock. As we mount, they become larger and

more frequent, and amongst the higher rocks are one or two small

. fragments of red conglomerate—until at length, just behind a huge

mass of clay-slate of a size which would do credit to any moraine in

Switzerland, we come suddenly upon a block of conglomerate

fifteen feet long and ten feet high, large enough and sufficiently

overhanging to afford us no mean shelter from a Welsh mountain

storm. Five minutes’ further climbing in the same direction brings

us to a most gratifying sight—a large patch, seventy or eighty yards

wide, of the red conglomerate in situ—of exactly the same character

in every respect as that which we first observed resting on the side

of the clay-slate knoll some two miles away. Looking back we

shall be able to trace distinctly the line of stones by which we have

been guided in our ascent. It is so regular that they might

almost have been dropped one after the other by a railway train.

On each side of the principal line of stones we may observe other

12 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales.

though less regular lines, by which we may very nearly map out the

exact extent of the ancient moraine to which they belonged. The

last deposited blocks are not a hundred feet higher than the out-

cropping of conglomerate ; and we are now standing nearly upon

the brink of the huge lake of ice which must have filled up the

bason of the Glyder Fawr and the Glyder Fach, and poured out

through the opening above the well-known little inn of Pen-y-

gwryd into the valley of Gwryd, and terminated in the open space of

the wide valley. Many of the rocks on the southern side of the

opening, just above the lake which now occupies the bottom of the

hollow between the two Glyders, present the general appearance of

glacier-rounded rocks. But the material is so soft, and therefore so

ill adapted for preserving the minuter and more indisputable marks

of glacier action, that it would be unsafe to draw conclusions from

their configuration, were they not supported by the independent

testimony of the old moraine, which, with the exception perhaps of

the moraine of the great glacier that filled up the whole basin of

Snowdon, is the best defined that we may see in North Wales. The

southern side of this hollow—forming the northern flank of the

ridge along which lies the moraine of the Glyder—is also of a soft

and easily disrupted stone, and much covered with turf and mould ;

and accordingly we are unable to find any very distinct marks of

striæ. The places where the rock is least covered and has been

least exposed to the obliterating action of trickling water, are the

places where such indications could not be expected to exist—

namely, near the top of the ridge, and on its southern flank, high

above the Vale of Llanberris.

It is not easy to say to what system the great block in the Vale

of Llanberris belongs. An attentive examination will show that it

lies higher than the well-defined line of deposits which extend

along the same side of the valley. Indeed, it is considerably above

the level of the actual crest or col of the pass; and there is no pre-

cipitous or disintegrated height in its immediate neighborhood from

which it could very well have been detached. Indications appear

to be not wanting that the great glacier of the Glyder, at some re-

mote period, rose above the lowest part of the hollow in the ridge

toward the Vale of Llanberris, and overlapped the southern flank

of the ridge. If so, this block, instead of belonging to the Llan-

berris glacier proper, is really a contribution from the stones of the

Glyder glacier, and was brought down upon its surface from some

Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 13

of the precipitous heights near the outcropping of the red conglom-

erate. Of this, however, it is difficult to speak with confidence.

We shall now select a new, and possibly a still more interesting

route. At the head of the valley of Nant Francon, towering above

Lake Ogwen and the high road from Bangor to Capel Curig, is the

sharp and rugged peak called Tryfan—the most precipitous sum-

mit and the finest single mountain in North Wales. It is separated

by a short, sharp ridge, running nearly north and south from the

range of the two Glyders. Tryfan is an irregular continuation of

this ridge, terminating abruptly on the Bangor road, and forming

the western, as a spur of the Glyder Fach forms the eastern flank,

of the romantie and secluded valley known by the name of Cwm

Tryfan. The general level of this valley is considerably higher than

the road, from which it is little seen, and as the approach to it is

over broken and boggy ground, its very existence is unknown to

multitudes of those who pass from day to day within a few minutes’

walk of the spot. Yet it is one of the most curious in Wales. The

explorer, on rounding the shoulder of Tryfan, comes suddenly upon

a deep valley of gentle and tolerably regular inclination, half a mile

wide and a mile and a half long, full, from one end to the other, of

rounded and polished rocks of the most marked and characteristic

aspect. "They exist, not by the dozen, but by the hundred, and erop

out from the moist turf all along the bottom of the hollow and to

the height of several hundred feet along its sides. "They are found

up to nearly the same elevation along both sides of the valley, and

above a well-defined line they cease altogether. Sometimes they are

mere rounded knolls protruding through the turf and peat, but

many of them are broad slabs and walls of living rock, hundreds of

feet in length, every corner and angle of which has been carefully

and elaborately rounded and polished off. More perfect specimens

of the rochers moutonnés it would be hardly possible to imagine.

Below the level of the glacier boundary, a sharp rock is not to be

found, from one end of the valley to the other ; and the vast num-

ber of the rounded knolls and shoulders, together with the general

coincidence in their forms and in the directions of the polished sur-

faces, affords conclusive proof that they were subjected to the action of

one uniform, regular and constant force. "The glacier which filled

up this valley must have been, like the glacier of the Aar in Switz-

erland, remarkable for the evenness of its surface, and for the uni-

formity of its motion. It must have been almost a normal glacier

—for there are no sudden contractions of its channel, no anomalous

14 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales.

elevation of its bed. The direction of its flow must have been very:

nearly uniform, from its origin just beneath the ridge which con-

nects Tryfan with Glyder Fach to its termination in the broad valley

which the Capel Curig road pursues. Such a confirmation is un-

favorable alike to the development of a large moraine and to the-

existence of that excess of pressure against the sides and bottom of

the glacier which causes the deepest striations of the polished sur-

face : and hence these indications cannot be expected to be found

of so striking and unmistakable a character as in the ‘‘Cwy Dyll,”

the great hollow of Snowdon, with its irregular bed and contracted

orifice, or in the narrow outlet of the gorge of Aberglaslyn. Nor

is the rock of a kind favorable to the preservation of the minuter-

traces of glacier action. Still, some may be seen of a peculiarly inter--

esting and instructive nature. The extreme regularity of the bed

of the glacier, the unusual absence of all disturbing or anomalous.

conditions, has given rise to the formations of stri» of great length

and regularity. Some of those which score the rounded rocks on

the southern flank of the valley are as much as fifteen or twenty

feet long, and very distinctly marked. They are the more interest--

ing as they intersect the line of stratification, and are crossed at.

right angles by the superficial markings caused by the dropping of

water. From the upper end of the valley the view is very striking.

lf we stand by the shore of the ancient sea of ice which has now

melted from the sight, we can define with precision the limits.

which bounded it on every side, and look down upon a succession

of worn and rounded surfaces, which though upon a smaller scale,

are hardly less curious or characteristic than the old glacier bed of

the Hóllenplatte, which is crossed by the traveller from Meyringen

to the Grimsel.

While one considerable glacier thus poured from the eastern base-

of Tryfan, one of immensely greater extent—so long, indeed, that it.

would bear comparison with some of the existing glaciers of Switzer-

land—streamed down to the northwest, occupying for many miles.

the valley of Nant Francon. This glacier had its origin in the ro-

mantic amphitheatre of rocks and. precipices which surround Lake-

Idwal, one part of which is well known as the ‘Twll Du,” or-

“ Devil's Kitchen," and extended for at least five miles down the-

valley towards the spot on which Bangor now stands. The rounded

and striated rocks which still tell the history of this glacier are to-

be found in considerable abundance, and of very characteristic form

and aspects, all along the Vale of Nant Francon. No better speci-

Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales. 15

men of a rocher moutonné exists in Switzerland than isto be seen on

our left hand, as we are descending the valley, at the bridge just

below Lake Ogwen, and within a few feet of theroad. On the other

side, the rocks rise precipitously above the road, and the glacier

must have been borne with great force against the wall of rock

which there checked its progress and altered its direction. Although

the rock is not of a very durable kind, it is conspicuously rounded

to a height of some 250 feet, where the limits of the glacier level are

apparent. The upper rocks overhang the lower, and are very rough

and jagged, with a trace of rubbing. Below the road on the left

hand, terrace after terrace of rock is rounded and smoothed. This

is the part of the valley where the glacier traces are most prominent

and striking. Here, they actually obtrude themselves upon the eye,

but they do not cease for many miles. ‘lhe gently descending line

of the glacier level may be easily traced from the road along the op-

posite side of the valley, the smoothing action being the more ap-

parent from the contortion of some of the strata, as seen in the upper

and unworn faces of the rock. Between five and six miles from

Bangor is a very interesting group of rocks which crop out from the

turf in a little wood above the road. They formed somewhat of an

elevation in the glacier bed, and have consequently been subjected

to severe pressure. They are worn very round and polished quite

smooth, and the stri» are most distinct, passing sometimes up-hill,

over the undulating surfaces.

The most striking evidences of glacier action, however, are to be

found in the great hollow of Snowdon, which is literally full of

them. From some distance above the Copper Lake, almost to the

bottom of Nant Gwynant, they stare at us in the face at every step.

The ** Cwm Dyll” was one vast mass of ice from whose bosom the

peak of Snowdon rose to the height of some 1000 or 1200 feet at

most. Grib Goch, Grib-y-ddysgyl, Snowdon, and Lliwedd formed an

amphitheatre of mountain peaks enclosing the great Snowdon

glacier, as the chain of the Aiguille Verte and the de l'Echand

guard the Jardin and the glacier du Taléfre ; names doubtless

more familiar to American travellers than those of the subsidiary

peaks in the Welsh mountain ranges. A large proportion of the

rock in the basin of the Snowdon range is very hard and smooth,

and has preserved, in singular freshness, even the minutest scratches.

It is curious to trace, as we descend from the summit of Snowdon.

into the bosom of the hollow, the gradually diminishing inclination

of the glacier and its increasing pressure, as marked by the dimin-

16 Among the Ancient Glaciers of North Wales.

ishing slope and deeper intaglio of the strie. The moraine also of

this glacier is wonderfully perfect. The cart-road from the now

abandoned copper works is cut partly through the lateral and ter-

minal moraines; and the sections might, save for the different

geological character and the smaller size of the blocks, be that

of the ancient moraine of the Mer de Glace between Les Tines and

Lavanchi in the valley of Chamouni. ‘There is. the same utter

absence of sorting in the disposition of the materials, and the same

angularity in individual blocks—the whole being cemented together

by a fine deposit of grit and sand. To use the words of Professor

Forbes, in his description of the Chamouni moraine : ** We find the

mound to be almost entirely composed of detached fragments,

rough and angular, or only rounded by partial friction, and accu-

mulated in the utmost disorder, mingled with sand, without any

appearance of stratification." Among the fragments of stone ex-

posed by the cutting are some very interesting ones. They have

originally belonged to the bed, or to the containing wall of the

glacier, much higher up, from which they have been detached after

being highly polished and deeply striated ; and being now un-

covered, they display the notchings and scourings, not, of course,

in their proper and original directions, but just as they happened to

have fallen when the stones were deposited in the places they now

occupy.

It must have been a strange scene of desolate magnificence that

North Wales presented at the epoch I am writing of. There were

Snowdon and his associated peaks, the centres of one vast system of

glaciers, pouring down on every side, east, west, north, and south—

the Vale of Llanberris choked with ice, and fed from the heights

and recesses on either side—a great glacier, taking its origin in the

deep basin between Snowdon and Lliwedd, streaming up the valley

of Nant Gwynant, diverted a mile or two above the site of the

sleepy little hamlet of Beddgelert, by the opposing rocks at the

lower extremity of Llyn y-Ddinas, and at length struggling through

the narrow gorge of Aberglaslyn, rounding and scoring its rug;

sides to the height of hundreds of feet. Another great glacier

probably descended through the deep inlet which reached from

below Llanberris to the very heart of Snowdon, extending to within

four or five miles of the present coast line, and leaving records of its

passage which to this day are apparent on every uncovered surface

of rock along the Llanberris and Carnarvon road. Nor did the

Snowdon glaciers, though the greatest, constitute the only glacier

The Food of the Owls. 17

system in Wales. It is certain that from the group of the Glyders

and Tryfan, no less than three glaciers—one of vast extent—poured

into the vales and plains below ; and probably round every peak or

group of nearly equal height, and whose masses are broken up into

those deep hollows and amphitheatres which are so favorable to the

collection of a reservoir of snow—and, in a climate of variable tem-

perature, to the consequent development of glaciers—similar ice-

streams must have filled up the valleys and choked the gorges in

every direction. The great peculiarity of this scenery must have

been the small elevation of the peaks and mountain ranges above

the general level of the glaciers. In Switzerland the summits com-

monly tower for thousands of feet above the highest parts of the

highest glaciers, properly so-called ; and the great glacier basins

and reservoirs are commonly bounded by huge aretes of bare and

rugged rock, specked only with snowy deposits, such as the ranges

which hem in the glaciers de l'Echand, the central tributary of the

Mer de Glace, or which block up the extremities of the glacier of

the Aar and the lower glacier of Grindelwald. In Wales, the cor-

responding heights must have been measured by hundreds, instead

of thousands of feet, for many of the glacier basins themselves lie

high ; and in this respect, despite the magnificent effect of such a

wide expagse of snow and of broken and crevassed ice, the difference

must have been unfavorable to the grandeur of the scenery. Some-

thing of the same kind may be seen in the northern glaciers of Nor- -

way, though the heights which surmount them are higher above

the glacier level than was probably the case in North Wales, and

there is no reason to suspect the existence in Wales of those vast

fields of snow whose aspect and distinguishing peculiarities are so

essentially different from those glaciers, and which give to the scenery

of Norway a character so unique and extraordinary.

THE FOOD OF THE OWLS.

BY W. 8. STRODE, M.D.

A FEW years ago Pennsylvania, Ohio, and some of the more east-

ern States enacted laws offering a bounty of fifty cents per

head for all hawks and owls that should be killed.

This munificent bounty aroused the professional hunters, and for

the time being legitimate game was abandoned in many sections of

18 The Food of the Owls.

these States for the more remunerative business of hawk and owl

shooting. Thousands were killed and the Raptores seemed in a fair

way to be exterminated.

This merciless slaughter arrested the attention of ornithological

and scientific societies, and they at once set to work to devise means

to check the work of destruction.

Committees and individuals were appointed to investigate the food

habits of the hawks and owls. Hundreds of dissections of stomachs

were made, and after a thorough research the following report was

made :

** Resolved, That the hawks and owls are of great benefit to the

farmer and render him far greater service than injury, and that it.

is unwise to select any of them for destruction.”

This report was concurred in by the leading naturalists through-

out the length and breadth of the land, and as a consequence these

obnoxious laws have been repealed.

A partial exception was made against the Sharp-shinned Hawk,

Coopers’ Hawk, and the Great-horned Owl.

It is to the latter bird that I will mainly give attention.

As the eagle heads the list of the diurnal birds of prey, so is the

Great-horned Owl the most noble of the nocturnal birds, and the

ancients chose well when they assigned to Minerva this bird as the

emblem of wisdom.

Owing to a suitable habitat probably more of these owls are to be

found in the Spoon River country of Central Illinois than in any

other section of like limits in the United States. From my boy-

hood to the present they have always excited within me a lively in-

terest and curiosity.

Their unsavory reputation as chicken thieves has led to their be-

ing destroyed whenever possible, and as a consequence in many

parts of the country where they x were once quite common they are

now extinct.

This bad reputation and consequent destruction of this owl, in my

experience and observation, is not all deserved.

Many times when a lad have my slumbers been broken in upon

by my mother's voice calling up the stairway, ‘‘Get up quick ! an.

owl is after the chickens.” A careful investigation would reveal

the intruder perched in the top of an apple-tree or on a limb close

by the side of an old hen that would be waking the echoes of the

night with her squalling. The owl in the meantime would be bow-

ing and swaying his body to and fro, occasionally uttering a low

The Food of the Owls. 19

hoo! hoo! hoo! seemingly regarding the whole performance as a

huge joke.

Unfortunately for the owl, this comedy would sometimes be quickly

turned to a tragedy by a load from my shotgun, bringing him to the

ground, and perhaps the hen also.

The principal food of the ow] in the Spoon River country con-

sists of small rodents, and the gray rabbit furnishes the greater part

of it. Reference to my note-book for the years 1887-8 shows the

following :

March 20, ’87. Found a Bubo’s nest in a large red oak tree,

forty feet to first limb, seventy-five to nest. A tremendous climb,

but with the aid of a splendid pair of climbers I got up to it, find-

ing it occupied by a trio of downy baby owls of different sizes, who

tried to look very fierce at my intrusion. In the nest with them

was a whole rabbit and parts of another.

March 27, '87. Great-horned Owl’s nest in white oak tree,

standing in a steep hollow. Could see young birds from hillside

above. An easy climb to the nest found it containing two half-

grown young and half of a rabbit.

March 30, ’87. Discovered a Great-horned Owl’s nest in a cavity

of a soft maple tree, thirty feet from ground. Found in it three

young and parts of several rabbits.

March 31, '87. Located a Bubo's nest in an elm snag fourteen

feet high, standing on a creek bank. Found in the nest three

young owls with their feathers turned wrong end to, snapping their

bills wrathfully and looking the very personification of fierceness.

The largest of the three was half-grown, while the smallest was near

the size of a quail.

In the cavity was one whole rabbit, the hindquarters of another,

a flying squirrel, and a quantity of fish-scales. While I was sitting

on a limb by the side of the cavity, watching the little fellows, the

parent owls suddenly appeared upon the scene, and I had a cyclone

about my ears for a few minutes. Such a whirl of feathers, claws,

fierce eyes, snapping beaks, hootings and sereechings about my head

was calculated to terrorize one unaccustomed to the actions of this,

the greatest of all the owls.

After continuing these demonstrations for a few minutes, one of

them, the male I supposed from his coarse voice and white crescent

under the chin, settled down upon a limb a few feet from the

ground just over the creek.

His manner now underwent a change. Swaying to and fro for a

20 The Food of the Owls.

short time, he fell off the limb to the ground, and then tumbled

about in the leaves in an apparently very crippled and helpless con-

dition. My dog, that had been sitting all this time in a perfect

frenzy of excitement at the foot of the stub, watching the owl, now

forgot his training and made a headlong rush through the creek for

the owl, but it was up and away, leaving him disappointed and crest-

fallen. I returned to the ground and departed, leaving this inter-

esting family to the enjoyment of their well-furnished larder.

I subsequently learned that these young Bubos came to a tragic

end. Some boys, finding them in the stub, threw them out into

the creek, where they were worried to death by their dogs.

March 28,788. Found a Great-horned Owl’s nest containing two

young owls, parts of a rabbit, and a flying-squirrel. Nest in a cavity

in a soft maple.

March 29, 88. Bubo’s nest in top of a white oak tree. An old

nest of Red-tailed Hawk, two small young owls, a whole rabbit,

and a half rabbit—a great deal more rabbit than owl.

March 30, °88. Nest in a wild cherry tree. A crow's nest pre-

empted and reconstructed. Contained one young owl, a rabbit, a

flying squirrel, and a robin. This is the only nest in which was

found the remains of any bird.

Last spring, while out hunting Bubo’s nests, I found a dead

Screech Owl lying on the upper side of a broken plum tree limb.

Its back, from the neck to the tail, was as neatly laid open as it could

have been done withasharp knife. I credited this piece of wanton-

ness to the Great-horned Owl.

One bright day in March, ’87, I was returning from a professional

call. At this season of the year, when the hawks and owls are nest-

ing, it is my custom, when not hurried by business, to leave the

highways and ride haphazard through the woods, regardless of

fences, hills, hollows, or creeks.

On this day I was riding leisurely along through heavy timber,

down **Johnson's Creek,” when my attention was arrested by the

noisy cawing of a large flock of crows on the hillside two or three

hundred yards to my right.

I at once guessed the cause of all this tumult to be a Great-horned

Owl, for of all the denizens of the forest none other will so arouse

the uncontrollable indignation of the family Corvide.

I had not thought of disturbing this camp-meeting of the

crows, until suddenly a regular pandemonium of shrieks, and

directly the scurrying by of a number of the sable birds, each one

The Food of the Owls. 21

shouting bloody murder at the top of his voice, plainly told me that

something terrible had happened in the dark woods on the hillside

above. Turning my horse loose, I went noiselessly up the hillside

on a tour of investigation.

Presently a large Bubo flew up from the ground a few rods in

front of me, and upon going to the spot I discovered the cause of

the sudden great consternation of the crows. The owl had wreaked

summary vengeance upon one of his tormentors, and the smoking

body lay upon the ground in two halves, having been divided trans-

versely instead of lengthwise as in the case of the Screecher. A

part of the viscera had been devoured.

Last spring, while wandering about in the woods on ‘‘ Geetur

Creek,” a tributary of the Spoon, I was attracted by the barking of

my dog, and on going to him, found a young Bubo that had fallen

_ out of the parent nest. It was in a little creek bed, and the parent

owls had nicely concealed it by covering it up with leaves.

I decided at once to make a pet of it. A few days later I took

from a family of four in a hollow sycamore a half-grown Barred

Owl (Syrniwm nebulosum), and placed it with the first, with the

intention of studying and comparing the habits and dispositions of

the two birds.

They are now full grown and have indeed proved to be very in-

teresting pets. They have the run of an outhouse that gives them

plenty of room to fly about in. They have become very much at-

tached to each other, and if one is removed from their apartment

the other is inconsolable until its return. And then such a bowing

and nodding to each other is ludicrous indeed. The disposition of

the two birds is very dissimilar. The Bubo is by far the nobler bird

—as tame as a cat, good natured and intelligent, pleased at the ap-

pearance of familiar faces, but suspicious of strangers. Always greets

my appearance at the door of the owl-house with a low hoo! hoo!

hoo ! followed immediately by a shrill screech or at times almost a

quack, Greatly enjoys having his head scratched; shuts his eyes,

and his voice will sink almost to a whisper.

The Syrnium is just the opposite; untamable, sneaking, revenge-

ful ; suspicious alike of everything and everybody. Anything from

mussels to cats is relished as food. Fat or tallow they will not

touch. Mice, rats, ground-squirrels, kittens, chicken-heads and

small birds are first thoroughly crushed by their beaks and are then

usually swallowed whole. Before swallowing birds they first pluck

out their feathers.

22 The Food of the Owls. '

It is said that if an owl once gets a taste of fish he is a fisherman

ever afterwards, and of this fact I have seen many demonstrations.

At Thompson's Lake, on the Illinois River, I have several times

in the dusk of the evening seen the Barred Owl feasting on discarded

fish. The shutting down of the water-gates of the mill often leaves

many small fish stranded on the gravel bed of the river, just below

my house, and I have many times witnessed a pair of Great-horneds

fly down from the trees on the opposite bank to feast upon them.

During the summer months small fish formed the staple diet of

my pair of pets, and a pound of shiners three times a day was about

the amount they required.

Their manner of feeding is very different. "When a canful of

minnows is poured out to them the Bubo will jump into their midst,

and, as my boy sometimes remarks, ‘‘ Just hog them down,” two at

a time.

The Syrnium will pick out a particularly lively minnow, eye it

for a moment, then spring upon it and grasp it in the talons of

one foot, and after holding it for a few seconds quickly transfer it

to his beak, after which he will gaze about defiantly for a short time

and then swallow it.

This bird has developed a great hatred for the boys, probably as a

result of their disposition to guy him whenever an opportunity offers.

This dislike has lately taken shape by his making a dive at every

boy that enters his house, raking the top of his head with his claws

as he passes over him, and then giving vent to his peculiar, laughing

ery of ** Who ! hoo! hoo are you !” This trick he has played so often

on the ** gamins,” that, at present, not one of them can be induced

to enter his apartments.

Some days ago a venturesome lad laid his eye up to a knot-hole in

the side of the owl-house to take a peep at them. His lusty screams

quickly brought me from my office to his side. The blood was run-

ning freely'down his cheek. The aim of the Syrnium had been unerr-

ing. From his perch on the opposite side of the building he had

made a dive for the eye, and running one foot through the hole

had lacerated the skin badly, but luckily not injuring the eye.

Sometimes I put a live rabbit in the owl-house, and then there is

fun to see the Bubo getting up courage to attack it. No bully ever

gave better evidence of a mixture of cowardice and bravado. He

will bow and sway his body to and fro, run along his perch and back

again, look to me for encouragement, then bow, look at the rabbit

and bow, all the while uttering his shrill scream, which becomes

The Food of the Owls. 23

more and more fierce as his courage rises. Finally, after assuring

him that he is a brave fellow, and no coward, to go for it, etc., he

makes the attack. And now his whole nature suddenly changes,

and instead of a hesitating bully he more nearly resembles a raging

lion.

It is said that the tiny Downy Woodpecker more nearly resem-

bles the great Ivory-billed than does any other of the many species.

of the family Picide.

The same may be said of the Little Screech and the Great-horned

Owl, the little Scops being a tiny image in action and appearance

of its great relative, from whom it probably evoluted.

In the spring and summer of 1887, at the request of Dr. R. W.

Shufeldt, U. S. A., I was making a collection of nestlings of repre-

sentative American birds, that was to be sent to Prof. Parker, of

London, to be utilized by him in his great work on ‘‘Avian Osteol-

ogy." Among the many birds brought to me by my boy collectors

was a family of four young Screech Owls. Downy little fellows, all

beak, claws, and eyes. Wishing to use but one of them as an alco-

holic specimen, I was at a loss what to do with the others, as the

nest from which they were taken was on a creek five miles away. I

finally concluded to adopt them, and a family of kittens, which they

resembled in many respects, would not have proved more interesting

and trusting pets.

From first to last small fish was their main diet, and it was amus-

ing, indeed, when their food was brought, to see the downy little fel-

lows rush and tumble over each other in their eagerness to get at it.

If a mouse was given to them it would first be put through a

bone-breaking process and then swallowed. Small birds would be

thoroughly picked and then swallowed head first.

After they became able to fly about, they were taken from the box

in which they had been kept and put into the apple trees growing

in my yard to shift for themselves. But they refused to shift; on

the contrary, seemed to consider themselves as a part of the family,

and for weeks remained about the yard, and in the dusk of the

evening would come at once on being called, sometimes from the

mill a hundred yards away, or from the trees across the river.

A very interesting feature connected with these little Scops was

the manner in which they were treated by the other birds of the.

vicinity. About once a day the birds would assemble to harass and

scold them, the usual time being a little before sundown. At a

signal, generally from the Robin, they would come from all direc-

24 Primitive Architecture.

tions—the Jay and the Purple Grackle from their nests in the

apple trees; the Rose-breasted Grosbeak from the top of the hack-

berry; the Cardinal and Wood Thrush from the box elders across

the river; the Orioles from their swinging nests in the elm and

sugar maple; the Bee Martin and Warbling Vireo from the silver-

leaved ; the Jenny Wren from the eaves of the portico ; the Cat-bird

and Brown Thrasher from the gooseberry bushes, and the Maryland

Yellow Throat from his nest in the thick weeds on the river’s bank—

all would come to devote a few minutes to scolding their common

enemy.

The Jay, the Grackle, the Cat-bird; and the Robin would do

the aggressive business, while the other birds, from a respectful

distance, would be the spectators. The Robin, in particular, would

show the greatest excitement in these attacks. He would often fly

down to the ground near where I sat and in the most frantic man-

ner try to call my attention to the fact that there was a terrible

owl in the apple tree.

At first these attacks almost frightened the Screechers to death ;

but they soon became accustomed to them, and, in fact, seemed

rather to enjoy this bird matinée.

One of these interesting birds was stoned to death by a man as it

was perched upon the fence near his repair-shop. Another was

shot and killed by a kind-hearted lady that wished to display her

marksmanship. A third is still about town, and his tremulous

notes are often heard around my pen in the dusk of the even-

ing.

PRIMITIVE ARCHITECTURE.

I;

SOCIOLOGICAL INFLUENCES,

BY BARR FERREE.

OOD and shelter constituted the first and chief wants of primitive

man, and to their satisfaction he devoted his dormant energies:

At first, unable to construct his own shelter, he was obliged to de-

pend upon such as nature furnishes. The cave was at once the

most convenient and the safest. Its universal use in primitive times

Primitive Architecture. 25

is attested by the vast number of remains and relics we find therein.

Its use by the Rock Veddahs—one of the rudest races of mankind—

has continued to the present day. History, however, furnishes

other reasons for the use of the cave. Thus hermits affect them

that they may be uncontaminated by worldly things, and the fisher-

man of the Yank-tse still uses them, as they are most convenient

for his occupation.

As man became more accustomed to his surrounding, as his ideas

became stronger and more definite, he set about building his own

shelter. At first it was a mere pile of leaves and branches. If sub-

ject to a constant wind, he arranged a semi-circle of branches thrust

upright into the ground, and often built a fire in the open side.’

In a more advanced stage he builds a circle of branches, brings their

tops together, and ties them with a strip of bark. But the hut is

still incomplete, and remains so until the frame is interwoven with

cross-branches and twigs, sometimes, as with the Fuegians, only on

the windward side, sometimes, as with the Damaras, over the whole.

The shed has an origin equally early as the hut, although it was

developed differently. In fact it depended on the material on hand

whether this form or the other was adopted. In Australia,? where

large strips of bark are readily obtained by the natives, a lean-to is

the usual form; in Fernando Po.? on the other hand, a coarse mat-

ting stretched out on four poles is in universal use. The latter may

be considered the normal form of shed. and we can trace its progress

from these slightly inclined roofs to the elaborately finished, high-

pitehed roofs of the hot regions of South America.

The early habitations of man may be roughly classified as circular

and rectangular. Much speculation has been indulged in as to the

causes of this difference, and it is a singular fact that the two styles

of dwellings are frequently found side by side in districts where

there does not seem to be a natural cause forany distinction. It has

been suggested that rectangular houses are characteristic of the

communistie manner of living and circular ones of single families.

The members of a single family can readily sleep around one fire ;

when several families are congregated under one roof several fire-

places are required, and the house is extended, usually in one direc-

tion. While this is true, there are many circular houses occupied in

common, and there are also numerous instances among the rudest

* Tasmanian Journal, i., 250.

? Angas's Aust. and N. Zeslani, H. 212. > .

* Allen and Thompson's Narrative, ii., .197 -

26 Primitive Architecture.

peoples of one family occupying rectangular dwellings. The truth

is, that the development of both the rectangular and the circular

house is merely a plain case of natural development. First, we have

a simple breakwind, a single strip of bark. Then comes one on two

sides, another is added, and it is only necessary to close the remain-

ing side to complete the square. These changes can be illustrated

by numerous examples, but it is only necessary to mention two; the

breakwind of the Australian savage represents the first stage, and

the Patagonian tent,! formed of skins stretched on three sides of a

square, the second. The shape of the dwelling does not, as might

be supposed, depend on the manner in which the logs forming the

sides are laid. When horizontal. we invariably have the rectangular

hut, but they are placed vertically in both rectangular and circular

dwellings. Nor is the explanation difficult, for the shed, supported

by upright poles, is easiest enclosed by placing logs parallel to the

first, and the rectangular house with walls of vertical logs is ob-

tained.

The manner of life is an essential element in determining the

form and character of a dwelling. In the earliest times man was

constantly moving, seeking new shelter, new resting-places, new

food. He could carry nothing with him in his migrations, for he

had no means of conveyance. He was equally satisfied with a cave

or a heap of leaves. Later, when he has learned to use a few

simple tools, to skin animals, to prepare their skins, and to build

his hut with some little care, he carried it with him. Hence the

dwellings of nomadic peoples fall naturally into the two divisions of

transportable and non-transportable, and the former are again

subdivided into those covered with mats and those covered with

skins.

Dwelling e

of Nomads transportable 1 Mats

skins

Being easy of construction, mat tents are used by the rudest

peoples. The Abipones pass their lives under two poles and a mat;

the Zulus, standing higher in the social scale, find comfort in cages

of pliant sticks, covered with finely woven rush mats? Skin tents

are used by more advanced races, since their use implies knowledge

of the manufacture of the weapon with which to kill the animal,

and of the mode of skinning and preparing the skin. They are

? Anthro. Jour., i., 197.

2 Burchell's Travels in Africa, ii., 198.

Primitive Architecture. 27

used alike both by pastoral and hunting tribes, but seldom by

‘purely agricultural ones, by the hunting Indians of North America,

the Dakotas and Chippeways, by the pastoral bands of the extreme

ast and the far south, the Arabs and the Patagonians.

The agricultural nomads, moving less often than do the hunting

and pastoral ones, build more permanent dwellings. Some, as the

Gonds, move every few years. Their houses are of wattle and daub,

thatched with teak-leaves ; within are two rooms, separated by a row

of grain baskets, or by a bamboo screen, one serving as a living

room, the other for storing.‘ Greater care is shown by the Bodo

and Dhimals,? who, in addition to the central dwelling, build a

cattle-shed ; and if the family is a large one, complete the quad-

rangle with two other dwellings. The Santals,? moving only when

they have exhausted the soil at one place, build even a more elabo-

rate group of buildings ; a verandah is placed at the gable end, and

pigstys, buffalo-sheds, and dove-cots built within the common en-

closure.

Many other causes than the fertility of the soil occasion the re-

moval of the agriculturist. The Khonds‘ abandon their dwellings

‘on decay; the Western Kareens® seek new quarters on the en-

€roachment of their enemies ; while the diseases generated by the

heat expel the Caribs from theirs.

Turning to communism, which is, E as early a phase of

life as the nomadie, we find that it also produces numerous varia-

tions in structure. And, first of all, it is interesting to trace the

origin of communism as shown in the dwelling. The protection

gained by numbers led many tribes to adopt this form of life.

Such, for example, are the Pueblo Indians,? who erect large ter-

raced buildings, often with no opening on the ground floor. Such,

also, are the Mandans,’ an unaggressive people, brave, but unable

to contend with their powerful neighbors, the Sioux. Their houses

are circular, from 40 to 60 feet in diameter; the walls are of thick

logs, the roof of beams supported by posts, thatched with willow-

boughs and prairie grass, and the whole covered with several feet

of earth and clay. Two doors of buffalo skin protect the entrance.

* Forsyth, Highlands of Central India, 99.

* B. H. Hodgson in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xviii., 741.

* Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xx., 570.

* Macpherson, Report upon the Khonds of Ganjam and Cuttack, 59.

^ Parrish in Jour. As, Soc. Bengal, xxxiv., 145.

* Morgan, 136.

7 Ib., 126.

28 Primitive Architecture.

In addition the whole village is fortified. To the same cause may

be attributed the peculiar villages of the Tupis, which consist of

several houses arranged with their entrances opening on a common

court, and the whole surrounded with a strong palisade.

The greater facilities communism affords for obtaining subsist-

ence led the Iroquois to adopt that form of life. Those residing in

villages lived in common, all partaking of the common store, while

the venturous brave who went out after food lived a solitary life.

To the same reason may be probably attributed the all but universal

custom of communism among the North American Indians. The

natives of Guiana furnish a curious variation of the women and chil-

dren living in a detached cook-house.

In the far north cold has produced communism. The desire for

greater warmth induced the Kamtschatdales, the Ostyaks! and the

Esquimaux ° to live in common during the long, cold months of

winter, while light cool dwellings suffice for their abode in summer.

In studying the effect of communism on the structure of the

dwellings, we note, first, that all communistic houses are very much

larger than those intended for single families. "They are of all sizes,

from the Ojibwa wig-e-wam? for two or three families, up to the

immense Long House of New Guinea, 30 x 300 feet and more, or the

American Pueblo of à thousand rooms. As the size varies with the

number of the inhabitants, so does the construction. The greater

the number of people engaged in erecting a building, the greater

the care taken and the better will be the materials used.. Such is

found to be the case with the dwellings of the Clatsops and Chi-

nooks,‘ the walls of which are of white boards sunk in the ground,

with a roof of timber fastened by cords of cedar bark and covered

with two or three ranges of light poles. The Long House of the

Seneca-Iroquois is another example. It is formed of a strong double

frame of poles, with either a triangular or a semi-circular roof, en-

closing large strips of elm bark, tied to it with strings or splints.*

The Esquimaux furnish even a more striking instance, for the huge

blocks of snow and ice used in their dwellings cannot be moved

without the assistance of many men. ‘The great care taken in the

construction of communal dwellings is further shown by the use of

! Latham's Des. Eth., i., 454.

? Cook's Sec. Voyage, ii., 237.

* Morgan, 113.

Primitive Architecture. 29

larger material than is possible or even desirable in individual dwell-

ings, as is shown in the huge pieces of bark covering the Ojibwa

wig-e-wam, and the Iroquois Long House. Finally, it should be

noted that communism sometimes produces remarkable changes in

the appearance of the dwelling. Perhaps the most noteworthy in-

stance is the village of the Yakut nation of Southern California,’

consisting of a row of conical or wedge-shaped wig-e-wams, with a

continuous awning of brushwood in front.

Although the changes produced by communism are of a limited

nature on the exterior of the dwelling, it causes a great variety in

the interior. First of all, we note variation in the number of par-

titions and in their construction. Some dwellings, as those of the

Dakotas and of the Tupis—the latter containing from 20 to 30

families—are without any partition whatever. Others, as those of

the Chinooks, have partitions in the larger houses—80 families—

but none in the smaller. Then come partial partitions ; some, as

in the elliptical lodges of the Kutchin tribe, radiating towards a cen-

tral open space; others, as in the Iroquois Long House, having side

partitionsonly. Finally, there are complete partitions, separate cabins

under the same roof. These last are found in the houses of New

Guinea, huge edifices containing cabins of bamboo 10 feet square,

with doors at the side and a fireplace between every two cabins.

The Mishmis,? with similar dwellings, have a fireplace in each com-

partment.

Quite as much variety is found in the distribution of the passage-

ways. First, none at all, as in the Kutchin lodges; next, a’straight

aisle down the middle, as in the Iroquois Long House. Differing

from this only in position are the houses of the Mishmis, with a

passage along one side, and the Kareens,‘ who form a passage all

around the house. Finally, there is a perfect maze of passages, as

in the dwellings of the Brokpas.®

A similar evolution is found in the arrangement and number of

the fireplaces. Many, as with the Powhatans and Dakotas, the

Kutchins and the Mandans,? have but a single fire in the centre of

the dwelling. Others, again, as the Iroquois’ and the Uraupes,

* Morgan, 107.

* Jukes, Narrative of the Surveying Voyage of H. M. S. Fly, 272,

* Griffith in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, vi., 333.

* Mason in Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xxxvii., Pt. 126.

* Jour. As. Soc. Bengal, xlvii., Pt. 1, 34.

* Morgan, 126.

7 Ib., 65.

30 | Primitive Architecture.

arrange the fires in the central aisle, so that one fire serves for four

cabins. More developed are the dwellings of New Guinea, with a

fire to every two cabins, and of the Mishmis, with a fire to each

cabin. Another form is found among the Mayas, who build a sep-

arate cook-house where the cooking for the whole village is done.

ben Ostyaks keep their food safe from the dogs in a village store-

ouse. |

There is no more singular mode of building than that of elevat-

ing the dwelling on poles. It is of most frequent occurrence among

communistic peoples, but is by no means confined to them. Its.

origin has been long a favorite subject for controversy among stu-

dents of primitive architecture. ‘The historians of Timor allege

that it arises from the fear of the reptiles that infest that fertile

island, and we are also informed that such houses are constructed at.

Kurrecchane that the children may sleep safely at night. | However

well this custom in these places may be explained by these state-

ments, it is sufficiently obvious that the explanation is not a universal

one, and its origin must be looked for elsewhere. The best theory

yet proposed is that of M. Frederick Troyon,! but which, though it.

is supported by many facts, fails when put to the test of universality.

Beginning with the observation that all such buildings are built.

over or near water, M. Troyon argues that the rafts used in the

early migrations afforded little protection to their owners, especially

when the men were off hunting. Safety, however, was readily ob-

tained by mooring in midstream, while, when pulled ashore, the raft.

was best kept from being washed away by the waves. by being

elevated beyond their reach. Unfortunately for his theory, how-

ever, M. Troyon has ignored the fact that elevated houses are to be

found both on the coast line and in interior districts where rafts:

would be impractical. Other and possibly many causes have

contributed to the custom ; among them especially the desire for

greater protection. It is not sufficient for the Sumatrans? that.

they hide their dwellings amid the trees on a hill-top, to which

there is but one, or at most two, narrow paths of access, nor is à.

high and strong fence enough. "They elevate their houses on posts.

and enter by means of movable notched poles. The theory of pro-

tection is confirmed by the solitary houses being more elevated than:

are the village houses. If the custom of building elevated houses.

; T Habitations Lacie des temps anciens et modernes. Lau-

: 1860.

sanne

i: Marsden, Historylof Sumatra, 56,

Ea Rat Mae oat oO a a A

Primitive Architecture. 31

originated with the natural fear of man for his race, then, in houses

built over the water, the land side should be the strongest portion of

the building, while the water side should be open or only lightly con-

structed. "This is found to be the fact in the houses of New Guinea,!

which have a stage on the water side that affords a convenient place for

keeping the canoes. A confirmation of this explanation is seen in

the eustom of many maritime tribes of placing their dwellings where

embarkment is attended with the greatest difficulty. Again, this

mode of building is found prevalent among both warlike tribes, as

the northern Kareens, and peaceful ones, as the Mishmis. All

such instances point in the direction of the same cause ; that they

may better defend themselves against their enemies.

But greater protection is not the sole reason for the building of

elevated houses. High floods make it imperative, as with the

Waraus, or else drive the natives to elevated bits of land, as in the

basin of the Orinoco. Tribes living near the coast and supporting

themselves by fishing adopt this style of dwelling almost exclu-

sively, while interior tribes prefer houses built directly on the

ground. This distribution is especially marked in the East Indies.

Besides acting as an integral factor in producing communistic and

elevated dwellings, the desire for better protection has brought

about many other variations in structure. The location of the vil-

lage is frequently selected with this end in view. Sometimes the

hill-top is chosen, as by the Maiwar Bhils—who have a back door

conveniently arranged for flight; with others the most secluded

valleys are sought, as is done by the Santals ;? others, again, hide

their dwellings in clumps of trees. Some, also, as the Khonds,?

place their villages in close proximity to each other, while the

Bushmen‘ take the opposite course of building in high open spots

where they cannot be attacked without warning.

A suitable site selected, the next step is to defend it. This leads

to a judicious arrangement of the dwellings ; a favorite plan being a

circle with the entrances opening towards the central space, which

is usual among the Andamese, the Bushmen, and the Kaffirs. When

the chief of the village has developed into an important personage,

his dwelling, for greater safety, is placed in the centre of the enclos-

ing village. The Rajput and Bihé villagesare illustrations of this fact.

! Forrest's Voyages, 95.

* Jour. As, Soc. Ben 569.

* Campbell, Wild Tribes ot Khondistan, 49.

* Burchell, Travels into the Interior of Southern Africa, ii., 55.

32 . . Editors’ Table,

The mere arrangement of the houses does not, however, furnish

suffieient protection to the timid or the warlike tribes. Artificial

fortifications must be raised. These are of two general kinds, those

intended for the whole village and those only forsingle houses. The

former include palisades, sometimes erected at the end of the

street, as in the Khond villages, and as is usual in Africa, sometimes

continued around the whole settlement, when ic becomes a wall.

The second class includes a great variety of expedents, dependent,

chiefly, upon the ingenuity of the builder. Some, as in New Cale-

donia, are satisfied with building a fence close to their dwellings;

others, as the Angain Nagas, surround themselves with a stone

wall; others, again, as the New Zealanders, barricade their doors

and sition with strong bars.

