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Vol. XXV.” JULY, Bor. No. 295

CONTENTS.

ON THE cea iby OF a spt

in the Oligochetes—Di

[Ilustrated], . - G, Bau 631 | Budding in Polyzoa—The

Eprrontat—Preoecapied Na ames,. ...... . 640 | Position of Limul

ECENT BOOKS AND b AMP o wea oom — of the Vertebrate

r LITERA sil F

eptilia and Pateckia (Amphibia) im te British

useum, Parts IL, IHH., and [V.— ——— E ee oa he

Sito s Fossil Fishes—Mre " Bodington aes fae flar tsaia Development of Lee Ascid-

uti ees 644 | ians

a. Nove Entomology — —the “ ‘Arrow en

Geography Ba Dewl. 7.—The Peary Exploring “ Jumping

Expedita ns for Greenland and the — of Unex-

egions of the Arctic Circle, 649

= Geology aor Titin if —The Mavic Faaa

-Tt re- Paleozo Coinein f the Archean Terranes

Š A Fa

senl Q

; Ce PAGE o

A Review or THE ne ee or THE CRETA- ee ‘Glacial: pies Ge Sioe New Fishes ‘rom South

ous MANHALIA A [Uiustra ; : eee. 8, ones! veoh Paleoz

| He » 575 | Cenozoic,. . oe

hoes a ON Wissen MAMMALIA, . $ O: c Marsh, : 6rr Mi ineralogy Te Patroerophy -New Minerais

THE COMIN peg eos Sid V. Clevenger, 617 FE ical New

WHERE AMATEU OTOG S CAN BE OF Zao —Motion in -] jhology

; ASSISTANCE es Sex | [Titustrated], ofthe sea Seat A he Starfish Lat tomy

. W. Shufeidt, 626 | of theSyn whitch oe o Canalin Trema

: t Fertilization in the Ces

nvesti as )

as notices of the results of investigation

3e published, A considerable s of time a

ashy

orkers, to have the results made ‘known E

ssible, thus insuring priority of d discovery to

poe thie oiher tö m more ota

page:

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV. JULY, 18o1. 295.

A REVIEW OF THE “DISCOVERY OF THE

CRETACEOUS MAMMALIA.”?

BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN,

q July, 1889, I received a copy of the “ Discovery of the Creta.

ceous Mammalia”? from Professor O. C. Marsh, and shortly

afterwards wrote to the author calling attention to all the points in

which it appeared to me he was mistaken, and suggested that he

should revise the paper himself.

This was a year and a half ago. In the meantime Parts I. and

II. of the “ Cretaceous Mammalia” have been widely distributed,

and the discoveries have been accepted without question by many

who have no special knowledge of the Mesozoic mammals, and

with considerable hesitation and criticism by those who have;

I refer especially to the notices by Lydekker, Lemoine,* Cope,

and Dames? It seems, therefore, that it is important to carefully

review, in a manner that cannot be misunderstood either by the

author or by others, what appears to me to be one of the most

1 Presented to the Society of Morphologists, Boston, Dec. 30th, 1890 ; Academy of

Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Jan. 20th, 1891; Biological Society of Washington,

er 6th, 1891. Printed, with some alterations, in Proc. Phila. Acad.

\ Discovery of the Cretaceous Mammalia.” O. C. Marsh, American Journal of

Science and Arts, Parts I. and. II., July and August, 1889

Manual of beeline’. Vol. II., p. 1268.

$ Aien of Sciences, Paris, March 3d, 1890.

Š AMERICAN NATURALIST, June, 1889, p. 490.

6 Neues Jahrb. f. Geol. Min. u. Pal., mha p. 141-143.

ee Mo. ‘Bot. Garden,

Hee ee

596 The American Naturalist. [July,

remarkable contributions to paleontology ever published. Criti-

cism can, of course, be based only upon the published diagnoses,

descriptions, and figures in comparison with our present general

knowledge of these early mammals. Other evidence is promised

by the author, and I venture to predict that it will confirm the

greater part of the conclusions reached in this review.

First, as to extent and general character. The conspectus of

the author impresses us that this fauna is not only highly varied,

but contains forms which are mostly new to science. Four orders

are believed to be represented: the Allotheria, Pantotheria, Mar-

supialia, and Insectivora. The author finds six families among the

Allotheria alone, four of which are new; five new families in all.

Sixteen new genera and twenty-seven new species are described.

All of the types are isolated teeth, excepting those of Camptomus.

With the exception of Halodon, Cimolomys, and Dipriodon, only

one tooth of each species is described,—-~z. e., from different parts of

the jaws,—and we are given to understand that the remaining

teeth, found with each, will be described in the memoir now in

preparation by the writer, under the auspices of the United States

Geological Survey.

Before this varied fauna is generally adopted in paleontological

literature, let us examine the author’s types and diagnoses, keeping

in mind some of the characteristics of his work. These are:

First, as regards other authors, not fully recognizing priority of

discovery and nomenclature. Second, not taking advantage of

_ readily available previous literature and description. Third, fail-

ing to recognize well-determined morphological characters, and

founding extensive taxonomic systems upon “various portions of

the same animal, or upon imperfectly characterized types. The

very fact that this work is done under the auspices and with the

support of the National Survey renders it the more necessary to

subject it to a full and fair spirited criticism ; for the first char-

acteristic of such work should be, not opens: but permanent

value.

Priority of Discovery and Nomenclature.—lIt is evident that the

„same fact cannot be discovered twice, in case the original dis-

= covery is authentic and properly published. It is well known

1891.] Cretaceous Mammalia. 597

that Mr. J. L. Wortman discovered the first remains of Cretaceous

Mammalia in 1882, a fact recorded by Professor Cope, as below:

“ Mammalia, which have been

looked for so long in vain in

the Laramie beds, have at length

been found. Mr. J. L. Wort-

man . .. now announces that

he has found them in place and

mingled with Dinosaurian re-

mains in such a manner as to

leave no doubt as to their con-

temporaneity.” — AMER. NAT.,

Oct., 1882, p. 830.

“It has long been a reproach

to paleontology that no remains

of mammals were known from

the Cretaceous formation. . . .

For many years, therefore,

special search has been made

in various countries for Creta-

ceous mammals, but thus far

almost invariably without suc-

cess. .. . A second announce-

ment was made by Cope in 1882,

based upón a few fragmentary

remains discovered by Dr. J. L.

.Wortman in Dakota. These

fossils, although not found in

place, were apparently from the

Laramie formation.” — Ameri-

can Journ. of Science and Arts,

July, 188ọ, p. 81.

These papers under review amply confirm Mr. Wortman’s dis-

covery by describing many remains of the same mammal.

Nevertheless the original discovery is made to appear very unim-

portant by depriving the mammalian type of its name. This

type was a molar tooth, described as follows: i

“ Meniscoéssus conquistus, gen:

et sp. nov.—But one specimen

of this animal was found, and

that is represented by two molar

-~ teeth and a distal extremity of a

humerus. Were it not for the

associated molar tooth, I should

think that the second tooth

-e might be that of a herbivorous

reptile. It is probably a fourth

“It is now known that the

tooth first described, and re-

garded as a premolar, is the

tooth of a Dinosaurian reptile,

as suggested by Cope, and not

ofa mammal. The name given,

therefore, must apply to this

alone. On this point the rules

of nomenclature are clear and

decisive. -The imperfect molar i

598 The American Naturalist. ~ [July,

premolar. . . . Char. gen—

Fourth premolar with a com-

pressed antero-posterior edge,

which is studded with denticles ;

sides without ridges. Posterior

molar rather small; crown with

tooth subsequently described

and the fragment of a humerus

are evidently mammalian, but

without a name.” — American

Journal Science and Arts, loc.

ctt., p. 82.

three longitudinal series of tu-

bercles, of which many have

crescentic sections.” — AMERI-

CAN NATURALIST, loc. cit., p. 830.

It is very clearly stated by Prof. Cope in the above description

and context that the first tooth—. e., the true molar—is the one |

upon which the mammalian determination is

based; and that the second tooth—z. e., the

premolariform one—would have been considered

— Menis- Yeptilian except for its association with the first.

ee ere ws This was clear to Lydekker, Lemoine, Osborn,

inferior molar; x2. and all subsequent writers, being repeated later

with emphasis by Prof. Cope (Amer. Nart., July, 1884, p. 693).