Rank and wealth have their influence upon dwellings. This is

chiefly to be seen in their construction and size. ‘The poor of every

society, the lowest as well as the highest, live in meaner houses

than do the wealthier classes. Not only will a rich man's house be

larger than a poor man's, but in warm climates it will consist of

more parts. 'The wealthy Kalmuck has a separate cooking tent,

and the palace of a Javanese prince resembles a walled city.

Rank is further indieated by sundry external forms ; for example,

by the height of the dwelling, the elaboration of ornament, the

shape and number of the roofs. The house of a Javanese chief has

eight roofs, while the mass of the people are restricted to four.

EDITORS' TABLE.

EDITORS : E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

The American Society of Naturalists at its recent meeting in Bal-

timore passed a resolution which requests its Executive Committee to

consult with the corresponding representatives of certain other

scientific bodies as to the next time and place of meeting. The

societies referred to are all newly organized, and are : The Ameri-

can Physiological Society, the Society of Anatomists, and the

American Geological Society. One of these, the Geological Society,

arranged to meet during the Christmas holidays at Ithaca, N. Y.

and it was stated that several of the geological members of the

American Society would probably prefer to attend the meetings of

NUES UL SC SPEO Ee T eru

PLATE XXI.

Cpe

Condon

Bald Men

Jeffe: Son

Part of the Cascade Range.

Ed fors" Table. 33

the Geologieal Society should they be held: contemporaneously in

future. It was also plainly seen that the multiplication of societies

would reduce the membership of the body then in session at Balti-

more, and a remedy for such contingency was proposed and dis-

cussed.

The proposition is that the four societies hold their meetings in

future at the same time and place, so that the members of one of

them can have the advantages of the others. The plan was gen-

erally acceptable to the members of the American Society, and it is

to be hoped that it will be so to the other societies as well. Such

an arrangement has much in its favor, and the only objection arises

from the slight difficulty to be experienced in making the prelimi-

nary and local arrangements. ‘The existence of so many societies

necessarily diminishes the strength of each one, since few naturalists

can hold, for various obvious reasons, a membership in more than one

of them. The co-operation of these societies once obtained, the re-

sult will be beneficial to American science. It will be, in fact, a

national scientific body intermediate in character between the Na-

tional Academy and the American Association. Such a body will

produce a distinct impression on the energies of its members, as well

as on the attention of the public. If the membership is properly

guarded, it will have a distinctly valuable influence on the adminis-

tration of scientific trusts of all kinds. That the membership can

be guarded we fully believe, since the American Association is the

popuiar body and furnishes every opportunity for expansion in that

direction. The new body would furnish a winter meeting for

naturalists of all departments, under the influence of a festive sea-

son, in every way well calculated to encourage and stimulate them

in their often locally isolated labors. We hope that the three socie-

ties named will take this view of the subject, and that next winter

will see a combined meeting of all of them at some accessible point.

Tus Naturatist informs its readers that it commences the year

1889 with a new department, that of Bacteriology, under the editor-

Ship of Professor W. T. Sedgwick, of the Institute of Technology,

Boston. The department of Physiology will be edited by Professor

Frederick S. Lee, of Bryn Mawr College, Pa.

The numbers of the NATURALIST for 1888 were issued on the fol-

lowing dates: January, Feb. 3; February, April 2; March, April

21; April, May 25 ; May, June 29 ; June, Aug. 8; July, Aug. 30;

August, Sept. 30; September, Oct. 24; October, Nov. 22; November,

34 Recent Literature.

Dec. 13 ; December, Dec. 26, Postal delays caused the omission

of some plates from the December number. These will be issued

with the January and other numbers of the present year. Haste

in the printing of the December number caused the numerous typo-

graphical errors which it contains, and neither authors nor editors

are responsible for them. The publishers have made new arrange-

ments for printing, so that the delays in issuing the magazine to

subscribers, and separate copies to contributors, will not again occur.

Errata.—In November number, p. 955, fourth line from bottom,

for 1700 read 700. Do.. p. 997, for 1,600,000 read 160,000. Do., p.

1029. for Clione read Cleome. In December number, p. 1073, for

Septocladus read jare ; do., Plate xxvii., for facies read brevi-

facies.

RECENT LITERATURE.

Tuomas’ BurtAL Mounps.!1—To one who, like the present re-

viewer, received most of his archeological knowledge at the feet of

tnat most accurate student of the American Indian within the his-

toric period, Mr. Lucien Carr, of Cambridge, Dr. Thomas’ monograph

appeared like an old friend. There is, indeed, much new material,

and a new presentation of old facts, but there is, too, the same con-

clusion which we have been led to hold as true: that those mounds

which dot our Western and Southern States and which have given

rise to such an amount of speculation and hypothesis, were built by

the Indians in possession of that region within the historic pe or

by their ancestors. The facts brought out by Mr. Carr in his e

on the ** Mounds of the Mississippi Valley Historically Considered ed”

have not been controverted, and the present paper but adds to the

evidence that there is no necessity for invoking the aid of a i garei

race of ** Mound-Builders ” distinct from the Indians found in

pa of the eastern half of the United States at the time of its dis-

cov

m Thomas takes up the get in the following order : (1) Burial

Mounds of the Wisconsin Distri ; (2) Burial Mounds of the Illi-

nois District ; (3) The Ohio Districts (4) The Appalachian District;

(5) The he Cherokees probably mound-builders; (6) Concluding remarks;

. while in a supplementary note he gives an account of the burial

customs of the Hurons, translated from the pages of the martyred

Bi pus the ‘‘ Relacion " of 1636.

es of the mounds of Wisconsin as well as of those of the

ninoi district (including Northern Illinois, Eastern Iowa and _

1 Burial Mounds of the Northern Section of the United States. By hU dira]

Thomas. Extr. Fifth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology.

ngton, 1888, pp. 119.

Recent Literature. 35

Northeastern Missouri) it is clearly shown that the historic Indians

did build burial mounds, but in the case of Ohio this is not so easy.

History and tradition tell us almost nothing of the aboriginal in-

habitants of that State, for soon after the advent of the French in the

nation and legends of the Tallegwi, but what the affinities of these

tribes were, history tells us nothing. Dr. Thomas, however, com-

pares the Ohio mounds with those near Charleston, West Virginia,

and gives much evidence to show that both were made by the same

people and more than suggests the identity of the Tallegwi with the

Cherokees. These latter are shown beyond much possibility of doubt

to have been a mound building people even in post-Columbian times.

Among the other conclusions drawn may be mentioned these : That

there is no evidence of human sacrifice in mortuary rites ; that noth-

ing indicates that the people building the mounds had arrived at

any higher culture-status than had some of the historic Indian tribes

of the same region; and that the period of mound-building could not

have continued for more than a thousand years, and hence its com-

mencement probably does not antedate the fifth or sixth century.

Comstock’s ENTOMOLOGY .'—This work is nearer our ideal of what

a text-book of entomology should be than anything, American or

foreign. which has appeared for many years. It is concise, clear,

and bears evidence of careful preparation and abundant knowledge,

while most of the illustrations are new and fresh, many being en-

graved by Mrs. Comstock expressly for the work. In the present

part the subjects treated are (1) The Characters and Metamorphoses of

Insects, (2) The Anatomy of Insects, (3) The Orders of Hexapoda,

(4) Thysanura, (5) Pseudoneuroptera. (6) Orthoptera, (7) Physopoda,

and (8) Hemiptera. In the second part (which we sincerely hope

may not be long delaved) the remaining orders will be taken up,

and with them we are promised chapters on economie entomology,

directions for collecting and preserving insects, a bibliography, a

glossary, and an introductory chapter.

In the treatment of the different orders we notice a lack of uni-

formity; in some analytica! tables extending down to genera are

even while others are treated less fully. This is doubtless owing to

e pr : :

Hexapods or Myriapods. With the sequerice of orders some fault

might be found. A division of Hexapoda above Thysanura into

* An Introduction to Entomology. By John Henry Comstock. Ithaca,

ei ME published by the Author, 1888. '[Pt. L, pp. 284, with 201 figures.]

36 Recent Books and Pamphlets.

Ametabola and Metabola is convenient, but it accords too high a rank

to an adaptive feature. Complete metamorphosis i is but a compara-

tively recent introtluction in the life of insects, and with it as a basis

forms closely allied in structure are necessarily widely divorced.

gain, in our opinion, the Orthoptera are clearly lower than the

Pseudoneuroptera, a view which is not negatived by paleontological

evidence nor by embryology.

We notice a few slips which can readily be corrected in the prom-

ised introduction. On the first page the author writes ‘‘ Vermes’

where he clearly means ** Annelida,” and the unnatural group of

Tracheata is referred to on thesame page. On theseventh pagechitine

is stated to be deposited **in" the body-wall. On the eighth page

it is stated that the eyes Joy possibly be modified legs, a view

which is completely negatived by embryology. On the twenty-third

page the sting of certain insects should have been stated to be a

modified ovipositor. Perhaps the greatest omission of all is the ab-

sence of any account of the embryology of Hexapoda. Still these,

with the exception of the last, are minor points, and this exception

we hope to see rectified before the volume is conipleted. Asa whole,

the work is of great value. The illustrations and descriptions will

make it a true guide to the young student of insects, the accounts of

noxious insects will aid the agriculturist and horticulturist. and we

venture the prediction that it will be the most often referred to of

any book on the shelves of the working entomologist.

REGENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Abstracts of the Proceedings of the London Geological Society. No. 515.

Agassiz, Alewander.—Annual Report for 1885-86 of the Curator of the

Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. From the au-

thor.

Allen, Harrison.—On the Methods of Study of the Crowns of Human Teeth,

Including their Variations. Reprint from the Dental Cosmos for June,

1888. From the au

Auld, R. = —Breeding the Pf. Reprint from the Breeder's Gazette,

March, 1888. From the author.

P uA aus H.—Report on Fishes Observed in Great E arbor. Ex-

ract from gye 7 U.S. halons pe peer chit 1887. From a author.

Bòdington, Alice. per from the Journal

of Microscopy nd pmi Science. win the author.

Bon G. A. rele ription of a New — (Urbi ighas mq rine

m Afghanistan. Ext.from Annalsa d Manes e of Nat

1887.—On the Affinity of the Nerth- Am can Tizard F auna. Re.

rini from t Annals and Magazine of Natural History, Nov., 1887.

m the au

Bios Henry dh or Stenotypography. From the publisher.

_ Recent Books and Pamphlets. 37

Dame, L. L., gnd Collins, F. S.—Flora of Middlesex County, Mass. From

the author

Dickerson, Edward N.—The Telephone Appeals.

Du Bois, A. J.—Science and the Spiritual. Reprint from the New Eng-

lander and Yale pW heas for May, 1887. From the author

Dugès, A.—Erpetologia del Valle de Mexico. From the aa

Dulles, Charles W.—Report on Hydrophobia. Reprintfrom Transactions of

Medical Society of the State of Pennsylvania, 1888. From the author.

Emmons, Samuel F.—Atlas to Accompany a Monograph on the Geology

and Mining Industry of Colorado. From the U. S. Geological Survey.

Everman, Barton W., and Jenkins, Oliver P.—Notes on gee te mat

Proceedings of U. S. National Museum, 1888. From the au

F cod Max.—Untersuchungen zur Morphologie und Bus der

gel. I. Spezieller Theil. II. Algemeiner Theil.

Mss Samuel.—The Rattle of the Rattlesnake. Ext. from the Bulletin

x —— Museum of Comparative Zoology. Vol. XIIL, No. 10. From

the aut

Gaudry, Albert M.—Sur les Dimensions Gigantesque de quelques Mammi-

fères fossiles. Extrait des Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie

des ende t. CVIII., 1888. From the author.

ME C. K.—Statistics ‘of the seen RM Society of Washington,

om its Foundation. From the author

nor Asa.—Synoptical Flora E North eant The Gamopetale. From

the Smithsonian Institutio

hes ei ci sai of "o Challenger Expedition, Vol. XXII., Zoology.

From the author

Hampden, John. re to Professor Huxley. Letter to Canon Driver,

1886. Letter to the Presidents s Lien Philosophical, or Christian

Institutions. From the publis

Herrick, C. L.—Bulletin of the Sentit Laboratories of Denison Univer-

sity, Vol. III. From thea

Higley, W. K.—Reptilia and sand of Wisconsin. Reprint from Trans-

actions of Wis. Acad. of Sciences, Arts, and Letters. Vol. VII. From

the au joe

Hutton, F. —Notes on the Mueller Glacier, New Zealand. From Vol.

III. Bi Series) of the Proceedings of the oe Society of New South

Wales. May 31, 1888.) From the autho

Hill, Robert T.—Notes on Geology of ANO Tisak. ee from Texas

Geological and Scientific Bulletin. From the author

James, U. P., and James, Joseph F.—On the Multiculiporoid Corals of the

Cincinnati y ani with a Critical ga of the Species. Reprint from

the Journal of the Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan., 1888. From the author.

Jordan, David Starr.—A Brief mie of the Darwinian Theory of the

Origin of Species. From the a

— ajeg SE O of the Director of the Mint for 1887.

ea

Macloskie, Prof.—Scientific Speculation. Reprint from the Presbyterian

Re 18 From the author

Mosley, E. L.—Lists of the Mammals, Birds, Birds' Eggs, and Desiderata of

MichiganzZBirds, of the Kent Scientific Institute. From the author.

38 Recent Books and Pamphlets.

Newton, Alfred.—Early Days of Darwinism. Reprint from Macmillan’s

Magazine, 1888. From the author

Prosser, Charles S.—The Section of the Morrisville Well. The Upper Ham-

ilton of Chenango and Otsego Counties, New York. Reprint from Pro-

Goo dipgic of ke ak A. A. S., Vol. XXXIV.

— of the Pennsylvania State Kp for the Year 1887. Part II. Re-

on the Condition of Tropical a emi-Tropical Fruits in = United

goatee i in 1887. Bulletin No. 1. From Department of Agricu

Riley, C. V.—On the Luminous Larviform Females in the Phengotin Re-

print from Report of British Ass., 1887. From the author

Scott, W. B., and Osborn, Henry F.—Preliminary Report on the Verte-

brate Fossils of the Uinta Formation, collected by the Princeton Ex. of

1886. Read before the Philosophical Society, Sept. 2, 1887. From the

authors.

Scribner, F. Lamson.—Report on the Experiments Made in 1887 in the

Treatment of the Downy Mildew and the Blackrot of the Grape-Vine.

From the oe of Agriculture.

Sedgwick, W. T., and Bartlett, S. R.—A Biological Examination of the

biu Supply of Newton, Mass. Readbefore the Society of Arts, Jan.

12, 1

sene Ron R. W.—Observations upon the Morphology of Gallus bankiva of

. Reprint from the Journal of Min eet Medieine and Surgery,

and Physiology, Vol.

Taylor, Edgar W.—Geology in our Public Schools. Reprint from American

Geologist. From the author.

Thomas, Charles Hermon. ai Tenotomy i in the Treatment of In-

sufficiencies of the Ocular Muscles. Reprint from Transactions of the

Philadelphia peas Medical Poen March, 1888. From the author.

áp Charles B. pev L and its Critics. —Miracle, irt and Evolu-

Reprints from Transactions of the New York Academy of Sci-

betel Vol. VIL, No. 7. From the author

Whiteaves, J. F.—On some Fossils from the Hamilton 1 oun of Onta-

rio, with a list of the species at present known fro at formation and

Province. Reprint from Canada Geol. Survey. From the author.

Winchell, Alexander.—Some Effect of Pressure of a Continental Glacier.

Reprint from the American Geologist, March, 1888. From the author.

Winchell, Alexander.—The Taconic Question. Reprint from the Am.

Geol., June, 1888. From the author

TE énan Aani Donnelly’s Comet. Reprint from the Fo-

; m, Sept., 1887.

Pade, A. Smith.—Note on the Occurrence of a Species of Onychodus

in the Lower Old Red Sandstone Passage Beds of Ledbury, ee

i i rac

Yorkshire Pucci ies draco Annual Report for 1887.

Geography and Travels. 39

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

Asta.—According to a letter in a recent number of the Revista

de Geografia Comercial, the population of the Philippine Islands

is very unequally distributed, since while there are sections which,

without being the mst fertile, contain 223 inhabitants to the

square kilometre, other sections, and these among tlie most fertile.

have only three or four inhabitants to the same area. According to

the same periodieal, the sanitary conditions of the port of Paraqua

Island (Pwerto-Princesa) have become much more favorable since

the forest, which forme:ly extended to the coast, has been cut down

for a width of six kilometres, and the cleared space has been occu-

been greatly neglected by its owners. Its population does not ex-

ceed 28,000—viz. : .

. the 5., about 6000 Tachanuas, 500 negritos, 1500 tandalanos, and

4000 manguianes.

Easter Istanp.—The Revista de Geografia Comercial (Nov. 15,

1888) states that the Republic of Chili has resolved to annex Easter

Island, which was discovered by Juan Fernandez, and which in 1470

was formally taken possession of in the name of King Charles IIT., of

Spain. Easter Island is of triangular form ; 35 kioii in cir-

cuit, and its highest point in the extreme northwest is 597 metres

above the sea. It is emphatically a land of extinct volcanoes ; one

of these is placed at each angle ; Kau on the south, Horni on the

north, and Utuiti on the east. There are many other smaller vol-

canoes. The volcano Kau has an elevation of 408 m. and its crater,

which is 200 m. deep and 1500 m. in diameter at the bottom, is re-

markable for the regularity of its shape. In the bottom of this

crater there are springs of potable water and fine plantations of

sugar-canes and plantains.

1 Edited by W, N. Lockington, Philadelphia, Pa.

40 ; General Notes.

The inhabitants are probably not more than 200 innumber. The

average height of the men is 1.57 m., that of the women, 1.50.

aster Island is celebrated for its gigantic statues which the

natives call moai, and also contains ruins of houses, vast platforms,

and cemeteries. The statues represent the upper part of the body as

far as the hips, with the arms united to the sides, the hands em-

bracing the hips, and the face with a disdainful expression. They

are carved from a compact gray lava which abounds in the crater of

Utuiti, but haye crowns of red lava of conical shape and about

three feet in height. Most of these statues are from fifteen to nine-

teen feet in height, but some are much larger, notably two which

are stretched upon the ground near Utuiti. In one of these the

body alone is 12 m. high, and the nose 3.40 m. The interior of

the crater of Ronororaka contains forty of these statues. all with the

face turned towards the north ; and the summit of this mountain

seems a great workshop of unfinished statues. One of the plat-

forms, on the south coast, is .9 m. high, and 100 m. long, is enclosed

with a wall, and contains numerous overthrown statues as well as

some low columns which apparently served as altars. The cemeteries

(Papakoo) are double platforms, the upper one containing sepul-

chral chambers. Wooden slabs with hieroglyphics exist upon the

island, but no one can decipher them, so that the origin of the huge

ruins is unknown. ‘There is, however, great similarity between the

statues and the sculptures of the Aymaras of Peru.

Japan.—According to the first official stat stics published by the

Japanese Government, the empire contains 381,845 square kilometres,

and has a population of 38,151,271. The number of men greatly

exceeds that of the women, and divorces are so numerous that they

amount annually to 3 in every 1000 inhabitants The mortality is

low compared with that of most European countries, since it is only

19 per 1000. Japan has 721 towns with more than 2000 inhabi-

tants, and five of more than 100,000—viz.: Tokio, 912,837; Osaka,

353,970; Kioto, 235,403; Nogoya, 126.898; and Kanakasa, 104,020.

The production of tea each year is about 23,000,000 of kilograms and

. that of silk 3,000,000 of kilograms. The amount of rice, wheat,

barley, sugar-cane, and other agricultural products, is such‘as to

prove that either the soil is superior to that of Europe, or that it 1s

better cultivated. The very considerable extent of forest that still

remains may perhaps partially explain the fertility. Two hundr

and fifty six telegraphic and 92 telephonic offices exist in the empire.

A carpenter earns about 35 cents a day, a stone-mason about

cents,

ERICA. OASSIQUIARE.—The Revista de Geografia Comercial

dissects sarcastically the discoveries of M. Chauffanjon in the region

of the Upper Orinoco. If the Revista is correct, and it certainly

fortifies its assertions with names and dates, M. Chauffanjon's achieve-

ments are similar to those of the immortal Captain Glazier. The

Geography and Travels. 41

Revista states that in 1743, the Jesuit P. Roman passed along

the Cassiquiare from the Orinoco to the Rio N egro; that Diaz de la

Fuente and Bobadilla followed the Orinoco nearly to its source and

gitu

point of origin of the vers and calculated its altitude at 337

Spanish yards above sea-level; and that the mountains which

M. Chauffanjon has rebaptized bai the title of Parima, though in

different portions of their extent they are called Ta apiraperú, Patüi-

biri, Arihuana, Maritani, Humirida, Pacaraima, etc.

GEOGRAPHICAL News.—The principal articles of export from

Spain, besides wine, are iron, copper, lead, cork, and oranges. The

values of these articles during the first four months of 1888 were,

according to the Revista de Geografia Comercial, respectively

$2,166,000, $2,921,000, $1, 626,000, $3, 363,000, $1, 351,000, and

$1, ,783, 000. The value of wine exported during the same four

months was $20,466,800.

A project to run a line of steamers between Vigo and New York

has been set on foot by the Spanish Chamber of Commerce at the

latter place. Vigo is only 60 miles further from New York than

Queenstown, and is 231 miles nearer than Havre. it vete lati-

tude, independent route, and comparative freedom from fog and

wind, will more than compensate for the slightly spir distance.

The Manchester ship canal, now in course of construction, will be

35 miles long, the width varying from 170 to 260 feet at the top,

a width at the bottom in no case less than 130 feet, and a minimum

depth of 25 feet. The contract is let for £5,750,000, but the com-

pany has a subscribed capital of £8,000,000. The opening of this

canal will practically make Manchester a seaport. As the city with

its suburbs contains 850,000 souls and will be geographically the

nearest port for 7,000, 000 of people, the construction of this canal

cannot but be injurious to Liverpool.

The province of Santandar, Spain, contains in operation 360 zinc

mines, 312 iron mines, 30 lead, 19 copper. and 17 coal mines. Less

than a fourth part of its area is cultivated, and rather more than a

fourth is in pasture.

The population of Aue" according to the census of Dec. 31,

1887, amounted to 5,974,000.

42 . General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALZEONTOLOGY.

FisH OTOLITHS or THE SOUTHERN OLD-TERTIARY.—In a re-

cent article! Dr. E. Koken in Berlin describes the fish otoliths

collected by Dr. Otto Meyer in the Old-Tertiary of Mississippi and

Alabama. The locality * Jackson River" of Mr. Koken ought to

be “Jackson, Miss.," and the locality ** Newton, Miss.," cannot be

considered as belonging to the Vicksburg beds. Ohanged accord-

ingly, Mr. Koken's table of species is given below.

c g d P

sd | $8 | 54 | 38

14 Sm 32 | 2

o >

Otolithus (Carangidarum) americanus...... + T

onidarum) hospes .......... >

E (Pagelli) elegantulus ............. T

z (Sparidarum) insuetus............ +

T (Scizenidarum) radians ........... 7

M émmb .. vr. +

" d eporrectus ........ 4c and

se xe claybornensis ..... + + |Bluff, Miss

e " intermedius.......| +

g E PUTIN es Gs cn esa T

T i decipiens.......... +

" (Trachini) levigatus ............. RA

ka (Cottidarum) sulcatus............ 4-

gy (Ergil) eor i eol ors sra PS +

= (Leno C0me8. ods ss eat ttr +

Ey (Mugilidarum) debilis ............ +

- (Gadidarum) meyer eai es +

s elevatus. ....2.5..... bs

T e mucronatus ........ +

e Fiatenu) sector, i. ioe nonce nies = + +

" (Soles) glaber /............-eee T.

= (Congeris) brevior..............-- pm

" incert. sedis) aff. umbonato...... =

We see that Mr. Koken has succeeded in determining the genera

or families of all fishes which are di deni eda by these ear-bones,

with the single exception of one worn specimen from Newton. The

enumerated families and genera indicate a strictly litoral fauna, no

abyssal form is among them. It is different in its character e

the fish fauna of the German Tertiary, which has been studied

! « Neue Untersuchungen an tertiaeren Fische oH Mur ger

d. deutsch, geolog. Gesellsch., 1888, p. 274, 3 plates. :

REM Eoi. ERAT C ipa PA ag hs

- Geology and Paleontology. ` 43

by Mr. Koken from the otoliths, but resembles in general the

present fauna of the Gulf of Mexico, of the West Indies, and the

Southern coasts of the United States. The dissimilarity of the fish

faunas on both sides of the Atlantic existed. therefore, already during

the earlier Tertiary. We are indebted to Mr. Koken for having de-

veloped an entirely neglected subject, the study and determination

of fossil fish otoliths, to such-an extent that important conclusions

can be derived.—0O. Meyer.

CATALOGUE OF FOSSIL REPTILIA AND BATRACHIA OF THE BRITISH

Museum Pt. I., by Dr. Lydekker. In this volume we have what

has been long needed, a synopsis of the fine collection of Brit-

ish and such other European extinct reptiles of the orders Ornitho-

sauria (Crocodilia), Dinosauria, Squamata. and Rhynchocephalia,

which is embraced in the national museum of Great Britam. Ths

Synopsis is, like its predecessors, systematically arranged. and the

text is enlightened wiih comments on the structural relations of the

forms embraced in it. Many of the forms, especially of Dinosauria,

described by English authors, have been hitherto in a state of ob-

scurity to foreign observation, and a great deal is done in the

present volume towards clearing this away. Especially valuable are

the diagnoses of families and genera of the Crocodilia, in which the

mesozoic formations of Europe are so productive. While we accord

generally with the systematic views expressed by Dr. Lydekker, we

must point out a few points of divergence. We cannot perceive the

raison d'etre of an order Proterosauria. which the author, indeed,

seems to regard as provisional. We do not believe that the Opistho-

cela (Sauropoda) is distinguishable as an order from the Crocodilia.

In nomenclature, we find the two divisions of the true Dinosauria

to accord exactly with our own, and not with those of Professor

Marsh, yet the names of the latter author are adopted. As

usual, we find some generic names adopted, which were never

characterized, as Trachodon instead of Hadrosaurus. Finally,

stanc

In concluding this review, we must record our appreciation of the

author's method of clear definitions for all divisions he proposes and

adopts, a custom which is the necessary basis of all good taxonomie

work.—E. D. Cope.

GEOLOGICAL Nxws.—GENERAL.—M. M. Bertrand (Bull. d. l.

Soc. Geol. de France, No. 7, 1888) endeavors to reconcile the oppo-

44 Geology and Paleontology.

site views of French and German geologists relative to the relations

between the structure and age of eruptive rocks. While Frenc

geologists have, by long study of the eruptive rocks of France, come

to the conclusion that their structure shows indubitable traces of the

youth, maturity, and old age of the earth, the German school has

from its studies concluded that there is no relation between the -

structure of eruptive rocks and their age, but that all varieties may

have been produced at any time in the world’s history. Mr. Ber-

trand believes that the fact that. in the Tertiary period, a series of

ancient textures reappeared in consequence of the long period of re-

pose that preceded that period, may be brought in to reconcile the

two beliefs. lf there was one such recurrence, others, greater or

less, may have occurred from similar causes. Still, M. Bertrand

believes that there are variations between these recurrences, and

sets himself the task of explaining them.

** All the eruptions of the same period (in Europe) are grouped

around their corresponding chain, the most ancient around the

Caledonian or in the more northern regions; those of the Permian _

and Carboniferous around the Hercynian chain, those of the Terti- -

ary round the Alps. If the entire globe is studied, at every age

rocks of all compositions and structures will be found, which bears —

out the idea of the German school; but if the same zone is studi , Ep

details of structure in relation with the age of the rocks can be found." —

M. Bertrand considers the continent of Europe to be formed of

four zones. each of which exhibits its series of folds. ‘These zones -

are: (1) the Huronian, which hasits principal European extension -

in Russia, Finland, and Sweden ; (2) the Caledonian, which oc ^

cupies Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and Norway. thus introducing itself .

wedge-like into the sinuous outline of the Huronian ; (3) the Her- |

cynian or Carboniferous, the northern edge of which, in both

Europe and America, is marked by a line of coal measures ; (4)

the Alpine, comprehending the Pyrenees. Alps, Carpathians, and —

Balkans. By a curve in its outline the Hercynian mass takes m |

the Asturias and the central plateau of Spain. Mr. Bertrand gives —

diagrams of the distribution of the zones in Europe, of their folds, —

and of the masses of eruptive rocks connected with them, and enters —

into details regarding the separate masses. E

Parn;Eozorc.—Charles Barrois notes the presence in the Pyrenees |

of a species of Oldhamia found in the paleozoic schists in the de"

rtment of Haute-Garonne. 'Thenew species is named O. hove —

acquet. The presence of this species, distinct from O. antiquus, dis- —

covered by Oldham in Ireland in 1844, proves the existence of the —

Cambrian age in the Pyrenees. 1

M. D. P. Oehlert describes some Devonian Acephala (Aviculide) i

found in the Devonian strata of France. Three new forms of ;

Pterinea, five of Avicula, one of Palxoneilo, and two of Modio- -

morpha are added to those previously known. 2

General Notes. 45

Mzsozorc.—M. Deperet (Bull. Soc. Geol. France, No. 7, 1888)

treats of a brackish-water horizon in the Huronian ; and describesa

new species of Cassiope, one of Cerithium, and one of Corbula from

it. The horizon occurs at La Mede and Callauch, near Marseilles.

M. H. E. Sauvage (Bull. Soc. Geol. France, No. 7, 1888) de-

scribes the reptiles of the Upper Portland series of Boulogne-sur-

er. These include Megalosaurus insignis, Iguanodon prestwichit

Caulodon precursor, a Dinosaurian not yet named ; three cheloni-

ans, two crocodilians (Machimosaurus interruptus and Goniopholis

undidens), an Ichthyosaurus near to J. thyreospondylus, and two

Plesiosauri.

Cretaceous region of the southwest of France presents

(Bull. Soc. Geol. de France) characters strongly contrasting with

those of the Jura, Pyrenees. and Brittany. The beds offer both

vertical and horizontal continuity, the country not having experi-

enced the disturbances of other Cretaceous basins. ‘There is a con-

siderable hiatus between the Jurassic and the Cretaceous of the

southwest of France. The Wealden, Neocomian, Urgonian,

Aptian, and Gault are absent, the Cretaceous sea did not invade this

region until the Cenomanian period. The Turonian and Danian

are present.

Louis Dollo (Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, July-Aug., 1888) states

that Pachyrhynchus Dollo, Erquelinnesia Dollo, and Glossochelys

Seeley, are equal to Huclastes Cope.

.TERTIARY.—M. Gosselet (Ann. Soc. Geol. du Nord, July, 1888)

disputes some of the conclusions of Prof. Prestwich regarding the

correlation of certain Eocene beds of England with those of Belgium

and the north of France, and proposes a table in place of that

drawn up by Prof. Prestwich. M. Gosselet believes, contrary to

the opinion of Prof. Prestwich, that the London clay is represented

in the basin of Paris.

46 General Notes.

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.

PETROGRAPHICAL Nerws.—In a recent number of 7'schermak’s

Mittheilungen? Mr. Hyland gives a most interesting and detailed

account of the lavas of Kilimandjaro, a voleano in eastern Mr

rial Africa, and of the rocks in its vicinity. Pegmatite, gneiss, a

phibolite, basalt-obsidian. limburgite, nepheline- and feldspatol

basa'ts, tephrite, basanite, tufas, and other fragmental rocks are

described. The basalt-obsidian was taken for andesite glass by Bon-

ney,? whereas it!really contains no augite—the mineral regarded

as augite by Bonney being olivine. Among the limburgites three

types are recognized. In one porphyritic olivine predominates over

augite ; in a second the olivine is subordinate to augite and horn-

blende ; in the third hornblende is absent and augite is more

abundant than olivine. The first and second kinds are closely allied

to the feldspathie basalts, and the third to the nepheline-basalt. The

olivine in these rocks contains a large number of inclusions of mag-

netite, augite, and spinel. It iszonally developed and is frequently

surrounded by a rim of augite needles. The feldspathic basalts em-

brace hornblendie varieties, in which the hornblende is corroded

and surrounded by an opacitic rim, compos d of augite, magnetite,

and olivine, and porphyritic varieties in which the large prophyri-

tic crystals are anorthite. The nepheline-basanites are especially

interesting because of the occurrence in them of anorthoclase so well

developed that Hyland was enabled to determine its optical proper-

ties with great accuracy. This mineral is undoubtedly triclinic.

Its extinction on the basal plane varies between 0° and 34°, and on

the orthopinacoid between 5° and 6°. Its specific gravity is 2.63.

Freed from impurities and analyzed it yielded :

SiO, A1,0, CaO K,O Na,O H,O

1.3 23.1 9.02 5.34 7.11

A leucite basanite contains almost ideally developed leucite crys-

tals—the first discovered in Africa.' e other rocks described in

the paper present no features of stain interest.—An important

contribution to the study of the younger nepheline rocks has re-

cently been made by Stock,* of the University of Leipzig, who has

thoroughly investigated the material composing the basalt hills

near Lóbau, Saxony. This material comprises nepheline- an

! Edited by Dr. W. S. peyer Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., x., p. 203

? Report Brit. Ass., 1 T 682.

1 Cf. Amer. Naturalist, Nov., 1888, p. 1024.

5 Min. u. Petrog. Mitth., ix., p. 429.

Mineralogy and Petrography. 47

plagiocla:e-basalt, and nepheline-dolerite. The latter rock has

been classed by Rosenbusch! among the nephelinites because of the

supposed non-existence of olivine in it. The nepheline rocks have

been erupted since the beginning of Tertiary time and are older than

the plagioclase-basalt, which occurs in them in the form of dykes.

The normal constituents of the nepheline rocks are augite, olivine,

nepheline, apatite, biotite, and magnetite. The dolerite contains

these as idiomorphie crystals in a groundmass compo-ed of micro-

lites of the same minerals and plagioclase in a devitrified base. In

finer grained variety the nepheline occurs principally as the

interstitial substance between the other constituents. In both

varieties this mineral possesses a tendency to pass into natrolite,

phillipsite, and stilbite. The olivine is often so filled with magnetite

that its true nature can be distinguished only with great difficulty.

Twins of this mineral parallel to P% are not rare. Apatite is

abundant, and frequently contains inclusions of the groundmass.

Rubellan was discovered in a large number of sections, and hyalite

and aragonite were found filling druse cavities. Both varieties of

the nepheline rock are regarded as portions of the same magma.

The dolerite is over the basalt, and is supposed to have cooled first.

Inclusions of it are common in the underlying rock. Foreign in-

clusions, found also in this rock, consist of augite and sanidine, of

which the former is usually on the exterior. Other common con-

stituents of these inclusions are hematite, green spinel, and orange- -

colored rutile. The plagioclase-basalt contains quartz inclusions

surrounded by rims of augite crystals.—Prof. Judd? calls attention

to the fact that petrographical classification is based on the qualita-

tive and not the quantitative determination of the constituents of

rock masses. He shows that rocks composed of the same minerals

MINERALOGICAL News —Note.—In the mineralogical notes for

the current year the crystallographic axes will always be repre-

* Mikroskopische Physiographie, ii., 1887, p. 791.

* Geol. Magazine, Jan., 1888, p. 1. : ud

48 . General Notes.

sented by theitalicized small letters, a, b, c, and the axes of elasticity

by the italicized capitals A, B, C, the latter indicating respectively

the axes of greatest, mean, and least elasticity.— New Minerals.—

Sulphohalite is a transparent, pale greenish-yellow mineral, crystal-

lizing in the form of a dodecahedron, that was obtained from a drill-

hole at the depth of thirty-five feet below the surface of the alka-

line deposit at Borax Lake, California. It was associated with

hanksite, and only one specimen was secured. The only two other

specimens known to exist are in the collection of Mr. Bement, of

Philadelphia. The mineral has been examined by Messrs. Hidden

and Mackintosh.! Its specific gravity is 2.489, and its hardness 3.5.

Its composition is represented by Na, (i SO,. 4 Cl,) or 3 Na,

SO, +2 Na Cl, a formula analogous to that of the rare mineral con-

nellite, which is thought to be a copper sulphato-chloride.— Auerlite

is a new thorium mineral from the zircon mines in Henderson

County, N. ©. It is described by Messrs. Hidden and Mackintosh °

as occurring in disintegrated granite and gneissic rocks, intimately

associated with zircon, and frequently implanted upon this mineral

in parallel position. The color of the new mineral on a fresh frac-

ture varies between a lemon-yellow and a brownish-red. Its weath-

ered exterior is of a dull yellowish-white. It has a waxy lustre, 1s

subtranslucent to opaque, and is very brittle. Its hardness is 2.5-3,

and its specific gravity 4.422—4.766. In crystallization it is tetrag-

onal with the simple P and co P faces. Its composition corresponding

to ThO, 1;255,! H,O is:

H,0.C0, SiO, P.O, ThO, Fe,0, CaO MgO ALO,

11291 7.64 746 70.18 1.38 .49 29 1.10

Auerlite thus appears to be a thorite in which part of the SiO, has

been replaced by P,O,—the first recorded replacement of this kind

in mineralogical literature.—T' wo new sulphantimonites are reported

by Mr. Eakins? from Colorado. The first was found at the

Domingo mine, Gunnison County, in aggregates of small acicular

dull grayish-black crystals in the cavities of a gangue composed

of siliceous material and calcite. Its analysis yielded :

Ag Cu Pb Fe Mn Sb S Gangue

tr. tr. 39.33 1.77 tr. 86.34 21.19 .02

corresponding to (Pb Fe), Sb, S,. The second is also found in

little groups of crystals, of a bright steely-gray color. The indi-

vidual crystals are larger than those of the first mineral, and occur

together with D ge and sphalerite in a siliceous gangue. Their

composition is Pb, Sb, S,,, resembling freieslebenite in which the

silver has been replaced by lead. Analysis gave :

! Am. Jour. Sci., Dec., 1888, p. 463.

? Ib., p. 461.

* Ib., p. 450.

Mineralogy and Petrography. 49

Ag Pb Fe Sb S (calculated.,

tr. 55.52 tr. 25.99 18.98

General.—Scacchi' has published a complete catalogue of the

minerals occurring at Mount Vesuvius. He divides them into (1)

crystallized minerals occurring in pieces of foreign rock cast up during

the eruptions of Monte Somma and the earlier eruptions of Vesuvius;

(2) those forming lava bombs ; (3) those occurring in the Monte Som-

ma conglomerate, as a result of contact action ; (4) those produced in

the fumaroles by sublimation ; (5) those formed in the lava during

its cooling ; and (6) those present on the walls of the amygdaloidal

cavities in the lava. One hundred and twenty five mineral species

are briefly described, and the name of the writer first mentioning

em is given. The catalogue will prove of great convenience to

collectors in the region and to those in charge of collections embrac-

ing many Vesuvian specimens,—Brezina ? would add ¢el/urite to the

group comprising the oxides claudetite and valentinite. Crystals

obtained from a porous sandstone at Facebaja were measured and

predominant faces are œ Px, o» Pg, wPy, o P and P, and the

plane of the optical axes is oo Pa .—In the limestone near Bagnères

de Bigorre, France, are little crystals of black albite, which, accord-

ing to Lacroix,? have the following composition :

‘SiO Al,O Na,O CaO Ign Specific gravi

67.04 — 20.45 10.57 65 130 pr v det

—Limur* describes a stawrolite crystal from Moustoir-Ac, Morbi-

han, France, which i

_ NEW Books.—RurLEY’s * Rock-ForMInG MINERALS.” 5—This

little volume constitutes an excellent book for beginners in the

study of microscopical geology. It includes an introduction to the

methods made use of in the investigation of the optical and other

physical properties of minerals, discusses the thevry of polarized

light, explains what is meant b * optical axes," ‘‘ bisectrices,”

double refraction, etc., describes the polarizing microscope and other

instruments used in the examination of minerals, and gives the

principal characteristics of those minerals which enter into the com-

osition of rocks. The explanations of the phenomena presented

y sections of minerals when observed in polarized light, are given

* Neues Jahrb. f. Mi ii ,

i REN cup f. -yer n ii, p. 123. ;

: Bull. Soc. Franc. de Min., xi., p. 64. +

Ib., xi., p. 61.

* Rock-Forming Minerals. By Frank Rutley. With 126 ills,"and 252 pp

Thos. Murby, 3 Ludgate Circus;Buildings, London, 1888.

50 General Notes.

with great clearness, with the aid of good figures, most of which are

new. ‘The second part, which deals with the properties of the indi-

vidual minerals, is not as full as is Mr. Idding’s translation of Rosen-

busch’s manual, but is entirely sufficient for all the purposes of

students. Although a most excellent text-book for colleges, Mr.

Rutley’s work is hardly full enough in its special part for those who

desire to make a specialty of petrography as an important aid in

geological work. For those who wish merely to become acquainted

with the methods of the science, there is no better book in any

language.

* Das MINERALREICH," ! the fifth volume of Lenze's Natural His-

tory Series, has been revised and brought up todate. In its present

shape it isa handy little volume of five hundred and forty-four pages.

It treats of the universal and special properties of minerals in a

manner adapted to the wants of general readers and others, who are

desirous of becoming acquainted with these substances. but who are

unwilling to enter into their technical study. In the special part a

large amount of space is devoted to those properties of the various

minerals which make them suitable for economic use. As a conse-

quence this prao of the book is much more interesting than the

corresponding part in most text-books. In general style ‘‘ Das

Mineralreich ” reminds one of Quenstedt’s Mineralogie.

Crospy’s ‘TABLES FOR THE DETERMINATION? OF COMMON

MINERALS,” has a great advantage over all other similar tables in com-

mon use, in that it deals only with those minerals with which the

student is likely to meet in his every-day work. The determinative

methods are based upon the physical properties rather than upon

the blowpipe characteristics of the individual species. The tabula-

tion is carefully done, and the little book will surely be welcome in

those schools which are not provided with complete sets of blowpipe

apparatus.

1 Das Mineralreich. Bearbeitet von Dr. Otto Wünsche. V. Auf. Gotha,

Thieanmanns Hofbuchhandlung, 1887. 544 pp., 16 Taf.

? Second Edition. By W. O. Crosby. Boston, 1888.

Botany. 51

BOTANY.!

* FoRTUITOUS VARIATIONS IN EuPATORIUM " is the title of a

paper recently read by Lester F. Ward before the Biological So-

ciety of Washington. This was an interesting and wire talk

without being a set paper. and led to many remar

bers present. Several definitions of life have been given, but

Prof. Ward considered the best to be ‘‘a general tendency on

A part of living matter to multiply itself, to increase its quan-

tity.” This increase may take place in all directions, and often

does take place in more than one. If it is not in all directions it i

because of obstacles in the way, and the real increase is in the di-

rection of least resistance. Many variations are noticeable in both

plant and animal world, that are apparently of no special advan-

tage to the organism. ese chance or fortuitous variations can

m-

did not believe all variations were of use to plan The bird

tendency to vary in every direction is often rt comet by a de-

termined progress in one direction, and this is generally useful. The

specimens of Eupatorium were so arranged as to show the variations

in the leaves, these being more prominent than in the flowers. The

leaves varied from finely dissected to linear, then to lanceolate and

ovate. One hybrid with intermediate leaves was shown. There

- about four hundred species in the genus, most of them South

American, one Australian, and about thirty North American. The

fact of great variation in the plants was undoubted. The fact of

these being all beneficial is not proved. How a sharp or an obtuse

point, a serrate or a crenate margin to a leaf would be of any ben-

efit to a plant in any situation he could not see. Therefore it

seemed to him that many of these variations diu be considered

fortuitous or chance variations due to the general tendency of all

life to increase in all directions and so adding to the total quantity

of life in the world.

r. Merriam rather dissented from the views of Prof. Ward, he

believing the variations to be generally of some slight advantage,

! Edited by Charles E. Bessey, Lincoln, Neb,

52 General Notes.

though to us it may be inappreciable. Dr. Goode mentioned anal-

ogous variation in fishes, especially in the number of scales, the

real usefulness of a greater or less number of these being unknown.