Previous Literature and Description—There are obvious advan-

tages in not consulting and referring to previous literature. It

leaves the mind of a writer unprejudiced by previous opinions,

and moreover lends to a contribution a quality of independence

and originality. On the other hand, it deprives him of the

benefit of past careful and laborious studies, and leads him into

errors which might easily be avoided.

In case of the papers under review, previous literature has

apparently escaped the attention of the author, except in the

matter of nomenclature. The result is that some well-known

principles which govern the extremely complex and confusing

dentition of the Multituberculates are left out of consideration

entirely, as well as some of the main characters of the den-

tition of the Mesozoic mammals in general, and some char-

acters which enable us to distinguish between the teeth of

mammals and those of reptiles and fishes. As regards the Mul-

tituberculates (Allotheria), it is now well known that their teeth

show the eee characters :

1891.] Cretaceous Mammatia. 599

1. In the true molars, the rows of tubercles of one jaw fit into

the longitudinal grooves of the other jaw. 2. In some families

there are three rows of tubercles and two grooves in the upper

molars, and two rows with one groove in the lower molars (Plagi-

aulacidz); in other families there are conversely two rows above

and three below (Stereognathide). 3. In every known species

the last molar is invariably simpler than the penultimate molar,

both as to length of crown and number of tubercles. 4. That

the premolars are of two types: a, trenchant; 4, tubercular.

When tubercular, they can be distinguished from the molars by

the absence of grooves, or closures of the grooves by tubercles.

5. The primary function of the incisors is to pierce the food; the

secondary function is to facilitate the backward motion of the

jaws, as in the rodents.

As regards the ordinal terms, Allotheria and Pantotheria, they

have not as yet been defined or adopted.” The former is equiv-

alent to the Multituberculata, which has been defined and is now

in general use; the latter is only used = the author in the

reference of one genus.

A.—MULTITUBERCULATE Forms (ALLOTHERIA).

1. Cimolomys gracilis (Pl. 11., Figs. 1-4). Described as an upper

molar; first referred to Tritylodontide (Owen), subsequently to`

new family Cimolomide.—Comparing this type with the upper

molar of Neoplagiaulax,? Lemoine, we find it is a first upper

molar of one of the Plagiaulacidz Gill.

2. Cimolomys bellus (no figure). The type is referred to a distinct

species of Cimolomys.—The description and measurements indi-

cate that it is a second upper molar of C. gracilis.

3. Cimolomys digona (Pl. vii., Figs. 1-4). The type is described

as an upper molar of a third species of this genus, referred to the

Cimolomidz.—It is an upper molar of one of the Plagiaulacide.

T See Osborn. ‘‘ Mesozoic Mammalia,” p. 257. The objections to Allotheria are that

the term implies a sub-class equivalent in importance to the Prototberia. or Eutheria,

while the definition proposed by Professor N

8 See the works of Lydekker, eet Trouessart, Schlosser, TPR mi others.

This is probably a sub-order of the Mon i

9“ Etude sur le Neoplagiaulax de la sea ees inférieure, eto.” Bull, d. 1. Soc.

Géol. de France, Feb. 12, 1883, p. 259. Pl. vI., Fig. 17. poe

600 The American Naturalst. 3 [July

A premolar (Pl. vi., Figs. 13-16) is rightly described as an

upper premolar, and correctly associated with this genus (compare

Fig. 19, Lemoine ”

4. Cimolodon ities (Pl. 11., Figs. 5-8). wi

The type is described as an upper molar

representing a new genus and family, the

Ns ae ee it with the EN T) EX

lower molars of Ptilodus" Cope, it is SG, ch Neoplaginalax’ Le

evident that the type is a first lower otk os remolan, 3-1.

molar of one of the Plagiaulacide.

5. Nanomys minutus (Pl. 11., Figs. 9—12). The type is described

as a last upper molar of the left side, and referred to the Cimolo-

dontidæ.—A comparison with Ptilodus shows that it is a last lower

molar of the right side, belonging to one of the Plagiaulacidz.”

6. Halodon sculptus (Pl. 111., Figs. 11-13). T)®typeis a fourth

lower premolar, rightly referred to one of the Plagiaulacidz.

A superior incisor (Pl. 111., Figs. 1-3)

% is referred to this species. It ni

A belongs to a much larger form.

J o 7. Halodon serratus (Pl. 11., Figs. 14-

a 7). The type is a fourth lower pre-

molar, a smaller species rightly referred

to one of the Plagiaulacidæ.

—Halodon. Fourth í ae .

inferiog “premolars sof ay H. A superior incisor (Pl. 111., Figs. 14-

ormosus. . After Pe aji 17) is referred to this species. It ap:

parently belongs to a larger form.

tisa etic fact that the upper molars of the Plagiaula-

cide have three rows of tubercles, while the lower molars have

but two, and that the cusps of the lower rows fit into the valleys

of the upper teeth. This is beautifully demonstrated in the

author’s own figures as here reproduced and rearranged in Figure

3: ais the type of Cimolomys gracilis, which fits upon c, the type

of Cimolodon nitidus; while b, the type of Nanomys minutus,

COT i acs S

Pek

10 Op. cit., Pl. vI., Fig. 19e.

il This type iC. nitidus) has s four internal ane seven external tubercles; while Pzilodus

n “The Tertiary MN Coe AM. Nat. „Jas, 1884, P- 694-

(aT Tee ee F

Rp EA ea Pe aes ee EN

Ee ee E E T ee Pe eee ee ee VTE

1891.] Cretaceous Mammata. 601

would probably be found to coincide similarly with the type

of Cimolomys bellus, unfortunately not figured by the author. This

gives us the characters of the molars of what was possibly a

new genus (Cimolomys) of the Plagiaulacide, intermediate between

Plagiaulax with three well-developed premolars, and Ptilodus with

one large and one ex-

tremely small premolar.

This genus cannot at

present be defined, be-

cause, so far as we can

compare the molars and

premolars, they closely

resemble in size and de-

G. 3.—Upper and lower molars of Cimolomys. velopment the corres-

(Cimoiomids, a, „Cimolomys are ilis. (Cimolo- =

dontidz), 4 : c, Nanomys minu- ponding teeth of Ptilo-

tus. After M ae All type ianei

dus. The premolars of

this genus are, of course, found in the species of Halodon. The

premolar referred to H. serratus agrees best in size with the molars

of C. gracilis. i

The accompanying restoration of the upper and lower jaws of

Cimolomys gracilis shows the various relationships of this animal

as given in the above diagnoses by the author :

~- Cimolomys gracilis

ao XN

N Cimolomys bellus

E4 Epen.

Halodon Nanomys minutus

Plagiaulacidæ | ee Cimolodonuies:

rratus -== # too Cimolodon nitidus

} Cimolomidz.

FIG. 4.—Upper and lower molars and premolars of ? Cimolomys, in position,

These relationships will probably be increased, rather than

diminished, by future discoveries.“ As it is, an upper and lower

jaw referred to three families, five genera, and five species, is with-

out precedent in paleontological literature.

8. Dipriodon robustus (PL. 11., Figs. 13-15). The type is prob-

ably correctly described as a last upper molar of the left side; it

is referred to a new family, the Dipriodontide.

13 See Allacodon lentus, which belongs either to this genus or to Meniscoéssus.

602 The American Naturalist. [July,

9. Dipriodon lunatus (Pl. 11., Figs. 16-18). The typeis rightly

described as a first or second upper molar—Keeping in mind the

larger size and greater complexity of the more anterior molars,

there is no ground for referring it to a new species.

10. Tripriodon celatus (Pl. 1., Figs. 19-21). The type is

described as a first upper molar, and is referred to a new family, the

Tripriodontidae.—It resembles in the arrangement of its denticles

the lower molars of Stereognathus, and, as shown below, is a last

lower molar belonging to the genus Meniscoéssus Cope.

11. Selenacodon fragilis (Pl. 11., Figs. 22-24). The type is

described as an upper molar distinguished by crescentoid tubercles

from the foregoing.—It is an anterior lower molar belonging to

the genus Meniscoéssus Cope.

12. Selenacodon brevis (Pl. vii., Figs. 9-12). The type is

described as an upper tooth, apparently from the left side—As

the accompanying figures show, it agrees in every detail, except

the degree of wear, with the type of Menzscoéssus conquistus Cope ;

it is a lower molar, probably the last.

The lower incisor (PI. vii., Figs. 1-3) is probably correctly

referred. `

13. Tripriodon caperatus (Pl. 111., Figs. 18—20). The type is

correctly described as a lower incisor.—No ground is assigned for

referring it to a new species. Similar incisors of smaller size (Pl.

11., Figs. 21-22; Pl. vur., Figs. 1—3) are referred respectively to

Tripriodon celatus and Selenacodon brevis.

Fic. 5,

robustus, cr

dontidze’ de), es

a ee ee ee a ee ea ae ee en ee ee ee aR, aN eee ME pone

1891.] Cretaceous Mammalia. 603

This collection of molars demonstrates that Meniscoéssus, like

Stereognathus, belongs to a family in which the tubercles are

crescentoid and arranged in two rows in the upper molars and

three rows in the lower_molars. This is admirably shown in the

author’s own figures as rearranged in Figure 5. a, the type of

Dipriodon robustus, is seen to fit upon 4, the type of Tripriodon

celatus; d and c belong to old individuals, but the worn cusps

and valleys coincide ; they are respectively the author’s types of

Dipriodon lunatus and a molar referred to Selenacodon fragilis, as

it agrees exactly with the type except in point of -wear.

The lower incisor, type

of Zripriodon caperatus,

corresponds in size with

these molars; the two

smaller incisors, referred

to T. cælatus and Selena-

codon brevis, have the

same shape and grooved

sides. (1) When these

incisors are placed side

by side, as in Fig. 5,

with the upper incisors

FIG. 6.— a, upper incisor of Halodon sculptus ; referred by the author

4, lower incisor of Tripriodon caperatus, type ;

upper incisor of Halodon serratus ; d, lower alioi to Halodon sculptus and

E yria i brevis. After Marsh. Halodon serratus, we

observe that the`longitudinal and transverse diameters of

the crowns and fangs coincide exactly in measurement, ren-

dering it highly probable that they belong to »

the same species. (2) The question is, Do

these teeth belong to Halodon or Menis-

coéssus? We observe that the lower incisor

associated with Halodon formosus (Pl. vii.,

Figs. 32-35) has the enamel confined to a

band, as in Ptilodus and Neoplagiaulax. Itis Fic. 7.—Tooth de-

ok ac LES

smooth. It is, therefore, probable that all these aa of of Diprioton

obustus.

Striated, completely enameled incisors belong ””

to Meniscoéssus. (3) When, moreover, it is seen that these

604 The American Naturalist. [July,

incisors are far too large to be associated with the premolars of

H. sculptus and H. serratus, we have further grounds for asso-

ciating them with Meniscoéssus, with which they agree in size.

The tooth (Fig. 7) assigned by the author as the upper incisor

of Dipriodon robustus apparently belongs to a reptile. It is

unlike any incisor hitherto found with the Multituberculata.

Plagiaulacide. Dipriodontidæ.

ș7-7-------4=-4 Dipriodon lunatus.

Caw Dipriodon robustus.

Halodon sculptus ...-.

Tripriodon caperatus ,,.-\\

4 Roo FON AN “\---. Tripriodon celatus.

Tripriodontidee.

re ae wat Selenacodon fragilis.

. Trip i i i

FIG. 8.—Upper and lower molars of Meniscoëssus in position. (Association of incisors

with molars conjectural.)

The accompanying restoration is based upon the foregoing

considerations, and show that, according to the author, the relation-

ships of Meniscoëssus are as varied as those of its contemporary,

Cimolomys, including three families, four genera, and seven species.,

FIG. 8a.—Ctenacodon pen Marsh, 4 inner view of right upper jaw; 4, ventral

view of same; a-d, first to o fourth premolar, as interpreted by! Marsh. After Marsh.

14. Allacodon lentus and A, Siesta (Pl. vu, Figs. 22-26-31).

The types are described as upper molars of a genus related to

Allodon and Bolodon, and referred to the

Allodontide.—It is a universal characteristic

of the molars of the Multituberculata that, as

oo ee the grooves are adapted for fore and aft wear,

Tenms. “Ader Man Me tubercles are arranged on the sides. In

= the type of Allacodon a tubercle stops the

= a : these me are | = adaptec pes and aft To aa are,

ee See AE. TO KEPA TE ONS Pager ST AEE KTE meet se

1891.] Cretaceous Mammalia. 605

therefore, premolars, and probably belong either with Meniscoés-

sus or Cimolomys, or possibly with some other genus the molars

of which are not represented in this collection. Upper premolars

of this type are seen in Chirox Cope; Bolodon Owen and Ctena-

codon Marsh.

15. Oracodon anceps (Pl. viii., Figs. 13-16). a

This type is rightly described as a premolar, but

no grounds are given for considering that it be- z

longs to a distinct genus and species. : (PY

16. Camptomus amplus (Pl. v. Figs. 1, 2). "j

The type is a scapula with which are associated fyc. ¢6.—7ritylo-

other bones, calcaneum, astragalus, interclavicle. Ba freer ae

No grounds are assigned for separating these

remains from genera founded upon the teeth.—The astragalus

bears the same proportion to the molar teeth of Meniscoéssus

that we observe in Polymastodon; it is also apparently per-

forated. The affinities of these forms to the Monotremata have

been observed by Cope; the coraco-scapular facet, therefore,

strengthens the supposition that some of these bones at least

belong to Meniscoéssus. In any case, they cannot be considered

as good types.

This — the Multituberculate forms. :

FIG. 10.— Bolodon heres Owen, 4-1. Outer surface of right maxilla and ventral

view of; premolars and mo :

606 The American Naturalist. [July,

vie . 11.—Chirox plicatus Cope, 3-2. a, palate with three peer and two molars, iz

Site 7 by external view, right side.

B.—TRITUBERCULATE Forms.

17. Dryolestes tenax (no figure). The type is a lower jaw with

a mylohyoid groove, in which the number and character of the

teeth “cannot be determined.” The author’s reference is pro-

visional.

18. Didelphops (Didelphodon) vorax (P1. 1v., Figs. 1-3). The

type is an upper molar, distinguished from Didelphys by interme-

diate tubercles—This character does not separate it from the large

number of Trituberculates with similar molars ; the genus is, there-

fore, undefined at present. The other species, D. ferox and D.

comptus, are also undefinable.

19. Pediomys elegans (Pl. 1v., Figs. 23-25). The type is an

upper molar.—It is not distinguished generically from Didel-

phodon.

20. Cimolestes curtus and incisus (PI. 1v., Figs. 8—1 8). The types

are lower molars——Like Didelphodon, these forms cannot be

defined ; they are tuberculo-sectorial.

It is evident that we have here remains of two distinct and

probably new genera, which may be accepted without definition.

C-—INCERT# SEDIS.

21. Stagodon nitor (PI. vii., Figs. 22-25). The types are a few

teeth with single fangs, referred toa new family, the ‘agai

EEE eee See, RM ee ee ee ee OT RT nr Oe eee ae Ree a A ere

Eee oe ers eee eo

1891.] Cretaceous Mammalia. ` 607

—They do not resemble

oO the teeth of any known

mammal, although de-

-y A {9a scribed as having two

FIG. ie), Be ag, aa nitor ; b, fangs, which are, how-

Platacodon nanus. After Marsh. Types. ever, not shown in the

figures. The premolar associated is distinctly mammalian.

22. Platacodon nanus (Pl. vii., Figs. 4-12). The types are

compared to the molars of Chrysochloris—They do not bear

the most remote resemblance to the molars of Chrysochloris or

any other known mammal. Prof. Dames considers that they

belong to the Cyprinoid fishes.*

The above types do not resemble in the most remote degree

the molars in either the Multituberculate or Trituberculate series,

—the only two mammalian series hitherto represented in all the

discoveries of Mesozoic or Eocene times. Nor have they, as

figured, any of the characteristics which we expect to find in

mammalian teeth.'® They should, therefore, be considered either

reptilian or icthyopsidan; we cannot agree with the author that

they are “evidently mammalian.”