Some families (as the Cyprinidaw) are remarkable for these varia-

tions, while others (e.g. Perches) are noted for few or no variations,

the species being very distinct in all their characters. Prof. Riley

fully agreed with Prof. Ward. His studies of insects showed the

existence of many variations which were undoubtedly useful, but

at the same time many others the purpose of which was not in the

least apparent.—Jos. F. James.

AsTER SHORTII.—Mr. E. S. Burgess has noted the occurrence of

Aster shortii in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., a plant which

had not been previously recorded. Prof. Ward in this connection

mentioned he had found a species of Lemna new to the flora, and Dr.

Vasey said he had found a species of Festuca not before known from

the locality.—Jos. F. James.

* CAUSES OF CONFIGURATION OF TREES.”—Prof. Fernow, Chief

of Division of Forestry, read a paper upon this subject. He ex-

THE NEED or MAKING MEASUREMENTS IN MICROSCOPICAL WORK.

—It is greatly to be desired that all workers with the microscope

should make much more general use of the micrometer than is now

the custom, particularly in botany. It is still a common thing to

find descriptions of tissues accompanied by plates or figures with

little to guide the reader as to the absolute size of the objects. In

this the fathers sinned more than we. but we are by no means sIn-

less, as may be seen by taking up almost any descriptive paper on

botany. Cells, cell masses, filaments, hyphz. spores of all kinds,

pollen cells, etc., etc., should all be subjected to careful measure-

ment. We may say that so many measurements are needless, but

so the older botanists thought, greatly to our present discomfort.

n our botanieal laboratories the student should be not only

taught to make measurements of everything he studies, but the

making of such measurements should be a part of the study of the

object. No laboratory microscope should be used which does not

have as one of its accessories always at hand an efficient micrometer.

Such a micrometer need not cost much. A simple disk of ruled

glass dropped upon the diaphragm of the eye-piece will answer

Botany. 53

every purpose in ordinary work. Or it may be a slip of glass which

may be pushed through a slot in the eye-piece. Neither one ought

to cost more than from one to two dollars, and ought to be afforded

for every microscope in use in the laboratory.—Charles E. Bessey.

THE Questions or NomENCLATURE.—For some months a lively

discussion has been going on in this country and England upon a

few questions as to the proper interpretation of the laws relating to

botanical nomenclature, the discussion in some cases broadening out

so as to take in the inquiry as to the validity of certain laws, and

the expediency of enacting new ones. ‘‘Shall we rigidly enforce

the law of priority ?" is the question which is causing the greatest

disquiet just now. On the one hand we have those who urge its

rigid enforcement, while on the other are those who say with Prof.

Babington, **I think that we are going too far in enforcing the

rule of priority in nomenclature as it is now attempted." (Jour.

Bot., Dec., 1888.)

Then there is the question as to the citation of the authority in

case of a removal of a species from one genus to another. Shall we

cite Linnzus still in case we remove one of his species into a genus

which he may not even have known? If we do, we make him (say

those of one party) say what he never said, while to cite as the au-

thority the name of the author of the combination makes us lose

sight of Linnzus as the originator of the specific name and the de-

scriber of the species. Upon this we merely inquire now whether

we are to consider primarily the men who have worked in systemat-

ic botany. or the men who are working now and who will work

after we are gone. Is all this matter of the citation of authorities

for the purpose of ‘‘ doing justice” to men, or for conducing to

scientific accuracy? Do botanists think more of the “ glory ” of the

individual, or the advancement of the science? We shall return to

this erelong.—Charles E. Bessey.

Botany IN Sr. Lovurs.—The recent reception of a volume of the

Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis (Vol. V., Nos. 1

and 2) reminds us of the work in botany which is being done in

this Western city. Of the thirteen papers published. five are botani-

d

liam Trelease: On the Pollination ‘of Phlomis tuberosa L. and

the Perforation of Flowers, by L. H. Pammel; Measurements of

the Trimorphic Flowers of Ozalis suksdorfii, by W. G. Eliott. Jr.;

Observations suggested by the preceding paper, by William Trelease.

„tn the first-mentioned paper twenty-one species of Linum are

recognized as natives of North America. They are grouped under

three tribes, viz.: (1) Eulinum, which includes D. lewisii Pursh

= L. perenne Auct). (2) Linastrum, including L floridanum

Trelease (L. virginianum, var. Floridanum Planch). L. virginianum

L., L. striatum, Walt. , L. neo-mexicanum Greene, L. kingii Watson,

54 General Notes.

L. sulcatum Riddeli, L. rupestre Engelm., L. aristatum En-

gelm., L. rigidum Pursh, and var. puberulum Engelm., L. berlan-

dieri Hook., L. multicaule Hook. (3) Hesperolinon, including L.

digynum Gray, L. drymarioides Curran, L. adenophyllum Gray, L.

breweri Gray, L. clevelandi Greene, L. micranthum Gray, L. sper-

gulinum Gray, L. californicum Benth., and var L. confertum Gray,

L. congestum Gray. Two good plates illustrate the fruits, petals,

and filaments.

The new Lycoperdon (L. missouriense) is 3 to 4 inches high and

2 to 4 inches in diameter, narrow below and enlarged and rounded

above (7.e., somewhat pear-shaped). Color of interior buff, spores

globose, smooth, ‘yellow 23-32 x in diameter. It grows in sod un-

der trees.

Mr. Pammel's paper is a valuable one, but too long for a synopsis

here, a3 are also the two remaining ones.

ARBOR Day LrrERATURE.— This annual tree planting day, which

has spread from the place of its origin on the Nebraska plains east-

ward to many of the States, has given rise to a number of books, the

latest of which is the neatly bound and printed volume, ** Arbor

Day," by R. W. Furnas. It makes no pretence to profundity, nor

poetry, but gives in sketchy way the history of the tree planting

movement in the West, with appeals for the growth of trees for

beauty and for profit, and includes lists of those most valuable for

various regions, with practical suggestions as to methods. The

book is dedicated to and contains a fine portrait of the ‘‘ author of

Arbor Day." Mr. J. Sterling Morton, of Nebraska. It is a pretty and

pleasant contribution to the literature of a part of botany too often

neglected or ignored by botanists.

ANOTHER SCHOOL Borany.—Verily in botany ‘‘ of making many

books there is no end,” and if one were obliged to study some of

them he might well say with the wise man of old, ** Much study isa

weariness of the flesh.” The last work to claim attention is one

with the ambitious title of ** Botany for Academies and Colleges,

consisting of Plant Development and Structure from Seaweed to Cle-

matis,” by Annie Chambers-Ketchum, and brought out by the house

of J. B. Lippincott Company, of Philadelphia.

The book is a book of definitions. and often not good ones at that.

In the first paragraph we read that * Natural Science treats of all

things in nature. Nature is a synonym for the Universe,” and pa

agraph 5, ‘‘ The plant is the vital link between the mineral and the

animal. Plants feed on minerals and digest them into organic

food.” The style is sometimes rather lively, as, for example, in a

note on zoospores (p. 7), ‘‘ These little creatures are very social;

they dance among themselves, circling merrily, but never jostling ;

no human dancers could be more polite ; then when the heyday of

youth is over, they withdraw their cili: (sic), produce an outer wall,

send out root-like projections, and develop into staid mother

plants” !!

Botany. 55

In her attempt to make matters plain the author uses some odd

terms, as ** Virgin-parentage,” ‘‘ The Man's House," ‘‘' The Woman's

House,” etc.

he second part of the book consists of a manual which is said to

ade ** All the known orders with their representative genera."

In this the Alg» consents the first order, the Fungi the second,

and the Lichens the third!

Without question the book cost the author a great deal of hard

work, and it is a pity that it has been such a waste of energy.—

Charles E. Bessey.

A VALUABLE Book ron THE HERBARIUM.—Indispensable as Ben

- tham and Hooker’s Genera Plantarum is in the herbarium, it is

often a troublesome book to handle on account of its great size.

When one is obliged to search through the three volumes for some

epee genus the time taken is so much lost from work, and the

ar and tear of the book itself from so much use is such as to

dun its early destruction. This is especially the case in those

herbaria where advanced students have free access to the books and

Specimens.

The recently issued Index Generum Phanerogamorum by Th.

Durand, of Brussels, is intended to take the place of the Genera

Plantarum for much of the work in the herbarium. ‘The orders

i genera have the same sequence as in Bentham and nd

. The mode of m may be made out from the follow-

E taken from page 1

Ordo I. RANUNCULACE 4

TRIBUS I, CLEMATIDER.

J. eer ye » JE 3 et ee cn descript. ultra 200, acl. Kunze ad

t. Orbis. tot. reg. temp. et trop.

Sect. T Vitice lla De. ° Viticella Mórch.

Sect. 2, Cheiropsis DC., Atragene L., Epe et Viorna Spach.

Sect. 3. Flammula DC., Meclatic Bpeo

3. Naravelia DC. G. I. 4.—Sp. 2 v. 3, Asia etes

The first column of figures consists of a running enumeration of

the genera which iui throughout the volume, the second col-

umn enumerates the genera of the orders merel

In the prefatory gasei the following table is given, showing

the number of species (estimated) for the Phanerogams

rdines, Genera, Basses

: Polypetale 90 3,050 28,300

Dicotyledones 4 Gamopetalz 46 2,885 37,800 .

Monochlamydez 36 849 12,100

172 6,784 78,200

Monocotyledones 85 1,587 19,600

Gymnospermze 3 46 2,420

Summa 210 8,417 100,220

The book is published in Berlin by the brothers Borntraeger, at

about 20 marks.— Charles E. Bessey.

56 General Notes.

BACTERIOLOGY !

A New ATLAS oF BAcTERIOLOGY.—Àn important announcement.

is just received ofa new photomicrographie ** Atlas der Bacterien-

kunde,” shortly to be issued by Doctors Fraenkel and Pfeiffer, of the

University of Berlin. The names of the authors and their connec-

tion with Koch’s laboratory make it probable that the undertaking

will be of great service and will supply to working bacteriologists a.

convenient standard of paren The plan which will be followed

in issuing the ‘‘ Atlas" is, to give “a systematic representation of

e most important haitarin ai objects.” Accordingly, there

will be given “first, the bacteria in general. in the various stages of

their life history, and, then, in particular, the microorganisms of the

principal infectious diseases of men and the lower animals.”

The figures will be accompanied by an explanatory text; and ex-

treme care is promised to secure unusual mechanical excellence.

The ‘‘Atlas” will appear in from 12-15 parts, each containing about 10

photographs. The first is promised in January, 1889, and the others

at intervals of about six weeks. The number of copies is to be limit-

ed, and the cost, per part, is tobe 4 marks. The “ Atlas” may be

had of Hirschwald, in Berlin.

Tur BACTERIOLOGY OF NATURAL AND OF ARTIFICIAL ICE.—

One of the latest numbers of fae ‘Contralblati fiir Bakteriologie

(IV., 22, 673) contains a summary of a recent paper by Heyroth, in

which the latter gives the results of some three years of investiga-

tion of the purity of ice, and brings the tet so far as it has been

pursued by himself and others, up to 1888

The usual ** plate " cultures were employed, and the conclusions

Y aa, at are :

Water on freezing into ice always excretes from itself, so to

ipai a portion of its chemical and organic contents.

2. Certain organie substances are less affected than are inorganic

salts

3. Above all, the microórganisms, and among these not merely

the ordinary harmless water bacteria, but also disease.producing

forms, are able to withstand the process of freezing as it occurs in

nature, and even a protracted exposure to the frozen condition,

without loss of vegetative capacity or eie andit of their viru-

lence

The investigations of artificial ice did not make for itas favorable

a showing—or, at least, not in all cases. It appears that the water

This Department is edited by Prof. Wm. T. Sedgwick,.of the Mass. Insti-

tute of "Tuchholn , Boston, Mass., to whom brief communications, books for

review, etc., shou d be sent.

Zoology. 57

employed is not always as unobjectionable as ordinary drinking

water, and also that the water employed is sometimes rendered

more or less impure by the careless use of the process it undergoes.

Accordingly, figures as high as 528, 960, 1323, and even 1610 bac-

teria per cc. were found, although, on the other hand, specimens

were found which were absolutely sterile.

The following conclusions were reached, viz. :

1. That the ice used for preservative purposes and for the cooling

of drinks ought, no matter how prepared, to be made of such

water only as has already been found to be pure, and at least as

good as that adapted for a public water supply.

2. For the sake of the continuous protection of its composition

periodical and repeated examinations should be made of the ice sup-

ply and its sources,

DISSECTION or THE Doa as A BASIS FoR THE STUDY OF PHYSIOL-

oay.—A handsome and conveniently arranged guide to so much

of anatomy as may be learned from a fairly thorough dissection of

the dog has been prepared by W. H. Howell, of Johns Hopkins

University, and published by Henry Holt & Co., of New York. The

work is avowedly done by a physiologist for physiological purposes ;

and in our opinion it has been done wisely and with discrimination.

The worker who is endeavoring to get broad ideas of the position

and relation of orgins and parts as mechanisms, should never be

buried under anatomical minutiz to him of secondary importance, or

confused beforehand by being told minutely what to do, or worse

yet, what to see. By giving undue attention to his guide he is dis-

tracted from the objects before him, and sooner or later is in danger

of losing both the interest and pleasure of discovery and, above all,

the final reward of increased power and independence.

e book is not too large, possesses the great merits of simplicity

and brevity, and ought to prove a real help to classes of a certain

grade, in physiology.— W. T. Sedgwick.

ZOOLOGY.

THE ANATOMY oF PRoroPTERUS.—Prof. W. N. Parker commu-

, pm is packed with goblet cells, and besides contains here and

there multicellular glands like those of Amphibia. The normal ep-

58 General Notes.

body serve as a food supply during the period of hibernation, their

substance being catried away by leucocytes. The account of the

nervous system is reserved foralater paper, but the fact is mentioned

that the pulmonary nerves cross at the base of the lungs. A sym-

pathetic system was not found. The body is well supplied with epi-

dermal sense organs except on the paired fins. The author has no

suggestion to make concerning the rich nerve supply of these latter

organs. The olfactory organ partakes of the character of that in both

Fishes and Amphibia, having the accessory cavities of the latter

and the epithelium of the former. The eye has a large lens, the cho-

roid is rudimentary and pigmentless, and iris and pupil are absent.

No sense-cells were seen in sections of the tongue. A curious tube-

like epithelial organ opens on the floor of the mouth in front of the

tongue. Except the large liver no glands were connected with

stomach or intestine, digestion being largely performed by the instru-

mentality of leucocytes. Parker cannot verify Ayres’ supposition

that the lymphatics connect directly with the lumen of the stomach.

The so-called urinary bladder is a cloacal cecum, having much the

position of the rectal gland of Elasmobranchs, and probably has no

homology with the urinary bladder of other forms. The corpuscles

of the blood are large, and the white are very abundant. The red

corpuscles are oval and measure from .040 to .046 mm. in length and

from .025 to .027 mm. in breadth. Of the white corpuscles two kinds

may be distinguished: (1) large leucocytes of the ordinary form, and

(2) leucocytes of various sizes, which, besides the ordinary pseudo-

podia, form stiff filamentous processes. Experiments render 1t prob-

able that the latter convey nutriment from the alimentary canal to

the blood and there disintegrate. Hyrtl's description of the circu

latory apparatus of Lepidosiren would answer almost equally well for

Protopterus. There are no nephrostomes in connection with the

kidneys. Ina male with immature spermatozoa the anterior parts

of the Müllerian ducts were present, each with an abdominal open:

ing like that of the oviduct. In sexually mature individuals all

traces of the Müllerian ducts disappear. The spermatozoa are carrot-

shaped and are provided with two long cilia. The head of the sper-

matozoan was about .04 mm. in length.

ANOTHER SPECIMEN or HYLA ANDERSONII.—On June 1, 1888,

I found a single specimen of Hyla andersonii Baird in a wet

place on the border of a pine barren, at May's Landing, N. J. I

was quite lively when caught, but it soon became sluggish m

confinement. Its voice was shrill and light, comparatively speak-

ing ; and it consisted of a repetition of the same note three or four

times in regular succession, in a sort of ** peep, peep, P perks

as nearly as I can give it. The specimen was sent alive to Dr. C. v.

Abbott, of Trenton, N. J., who says, in his ** Catalogue of the Verte-

brate Animals of New Jersey " (Geology of N. J., Cook, 1868, p. 805) :

that it is ‘‘a Southern species, a single specimen of which was E!

found in Camden Co. in 1863 ” by Dr. J. Leidy

Zoology. 59

Jordan’s ** Manual ofthe Vertebrates,” 5th ed., says ** N.J. to $.

C. rare," which statement is still further confirmed by my discovery

as given above.

e specimen is still alive, and may be seen by applying to

George Pine, Esq., Trenton, N. J.—John E. Peters, Sc. Doc., May’s

Landing, N. J.

A New SPrnwoPHILUS.—Dr. Merriam has recently described a

new species of ground-squirrel from the Sierra Nevadas of Califor-

nia. He calls it Spermophilus beldingi. The characters are taken

from the coloration and from certain peculiar features of the skull.

A broad band of rufous brown runs down the back of the new

species, while in the one nearest allied to it the whole back is cov-

er-d with small spots, giving it a peculiar maculated appearance.

The difference in coloration of the two is not due to seasonal changes,

as suites of the two species were collected at the same period of the

year.—Jos. F. James.

. THE DEER or CENTRAL AMERICA have been recently inves-

tigated by Mr. F. W. True. All the species are small, even the

Virginia deer, which extends that far south. The Mexican deer

seems to pass into the Virginian form. All the species are ve

much mixed up, and few characters seem to be constant enough to

certainly characterize the species. The antlers. which have been

largely depended upon, he did not consider reliable. A new species

o

was described from the material in the National Museum.—Jos. F.

James.

AN INTERESTING MAmMMAL.—In the last number of the AMER-

ICAN NATURALIST was noticed the discovery of a new Australian

mammal. The Zoologischer Anzeiger for November 19, 1888, con-

tains a short account by A. Zietz, from which we condense the fol-

lowing additional details. In form and size it resembles Chryso-

chloris. has a thick, short, fine whitish-yellow pelt, a small head with

rounded snout, which is covered above by two horny plates, one be-

hind the other. The skin is not perforated for the eyes, and the

eyes themselves are only two black-pigmented points. The ear

openings are covered by the fur; the nostrils lateral and slit-like.

The salivary glands are very large. The fore feet are short, stout,

and directed outwards, and the handsare folded longitudinally, bring-

ing the fingers into two series, one of which is composed of the short

digit 1 and digits 2 and 3 with long pointed nails. The other

(outer) series consists of the 4th digit, with a small elongate, and

digit 5, with a large triangular shield-like nail. The soles of the

hinder feet are directed outwards; the toes, which are connected by

skin, are armed with broad claws. The long, strong tail is hairless,

60 General Notes.

very peculiar and appears related to that of Amphitherium of the Eng-

lish Oólite. A clavicle is present. Only a single specimen is known,

and that lacks the viscera and is partially decayed. It was found in

the sandy region 500 miles north of Adelaide and 150 west from

Charlotte Waters. The natives were questioned about it, and only

one old woman could recall having seen one before. It appears to

be a burrowing animal, and a portion of the alimentary tract which

was preserved was filled with the remains of ants. It also appears

o be a monotreme, and if the dentition can be relied upon. it forms

an interesting remnant of the ancient fauna, and is to-day the old-

est living mammal.

A Correction : ARVICOLA (CHILOTUS) PALLIDUS.— The August

number of the AMERICAN NATURALIST contains a description of the

above-named species (Vol. XXII., 1888, pp. 702-705). Through a

most unfortunate blunder, the illustration accompanying this de-

scription (p. 704), instead of being the drawing sent with the man-

uscript, is a figure of Arvicola (Pedomys) minor, which was pub-

lished with a description of that species in the preceding number of

) Mm ^

FA AD

A^ Am

No. 4431. Female Arvicola (Chilotus) pallidus Merri From Ft. Buford, Dakota (Type)

1 and 2, skull, double natural size; 3, upper molar series, X 5;4, lower molar series, X 5.4

the NATURALIST (July, 1888, p. 599), the same cut being made to

illustrate two very distinct subgenera! The accompanying figure 1s

that of Arvicola (Chilotus) pallidus, and should be substituted for

that on p. 704 of the August number. In the lettering under the

skull of Arvicola (Pedomys) minor, p. 599, the skull number 18

given as 2245. It should be 2224. C. Harr MERRIAM.

ZOOLOGICAL News.—GENeERAL.—Prof. J. B. Steere says (Nature,

IX., p. 37) that the Philippine Islands are readily divisible into

several distinct sub-provinces clearly distinguishable by their faunz.

Entomology. 61

These are (1) Northern Philippines, consisting of Luzon and Mu-

rinduque and a few small islands around Luzon; (2) Mindoro; (3)

Central Philippines, embracing Panay. Negros, Guimaras, Zebu,

Bohol, and Masbate; (4) Eastern Philippines, comprising Samar

and Leyte; (5) Southern Philippines, made up of Mindanao, Ba-

silau, and perhaps Sulu; and (6) Western Philippines, consisting

of Palawan and Balabac.

EcuHINopERMSs.—Prof. P. Herbert Carpenter is studying the

Comatule of the ** Blake” explorations in the Caribbean Sea.

Wonws.—F. E. Beddard (Nature, XXXIX., p. 15) describes some

very large hooked bristles upon the caudal end of an earthworm

(? Urochzeta)received from Bermuda which he suggests are correlated

with the habit which most earthworms have of lying with the an-

terior part of the body out of the ground, only the tail being kept

Msi the hole. These bristles would thus form very efficient

anchors,

the Northern hemisphere.—Jos. F. James.

ENTOMOLOGY.!

ON PREVENTING THE RAvAGES OF WrrE-Worms.—In a recently

published paper,? the editor of this department makes a preliminary

report on an investigation of wire-worms, now in progress. In the

course of this investigation a method of combating these pests has

been devised which promises to be of considerable importance.

At the beginning of our study of wire-worms, experiments were

tried to ascertain if it were practicable to protect the seed and young

" This Department is edited by Prof J. H. Comstock, Cornell University,

Ithaca, N. Y., to whom communications, books for notice, etc., should be

sent.

u ? Bull. Cornell Univ. Agr’l Exp. Station, iii., pp. 81-89.

62 General Notes.

tate the examination of them. It now seems probable that more

worms would have been attracted had the baits been buried.

The results of our efforts to trap wire-worms were very different

from what we had expected. A few were taken in traps baited

with sweetened dough, not enough, however, to be of much practi-

cal importance. But to our surprise, large numbers of click-beetles

were taken. This at once opened a new line of investigation. If

it is possible to trap and destroy the beetles before they have laid

their eggs, we have at our command a much more effectual method

of preventing the ravages of wire-worms than by destroying the

larvee after they are partially grown.

As indicating the possible efficiency of this method, I will cite a

single instance. A series of twelve traps, which had been left un-

disturbed for only three days, yielded 482 beetles, or an average of

more than 40 beetles per trap. And this notwithstanding that a

considerable number had been attracted to other traps in the imme-

diate vicinity.!

Of the substances used as baits clover attracted by far the larger

number of beetles. The clover baits were small bunches about one-

quarter pound in weight, of freshly cut stalks and leaves. Next

clover in the order of efficiency was sweetened dough. ‘This was

made by mixing one part sugar with ten parts corn-meal and suf-

ficient water to make a dough. About one-half a teacupful was

used in each trap. Unsweetened dough and sliced potatoes proved

to be of nearly equal value, but much less attractive than sweetened

dou

We thus demonstrated that it is an easy matter to trap click-bee-

tles in the places where they abound—that they will collect in

large numbers upon baits of clover or of sweetened corn-meal dough.

The collection of the beetles, however, from such baits involves con-

siderable labor. We therefore conducted experiments to ascertain

if this labor could be saved, and obtained the following results:

Many beetles were collected from our traps and placed in breed-

ing cages. Some of these cages were supplied with clover, others

with sliced potatoes, others with dough, and still others with sweet-

ened dough. In one series of cages these substances were poisoned.

In another, used as a check, the food was not poisoned. At the

same time an extensive series of traps were placed in the corn-field.

In this case alternate traps were poisoned, the others not.

? More than one-half of the click-beetles collected in these experiments

were Agriotes mancus. Next in abundance was Drasterius dorsalis. A

few specimens of Agriotes pubescens were also taken.

Entomology. 63

l

pecially in its cæcal appendages, which are often literally crammed

with it from end to end. This disease somewhat resembles that

known as schlaffsucht or flacherie in the literature of the silkworm.

Its germ is freely cultivable both in beef broth and in solid gela-

tine media, by the processes usual in bacterial investigation. :

. Both the Entomophthora and the Botrytis finally imbed the insect

in à white fungus—the efflorescence of à spore-bearing mycelium.

The Bo'rytis been much more abundant and destructive in

Illinois than the Entomophthora, although seemingly less so at pres-

ent than the bacterial form. :

t now seems likely that these diseases, occurring as they do

Ame 19.

Prof. Burrill from my recent cultures, solid and fluid, and from the affected

chinch bugs themselves, proves to be a Bacillus of peculiar character, and

nota occus, à i A

American Naturalist, xvii., p. 3 This microbe, studied anew 'by

e

64 General Notes.

spontaneously over a large area, will soon suppress what has prob-

ably been the longest continued destructive outbreak of the chinch

bug known in the history of that insect. Their present activity is

illustrated by the fact that in a single field in Southern Illinois dead

chinch bugs imbedded in this mould were found by an assistant, Mr.

John Marten. so numerous as to suggest a recent flurry of snow.—

S. A. Forbes (in Psyche, Oct., 1888).

Porson or HyMENOPTERA.—One of the most interesting phe-

nomena met by the student of the habits of insects, and one that has

long excited wonder, is the fact that the Digger-wasps or Fossorial

Hymenoptera sting the insects with which they provision their nests

in such a way that the insects are paralyzed, but not killed.

It has been commonly believed that the Digger-wasps could easily

destroy their victims if they chose to do so; but instead of doin

so they sting them ‘‘ just enough to paralyze them but not enough

to kill them ;” for they know instinctively that on the one hand d

insects would not be suitable food for their young, and on the other,

that if the insects with which the nest is provisioned are left unin-

jured, the larva which hatches from the egg placed with them

would be unable to overpower them.

Some have held that the paralyzing of the prey isaccomplished by

making a slight sting in one of the ganglia of the ventral nervous

stem. This, however. implies an instinctively obtained knowledge

of insect anatomy which is t» say the least remarkable.

A very different explanation of the phenomenon is now offered

by M. G. Carlet.! In an earlier note? he showed that the wound

inflicted by the Hymenoptera with a barbed sting (Bees and true

Wasps) always resulted in a mixture of two liquids; one, an acid,

the other, an alkali, each secreted by a special gland. And he also

showed that the venom produced the usual results only when it con-

tained these two constituents. He has now studied the poison of

Hynenoptera with a smooth sting (Philanthus, Pompilus, ete.)

and finds that with these the alkaline gland either does not exist or

is rudimentary. These are the Hymenoptera whose incomplete

poison does not kill the insects with which they provision their nests,

for the purpose of feeding their larve with living prey. In M.

Carlet’s opinion it is the presence of the two liquids or of one only

which produces respectively the mortal poison or the anesthetic,

and not the asserted power to select the point of the body at which

the Digger-wasp will sting its victim.

Report or THE STATE ENTOwOLOoaIsST OF New YoRk.—Dr.

Lintner’s Fourth Report has just appeared. It makes a volume of

237 pages, and includes accounts of a large number of insects, some

of which are described here for the first time. This report, like

those that have preceded it, is the result of a great amount of pains-

! "Comptes Rendus, cvi. ( ("rg pp. 1737-40,

? [b., seance du 23 juin 1

Embryology. -OD

taking labor, and is a valuable addition to the literature of Eco-

nomic Entomology. The number of subjects described is so large

that it is impracticable to give an abstract of the report.

THALESSA AND TREMEX.—A paper was recently read by Prof.

Riley, entitled ** Notes on the Economy of Thalessa and Tremex.”

T'halessa is an Ichneumon fly having in some species an ovipositor

six and seven inches in length. The eggs are laid in the burrow of

the larva of Tremex and not in the larva itself, so it is an external

and not an internal parasite of the larva. The ovipositor performs

the part of a saw and drills a hole in the bark over the burrow of

Tremex. Owing to the great length of the ovipositor, it was long a

question how the insect could reach the bark to deposit its eggs.

lt is accomplished by the insect so manipulating the organ with its

feet as to form a double coil in a special membrane between the last

two segments of the abdomen, then curving it over and passing it

downward so as to reach the wood. In the pupa this ovipositor is

bent round and along the ventral surface and then backwards again

along the dorsal surface.

A ** HUMAN PanasrrE."—Prof. Riley mentions in a general way

the occurrence of parasites upon orin the human body. He mentioned

particularly the case of a lady in Washington who felt herself stung

y some insect. In the course of a few weeks she was annoyed by a

pimple on her neck. When pressed, there was forced from the spot

a small larva, of some species of bot-fly, but as nothing was known

of its parent, its identification was impossible. Reference was also

made to another parasite noticed by a physician of New Orleans, an

account of which had been given in a late mumber of ** Insect Life.’”

—Jos. F. James.

EMBRYOLOGY.:

, THE Byssus or THE Youxe or THE Common Cram (Mya arena-

ria L.).—During the past summer Mr. Vinal N. Edwards, the well-

known collector of the U. S. Fish Commission, at Woods Holl, found

young clams adhering in great numbers to the surface of floating

timbers in the harbor of New Bedford, Mass. They were associat

with Ascidians ( Molgula) in this unusual position, and very naturally

attracted the attention of so observant a field-naturalist as Mr. Ed-

wards, who very kindly brought me an abundant supply of speci-

mens. The S as they came into my hand were in flakes

formed of marine alge and earthy matters, sand, and mould, which

* This Departments edited by Prof. John A. Ryder, University of Pennsyl-

vania, Philadelphia.

66 . General Notes. `

had been peeled off of the surface. of the floating timbers. These

masses were traversed superficially by a mat of fibres which were

found to be derived from the outer tunic or mantle of the Ascidians,

by means of which the latter were adherent to their support.

At first, in separating the young clams from their singular place

of support, it was supposed that their rather firm adhesion was alto-

gether due to their having been caught during the very early veliger

stage in this mat of fibres formed about the bases of the Ascidians.

As they grew larger it was further supposed that they were held fast

in their unusual position by the fibres and cement substance secreted

by the mantles of their Ascidian neighbors, and thus were suffered

to attain a considerable size (from two to fifteen millimetres) before

they finally became free and sank into a more favorable position on

the bottom. However, further investigation showed that in this I

was in error, for after a careful search, a few individuals were found

from which a single byssal thread was found to proceed, invariably

from the point where the tip of the foot is thrust through the me-

dian opening in the mantle. To make it still more certain that

there should be no mistake, the byssal thread was pulled out of its

insertion in several specimens, when it was found to present the

irregular swollen proximal end usually found to characterize the in- -

traglandular portion of the byssus in molluses which possess this

organ. The subject at this point became sufficiently interesting to

warrant farther study, and, inasmuch as but a few individuals were

found which had the byssal thread in place, that structure being

usually torn loose in removing the specimens from their support

amongst the Ascidians, it became necessary to resort to the meth-

o y sectioning to determine if there was a byssal gland present in

the foot.

To this end a number of specimens were treated first with a dilute

chromic acid solution (one-half per cent.). After this had fixed the

tissues, the solution was renewed and acidulated with nitric acid

(one-half per cent.), and allowed to act until all of the calcareous

matter had been removed from the shell. This left the specimens

in good histological condition for cutting, after which the specimens

were washed, dehydrated, and saturated with celloidin, in which

they were embedded and sectioned on a Schanze microtome.

The sections were cut parallel to the median longitudinal plane,

or so as to coincide with the union of the edges of the mantle along

the margins of the valves. Besides disclosing the unmistakable an-

atomical structure characteristic of Mya, there was found in the

sections of the median region at the apex of the foot a median

saccular depression which was undoubtedly the byssal gland with

the thread in place or with remains of the secretion from which the

byssal thread was formed.

This discovery leaves no doubt as to the fact that this well-

known mollusc is provided with a byssus during its early life. One

series of sections in my possession, from a specimen ten millimetres

long, shows the structure admirably. How much longer than u

. Physiology. ; 67

the young clams were kept suspended in this instance on account of

their accidental and supplementary adhesion to the Ascidians can-

not be determined, but it is fair to suppose that their period of sus-

pension would be prolonged on that account beyond the usual time.

1e presence of a byssal attachment in Mya arenaria reopens the

question of the life-history of this important shell-fish. In fact, it

is probable that some of its allies may have an unknown byssal

stage, and, perhaps. types somewhat distant from it in the system,

but with similar habits in the adult condition, such as Glycimeris

and Panopea, may also have such a stage. In that case the

methods hitherto proposed to be adopted in order to secure the

ti will accordingly be necessary to resort to some form of **col-

or cultch, such as is used in oyster-culture, to allow the fry

to affix itself.

While there is a very sharply defined homogeneous larval shell or

protoconch in the young oyster, this seems to be absent or not

sharply defined in the young of Mya arenaria in specimens two to

three millimeters long. In Chlamydoconcha the protoconch or lar-

val shell is preserved even in individuals supposed to be adult, since

here both valves are completely invested by the closed mantle sac, -

the shell being internal. "The detection of a byssus in the young of

Mya is of interest also from the fact that it suggests that such or-

gans are probably present in the young stages of still other Lamelli-

branchs, where it has not been hitherto suspected.—John A. Ryder.

PHYSIOLOGY .!

Ox THE RHYTHM or THE MAMMALIAN HEART.— Prof. John A.

MeWilliam,? of the University of Aberdeen, extends to a study of

the mammalian heart the methods of work which in the hands of

situ, and obtains many interesting data, which he compares with the

known facts in the cold-blooded animals. As in the latter, so in

'This Department is edited by Dr. Frederic S. Lee, Bryn Mawr Col-

lege, Bryn Mawr, Pa.

* The Journal of Physiology, Vol.9, p. 167.

68 General Notes.

things, by the slow rhythm in the isolated ventricle (which 1s

in harmony with what exists in the lower Vertebrates) ; the rhythm

originating at the venous terminations apparently dominates the

whole heart, and determines the rate of its action ; hence the causes

determining the rhythm of the intact heart are to be sought for at

the venous end of the organ. The usual order of contraction may

be altered and even entirely reversed by artificially stimulating 8

portion of the surface—e.g., stimulation of the ventricle is followed

by contraction of the ventricle, then auricle, then venous termina-

tions.

The question of the mode of propagation of the normal contrac-

tion over the auricles and ventricles 1s discussed by the author at

some length, in view of the fact that Gaskell has urged that in the

tortoise the phenomenon is simply one of muscular conduction.

Such an explanation is negatived at once for the mammalian heart,

as regards the passage from auricle to ventricle at least, by the fact

that here is a distinct break in the muscular continuity, the auricles

and ventricles being separated by a considerable amount of connec-

tive tissue. It seems impossible to account for the sequence on

Physiology. 69

purely physical grounds, such as the distension of the ventricular

cavities, the electric variation accompanying the auricular beat, o

the sudden tension of the chord: tendinex resulting from the con-

traction of the auricular muscle fibres which go down into the

auriculo-ventricular valves. The author is hence forced to a belief

in the existence of a nervous mechanism for the propagation. What

this mechanism is, is not. known, but it is possible that an extensive

nerve plexus exists throughout the whole of the cardiac wall. Pas-

sage of the contraction through the substance of the auricle is inde-

pendent of the great nerve-trunks, since these may be destroyed and

the wall even eut into zigzag strips without interfering with the

action.

CONNECTIONS OF MEMBRANOUS LABYRINTH.—In Fishes, Amphib-

ians, and Reptiles the ductus endolymphaticus of the inner ear has

long been known not to constitute a closed cavity, but to join the

exterior (Elasmobranchs) or the lymph-spaces of the cranial cavity.

Rüdinger! finds an analogous arrangement to exist in mammals and

man. ‘The ductus does not here end blindly, as has hitherto been

supposed, but by means of several branched canals is in communi-

cation with the subdural lymph-spaces of the dura mater. These

canals are probably homologous with those of the lower vertebrates.

‘he author regards the ductus as an elastic bag, the function of

which is to enable the differences of pressure occurring within the

labyrinth to be readily balanced. The size, the bladder.like form,

and the situation of the ductus in the cranial cavity, instead of

within the bony labyrinth, favor such a theory.

FUNCTION oF THE CocHLEA.— The most commonly accepted

hypothesis regarding the mode of analysis of composite sounds by

the cochlea is that of Hensen, according to which a small portion of

the basilar membrane is put into vibration by the incoming waves ;

deep tones affect the membrane where it is widest—i.e., at the apex of

the cochlea; high tones affect the narrow portion at the cochlear base.

This theory is supported by an observation of Munk that a dog, in

whom the base of the cochlea had been injured, could hear low tones

only. Stepanow? has recently tested the theory experimentally by de-

stroying the apex of the cochlea in the guinea-pig, in which animal the

cochlea projects freely into the auditory bulla. Different instru-

ments, comprising the violin, piano, harmonica, Galton’s whistle,

B-bass, tuning-fork, etc., were employed to test the power of hear-

ing; and the perception of sound was inferred from the reflex move-

ment of the ears. In spite of destruction of a considerable portion

of the apical region of the cochlea, accompanied by loss of en-

dolymph, the animals reacted to all tones, and, what is especially

' Sitzungsber. d. math.-phys, Cl. d. k. bayer., Akad. d. Wiss., 1887.

Heft. 3, p. 455. Cf. Münchener Med. Wochenschr., 1888, p. 139.

EM rwr. ies f. Ohrenh, xxii, p. 85. Cf. Centralblatt f. Physiologie,

, p. 298,

70 General Notes.

important, perception of the deep tones did not seem to be wanting.

The author regards Hensen’s hypothesis as not proved, and inclines

to the theory of Voltolini that each nerve fibre of the cochlea recog-

nizes all tones.

A Recent STUDY or ‘‘Ricor Morris.”—Some important work

on rigor mortis has lately been done in the Physiological Institute

at Königsberg by Max Bierfreund, cand. med.‘ Since the time of

Nysten (1811) physiologists generally have suspected that the ner-

vous system has some appreciable influence upon the time of appear-

ance of rigor, and possibly upon its subsequent intensity. Munk,

Bleuler and Lehmann, v. Eiselsberg, Tamassia, and others have in-

vestigated the question and have come to quite contradictory conclu-

sions. 'l'amassia asserts that rigor is completely independent of

the nervous system, and supports this theory by the results of a

number of experiments on frogs, sparrows, and guinea-pigs. A. v.

Gendre, v. Eiselsberg, and now Max Bierfreund have, on the other

hand, arrived at the opposite conclusion. Bierfreund has found in

all the experiments performed by him decided evidence that some

influence proceeds from the nervous system. When he cut the

eout by experiments upon the central nervous mechanism.

Division of the lateral columns of the spinal cord or extirpation of

one of the cerebral hemispheres will cause a delay in the appearance

of rigor on the side which is dependent on the part removed. Bier-

freund found, also, as might have been anticipated, that destruction

of the central organs diminished the intensity of the rigor.

The red muscles stiffen much later than the white (11-15 hrs. as

against 1-3 hrs.) ; and the time taken for completion of the rigor

in the red muscles is much longer (52-58 hrs. as against 10-14 hrs.).

Bierfreund sees in this fact an explanation of the so-called law of

Nysten that the muscles of the body fall into rigor in a fixed and

definite order. He observed, for example, that in rabbits the muscles

of the hind limbs, where white muscles predominate,- invariably

stiffen sooner than those of the fore limbs, where the muscles are

exclusively red.

igh temperatures hasten the onset and the subsequent e

— rigor. Narcotics (chloroform and ether) if inhaled,

elay it, but, if injected into the blood, produce a condition similar

to rigor by their direct effect on the muscle substance. Chloral,

which has no direct influence upon the muscle, effects a retardation

of rigor when injected into the blood. Curare, vias. i to von

Eiselsberg and von Gendre, appears to destroy completely the influ-

E ! Untersuchungen über die Todtenstarre, Pflüger's Archiv, Bd. XLIII.,

«190. |

?

, Physiology. 71

ence of the nervous system. Stimulation of the sciatic on one side

iian a inima electric current causes rigor to appear later on

that si

The disappearance of rigor is not due to the fact that eig on

liquefies a coagulated proteid. Putrefaction and rigor do not run

parallel courses ; frogs are ee ee found in a state of rigor in

spite of intense putrefactio If putrefaction be checked by in-

jection of carbolic acid or ema sublimate into the blood-vessels

of the animal the rigor disappears just as quickly as in an anima

in which putrefaction is given full sw

Bierfreund regards as highly denitnakt, the fact that rigor

vanishes of itself and independently of the putrefaction. He looks

upon rigor mortis as the last contraction of the muscle, the last act

in the life-history of the muscle fibre ; but by what stimulus or

stimuli this contraction is called forth, he leaves us still uncertain.

—JE. D. Jordan, Boston

THE MECHANICAL ORIGIN or THE HARD PARTS or THE MAMMA-

1A.—A paper on this subject was ge by the writer before the

roe Philosophieal Society, Jan. 3.

Summarizing the investigation, the author stated that the

structures of the mammalian skeleton and dentition may be referred

broadly to the two general classes, excess of growth and defect of

owth. Each of these may be again divided into two series as fol-

OWS :

Use.

Exoess. of- gro ovt Luxuriance.

Disuse.

Defect of growth | Poverty.

The paper dwelt prinsipens. rc the first two conditions, which

have frequently co-operated in the development of structures.

These were classified iir the following mechanical energies as

causes:

A. Motion in articulation.

1. Impact only.

Facetting of distal end e: radius in Diplarthra.

Oravat of proximal end of radius in eedem

Grooving of proximal end of astragalus by ti

at trochlea of dde in Potente p eporidis) and meta-

co and humerus in Diplarthra

2. Torsion only.

Alternation of carpal bones in Anthropomo oput.

Ue flanges of ulnar cotylus in Anthropomorpha .

nsymmetrical flanges of ulnar cotylus in other mammalia,

Rounding of head of radius in Edentata and

Involution of eygapophyses in Diplarthra, etc.

3. Torsion and impact without flexure.

Alternation of carpal and torsal bones in Ungulata.

79 General Notes.

4. Torsion, impact, and flexure in one plane.

Tongue and groove joints in many orders.

5. Flexure in two planes.

Saddle-shaped cervical vertebra in Quadrumana.

6. Flexure in several directions.

Ball and socket vertebral articulation.

Heads of humerus and femur.

. Motion not in articulation. (Teeth.)

7. Displacement of cusps of triconodont molars by crowding.

Tritubercular molars.

8. Transverse thrust.

The Vs of molars teeth in various orders.

9. Longitudinal thrust.

The Vs of the Multituberculata.

Obliquity of molars in many Rodentia.

10. Stimulation of pressure and strain.

Incisors of Rodentia, Multituberculata, etc.

Prismatic molars of Diplarthra, Rodentia, etc.

Confluence of cusps into crests generally.

Sectorial teeth of Carnivora.

Canine teeth in general.

Incisors of Proboscidia, Monodon, Halicore, etc.

As a general result we may assert that that it is a general law of

animal as of other mechanics—viz., that identical causes produce

identical results. The evidence for this law may be arranged under

two heads, as follows:

I. The same structure appears in distinct Se which are sub-

jected to the same mechanical conditions. Examples of this are:

the identical character of the articulation of the limbs in Diplarthra

and Rodentia which possess powers of rapid locomotion. The iden-

tical structure of the head of the radius in Edentata and Quadru-

mana which possess the power of complete supination of the manus.

the latter are developed.

Different structures appear in different parts of the skeleton

of the same individual animals in consequence of the different me-

chanical conditions to which these parts have been subjected. Ex-'

amples: the diverse modification of the articulations of the limbs 1n

consequence of difference of the uses to which they have been put,

in mammals which excavate the earth with one pair of limbs only,

as in the fossorial Edentata, Insectivora, and Rodentia. The reduc-

tion of the number of digits in the posterior limb only, when this 18

exclusively used for rapid progression, as in leaping ; this is seen

Psychology. 73

in the kangaroos and jerboas, in the orders Marsupialia and Ro-

entia.

There are a good many structures in the skeleton of the Mammalia

which have not yet received a satisfactory explanation on the groun

of mechanical necessity. Such, for instance, appears to me to be the

condition of the history of the origin of the canine tooth; that is its

use in preference to an incisor for raptorial purposes. Such may be

also the history of the origin of the complex vertebral articulations

of the American Edentata, as compared with the simple articulations

of the Ol orld. In these, as in similar cases, however, an ele-

ment enters which must be taken into account in seeking for ex-

planations; that is, that every evolution is determined at its incep-

ion ] e material or type from which it originates. Thus is

explained the fact that identical uses have not produced identical

structures in the limbs of all aquatic animals. The fin of the fish is

essentially different from the paddle of the Ichthyosaurus or the

whale, The beak of the rapatorial bird is different from the

canine tooth of the rapacious mammal. When this principle is

duly considered, many mechanical explanations will become clear,

which now seem to be involved in difficulty or mystery.—Z. D. Cope.

PSYCHOLOGY.

GRASSHOPPER REASONING.—I was on the railroad train from

Newport, Vermillion County, for Terre Haute. A grasshopper in a

heedless spring lit on the glass window of the coach. It wasa warm,

dry, dusty day of the drouthy summer. That little hopper looked

through the glass and seemed astonished; the car was moving with

increasing velocity, and thus surrounded by the current of air, the

quiver and rattle of the car, seemed afraid to jump; and perhaps re-

calling the terrors of railroad accidents, was too cautious to fall off.

So, calmly studying the situation, he decided to stay and ride to the

next station.

On the polished surface of the giving, dusty glass, his feet became

dry and his footing insecure. Mental resources came to his rescue.

His memory and reason notified him that he must keep the suction

cushions of his feet wet to insure an adhesive vacuum. So, after care-

fully planting his feet in safety, he carefully raised one foot to his

mouth or lips and moistened it. was a success, as reason and old

memories and hopper philosophy had told him. Another and an-

other foot was so moistened, and the hopper, armed with memory,

prudence, and philosophic reason, rode on the train to the next sta-

74 General Notes.

tion, affording entertainment to several admiring friends. Hon.

ohn Whitcomb, of Clinton, first called our attention to the cute

little fellow.—C., in Indiana Farmer.

Frogs EATING SNAKES.—For several months I have kept in the

house a sort of **zoological garden " in which there have been a few

specimens of frogs, salamanders, and snakes. A few weeks ago I

placed therein two full-grown leopard frogs and a hog-nosed viper

about nine or ten inches in length. "There were already in the box

two garter-snakes two feet long and three salamanders—nothing

else at that time. For a time everything went well, but about two

weeks later the little viper was missing. A diligent search failed to

find it, and careful examination of the cage showed no place of

escape. The disappearance seemed quite mysterious, and the con-

clusion reached was that it had fallen a victim to cannibalism on the

part of one of the other reptiles, although neither showed any signs

of having feasted so extensively. Ten or fifteen days later a friend

and I went to take alook at the pets. We found in the excrement of

one of the frogs what on examination proved to be the skin, etc., of

a snake, apparently the lost viper. When first found not more than

half the length had passed, and the process was evidently causing

the frog considerable effort. It was using its hind feet to assist m

freeing itself. | -

as the inference that the frog had swallowed the snake justifi-

able? I had never heard of such an occurrence ; nor have I since

been able to find any one who has. I was greatly surprised, for it

seemed to me almost impossible. The swallowing of frogs by snakes

I have several times seen, but I have never known the operation to

be reversed, except in this instance.—H. L. Roberts, Lewistown, Ill.

ARCHZEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY.!

ent colors. An abstract of the Major's remarks and description is

as follows :

1 This Department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Esq., Smithsonian In-

stitution, Washington, D. C.

Archeology and Anthropology. 15

** There is but one human species; but one human race. Alldif-

ferences are but variations of the one and original species. "There

were two great peoples of this one human species living on the two

different hemispheres, unknown to each other. Columbus, voyag-

ing from the one, discovered the other. and introduced them to-

gether. Further acquaintance developed the fact that even before

his time there was a greater number of living languages in America

than in Europe. If there was not more civilization, there was cer-

tainly more philoRophy. We have failed to comprehend the extent

to which this is true.

** Fifteen years ago I was called upon in my official capacity o clas-

sify the North American Indians. After various attem n

much consideration, F decided that the only practical or S gal

classification was that to be made by language. Other persons had

treated the subject in the light of zoology, and had attempted to

Classify man as an animal. Divers measurements of the crania

were resorted to, anthropometry was put in active operation, tests

were made of the color of the skin, hair, eyes, etc., but all such

have failed as means of classification. We discovered as we pro-

gressed that classification by language was fundamental and wrought

a classification i in civilization, sociology, religion, mythology, art, etc.

his map age our conclusions so far as our work has been

completed. It is intended to represent the condition and location

of Indian tribes as nd by their languages at the advent of

the white man, b OnE succeeding epochs have sometimes neces-

sarily been s

**'The Tubi occupy the northern coast line likea pag um

Labrador to Alaska. They speak practically the same language

Athabascan, occupying almost the entire territory of British N oath

America, speak many languages, each distinct from the other, and

yet belonging to the same stock and showing that they were the

same people. We find this pe nk scattered in spots through’

California and Old and New Mexic

** The next group of poping, leas or fifty in number, scattered

over the eastern and northeastern United States and Canada, was

the Algonkin, and yet we find the Arapahoes down near the Gulf of

Mexico to belong to the same stock. Likewise the Iroquois, vari-

ously called the Tire or Six or Seven Nations, have a modern repre-

sentative i in the language of the Cherokees.

‘‘ The Siouan group had its habitat on the prairies between the

oes pi and Missouri. The Shoshonian group "usu a

ve different languages. The Pueblo Indians employed

or b e different mock, but they all Ts to the Shoshonian pe

guage.

* We have claret material sh t lifferent stoc]

of languages and nigh eight hundred dialects : Soa the Indians of

orth America, and we have been aided in our work by the labors

of missionaries, scholars, and of volunteers.

** Our work has made us more conservative. We now depend more

76 General Notes.

on evidence and less on theory. Our arrangement is based on the

vocabulary—the roots of words. We have not depended upon the

structure of their language. Structure means only different grades

or degrees in development. A single language in its different dia-

higher order of structure and a better grammar than had the

English. The grammar of a language is born in barbarism.

** An attempt has been made in the present day, by a German, to

construct a new language, and its inventor or maker has declared

his purpose to take the good things of all languages and put them

together for his new language. Suppose a zoologist should attempt

to construct a new animal, or a new species, upon the same line,

and, for instance, for the extremities of the body, he takes the hoofs

of the horse, the wing of the bird, the fin of the fish, and the hand

would be the same as in the new language, Volapük—the conglom-

erate monster of modern language."

We have seen the Linguistic Map of North America prepared b

Major Powell and his assistants. It is a great work, worthy all

commendation. The science had need for it, and it could scarcely

ever have been done by private enterprise. It was fit and proper

that it should be done under Government patronage, and all credit

is due to the men who have made it.

In giving it this commendation, we do not at all assent to Major

Powell's criticisms of other means of classification, and his laudation

of language as the only correct or valuable one. :

is may be, or may not be, the best system for the classification

of the modern North American Indian tribes, but certainly is Mee

m

APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS FOR THE U. S. NariovarL MU-

SEUM.—'' England has become thoroughly aroused to the necessity

wy

Archæology and Anthropology. i7

of encouraging science and art. Availing herself of the fifty thou-

sand volumes and the hundreds of cases of natural history left by

Hans Sloane, a native of Ireland, she founded the British Museum.

Later in the century she spent half a million dollars on the National

Gallery, and has annually bestowed upon it a liberal allowance.

The South Kensington Museum, the National Portrait Gallery, and

the India Museum are all of comparatively recent origin, and have

cost the Treasury millions for their foundation and support. Mu-

seums of art have been opened in the provincial towns, supported in

England nearly $5,000,000, and upon science and art in Ireland

nearly $300,000."— Margaret F. Sullivan, in December Century

ported by the United States Government which stands as a repre-

sentative of the British institutions mentioned above, and on which

its Government has spent millions.

The appropriations made by the United States Government

for the National Museum are barely sufficient to keep it alive.

They are provision for its daily running expenses, and_barely

adequate for that. What the museum, its contributors and corre-

spondents, persons throughout the country interested in kindred

scientific pursuits, and the public generally, have good right to

complain of is that no provision is made in these appropriations for

e purchase or securing of specimens, however great their value

or importance, nor for the enlargement or increase of the collections.

The Congress, it would seem, fails to comprehend the scope and

purpose of the National Museum. It seems to consider it as a mere

gathering of curiosities (maybe monstrosities) which may serve to

amuse and interest for an afternoon a stray constituent who may

have come in from the rural districts and seek attention at his

Congressman's hands. The Congress at large seems not to know, or,

if it does, ignores the fact that the National Museum is an extensive,

and ought to be fully equipped, organization for the education of

the people and for conducting investigations in science not possible

to be done by private individuals.

In other countries it would be liberally supported and generously

sustained. With a geographic area larger than combined Europe the

United States treats its science, especially its science of archeology,

78 General Notes.

with less interest, or care or attention, if we measure these things

by the appropriations made, than do the third-rate powers, such as

Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, etc. Yet the area of the

United States is as rich and as new, and will pay as largely for cul-

tivation, as any like area in Europe. The States of Ohio, or Wis-

consin, or West Virginia, or Mississippi, not to mention New York

or New England, have either of them within their borders as much

unstudied, unsearched, and unclassified archzeologie riches as has any

one of the great countries of Europe: England, France, Germany,

Spain, or Italy. Yet these countries, each of them, do more for

their archeology than equals the combined efforts of the United

States and all the State governments. : i

I confess to a feeling of depression when, on visiting the Prehistoric

Museum at Salisbury, England, I found there stored and displayed, -

in a beautiful building, erected in the midst of a lovely park, for its

sole occupancy, the prehistoric collection of Squier and Davis,

gathered by them from the mounds of the United States in the

hio and Mississippi valleys. It went begging through the United

States, knocked at the door of Congress, and besought a purchaser

at the ludicrous price of $1000, but without finding a response.

And in disgust with their countrymen, and in despair of ever being

able to interest their Government or fellow-citizens, they sold their

collection to England and retired from the field of archzologie

investigations. :

The National Museum courts the fullest investigations into its

mode of conducting business. It is willing to be held to the

strictest accountability for its expenditures.

imperatiye. But it should receive at the hands of Congress an mM-

telligent co-operation and a generous response to its efforts for the

elevation and education of our people.

he Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and Director of the

National Museum has labored with all zeal to establish a zoologii

ark and garden in the environs of Washington for the preservation

and display of our native wild animals, now rapidly on the ro to,

extinction. Looking in that direction, a few of these animals have

been received as gifts under the promise that they would be pro-

tected and cared for. And they have been established in temporary

wooden buildings, and a park, with a wire fence around it, as big 38

an onion patch, in the Smithsonian grounds, in expectation that

they might form the nucleus of a future zoological park and garder.

The House Committee on Appropriations seem to calculate or figure

how much refuse meat, how many bushels of corn and bales of hay,

how little of provision would support these animals, keeping them —

from starvation during the coming year, and so has reduced the ap- .

propriation by one-half from the estimates. One might suppose .

that the Secretary, meeting with such responses, would grow weary

of his efforts in well-doing and retire from the further contest dis-

appointed, if not in despair. : T

owore, the people of the United States are not niggardly 12

These should be made

Archeology and Anthropology. 79

the matter of money needed for the benefit of science, if the object

be properly explained and fairly understood. It rests upon the

Secretary and Board of Regents to do this, and the people will jus-

tify them in asking for any reasonable amount so long as they shall

be satisfied, as they may be under the present administration, that

it is honestly expended and faithfully accounted for. Legislators

seeking a reputation for economy will net be sustained by the peo-

le in refusing to vote the appropriations sufficient to secure, in

these matters, a degree of excellence which will cause the United

States to compare favorably with other countries.

FORGERIES OF PALÆOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS IN EUROPE.—Mr. John

Evans, of Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, England, the distin-

uished numismatist and prehistoric archeologist, says in a private

letter lately received : ‘‘ We have lately had very extensive forgeries

of paleolithic implements in the neighborhood of London. Many

of them are of great size and remarkably well made. Several col-

lectors have been taken in, and I should not be surprised if some of

our dealers exported a few to America. I recommend you to be on

your guard."

Monsieur Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, the discoverer of the

palxolithic age and implements in the valley of the river Somme,

was often deceived by the workmen on whom he had to depend in

his search for these implements. It was in the beginning of all

knowledge of this subject, and no one could claim to be an expert or

have much experience in their detection. Monsieur Boucher de

Perthes stored his collection, if he did not make it a donation, to

the Archeologic Museum of the town of Abbeville, and died with-

out knowlege of the frauds of which he had been the victim. His

son-in-law, M. D'Ault Dumesnil, the geologist, equally learned

and practised as a prehistoric archzologist, became director of that

museum. In the classification made by him of the paleolithic im-

plements he detected the forgeries and withdrew them from exhibi-

tion. The United States National Museum has to thank him for a

series which are there exhibited as specimens of these forgeries. So

habile did M. Dumensil become in the detection of these forgeries

that he was able to tell from an inspection of them, not only when

ey were forgeries, but from their peculiarities he could determine

the identity of the forger. The ‘‘ personal equation " was so mani-

fested in this work as to enable him to do this.

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF PREHISTORIC ANTHROPOLOGY AT

Paris, 1889.—The International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropol- -

ogy will profit by the French Exposition of 1889, and hold a meet-

ing at Paris, in August of this year. These Congresses were organ-

ized in 1866-67, and have held their meetings in various capitals of

Europe with greater or less regularity until the last one at Lisbon,

in 1880. A session was organized for Athens, in 1883, but failed,

owing to the rumors of approaching war. We are glad to hear of

this revival at Paris for 1889.

80 General Notes.

A few individuals (I dé not know whether they were enough to

make it the plural number), living less that a hundred miles from

the city of New York, having a greater desire for notoriety than to

benefit the human race, attempted last spring and summer to organ-

ize a private international congress of prehistoric anthropology.

The list of complimentary officers, Vice-Presidents, etc., was formi-

dable, and comprised most, if not all, distinguished foreigners, and

the farther away the more there were of them. ‘The list appeared to

have been copied from the records of some young and ambitious

anthropological society, and to have contained ail its honorary assocl-

ates and corresponding members. The scheme was doomed from the

beginning, as an international affair, for, while no anthropologists at

home were consulted, or at least gave their adhesion, the time was

too short to perfect arrangements with foreign countries and have

their societies represented. But one foreigner of any note attended,

and he—well, he concealed his disappointment with that suavity

which belongs to his nation. No great harm was done to the science

of prehistoric anthropology by the failure of this pretended Inter-

national Congress, for no one was greatly deceived ; but its instiga-

tors should take warning from this attempt and not repeat the fiasco. |

Think of getting up such a congress without the co-operation of any

of the members of the anthropological section of the Association for

the Advancement of Science, and without a representative from

any of the anthropological societies of the United States except the

local one interested.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL News.—Dr. A. B. Meyer, of Dresden, writes —

to Nature (XXXIX., p. 30) to state that there are no autochthonie

Papuans or Negritos in Celebes, and to express doubts of their 0c-

curring in other islands to which they are attributed by Quatrefages

and Flower.

The first discovery of remains of cave-dwellers in Scandinavia has

recently been made in a cave on a small island near Gottland. The

remains consisted of the old fireplaces, and the bones of various

animals, pottery, flint chips, etc. Most of the bones had been

broken to extract the marrow. In the upper strata the bones of

pigs, horses, etc., predominated, but in the lower those of seals ine.

crease. 3

During the past summer the museum at Copenhagen has explored

a large kitchen-midden in Jutland, situated in a forest a couple of

miles from the sea. Besides the usual assortment of bones and —

shells, many flint implements and fragments of pottery were found, p

well as some bone and horn tools, a few of the latter showing traces

of ornamentation.

Microscopy. 81

MICROSCOPY.!

THoma’s CAMERA Lucrpa.*—The cameras now in use are not

well adapted for a low magnifying power (1-6), nor is any allow-

ance made in their construction for the refractive index

the In order to obtain sharp images one is often obliged to brin

e inue paper nearer the eye, thus materially reducing the. fiel

Bg fe the construction of Thoma’s camera the above difficulties

ri avoided, and it is specially recommended for drawing with a

gnifying power of from 1-10 times, and for the production of

radios drawings.

-o —"

1.

The camera consists of a Date metallic frame containing

two mirrors, one of which, fig. 1,a, is an unsilvered glass plate

from 0.15 to 0.20 mm. in thickness, while the other (c) is a plain

silvered mirror. Both mirrors are parallel with each other an in-

clined at an angle of 45? to the horizon

In order to draw an object mag ified four times, we place at v

à convex eye-glass with a focal distance of 40 cm., and then fasten

e camera upon the vertical rod so that the distance bc andc z = 40

acd oe by C. O. Whittman, Director of the Lake Laboratory, Mil-

* Zeitschrift f, wiss. Mikroskopie, v. 3, p. 297, Sept., 1887.

A

82 General Notes.

cm. As the distance b c is constant, 10 cm., c z must be 30 cm.,

and may be easily found on the ruled rod that supports the camera.

Next a convex eye-glass of 10 cm. focal distance is inserted at d,

and the upper end of the sliding ring to which the stage is attached

brought within 10 cm. of the lower edge of the ring to which the

camera is fastened.

The amount of light is regulated by means of smoked glasses in-

serted above the convex glass at d.

f the eye of the observer is myopic. it is necessary to insert at f

an eye-glass for correction. A myopic person will often find it con-

venient to use a glass a little stronger than is required in looking at

distant objects.

Finally, in all cases, except where a magnifying power of from

1 to 2 times is used, a diopter (g) must be placed above f. I

using the high magnifying powers the focal points of both systems

do not exactly coincide, so that a parallactic displacement of the

images is produced, if the diopter is left out. ‘This isa defect of

all cameras and is usually corrected by the use of small prisms,

while here the same object is equally well, and at the same time

more conveniently, accomplished by the diopter.

e magnifying power is equal to the ratios of the distances. bcz

and d — 40:10 — 4:1.

In using the camera, it must stand before the observer, as in fig. 2,

with the drawing on the right and the diopter andfobject on the left.

Microscopy. 83

Only in using a magnifying power of from 1-1} times is the

position of the camera reversed, the drawing and object maintain-

ing the same position as before (fig. 4). In this way we look direct-

ly at the drawing, while the object is seen through the two mirrors.

For other powers than that given above, the following table may

be used:

MAGNIFICATION TABLE.

i

Diopter and object on the left, drawing and silvered mirror on the right,

as in fig. 2. i :

qim ied = a con- senor gero Msn [espn Smoked goers rad eae

ap dong a RE con, apeg i ng fication any os b € from'the convex

ens d. in fig. 1

+15 =1045 c 66 mm.|| 6 + 2.5 — 400 mm.

+12.5 —12.--05| c 80 5 + 2.5 — 400 **

+10 c 100 4 + 2.5 — 400 **

+10.5 —10--0.5| c 95 34 | —3 — 833 *'

+ 7.5 d | 188 8 + 2,5 — 400 **

+ 6.25 =6+ 0.25) d | 160 24 + 2.5 — 400 **

+5 d | 200 2 + 2.5 — 400 “

LÀ

84 | General Notes.

I.

Object and silver mirror on the left, diopter and drawing on the right,

as required for a magnification of 1-14 times, as in fig. 4.

[Distance of IDio Distance , of

i iDis pters of the wi

Pope ze foa, potre the object a convex lens sg set d be pen s

"homWqu Y , rom eon-|fication| necessary at| $ T vex f

sary at biin fig. 1. No. vex lens b. | | d in fig. 1. No. - ~~ :

+5 — |200mm.| 14 {/8.25=8+0.25] d | 800 mm.

+4 zs | 980 ats i ||44=8+1 c | 250

When in use the whole apparatus is placed upon the drawing:

paper, which serves as the source of transmitted-light, but reflected

light may be used equally well.

One advantage of this camera is that, even with low powers, the

E MD ^ om. d

E ig eU

drawing, and the drawing in place of the object (using the above

table), one can reduce the magnification from 1-1.

others, 6.25 diopters smaller. With a concave glass of + 5 D. at f, it

is possible to obtain a magnifying power of 8 times by inserting at

d, 50 em. from the object, a convex glass of + 20 D., and at 5, à

convex glass of + 2.5 D., 400 mm. above the drawing-paper.

the concave at f is omitted, then, leaving object and lens in same ——

position as before, it will be sufficent to place at d a convex glass of ^

20 — 6.25=13.75 diopters, and at b one of + 2.5 — 6.25= — 3.79

Ds. One may thus obtain an 8-fold power without using t00

strong glasses. Foreyes of a different refractive index, the num-

ber of diopters to be deducted changes.

If in the previous combination it is necessary to have at f a con- —

cave glass of — 1 D., this may be removed by deducting 1 D. from ——

the glasses at d and b. E

In the same way, E

A concave glass of — 2 D’s at f, may be replaced by — e D'satdandb. .

s T s dt és é& m one D. "m éé

LL s: pem! 66 66 és PM 1 <6 é

‘6 E D é« €i Lr cu Ey ‘6

é: sé aes é 6 és ze "us a ee

Lj ‘ S [11 64 [11 4 D 5g t ‘6

ii LE — «i 6 [2 elf B0." 4

If in the first named combination a concave glass of — 2 D. is 3

e

WP hese at

"EM

Microscopy. 85

necessary at f, a myopic condition of — 8 D. may be Sia i if

a convex glass of + 6 D's is placed in front of the one at f.

n the same way :

For an eye of — 3 D’s—we must add + 5 D.

«& [11 das 4 [1j [11 ég + 4 [17

66 €& aká 5 «e é& c6 -+ 3 “ec

mm € Ge d c m € 49,8

€ ‘ec ind] c T LIN n 1“

«€ ec jn « «c 6 0“

«& «€ 9 [11 [T1 PEU re 1 “ce

‘6 c zu) t c6 E «

in order to produce a myopic condition of — 8 D’s. When this con-

pei is produced, we may obtain higher magnifying powers, as

o

Diopter. ra object on the left, Parl A and silver mirror on the right,

as in figure

Diopters of gh Smoked [Distance of the : Diopters of the Distance of the

We v a: glass, object from Magnifica- chan len- pdb 3 pp

t d. No. te aa tion. as st rom the con-

lens d. vex lens b.

Ra ee ER gu

+7 d 57 mn, 7 9 400 mm

+8.5 =7.5+1 d 50 8 —9 400 *

+11 = 6+ C 44 9 B 400 “

+13.5 —7. 516 c 40 10 —9 400 “

These ps crt produce perfect images, except when the

strongest m ing power is A: Mage a slight distortion is

visible on dha we edge of the field of v

The above described camera, together with a case of 25

may be obtained of R. Jung, Mechanic and Optician, in fidel.

berg, for 120 marks.

86 General Notes.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR PsycHicAL RESEARCH ; Boston, Dec.

12, 1888.—Dr. J. W. Warren read the report of the Committee on

Mediumistic Phenomena, of which the following is the substance:

provided we are permitted to impose such conditions as seem to us reasonable

and necessary.”

Secretary Richard Hodgson read the report of the Committee on

Thought Transference. In the experiments made by this committee,

numbers selected, 584 were guessed correctly, instead of 300, which

fact, the members of the committee think, points to some other 1n-

fluence than chance. It was noticed that when the right guess was

made in the first place, the subject displayed no desire to change it,

and it was only in cases where the first guess was wrong that the

subject showed any uncertainty in announcing it, or attempted to

change it afterward.

Prof. J. Royce read the report on phantasms and presentiments.

He declared that, in his opinion, the methods of research adopte

by the committee on phantasms and presentiments had been justi-

fied by the results obtained. After he had stated the subdivisions

he had made of his subject, he gave his special attention to what he

called ‘‘ pseudo-presentiments" and to coincidences that seem to

have some bearing on telepathy. Under the head. of pseudo-pre-

sentiments he cited a number of cases where individuals, after events

people often aving

there before." These hallucinations, he said, were attributable to

surprises which make so strong an impression upon a man's mind as

Proceedings of Scientific Societies. , 87

t0 lead him to think that the subject has long had a lodgment in

his brain. He spoke of three cases of telepathic coincidences, sup-

por 7 by documentary evidence, but these were all of them men-

s ib. in his report of last year.. These cases he considers very

valuable for the purposes of the society, but as to the cause for them

5e expressed no opinion.

Dr. James made a short speech, setting forth the aims and needs `

of the society. It was the intention to extend the work of the so-

ciety, T that specially interesting psychical cases in all parts of the

country were to be scientifically investigated. Information in regard

to alleged haunted houses was often receive}, many of which the

society was unable to investigate, owing to a lack of funds, but there

were over 700 cases now being investigated. The society, in self-

defence, would be forced to publish more than it had ever done be-

es and all these matters required money. The new members, he

, had more than supplied the loss by withdrawals, so that the

aioe was growing a little.

BIOLOGICAL SOCIETY or WASHINGTON. — December, 15, 1888.—

The followi wing communications were read : Prof. Lester F. Ward,

“ Fortuitous Variation as Illustrated by the Genus Eupatorium,

with exhibition of specimens; " Prof. C. V. Riley, ‘ Note ona Human

Parasite ;” Mr. E. S. er ed ** Aster shortit i Washington."

December 29. —The followi commun ication were read :

; S Th. Holm, **Not y

Linn.;* Dr. ae Curtice, ^ Notes onthe Sheep ‘Tick, Melopha-

gus ovinus Linn.’

88 General Notes.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

— Dr. G. Ruge, of Heidelberg, has been called to the Professor-

ship of Anatomy at Amsterdam.

— Prof. A. C. Haddon, of Dublin, who sailed last summer for Tor- —

res Strait, has arrived there safely, and is engaged in studying the |

ea Anemones, Nudibranchs, and the habits and placentation of the -

dugong or southern sea-cow. He is also collecting all the ethno- —

logical material obtainable, as the native population is rapidly dying —

out. :

— The Copley Medal of the Royal Society is this year awarded

to Prof. T. H. Huxley for his investigations on the morphology and

histology of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Baron Ferdinand mH

von Müller receives the Royal Medal for his investigations of the a

Flora of Australia.

— The Costa Rican government has established a National Mu- |

seum at San José. di

— Samuel P. Fowler of Danvers, Mass., died Dec. 14, 1888, aged

88 years. He was a contributor to the AMERICAN NATURALIST M-

its early years. ——

Scientific News. 89

- — Prof. T. Kjerulf, the well. xe geologist of Christiania,

Norway, died in that city, Oct. 25, 1888

- — Mr. Francis Darwin has been elected University Reader in

Botany in the NEA of Cambridge in succession to Dr. Vines,

now Professor at Oxfor

— Mr. Charles B. Cory, chairman of the Committee on Hypno-

tism of the American Society of Psychical Research, has issued his

report. He believes that its use in connection with nervous diseases

is worthy of consideration.

r. H. A. Pilsbry is "prater the Manual of Conchology,

TEER and Systematic, begun by the late Geo. W. Tryon. Part

39 of the first and Part 15 of the second series have recently been

issued.

— Q. Bellonci. Professor of QUA ony in the University of Bo-

logna, died July 1, 1888, aged 30 years

— G. Johann Kriesch, Professor of nir Mh in the Polytechnicum

at Budapesth, died October 21, aged 54 year

— Dr. Robert Lamborn has presented a cast of the Phenacodus

primevus to the American Museum of Natural History, New

York. He has also deposited a fine collection of Mexican antiqui-

ties in the Metropolitan Art Museum, New York, and a collection

of Tuscan antiquities in the Museum of the School of Industrial

Art, Philadelphia.

— Professor Joseph Leidy, of Philadelphia, has received the

Cuvier prize of the French Academy of Sciences in recognition of

his important work in Natural History.

— A work on the Extinct Mammalia, by Professors Scott and Os-

born, of Princeton, N. J., has been announced by D. Appleton &

Sons, New York.

— Mr. E. T. Dumble has been appointed State Geologist of

Texas.

— Prof. J. T. Branner recently reported unfavorably on the sup-

posed silver and gold mines of Arkansas, of which State he is Geol-

ogist. The abuse he received from the papers of the alleged min-

ing regions was extraordinary and unparalleled, but when he

offered to submit the question to the judgment of other geologists,

they did not accept his challenge.

Two INTERESTING MODELS FOR ANATOMICAL StuprES.—Every-

body who has visited the British Museum of Natural History in

London has noticed the highly instructive anatomical ae tree

in the Central Hall of this wonderful building. A great part of

these preparations are made by the very skilful hand of Mr. Rich-

ard S. Wray, B.Sc., one of Prof. Flower's assistants.

90 General Notes.

Besides these specimens Mr. Wray has prepared some very good

— ae the Museum ; two of these can be now obtained from him.

of Amphioxus, showing the general relations and dis-

tne of the organs as seen from the left side. Price, £2 2s,

($10, about.)

This is a reproduction of the original wax model forming part of.

the series of models and drawings prepared to illustrate the struct-

ure of Amphioxus for the Index Museum of the British Museum

(Natural History). The different organs are distinctively colored,

and the model shows at a glance all the more important anatomical

relations of the animal. The disposition and relations of the central

nervous system, notochord, alimentary canal (pharynx, liver, anus,

etc.), the epipleural cavity with its backward extension towards the

anus, the cardiac and dorsal aortz, are all clearly shown together

with other details.

2. Enlarged model of the left side.of the lower jaw of a young

(2,00, about) showing the tooth germs in situ. Price, 10s. 6d.

$2.60, about

following quotation from the label attached to the original

aren and model in the Index Museum of the British Museum

(N Natural History) will fully explain its nature :

** In the Ornithorhynchus teeth are absent in the adult, .

In the young state, there are, however, distinct tooth rudiments with cal-

Supe. beneath the region in which the horny plates are afterwards

develop

**'The small eg vessel contains the left side of thelower jaw of a young

Ornithorhynchus, prepared to show the tooth germs in situ, the characters

of which are more clearly shown in the enlarged model placed by it.”

Communications relating to the above to be addressed Richard 8.

s 23, St. Germain's Road, Forest Hill, London

only recommend these highly instructive nici to every

iade of Diology. G. Baur, New Haven, Conn.

~e

5

A a E a R ET E G

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST.

Vor. AAMT FEBRUARY, 1889. No. 266

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE KNOWLEDGE OF

THE GENUS BRANCHIPUS.

BY O. P. and W. P. HAY.

1. The Hatching of the Eggs of B. VERNALIS Kept in Dried

Mud. Branchipus vernalis is, according to our present knowledge,

distributed from Eastern Massachusetts to Western Indiana. It

lives in ponds which are filled with water during the colder parts

of the year, but which are dry during the summer months. The

eggs, therefore, which when laid by the females sink down into the

mud, remain during the hot months enclosed in the dry and baked

earth and resume their activity and complete their development

only when the cold autumn and winter rains come on.

The species of Branchipus whose life-history has been most thor-

oughly studied is B, stagnalis of Europe. As long ago as 1820,

Benedict Prevost experimented with its eggs. Some of these were

kept in dried mud for six months and at the end of that time on

being put in water developed into swimming larve. Some of the

eggs, similarly dried, were sent to M. Jurine at Geneva, and this

naturalist also succeeded in obtaining the young."

Naturalists have hitherto not been so successful in hatching out

. the eggs of our species, In Dr. A. S. Packard's * Monograph of

ái * Claus, Branchipus stagnalis, etc. Gottingen, 1873, p, I.

92 Branchipus.

the Phyllopod Crustacea of North America,"? Dr. Paul F. Gissler

gives the results of his efforts to obtain the larve from dried mud:

“During the whole summer of 1880 I experimented with dry

mud from ponds inhabited by either the normal or pale race of this

Branchiopod, but all in vain. Neither jars kept on ice in a large

refrigerator, nor frozen dampened mud, gradually or suddenly

thawed, developed any larve. The mycelium of a fungus, a few

Daphniide and microscopic organisms were the only result.”

Some time during April, 1888, the junior author collected a con-

siderable number of females of B. vernalis, and selecting such as

had their ovisacs filled with eggs, put them into a jar of water, in

the bottom of which was placed earth taken from the garden.

These females were allowed to remain here until they died, which

was within about two weeks. The water was allowed to evaporate,

the mud became dry and was moistened only once or twice during

the summer. It was, of course, as dry as dust the greater portion

of the time. On September 27, this dirt was broken up and put Ps

into another jar and covered with water. Immediately numbers of |

the eggs came to the surface and remained floating there about -

two days, when they went again to the bottom. On October 9, lat- _

væ were, for the first time, observed swimming about in the jar and

soon large numbers appeared. This experiment proves that the —

hatching of the larve of B. vernalis is by no means difficult to

bring about, and that we may almost at will obtain them for obser-

vation. It also shows that it is not necessary that the eggs should —

ever be subjected to a freezing temperature.

That we have in our experiments succeeded in getting a view of

the larve immediately after their exclusion from the eggs, we are

not wholly certain. They could, at all events, have escaped but 4

short time before they were seen. One specimen was observed

while in the act of escaping from the egg-shell ; but the specimen

seemed to be unable to extricate itself and may have been sticking

there for some time and meanwhile undergoing change.

One thing, however, appears to be evident, namely, that the

larva differs in some important respects from that of B. stagnalis as

figured and described by Dr. C. Claus in his paper, “Zur ee

des Baues und Entwickelung von B. agentes und Apus cancriformis; |

? U. S. Geol, and Geog. Survey Wyoming aud Idaho for 1878. — Washington a

1883.

Branchipus. 93

and it is highly probable that it leaves the egg in a more advanced

stage of development.

According to Dr. Claus the nauplius of B. stagnalis on leaving

the egg is of a dull yellow (/ruége/?) color, which has, as its cause,

a multitude of bright granules and globules, and this color is so de-

cided that for some time the view of the internal anatomy is ob-

scured. The larva of B. vernalis, on the contrary, is very pale, and

will, therefore, more readily lend itself to investigations on the

early condition of its internal organs.

In the case of B. stagnalis the post-cephalic portion of the body

is at first globular, but later becomes more elongated and oval,and

finally, when the limbs have begun to bud out, changes to a conical

form. The same portion of the body of B. vernalis is from the

first proportionately shorter and broader. Furthermore, there are,

in the earliest stages seen by us, the lateral buds of three or four

pairs of post-maxillary appendages. The most striking difference

between the larvae of the two species appears, however, to be

found in time of appearance of the paired eyes. According to

Claus those of B. stagnalis do not appear until the first and second

pairs of thoracic segments have become four-lobed and ten or

eleven segments have been marked out. The larva of B. vernalis

appears to possess both the median and the paired eyes at the time

of escape from the egg ; at least the paired eyes are plainly visible

in the earliest observed stages, when there are but the merest

swellings to indicate the positions of the first four thoracic limbs.

Thus the true nauplius condition of B. vernalis appears to be

passed through before the larva escapes from the egg; it is ex-

cluded as a metanauplius.

It is interesting to note that the larva which we saw endeavoring

to escape from the ruptured egg-shell was enveloped in a thin

transparent membrane. Whether this was the inner egg-membrane or

a blastodermic moult we do not undertake to say. Zaddach's ob-

servations on Apus will be recalled in this connection. (De Apo-

dis cancriformis, I841).

Our smallest larvæ measured in length % inches.

Il. Description of a supposed new species of Branchipus, B. GELI-

Dus. Male conforming closely to the description of B. bundyi,

Forbes, except that the caudal stylets are linear-lanceolate instead

of broad and blunt. Frontal appendages long and narrow. Clas-

* Illinois M useum Nat. Hist., Bulletin No. 1. p. 25.

94 Braanchipus.

pers grooved on inner side near the tip, and terminally tridentate

rather than bifid, there being a third process which is situated on

the anterior edge of the tip of the clasper ; this process rounded in-

stead of pointed, Femalecl terized by a structure that could hard-

ly have been overlooked had it been present in B. dundyi. This con-

sists of two prominent processes of a conical form that grow out

from the dorso-lateral surface of the tenth thoracic segment, one

on each side, and project backward, across the eleventh segment

and for a short distance on the segment that contains the genital

organs. The posterior ends of these processes stand out free

from the body. The ninth segment with a similar but much small-

er process on each side, which overlaps the one on the tenth seg-

ment. Ovisac about as broad as long and with a prominent medi-

an process.

The function of these dorsal outgrowths is not known to us.

It may be suggested that they furnish means for the male to retain

firm hold of the female. The claspers of this species are far less

powerful than are those of B. vernalis and may not be alone equal

to the task imposed on them. Possibly the rounded tubercle

found at the base of the second joint of the claspers is applied to

the processes on the back of the female and hold retained by

means of the minute suckers on the tubercles.

In order to ascertain the nature of the outgrowths found on the

females, consecutive series of sections were cut from hardened and

stained specimens. The organ in question is, of course, bounded

outwardly by a chitinous wall; but it is also, at most points, dis-

tinctly separated from the rest at the body by another wall of chit-

in. This is, however, incomplete, so that the cavity of the process

is in communication with the cavity of the body. From the interior

wall there radiate outward to the external wall a great number of

bands or trabeculz also apparently of chitin. These bands,as they

pass outward, divide and anastomose so that the interior of the

process is divided into communicating cells. | Where the process

frees itself from the body these bands soon cease to be seen. For

some little distance behind the points where the processes leave

the body there is found, along the middle of the back, the double-

wall arrangement, with chitinous bands running from the inner

wall to the outer. In the meshwork of chitinous bands, especially

of the processes, there are found numerous small nucleated cells or

corpuscles. The extremities of the processes are filled with these.

A Corner of Brittany. 95

As to the habits of this species little is known. In the pond

where large numbers occurred in the spring, no specimens of B.

vernalis were seen. This fall when the same pond was visited not

a specimen of the new species was to be found, while B. vernalis

abounded.

It was observed that while the males were swimming about, the

long and narrow frontal appendages were frequently rolled up and

again extended. They present under the microscope a beautiful

network of muscular fibres, in the meshes of which are numerous

ganglionic cells.

A CORNER OF BRITTANY.

By J. WALTER FEWKES.

mek BAR Oy pour Roscoff, s’il vous plait.” The train is waiting a

the Gare St. Lazare in Paris, and in a few moments we are

hurried along beyond the fortifications, past Bellevue, Sevres and

Versailles, through a wooded country, alternating with rich farms

and beautiful fields. All day long we ride through Normandy and

Brittany, looking out of the window of the coupé on one of the

most interesting landscapes of France, crowded with towns and

cities of historic interest and scenic beauty, every hour presenting

some new phase of life to relieve the monotony of the trip. What

is our destination and what leads us to turn from the beaten tracks

of European travellers? We have abundant time to answer these

questions before we reach the end of our journey.

Our destination is Roscoff, a town in the department of Finis-

terre, frequented by artists, better known to naturalists, and too

rarely visited by travellers, who have penetrated into all the most pic-

turesque ‘corners of Europe. Roscoff, a fishing village, truly

Breton in character, preserving many features of the old France, and

presenting a pure example of ancient Brittany, unchanged by modern

innovations. Roscoff has not a casino nor knows the swarms of pleas-

ure seekers which many other towns on the coast of France draw to

themselves every summer. It has no delightful promenades, no

beautiful forests, but it has its wonderful rocks, its soft, laughing ch-

96 A Corner of Brittany.

mate, its southern flora, its fertile lands, its hardy fishermen with their

original costumes, its picturesque homes, and its beautiful church.

Of more importance than all to the naturalist, it attracts him as the

site of one of the most interesting of all those institutions for the

study on the sea-shore of marine animals, the Laboratoire Exper-

imentale et Générale, founded by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers. It is this

establishment which turned me to this distant corner of Finisterre,

where I was permitted to spend two of the most charming months of

a summer's vacation in Europe.

Roscoff is situated on the confines of Brittany, on a peninsula

which juts out into the English channel, about opposite Plymouth

in England. Away from beaten lines of travel it is unaffected

by the changes which are being made in the larger cities about it, and

remains, as it was when Mary Stuart landed on its shore, a veritable

survival of the old Brittany of three centuries ago. Artists know it,

and naturalists have long studied the rich life which peoples its coast

and the waters which bathe its shores. Lovers of nature find there a

sea most savage, and cliffs most rugged and picturesque. The blue

sky of the Mediterranean and the beautiful water ever chang-

ing and never tranquil are here. Its islands are eroded by the

ocean into fantastic shapes so that their contours rival our own

“Garden of the Gods” in their grotesque shapes. The whole ap-

pearance of the coast, changed in a few hours by the great tides, the

wonderful scenery on all sides, these are some of the beauties of

nature which once seen retain the visitor in this interesting place

day after day and week after week.

The place is situated ona small peninsula, the main street extend-

ing along the sea, and terminating at either end on the coast. Neat

one end of this street there rises a bald cliff capped by an ancient

chapel of Sainte Barbe and a small fortress called the Bloson. At the

other end this road broadens and opens into a place called the vil

upon the sides of which arise the Hotel du Bains Mer, the church,

and the Marine Laboratory. On either side the main street of the

town is lined with picturesque old houses, many of which date three

centuries back, bearing the stamp of an old civilization. Small

side passages lead to the shore on one side of the street, while bee

the other are narrow passage ways leading into tortuous alleys which |

extend out into the cultivated fields. Midway in the course of the :

main street, between the chapel of Sainte Barbe and the vil or

place of the church, is the port, an artificial structure, forming 4

A Corner of Brittany. 97

high breakwater in the hospitable protection of which lie a few

small craft. At high tide these vessels swing at anchor, but the re-

treating sea leaves them stranded high and dry on the shore.

The old houses which line the main street of Roscoff date back to

the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and are all built in the pecu-

liar style of those times. The doors are low with oftentimes a small

lookout or window at one side of the entrance. The object of these

windows carries one back to the times of the corsaires, when the

prudent inhabitant was obliged to have some means of observation

before he opened the door and allowed a visitor to enter his

home. The windows are placed high upon the roofs and are orna-

mented with rudely-cut, grimy faces and grotesque heads of dragons.

The long sloping roofs, sparsely covered with plaster, give the

appearance of a recent snow storm. The houses are built of granite

much eroded and with their walls often whitened by lime. With the

exception of the apothecary and one or two other modern buildings

none of the shops have visible signs to denote the wares which are

on sale. Glass is rare in the windows and the cellars open oblique-

ly to the pavement of the street. On the seaward side the houses are

separated from the ocean by courts and gardens protected from the

ravages of the ocean by high walls, which form the fortifications of

the place. Atintervals onthe walls there are lookout towers in

which, no doubt, many atime the old Breton corsaires have watched

a strange vessel on the channel, or from which the wreckers perhaps

have enticed a passing ship to its doom.