The above analysis may be summarized under the following

heads. We find that the author has: 1. Separated parts which evi-

dently belong together; vide, various teeth of Cimolomys and

Meniscoéssus ; 2. United parts which apparently or certainly belong

together ; vzde, the large upper incisors with Cimolomys, the

reptilian or fish molar of Stagodon with a mammalian premolar,

the reptilian tooth as an upper incisor of Dipriodon ; 3. Associated

or identified reptilian or icthyopsidan teeth as mammalian; vide,

Platacodon, Stagodon, and incisor of D. robustus.

The large Cretaceous fauna described by the writer is therefore

seen to be principally composed of synonyms. We must elimi-

nate:

14 This author reaches eae similar conclusions in regard to this paper. Neues Jahr. f.

Min. u. Geol., 1890, pp. 14

15 See H, G. Seeley. " On the Nature and Limits of Reptilian Character in Mammalian

Teeth.” Proc. Roy. Soc., April 4th, 1888, p. 129.

608 The American Naturalist. [July, : |

1. The terms preoccupied by other authors. E

2. The terms founded upon different parts of the same animal, 2

and thus largely preoccupied by the author himself. E,

3. The terms founded upon imperfect or indefinite types. w

4. The terms founded upon reptilian or icthyopsidan teeth.

A. ea = A. MULTITUBERCULATA Cope. a

MOLOMIDE. _) (In part.) a

Cimotomys gracilis - A

ellus 3

z igona é

IMOLODONTID .

Cimolodon nitidus ¢ = 1. PLaGiauLacipe Gill.

Nanomys a Cimotomys Marsh; two or

3. PLAGIAULACIDA. three species.

Halodon sculptus

S Serratus

“= formosus

. DIPRIODONTID ®

Di priodon robustus

natus

= ? 2, STEREOGNATHIDÆ, fam. nov.

MENISCOEssus Cope; two

species,

T3 riprodon alae

eratus

Selenacodon ; Pacis

brevis

Probably preoccupied.

pumilus

? Camptomus amplus

? Oracodon anceps Indefinite types or preoccupied.

? B. PANTOTHERIA.

6. ALLODONTIDE,

Allacodon lentus \

}

? 7. DRYOLESTIDÆ. Indefinite type.

? Dryolestes tenax

C. MARSUPIALIA. B. Order indeterminate = Creodon ta,

Didelphops vorax Insectivora or Marsupialia.

" fror

“` compti DipELPHors Marsh; two spec’s.

CSitadistes Meti: perlite ies Marsh ; ; ? species,

a rtus

D. INSECTIVORA. Not defined.

- Pediomys elegans

;

1891.] Cretaceous Mammatia. 609

E. INCERT SEDIS.

8. STAGODONTIDÆ. Founded upon reptilian or ic-

Stagodon nitor thyopsidan teeth.

Platacodon nanus >

This reduces the Cretaceous mammals described in these two

papers to one well-determined order or suborder, two well-deter-

mined families, and four or five genera, one of which can now be

well defined (Meniscoéssus), while the remainder are probably

distinct genera, which we may be able to define by the acquisition

of more material (Cimolomys, Didelphops, and Cimolestes). There

is no question that the majority of the remaining generic names

are synonyms, although it is quite possible that some of the types

described, such as Oracodon and Pediomys, may be found to rep-

resent distinct or new genera.

It may be said that this analysis has almost eliminated the

work of the author. This unfortunately is what is necessary if

we would render this contribution of any permanent value in

paleontology. We are, then, left with a series of teeth which rep-

resent rare skill on the part of the collector, and are figured with

remarkable accuracy by the draughtsman. A few points of

interest upon the collection asa whole may be mentioned :

The Multituberculata. The preponderance of teeth belonging

to members of this order would appear to indicate that it flour-

ished during this period. Cimolomys represents a connecting

form between Plagiaulax, Upper Jurassic, with three premolars,.

and Ptilodus of the lowest Eocene with two. The smallest

species, C. formosus, apparently has as many grooves upon the-

fourth premolar as we observe in Ptilodus, and the first lower molar

has even more tubercles than we find in the corresponding tooth

of the Lower Eocene genus. These grooves and tubercles mark

the stages of development, and it would appear that Cimolomys.

is not far removed from Ptilodus ; this relation can only be deter-

mined by the discovery of additional teeth; we may find that

Cimolomys has a large third premolar.

Another interesting fact is that Meniscoëssus does not belong

with the Plagiaulacidæ, as has been generally suppa hitherto,'*

16 Cope, Osborn, Lydekker.

610 The American Naturalist. [July,

but should apparently be placed with Stereognathus (with which

its resemblance in molar structure has always been recognized) in

a distinct family, the Stereognathidz, distinguished by the pres-

ence of two rows of tubercles in the upper molars and three in

the lower, of the crescentoid pattern. The more numerous

tubercles in Meniscoéssus would accord well with its more recent

character.

There are thus apparently only two families of the Multituber-

culates represented here,—unless, as the author has suggested,

Allacodon belongs to the Bolodontide. We have yet to find the

successors of the Tritylodontide and predecessors of Polymas-

todon and Chirox of the Lower Eocene.”

As for the Trituberculate forms, there are evidently two distinct

genera, which probably belong to different families. The types of

Didelphops and Cimolestes closely resemble molars found respec-

tively among the Mesodonta, the Creodonta, Insectivora, and

Marsupialia. Their systematic position is, therefore, very uncer-

tain from this evidence. They mark, however, a very great

advance upon the Jurassic forms in tooth evolution. We find in

Didelphops the earliest low-crowned tritubercular molar which has

_ been obtained, with one or two intermediate tubercles; while the

lower molar is the earliest quinquetubercular tooth known. The

Cimolestes molar is tuberculossectorial, and presents a marked

advance upon Jurassic tooth types, but has, nevertheless, a broad

talon, with both the entoconid and hypoconid developed, whereas

all Jurassic forms present the hypoconid only.

The bones of the appendicular skeleton present a number of

very interesting points, some of which the author mentions.

These are: the coracoid facet upon the scapula ; the interclavicular.

We note also the flat astragalus, without a neck, apparently per-

forated by an astragalar foramen, and with a broad cuboidal

facet as well the navicular facet. The calcaneum has a narrow

sustentaculum,

1 The nearest resemblance to Polymastodon is that observed in the striated lower

= rS in Figure 5. This genus will undoubtedly be found represented

18 This observation rests solely upon the figure. All astragali of the Lower Eocene

display this foramen.

EET EEE T

1891.] Notes on Mesozoic Mammaha. 611

We look forward with great interest to Part III. of this series

of papers, as this collection is a most valuable and interesting

one; and the above review is not intended in any way to depre-

ciate the importance of an increased knowledge of the Creta-

ceous Mammalia.

NOTES ON MESOZOIC MAMMALIA.

BY O. C. MARSH.

if HAVE recently received from Prof. H. F. Osborn a pamphlet

entitled “ A Review of the Cretaceous Mammalia,” which is

intended as a criticism of two of my papers, and is a character-

istic addition to his previous publications on Mesozoic mammals.

It is difficult to take this review seriously, as it contains no new

facts, and is mainly an application of the author’s theories, which

may, in part, prove to be true, but at present are without substan-

tial basis. To attempt to refute all the assumptions he makes

would involve a long discussion of known Mesozoic mammals,

and take time from more important work. A brief notice of a

few points, therefore, must suffice for the present.

Every one familiar with Mesozoic mammals knows that the

author of this review has never collected any, has no specimens

of the kind, and has only seen a part of those belonging to others,

who have shown them to him as a matter of courtesy, in some

cases even when an investigation was intended or in progress.

Of more than a thousand specimens of Cretaceous mammals on

which my investigations are based, he has not seen a single one,

and no others are known except a few fragments. Of several

hundred specimens of Jurassic mammals which I have secured in

the west, he has seen perhaps one-tenth; while of other Mesozoic

mammals from this country, he cannot have seen in all more than

a half dozen specimens.

1 As presented to the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, April 14th, 1891.

desea ig with some sd negate in the Prosoedings of the Academy.

612 The American Naturalist. [July,

Prof. Osborn’s other qualifications for discussing Cretaceous

mammals do not seem especially conspicuous. Certainly his

papers on other Mesozoic mammals do not show that high degree

of accuracy which a critic should put into them. One or two

examples will make this evident.

He began this work in 1886 with borrowing two specimens of

Dromatherium Emmons, and making a new genus of one of

them, on insufficient grounds. In a characteristic manner, he

commenced by criticising Emmons’s work, especially one figure,

but this he subsequently retracted. His own figures of one of

these fossils agree neither with each other nor with the specimen,

as a recent comparison shows.

He next turned his attention to the Mesozoic mammals in the

British Museum, beginning with the Triassic Tritylodon from

South Africa described by Owen. Again Prof. Osborn did not

agree with the original authority, but announced in print that a

most important point had not been appreciated by Owen : namely,

a large parietal foramen, which showed that “the primitive Mam-

malia, of this family at least, had a pineal eye of some functional

size and value,’ —a most interesting discovery, if true. A reference

to the specimen itself proved that there was no foundation what-

ever for the announcement, and Prof. Osborn was compelled to

retract it (Science, Vol. IX., p. 92 and p. 538, 1887).

The results of Prof. Osborn’s further study of the Mesozoic

mammals in the British Museum were not considered important

by some of the best authorities there, and some of his observa-

tions they disproved, in my presence, by referring to the ‘fossils

themselves. His figures of these specimens, moreover, are not

accurate, and in some cases are misleading, as a single example

will show. In his Mesozoic Mammalia, Plate vir., he gives a

new figure of the type of Phascolotherium, but a comparison with

the original specimen shows that this fine figure is erroneous in

at least four important points : namely, the first incisor; the crown

of the last molar, which is wanting in the specimen; the posi-

tion of the dental foramen; andthe mylohyoid groove. His very

objectionable method of regarding different isolated specimens as

identical, and making a “ composite” drawing of them, as repre-

st fig oa NT a ie WA ag Mek Ser EE

e a T A E EAA, Beis

1891.] Notes on Mesozoic Mammalia. 613

senting a single type, led into other serious errors. This method,

which belongs rather to metaphysics than to natural science, Prof.

Osborn has again used in the present review, and with no better

results. ;

This long review purports to discuss my first and second papers

on Cretaceous mammals. The first thing that strikes the careful

reader is the title he gives to these papers. My own title was a

simple one, “ Discovery of Cretaceous Mammalia,” and it is only

fair to expect, in an elaborate review, that the title, at least, will be

correctly quoted. Instead of this, Prof. Osborn has added ‘two

other words, giving it a different meaning, but quoting it as mine:

namely, “The Discovery of the Cretaceous Mammalia.” He

read this review in no less than three different cities, and pub-

lished an abstract elsewhere, yet apparently had no time to read

my title of four words carefully enough to quote it correctly. A

small matter, perhaps, but proof positive of careless work.

The next point to be noticed is that my order Allotheria is

rejected as not having been defined, and a later term, Multituber-

culata, is adopted because it has been defined. This direct state-

ment of Prof. Osborn is incorrect, as my order was defined when

proposed in 1880 (Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XX., p. 239). The cum-

bersome term Multituberculata was not defined when proposed

by Cope in 1884, but Prof. Osborn kindly attempted this in 1888.

His definition, unfortunately, does not include some characteristic

forms of the group, but takes in accurately the genus Mastodon,

although this great Proboscidian can hardly be considered a

Marsupial.

By way of instruction, Prof. Osborn is good enough to indicate

what he terms “ the main characters of the dentition of the Meso-

zoic mammals in general, and some characters which enable us to

distinguish between the teeth of mammals and those of reptiles

and fishes.” This is a most promising statement, but loses some

of its force when we find that it has not saved him from precisely

these mistakes, either in his previous papers or in the present

review, as I show later.

_ He is scarcely more fortunate in his announcement of what he

regards as the well-known characters of the teeth of one group,

OM The American Naturalist. [July,

the Allotheria. I have probably seen all the Mesozoic mammals

examined by Prof. Osborn in Europe, and likewise quite a num-

ber of others, including the type of Stereognathus. He is cer-

tainly wrong in several of his main conclusions, and in others

there are many facts against him.

A more correct restatement of some of the characters of this

group would be as follows:

1. No true Plagiaulacide are known with three rows of tuber-

cles on the upper molars.

2. No Allotheria are known with certainty to have three rows

of tubercles on the lower molars.

A careful study, moreover, of the known specimens of the true

Plagiaulacide would have shown him the strong probability, at

least, that the genus Bolodon, which he makes the type of a dis-

tinct family, is based on the upper jaws of Plagiaulax; also, the

probability, as I have before suggested, that the type of Stereog-

nathus, of which he makes another of his numerous families, is

an upper jaw, although described as a lower one.

Bearing in mind these points, Prof. Osborn’s main criticisms

are seen to be without foundation, and the errors largely his own.

By substituting theory for the actual study of well-preserved

specimens, he has unwittingly placed on record the fact that he

cannot tell upper from lower teeth in Mesozoic mammals, nor the

teeth of reptiles and fishes from those of mammals.

There is now conclusive evidence that the Cretaceous molar

teeth with three-rows of crescents belong to the upper series, as

I described them. Prof. Osborn’s reference of these to the lower

jaw is based merely on theory, with only conjecture to support it.

The same fundamental error runs through most of his reviews,

and measures the value of his criticism. i

Another unfortunate error of Prof. Osborn was mistaking the

tooth of a reptile for the premolar of a mammal, and not only

describing and figuring it as such, but making this a basis for

using a generic name (Meniscoëssus), against well-known laws of

nomenclature. This supposed premolar he figures and describes

in his Mesozoic Mammalia (p. 218), and has elsewhere strongly

defended its mammalian character. There is not a particle of —

ae a)

te Se ne

1891.] Notes on Mesozoic Mammatia. 615

evidence of this, as every one familiar with similar specimens

knows.

‘Notwithstanding this inexcusable mistake, Prof. Osborn. ven-

tures to assert in his review that a tooth, which I described and

figured as a molar of a mammal, Stagodon, has but a single fang,

does “not resemble the teeth of any known mammal,” and that

the genus was “ founded upon reptilian or ichthyopsidian teetlf.”

I distinctly stated that this tooth has two fangs, and the bases of

these were indicated in one of my figures. Moreover, several

well-preserved specimens since obtained show two distinct roots,

and other features which prove these teeth mammalian beyond

doubt.

In his Mesozoic Mammalia (p. 221) Prof’ Osborn describes and

figures as a premolar a specimen which is now almost certainly

known to pertain to a fish, and not to a mammal, I have a very

similar specimen from the same locality, which is pronounced the

same species by those who have examined both. This I pur-

chased many years ago of a well-known collector in Stuttgart,

who called it a mammal tooth. When investigating Mesozoic

mammals later, I examined this specimen with care, and found it

to be made up of two portions of fish teeth (Hybodus) neatly

cemented together, making four cones on a quadrate base, as in

the fossil Prof. Osborn so carefully described. ‘A friend who saw

my specimen here has since sent me from Europe drawings of a

third supposed mammal tooth from the same locality (Diegerloch),

which he considers the same as mine. The drawings are charac-

teristic, and indicate another specimen of apparently the same

sort. Others are probably in existence, as the demand for Meso-

zoic mammals is great, and the supply has hitherto been limited.

One or two points more should be mentioned about Prof,

Osbern’s work on Mesozoic mammals: namely, his habit of

replacing, on insufficient grounds, scientific names, especially

those of families and genera, by other names of his own; also,

using the figures of other authors without the usual credit. As

an example of the latter, I may cite this use of no less than five

__ of my figures of Jurassic mammals, in his memoir on Mesozoic

616 The American Naturalist. [July,

Prof. Osborn in his review alludes to “ the extremely complex

and confusing dentition” of some Mesozoic mammals, and of the

truth of this statement his own papers afford many illustrations

besides those here mentioned. What this perplexing subject

really needs, however, is more facts and less theories. Believing

this, I have endeavored to secure new facts by long and laborious

explorations, hoping in this way to clear up some of the confu-

sion which so puzzles fireside naturalists. The 1,500 specimens

Mesozoic mammals I have thus secured, fragmentary though most

of them are, will, I trust, prove of some service in this work,

although their full investigation has been delayed by other

duties.