These houses are now the homes of the sailor and the fisherman,

butin times past the smuggler found there a secure refuge from his

enemies. These mysterious, small, narrow streets, leading down to

the water’s edge, all remind us of the trade of the smuggler and the

wrecker. These men have long since disappeared from Roscoff, but

the old houses, the narrow tortuous passage ways still remain and

recall the history of the romantic times of the past.

On the western side of the peninsula on which Roscoff stands

there is a sandy beach out of which rises in the form of a marine

monster a precipice called Roch-Croum. Seaward from this cliff a

number of islands much eroded project in fantastic shapes, a scarred

battlement broken in points by the resistless ocean. In the forms

of these rocks we can trace many a giant’s head, or fancy many a

monster rising out of the waves which continually beat at their

ases,

98 A Corner of Brittany.

The eastern side of the peninsula is still more picturesque than the

western. It forms a part of the magnificent bay of Morlaix and its

cliffs rise abruptly out of the sea. Here the fortress of Taureau,

a wonder of Brittany, projects out of the ocean from a submarine

reef.

There 1s but one road leading to Roscoff from the mainland,

and that bisects the peninsula entering the main street near the

church. It is the national road to the neighboring city called

Saint Pol. On either side there branch off true Breton lanes lined

by lofty embankments thrown up by the farmers. No trees, noth-

ing but sandy fields of onions and potatoes line its borders. Every-

where the, land swept by the high winds of the Atlantic, has a som-

ber, melancholy look. The hills are low, and here and there rocks

project through the thin covering of sand, but otherwise the land-

scape is little varied.

The sea, however, at Roscoff makes up the interest where the

land fails to attract. Nowhere have I seen such a variety in the

sky and horizon, nowhere a more savage coast resisting a more de-

termined ocean.

There are many neighboring islands, the largest of which is called

the Ile de Batz, a strange name, taken fromatongue reaching back

before the origin of the modern French tongue. Near by this Island

there are the so-called Bourguinous, and still further away Tisosou,

“the house of the English." Some miles more distant seaward the

rock of Pighet, all of which islands are remnants of a former battle-

ment which, resisting the inroads of the sea, are fast loosing their

form and size in protecting the mainland. Sown here and there are

submerged rocks most fatal to navigation around which course “cail-

loux” or currents which render the approaches to the port so dreaded

by sailors. As one glances across the channel from the island, Ros-

coff seems a very large city. Its sea-wall, its row of houses along

the shore and the elegant church would lead one to exaggerate the

size, but the town is simply a crescent of houses, enclosing fertile —

fields of potatoes and onions.

Such is a brief sketch of the place to which we are hastening E.

through Brittany by way of the railroad from Paris to Brest. We

alighted at Morlaix, a picturesque old town, which has contributed

many a sketch to the artist's portfolio, early in the evening, andtake

a branch road to Roscoff. Somewhat later the train halts and we

have reached our destination.

E 22 ANE ORE T Fare dà Se eee s OTIO D UNA ae NES T

CIS MEAT BE MEN

A Corner of Brittany. 99

* A La Maison Blanche,” says a man near me, in an accent which

is immediately distinguished from that of the Parisian ** cocher."

“Oui!” is replied in a confident tone as if a knowledge of the

whole French language was at the tongue's end. He asks if I am

the American who is going to work in the laboratory and I reply

that lam. We trudge down the dark road unlighted by a single

lamp, and in a few moments the hostess of *La Maison Blanche " had

me in charge. The hotel looks comfortable but its surroundings are

very strange. The threshold of the entrance is lower than the

pavement of the street. Along the entry hang rows of chickens,

legs of lambs, sausages and vegetables. A crowd of Roscovites hang

about the bar, which is elaborately filled with all the necessities.

The hostess has picked up a little English from the numerous

sailors who frequent her house and gives me a good reception. A bed

of purest white and an excellent cup of coffee and bread in the

morning form a cordial introduction to a town in which I was destin-

ed to pass many, very many, happy days.

French naturalists were the first to found special institutions on

the seashore for the study of marine zoology. There are many prob-

lems connected with the study of marine life which cannot be success-

fully taken up without a residence near the localites where the ani-

mals live, for they must be worked out either on living or fresh

material, and it must be possible to have ready accesstothe habitats

of these animals to study these questions. A first step in this work

is to watch the animals in aquaria and carefully study their mode of

life. With the improvement in methods of research a work room

near the aquaria thus becomes a necessity for a successful answer

to many problems.

One of the earliest laboratories founded especially for the study of

marine life on the shore was created by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers at

Roscoff. This institution is an * Annexe" of the Sorbonne in which

the founder holds a professorship of Natural History, and over the

door is placed this significant inscription, so often found on public

buildings in Paris, * Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité." This motto has

here a new significance, and I thought as I approached the build-

ing of the well-known laboratory in Roscoff on the morning after my

arrival, how much that motto means in the organization of the institu-

tion, The advantages are free to all of every nation, French, English

American, Russian. Every specialist is freely given without expense

the advantages of the institution. All are equal who enter its walls

100 A Corner of Brittany.

with a love of nature and a desire to study, or to investigate. No

one who has known its hospitality can question the justice of the

third word of the legend. |

The laboratory founded by Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers is a laboratory

for students as well as investigators, and it numbers among its

workers those who have earned the title of naturalists as well as

those who have just begun their studies. It is not too much to say

that every facility which experience and money can suggest are here

placed without expense within reach of every student of zoology who

makes a choice of Roscoff for a working place.

Everything is free, microscopes, reagents, boats manned by ex-

perienced collectors, books, work-table, instruction, all are given

with a lavish hand, with no distinction of nationality or peculiarity of

scientific belief. There is no charge for an opportunity to contri-

bute to the advance of knowledge or totake the first steps in the ac-

quisition of methods of research.

The students in the laboratory are even furnished with sleeping

rooms near their working tables, so that no time may be lost or ex-

pense incurred. In liberality there is no known institution outside

of France which does more or even as much for those who wish to

investigate marine animals.

The laboratory at Roscoff is a laboratory for summer work and is

supplemented by a second creation of the same founder at Banyuls-

Sur-Mer on the Mediterranean Sea, for research in winter. These

two, both connected with the University of France, offer a contin-

uous opportunity at all times of the year for the study of marine

animals of the two shores of France. They open to students two

different faunas under the most experienced instructors, the most

favorable influences under the most liberal circumstances.

The laboratory at Roscoff not only furnishes material for investi-

gation, but it also presents opportunities for collecting, and forthe

study of marine animals in their native habitats.

In the study of marine animals on the shore, as well as in museums

and laboratories situated inland, students may become closet natural-

ists. Itis recognized that it is a good thing to collect as wellas to

study animals after they are collected. Two methods of work on

marine animals are possible. Either the naturalist may remain at

his work-table and have experienced collectors bring him what he

desires to study, or he may himself visit the localities where the an- — —

imals live and find them himself. Both methods have advantages

A Corner of Brittany. 101

but the latter gives a wider knowledge of the whole subject than the

former, for it familiarizes one with natural conditions of the life of

the animals.

The laboratory at Roscoff not only permits a study at the work-

table but also offers facilities for collecting. Excursions are made

to grounds where certain animals occur and in that way the

possibilities of knowing more of their mode of life are increased.

This feature in the marine laboratories of Prof. Lacaze-Duthiers is

certainly a most important one and one which particularly commends

itself to a person whose sole knowledge of animals is based on

specimens preserved in a museum or brought to him by a profes-

sional collector. We may study the histology, or anatomy of an an-

imal without knowing whether it lives in the sand or is free swim-

ming, whether it is dredged or inhabits the shore line, but it is bet-

ter to combine with that knowledge some familiarity with its natural

habitat and its mode of life. One excellent feature in the Ros-

coff laboratory and one which attracted me to it is the fact that it

offers facilities for both kinds of work.

There are two different departments inthe laboratory at Roscoff,

one for students who are beginners, the other for those who are

investigators engaged in original research. These two depart-

ments work harmoniously and the advantages are equal for both.

The apparatus of a laboratory and the manner of investigation be-

longs to the technique of zoological work, a consideration of which

: would take me too far into details for this article. There are many ex-

cellent features in which this laboratory differs somewhat from those

of other institntions of this kind, but in all marine laboratories with

the readiness with which new methods are made public there is a sur-

prising uniformity in technique in all marine stations. I should say

that at Roscoff there is a proper regard to the relative importance

of all branches of marine research, toxonomy, histology, anatomy

and embryology, although perhaps the published results in the latter

branch may show that it is not at present given the predominance

that it has in some other similar institutions.

An excellent feature in the laboratory at Roscoff is the existence

of a small local collection identified for the use of investigators and

students. Forthe information of those engaged in the study of

animals found there a card catalogue with a notice of the time

of collecting the genus, locality where it is found,the time of laying

102 A Corner of Brittany.

its eggs is an excellent help. Anyone describing a new species or

genus is expected to deposit in the collection a single specimen to

serve as a type for the good of those who may later avail them-

selves of the advantages of the place.

Inour own marine zoological stations the existence of a catalogue

stating the time when ova, embryos, or adults could be found or

had been collected and where they occur in abundance, would be

an excellent thing, and must in the course of time be made by com-

petent observers.

The beach of Roscoff is one of the richest grounds for collecting

marine animals which I have ever visited. The enormous tides lay

bare an extent of bottom which is extensive, and betrays the home of

a very large number of different genera of animals which live along

theshore. Moreover the character of this life is greatly influenced

by a branch of the Gulf Stream, which making its way from the main

current bathes this part of Brittany and imparts to it the mild cli-

mate which it has. This same current also tempers the climate of

the Scilly Islands, which lie in its direct track, so that several plants,

which are limited to the shores of the Mediterranean, here flourish

in a more northern latitude.

The rich fauna of the coast at Roscoff is, no doubt, more or less

modified by the warm action of this branch of the Gulf Stream, still

the floating life which distinguishes this great ocean current off the

coast of the United States is almost wholly wanting. Now and

then some straggling ‘Portuguese man-of-war” drifts into the

channel, or some medusa, whose home is in the tropics, is captured,

but these are exceptional. The wealth of floating marine life which

the Gulf Stream brings even to the coast of New England is not

found inshore on the coast of Brittany.

The most interesting building at Roscoff isthe church, the steeple

of which is to been seen from almost all sides of the city. This

church, which has an appearance wholly Breton, has also a style part-

ly Florentine, partly Spanish ; forthe interior, at least of many of

the Breton churches, has a true Italian appearance, and the style

of the exterior is characteristic.

The most curious part of the church is the steeple, which, as We

approach the city from the sea, rises light and airy and seems al-

most to hang from the sky. On the side of its bell-tower, pointed

toward England, the hereditary enemy of the Roscovite, there are

two cannon, cut in stone, forming parts of the varied ornamenta-

tion of the steeple.

A Corner of Brittany. 108

At the base of the tower on either side of the entrance one sees

at right and left bas-reliefs ascribed to the fourteenth century, repre-

senting the Passion and Resurrection of the Savior, while above the

entrance is one of the most interesting bas-reliefs of all the sculp-

tures of Roscoff, a ship of the fifteenth or sixteenth century, carved

in stone with scrupulous exactness. This ship is found on the walls

of the church and on the hospital situated on the way to Saint Poll

and seems to be the coat-of-arms of the city. Its bizarre shape, re-

calling the old ship of the corsaires is of very great archzological

or, at all events, historical interest.

The church itself is surrounded by a low wall enclosing many

trees. On either side of the main entrance there are two small

buildings one ornamented with a bas-relief of the ancient ship ; the

other a small mortuary chapel. These are ossuaires which in old

times served for receptacles of the dead. When the church-yard

was full, these buildings received the overflow. Their little niches

are now empty, but they still remain mute remnants of the man-

ners and customs of a time not long past.

In the neighboring city of Saint Pol, however, we find the ossu-

aires in the cemetery still occupied by the little boxes in each of

which is a human cranium, and around the altar of the church in the

same place, we find similar relics of the dead. In the cemetery of

Saint Pol these ossuaires are small buildings with covered shelves

along which is seen a row of boxes each resembling a dove cot with

a roof-shaped top. Each box has a small opening, diamond or heart-

shaped, through which the skull of some old inhabitant can be

seen, and each box bears the name of the dead. Around the altar

of the church these boxes are arranged in a melancholy row. “ It is

considered an honor,” said the father who showed me about, “ to

have the head thus preserved near the altar, an honor which only a

few and those the most influential are permitted to share.

This survival of a habit of burial once widely spread in Brittany

and France is archeeologically very interesting, but at the present

day the custom is wholly given up.

The church of Notre-Dame de Croatz-Batz with its interesting

ossuaires may be called an historic monument of France and is an

instructive relic of times long past, but there is another church,

now in ruins at Roscoff, which also merits our attention. This is

one of the few places of this distant town connected with the gene-

ral history of France. Nothing now remains of this chapel but the

104 A Corner of Brittany.

bare walls, a veritable ruin looking out on the main street of the

place. Mary Queen of Scots landed at Roscoff on the 14th of

August, 1548, on her way to espouse the Dauphin of France. Years

after a chapel was dedicated to a Scottish Saint, Saint Ninien, in

commemoration of this event.

Mary Stuart was but six years old when she landed at Roscoff.

She remained there but a short time and then proceeded to Mor-

laix where she was officially received by Seigneur de Rohan. Af

terwards she went to Saint Germain en Laye, where she is said to

have remained until she was eighteen. Long after, when the wid-

ow of Francois IL, she returned to Scotland and to the sad history

which awaited herin England, the hereditary foe of the Bretons,

on whose land she had set her foot in happier days long before.

The chapel which marks the event of her landing was for many

years ornamented with many presents and remained a magnificent -

monument of her generosity. Later it fell in ruins and now after

many years the Roscovites have placed on its wall a tablet that tells

tothe curious the event which the building of the chapel commem-

orates.

Not far from the chapel of Mary Stuart, there stands a house re

built in modern style, the interior of which is always interesting t0

visit. This house is separated from the chapel by a narrow street,

and in it one still sees the remnant of an ancient cloister, with E

beautiful garden protected from the sea by a tall wall in the form

of the prow of a vessel. Once a cloister, then a place of meeting

of merchants, it now remains an interesting relic of the Roscoff of

the past, its sold columns and architecture recalling some old Ital-

ian palace of medizval antiquity.

Many other interesting houses exist in the quaint old town of

Roscoff. The many hiding places for bandits and smugglers, the

dark cellars, narrow streets, all recall the old days when much of the

enterprise of the place was turned to the plunder of passing mêr- —

chantmen, or equally nefarious practices. The history of the Ros-

covite corsaires has yet to be written, but the story of Le Negrief a

still preserves something of the romance of the past. Here we

read of the old hotel Terard, where the notorious Captain Le Bi-

han recounts his escapades. We also read of a ball of the col

saires in which all the inhabitants of the place participated.

The little port of Roscoff was the rendezvous of the corsaires who

fled to its hospitable walls protected by the Ile de Batz.

A Corner of Brittany. 105

secure from English cruisers, they remained until another opportu-

nity gave them a chance to sally forth on their marauding expedi-

tions.

There are many other interesting old houses in Roscoff. As we

follow the road to St. Pol, we pass the famous Hospital built in

1598, on the walls of which stand out the escurian of the Compte de

Leon, boldly cut above the gate. More distant still the monastery

of the Capuchins, inthe garden of which may still be seen, the giant

fig-tree, a marvel of Roscoff, and a proof of the wonderful fertility of

the soil. This gigantic tree was planted long ago by Capuchin

monks and still remains contributing its fruit—a tree more than

two centuries old.

One should not neglect, in visiting Roscoff, to see the place called

Kersaliou. Midway in the route from Roscoff to St. Pol, hidden in

the trees, and approached by a by-path, is the retired house known

in the country round as the Kersaliou, an interesting place where

one can at the present time study the true Breton home. Our visit

to Kersaliou gave us a good sight of the mode of life of the Breton

farmer and his family.

The old house, Kersaliou, was evidently formerly the residence of

men of more property than at present. It stands back from the

road hidden in the trees, and as one approaches it from the main

road to St. Pol, it has a most picturésque outlook. We pass through

the gateway, an elaborate stone edifice, into a small court yard in

which the poultry of the farm find their home, through the low door

into the living room of the families which at present occupy the place,

The room on the lower floor is certainly a study. At one end of

the apartment there is a large fireplace on which the fire contin-

ually burns or smothers in the coals. On either side are seats where

children sit in the recesses of the high chimney. No matches are

used to light the fire, but a small pan of sulphur hangs near by and

a bundle of sticks. When there is need of more fire these sticks are.

used, their tips dipped in the sulphur and ignited by the live coals.

There is a cemented floor to the apartment, which is kitchen, din-

ing room and sleeping room combined. On one side we notice a

large cabinet, like a huge bureau with elaborately carved wooden

front—it is an enormous wall cabinet with what appears to be many

drawers, which are the beds, and as the house-wife pulls them out

one by one, in the depths we see the whitest bed clothing. These

106 A Corner of Brittany.

drawers are bedsin which sleep the three generations of two families

which live in this house.

A small box covered with a lid in which holes are pierced, is the

cradle from which ominous cries have already issuea indicative of

the contents. It was time for the afternoon meal wnen we visited

Kersaliou, and we were invited to share their repast with the hos-

pitable family. The house-wife had already placed fourteen rough,

earthen bowls on the table, and was breaking in each fragments of

bread. The soup was boiling over the fire, and in a few minutes

the dinner was ready. Each bowl received its share of liquid

poured over the bread, and the family began their simple meal.

Above the table hung a frame on which were placed wooden spoons

and each one took his spoon from the common source. There was

no need of knives or forks. The kind-hearted inhabitants of Ker-

saliou were true Bretons, conservative, religious, hospitable and in-

dustrious. Two grandmothers, two mothers, their husbands and a

host of children, of whom only one little girl spoke French. Allcon-

verse in the antique language of Gaul, a Celtic tongue allied to the

Gaelic of Wales. We do not have to travel far from Roscoff to lose

the soft, melodious French and then hear on all sides the old Bre- -

ton, which is not a patois, but the original celtic language that

dates into the remote past, and which no effort can eradicate from —

the country.

The old language is the common language of the country. ©

French is an innovation which makes its way slowly but surely. -

The preaching in the cathedrals and churches is in Breton; the —

common people use noother language, and all localities bear names

which will probably recall this tongue even when unspoken by the

descendants of those who now inhabit the land.

Brittany is full of those curious stone structures antedating historic

times, and called cromlechs and dolmens. Everywhere we find -

«these druid monuments, at one time formed by circles of stones —

simply stuck up in the ground, by lines of huge rocks as at Carnac, — :

or simple slabs placed on uprights. Roscoff has one of these mon- — 4

uments in its immediate vicinity. On the road to St. Pol near the

latter place, we turn off from the main road into a field of cabbage

and not far off we find the dolmens of Roscoff, high upright rocks,

upon which is placed a horizontal slab. Unfortunately one of these

horizontal slabs has fallen, for a hunter for buried treasure has dug

under the foundation and undermined it, but one can still study the

A Corner of Brittany. 107

general character of the monument. This monument, as all the

others of similar kind, is associated with the worship of the Druids,

and dates back to ancient times. More of its use we do not know, but

we were well repaid for our short visit. We turn back towards

Roscoff from this antique structure along the road. In the distance

we see the beautiful cathedral of St. Pol, but we must reserve our

visit to this city to another time. The far distant sea, the Ile de Batz

and the beautiful town of Roscoff stretching along the shore lies

just before us, lit up by the rays of a setting sun.

The Roscovite is a Celt with traces of the Spaniard. He is in-

dustrious and frugal, always conservative and religious. He still

retains the costumes of his fathers, his gz/e with conspicuous but-

tons, his waist girt by a highly-colored band, his round hat with rib-

bons falling on his shoulders. He wears the sabots, he clings to

the old language of Gaul.

The women are not beautiful, but they have fine eyes and well-

preserved teeth. "They also still retain the old costumes. The small

white bonnet, worn at all times, is so tightly bound about the head

that nothing can be seen of the hair. On the days of baptism or mar-

riage, however, when the bonnet is taken off, a charming coiffure is

seen and the beautiful hair bursts forth in all its charms from its

hermetically-sealed prison. Each town in Brittany has a peculiar

onnet and that of the young maidens differs from the matrons.

If you wish to see religious faith go to Breton, to Roscoff. Mod-

ern science, modern free thought, has not yet a hold in this place.

The Breton is religious by nature. Every one goes to the church

and the whole population turns out ez masse to the morning ser-

vice. According to Reclus, Brittany is still pagan, but while the in-

habitants do not worship the forces of nature, the rocks, the foun-

tains, or the trees, they repeat the same prayers to God in the Chris-

tian church, which they have made for two thousand years, only

addressed to a new divinity. “Itis always the same religion con-

tinued from century to century without the inhabitants of the land

perceiving the change in their divinities.” The geographer, how-

ever, has drawn an exaggerated picture. The country has emerged

from its old beliefs, but while much of the middle-age thought still

clings to the religion, it moves less rapidly, more ibid crue than

in many other lands.

No one who visits Roscoff should fail to see the giant fig-tree.

The soil of France nourishes no greater marvel of plant-life than

*

108 A Corner of Brittany.

this wonderfully vigorous growth of the ages. This tree, situated

not far from the main road in an enclosure in which it is sheltered

by a high wall, yearly bears its fruit in a latitude which in America

is half the year buried in the snows of Labrador. The mild cli-

mate which Roscoff owes to the Gulf Stream, gives to this land an

exceptional flora, and the intelligent cultivation of the soil has

transfomed the country into a great garden for the raising of all

kinds of vegetables. The potatoes, onions, beans, cauliflowers of

Finisterre are well known in England, and many an English vessel

is engaged in the transportation of them across the channel. The

inhabitants cultivate one of the most storm-swept coasts of France,

but the yearly products of their industries is inferior to no other in

quality or in quantity.

Roscoff is also a shipping port forthe lobster and the Palinurus,

many of which are found in the restaurants of distant Paris.

huge vivier where these animals are kept before shipment has been

built near the entrance tothe harbor. This vivier is supplied from

the waters around the place and even from the distant coast of Spain

Thousands of these animals are yearly sent to the great cities of

France and England from this little town.

The shrimps of Finisterre are well known far and wide and the

“ crevette " fisherwomen with their huge nets are often found in thè

pictures which artists have brought home to their Parisian studios, -

after their vacations in Brittany. When the tide is out these toilers of

the sea take advantage of the small pools in whichthe shrimps are re

tained and fill their nets with this much-desired crustacean. The table

of the hotels in Roscoff know also the periwinkles, a small gastro

pod which is universally eaten. "The sea furnishes many a food fish

which has not yet been adopted in other lands.

As the days go by all too fast and the time of our tarry in Ros

coff is more and more reduced, we came to love its quaint old

streets and church, its old houses and its antique walls more and

more, but the summons back to Paris is imperative and we find our _

selves back again at the station of the railroad to Morlaix. We bid

adieu to the Maison Blanche, the Café de la Marine and the hospi - ;

table walls of the Laboratoire. We say good-bye to the naturalists

who still linger there to finish their researches, with many a regret

In a few moments all are left behind, but we retain what can nevef —

nths |.

be effaced from memory, a souvenir of the happiest two mo

of scientific study which we have ever past. May the splendid mie

Li

TT

Permian Formation of Texas. 109

rine station at Roscoff and its enthusiastic master long continue the

work which has had so much influence on French science, and may

its liberality and hospitality be imitated and fostered in other lands

by other people.

ON THE PERMIAN FORMATION OF TEXAS.

BY CHARLES A. WHITE.

* Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey.

URING the past ten years Prof. E. D. Cope has from time to

time published descriptions and figures of vertebrate remains

from Texas which he referred to the Permian,’ although other

authors have generally regarded the formation from which the fos-

sils were obtained as of Triassic age.

A year ago Mr. W. F. Cummins, Assistant State Geologist of

Texas, who had collected a large part of the vertebrate fossils just

referred to, gave me a small suite of invertebrate fossils which he

had collected from the same formation with the vertebrates. I

found these fossils to possess so much interest that I afterward, in

company with Mr. Cummins, visited the region in question and

made collections from, and observations upon, the formation con-

taining them.

Thirty-two species of invertebrates were collected, about one-half

of which were readily recognized as well-known Coal-measure spe-

cies, but a few of them were new, among which are two belonging

to mesozoic types. It is this paleontological feature, in connection

with important correlated facts, that especially excited my interest

in the formation from which the fossils were obtained.

Although I have personally examined a considerable portion of

the region within which this formation occurs, I am indebted to

s This article is an abstract from a bulletin of the Survey now in course of prep-

aration.

? For his summary of North American Permian vertebrates, including this Tex-

m.

an f auna, together with references to the places of publication, see Trans.

Philos. Soc. Vol. XVI, pp. 285-288.

110 Permian Formation of Texas.

Mr. Cummins for a large part of the facts upon which the follow-

ing description of it is based. This is especially true with regard

to the extent of the area which it occupies.

In Texas this formation occupies an area, many hundred square

miles in extent, which constitutes the western part of the southern

extremity of the great central paleozoic region of the continent.

The southern boundary of this area is not now definitely known,

but it lies at least as far south as the Concho river. Its eastern

boundary may be approximately designated as extending from Red

river to the Colorado through Clay, Young, Shackelford, Callahan

and Runnels counties; and its western border as extending from

the Canadian river to the Concho through Hemphill, Wheeler, Don-

ley, Briscoe, Motley, Dickens, Garza, Borden and Howard counties.

The formation is known to extend northward far within the Indian

Territory, but in this article special reference is made only to that

portion of it which is found in Texas ; and the description which

is herein given is drawn mainly from observations made in Baylor,

Archer and other contiguous counties. .

This formation rests directly and conformably upon another se-

ries of strata in which a characteristic Coal-measure fauna prevails

but which is not now known to include any fossils of mesozoic types,

if we except the Ammonites parkeri of Heilprin, which he states was

obtained from Carboniferous strata in Wise county? Notwith-

standing the mesozoic character of a part of the molluscan fauna

of the upper formation, the preponderance of evidence makes it

necessary to regard it as belonging to the great Carboniferous Sys

tem, and as constituting an upper member of it. For these and

other reasons yet to be stated I have little or no hesitancy in desig-

nating this Texan formation as Permian, as Prof. Cope has done;

but I shall briefly discuss in following paragraphs the propriety of

the use of that name for all of the North American strata to which

it has been applied. '

The Texas Permian is distinguishable in general aspect and B

in lithological character from the formation which underlies it and a

which represents at least a large part of the Coal-measure series |

as the latter is known inthe Upper Mississippi Valley. And yt |

the Permian strata blend so gradually with those of the Coal-mea*" —

ures beneath, and with the gypsum-bearing beds, above that it Is d l

difficult to designate a plane of demarkation in either case.

3 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad., Vol, XXXVI, pp. 53-55.

pM alles BSS Mi a

4

a

b.

j

$

Permian Formation of Texas. 111

Thestrata of the Texas Permian consist of materials which

are somewhat difficult to describe, but they may be stated in a

general way to consist mainly of sandstones and sandy andclay-

ey shales, which are sometimes calcareous, with a few layers of im-

pure limestone, besides one somewhat important limestone horizon.

A common characteristic of many of the layers is the presence of

an abundance of small, hard, rough concretions, which usually be-

come separated and accumulate upon weathered surfaces as the im-

bedding clayey material is removed by erosion. But what strong-

ly impresses the general observer is the prevailing reddish color of

the formation, which is due to the prevalence of red oxide of iron

in most of its component materials. During the rainy season the waters

of the streams which traverse the formation are reddened by the

abundant ferruginous, clayey sediment, which they obtain by ero-

sion.

The stratification is generally more or less regular, but in the

district here especially referred to it contains comparatively few com-

pact, evenly-bedded strata. Therefore the formation having been,

in this district, only slightly disturbed since its deposition, few strik-

ing features in the landscape occur. That is, the district is a com-

paratively plain country, the surface of which, in the, general ab-

sence of forests, is diversified only by shallow valleys of erosion

and low hills of circumdenudation, with here and there a hill or

bluff of like origin which reaches a height of one or two hundred

feet above the general level. From the top of these higher eleva-

tions extended views are to be obtained, which are of much advan-

tage in the study of geological structure in that region.

Because of the slight disturbance which the Permian strata have

suffered in the district referred to, and the general absence of bold

escarpments, it is difficult to arrive atan accurate measurement of its

thickness, but it is approximately estimated at 1,000 feet. By dis-

tant view from the hills before mentioned, a general, gentle dip to

the westward of the whole formation is plainly discernable. It is

from a succession of such observations of the dip, together with

measurements of the thickness of exposed strata and estimates of

that of the unexposed, that the foregoing estimate of the full thick-

ness of the formation has been made.

A list of all the species of invertebrate fossils that have been dis:

covered in the Permian of Texas is given on a following page.

Prof. Cope's list of vertebrate species, already referred to, shows

112 Permian Formation of Texas.

that the same formation has furnished 10 species of fishes, 11 of

batrachians and 33 of reptiles ; 54 species in all.

The full thickness of the Coal-measure series in Texas is not yet .

known, its base not having been observed ; but the portion that

has been examined reaches an estimated thickness of 1800 feet.

The strata are generally somewhat evenly bedded, and consist of

bluish and gray limestones, gray and ferruginous sandstones, blu-

ish and carbonaceous shales and clays ; and several coal horizons

are now known in the series there.* These strata have furnished

at numerous localities, and in greater or less abundance, such char-

acteristic Coal-measure invertebrates as the following: Zerebrafula

bovidens Morton, Spirifer cameratus Morton, Athyrts subtilita Hall,

Productus cora d'Orb., P. nebrascensis Owen, P. costatus Sowerby, P.

semireticulatus Martin, Hemipronites crassus Meek and Hayden,

Myalina subquadrata Shumard, A/lorísma subcuneata M. and H., Nu-

culana bellistriata Stevens, Pleurotomaria tabulata Conrad, Bellerophon

carbonarius Cox, B. percarinatus Conrad, and Macrocheilus pondero-

sus Swallow. Many other species also have been found associated with

those which have been just named, but the latter are quite sufficient

to characterize the strata containing them as belonging to the Coal-

measure series. No attempt has been made to subdivide the Coal:

measure series of Texas into upper, middle, and lower portions a5

has been done in the Upper Mississippi Valley, and they are prob-

ably not capable of sucha subdivision in this southern region. -

The Lower or Subcarboniferous portion of the system has also not

been recognized in Texas.

Along the western boundary of the Texas Permian, as it has been

indicated in a previous paragraph, a series of strata, about 250 feet

in maximum thickness, now generally known as the *gypsum- -bearing

beds " and thought by many to be of Triassic age, rests conformably

upon the Permian. In general aspect, in a prevailing reddish color,

and in general lithological character, except in the prevalence of gYP*

sum in many of the layers and the somewhat greater prevalence of

clayey material, these overlying beds resemble the Permian strata

upon which they rest. With only one known exception these gYP

sum bearing beds have furnished no fossils. The exception refer- :

red to is the discovery by Mr. Cummins in Hardiman county, in n $

upper stratum of those beds, of a thin magnesian layer containing .

* Mr. Cummins informs me in an unpublished letter that he has distinguished " ee 1

less than nine coal horizons there.

Mc: c... 0: 0: 20 c il c i sl. ca ML EE p d ie T LE PL ee

v

Permian Formation of Texas. 113

numerous Casts of a species of Pleurophorus. This being a charac-

teristic genus among Permian molluscan faunas and a prevailing

form inthe Permian strata beneath the gypsum bearing beds, the

question is suggested whether the latter ought not to be regarded

as constituting an upper portion of the Permian. If these beds

are not separable from the Permian, it seems to be doubtful wheth-

er the Trias has any representation in Texas.

It will be seen from the foregoing remarks that in the part of

northern Texas to which special reference has been made, there is

a great conformable series of strata having a slight general dip to

the westward, its base being covered from view by mesozoic and

later formations. The estimated thickness of this older series, so

far as it is exposed to view, is 3050 feet. The lower 1800 feet, to-

gether with an unknown thickness beneath, is referred to the Coal-

measures. The next overlying rooofeet of strata are designated as

Permian; and the upper 250 feet of the series is doubtfully refer-

red to the Trias, although as already intimated there seem to be

reasons for regarding the latter beds as constituting the upper part

of the Permian. Cretaceous strata rest unconformably, and with a

contrary dip, upon the earlier eastern portion of this series; while

upon the later western portion they rest with apparent conformity ;

although their real conformity there may be properly questioned

because the Jura seems to be entirely wanting, and at most the

Trias is only slightly developed.

As already stated, the Cretaceous strata appear to rest conforma- |

bly uponthe gypsum-bearing beds; and the latter beds lie quite

conformably with the Permian and Coal-measures beneath, all hav-

ing a westward dip. On the contrary, all the beds from the Dino-

saur Sands, which are regarded as the lowermost Cretaceous forma-

tion in Texas, to the Tertiary inclusive, have an easterly dip and

seem tolie unconformably with the Coal-measures and Permian.

It is not certain, however, that the Carboniferous and older strata do

not dip to the eastward beneath the Cretaceous strata, forming an

anticlinal axis, Having thus shown the stratigraphical relation of the

Texas Permian withthe other formations, the following remarks

will be confined to the Permian alone.

The following descriptive section of the Texas Permian is tak-

en from Mr, Cummins' field notes, but it has been in large part

verified by my own personal observation. The different members

of this section, which are indicated by consecutive numbers, are not

114 Permian Formation of Texas.

distinctly definable from one another, but the section is presented

in this form for convenience in making reference to the respective

horizons at which collections of fossils have been made.

DESCRIPTIVE SECTION OF THE PERMIAN OF TEXAS.

1. Reddish and mottled sandy clays, with occasional layers of

sandstone

2. Variously colored clayey and sandy concretionary strata, with

a few irregular layers of impure concretionary limestone ; embrac-

ing near its middle a somewhat persistent stratum of limestone of

greyish blue color.

3. Sandstones alternating with clayey and sandy concretionary

layers and a few fine grained silicious layers.

4. Reddish and buff colored clayey and sandy shales with occa-

sional layers of sandstone.

5. Sandstones and sandy shales; with beds of reddish sandy

clay : passing gradually into the.Coal-measures beneath.

Vertebrate remains, which Prof. Cope confidently refers to the Per-

mian, occur at numerous localities and at many horizons from the

base to the top of this section ; but invertebrate remains have hith-

erto been discovered only in strata which are included in Nos. 2 and

3 respectively of that section. The lowermost known horizon of in-

vertebrates is about 400 feet above the base of the series, and the

uppermost is about as much below the top of the same. That is,

the invertebrate fossils described and figured in this article come

from the middle 200 feet in thickness of the Permian series as it has

just been defined.

The localities at which these fossils were obtained, only three in

number, are in Baylor and Archer counties; and as the country is

still an unsettled one, they can be designated only in an indefinite

way. The first of these localities, which is in the northwestern cor-

ner of Archer county, will be designated as ‘‘Camp Creek." The

second is in Baylor county, near the middle of its eastern boundary

line, and will be designated as “ Godwin Creek." The third is in

the northeastern part of Baylor county, near where the old military |

road, constructed by General Van Dorn, crossed the Big Wichita

river. This locality will be briefly designated as the “ Military

crossing of the Big Wichita." The strata of the two first mention- -

ed localities occur in No. 3 of the foregoing descriptive section of

the Permian, and the last named one, in No. 2.

Permian Formation of Texas. 115

The following is a list of all the invertebrate species which are

now known to have been found in the Texas Permian, all of

which are discussed on following pages. The list is presented in

tabular form for the purpose of giving a synoptical view of the fau-

na, so far as it is at present known, and also to indicate the locali-

ties at which the respective species have been discovered, as well

as their inter-association there. As to the latter condition, it is

proper to state that specimens of all the species found at the local-

ity which is indicated as the Military Crossing, were collected by

myself from a single stratum, where they were found commingled

in such a manner as to leave no doubt as to their having been all

members of one and the same contemporaneous fauna, Specimens

of the greater part of the other species were also collected by

me at the localities indicated.

LIST OF SPECIES.

Camp Godwin Military

Creek. Creek. Crossing.

to aties buylorensis 2.3. le IR ts X

t Py commisi & 4. cereo osse cue X

Peet, COMET ears os hes a as X

4. Popanoceras walcotti n. s...... TRAN Ud CURA. MO X

5. Orthoceras rushensis McChesney?.............-.-. X

6. Nautilus winslowi Meek and Vnde iR Ii X

7. N. occidentalis Swallow. X

8. 1 wi -— Te eer duy o cL in X

9. N,——— ——3 : diea x

Io, DY sr a i vdd D en Eds X

IT. N. (Endolobus)———— E o o si eset X

I4 Néneopae rener White eeu. sens ellos X X

I3. N. shumardi McChes s AD ee TE ere X

I4. Euomphalus nuer MAUS X

IS. E Tue. uL LLL De iret war oed des ys X

16. Murchisonia —ÓÀ.... X x

17. Patella Pes UE MN ba oar eek X

18. Bellerophon crassus M & W................... s X X

t9. B. stay Norwood & Praiten ....... A x

29. B— a UE a a X

21. Sedgwickia oni Shumard sp ceceo vs x

22. Pleurophorus ——————?. 0... cece uus cee X

23. Clllophoras occidentalis Geinitg i... seres X

24. Yoldia subscitula Meek & Hayden... . ........... X

25. Myalina permiana Swallow .. ...................- X X X

26. M. aviculoides MESH LIES, ulia iic. X

27. M. perattenuata M & H........... ee x X X

116 Permian Formation of Texas.

28. Gervillia longa Geinitz..... NU bile She > on X

29. Aviculopecten occidentalis Simul... (ow iux mori dp eS ci» X

30. Syringopora [PPP CAELO D E ae X

.31. Spirorbis PEERS udo REN EAE X

ga. Cythere tie brascensis Geinit?: 02 oo oh eise X

SUMMARY.

( Cephalopoda........ II species.

Mollusca. ; Gastropoda ......... 9 d

| Conchifera: «i2 uuu 9 a

ie TEMA Loi omnes ok I T

Articulata, Crustacea ROC esses I $

"Total. :32 E

By reference to the foregoing list of species, and especially to the

summary at the foot of the list, it will be seen that the invertebrate

collections which have hitherto been made from the Permian form-

ation of Texas, do not represent a fauna in its usual proportions,

as regards the classes and families to which the species respectively

belong. This is especially true when we compare these collections

with Permian faunas already known in other regions. For exam-

ple, it will be seen that the Cephalopoda are in unusually large pro-

portion, that the Brachiopoda and Polyzoa are absent, and that the

Polypi are represented by only a single species. In short, it is plain

that the invertebrate fauna which existed during the period in

which the Texas Permian was deposited, and in the same, or in

contiguous waters, is imperfectly and disproportionately represent-

ed by these collections.

Some of the causes of the imperfection and disproportion refer-

red to, are too plainly apparent to need extended comment, and

others are suggested by the lithological and stratigraphical charac-

ter of the formation in which the remains are found. Besides the

inevitable causes of imperfect representation of extinct faunas by

their remains, a conspicuous reason for the imperfection of these

collections is that the formation has yet been carefully examined in

only a small part of the large region which it is known to occupy,

and an exhaustive search for invertebrate fossils has yet been made at

only a few of the localities which have been visited by competent

collectors.

Again, there are few strata entering into the composition of the

Texas Permian where it has been examined, the character of

which indicates that they successively formed the bottom of waters

where at least a large proportion of then existing invertebrates

Permian Formation of Texas. 117

could not have found a congenial habitat. That is, sandy and oth-

er silicious strata, as has already been shown, prevail in this forma-

tion, while calcareous strata are comparatively rare. It is true that

certain families, especially of the Mollusca, find a silicious, sandy

bottom, such as the material of most of those strata doubtless

formed, more congenial than a muddy or calcareous one ; but to

far the greater part of all invertebrate faunas the latter kind of

bottom, other conditions being favorable, is much more congenial.

In short the lithological character of a formation often presents ob-

vious reasons not only for the comparative paucity of all invertebrate

fossils in itsstrata, but even for the absence of representatives of

certain families which we have every reason to suppose existed when

they were deposited, but in other, not far distant places, and in

more congenial waters.

But these collections, imperfect as they are, present subjects for

consideration which are of far greater interest than that which at-

taches to a mere addition to our knowledge of a few of the forms

which constituted the fauna of any given epoch or period. Such,

for example, as the relation which the fauna of one period in a given

region bore to faunas which were presumably contemporaneous

with it, and to those of the periods which immediately preceeded

and followed it ; and the indication which these fossils give as to

the geological age of the strata containing them.

Three of the Cephalopod species, the names of which are given

in the foregoing list, are represented on the accompanying plate,

and brief descriptions of them follow.

Ptychites cumminsi n. s. Plate I figs. ^ 5 6, 7 an 8.

. Shellcompressed-subglobose, volution g, umbilici

small ; septa numerous and complex, the suture line as represented

by fig. 8.

Medlicottia copei n. s. Plate I, figs. 1, 2 and 3.

Shell thinly discoid, periphery narrow, medially grooved, umbilici

small; volutions deeply embracing ; septal suture as shown by

Popanoceras wwalcotti n. s. Plate I, figs. 9, 10 and 11.

Shell discoid ; periphery deeply embracing; umbilici minute ;

surface marked by slightly sinuous radiating lines or indefinite

ridges ; septal suture as shown by fig. 11

The other species which is definitely recognized as new is a Goz-

latites whose general character is not unlike that of known Carbon-

118 Permian Formation of Texas.

iferous species. The Ptychitesand Popanoceras may be properly re-

garded as of mesozoic type, such as might be expected to occur in

Triassic strata. The Mediicottia is the first species of the genus to

be discovered on this continent, and has been usually regarded as

indicating the later Carboniferous, or Permian age, of the strata

containing the genus.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.

MEDLICOTTIA COPEI.

. Lateral view.

Outline showing transverse section of volutions.

Suture line. ` |

Ww oe

EBEN I

Q WM ^

PTYCHITES CUMMINSI.

Lateral view of a small example.

Peripheral view of the same.

Lateral view of a larger example.

View of a septum of a larger example.

Suture line of the same.

POPANOCERAS WALCOTTI.

Lateral view of a small example.

o. Peripheral view of the same.

* 11. Suture line.

All the figures are a little less than natural size.

It will be seen from the foregoing descriptions and notes, that

of the 32 species of invertebrates which are represented in the col-

lections from the Texas Permian, only four of them are recog-

nized as new, all of which are cephalopods, and all belong to the

Ammonoidea. The others have either been previously described

and published, or their specific identity with published forms is in

doubt because of their imperfection, either of the specimens in

hand, or of the manner of publication of the species which they

probably represent. Fifteen of these Texan species are satisfacto-

rily recognized as having been previously published, a part of which

have been by some authors referred to the Permian, but the Coal-

measure age of the remainder has never been questioned. Some

authors also assert that not only all of the fifteen species just men-

tioned, but all North American invertebrate species which have ever

been referred to the Permian, are really members of the fauna

which characterizes the Coal-measure period. Indeed, so generally

has this view prevailed during the last twenty years, that if the taue

new cephalopods before mentioned were not present in the Texan

OS A P

- La

A A

La]

e

PLATE: T

SPQ, a

aH

8 :

| fio

92.57 0 2, fige

J | /

Permian Cephalopoda.