No one who has earnest work to do can afford to spend time

in the ungracious task of pointing out errors in the work of

others. For this reason, I have hitherto said nothing about the

mistakes in Prof. Osborn’s papers on Mesozoic mammals, intend-

ing to wait until my own memoir on the subject, for which I have

collected so much material, should make it my duty to review the

whole subject. The injustice of his criticism on my preliminary

work while in progress made a brief reply necessary. The full

discussion, I must still reserve for my memoir.

New Haven, Conn., April roth, 1891.

ee ete ee EEE A

ihe Ba a?

1891.] The Coming Man. 617

THE COMING MAN.

BY S. V. CLEVENGER.

ANCHO PANZA remarked that men were as God made

them, and sometimes a great deal worse. But it is becom-

ing known that the world is really improving; that a line touch-

ing the dark ages and passing through our present imperfect

civilization may be produced indefinitely, in imagination, toward

better things. So Sancho’s horizon was cramped, and we may

now believe that man in general is better than he was born.

Of course “perfection” in anything is unattainable, and dis-

cussion of the “ perfect man” could only be carried to any sort

of a conclusion by, first of all, recognizing that there cannot be

such a creation, for the very conception involves contradictions.

Herbert Spencer has ably gone over this and kindred subjects

in showing that everything is relative, and that no matter what

advances may be made, others are still possible. Equilibrium

means death, a cessation of inter- and counter-action. “ Perfec-

tion ” is inconceivable, and the ignorant, who imagine they can

conceive it, may be convinced that their ideal was a frightful hob-

goblin after all.

Picture to yourself what the African, the American Indian, or

the primitive people of any country, would regard as the perfect

man, and compare their wild and, in the main, hideous concep-

tions with those of “ civilized” men,—particularly that portion to

whom thought is an effort. But as the science of comparative

mythology plainly shows that deification is this same process ;

that gods were always big men; anthropomorphism, from which

no one can completely free himself, runs rampant through our

ideas of any sort of superiority, whether of this world or another,

The Joves, Wodins, Thors, Brahmas were muscular and some-

times noisy, and some early races allotted many legs and arms

or other parts to their gods; or, as in an Egyptian instance, con-

ferred extraordinary length of arms, as symbolizing great power,

618 The American Naturalist. [July,

And in this powerfulness we have the general underlying agree-

ment as to, at least, what is accomplished by “ perfection.”

This apparently indirect manner of approach to our subject

enables us to save time by clearing up in our minds what we

mean, and do not mean, when we speak of the perfect man, or his

approximation, the better man. And still we are driven to nar-

rower ground by recollecting that John L. Sullivan might have

an opinion on this topic differing somewhat from that of Oliver

Wendell Holmes and other essayists.

We are asked: “What qualities are most essential for the

perfecting of a human being? What are the cardinal points to be

insisted upon for the all-round development of the coming man ? ”

The modern scientific method of finding an answer would com-

pel us to take another ramble over creation, for man is part of

the universe, and cannot be fairly considered apart therefrom,

though we may avoid unnecessary discursiveness in the endeavor.

Looking at the worst phase first, in all ages man has been a

sorry sort of brute, with animal propensities, desires, passions ;

and, as Buckle has fully shown, his civilization has been a growth

from feuds, follies, conquests, individual and tribal selfishness and

rapacity ; but with increase of intelligence a respect for the rights

of others came about, because man recognized that he best con-

served his selfish interests by mutual regard. Self-protection

was assured by family protection, and both these by tribal protec-

tion, and it is dawning upon the world that national barriers must

eventually give way to the universality of interests; nor is the

heterogeneity of the “brotherhood of man,” with diversity of

aims, ideas, capabilities, and needs, any greater, comparatively,

to-day, between races, than it was ages ago between many

individuals of the same tribe.

Altruism is the highest egoism, and is developed from it. In

plain words, as Darwin expressed it, club law instituted morality

in savage tribes. This club law, and the fear of it, led to an

habitual regard for the method of avoiding its enforcement, and

it became folly to be other than virtuous under such circum-

stances

} Knight errantry, the duello, and finally, in these days, suits at _

ee A T AA EE E E ENEA E AAEE A e ER NIN ett E AE A om AEE EAE DEA ete PERU | ARESE ENA De ot et

1891.] The Coming Man. 619

law, with occasional relapses into the older methods of adjust-

ment, afforded object lessons in expediency which sages and

patriarchs dwelt upon to the inexperienced.

The history of the world includes the evolution from lower to

higher expediency ideals. Disregard for the rights of others was

a means by which our savage ancestors sought to prolong life

and secure enjoyment. With less of this brutality, but nevertheless

with plenty of suffering abounding through his thoughtlessness

and his inability to curb his passions, the barbarian is an improve-

ment upon the savage in this matter of expediency ideals. His

love of ornamentation, luxuriance, and similar childish traits

cause his actions to be merely an exaggeration of what we find

to-day in civilized society. “ Civilized” nations are but barba-

rians masquerading in the apparel afforded them by a develop-

ment of the arts and sciences beyond their deserts. The ear-

rings, the bustles, the tight lacing, the artificialities generally, the

worship of wealth, the indifference as to how one may have

acquired money, the abandonment-to pleasure procuring, sight-

seeing in and avoidance of scenes of suffering and squalor, the

social vanities and dissipations, prove that the masses, rich and

poor alike, divested of the tinsel afforded them by the fair devo-

tees of science and art, might as readily be Turks or Hottentots.

Vulgar expediency ideals pervade our popular novels. The

getting of wealth, the capturing of beauty, the utter want of a

worthy aim in life prevail, and the success of authors who pander

to this taste is a measure of what the purchasers of these books

appreciate,

The right does not change, but our ideas of right do. Hero

worship is dying out, and principles, not men, receive more

deference. The race has had to make this advance through bitter

experience, constant disappointments, disillusions, the shattering

of idols, the growth of knowledge. Religion, with its hopes and

fears, its system of rewards and punishments, notwithstanding

these were “other worldly,” became stimuli to good and de-

terrants from evil. The bare fact that some would act con-

= sistently with belief that there was a life after death, where he

would suffer pain or pleasure according to what he had done in-

620 The American Naturalist. [July,

this world, shows that the believer was guided by expediency, but

truly of a higher kind. Surely the conventional ideas of right

and wrong, even in this day, make a grand mess. The biases

are innumerable that are created by rank, caste, prejudice, relative

degrees of ignorance and intelligence, training, education, and

nationality. A single instance can be cited: the term “ morga-

natic,” which is a wink at the license of royalty. “ The king can do

no wrong.” Princes may be debauchees, drunkards, vicious, but

they are defended, and their most public outrages are denied or

condoned. Even dictionaries smile complacently at the villiany of

nobles by giving a definition that does not include all that is

known to be the meaning of the word morganatic.

However much we may assert to the contrary, and even though

upon reflection we acknowledge to ourselves that wealth and good

looks should not be measures of respectability, the childish trait

is universally prevalent, even among civilized adults, that the good

looking man, the well-dressed man, thé wealthy man, is alone the

good man. Poverty is regarded as evidence of punishment for

wickedness. The every act of the bulk of mankind proclaim

this to be a deep-rooted belief.

But surely there is a conscience, private and public, that works

for final good. Undoubtedly. But we can understand that con-

_ science, and its peculiarities and well-known inconsistencies, if we

can bring ourselves to calmly inspect its origin in the law that

the altered or acquired habits of one set of ancestors may greatly

affect the conduct of their descendants. For instance, A is a

murderer and freebooter, living many centuries ago, when to be

otherwise was scarcely the rule. His surroundings and associa-

tions made him such. His child, B, at a later time and under

better influences, is taught a disrelish for his parents’ pastimes, but

could easily relapse, as the inherited instincts were strong within

him.

The good influence is’ kept up, however, and the grandchild, C,

does not murder or plunder, because he has inherited a corrected

disposition, which is intensified by the circumstances under which

he lives. The great grandchild, D, by persistence of these con-

_ ditions, would as surely be benefited by the inheritance for good

ie eR E NATET I ONT i ta ial

ok aD on ol Lh. lm a a a Fae a i

eee a eee ge

1891.] The Coming Man. 621

as he was likely to resemble his progenitors in feature or form.

He has a ready-made conscience, for which he is not at all

responsible, and deserves no credit. It might be so acute as to

cause him to die of remorse, were he betrayed into wrongdoing.

Having reached this negative plane of mere respectability, D

and his successors may develop some positive good trait, the

habitual practice of which may become second nature. The

feudal lord of A’s time found happiness only in the desolation of

others; F.and G, his philosophical descendants, like Sir Titus

Salt, grieve if they cannot find some means of doing lasting good

to humanity, and yet from A to X, Y, and Z, expediency governs

all of them.

One finds it most expedient to obey the promptings of his

conscience, and derives comfort only from so doing. The keeping

alive of that “celestial spark” may be to him more valuable than

all the possessions of the world ; while another, with none of this

“spark ” to speak of, or who may have had it developed in some

other direction, kicks the beggar who annoys him, and laughs

with pleasure when he recollects the event. The philanthropist

feels a heart glow in remembering how he has relieved some one

in distress or has contributed to some reform movement.

Different influences for good brought to bear upon successive

generations are sure to appear in the last generation in a radical

change of character from that of the remote ancestor, making it

as impossible for X to do an evil deed deliberately as it was for

A to do anything else. So you see that expediency, the doing

of that from which we expect to draw the most comfort, is the

controlling spirit of action in all.

The world’s history shows that people became better only

through intelligence ; that this made it possible for them to adopt

higher expediency planes ; by regard for the rights of others each

found his own rights best conserved. Nor did mankind, until

the habit was instituted, do right from any other motive than

that of mere convenience. The highest efflorescence of this

natural law, beginning with the club, will be in the appearance of

a highly developed altruism in a later age. Social maladies,

poverty, and unhappiness will not be allowed to exist, upon the

622 The American Naturalist. LJuly,

principle, but recently discovered, that the presence of a degraded

race devolves the degradation of neighboring races.

The structure of the brain itself shows that expediency regard

is intellect; the nervous system plainly rules bodily parts. In

higher and still higher grades of intelligence the connecting

strands of the brain, the countless tangles of telegraph lines that

inter-relate these parts, are more complex and numerous ; and the

main distinction between the idiot and one who is mentally sound

is that the latter, by the integrity of his mental mechanism, is

able to better adjust his inner to his outer relations. He is more

in keeping with his surroundings. So goodness is a form of

wisdom, after all. Habit and conscience make it possible for us

to do right for right’s sake, but habit and conscience are the

product of your environment and what you have inherited. Con-

science causes the right thing to be automatically performed.

You do instinctively, and perforce, what before required a motive,

just as the engineer can manage his machine in the dark and

without thought, but when he was learning to do so his every

sense must be alert. This view explains the inconsistencies of

our nature ; morality is but intellect, and no intellect is completely

symmetrical. Ideas of propriety vary within wide limits. Disease

may degrade mind in one way in one patient, and in other ways

in other patients, depending upon the resistive strength of inher-

ited traits, and what has been inherited. |

And this brings us to a consideration of the old saw, “ mens

sana,’ etc., from the anthropological or physical point of view. A

superficial consideration would suggest that mind and body must

be developed symmetrically to accomplish the best results, but

while this may hold good for mediocrity in both, which is nature’s

method of averaging things, we can readily see that athletes,

gymnasts, pugilists unduly nourish and train their muscles at the

expense of their brains, and that book-worms and thinkers gen-

erally incline to too much passivity physically. The world has

reaped advantage from its diseased and bodily imperfect Gibbon,

Tom Hood, Walter Scott, Sam Johnson, and Byron, though in

different measures, and from imperfect temperaments such as

Bacon, Coleridge, Dean Swift, De Quincy. But we should only |

Fe a ee te ee

ee OE TE A ee EP TE en S

;

“4

1891.] The Coming Man. 623

consider their defects as their misfortunes, and not the cause of

their literary bents, for mental deformity has among potentates

been the cause of untold suffering to nations. Neither physical

nor mental perfection (if we can grant that such things existed)

seem to have assured lasting integrity to either body or mind.

‘The Spartans as a race do not appear to have been the fittest to

survive, and during certain epochs in European history the man

who dared to think at all could with difficulty keep his head on

his shoulders.

But we must not lose sight of the fact that the world has

profited more by the individual labors of men and women whose

intellectual greatness was coupled with such extreme modesty

that, while in quiet ways their power for good was incalculable,

they never cared to take credit for it. “Full many a flower,”

etc., as Cowper has it.

As good machinery may, other things being equal, be expected

to do good work, or better than imperfect machinery, a certain

amount of good health is requisite for the accomplishment of any

ordinary life-work.

en there must be suitable consideration of the fact that were

society built upon the principle of the “One-Hoss Shay,’ the

wheels could not do the work of the thills, and so on, but each

part could do its perfect work only by reason of the radical per-

fection of differences. So we are forced to regard the “ perfect

man ” as one who is suited to his particular place and environ-

ment; and as development is only possible to its fullest extent

when environment, opportunity, and ability are favorable, we will

have to suppose a case to which the following applies:

1. Excellent physical and mental heredity has barred out the

chances of consumption, insanity, liquor addiction, criminality,

decrepitude, or ugliness.

2. As “every child has the right to be well born,’ so he has

the right to good training, and our typical better man can only

come from better folk with the right ideas of nurture.

3. This entails having not too many in the family, for the lower

the race the more prolific; and highest culture is possible only,

as a rule, where time can be devoted to the rearing ad instruction

of a few children.

624 The American Naturalist. [July,

4. The parents should have the direct supervision of the child’s

care, for among the very wealthy and the very poor neglect of

children is too often the rule, and there is nothing in the world

that can take the place of parental, especially motherly, love and

care.

5. Circumstances do not permit one to develop as he will, or

should; and as poverty produces thoughtfulness, thrift, and sym-

pathy, and a better understanding of our neighbors’ needs and

characters, he who is unfortunate enough to be born wealthy

should be brought into closer contact with the “ other half” of

the world.

6. As accomplishing something in the world is the only

measure of .adaptability, the means for such accomplishment

should be sought, but not at the sacrifice of conscience,—whether

acquired or ready made by ancestors.

7. He should be a man of fair size, because every one is inclined

to discredit the- possibility of a small man doing big things,

Measure up your own list of heroes. Large-sized men are for

this reason apt to be overestimated, just as titled individuals are

who accomplish anything. Was it Huxley who said that Argyle

was very smart—for a duke?

8. The proper regard for his individual interests will entail a

genuine altruism which will make him not only a patriot (not of

the demagogue kind) but a lover of liberty for the world. Kos-

ciusco, Kossuth, Washington, Fayette, Garibaldi actively inter-

ested themselves in universal freedom when their own countries

could spare their attention.

9. He could with great advantage be an American, for in

America truth is left free to combat error; and no tyranny can

be enduring under such auspices.

10. His education should be with regard to Herbert Spencer’s

idea that, first and foremost, that knowledge should be acquired

which is of most practical worth to the individual, and that the

ornamental should have last consideration. Overdoses of classical

verbiage and minute details of the intrigues of courtiers would

_ thus give place to physics and chemistry, which are of more

account in this work-a-day world.

os oes as oe S

1891.] The Coming Man. 625

11. The cultivation of self-control, in the recognition that man

is his own worst enemy.

12. Other desirabilities may be subclassed under the preceding.

In a general way, and when aberrant types are excluded, the

increase of the facial angle of Camper in the evolutionary scale

has a value as an index to what nature does to increase intelligence.

It is a very superficial physiognomical means of estimation,

however, if associated matters are not properly considered at the

same time, for the skull-growth may not keep pace always with

brain-growth, in individuals or races, and complexity of convolu-

tions may result to fold into smaller space the same amount of

brain surface that may also be found with fewer convolutions in a

larger, or more roomy, skull.

It is the multiplicity and complexity of the nerve-strands in

the brain that causes intelligence, and these are developed by

proper exercise and education of the senses in relation to the

finer muscular movements. The learning of something to do

that will benefit the world as well as self, and deep-thinking

thereon, and endeavoring to understand the universe, as far as

possible, is best calculated to develop the brain most symmetri-

cally, repress the evil and bring out all the good of which the

highest type of man is capable, for goodness is but a high order

of intelligence, notwithstanding its occasional absence in intellects

otherwise highly developed, and its frequent presence among

those whose minds are defective in other directions.