Permian Formation of Texas. 119

collections, no American palozntologist who is familiar with the

Coal-measure fauna, would probably have hesitated to refer them all

to that period. .

It is doubtless true that because so large a proportion of the in-

vertebrate species, which have been obtained from reputed Permian

strata in North America, occur also in characteristic Coal-measure

strata, no satisfactory sepa”ation of them into two groups has hither-

to been practicable upon the evidence of invertebrate fossils ; and

stratigraphical evidence has hitherto been unsatisfactory also. The

GpHeqHiond, however, which are represented by the foregoing list and

h consisting mainly of Carboniferous forms, con-

tain at least. two types which are so generally regarded as indicating

the Mesozoic age of the strata containing them, that if they alone,

and without any statement of correlated facts, had been submitted

to any paleontologist, he would not have been warranted in refer-

ring them to an earlier period than the Trias, if he had followed the

usually accepted standard of reference. These two forms have

been described on preceding pages, under the names of Péychites

cumminst and Popanoceras walcotti respectively ; and with the ex-

ception of the Ammonites Parkeri® of Heilprin, also from Texas,

similar types have never been found associated with recognized

Carboniferous species in North America.

This, however, is by no means the first, nor the most important

discovery of the commingling of Mesozoic and Paleozoic tvpes in

such a manner as to indicate that they all lived contemporaneously,

and were members of one and the same fauna. The remarkable

discovery by Professor Waagen, in India, of* many molluscan spe-

cies belonging to mesozoic types associated with a characteristic

Carboniferous fauna is well known. It is also well known that mes-

ozoic characters are recognizable among certain of the Carbonifer-

ous and Permian cephalopods of Russia and Armenia, as well as of

certain parts of Europe.

The special interest which these Texan collections possess lies,

first, in the presence of the two cephalopods of mesozoic type as

members of an invertebrate fauna composed otherwise of paleozoic

types; and second, in the association of this invertebrate fauna

with a vertebrate fauna composed mainly of Permian types, as de-

* Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila. 1884, vol. XX XVI, p. 53.

° See Paleontologia Indica Series XIII ; Salt Range Fossils.

120 Permian Formation of Texas.

termined by Professor Cope, and in the known superposition of the

formation containing these faunas upon characteristic Coal-measure

strata. The first point pf interest relates to the interdelimitation

of the Mesozoic and Paleozoic; and the second, to the assumed

Permian age of the Texan formation from which the collections re-

ferred to were made.

The biological interdelimitation of the Mesozoic and Palzozoic

ages in geological history has long been regarded as clearly recog-

nizable in all parts of the world. While it was well known that a

considerable number of generic forms, especially of the inverte-

brates, respectively occur in strata of both ages, paleontologists have

generally regarded it as a fundamental fact that certain orders,

families, and even genera, which possess certain characteristics of

structure and form, were rigidly confined to each age respectively.

That is, they believed that the types which fall into the one cate-

gory all ceased to exist at the close of the Paleozoic age, and that

no member of the other category began its existence before the

opening of the Mesozoic age. The presence of remains belonging

to either the one or the other of these categories was therefore re-

garded as affording unquestionable proof of the geological age of

the strata containing them. Attempts were made to explain the

first discoveries of the commingling of earlier and later types in

one and the same stratum, by assuming that the specimens showing

the earlier types of structure were derived in an already fossil

condition from pre-existing strata in the process of their destruction

by which the materials for new strata were produced.

However unphilosophical those views concerning the chronolog-

ical restriction of certain types may appear in the light of modern

biology, it is not to be denied that until within comparatively few

years paleontological observations in the field seemed, as a rule, to

favorthem. These later discoveries, important instances of which

have been referred to, show conclusively that animals belonging tO

both the categories which have just been indicated lived contempo-

raneously. It furthermore appears that some of those which have

been regarded as exclusively mesozoic in character began their ex-

istence while yet Paleozoic forms were far in the ascendant ; and

also that many Palzozoic types survived their earlier associates and

lived in association with Mesozoic faunas. As I shall discuss this

subject in another publication, it need not receive further consider-

ation here; but I offer in following paragraphs some general re-

Permian Formation of Texas. 121

marks upon the reputed North American Permian, in the course

of which reference will be made to the bearing which the pres-

ence of Mesozoic types among the Texan Permian fossils has

upon the question of the geological age of the strata containing

them.

From time to time during the past thirty years there have been

discussions among geologists as to whether there is in North

America any true equivalent of the Permian formation of Europe.

Some writers have been uncompromising in their advocacy of the

affirmative side of this question, and others have been equally pos-

itive in asserting the negative. Much of this difference of opinion

has arisen from imperfect knowledge of essential facts, and much

from want of a clear definition by the respective writers as to what

they have regarded as constituting equivalency in this case. Al-

though much addition has within the past few years been made to

our knowledge of facts bearing upon this question, and it is evident

that clearer views upon it are now generally held than formerly

prevailed, it is too much to expect that the views of all geologists |

should even now fully agree. The following statement of the

present condition of this question, as the writer understands it, is

presented that the reader may understand more clearly his views,

and the reasons for the conclusions and opinions which are ex-

pressed in this article.

In Europe the Carboniferous system is understood to be divided

into three great groups, namely, the Lower Carboniferous, the

Coal-measures and the Permian, which are definable from one an-

other, not only by palzontological, but by stratigraphical character-

istics. In North America, the great Carboniferous system is quite

as largely developed as in Europe. The Lower Carboniferous and

Coal-measure groups are, upon both stratigraphical and palaeonto-

logical grounds, as clearly recognizable and distinguishable from

each other, in some parts of this continent, as they are in Eu-

rope, but the Permian has hitherto had no such undisputed rec-

ognition. Therefore, the question now to be considered is whether

the Permian of Europe has really an equivalent anywhere in

North America; and if so, how that equivalency is recognizable.

There are seven principal regions in North America within which

strata occur that have been by different authors referred to the

Permian. These are (1) southwestern Pennsylvania and northern

West Virginia ; (2) Prince Edwards Island ; (3) eastern Illinois ;

122 Permian Formation of Texas.

(4) northeastern Kansas and southeastern Nebraska; (5) South

Park, Colorado ; (6) isolated portions of New Mexico, Arizona,

Utah and Western Colorado, and (7) northern Texas and the adja-

cent part of Indian Territory.

In all these cases there seems to be no room for doubt that the

strata in question are not older than the Upper Coal-measures, as

that formation is distinguishable in North America, but aside from

their evidently high position in the Carboniferous system, their

recognition as Permian has been based upon different kinds of evi-

dence in each case. In the first and second mentioned cases it was

based wholly upon plant remains ; in the third, upon vertebrate re-

mains alone; in the fourth, upon invertebrate remains ; in the fifth,

upon plants and insects,’ and in the sixth, mainly upon stratigraph-

ical position. The evidence in favor of the recognition of the

strata, as constituting a separate formation in the seventh case, is

presented in this article.

Two general ideas seem to have prevailed respectively in the

minds of those who have considered the question of the recognition

of the Permian in North America. On the one hand, the discovery

on this continent of remains belonging to generic or other types of

vertebrate, invertebrate, or plant life, which are respectively similar

to forms found in the European Permian, have been regarded by

some authors as surely indicating in each separate case the Permian

age of the strata containing them, even in the absence of, or without

regard to, correlated facts, whether paleontological or stratigraph-

ical. On the other hand, it has been contended that no definite

recognition of the Permian, even in the first-mentioned cases, ought

to be made until after due consideration of all obtainable corre-

lated palzeontological and stratigraphical facts ; and not then, unless

the preponderance of all that evidence should plainly favor such

recognition.

The untenableness of the position indicated in the case first

stated is shown by the facts mentioned in preceeding paragraphs of

the occurrence in one and the same stratum of forms which have

been held to be characteristic of separate geological periods, and

even of separate ages. It is conspicuously shown in the case of the

Texan formation, which is specially discussed in this article, be-

1 These insects, however, have been by Scudder referred to the Trias, although

they are associated with the most characteristic Permian flora that has yet been dis-

covered on this continent.

Periman Formation of Texas. 123

cause both its Coal-measure and Triassic age can be even more

readily proved, in an ex parte way, by special selections from its

fossils, than its Permian age. And yet the sum of all the evidence

is in favor of the latter.

The following paragraph from the work of Professors Wm. M.

Fontaine and I. C. White tersely states? the principle which ought

to govern the investigator in these cases, although it was written

only with reference to the Permian character of the flora which they

were then investigating.

“ Itis good evidence that we have to deal with a more recent for-

mation, when we find it to show a decadence of old forms, andan

introduction of new ones, destined to reach their culmination at a

later period. Thus if we find, in a series of rocks, plants charac-

teristic of the Carboniferous formation, and perceive that these die

out and disappear, we should not conclude from their mere pres-

ence that the age of the strata is Carboniferous, but rather that it

is Permian. So also the finding of genera and species, even iden-

tical with those of the Trias or Jurassic, would not necessarily

imply a Triassic or Jurassic age. If we find them to be exceed-

ingly rare, their presence is rather indicative of a formation older

than;the Trias or the Jurassic. It is only by taking into considera-

tion all the above named characters and other points which may be

presented by the entire body of specimens, that we can determine

the nature of the evidence offered by the life of a formation. It

will not suffice to say arbitrarily that this or that feature is without

value as evidence. Circumstances might reverse the normal relative

weight of evidence from the several sources, and give preponder-

ating weight to what would, if unaffected by them, have slight

value.

Besides the observance of this principle, the investigator should

remember the entire improbability that distinguishing types could

have been simultaneously introduced in all parts of the world ; and

the no less evident fact that certain types in different parts of the

world long survived their extinction in other parts. He should al-

SO bear in mind the now evident fact that the rate of pro-

gressive development of vertebrate, invertebrate and plant life

respectively has not been uniform in all parts of the world. It

therefore ought not to be expected that precisely the same associa-

4

Permian or Upper ‘Carb. Flora of West ‘Virginia and S. W. Pennsylvania.

Second Geol. Surv. Penn. Rep. Prog. P. P., pp. 109, 110.

124 Permian Formation of Texas.

tion of types would be found on this continent that occur in Europe

and elsewhere.

Much difference of opinion has prevailed even among those who

recognize the importance of considering all the facts which bear

upon a given case of assumed equivalency. Some have believed

that it should be strictly chronological as regards the whole of a giv-

en formation ; while others claim that the most we can reasonably as-

sume in any case is approximate contemporaneity, and all that we

can ever certainly know in such cases is the homotaxial relations

of formations in different parts of the world respectively. The

scope of this article, however, will admit of only a partial discus-

sion of those views.

If all the time which is represented by the entire Carboniferous

system in Europe is represented by the entire Carboniferous system

of North America, the Permian of Europe must necessarily have a

complete time equivalent somewhere on this continent If that

gystem is everywhere incomplete at the upper limit on this conti-

nent, and the same is complete in Europe, it necessarily follows

that the stratigraphical time equivalent of the European Permian

is either absent or incomplete in North America. But all the

known facts which bear upon this case are of such doubtful value

in their application to the question of strict chronological equiva-

lency that it seems to be unprofitable to discuss it. "Therefore the

only question that remains to be considered in this connection 1$

that of homotaxy.

The question, even after being reduced to these limits, is a com-

plex one, for it still involves the consideration of conflicting and

disagreeing paleontological evidence as well as a recognition of :

upper and lower delimiting boundaries of the formation. There

can be no good reason for doubting that there are in various parts

of North America strata which are homotaxially equivalent, at

least in part, with the Permian of Europe. But it is equally true

that much of the reputed North American Permian cannot be satis:

factorily separated from the Coal-measures, and even those which

have been separated more or less satisfactorily, are found to be S®

intimately related to the Coal-measures as to make the lower limit

indefinable.?

: the : n

*In view of the last mentioned condition, several American and Pope

writers have applied the compromising term ** Permo-Carboniferous " to that

definable upper portion of the Carboniferous system. Unfortunately, howeve

‘ if-

some American authors have of late applied the same term to the whole Carbon

Permian Formation of Texas. 125

Heretofore it has been impracticable to say whether the upper

limit of the Carboniferous system in North America is complete or

not. For example, none of the reputed Triassic strata, which occur

in various parts of the continent, have been found in such relation

to the reputed Permian as to indicate that there was continuous

sedimentation from the one formation to the other; nor have those

Triassic strata been found to contain any kaistat palæontological

evidence of their immediate succession to the Permian. Indeed,

as regards the remains of invertebrate life, the existence of aüy

Triassic strata in North America rests upon comparatively slight

evidence ; slighter, indeed, than it might have seemed to be before

the discovery of Triassic types associated with well-known Carbon-

iferous forms.?°

The conflicting character of a part of the evidence afforded by

the reputed North American Permian as to its age has already

been shown, but there is an important case of want of harmony of

different portions of certain accepted paleontological evidence that

deserves mention. In Professor Cope's systematic catalogue of the

Permian vertebrate fauna of North America," he shows that it has

been discovered mainly in two limited districts, one in eastern Illi-

nois and the other in Texas. His catalogue also shows that of the

76 species enumerated, not one, and of the 32 genera only five, are

common to the two districts. He also states that *the Permian

vertebrate fauna of Illinois and Texas exhibits close parallels, but

not yet generic identity on this continent."?

On the contrary, the marine invertebrates which characterize the

North American Coal-measures, a part of which usually range up

into the reputed Permian, are widely distributed on this continent,

erous series; seeming thereby to imply that the series includes an inseparable

equivalent of the Permian, as well as the remainder of the system

?? The Triassic character of a part of the Permian fauna of Texas has been suf-

Meekoceras beds of southeastern Idaho. Besides this, those beds appear to have

an intimate stratigraphical relation with the characteristic Carboniferous strata be-

neath them. Add to these facts the further one that types similar to those which

have been relied upon in referring the Idaho beds to the middle Trias, also occur

in undisputed Carboniferous strata, and it seems possible that those dudes Trias-

sic beds ought to be referred to the Permian rather than to the Trias

1 Trans. Am. Philos. Soc. vol. XVI, pp. 285-288.

1 See Vol TIL, Book I. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., p 25.

126 Permian Formation of Texas.

and their geographical range includes both the Illinois and Texan

vertebrate localities. That is, the invertebrate fauna referred to

is uniform over a region in which the vertebrate fauna is diverse.

In all the vertical and geographical range of these invertebrate

fossils, there has never been observed any evidence of the deca-

dence of old forms? such as would be taken to indicate an approach-

ing close to the geological period which they have especially char-

acterized ; and it is only in the case of the Texan Permian that an

introduction of new forms has been yet observed which might be

regarded as forerunners of a new one.

Finally, while it is freely admitted that a considerable number

of the invertebrate species which characterize the Permian of Eu-

rope have nearly related representatives on this continent, it should

not be forgotten that they are as characteristic of our undisputed

Coal-measures as of the reputed Permian. Even if those forms are

really specifically identical on the two continents it does not neces-

sarily prove the contemporaneity of the respective formations con-

taining them, In fact those formations must be necessarily of a

difference in age equal to the time required by the distribution of

the species.

The recognition of the Permian of Texas as a separate upper

group of strata belonging to the Carboniferous system is based up-

on both stratigraphical and paleontological evidence, and this evi-

dence is fuller than that which has been adduced in favor of any

other reputed Permian strata of North America. First, it contains

invertebrate species which have been referred to the Permian in

other districts to the northward, some of which are closely related

to Permian species of Europe. Second, it contains the

large vertebrate fauna published by Professor Cope, which he

regards as characteristically Permian. Third, the Texan formation

evidently constitutes an upper, apparently the uppermost, portion

of the Carboniferous system. Fourth, the lithological] difference

between this formation as a whole and the Coal-measures beneath it

13 It has been pointed out by some authors that certain of the brachiopods and

other spezies which characterize the Coal-measures, have never been found in any

of rhe reputed Permian strata, and it seems to have been assumed that their ab-

sence was due to a final decadence of those forms before the Permian period was

reached. It seems, however, not at all unreasonable to infer that successive

changes of conditions differently affected different classes of animals, in conse -

quence of which the forms referred to were not extinguished, but only differently

dispersed.

ee ee ae ee REUNION CERRO ORUM EUIS

Permian Formation of Texas. 127

is sufficiently marked to make it conveniently distinguishable by the

eye. Besides this, the mesozoic element which has been shown to

exist among the invertebrates of the Permian of Texas may be

properly regarded as holding an opposite relation to the Paleozoic

element, and thus to suggest a balance of paleontological evidence

in favor of the Permian age of that formation.“

The present state of our knowledge, or warranted opinion, as to

the existence of the Permian formation in North America may be

summed up briefly as follows :—

Although the two earlier groups of the Carboniferous system,

namely, the Lower Carboniferous and Coal-measures are asclearly

recognizable in the region traversed by the Mississippi river as they

are in Europe, in many parts of this continent where Carboniferous

strata are largely developed no distinctive recognition of either of

those groups, or of the Permian, is practicable.

In those regions where the Coal-measures or their equivalent

strata are recognizable, certain strata are sometimes found resting

upon them which have been referred to the Permian; but those

strata are as a rule, not distinctly separable from the Coal-measures

upon either stratigraphical, or paleontological ground. That is, no

distinct stratigraphical plane of demarkation between the Coal-

measures and the reputed Permian is observable. ^ Besides this

many of the common Coal-measure species range up into those Per-

mian strata, and many acknowledged Permian types, according to

the European standard, occur inthe unquestioned Coal-measure

strata beneath them.

The upper limit of the Carboniferous system and the lower limit

of the Trias, have never been clearly recognized upon this conti-

nent, and it is therefore not yet known that either of these systems

are here at any point complete in that respect. But the upper lim-

it of the Carboniferous system is known to be incomplete at most

places where strata of that age occur.

Notwithstanding the mezozoic character of some of the fossils

found in the reputed or true Permian strata the relationship of all

these strata, both palzontologically and stratigraphically, is far

more intimate with the Carboniferous than with the Trias.

14. The value of this suggestion is somewhat lessened by the known presence

of the Ammonites parkeri of Heilprin in the underlying Texan Coal-measures,

and by the presence of similar types beneath the Permian in certain parts of the

old world. Still, such forms as Ptychites cumminsi may properly be regarded as

mmediate harbingers of the Mesozoic age.

128 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

A large part of the North American strata which have been by

various authors referred to the Permian have no valid claim to be

either so considered, or as being separate from the upper Coal-

measures. Buta part of them may be reasonably assumed to be

homotaxially equivalent with at least a part of the European Per-

mian ; although their delimitation from the Coal-measures may in

most cases be difficult or impracticable.

The evidence upon which the Texan strata have been referred

to the Permian is fuller than that which has been adduced with re-

gard to any other North American strata, that have been so re-

ferred. That is, the evidence of both vertebrate and invertebrate

fossils is in favor of such reference, and the difference in the char-

acter of the strata from those of the underlying Coal-measures, al-

though not great, is conveniently distinguishable. Still, it is true

that the Texan Permian strata bear many Coal-measure invertebrate

species ; and its flora is at present unknown.

ON THE MAMMALIA OBTAINED BY

THE NATURALIST EXPLORING EXPEDITION

TO SOUTHERN BRAZIL.

BY E. D. COPE.

ger Naturalist Exploring Expedition left New York for South-

ern Brazil in the year 1882, and landed at Porto Alegre M

the department of Rio Grande do Sul, with the object of making

collections in that province. It was under direction of Herbert H.

Smith, whose former service under Prof, Frederick Hartt in the .

Geological Survey of Brazil, had given him ample acquaintance with

the peopleand language. Regular collections were first made at

the village of Sao Joao do Monte Negro, on a tributary of the Ura-

1 Articles descriptive of this region by Mr. H. H. Smith will be found in thè

AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1883, pp. 480, 707 & 1007.

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 129

guay River, in the western centre of the province, in about lat. 28°

south. After a residence there of several months, Mr. Smith and

party proceeded north-west to the interior province of Matto Grosso,

ascending the Paraguay River to Cuyaba. From Cuyaba the party

went about thirty miles to the north-eastward, to the little village of

Chapada, where they remained for months. This locality was es-

pecially favorable for the objects of the expedition, being on the

boundary line between the great plains to the south and the forest-

covered mountains on the north, and at the heads of the drainage

of the Paraguay to the south, and of the Xingu tributary of the Am-

azon on the north, at about lat. 15? S.

The difference in the characteristics of these localities is easily

observable in the collections obtained from them. I have already

published reports on the Batrachia and Reptilia from both localities,’

and the present report embraces the Mammalia. The insects and

birds are in the Museum of Natural History, Central Park, New

York. Researches on the Mammalia of these regions have been al-

ready made by Hensel? and Von Jhring in Rio Grande do Sul, and

by Natterer at Cuyaba. The collections of the last-named explorer

are worthily described by Wagner of Munich, and a full report on

them has been made by Von Pelzeln. ł of Vienna. Sixty-five spe-

cies were obtained by Mr. Smith, most of them represented by many

specimens, and five of the species appear to be new to science. The

distribution of these as to locality will be stated at the close of the

paper.

MARSUPIALIA.

1. DIDELPHYS MARSUPIALIS AZARÆ Temm. (Thos.)

Two skins with skeletons from Sao Joao; three skins with skele-

tons from Chapada; one skin with skull from Sao Joao; two skins

from Chapada, two from Sao Joao, and four without locality; also

one skeleton from Chapada, two skulls from do, three skulls from

Sao Joao, and two skulls and a skeleton of unknown localities.

2. DIDELPHYS MARSUPIALIS AURITA Wied. (Thomas).

One skin from uncertain locality. Although fully grown, the

long dorsal hairs and the ears are perfectly black, and there are

large spots above the eyes. Belly light brown.

1 Proceedings American Philosophical Society, 1884, p. 185 ; 1887, p. 44.

2 Memoirs of the Akad. Wisseusch. Berlin 1872. ¢ Zoolog. Botan. Gesselsch.

Wien, 1883. i

130 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

3. PHILANDER PUSILLUS Desm.

A specimen in alcohol, and a skeleton, probably of this species,

from Chapada.

The generic name Philander is used here for the opposums with-

out marsupial pouch, without regard to other characters.

4. CHIRONECTES MEMINA Cuv.

One skin with skeleton from Chapada.

CHIROPTERA.

PHYLLOSTOMID4E.

PHYLLOSTOMA HASTATUM Pallas.

Chapada.

. CAROLLIA BREVICAUDA Weid.

Chapada.

ARTIBEUS PLANIROSTRIS ! Spix.

Chapada.

ARTIBEUS BILOBATUS Peters.

Neither of the two specimens from Chapada agree with the de-

scription given by Professor Peters in all respects. The edge of the

lancet of the nose-leaf is not crenulate, and the border of the horse-

shoe is but slightly lobed. In all other respects the specimens agree

with the descriptions, The degree of the lobing of the edge of the

Cn

e

~u

LJ

e

! DERMANURA EVA Sp. nov.

Founded on two adult males from the Island of Saint Martins, West Indies.

Dentition, L$; c.1; pm.2; m.2. Median upper incisors emarginate ; all the

inferior incisors emarginate. Lip tubercles as usual in this genus and Artibeus,

those of the permaxillary region narrow and separated by vertical plicæ, and with-

out an interior row of rounded warts as in A. planirostris. Inferior border of horse-

shoe free and not appressed, its lateral borders once undulate. Ear laid forwards

reaching to middle of eye. Tragus acuminate, widest at the middle, triangular 12

section, the edge external. lnterfemoral membrane notched to a line opposite to

the middle of the tibia. Hind legs and feet, interfemoral membrane to line of.

knees, and proximal half of fore-arm, with a sparse silky fur. Wing membrane

furred to middle of femur above and below. General color brown, reddish tinged

on the limbs and head, Sides of head a pale shade, above each eye to inner side

of ear, paler.

Length of head and body, m. .079 ; of interfemoral membrane to notch, .012-

Length of head .032 ; of leaf of muzzle, .0125 ; of fore-arm, .059; of tibia, 02% ; of

posterior foot, .o17.

ccording to Dobson, this species approaches nearest to the D. quadrivittata, :

but it differs in its much superior size and in the different form of the external w—

cisor tooth. It is as large as the Artibeus planirostris. Dr. R. E. Van Rijgersm^ — —

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. | 13

horse-shoe may be variable; and I observe some crenation of the

edge of the same in some specimens of the Vampyrops lineatus which

is wanting in other specimens.

9. VAMPYROPS LINEATUS Geoffroy.

Chapada.

IO. STURNIRA LILIUM Geoffroy.

Chapada.

EMBALLONURID&.

II. Mo Lossus RUFUS Geoffr.

One specimen from Sao Joao.

12 NYCTINOMUS BRASILIENSIS Is. Geoffr.

Four specimens from Sao Joao.

VESPERTILIONIDZE.

I3. VESPERUS ARGE Sp. nov.

Dentition r. $;c. 14; Pm. 3; m. $. Inferior incisors trilobate,

placed transversely to the mandible; superior incisors unequal, the

external simple, narrow, not quite so long as either lobe of the inter-

nal, and placed close to it and to the canine. “ First " (second) in-

ferior premolar much smaller than second, and in line with the latter.

Ears much shorter than the head, when laid forwards reaching a

short distance in front of eye, near the apex. Helix openly notched

.on the external margin, which is thus turned outwards and obtusely

rounded. Tragus convex, separated from helix by a very open

emagination. Antitragus elongate lanceolate, with the greatest

width near the middle, and with a rounded lobe at the external base.

Lateral swellings of the muzzle large, covered with sparse hair. At

their anterior extremity and just above the nostril is a deep fossa

which is connected by a groove with the nostril, giving the appear-

ance when closed of an oblique slit-like nostril, as in V. platyrhinus

of Dobson. Notubercles on the soles. Interfemoral membrane in-

closing all the caudal vertebre, which terminate in a short free ca-

tilaginous apex. Wing membrane to base of hallux. Calcaneum long;

postacalcaneal lobe distinct, narrow. Tibia elongate. Fur extend-

ing on the wing membranes by a narrow border only above and be-

low, not extending on interfemoral membrane. Antebrachial mem-

brane not reaching middle of fore-arm.

Color above dark brown tinged with reddish; below similar, the

hairs with lighter brown tips. Inferior side ot interfermora] mem-

132 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

brane pale or milky, the color becoming less decided towards the

margins.

. Length of head and body m. 061; of tail .038; of head .o20; of

hind foot, oro; of third digit, .o71.

One ! from Sao Joao.

EDENTATA.

MYRMECOPHAGIDA,

14. MYRMECOPHAGA JUBATA Linn.

Four skins with skeletons, and three skulls, from Chapada.

15. MYRMECOPHAGA BIVITTATA Desm.

Two skins with skeletons, and two skeletons and a skull from

Chapada ; one fresh skin purchased at Sao Joao.

16. MYRMECOPHAGA BIVITATTA STRAMINEA Sp. nov.

This species is represented by a nearly perfect skin in good pre-

servation. Its proportions are much as in the M. divittata, includ-

ing the relative length of the tail. The internal claws are smaller

than in the common species. The most obvious peculiarity is the

color. "This is a general straw-color, uninterrupted excepting by two

black bands on the shoulders, and a black patch on the middle of

the abdomen. The black bands commence immediately in front of

the shoulders, and extend posteriorly over them, and terminate

above a point about an inch posterior to the axilla, converging very

slightly, or nearly parallel. A blackish band passes from the eye

which it surrounds, to the muzzle. Claws dark horn-color.

Measurements of skin in normal proportions.

— to base OF tail (below). cioe ee Ce US .410

OF tilii. Roe es a aS TONS .365

"^" from end of miile to e... vie orn .055

a Je n BE DURO cee eye Cie ee .095

Uc OF OMB. vive Cred ke va geek et oe she rs CAVES id .028

ee: Bo v quU QU PUO ba Ur DAE .153

st. of second Claw (choi) t Vra TV EVA, .O16

"^ of thd claw (chotd) 3 25703 VIG iis LET .037

‘* of hind leg.. erty I .150

** of sole of hind foot qas: of dui: 42723 P4 .069

te of posterior fourth claw... ede .O0I5

1Ina cave near Chapada, Mr. Smith found skulls of species of bats of the

genera Molossus, Phyllostoma, and Chiroderma.

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 133

Burmeister (Thiere Brasiliens) refers to specimens of the M. divit-

fata in which the black of the dorsal regions is very much reduced

in extent.

The type specimen is not fully grown I suspect. The label has

been lost, so that I do not know whether it was obtained at Sao Joao

or at Chapada.

17. MYRMECOPHAGA ?SELLATA ! Cope.

A skin from Chapada resembles almost exactly this species or

sub-species, in coloration, differing only in the non-continuation of

the median yellow dorsal stripe to the yellow of the rump. But un-

fortunately it lacks the end of the tail so that the length of this part

cannot be ascertained. I therefore refer it here with doubt.

Two specimens from French Guiana are in the Museum of the

Academy of Natural Sciences in this city. "They are grizzled straw-

color, and have no black bands or spots. The hair of the entire

superior regions is black at the base. The tail, is as long as the head

and body together. These animals I suppose to belong to the M.

longicaudata of Schreber, but the tail is not twice as long as the body

! MYRMECOPHAGA SELLATA sp. nov.

This species is founded on a skin which I obtained from Dr. Fritzgaertner,

who brought it from Honduras and displayed it in the exhibit from that country at

the World's Exposition at New Orleans. It is characterized by its long tail and

peculiar coloration, exhibiting characters between the M. longicaudata of Wagner

and the M. bivittata. While the tail is as long as the body in the latter, it is

said to be nearly double that length in the former. In the M. sellata it is at least

equal to the héad and body together, but as the extremity is wanting it may have

been longer. The hairs on the extremity of the tail are very sparse.

he color is characteristic. The ground is straw-color. An oblique black

band commences on the front of the upper arm and extends upwards and back-

wards over the shoulder, and converges rapidly towards its fellow. They do not,

however, meet, but each is continuous with a large black patch which covers the

back and sides on each side of a narrow median band of the light ground-color.

These patches extend posteriorly above to the end of the lumbar region, and then

the boundary runs obliquely forwards on each side to the groin. This leaves the

thighs, rump and tail of the pale ground color, regions which are black in the 77.

bivittata. The dusky color in front of the eye is very indistinct. The feet and end

of the muzzle have been unfortunately cut off from this specimen, so that their

characters cannot be ascertained. The length of the body to the base of the tail is

0.400 m, ; length of tail, .515 m.

Besides the three skins above mentioned, there are two of the M. divittata in

the Museum of Philadelphia, one from the Magdalena River, and one from

Brazil.

134 Mammalia of Southern Brasil.

as Gray states, but as long as the head and body, as in the M. sellata,

and considerably exceeding that of the M. bivitatta.

DASYPODID.E.

18. XENURUS GYMNURUS, Illiger, 1815.

Three skins, with skeletons, one from Sao Joao, and one from

Chapada. ;

19. XENURUS HISPIDUS Burmeister.

Twelve individuals, all from Chapada: evidently abundant, and

constant in its characters.

20. DASYPUS SEXCINCTUS Linn.

Two skins, five skeletons, and nine skulls, all from Chapada.

21. PRIODONTES MAXIMUS Kerr.

One individual complete, and one skull from Chapada.

22. TATUSIA PEBA Desm. 3

Two skins, with skeletons, from Sao Joao ; one skin with skull,

four'skeletons and nine separate skulls, all from Chapada. :

23. TATUSIA MEGALOLEPIS Sp. nov.

Movable bands, six ; transverse bands or rows on the scapular

shield, counted near the border, and omitting the large posterior row,

twelve. Transverse rows on the pelvic shield, counted near the

border, twelve, without the anterior wide marginal row. Tail consider-

atly shorter than body, cylindric to the end. No rudimental thumb

on the forefoot. Ears one-third as long as head. Two short hairs

issuing from each scute of the movable rings. Hair of inferior sur-

faces very sparse.

Measurements.

M.

Length of carapace (axial) e foe Pel eere ne .197

te: Of shield of head Li. o rl de eun .055

Width between Orbs y Cris cule vl Lern .026

ength of 6r... oiii ee C auus 6 .025

EE d opo DUE OM p v DN e qe i .166

"* OF fore 10g. L0 x a NL 052

* of third claw of fore foot (fourth)... ..... O17

" - " bind foo. iL UD E .012

The largesize of thescales distinguishes the Tatusia megalolepis from

the 7. peba and the 7. Aydridaat all ages. The number ofscuta in a mov-

able band in the former is only 43, while in both the latter the number

ranges from 57 to 60, It resembles the 7. Ayérida in the short tail,

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 135

but differs from this species in its longer ears, which are quite as in

the T. peba, and also in the rounded and not angulate posterior bor-

der of the head shield, with one and not two rows of scales. The skull

displays some slight differences from that of the D. peda. One char-

acter appears to be of value. The pterygoids are produced towards

the median line, so that their opposing edges are parallel and separ-

ated by a fissure only, and this fissure is continued on the middle

line into the palatine bone for a distance of nearly 2 mm. In all of

my numerous skulls of 7:Peóa, the pterygoid borders are either

divergent or are separated by a wide space, and the palatines are

not notched posteriorly. The palate is flat, with the borders rounded,

and not recurved.

A single specimen with skeleton from Chapada.

RODENTIA.

SCIURIDJE.

24. SCIURUS ZSTUANS Linn.

One skin with skeleton, one with skull, and one entire skeleton,

from Sao Joao.

25. SCIURUS VARIABILIS Geoff. var Langsdor fii Natt.

Four skins with skeletons, four skins with skulls, nine separate

skins, and four separate skulls, all from Chapada.

Mr. J. A. Allen refers the S. /angsdor fii of Natterer to this species

as a color variety. All of the above seventeen skins are identical in

color, showing that if it is but a variety, it is very constant in this

locality. I may add that of the eleven skulls of the collection, all

have but one superior premolar, and not two as given by Mr. Allen

for the S. variabilis.

MURID.E.

26. CRICETUS sp.

Chapada.

27. CRICETUS sp.

Chapada.

28. CRICETUS sp.

Chapada.

29. CRICETUS sp.

Sao Joao.

Report U. S. Geol. Survey Terrs. XI, p. 768.

136 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

30. Mus ALEXANDRINUs Geoffr,

Chapada. With a litter of young.

31. Mus DECUMANUS L.

Sao Joao.

ECHINOMYID&.

32. DACTYLOMYS AMBLYONYX Wagner.

Three skins with skeletons, from Sao Joao.

These specimens agree with the descriptions given by Hensel

and Burmeister. The dentition differs from that of the D. typus

Geoff. as figured by Geoffroy * and F. Cuvier,f in having the two

component V-shaped columns in both jaws united by a narrow

isthmus, as is the case in the columns in Echinomys. This fusion is

probably due to the age of the specimen, as it takes place on wear-

ingin the genus Echinomys. Another character is the transverse

lamina-like anterior plate of the first inferior molar (premolar),

which is represented by a cylindric column in the D. £ypus, accord-

ing to the authors cited. The superior molars are not nearly so close

together anteriorly as is represented by St. Hilaire to be the case in

the D. typus, and they diverge a little posteriorly.

HYSTRICID.JE.

33. SPHINGURUS PREHENSILIS Linn.

Three skins with skeletons, and one skull, from Chapada.

34. SPHINGURUS SERICEUS sp. nov.

AII the inferior surfaces with the forearm and lower leg destitute

of spines, but clothed with a silky,hair of which the basal half is black

and the terminal half silvery white. Superior surfaces to the middle

of the length of the tail, spinous ; the spines concealed by long silky

hair except on the head, nape, and proximal half of the tail. This

hair is much longer than that on the inferior surfaces, and is simil-

arly colored, i. e., with the basal half black, and the terminal half

silvery, but more inclining to gray than on the inferior surfaces.

The spines are an inch and a half long, becoming shorter on the tail,

the front, and the upper lip, and are rather slender, and on the nape

are decurved. "Those on the interorbital and suborbital regions are

still more slender. The nasal, preorbital, and subcaudal regions are

1 Geoffroy St. Hilaire, Nouv. Ann. du Museum I, 450 pl. XVIII, t Lue

Geoffr., NM de Zoologie, 1840, p. 27, pl. XXVIII, figs. 1-3. + Dents des

Mammifers

Mammalta of Southern Brazil. 137

covered with rather stiff hairs, the latter becoming silky towards the

end of the tail.

The spines are generally black on their basal half, and sulphur

yellow on their terminal half, without other color on the apex.

Those of the interorbital, suborbital and prescapular regions, are

white, with a black space at the middle, and the base of the spines

is also white below the black on the posterior regions of the body,

and on the tail. The hairs covering the basal half of the tail below

are yellow ; those covering the terminal half are black. End of

muzzle projecting beyond mouth, covered with minute silky hairs.

Whiskers long, black.

Measurements of skin.

M.

PORE OUR. ois dks usos x ER A EAD Cakes a .665

Length from end of muzzle to vent............. sese 395

T i " ^ orbit (on axis). ........- .020

We oE FORE HDi Ub V o RR A EACH vn ER EI RIA 4130 .

DE: " foot on sole (total). ....... DAR NRAR as ey .045

xk Sor ANN TN a ca sous ves AE AS ER ceca ed .020

" or Bind DB iss Sac seve eens VERE ees pose ns 135

" "t O foot on sole (total isin. ieee xen .063

5 OF third bind: claw... eas coo cabs an hoc .o18

Measurements of skull. es

Total length on base............ Bs ig ar pe pre a .073

Length to line of orbits (axial). <u. ids ewes inves .022

esci E ONA MEO ist EUN AME I EL ON Os bigs pb ee .026

Length of palate from incisors.............ee e ee .032

"TIN QUNM bw m. DU. sese oe cas vee ent .OIO

In the determination of this species I have had before me in the

museum of the Academy of Natural Sciences, three specimens of

S. villosus Cuv. (S. insidiosus Licht.), and one each of the /. mel-

anurus Natt., and the S. nychthemerus Licht. These render it evi-

dent that the only species with which it is necessary to compare the

sS. sericeus is the S. affinis of Brandt, which I have not seen. That

animal is described as being brown above and below, instead of

silvery white, and in having the spines brown tipped. The humeral

Spines are exposed, which they are not in the S. sericeus. It is said

to have a postorbital process of the malar bone. This is wanting

in the S. sericeus (two skulls):

The S. sericeus was probably included by Mr. Hensel in the

138 Mammalia of Southern Brasil.

S. villosus in his memoir on the Mammalia of Southern Brazil! He

refers to such variations of color and length of hair, as will embrace

both species. Should his species not be separable from the S. vi-

Josus, then the S. melanurus and S. nycthemerus, must be also

united with the latter.

The entire absence of all brown color from the hair and

spines of this species, and their replacement by silver white and sul-

phur yellow, gives it a very distinct appearance.

CAVIID/E

35. CGLOGENYS PACA Linn.

One skin with skeleton from Sao Joao; one skin with skeleton

from Chapada, and two skulls without locality.

36. DASYPROCTA AZARÆ Licht.

Six skins with skeletons from Chapada; one skin with skeleton

from Sao Joao; four skins with skulls from Chapada; one skin from

Chapada without skull; one do, from Sao Joao; two skeletons with-

out skins from Chapada, and one from Sao Joao; and eight skulls

without skins from Chapada; total twenty-five individuals.

The single skins from Sao Joao have the inferior surfaces of a

deeper yellow than those from Chapada, and the hair of the rump i$

less tinged with gray and more with yellow, than in the latter.

37. DASYPROCTA AUREA Sp. nov.

This species is represented by but a single perfect skin in excel-

lent condition, from Chapada. It is superficially most nearly related

to the D croconota and D prymnolopha of Wagler, and represents

them in Southern Brazil. The species is of about the size of the

JD. azarae and resembles it in general proportions. The ungues

are, however, shorter, as is also the sole. In color it is peculiar.

The hairs are uniform orange yellow on all parts of the body, paler

at the base. There is no crest of long hair on the nape as in D. %73-

mnolopha, but the hair of the rump is elongate, and rather paler in

color than on other parts of the body. The top of the head is a

little darker than the back, having a rufous tinge. The anterior

faces of the feet are similar to the top of the head. The belly is a

little paler than the back, but not so pale asthe rump. Soles and

claws yellowish horn color. The ears are rather sparsely haired.

The tail is very short, asin the D. azarae.

1 Memoirs of the Akademie der Wissenschaften of Berlin, 1872, p. 56.

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 139

In the following measurements some allowance must be made

for stretching of the skin. `

Measurements of skin.

M.

ROAR IBglh. ies tes vines seu bak eee ers 660

Engh OF tails i. GAL AL i his VAN OIO

from end of muzzle to orbit... diss vs 067

jh He Malls tO COLI Eee II3

de Hs an to axilluiv i-i. 273

"s > OF fone leg. is Gwe ev ak tse veo Visus da 142

$ my foot belowt hilos ews a .032

” SOF mod lep. osea mne) 165

à * fóot beloW. d.i si erre Lee 103

This species seems to be nearer to the D. croconota than to the

D prymnolopha. Unfortunately I can find no skeleton or skull per-

taining to the type, so that I can not describe their characters. It

is much larger than the former species, exceeding it by more than

sixinches. Its uniform coloration is also entirely peculiar in the

genus, for the hairs are not annulated. The feet are relatively much

shorter than in the D. croconota; for according to Waterhouse, with

a total length of 17 in. 9 lines, the feet of the latter measure (minus

the nails) 3 in. 5 lines which is identical with the length of the foot

in D. aurea, with a total of twenty-four inches. The head is the

D. croconota measures 3 in. 11 lines. The relationships of the D. ra-

rea appear to be with the 2. azare.

38. HvbROCHOGRUS CAPYBARA Erxl.

Four skeletons, one with a skin and a separate skull, all from

Sao Joao.

39: CAVIA APEREA Erxl.

Four skins, three with skeletons, from Sao Joao.

LEPORIDA.

49. LEPUS BRASILIENSIS Linn.

_ Two skins with skeletons; three skins with skulls; six separate

skins, and four separate skulls; all from Chapada.

CARNIVORA.

CANID&.

41. CANIS CANCRIVoRUS Desmarest.

: Three skins with skeletons; one skeleton without skin, and one

skin without skeleton, all from Chapada.

140 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

42. CANIS VETULUS Lund.

One skin with skeleton, and one separate skull, from Chapada.

43. CANIS ENTRERIANUS, Burmeister, Reise durch die La Plata Staten

1865, II, p. 400.

Two skins with skeletons, and one skin with skull, all from Sao

Joao, Rio Grande do Sul.

I am not as certain of the identification of this species as I

would wish, and find it easier to determine what it is not than what

itis. It differs from the preceding two species as follows :

C. cancrivorus ; Mandibular angle robust, truncate; posttympanic

process adherent to bulla ; larger ; sectorial teeth relatively

larger.

C. vetulus; mandibular angle slender, acute; posttympanic process

adherant to bulla; smaller; sectorial teeth relatively small.

C. entreríanus; mandibular angle slender; acute; posttympanic

process well posterior to bulla, but connected at base; larger;

sectorial teeth relatively large.

This supposed C entrerianus agrees closely in general characters

with the C. griseus, Gray, described by Burmeister * excepting in the

superior size. It agrees in dimensions with the C. azarae Cuv. but

differs from both that species and the C magellanicus Gray, in the

possession of but one inferior premolar tooth with posterior cutting

lobe instead of two. 1t also differs from both these species, and

agrees with the C. griseus in the wide separation of the premaxillary

and frontal bones. "The general color is reddish, the hair on the an-

terior regions above, yellow near the tips, and brown at the tips, the

brown becoming blackish on the posterior regions and the tail.

Limbs light clean rufous; soles reddish brown. Belly and neck

white, a gray band crossing justin front of the breast. Chin black

except at tip, which is white. Upper surface of ears (which are

large) bright rufous. The animal is at least as large as the red fox.

The coloration differs from that of C. griseus only in not show-

ing the two white spots on the throat as described by Burmeister.

MUSTELIDZE.

44. GALICTIS VITTATA Schreb.

Three skins with skeletons from Sao Joao.

1 Erlatiterungen zur Naturgeschichte Brasiliens, 1856, p. 48.

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 141

45. GALERA BARBARA Linn.

Five skins with skeletons from Chapada.

46. LUTRA PLATENSIS Burmeister.

A skin and skeleton from Sao Joao; do. from Chapada ; do with-

out locality.

A comparison of the skulls of this species with two of Zutra cana-

densts in my collection, and three in that of the Academy of Natural

Sciences, show the following differences. The palate is not so much

produced posterior to the molar teeth : the superior tubercular molar

has smaller anteroposterior diameters, especially at the interior ex-

tremity; and there is no preglenoid crest. The length of the skull

is 103 mm., and the total length of the same individual is 1200 mm.

PROCYONIDZE.

47. PROCYON CANCRIVORUS Cuvier.

Black-footed variety, Sclater, Proceedings Zool. Soc., London,

1875, p. 421.

One skin with skeleton of a male, and a separate skull; both

from Sao Joao.

The skin is that of an adult male in excellent condition. The

hair is dense and woolly on the body, but is very sparse on the an-

terosuperior faces of the feet. The tail is fusiform and bushy. The

fundamental color is brownish-yellow above, but the hairs on the

middle region of the back have long black extremities. The color

below is light brownish yellow. The feet are all black up to the

midde of the tibiaand forearm. The tail is black, crossed by five

annuli of yellowish brown.

For comparison with the skulls of this species I have eight of the

P. lotor and two of the P. Aernandezii. Of the former, one is from

New York, and one from Pennsylvania ; of the latter, one is from S.

W. New Mexico, and one from Western Oregon. The characters of

the P. cancrivorus are easily observable ; while those of the two other

Species are also visible. I compare them in the following table :

I. Canines less compressed ; metaconid of P. m. I. often

present.

Postdental Part of palate wider than long; malar bone

Weak; front narrow, width equal diameter of orbit ;

each nasal bone obliquely truncated ; larger.

P. cancrivorus.

142 Mammalia of Southern Brazil,

Postdental part of palate as wide as long ; malar bone very

robust ; front wide, flat, exceeding diameter of orbit ;

each nasal bone truncate with produced outer angle.

P. hernandestt.

Postdental part of palate longer than wide ; malar bone

robust ; front narrow, convex, width equal that of orbit;

each nasal bone deeply emarginate distally....... P. lotor.

II. Canines much compressed ; metaconid of P. m. I

always wanting.

Muzzle shorter; palate angularly elevated posteriorly ;

last inferior molar wider, heel median ; larger... P. nasicus.

Muzzle longer ; palate nearly flat posteriorly ; last inferior

molar narrower, the heel internal ; smaller.......P. nasua.

In the two specimens of Procyon cancrivorus before me the

metaconid of the p. m. r. is well developed. In the P. ofer it is

distinct in four out of eight skulls, and is represented by a mere trace

in the other four. In a single P. Aerzandezii a trace only is

visible. The form of the free extremity of the nasal bone is not

constant in these species, and that of the last inferior molar will bear

further examination.

The question is raised by Dr. P. L. Sclater, as above cited, as to

whether the southern black-footed raccoon is specifically identical

or distinct from the rufous-footed form from Surinam and Central

America. In the lack of specimens of the latter region I cannot

give a definite answer to this question.

In the skull of the P. hemandezii, above described, the processus

pyramidalis of the palate has on its external face, a deep groove,

bordered above and below by an alate crest, which are wanting in

the P. Zofor. The malar bone is also produced downwards at its

inferior border next the maxillary, and the postorbital processes of

the frontal and malar bones are both more distinct than in the £.

lotor. Whether these are individual characters or not I cannot now

determine.

48. Procyon NASUA Linn. Nasua rufa Desm. Allen.

Three skins, with skeletons, all from Sao Joao.

49. PROCYON RUFUS Desmarest.

Twenty skins, three with skeletons, and one with a skull ; seven-

teen separate skulls and eleven skeletons, all from Chapada.

The skins of the Coatis from the two localities, differ constantly

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 143

and essentially, so that there appears to me to be two species, or,

perhaps, subspecies. The most important difference is in the

shape of the naked part of the nose. In the P. nasua from Sao Joao,

in each of the three specimens, this region is not longer than wide

above, and is wider than deep below, being separated by a broad

band of hair from the lip border. In the P. rufus this region is

constantly at least twice as long as wide above, and much deeper

than wide below, with an angular outline which approaches near to

the lip border. In the P. nasua, the white on the upper lips is wide

and conspicuous, and the cheeks and top of head are of a light gray

or pale brown. ‘The top of the nose is light except at the end, and

the median head stripe when present is of a darker color than the

top of the head. In the P. rufus the white line on the upper lip is

very narrow or wanting, and the head is generally blackish gray,

the color of the vertex continued on the middle line to the black of

the top of the nose. In the ZP. zasua the general color is light

brown or gray ; below light yellowish brown. Less than half the leg

is black. In the P. rufus the back is dark rufous, the hairs generally

shortly, sometimes deeply, black tipped : belly and throat bright

rufus, except the white chin. More than half the legs black.

The colors of these specimens are as constant as the different

character of the naked nasal surfaces, and the resulting appearance

is that of two species. The specimens of the P. nasua appear larger

and more robust than those of the P. rufus. I cannot detect any

difference in the skulls and teeth; there being no osseous character

corresponding to the different proportions of the external nasal

organs in the two species.

I find the characters pointed out by J. A. Allen! to distinguish

the two Brazilian species from the Mexican, to hold good.

CERCOLEPTIDAE

50. CERCOLEPTES CAUDIVOLVULUS Pallas.

A skull from Chapada.

FELIDA.

51. Uncia onca Linn.

One skin with skeleton, and three skulls, from Chapada.

52. UNCIA CONCOLOR Linn.

One skull from Chapada.

1 Bulletin of the U. S. Geolog. Survey of the Terrs, 1879, vol. v, p. 161.

144 Mammatia of Southern Brazil.

53. FELIS PARDALIS Linn.

One skin from Chapada.

54. FELIS GEOFFROYI D'Orbigny.

One skin with skeleton from Chapada, and a skin with skeleton

from Sao Joao.

55. FELIS JAGUARONDI Lacep.

One skin with skeleton from Chapada, and a skull from the same

locality.

56. FELIS BRACCATA sp. nov.

Size of F. jaguarondi. Claws very small, white. Tail to end of

vertebre extending one inch beyond extended posterior limbs. Fur

of irregular lengths, mingled everywhere with numerous long hairs.

Color above brown, the hairs on the middie of the back, and on

top of head and muzzle, with several black sections, which give a

mixed black and brown hue to those regions. Upper portion of

limbs of the same color, interrupted by black cross-bands, two on

the fore leg and three on the hind, the former extending on the

inner face as well. Distal half of all the legs black, without brown

intermixture. Ears of moderate size with an apical angle a little

less than right; the anterior half black, the posterior half gray.

Inferior surface anteriorly furnished with long hairs of a buff color,

which with short hairs of the same color near the anterior margin,

show from above, giving a narrow brown border. Hair of the

muzzle terminating in a straight transverse line which extends be-

tween the posterior parts of the nostrils. Lip whiskers long, buff

with black bases. Some slender superciliary vibrisse. A buff spot

below each nostril, and a similar one above the anterior part of each

eye. Cheeks yellowish brown, hairs black-varied.

Chin very pale buff. This color deepens posteriorly, soon pass-

ing into the yellowish brown of the lower surfaces. Numerous

white hairs are scattered on the thorax and abdomen, and numerous

deep brown spots form transverse series, which sometimes become

bands, mark the same regions. Three cross-rows of brown spots

appear on the throat, the most anterior consisting of two small

lateral, and a large median spot, crossing below the ears. The spots

become more indistinct on the sides, and are wanting on the inferior

surface of the tail. The latter is colored like the back above, and is

black at the tip.

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 145

Measurements of the relaxed skin.

M.

Length from end of muzzle to vent..... dA dd pal ay die .467

‘* A of tail from vent to end of vertebre............ .230

"pO 685 ADOVES see ba ovo DUREE RE ee MU due .017

Width between bases of ears. ......... 2. o eso evo seve 052

unm from anterior base of ear to end muzzle....... 052

ot fore dag; 5... r ANN Ne ket Clu C ns 195

‘Ob fourth anterior claw. i1 (Ge aT ALIENO Y 006

DM CE hipa sas ne idea Bi ray, Oe sie ri 195

he inem POT in sits i ase ERALARA 220

'" of second posterior boni vis ad ra dde, Ways 005

This cat is evidently more nearly allied to the F. jaguarondi than

to any other known species, and I need only point out the charac-

ters in which it appears to me to be distinct. The F. jaguarondi is

evidently subject to considerable variation, but none of its forms

approach sufficiently near to the F. draccata as to lead one to be-

lieve in the identity of the two. Ihave before me the skin of the

F. jaguarondi above referred to from Chapada.

In what might be called structural differences I note the follow-

ing. The feet of the F. braccata are smaller than those of the

F. jaguarondi, and the toes are of more equal length. The claws are

very much smaller. Both the internal and external toes are rela-

tively considerably shorter on both limbs in the ZF. jaguarondi than

in F. braccata. The fourth anterior and second posterior claws of

the former species measure 6 and 5 mm. respectively; in the latter

they measure 11 and 13 mm. respectively. The tail is rather short-

er in the F. draccaéa, being less than the length of the body from the

axilla to the vent, and only an inch in excess of the posterior legs

extended posteriorly. The tail in the F. jaguarondi equals the body,

and extends two inches beyond the limbs. This character may

prove to be unimportant. Finally the ears in F. /aguarozdi are

broadly rounded; in ZF. draccata they are so prominently angular, as

to present an apex rather less than a right angle. The fur of the

muzzle has a truncate border, while in the ZF. jaguarondi the border

presents an acute angle forwards, as itfollows the superior outline

of the nares above.

The differences in color are as follows:

The upper surfaces of the ears are like the top of the head in Z.

Jaguarondi;in F. braccata they are of two colors in strong contrast,

and both different from that of the head. In Z. jaguarondi the in-

146 Mammatia of Southern Brazil.

ferior surfaces are like the superior ; in F. draccata they are totally

different, resembling various spotted cats. The legs are colored on

the upper surface like the back in F. jaguarondi, and are black below;

in F. draccata they are cross banded proximately, and the distal

halves are totally black.

The aggregate of characters indicates the specific difference of

the F. draccata from the F. jaguarondi. The only approach to any

of the peculiar characters of the F. draccata in descriptions of the

F. jaguarondi, which I can find, is in that by Mr. Alston in the Fau-

na Centrali-Americana, who states that there are transverse bars on

the inside of the legs.

It is to be much regretted that the label belonging to this speci-

men has been lost. I do not know therefore whether it was obtain-

ed in the province of Rio Grande do Sul, or in Matto Grosso.

DIPLARTHRA.

TAPIRIDJE. —

57. TAPIRUS AMERICANUS Briss.

One skin with skeleton from Chapada.

HIPPOPOTAMIDA,

58. DICOTYLES LABIATUS Cuv.

One skin with skeleton from Chapada; six skins from Chapada;

one skin from Sao Joao; two skulls from Chapada.

One of the skins from Chapada presents certain peculiarities. It

is not larger than the D. /ajassu, and the bristles are longer and

denser along the back, and especially on the rump, than in the other

skins. The dirty white or yellowish part of the hairs is replaced by

red-orange, giving the animal a fiery tint when the bristles are erect-

ed. It was labelled “red-pig” by Mr. Smith. Unfortunately its

skull was not preserved. It does not appear to me to represent

anything but a slight variety; perhaps it is a young male. In all the

characters of the feet, muzzle, etc., it agrees with the D. Jadbiatus.

59. DICOTYLES Tajassu Linn.

Two skins with skulls from Chapada ; two separate skins from

do.; three skeletons from do.; thirteen skulls, do.; one skull from Sao

oao.

On comparing the sixteen skulls from Southern Brazil with five

skulls in my collection, and one in the Museum of Princeton College,

from Texas, I find such constant and important difference as to

Mammalia of Southern Brazil. 147

satisfy me that the two forms cannot pe regarded as specifically

identical. Their differences may be compared as follows :

D. tajassu. Malar crest terminating above infraorbital foramen ;

nasal bones rounded in cross-section ; first superior premolar (fourth

of old works) tritubercular or rounded in outline, premolariform ;

molars not wrinkled.

D. angulatus sp. nov. Malar crest continued forwards to base

of canine alveolus ; nasal bones pinched or angulate on the middle

line; first superior premolar quadritubercular, with intermediate

tubercles, and quadrate in outline, molariform ; molars wrinkled.

The characters cited are constant, although the amount of angu-

lation of the nasal bones in the D. angulatus is subject to some vari-

ation. Another character, generally constant, is the form of the fos-

sa above the diastema. In D. ¢ajassu it is a narrow groove ; in D.

angulatus itis a wide fossa. On comparing two Texan skins with

five from Brazil, I notice but one distinctive character. The naked

spot on the rump is very much larger on the former, and it is follow-

ed by a large patch of brown hairs, forming a distinct spot. In the

D. tajassu the brown hairs exist, but in smaller numbers, and they

are completely covered by the black hairs which are mixed with

them. The feet have been cut off from my Texan skins, and those

of other specimens are in skeleton, so that I cannot compare the

hoofs. The Texan skulls average larger in dimensions than those

from Southern Brazil.

The characters of the first premolar, and of the dentition gener-

ally, are well represented by Professor Baird, but the prolongation of

the malar angle and the roof-shaped nasal bones are not very clearly

expressed in the outline figures he has given.’ His specimens came

from the Rio Grande. Mine are, one from the Guadalupe R., two

from the Llano R., and two from a tributary of the Red River.

The character of the first premolar in the D. — approxi-

mates it to the D. nasutus Leidy.

CERVIDÆ.

60. CARIACUS CAMPESTRIS F. Cuv.

One skin with skeleton; three skins, and three skulls ; all from

Chapada.

! U. S. Mexican Boundary Survey, Pl. xxvii.

148 Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

61. Coassus RUFUS F. Cuv.

One skin with skeleton: one skin with skull; two skulls with

skin of head, and six separate skulls, all from Chapada.

62. COASSUS SIMPLICICORNIS Illiger.

One skin with skeleton ; one skin with skull; three skins and

three skulls, all from Chapada.

QUADRUMANA.

CEBIDAE.

63. MYCETES SENICULUS Linn.

Very abundant at Sao Joao do Monte Negro. Varying in color

from bright rusty red, to brownish black with dark rusty crown. No

specimens from Chapada.

64. MYCETES BELZEBUL Linn.

Three specimens from Chapada Matto Grosso. The skull of this

species does not differ from that of the last. The hair differs,

especially on the head. It is procumbent and radiates in all direct-

ions from a point on the middle line posterior to the ears. It points

directly forwards on the crown and front to the base of the nose,

and anterior eyebrows, when it is met by hair directed upwards

and backwards, forming a low tranverse elevation bordering the front,

much as described by Slack in the M. niger. In the M. seniculus, the

hair of the crown is erect and woolly from front to rear.

65. CEBUS CIRRHIFER. G. St. Hilaire.

One adult (female) from Sao Joao.

66. CEBUS ELEGANS G. St. Hilaire.

Abundant at Chapada. In the males there is generally a low

sagittal crest, the glabella is swollen, and the frontal profile is

convex. In the females there is no sagittal crest, the glabella is less

swollen and the frontisless convex. In the specimen above referred

to, the C. cirrhifer, the characters of the skull are like those of the

female C. elegans, but the front is flatter in profile.

SYNOPSIS.

The species obtained by the Naturalist expedition are distributed

as follows, as to numbers and localities :

Total. Sao Joao. Chapada.

Mérsapiaike csi eas 4 4

Cbiroptera....-. over eere eo 9 3 "o

Mammalia of Southern Brazil.

149

ROGGE sus. Ai eo wees 17 9 IO

ROPING S s aes ea os ek RU 9 3 9

A a aaa PREE P Va as ROLES 16 6 12

Peo, a ene Rakes s 6 2 6

MIURGTUMENS «ens 6 SPR sae Sra 4 2 2

65 26 49

In the following lists the species of Sao Joao and Chapada are

compared :

SAO JOAO. CHAPADA.

MARSUPIALIA,

tn marsupialis azare. Didelphys marsupialis azare.

is auritus

Philander pusillus.

Chironectes memina.

EDENTATA.

Myrmecophaga jubaca.

Myrmecophaga bivittata. " bivittata.

T ? sellata,

Xenurus gymnurus. Xenurus gymnurus.

eco AMispá

Dasypus sexcinctus.

Priodontes maximus

Tatusia peba. Tatusia peba.

t lolepis.

RODENTIA.

Sciurus estuans.

Cricetus sp.

Dactylomys amblyonyx,

Sphingurus sericeus.

Cælogenys paca.

Dasyprocta azare.

Hydrocherus capybara.

Cavia aperea.

Sciurus variabilis,

Cricetus sp.

Cricetus sp.

Cricetus sp.

Sphingurus prehensilis.

Cælogenys paca.

Dasyprocta azare.

en

Lepus brasiliensis.

CHIROPTERA.

Phyllostoma hastatum.

Carollia brevicauda.

A —— planirostris.

bilobatus.

ampyrops lineatus.

paci lilium.

150 Mammatia of Southern Brazil.

Desmodus rufus.

Nyctinomus brasiliensis,

Vesperus arge.

CARNIVORA.

Canis entrerianus. Canis cancrivorus.

T etu `

| Galictis vittata. Galera barbara.

Lutra platensis. Lutra platensis.

Procyon cancrivorus.

emer Procyon rufus.

Cercoleptes caudivolvulus.

Uncia onca

ee eee,

Felis pardalis

Felis geoffroyi. “ geoffroyi.

"o faguarondi

* Óraccata

DIPLARTHRA.

Tapirus americanus.

mei e labiatus. Dicotyles labiatus.

tajassu. ‘* tajassu.

Cariacus campestris.

Coassus rufus.

"o simplicicornis.

QUADRUMANA.

Cebus cirrhifer. Cebus elegans.

AMycetes seniculus. Mycetes belzebul.

From the preceding lists, it appears that but ten species were

procured at both localities. Of the thirty-one genera obtained at

Chapada sixteen were found at Sao Joao. Of the twenty-three

genera found at Sao Joao, sixteen were obtained at Chapada.

especial peculiarity of the Sao Joao collection may be mentioned the

absence of the water opposum, the tayra, the six banded and giant

armadillos, and of all the leaf-nosed bats. Also the absence of most

of the cats, including the jaguar; also the absence of the deer. The

Chapada collection lacks the crab-eating raccoon, and the gray

coati; the capybara and the wild guinea-pig ; and the bats of the

families Emballonuride and Vespertilionide.

Editors Table. 151

EDITORS’ TABLE.

EDITORS: E, D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

At the last meeting of the Society of Charities and Corrections

the Rev. Oscar C. McCulloch, of Indianapolis, read a paper on the

Tribe of Ishmael, in which he detailed the result of his studies on

the pauper families of Indianapolis. The story he tells is a sad

one. It is the history of generation after generation of paupers

and criminals, of people sunk so low as not to have the slightest

aspiration for a better life, who obey Scriptural injunctions only in

that they are fruitful and multiply their vicious kind. Five gene-

rations of thirty families are traced, and of all the individuais whose

records are worked out, but one ever emerged into a respectable

life. This Tribe of Ishmael is but a repetition of the Jukes family,

but it brings again to prominence a problem with which society has

to deal. What shall be done to check the growth of these and sim-

ilar parasites? They are sunk toa depth where no church can

reach them ; the so-called charity which gives to beggars and which

patronizes the halt and maimed but encourages them in their pres.

ent life ; our present laws having no terrors for them, for imprison-

ment means but a winter of warmth, comfort and idleness. Were

pauperism and beggary the only sins of these people then existence

might be endured, but in the case of both the Jukes family and this

tribe of Ishmael—and the same is true ofall other similar families—

every species of crime from murder down has been perpetrated by

Its members,

What can society do to protect itself against these pests? isa

eestor which must be answered. Growth of cities means a dis-

proportionate increase of this undesirable class. An answer seems

difficult; in fact, we can only see one direction from which relief can

come. The teaching of evolution must be recognized and incor-

porated in our laws. Evolution teaches that variation, the influ-

ence of environment, and adaptability to changed conditions are

‘mportant factors in organic life, but it also teaches that these are

T m perpetuated by heredity. It is this aspect of evolution

dec VAS point to the answer. The children of these people in-

ede k E à good trait, but are heirs to all that is vicious and

eir parents. They are begotten in criminality, nur-

152 Recent Literature.

tured in vice, and their maturity is crime. Our good people

should refrain from indiscriminate alms giving, for this is offering

a premium foracontinuance of present conditions, and our laws

should recognize the existence of heredity and make provision

whereby the reproduction of this inherited vice could be checked.

Such laws may seem harsh, but consider for a moment the saving

to the country had the notorious Margaret, the mother of the

Jukes family, been imprisoned so that none of her illegitimate chil-

dren could have come into the world. Such a step would have been

deemed cruel, but in the light of what we now know of the crimi-

nality of her descendants, society would have been justified in such

extreme measures. The record of her children is but a continuous

account of murder, highway robbery, burglary and prostitution,

while the cost of prosecuting these criminals mounts up into the

hundreds of thousands of dollars.

RECENT LITERATURE.

THOMAS’ CATALOGUE OF MARSUPIALIA AND MoNOTREMATA.—

This publication is very timely, as it places in the hands of students

the means of becoming acquainted with the characters of the species

of the important orders named, at a time when it is important that

they should have the knowledge. The Marsupialia are ar-

ranged in six families, of which three are referred to the Diproto-

dontia, and three to the Polyprotodontia. The species number as

follows :

Diprotodontia. Polyprotodontia.

Macropodide, 56 Peramelidz, 14

Phalangeridz, 34 Dasyuridz, 26

Phascolomyidze, 3 Didelphidz, 24

Totals. 93 Totals. 64—157

1 Catalogue of the Marsupialia and Monotremata in the Collection of the Brit-

ish Museum. By Oldfield Thomas, 1888, pp. 401 ; xxviii plates.

Recent Literature. 153

We have fault to find with the lettering and other signs affixed to

the paragraphs of the analytical keys of the various divisions. Were

it not for the indenting and correct ranging of these paragraphs,

their relations to each other could be only discovered by a consider-

able study of the signs affixed, and then many students, we suspect,

would be hopelessly confused. The same system or wmsystem has

been adopted by Mr. Dobson in his catalogue of Chiroptera. It is

to be sincerely hoped that in future the taxonomic keys may be ar-

ranged on the usual plan, such as for instance is employed by Mr.

Boulenger in his catalogues of the Batrachia and Reptilia.

The twenty-eight plates are a welcome aid to the study, but the

dental cusps are often poorly represented.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE CRINOIDEA appears now to have

reached sound and rational basis as is clearly set forth in a

recent important contribution’ to Crinoid morphology by Messrs.

Charles Wachmuth and Frank Springer. Although the sub-

ject is approached chiefly from a palzontological standpoint, mor-

phological deductions derived from the latest researches among living

crinoids have been duly considered. The systematic arrangement

of the Crinoidea as indicated is of not less supreme interest to the

paleontologist than to the biologist ; and the classification as now

proposed appears to be practically in agreement with the views of Dr.

P. Herbert Carpenter, the distinguished English authority on recent

T axocrinus. It is now clearly demonstrated that in this genus, and

doubtless in the Ichthyocrinide generally, the mouth is open, and

surrounded by five conspicuous oral plates, as in the recent genera

the orals are the hitherto denominated “ central” and four “ proxim-

ate “plates. The plan upon which modern crinoids are constructed

is therefore one of high antiquity, dating back geologically to the

Lower Silurian.

The Crinoidea are thus divisible into

I. Camarata.

um ^ Inadunata, comprising the branches Larviformia and Fis-

ulata,

3. Articulata, including Ichthyocrinidz and possibly Uintacrinus

and Thaumatocrinus.

. 4. Canaliculata, including most of the mesozoic and recent

crinoids.—C. R. K.

1 Discovery of the ventral structure of Zuxocrinus and Haplocrinus, and conse-

quent modifications in the classification of the Crinoidea.—By Charles Mir eoe

ia, Now, springer. Proceedi h atural Sciences. iladel-

phia, Nov. 27, 1598. ings of the Academy N

154 Recent Books and Pamphlets.

FRITSCH AND KAFKA’sS CRUSTACEA OF THE BOHEMIAN CRETA-

crous.*—This elaborate folio memoir of 54 pages is richly illus-

trated by ten plates printed in colors and 72 woodcuts, giving both

views of the actual specimens and what — to be excellent re-

storations of some of the more interesting form

Beginning with the cirripedia of the "o deenieme chalk, remarks are

made on the species, most of which have been previously described

by the authors, but the new details and excellent figures add much

to our previous knowledge. The same may besaid of the Ostracoda

which are illustrated by 20 figures in the text. The richest material

consisted of the remains of Decapoda, especially the Macrura, and

this is the most valuable and interesting portion of the work. Some

of the new material in this order belongs to the Palinuride. Our

knowledge of the extinct Mesosoic family Gl hæidæ, so well de-

veloped in Belgium by Winckler, is farther extended by the full ac-

counts of the remains ed Glyphaea bohemica Fr., the figures including

a restoration. t amily, Astaco omorpha Enoploclytia leachii

Mantell is fully cito with dorsal and side views, and the text

contains a very detailed description. The same may be said of

Schititeria tetracheles Fr., and of the species of Hoploparia, Para-

tribution to our knowledge of extinct Crustacea.—P.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

American Society of Naturalists. Vol. I. Part Fifth.

Boettger, Oscar.—Aufzahlung einger neu erworbener Reptilien

und Batrachier aus Ost-Asien. Beitrag zur Reptilfauna des

obern Beni in Bolivia. Bericht Senckenberg Naturforsch.

Gess. Frankfurt, 1887-'88. Both from the author.

Brinton, D. G.—Obituary notice of Philip H. Law, Esq. Read

before the American Philolosophical Society, Oct. 19, 1888.

From the author.

Goode, G. Brown.—The P of American Science in the Third

Century. From the au

Buller, Walter jx of the Collection of New Zealand

the Manor House. Letcombe Regis, Wantage.

Petherick and Company, London.

*Die Crustaceen der Bóhmischen Kreide formation. Von Dr. Ant. Fritsch und

Jos. Kafka. Prag., 188

Recent Books and Pamphiets. 155

Clark, Wm. B.—Discovery of Fossil-bearing Cretaceous Strata in

Anne Arundel and Prince George Counties, Maryland. Reprint

from Johns Hopkins University Circulars. No. 69. From the

author.

Cooke, W. W.—Report of Bird Migration in the Mississippi Valley

in the years 1884 and 1885. Edited and revised by Dr. C.

Hart Merriam. From U.S. Agricultural Dept.

Dawson, George M.—Glaciation of British Columbia. be has from

Geological Magazine, Aug. 1888. From the aut

Dawson, William f.—Specimens of Eozoon canadense dud their

Geological and other Relations. From the author

Dollo, L.—Achenosaurus multidens. Extrait du Bulletin de la Société

Belge de Géologie, Tome IL, 1888. From the author

Dollo, Louis.—Sur la AR a du “ Trochanter Paidat " des

Dinosauriens. Extrait du Bulletin Scientifique de la France et

de la Belgique.

Doua, G—Note Erpetologiche. From the author.

Dugés A.— Description of Storeria dekayi, var anomala. Extract

from Proceedings of U.S. Nat. Museum, 1888. From the author.

Ganong, W. F.—The Echinodermata of New Brunswick. Extract

from Bulletin to New Brunswick Natural History Society.

From the aut

Gilbert, G. K. Erin of Level of the Great Lakes. Reprint from

the Forum. Vol. V., 1888. From the author

Gould, George M.—Is the Electric Light Tijani to the Eyes.

Reprint from the Medical News, Dec., 1

The Psychological Influence of Errors of Refraction ind of their

Correction. Reprint from the Medical and Surgical Reporter,

Sept., 1888, From the author.

Li eic Instinct. Reprint from Progress, Oct., 1888. From

ea

Henshall, James A.—Contributions to the Ichthyology of Ohio.

—Some Peculiarities of the Ova of Fishes. Reprints from the

J BS d Cin. Society Natural History, 1888. Both from the

* mud

Hicks, Den E £.—Irrigation in Nebraska. Extract from Bulletin of

Nebraska Agricultural Station. Vol. I. From the author.

James, Joseph F—The Ivorydale Well in Mill Creek Valley. An

Ancient Channel of the Ohio River at Cincinnati. Reprints

rom the Journal of the Cin. Society Natural History, 1888.

Jordan, David Starr.—Manual of the Vertebrates. Revised and

enla arged. From the publisher

156 Recent Books and Pamphlets.

Keyes, gil R.—On the Forms of the Lower Coal-Measures of

Central Iowa.—Descriptions of Two New Fossils from the De-

vonian of Iowa. Reprint from the Proceedings of the Phila.

Academy of Natural Sciences. From the author.

Lord, William R.—Homing of Dogs. From the author,

Langley, S. P.—Energy and Vision. Reprint from American Jour-

nal of Science. Vol. XXXVI., Nov., 1888. From the author.

Lydekker, R.—Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia, &c. Extract from the

Geological Magazine, Oct., 1888. From the author.

Macoun, John.—Catalogue of Canadian Plants, Part IV.—Endogens.

From the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey of Canada

Le Marquis de Saporta.—Origine Paléontologogique des Arbres cul-

tivées ou utilisés par l'homme. From the author.

Mitchell, Henry.—On the JR Wen of the Sea through the New

York Harbor. From U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Miller, Max F.—Science of Thought. From the publishers.

Newberry J. S—The Coals of Colorado. Ext. from the School of

- Mines Quarterly, Vol. IX, No. 4, July, 1888. From the author.

Orr, Henry.—A. Contribution to the Embryology of the Lizard.

eprint from the Journal of Morphology, Vol. I., No. 2, Dec.,

1887, From the author.

Hillel No. 2, Bulletin No. 3.—Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta-

oe Wes Fair field.—Additional Observations upon the Struc-

ture and Classification of Mammalia. Ext. from Proceedings of

Phila. Academy Nat. Science, Oct., 1888. From the author.

Packard, A. S.—Aspects of the Body in Vertebrates and Arthro-

po ods. Reprint from Am. Nat., Sept., 1884. From the author.

Penna. State College Agricultural Station, Bulletin No. 3, Bulletin

No. 4.

Penn Geological Survey, Atlas Bucks and Montgomery

—Atlas Eastern Middle Anthracite Field, Part II.—

Atlas Western Middle Anthracite Field, Part II. —Atlas North-

ern Anthracite Field, Part II.—Atlas Annual Report, 1886, Part

III.—Annual Report, 1886, Part IV. and Atlas. From the

Survey.

Pennsylvania State College Agricultural Station. Bulletin No. 5,

1888.

Report of the Pennsylvania State College for the year, 1887.

Part II.

Report of Trustees of Peabody Museum of Am. Archeology and

Ethnology, V. IV, No. 1.

Recent Books and Pamphlets. 157

fost Edward B.—The True Teeth and the Horny Plates of

nithorhyncus. Reprint from the Quarterly Journal of Mi-

istic opi Science. From the author.

Preiiminary List of the Lower Crustacea of Staten Island. From

the Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten

land.

Read, M. C.—Archaology of Ohio. From the author.

Renard, A.—Recherches sur la Composition et la Structure des

Phyllades Ardennais. Extrait du Bulletin du Musée Royal

d'Histoire Naturelle de Belgique. Tome III. From the author.

Riley, Charles V.—Report of the oer ae for the year 1887.

(with illustrations). From the author

Seeley, H. G.—On the Dinosaurs of the Menta Beds.—On a

Sacrum of a Bird from the Wealden of Brook. Reprints from

the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, May, 1887.

On the Nature and Limits of Reptilian Characters in Mammal-

ican Teeth—Researches on the Structure, Organization, and

Classification of the Fossil Reptilia—On the Classification of

Fossil Animals commonly named Dinosauria—On the bone

in Crocodilia which is commonly regarded as the Os Pubis, and

its representative among the Extinct Reptilia—On Parieasau-

rus bombidens (Owen), and the significance of its affinities to

Amphibians, Reptiles, and Mammals. Reprint from Proceed-

ings of the Royal Society. Vol. 42, 43, 44. From the author.

— vei C.—Observations on the Female Generative Ap-

paratus of Hyena crocuta. Ext. Proceedings, Cis "inus

of Natural Science. June, 1888. From the aut

Slade, D. D.—On certain Vacuities or deficiencies in the Crania of

Mammals. Bulletin of Harvard Museum of Comparative Zo-

ology, Vol XIIL, No. 8. From the author

Smiley, err W.—Altruism Considered Boe From the

author

Smock, John C.—Building Stone in the State of New York. Bulle-

tin of the New York State Museum of Natural History. No. 3.

March, 1888. From the author

dg Edgar W.— Geology in our “Prades Schools. Reprint

m the American Geologist, May, 1888. From the author.

Tyndali, John—Diamagnetism and Magneto-crystallic Action. Ap-

pleton and Company, New York.

Tyrrell, J. B. —Report on Portions of Northern Alberta, Assiniboia

and PS Part E., Annual Report 1886, Canadian

Geol. Surve

158 General Notes.

Tuckerman, Se eee Note on TZenia saginata.

From the aut

Vaillant, Léon M. pur POR pic pen uunE | sur l'antomie de : Anat

des lugubris Hallowell.—Remarques sur le genre Ripistes de-

Dujardin. Extraits du Bulletin de js: Société Phübinstique de

Paris, 1885—1886.

Vanfleet, W.—Some Native Birds for Little Folks. From the pub-

lishers

Von Klein, Carl H.—Address on Rhinology. Reprint from the

Journal of the American Medical Association. From the author

Ward, Lester F.—Our Better Halves. Reprint from The Forum,

Vol. VI. From the author

Civil Service Reform. estat from The Historical American,

July, 1888, Vol. I. No. I.—What Shall the Public Schools Teach ?

Reprint from The Forum. Both from the author.

Weithofer K. Ant.—Einige Bemerkungen über Carpus der Pro-

boscidier. From the author

Woodward, A. Smith.—A Comparison of the Cretaceous Fish-fauna

ount Lebanon with that of the English Chalk. Ext. from

the Annals and Magazine of Natural History. On the Genus

Synechodus.—Note on the Occurrence of a Species of Onycho-

dus in the Lower Old Red Sandstone Passage Beds of Sudbury,

Herefordshire. Extracts from the Geological Magazine. From

the author.

GENERAL NOTES.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL!

AFRICA, THE WESTERN SAHARA.—As Spain has recently an-

nexed the African coast between Morocco and Cape Blanco, with

an indefinite extension inland, the geography and ethnography of

these regions is naturally prominent in Spanish geographical papers.

Sres. Coello, Cervera, Quiroga, and Costa have recently explored this

region, especially that part known as the Adrar Temar whichis a raised

rd or meseta containing an area equal to a sixth of that of Spain.

The mesa terminates in a point towards the south and is crossed

here and there by ranges of hills, which have a slighter slope in its

1 Edited by W. N. Lockington, Philadelphia, Pa.

Geography and Travel. 159

eastern than in its western portion. In the centre opens the princi-

pal valley, that of Atar, which runs from north-west to south-east,

and is the most thickly-populated part of the oasis. The greatest

height of these hills is not more than 125 metres and most are muc

lower. The shifting sand-dunes which surround the whole of the

oasis have penetrated between the two principal ranges of hills until

they reach the walls of the towns of Uadan and Xingueti. The

hills of Adar contain pines (P. maritimus) and several other kinds

of trees, with spiny shrubs‘and herbage which grows even among

the sand. Gazelles and other antelopes, foxes, hares, porcupines,

etc., are among the wild animals. The natives have herds of oxen

and buffaloes and flocks of sheep and goats; they cultivate wheat,

barley, millet, sorgum, maize, cucumbers, etc., and tobacco; but

have no olives, figs, or oranges. Their principal article of food is the

date. Everywhere in the Sahara there is water beneath the sur-

face, often at a slight depth. The oasis is salubrious; and the tem-

perature varies from 4 to 40 degrees, centigrade. The inhabitants

of Adrar are Berbers, and some preserve the type tolerably pure,

POT

and religious head of this peopleis a hereditary sovereign, but the

real power in each tribe is in the hands of an assembly of notables.

A hundred slaves form the bodyguard of the king, who resides in

Atar. Most ofthe natives belong to the mussulman sect of the

^ie whose religious head or Great Makkaddem resides at

adan

Xingueti, the most populous town of the oasis, contains from 3 to

4,000 souls; Atar 2,000 to 2,500; Uyeft about 1,500, while Uadan,

which in the XVI. century was the capital, has greatly decayed.

There is another Adrar, the Adrar Sutuf, about which less is known.

The district next the coast and between the two Adrars is known

as Tiris, and its inhabitants are shepherds and guides of caravans.

In this country there are some curious rocks that are wider at the

top than at the bottom, looking like basaltic monuments. At some

points the basalt is formed into great arcades like those of an aque-

duct. The districts called Skarna and Semmur form the drainage

area of the Seguia-el- Hamra, which may be called a river though it

has no perennial flow. Yet the Seguia is never entirely dry and

there must be springs at certain points; it has many affluents, and

the whole basin is humid and very productive. The indolent in-

habitants are more given to the chase than to cultivation.

; e most powerful tribes are those of the Erguibat, who reside

in the upper part of the river. This tribe sends caravans in a

160 General Notes.

HE Oasis oF Ficuic.—France has intended to annex the oasis

of Fizuig, which is situated near Algeria, south of the mountains of

Maiz and Beni-Smir. This territory is in Morocco and pays a small

tribute to the Sultan, but is practically independent. The people

are freebooters and their excursions have given the French govern-

ment the pretext for claiming damages against the Sultan of Morocco.

The last governor of Figuig was a fanatic Musselman and stirred up

against the infidel rulers of Algeria all the Arabs under his juris-

diction. Three employes of the Algerian government were taken

prisoners, and the French, after occupying with their forces the rail-

road fom Saida to Ain Sefra, have procured the dismissal of the

governor of Figuig.

GEOGRAPHICAL NEWs.— The Philippine Islands, although prob-

ably the most valuable of Spain's remaining possessions, and although

their productions are exceedingly rich and varied, have not hitherto

attracted emigrants from the mother country. It is now proposed

to choose for colonization the Island of Paragua, not more than a

thousandth part of which is at present occupied by settlers, the re-

ae being Ee exclusive property of the State. The forest riches

of Paragua are immense, the species including some that are not

E in the en of the archipelago. Among these is Fragosa

peregrina.

Without the province of Algeria or the protectorate of Tunis,

the French “colonies” or possessions, scattered over the four

quarters of the world, contain an area of more than two millions of

square kilometres, and a population of rather more than twenty-two

millions, without including that of the Congo and Gaboon territory.

The colony of Senegal contains about 805,000 square kilometres

and that north of the Congo at least 600,000.

GEOLOGY AND PALZEONTOLOGY.

THE VERTEBRATE FAUNA OF THE Equus BEkps.—While the

Equus Beds are found at various localities in North America, the

greater number of characteristic species of Vertebrata have been ob-

tained in three regions. irst, the Oregon Desert; second the

Country of the Nueces, 3. W. Texas ; third the Valley of Mexico. I

give lists of the species found at these s and their localities.

Recent species are indicated b

1. The species found in the Oregon Desert are the following:

MAMMALIA,

Holomeniscus vitakertanus Cope.

hesternus Leidy.

Geology and Paleontology.

Eschatius eee Cope.

7 ope.

Equus major Dus 3

rh Ai Leidy.

celsus Leidy.

Elephas p primigenius Blum,

Cants latrans Sa

Lutra ipiscinaria Leidy.

Free (8 Pg

“

Casto

Arvic

T) homomys talpoides Licht.

o

Mylodon Men ipe .

AVES,

Podiceps era Lawr.

cali, f,

Podilymbus S odiceps.*

Graculus macropus Cope.

A nser Aypsibatus Cope.

canadensis L. *

— gambeli.*

nigricans Lawr,*

[11

4“

And numerous other species.

PISCES.

Leucus altarcus. Cope.

Myloleucus gibbarcus Cope.

Cliola angustarca Cope.

Catostomus labiatus Ayres.*

batrachops Cope.

IL From S. W. Texas we have the following species.

Equus barcenei Cope.

L1

ae cre. pe.

sc gt ica, Blum.

a

Glyptodon petaliferus Cope.

Cistudo marnochii Cope.

III. From the Valley of Mexico the following have been

recorded.?

! See American Naturalist, 1885, p. 1208

? Proceeds. Amer. Philos, Society, 1884, p. 1.

162 i General Notes.

Bos latifrons Harl.

Eschatius conidens Cope.

Holomeniscus sp. minor.

ve hesternus Leidy.

as sp ? californicus Leidy.

Platygonus compressus Lec.

Equus barcenaet Cope.

" excelsus Leidy.

tau Owen.

af

* crenid

idens Cope.

Elephas primigenius Blum.

Dibelodon shepardi Leidy.

Canis sp.

Ursus sp. -

Glyptodon ? petaliferus Cope.

Mylodon sp.

IV. The following species were derived from a locality in

Whitman Co., Tacoma (or Washington).

Mylodon sp.

Taxidea americana* ( T. sulcata Cope.)

Equus sp.

Holomeniscus sp.

Holomeniscus sp. "

ALCES BREVITRABALIS, Sp. nov.

This deer is represented by the basal part of the antler of three

large and one small specimens. "They agree with those of the genus

Alces in the absence of a brow-antler, and the flattening of the

beam preparatory to a palmation. The palmate part of the horn is

lost from all the specimens. It was probably not nearly so extensive

as in Alces macAlis since its base is not wider than that of the bez-

antler. The beam is short, and becomes rapidly much compressed

in a plane transverse to the axis of the skull (judging by the obli-

quity of the base), which is also the plane in which the equally com-

pressed bezantler is given off, in the external direction. The sur-

face is not very rough, nor are the tubercles of which the burr

consists, very large. A few nutritious grooves are well-marked.

The external edge of the beam becomes truncated towards the base,

and the section of the latter is a spherical triangle, transversely

placed, with the external apex more or less obtuse.

Measurements of No. I.

M.

Diameters at base of beam i anteroposterior..... ... .043

DEVOTEE is? CA ce os .058

Length to base of bezantler... ...... one Cece skouiae -100

N

Ou. 2.

Long diameter of bezantler at base..... .045

Geology and Paleontology. 163

In No. 2 a tuberosity on the external face of the beam a short

distance above the base, represents the brow-antler.

As compared with the year-old moose of which a figure i is given

by Prof. Baird (Rept. U.S. Pacific R. R. Exped. IX, p. 632), these

horns differ in the relatively shorter and more compressed beam,

with the less expansion of the portion immediately distad to the bez-

antler

The specimens of this species are all mr Whitman rd

Tacoma (Washington), and were obtained by Dr. J. L. Wort

ALCES SEMIPALMATUS Sp. nov

This species of elk is known to me from a basal portion of a

horn of a larger individual, and the corresponding part of a smaller

one. The larger specimen is considerably smaller than the adult of

the A. brevitrabalis, representing a species of about the size of the

black-tailed deer (C. macrotis), while the latter is as large as the

SUS.

tively and absolutely longer beam, and the relatively greater expan-

sion at the base of the bezantler. The general characters are other-

wise much as in that species. The beam is compressed, with the

external face truncate, and the bezantler directed outwards in the

several tubercles on the external border. Unfortunately the beam

is so split that its transverse diameter can be only surmised, from the

curves of its surface.

| Measurements.

M.

Dind at loss oL biam | anteroposterior........ ... .OIS to .020

. CANSEI 5 liue mA rare .030 to .035

Length of beam to base of bezantler............ ......

Long diameter of bezantler at base. ................... .035

Besides the greater length of the beam, its expansion near the

base of the bezantler and away from it, is greater than in the larger

species above described, and the concavity of the surface is wider.

From Whitman Co. , Tacoma, Dr. G. M. Sternberg, U. S. A.

Te ENSIFER, sp. n ov.

and not very long, and is accompanied by a twin process at its base,

with which it is united by a horizontal lamina or palmation. The

beam is, like that x the species already described, compressed, with

a flattening of one edge, that immediately above the brow-antler.

A similar marflcsid characterizes the base of the external edge,

164 General Notes.

which is not wider than the internal base, the reverse of what is seen

in the Alces brevitrabalis, The beam soon becomes compressed,

especially on the antero- external edge (above the brow-antler), and

in the specimen where it is best preserved, it is quite acute. In

neither specimen is there any indication of a bezantler. The longer

specimen may be possibly young, but its surface is strongly keeled

and furrowed. The burr consists of acute edges connecting sharp

points. The other specimen is smoother and rather more robust.

It shows no indication of the expansion of the species referred to

Alces, which it would do were it proportioned as in the A. drevitra-

balis.

Measurements. No. r.

M.

Does ut hate of hinn bera eae ims TEU qoa v e 022

e Tal CUI COMES POI ee. ive 035

Estimated length of ‘cuties Mitre wed Wa ree i) .040

Diameters beam .ogo M. from but 1 ——— ES pm

t Verse... 4v. .025

From Whitman Co., Tacoma, Mr. C. H. Sternberg.

'This species is referred to Cariacus, although the position and

direction of the brow-antler are different from those of any known

species of the genera. I suppose it to i one of the Telemetarcapi

solely from its resemblance to the Alces here described.

Several species have been found in localities not far removed

er those mentioned, and in beds possibly of the same geological

As it is not yet possible to determine with accuracy the ages

of these fossils, I only refer to them. Such are an Aphelops from

the valley of Toluca, Men ; and Mastodon americanus and M.

serridens from S. W. Texas.

The close paratteltem between the faunze at the three localities is

seen in the probable and ascertained identity of severa

the listsof each. The following species have been found in the two

regions most remote from each other, the valley of Mexico and the

Oregon Desert.

schatius conidens Cope.

Holomeniscus hesternus Leidy.

Equus excelsus Leidy.

Elephas primigenius Blum

Of these, the " excelsus, and Elephas primigenius have been

found in S. W. T ese species, with the Aguus barcenat, E.

gu

crenidens, and probati) the Glypiodon petaiferus are common to the

last named locality and the valley of Mex

orizon to which these beds shoul] be referred was held by

King to be the Upper Pliocene. I have coincided with this opinion

on palzontologic grounds, since the fauna presents a much greater

diversity from that now inhabiting North America than that of the

Plistocene beds of Europe exhibit when compared with the existing

Geology and Paleontology. 165

. THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF SEVILLE.—The city of Seville is situated

in the alluvial plain of the Guadalquivir, which every few

years, at the height of the winter rains, rises sufficiently high

to flood the streets. On both sides of these alluvial flats is a

greater part of the formations. are either Paleozoic or eruptive.

Granites, gneiss, syenite, diorite, diabase, and porphyry cover exten-

Sive areas, there are patches of Carboniferous strata, and a consider-

able extent of. Cambrian.

At Pefiaflar, a few miles above Seville, the mountains (Sierra

Morena) come near to the river, and in the hollows are deposits of

gold-bearing clay, which is supposed to be derived from the diorite

and diabase above, though it is mingled with material from the

archaic limestone and mica-schists. A section at this spot shows the

limestone interrupted by two broad bands of diorite, also with lines

of phosphorites, a thin vein of magnetic iron, and two bands o

mica-schists. Near the Guadalquivir there is a great fault, which

brings the Miocene suddenly to the surface. The upper portion of

the Miocene is conglomerate, the lower molasse. Two wide bands

of amphibolite intersect the Miocene. On the south of the Guadal-

166 General Notes.

quivir a second fault, affecting only the Miocene, occurs.— W. JV.

Locking ton.

AN ATTEMPT TO COMPUTE GEOLOGICAL Epocus.—The pre-

cession of equinoxes and the periodical change on the eccen-

tricity of the terrestrial orbit are reflected on the geological series of

strata, and are the key to the calculation of the duration of epochs.

The precession causes the winter and summer to be alternately

longer and shorter. In the semiperiod when winter is longer than

summer, the distinction between inland and coast climate becomes

more prominent. The currents of the atmosphere become stronger,

and in consequence of that, the ocean currents increase in

strength, and that again reacts upon the climate. The periodical

change of the climate produced by the precession is not great, but it

is sufficient to imprint itself in the alternation of beds, and in the

formaticn of beach-lines, terraces, series of moraines, etc. To each

period of precession corresponds one alternation of strata.

The eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit is periodically changeable.

ts mean value rises and falls for a period of about 17 millions

of years, with 16 oscillations. Such a rise and fall I term a cycle,

and each cycle is, in the calculated curve, composed of 16 arcs.

The tidal wave, which is the most powerful agent in altering the

sidereal day and in lengthening it, rises and falls in some measure with

the eccentricity. It so exceeds the other forces that act in altering ,

the length of the day, that the day steadily becomes lengthened, on

the average, more quickly in the middle of the cycles, when the

mean value of the eccentricity is greatest, and more slowly at the

limit between them, when the eccentricity is the least; and in respect

of the respective arcs with increasing speed during falling eccen-

tricity.

form. But according as the sidereal day becomes lengthened, and

the equatorial regions of the earth increase in weight; a steadily

increasing strain acts outward towards higher latitudes, and the

strain increases until the resistance is overcome. We must also bear

in mind that forces too slight to produce a sudden change in à

solid body, may still produce a change of form when they act

through long periods. "Therefore the lengthening of the sidereal day

acts not only on the seas, but also on the form of the solid globe.

The earth approaches steadily more and more to the spheriform,

but the solid crust is more sluggish in its movement than the seas,

which immediately accommodate themseives to the altered time of

rotation. As the motive force of these movements of seas and

solid earth is periodically changeable, according to the eccentricity

of the earth's orbit; these movements take place also, periodically

quicker and slower. And as the seas always accommodate them-

selves to the forces before the dry land does, it is likely that the

PLATE II,

Eccentricity of the earth's orbit,

calculated according to Stockwell’s formula by R.W.Mc. Farland (Amer. Journ. of Science, ser. 3 vol. 20. New Haven 1880).

Sic ential EBORE + 0,15 mill. :

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a < dem

A 0.02

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Geology and Paleontology. 167

beach-lines come to oscillate up and down once, for each rise and

fall of the eccentricity of the earth’s orbit. That is the case in re-

spect of both the respective arcs of the curve and of the cycles.

On such a cycle “the mean level of the sea” rises and falls once

in 16 oscillations.

The sidereal day has (cfr. Damine) become several hours longer.

It is therefore probable that there must have accumulated such a

strain in the mass of earth, that a slight increase of strain would be

sufficient to cause changes of form at the weakest points. It is also

likely that those partial changes in the solid mass of the earth must

occur, especially at times of great eccentricity, or some time after

such an occurrence, when the motive force increases quickest.

The change in the tidal-wave, caused by the variation of the

eccentricity, is presumed to be sufficiently great to explain the dis-

placement of the beach-lines. A few metres of vertical displacement

of the beach-line is sufficient to produce in the deep basins, an

alteration of many metres of thick marine and fresh water beds.

And as regards the changes in the solid body of the Earth, we must

recollect that the series of beds is not complete at any single spot.

In other words the oscillations were not general to such an extent

that they were contemporaneous everywhere. nly by partial

changes of form sometimes here, sometimes there, always at the

weakest point in each age, has the solid earth approached to the

spheriform. To each arc of the curve there corresponds, therefore,

tions of the beach-lines or 16 geological stages. In each of these

stages there are as many alternations of strata as there are preces-

168 General Notes.

sions in the corresponding arc, and the mean sea level rises with

the mean eccentricity in the middle of the cycles, and falls at the

limit between them, and hand in hand with the mean sea level, rises

and falls also, the temperature in the higher latitudes.

The doctrine here discussed agrees with Lyell’s great principle.

Slow changes in the length of the winter and summer and in the

force of the tidal-wave, produce periodical changes of climate, and

displacements of the beach-lines. The earth changes its form

globe, its

life.—4. Blyit in Christinia Videnkabs Selskabs forhandlingar, 1889,

JVo. 1.

THE WESTERN SAHARA.—According to the data brought together

by Sr. C. G. Toni, in the ZL’ Esplorazione Commerciale, from the ex-

plorations of Spanish and German travelers, the western coast of

Africa consists of a Cretaceous mass which is continued from the Cre-

taceous nucleus of Morocco and terminates at Cape Blanco.*In imme-

diate contact with the Cretaceous band of the coast and immediately

above it, exists a thick deposit of desert sands, which covers all the

subjacentformations. Beneath this sand through a large portion of

its extent, rocks of the Devonian period are believed to extend and

crop out in a few points. The hills of the oasis of Adrar Temar

contain trachyte and have some peaks of granite and basalt. These

hills also contain quartz, marble and various siliceous and ferrigen-

ous rocks,

In the “Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, Geologie und Pale-

ontologie, Jahrgang, 1888, I Band; drittes Heft," Dr. Ferd. Roemer .

escribes and figures a new genus of Echinodermata from Texas, to

which he gives the name of “ Macraster," and calls the only species

Macraster texanus. This fossil has long been familiar to the writer

in his stratigraphic investigations in Texas, and it makes a well de-

fined horizon near the very top of the immense thickness of lower

marine Cretaceous in Texas, and does not occur, as Dr. Roemer in-

fers from the specimens which accompanied it to Germany, with the

Lxogyra texana fauna, a statement which has been verified by Mr.

Geo. Stolly, the collector. This fact is important because of the

tendency upon the part of European paleontologists to underestimate

the value of the stratigraphic differentiation of the Texas Cretaceous.

—K. T. Hi.

CaNozoic.— Teeth of Ælephas antiquus found at Rinconada,

Cantillana and other places in the province of Seville S; ain, to-

Mineralogy and Petrography. 169

gether with vertebrz of the same species, are to be found in the mu-

seum at the University at the last named place, which museum also

contains the mandibles of Zvephas armeniacus found at Almudovar

del Rio near Cordoba.

GEOLOGICAL News.—GENERAL.—Herr Schliiter in two papers

entitled “ Ueber die Vipüitet- Echinodermata der Kreide Nord

Americas," and “ Ueber Inoceramus und Cephalopoden der Texan-

ischen Kreide, (Niederrhein. Gesselschaft at Bonn, March, 1887), de-

scribes Salenia mexicana, from Chihuahua, Mexico, and Inoceramus

subquadratus, Ti ire: irrideus, and T. varians from Austin, Texas.

The validity of the three e species last mentioned is exceedingly

doubtful, as ^ie descriptions give no data sufficient to differentiate

them from species already described by Roemer and Shumard. He

also asserts that the Austin Cretaceous is equivalent to that of Ems,

Germany, a rather indefinite statement since within the corporate

limits of Austin is found nearly the whole range of tne comprehen-

sive Texas Cretaceous under conditions which could hardly be

duplicated —2. T. Zl.

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY}

PETROGRAPHICAL NEws.—Messrs. Adams and Lawson * of the

Canadian peewee Survey have been examining the rocks associat-

ed with the apatite in the Canadian apatite mines, to determine

whether or not there is present a rock similar to the scapo-

lite-diorite occurring in the N orwegian apatite region. They find that

in some instances the Canadian apatite veins occur in a rock, compos-

ed essentially of orthoclase and biotite,with or without augite.i.e, either

mica-syenite or augite-mica- -syenite. None of the thin sections of the

rocks associated with the apatite resemble inthe leastthose of the Nor-

wegian rock. At other regions in the Canadian Laure entian, owes

pears in some cases to be primary and in “others to be seconda ary.

The scapolite is in large colorless grains, many of which show poly-

synthetic twinning lamella, which may be due to the remains of the

1 Edited by Dr. W, S. Bayley, wed University, Waterville, Me.

* Can. Rec. of Science, 1688, p-

170 General Notes.

original plagioclase from which the scapolite was derived. Inclu-

sions of dust and fluid cavities are present in the scapolite in large

quantities and microlites are developed along its cleavage planes. The

rutile occurs in grains closely associated with the scapolite. In

several instances boning Bane appear to be made up of lamella, in

which, however, there is no alternation of extinction as in the case

of polysynthetic airing! The authors call the rock a scapolite-dio-

rite. A rock from McDougall, Parry Sound District, contains a

basic pagioclase in addition to the minerals mentio ned abov ve, and

has been called plagioclase-scapolite-diorite. Schistose rocks with

the composition of the last mentioned diorite, have had their schist-

isty produced in them by pressure, as is evident from the shattered

condition of the plagioclase constituent. The scapolite in these

rocks bear no marks of a secondary origin from plagioclase. Augite

phases. The former consists of plagioclase, oe pene pies augite,

olivine, a little enstatite, magnetites, apatite and titanic i é

olivine is a pure hyalosiderite, elongated in the dirention of the c

axis, and intergrown with plates of titanic iron in such a way that

these are perpendicular both to the cleavage planes and to the long

axes of the olivine crystals. Amygadaloidal cavities contain the rock

forming minerals together with little crystals of hornblende, and

tridymite and masses of hyalite. To account for the existence here

would naturally circulate through the amygdaloidal cavities. The

écris theory proposed to explain the existence of druse min-

erals in cavities of eruptive rocks he dismisses as unsubstantiated by

facts. Upon the surface of the glassy dolerite is a crust of altered

material with the characters of palagonite.—Loewinson- Lessing *

‘has embraced in a very readable article the views which are gradually

becoming prevalent among petrographers in reference to the origin of

diabases, gabbros and diorites. After briefly calling attention to the

acknowledged differences between the structure of intrusive and effu-

sive rocks, and emphasizing the peculiar features of the diabase struct-

ure, the author declares that this is the structure ofan effusive rock

rather than of an intrusive one. e association of diabases with

fossil-bearing tuffs and their gradation into augite-porphyrites leads

him to regard them as effusive under water, with the augite-porphy-

1 Streng : Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc. 4 II. p. 181.

2 Bull. Soc. Bélg. d. Géol. II. 1888, p. 8

Mineralogy and Petrograpny. 17L

and (4) sub-marine (ophite-diabases ) The diorites he would

separate into those which are merely altered phases of dia-

base (including the epidiorites and the proterobases), and the pri-

mary diorites, which owe their hornblendic constituents to the pres-

ence of water vapor in the magma from which they solidified. Since

hornblende is found only in those portions of rocks which cooled

in the intratellurial period, 7. e., under such pressure as would pre-

The quartz of the granite has been enlarged by the addition of new

gregate of quartz and feldspar, in which are numerous concentric

and radial spherulites, and a well-marked fluidal structure. Inclu-

sions of a mica schist, and of a cordierite bearing andalusite contact

rock are also found in the same kersantite.— Mr. Cross * communi-

cates some brief descriptions of a few of the eruptiverocks occurring

in Custer Co., Colorado. The first rock described is a garnetifer-

ous rhyolite with a eutaxitic structure. It is remarkable for its sim-

ple composition which is as follows:

SiO; Al,O; Fe,0O; FeO MnO CaO MgO K,O NaO H:O P,O;

75.20 12.96 .3 .03 .29 .12 8.38 2.02 .58 tr.— 100.22.

A sanidine-oligoclase-trachyte possesses the peculiarity of a second-

ary porous structure due probably to the alteration of inclusions.

Its biotite has yielded augite on its corroded edges. In a syenite

Occurring in narrow dykes are irregularly-shaped pieces of biotite,

with their greatest development in the direction of their ¢ axes. Peri-

dotite and an olivine-augite-diorite are also described. The former

contains brown hornblende and hypersthene in about equal propor-

tions.—The same writer? announces the discovery of a second oc-

currence of phonolite in the United States. The specimen examin-

! R. Pohlmann: Ne i 2 ciL p. 87.

: Ps Papers cue dca etc. 1888, II. p. 87.

oc. Col. Scient. Soc. 1887. p. 167.

143 General Notes.

ed was not foundin place. It was picked up on the Eastern slope

of the Hayden divide, between Florissant and Manitou, Colorado.

The rock consists of about 25 per cent. of nepheline, of granular

sanidine, prismatic particles of a deep green homblende, and little

nation o the specimen of altered diabase from Quinnesec, Mich.,

Cathrein * concludes that the rutile, which Williams * thought to be

secondary after ilmenite contains no titanium, and can, therefore,

not have given rise to the rutile by alteration. LSA porphyritic horn-

blende—andesite from Dewéboyun in Turkey in Asia, is described by

Leewinson-Lessing? as composed b large crystals of hornblende

and tapradate in a groundmass consisting of plagioclase microlites

in a glassy base.—Karl Schneider * has observed the alteration of

sphene into calcite and perofskite in a phonolite from Bohemia

MINERALOGICAL Nrws.—JVew Minerals, Sperrylite® is the first

compound of platinum that has been found asa mineral. It occurs

in the Vermillion mine, in Algoma, Ontario, in a layer of loose

material on the SES between a vein of gold-bearing quartz and the

enclosing rock, in pockets in the decomposed ore. In bot

cases it is RAI with copper and iron pyrites. The sperrylite

is found in small lustrous grains, which are fragments of crystals on

which Mr. Penfield has discovered cubic, dodecahedral, octahedral,

and pyritoid faces. The color of the fragments is tin-white an

their powder black. Their hardnesss is between 6 and7. Although

their specific gravity is 10.602 the grains have a tendency to float

upon the surface of water. Analysis yielded :

As Sb Pt Rh Pd Fe SnO:

40.98 0.50 52.57 43 tr. .07 4.62

corresponding to Pt As, after allowing for the cassiterite present as

an impurity. The artificial compound made by passing vapor of

arsenic over red hot platinum possesses many of the properties of

Fa ghe substance, the most characteristic of which is instant

n upon contact with red hot platinum, with the evolution of

init odorless fumes of arsenic, and the production of porous ex-

crescences of the color of platinum. The composition of the mineral

and its pipers iru relegate it tothe pyrite group.— Attention has

already been called to the new mineral? Beryllonite. A full de-

scription of its occurrence and properties has recently been given

by Messrs. E. S. Dana and Wells! The mineral is found at the

ur. f.

6 Amer. Naturalist Nov. 1888, p. 1023.

7 Amer. Jour. Sci., Jan., 1889, Pp, 23.

Mineralogy and Petrography. 173

base of the McKean mountain near Stoneham, Maine, in the destritus

of what is supposed to be a granitic vein in mica schist. In ad-

dition to the facts announced in the former notice it may be added

that the mineral is orthorhombic with æ : 0 : c —.5724 : 1 : .5490.

It has four cleavages parallel respectively to o P, oo Po, © P3 and

c» P% in the order of their perfection. Twins parallel to % P are

not rare. It is colorless or yellow and transparent. The plane of

its optical axes is o Pæ. Its double refraction in negative and

Ha = 72° 47’ for yellow light. The mineral is remarkable for the

presence in it of cavities elongated parallel to the ¢ axis. 'Fhese

sometimes contain two movable bubbles, and are so numerous as to

produce an apparent columnar structure in the mineral.—DadAlite

from Bamle, Norway, is described by Brógger and Bäckström’ as a

new mineral occurring as a thin yellow crust on massive apatite.

This crust is composed of little fibres arranged perpendicular to its

surface, which is smooth and lustrous. The mineral is translucent,

is optically negative, has a hardness of about 5 and a specific gravity

of 3.053. Itisahydrous double phosphate and carbonate of cal-

cium (4 Ca; (PO,)2 + 2 Ca CO; + H:O) It gave on analysis :

P40; CO; CaO FeO N&O K,0 H:O

38.44 6.29 53.00 .19 .89 iti 1.37

Awaruite is the first nicket-iron compound described that is not

of meteoric origin. It occurs in small plates and granules in the

sand of George River, in the western part of South Island, New

Zealand. Its composition is :

Ni Co Fe S Si

67. 19 31.02 N :43

The mother rock of the mineralis a serpentine that has origin-

ated from an olivine rock by alteration.— Darapsky? adds Waposite

to the list of iron sulphates from Atacama, Chili. It is found in

radially fibrous, glistening, brittle, dark-red crystals containing

24.72 percent. of SOs, 30 per cent. of Fe3Os, and 16.43 per cent. of H*O,

thus corresponding to the formula Fe (FeO; SG 43, + 10 H30 It is

decomposed by water and by acids,—A¢azapilite. Dr. König’ an-

nounces the discovery of a new arsenide of calcium and iron from

Zacatecas, Mexico. It occurs in dark red and black, probably or-

oe crystals, with a hardness of 7 and a specific gravity of

+507,

MiscELLANEOUS.—Gonnard* describes natural corrosion figures

in Barite from the Puy-de-Dóme, that consist of little depressions

! Aefv. Vet.—Akad. Fórhandl, 1888, d. 493. Ref. Am. Jour. Sci. Jan. '89,

s Vom Rath: Ref. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 188ọ, I. E 23.

Mi vg d. 1. Soc. Nac. Min., Santiago de Chile, Ref. Neues Jahrb, f.

, . P. 33.

* Bull. Soc. Fr. d. Min., 1888, XI., p. 269.

174 General Notes.

with an orthorhombic or a monoclinic symmetry. ‘Those of the lat-

ter kind are triangular in shape and are supposed to owe their

abnormal symmetry to twinning.—Mr. Cross has noticed striations

in the cubic faces of ga/ena from the Minnie Moore mine, Bellevue,

Idaho, which he believes to be due to twinning lamelle produced by

the slipping of alternate bands of the mineral along gliding planes,

as a consequence of pressure, The twinning planes he in the zone

between co O œ and c» O—New methods for the detection of tin.

caesium, and rubidium under the microscope are suggested by Streng?

The detection of tin depends upon the fact that KCe and Sn Ce yield

modified by icositetrahedrons. Caesium and rubidium chlorides with

stannous chloride in hyrochloride acid solutions give crystals of the

same shape as those of potassium and stannous chlorides, but in

rocks. The solution which he proposes for use is made by dissolv-

ing four parts of dry aluminium chloride in sixty parts of water

and adding to it six parts of haematoxylin campechianum,

BOTANY.‘

Two BIG-ROOTED PLANTS OF THE PLAINS.—Now and then some

of the plants of the plains present odd characteristics not ob-

served in some of the eastern regions. Two species native of the

open plains at an altitude of from 2,000 feet above thesea to the base of

the Rocky Mountains are remarkable for their enormous roots. One

1 Proc. Col. Scient. Soc. 1887, p. 171.

2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1888, II., p. 142.

3 Zeits. d. deuts. geol. Gesell. XL., 1888, p. 357.

4 Edited by Chas. E. Bessey, Lincoln, Nebraska.

Botany. 175

of these is the Wild Pumpkin (Cucurbitale perennis Gray), which pro-

duces a trailing stem, bearing triangular, woolly pubescent leaves,

whose blades are six to eight inches in length. The fruits are about

the size of an orange, and are perfectly spherical in shape. When

ripe they are yellow with some greenish longitudinal markings. pn

ternally they are exceedingly fibrous, and contain a great number o

seeds (aboot 200) which are about one-third of an inch in length

feet in length, and at the to

inches, T

the cavity bein

176 General Notes.

is covered with a healthy cortex, and there is no sign of decay about

it. Around the margin of the cavity are the remains of several

stems, showing that in this portion the buds for the annual running

stems occur. At about two feet from the crown the root bends ab-

ruptly and sends out a couple of branches. When in the ground the

part below the bend was vertical, while that above was inclined. The

root grew upon a hillside and its upper portion was nearly if not

quite perpendicular to the surface of the ground. e bend was

probably occasioned by the slow sliding of the upper strata of the

soil down the hill. The branches are much smaller where they

emerge from the main root, and enlarge considerably within the first

six or eight inches.

The smaller root (Fig. 2) measured when taken from the ground

nearly four feet in length, and had a diameter of about eight inches.

lt is regular in form, and is not much branched. Its crown is ex-

tended into a neck five or six inches long, and upon the upper part of

this are the remains of the branching stems.

Both roots are very fibrous internally, almost woody in fact, but

they contain also an enormous amount of stored up nourishment for

the rapid development of the annual stems. The first (1) weighed

eighty pounds when fresh, and the second (2) thirty-three. But this

store of nourishment is amply protected against the hungry gophers,

moles, mice, rabbits, squirrels and larger animals, for it is intensely

bitter. In the struggle for existence those only have remained whose

bitterness was sufficient to overcome the hunger and thirst of the ani-

mals of the plains.

The second big-rooted plant is the Wild Morning Glory (/pomea

leptophylla Torr), a beautiful plant of a bushy habit, bearing numer-

ous large pink-purple flowers closely resembling those of the common

cultivated Morning Glory of the gardens. The stems are numerous

and branching, But not twining, and they rarely attain a height of

more than a couple of feet.

The root is enormous, often approaching the size of that of the

Wild Pumpkin. A specimen in my laboratory is shown in Fig. 4-

Itis nearly three feet in length, and evidently was originally much

larger, and has a diameter of eight inches. As may be seen, It

branches at about fifteen or sixteen inches from the top. On the

one side there were originally several branches, but on the other but

one. This shows, also, the peculiarity noticed above of the smaller

size of the branch root at the point of its origin, and its subsequent

enlargement.

Both of these plants come down upon the plains to about the

rooth meridian. In northern Nebraska at Long Pine, I have seen

the Wild Morning Glory ten or twelve mileseast of that meridian.

The wild pumpkins are abundant in Lincoln County (south of the

Platte River), not more than fifteen or eighteen miles west of the

line mentioned.— Charles E. Bessey.

Botany. 177

HERBARIUM Notes.—AN ALPHABETICAL ARRANGEMENT.—In

arranging an herbarium one’s first thought would be to arrange it ac-

cording to some recognized natural system of which it would then

alphabetical arrangements based on assumed convenience are pro-

bably the prevailing ones. These alphabetical arrangements may

be either of species in a genus or of genera in certain large groups,

as the Fungi, the composite or the Grasses; but they are all based on

the idea of convenience of reference.

As to the alphabetical arrangement of genera. Without consid-

ering the question whether a natural arrangement, even if slightly

less convenient, would not be preferable, I believe that such an ar-

rangement can be shown to be equally convenient. In the first

place the largest families of Fungi, for example, as the Icacez,

Uredinez, or Spheriacez; are by no means as large as A, C, S, or P

of an alphabetical arrangement. The larger groups like S and P are

exceedingly inconvenient unless subdivided; and surely it is of more

value to the student to know the subdivisions of the Spheriacee

than of S, unless he is preparing himself to be a Register of Deeds.

he convenience of an alphabetical arrangement arises from the

familiarity of the alphabet, yet the names of the natural sub-divi-

sions of plants should be scarccly less familiar to the botanist.

Then, too, allied genera are often wanted at the same time; genera

of the same initial letter probably never. Plants are generally

studied in small groups; and nothing could be more inconvenient to

the student of a tribe than to find six genera in six distinct groups,

each of which must be carefully searched, nor more convenient than

to have them together, perhaps even placed in the very order in

which he wishes to study them.

Somewhat more can be said in favor of an alphabetical arrange-

ment of species in a genus. Such an arrangement is not needed to

such genera as Carex, for example, a natural arrangement is

equally convenient, without regarding the fact that it is infinitely

e Eri

the species of a group together than to be forced to search through

five or six letters. But in genera of Fungi, as Cercospora, where

there is no very good natural arrangement, it might be said, is better

than one based on the host, such as is usually given in the books,

178 General Notes.

grape and therefore, goes in the section “in Di cotyledonis ligno-

sis," while he-could gain very little from the reflection that its spe-

s h é« I

cific name begins wit

This, too, is done on the plea of convenience, as they are usually

studied by different students. Letting alone the question of whether

it would not be better for the mycologist to think more about Algz,

I believe that an herbarium where all plantsare arranged according

to a natural system without regard to anything else is perfectly con-

venient for reference, as long as the families are clearly indicated on

the cases. If this is so, the natural arrangement is clearly prefer-

able. For these are not mere questions of convenience. Inthe case

of a classification, if mere convenience of placing specimens in their

proper genera and species were all that was to be considered, per-

haps no system would be superior to the celebrated one of Linnzus

But thisis one of the last things which we demand of a classification.

The function of a classification 1s to teach us the relations, the an-

cestry and thus a part, it may be, of the history of plants. So with

an herbarium. Its object should be no moreto furnish authentic

specimens for the determination of single species than the higher

one of teaching us the relations of these species by bringing together

their names.— Roscoe Pound.

SaccARDO'S GREAT WORK on FuNGL.—Although Saccardo’s

Sylloge Fungorum has been noticed in the NATURALIST from time to

time upon the appearance of the volumes, it may be offservice to our

readers to indicate more fully the scope of the great work. The

intention of the author (Professor P. A. Saccardo of the University

of Padua) is to publish in one work the descriptions of all the Fungi

now known in all parts of the world. Such an undertaking involves

as all will admit, an immense amount of labor, and he must have been

abold man indeed who willingly entered upon it. As a matter of

course such a work, intended for the whole world, could be written

in Latin only. :

The first volume appeared in 1882, the second in 1883, the third

in 1884, the fourth in 1886. In the latter year A. N. Berlese and

P. Volgins brought out a supplementary volume to volumes I to IV,

in which additions and corrections were made. The fifth volume

appeared in 1887, and the sixth and seventh in 1888. The. eighth

and concluding volume may be looked for some time during the

resent year. The total number of pages thus far printed is 6898,

and doubtless the final volume will bring the number up to 7709.

The system adopted by Saccardo may be learned from the fol

lowing synopsis:

Botany. 179

ORDER PYRENOMYCETE Fr. Em, De Nat.

Family 1. Pertsporicee

Sphaeriacee Fr.

a Hypocreaee

“ 4, Dothideacee Nits. et Fkl

* 5, Microthyrtacee Sacc

" ophiostomacee Sacc

* 7, Hyster zacee Corda. -

ORDER Veri te tia ,

Including six “Sections” which are designated Hyalosporee,

Scaloce- ailentogpoteey iat eye FS rice vitm Phragmosporez

PHOMYCETE# Mart

Family 1. Mucedine@ Link emen li

H i —— rn

" 3. Stzibez

ue CE eie Se ER Ehrenb. emend.

ORDER HYMENOMYCETEJE

Family 1. Agaricinee Fr.

“ 2. Polyporee Fr.

ORDER GASTEROMYCETE Wild.

Family 1. Phallotdee Fr.

" 2. Nidulariecee Fr.

“ 3, Lycoperdacee Ehreub.

“ 4. Hymenogastracee Vttt.

ORDER Pacouicives DeBary.

Family 1. Mucoracee DeBary.

“ 2, Peronosporacee DeBary.

. Sapr 7

6. eBary

COHORT MYXOMYCETEE Wallr.

Subcohort I. Myxomyceteae (Grauinz)

ORDER PROTODERMIALLE Rost.

Family 1. Protodermiacee Rost.

4

ORDER AMAUROCHETE# Rost.

Family sh AMNEM OE. Rost.

temoni

s x | oA AK dastu Bel.

180 General Notes.

< 4 Amaurochaetacee Rost.

" 5. Brefeldiacee Rost.

9 Oye a es Rost.

ORDER ANEMEJE

Family 1. Liceacee y ,

" 2. Clathroptychzacez Rost.

ORDER HETERODERMEE Rost.

Family " Perichaenacee Rost.

. Archriacee Rost

" Trichzacie Rost

Appendix. ORDER SOROPHORE Zoph.

Family 1. Guttubinee Zoph.

* 2. Dictyosteliacee Rost.

Sub Cohort II. Monadineae Cienk.

ORDER MONADINE AZOOSPORE# Zopf.

Family 1. Vampyrellee Zopf.

opf.

" 3. Plaamodiodiphor te Zopf.

ORDER USTILAGINEJE

Artificially divided into * A sadrüilictu " * Didymosporez ” and

* Dictyosporez."

ORDER UREDINEZ Bron

E divided into ‘ " Amérosporeze " “Didymosporee "and

the species of certain groups entirely re-written. The total cost of

the whole work will be about one hundred dollars. — Charles

E. Bessey.

ZOOLOGY,

Two REMARKABLE RADIATES—In the Aarsberetning of the

Bergen Museum for 1887 (but recently issued), Dr, D. C. Danielssen

describes two interesting forms obtained by the dredge in the re-

cent Norse North Atlantic Expedition. When collected they were

Loology. 181

. In general

terms they may be described as sea anemones whose so-called

stomach (Actinostom of Agassiz) has extended down to the base

thus partially (Aegir) or completely (Fenja) separating the digestive

from the mesenterical spaces, while in both an anus is developed in

the base. In both the ccelome thus formed is divided by twelve per-

fect septa, but in Aegir these spaces communicate by twelve slender

fissures with the rectal area of the digestive tract. In Fenja there are

twelve genital pores around the anus, outside the rectum ; in Aegir

the genitalia are more like those of ordinary sea anemones. Both

forms are hermaphrodites. '

As will be seen these forms which in every other respect are true

sea anemones differ from all ccelenterates in the distinction between

by over twenty plates is promised at an early date.

THe Eyes or Tritopites.—Mr. J. M. Clarke gives an account

of the eyes of the trilobite Phacops rana in the Journal of Mor-

phology, Vol. IL, 1888. He divides the trilobites into two groups,

Holochroal and Schizochroal, according as the external surface of

the cornea is faceted or not. The Phacopide belong to the latter

group, and their eyes are to be regarded as aggregate rather than

compound. The corneal lenses were hollow or filled with some sub-

stance different from the cornea. Nothing like a crystalline cone

has been preserved. Until maturity the number of eyes in an optical

organ increases by the addition of new lenses at the ends of the

diagonal rows, and these new lenses are apparently formed by a

thinning of the integument. (The reporter would remark that there

seems to bea difference in the way in which, according to Mr

182 General Notes.

Clarke’s observations, the visual area is increased in the trilobites

and that shown by Mr. Watase's unpublished observations on the

eyes of Limulus.) After maturity, although the trilobite may con-

tinue to increase in size, senility begins and with it there is a decrease

in the number of optical elements.

In a concluding note Mr. Clarke calls attention to the fact that

in the Leptostracan genus Mesothyra of the Portage Panes

group "the eye consists of a single deep pit at the summit of t

optic node.

THE Sexes or Myxine.—Dr. Fridtjof Nansen (Bergens Mu-

seum's Aarsberetning, 1887) states that in his studies of the nervous

dd of Myxine he wasstruck by the fact thatit semed as if females

only came under Ninian’ He therefore investigated the subject, and

atiet reviewing the more prominent papers te detailing his own

investigations states his pale rte that “ Myxine is generally or

always (?), in its young state, a male; whilst at a more advanced stage

it becomes transformed into a female.” The genital organs are

female in front and male behind. Nansen has investigated the

spermatogenesis but his results are widely at variance with those of

Cunningham. He has also tried, but in vain, to obtain the embryol-

ogy of this form. Myxine is extremely abundant at Bergen, but

dredging in the — at all seasons of the year has failed to pro-

duce a single o He has tried to breed them in confinement

but though pein females were kept in wooden cages for half a year

they obstinately refused to lay their eggs. From his studies of

ovaries he concluded that eggs were deposited at all seasons of the

In and he adds to our knowledge of specimens of the eggs of

ne ii recording [n dredged in 1857 by Dr. Danielssen and

un son near Molde. ansen does not seem to be familiar with a

paper by Punt on Morus and Bdellostoma in the Proceedings of

the Boston Society of Natural History some years ago.

ZOOLOGICAL NEws.—PRoTOzoA.—Mr. Beddard, in his earth-

worm studies, has recently met (Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1888, p.

355) a gregarine in the body cav vity of a New Zealand Perichzta

which is remarkable among gregarines in forming a nucleated cyst.

Dr. L. Plate (Zool. Jahrbuch, III., 1888) describes under the

the Acinetz :

bears a clubbed suctorial thread for ikg food, which is shorter

and stiffer than those in the true Acinete ; and it possesses besides

longitudinal rows of cilia on the ventral surface. Acinetoides forms

colonies and has been seen to divide transversely.

CŒLENTERATA.—Gireg describes and figures as new (Bergens

Museum's Aarsberetning for 1887) Rhisoxenia alba and Sympodium

margaritaceum from the Norwegian coast.

Embryology. 183

EMBRYOLOGY.’

THE STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN SPERMATOZOON.—Any new

light which i is thzown upon the structure of the sexual elements by

the aid of more refined methods of research, will be welcomed in

view of the possible bearings which such information may have upon

questions of inheritance. That variations in the structure of the

male elements do occur as abnormalities seems to be established by

the researches of E. M. Nelson ?, who finds that not only do they

vary in the number of heads, but also in the number of tails and

even as to the number of the nuclei; forms were also met with which

were praes together in pairs by a band. Those familiar with Se-

lenka's work on the Opossum will recall in this connection the sin-

gular fact abri pan by that embryologist as to the double nature of

the fresh spermatozoa of Didelphys virginiana.

The most interesting facts, however, which Mr. Nelson records as

the result of his studies, with the aid of the new apochromatic

wae di of Zeiss, relate to the details of structure of the human

ale ele

The head, which has always been figured as a simple, somewhat

flattened pyriform rm body,according to this last observer, is pee

complex when studied by the aid of better appliances. It is rather

obovate in outline from the broad side, but when viewed siguni it

is seen to be curved upon itself, so that it bears a resemblance to

an oblong meniscus lens

Furthermore, this observer givesnames to its parts. The anterior

portion containing the nucleus, he calls the spore, and at its extreme

anterior pole it bears an excessively minute flament as he names it,

which is hardly as long as the spore itself. He suggests that this is

a sort of feeler or tentacle by means of which the spermatozoon finds

Lyx.

ext follows the szem or “middle nel ' which at its posterior

extremity is slightly swollen. This swollen posterior extremity of

the stem and the anterior end of the tail there occurs a constriction

Which has been previously noticed by Nelson, aud to which he gives

l Edited ur Prof. John A. Ryder, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

: T men s ser. I1, Vol

MO igs uekett Microscop. Club. Ser. b

184 General Notes.

the appropriate name of joint. It seems, in fact, as if such were its

nature, as a very short refringent and dark band of substance here

joins the stem and tail together. This band is so much narrower

than the stem or tail that it appears as if there were a deep notch

on either side of the tail portion of the spermatozoon at this point.

Immediately behind the joint, the flagelliform tail i is continued

as that tapering organ! familiar to all histologists since the time of

Leeuwenhoek.

e structure of the spermatozoon is therefore more complex

than is usually supposed, and the following TIAE parts may be dis-

tinguished, beginning at the anterior extremity :

Filament, spore, cup, calyx, stem Kio A^

The following measurements are giv

Head (spore : and cup) long ine in. 5.9 y

broad ror " 3.4 K

Stem long soo "44H

Tail from joint te tip Tiv d

Total, head, stem and tail z3z

“ce

From what has preceded it is clear that there is great capacity

for variation. Further, it is proms that this high “a of com-

be modified when the subject is viewed from the s of a renewed

study of the structure and function of the spesmatozoon at all phases

e: the procéss of its union with the ovum. May it not be that some

mportant parts of the process of union have escaped observation

in virtue of the optical difficulties which are involved? The con-

seausners. of didnt. as the result of union with abnormal sper-

oa is also worthy of paeen not only from a purely

iR i iE but also account of the possible light it

with the great number of forms assume the male element

throughout the animal kingdom, and the very diverse psc

under which fertilization occurs, it seems as if Du Bois Reymon

reproach— Zgzrabimus—may here remain true.

1]t may poen be of advantage to use the word organula her e instead of

organ, following a suggestion of Móbius. Functionally differentiated "multicellular

seer ally in ‘multicellular forms or metazoa are in this se nse organs, while for

functional lula or for such differentiated

portions of the unicellular gesmeleeneats of x metazoa the diminutive—organ

is appropria

Archeology and Anthropology. 185

ARCHZEOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY!

MOUND AND OTHER EXPLORATIONS BY MR. WARREN K. MOORE-

HEAD.—On the high wooded hills bordering the Little Miami Rivcr

in central Greene County are a number of mounds. One is the large

mound on the farm of Mr. J. B. Lucas, three miles west of Xenia.

Up to June, 1885, this mound had never been thoroughly explored.

It was about twenty feet in height with a slightly flattened summit,

perhaps seven feet across, and sixty feet in diameter at the base.

Four good sized trees grew out of the sides, one of which was an

oak perhaps ninety years old.

This mound was opened in June, 1885. A shaft was sunk, from

the summit downwards, twelve feet, but nothing of interest found.

We began a trench on the outer edge of the east side, and carried it

to the center ; then extended the trench from the summit down until

these two met. Completing this work, we caved in the sides, and

threw back the earth taken out, thus restoring the mound nearly to

its former shape.

The trench from the outer edge of the mound to the center was

about twenty-five feet in length. For the first ten feet of this dis-

tance the earth was fine clay, not mixed with ashes. At twelve feet

from the outer circumference was a bed of ashes and charcoal,

perhaps two feet in thickness, and sticks of the half-charred wood

three feet long and quite well preserved were taken out. These had

een laid with regularity and were probably covered with earth

before the fire had consumed them. At sixteen feet a thin irregular

stratum of ordinary river sand was found, three or four inches in

thickness.

shaft above. We had not thrown out a foot of earth until we came

to a mass of charcoal and ashes. This occurred without intermis-

sion for two feet or more when we came upon a layer of pure clay,

nearly two feet in thickness. Immediately below this was the thin

stratum of sand, and under this sand, resting on the “altar” of

were buried side by side; the heads to the south. At the feet were

fragments of a clay urn, peculiarly shaped. It had been broken into

seven or eight pieces, but could be easily restored. It was of the

basket-moulded ” pattern, having plain marks of the basket reeds

1 This department is edited by Thomas Wilson, Esq., Smithsonian Institution,

Washington, D. C.

— -

186 General Notes.

on the surface—a pattern rare in Ohio. Save a few perforated bear

teeth and three rough spear-heads, no other relics were found. The

excavation from both summit and base were carried rout the

burnt clay to the original level below. The clay contained fragments

of oe bones evidently of animals such as the deer, bear, and

racco

The opposite side of the mound (the west side) has since been

opened by parties living near, but nothing found. ;

Two INDIAN CE':ETERIES NEAR ROMNEY, HAMPSHIRE COUNTY,

W.Va.—Eight miles up the south fork of the Potomac River from

Romney, W. Va., is an island owned by Mr. I. Pancake, and on this

island once stood a large Indian village. A flood some two years

ago cut a channel through the island and exposed to view the skele-

tons of many human beings, as well as relics and objects of aborig-

inal manufacture. Recent newspaper reports attracted Mr. Moore-

head's attention, and he visited the spot for the purpose of investiga-

tion.

With a force of several Irishmen, work was commenced the morn-

ing of January 16’89 A large part of the island was tomeny dug

over and the earth examined to a depth of four feet. It was found

that over one-half of the bodies originally interred had ay ed

out by the flood ; those that remained were scarcely two feet below

the surface, consequently when the island was cultivated the bones

would be much disturbed. Only five skeletons could be taken out