626 The American Naturalist. [July,

WHERE YOUNG AMATEUR PHOTOGRAPHERS CAN

BE OF ASSISTANCE: TO SCIENCE.

BY | DR, R W. SHUFELDE,

F all the instruments that have come into use in the hands of

science during the latter part of the present decade, none of

them have been found so universally helpful as has been the

camera. The photographic camera, with its modern multitudinous

appliances, has made its power felt in the greatest variety of

ways in all the departments of science, as in physics, chemistry,

mechanics, astronomy, zoology, and each and the rest. But it is

not my object to present an historical essay here upon this

instrument, nor even to make the attempt to write out all I know

about the operating of one in its details; it is merely my aim to

bring a few practical hints before young photographers, and show

them some of the new fields wherein, by patience and study, they

can put their instruments to very excellent uses. As we all know,

the art of photography is now easily acquired, and the producing

of photographic pictures a pleasurable and sometimes a profitable

employment. Yet how often it is that we see a young person

purchase a first-class camera with its entire outfit, and after

coming to be a good photographer, is satisfied at the end of a

year or so with having filled a large album with pictures of the

country around about his or her place of residence, or groups of

friends, and perhaps a few other subjects, when the whole, save

the album, is relegated to a corner in the garret. This is by no

means a rare occurrence and the ‘end of such enterprises.

I am a working naturalist, and a number of years ago con-

ceived the idea that a good photographic outfit would meet a

variety of ends in the course of my labors. A hundred dollars

gave me one, and three times that amount of money would not

induce me to part with it now. Including all my early failures,

more than fifty per cent. of my pictures, and there have been a

great many of them, have been published as illustrations to my

scientific papers, and elsewhere.

PLATE XIII.

< :

£ Sey AE

THE WESTERN RED-TAILED HAWK (Buteo borealis calurus). From a photograph.

1891] Where Amateur PhotograPhers Can Assist Science. 62 7

When one comes to examine the figures of mammals, birds,

reptiles, fish, and other forms that illustrate many of our older

works in zoology, he can be but struck with the fact how wide

of the mark the majority of them are. Indeed, it is frequently

difficult to recognize the form of the animal that the artist

intended to depict from the drawing he has made of it.

It was along such lines, as well as others nearly related

thereto, that I hoped to introduce an improvement into my own

designs. So simple are these steps that I feel sure that any

painstaking -young photographer can acquire and practice them,

—and that, too, to profitable ends ; to his personal enjoyment in the

pursuit; or to the great assistance of others; or even to the

advancement of learning; possibly to all of these combined.

A year or so ago I was collecting zoological and ethnological

material in Northwestern New Mexico, and among many other

things captured a great number of tiger salamanders (Amdlystoma

tigrinum), which were sent to biological laboratories all over the

world. Nowa salamander is a difficult subject to get a good

figure of, and there are comparatively but few such throughout

the entire range of zoological literature. This was my way of

obtaining one with the camera: I fixed a small pine shelf perpen-

dicular to the wall of my study at a convenient distance above

the floor. This I covered with a large sheet of clean, white

blotting paper, bending it so it hung down over the shelf in front,

and likewise extended up over the wall behind. It was held in

place by pinning it to the shelf with artists’ thumb-tacks. Next

placing any long, small object on the middle of the shelf in the

place to be afterwards occupied by the salamander, we focus

upon it with the camera, a strong light coming directly from

behind the instrument. Insert your diaphragm with the smallest

aperture, and remove the “dummy” from off the shelf. Now

we are ready for the subject, and as it is very difficult to get one

` of these animals to lie still an instant, I waved over his nostrils,

for a second or two, the fumes of a little sulphuric- ether, and

placed him in position on the shelf. As he recovered from the

anzesthetic, he assumed a very natural attitude, and was perfectly

quiet, allowing me to make an exposure of two minutes, and the

Am. Nat.—July.—3. f

Fic. 1.— The Tiger

Salamander (4. tigri-

num); life size.

The American Naturalist. [July,

result was I obtained a good working negative.’

The object of the blotting paper is to give a

sharp figure, bereft of all surroundings, and

that is one kind of picture largely demanded

in zoological illustrations. Of course we can

have all the grass, stones, and the rest of it

that we want, but, as I say, that is not the

kind of figure desired. The nap on the blot-

ting paper usually gives a peculiarly soft back-

ground, and dead white in the reproduction

made from the negative.

In nearly all cases such a negative should

be intensified by the usual method with bi-

chloride of mercury and the ammonia bath.

It sharpens all the details of the figures, and

makes a better print for the object in view.

Now from such a negative a good photograph

can be made upon sensitized albumen paper,

and from this a drawing can be made. Or,

any of the photo-engravers, by the various

methods now employed, can make an electro-

type from this negative, from which any num-

ber of figures can be printed. Yet again, you

can make a print from it upon plain, non-albu-

menized, sensitized paper, which figure can be

afterwards colored by hand. from the original,

and then handed to a lithographer for repro-

duction. Finally, one of the prints on this

plain paper, can be delicately traced over by

means of one of Gillott’s mapping pens (No.

291) and Higgins’ American drawing ink, and,

when dry, the print can be submitted to a

bath of saturated corrosive sublimate, and re-

moves everything save what you have traced

with your drawing ink. The “black and

white” figure thus produced can be electro-

i Had not this negative, and the one described beyond of the Buteo, been broken just

prior to having good prints made from them, they could have been used in the repro-

ee en Tee a eee

1891.) Where Amateur Photographers Can Assist Science. 629

typed by any of the-ordinary methods, at a very moderate cost,

and it will make a fair figure to illustrate what the young

naturalist may have to say in the journal he subscribes for,—

as, for instance, the reports of any of the many chapters of the

Agassiz Association to President Ballard. Excellent figures

of fish may be obtained by any of the above methods, if you

will but go to the trouble of constructing a glass tank of

clear panes of window-glass, say 10x16, but only an inch or two

apart, and parallel. In such a tank, filled with the very clearest

of water, your ordinary-sized fish will be kept constantly in posi-

tion and quiet. You can photograph through the double glass

and the water, but you must only have the sky behind it for a

background. To get an animal life-size you measure it with a

pair of compasses, and compare this measurement with the image

on the ground-glass of the camera, after you have finally focused

to your liking. Your best stock of patience will be demanded in

the photography of living birds. An entire chapter might be

written upon this branch of the subject, and then it would hardly

be exhausted. The same scrupulous care must be exercised in

reference to position, the accessories, the backgrounds, and the

rest of it. Very often we get excellent pictures from slightly

wounded birds, and this was the case with the specimen of the

Western Red-Tailed Hawk here offered in illustration. I made

the photograph of this specimen in New Mexico in 1888.

It will be seen that I selected a rugged pine stump for him to

stand upon, and this perch was sharply focused before placing

my subject upon it. Further, it must be noticed that I secureda

horizon; in other words, the hawk is brought out in strong relief

against a good sky, which occupies the upper half of the figure.

It would have been a simple matter to have placed a dead bird_

under one of his talons, but it was not done in this case; I have

duction of '‘ half-tone ” process figures. As it was, however, I had only secured prints

fixed by hyposulphite of soda. So with the pentagraph. Mr, W. H. Chandlee, the artist of

the U. S. National Museum, made the very accurate and beautiful drawings from them

st illustrate this article. But even this method (in which the camera playsan equally

a ert) ¢ is zo fally as useful, and ¢ one often resorted to by the artist who desires to

zoology. On this point see the author's letter

to the editor in Zhe Auk for April, 1891, entitled “‘ Camera Notes for Ornithologists.

630 The American Naturalist. [July,

figures of owls wherein I have accomplished it. Where no back-

ground is demanded, such birds can be photographed in one’s

study, with a white sheet behind them, and against this cone-

bearing pine boughs, old stumps, and the like, come out beauti-

fully, and elegant figures of many kinds’can be reproduced from

the negative thus secured. A pneumatic snap-shutter is almost

an indispensable adjunct to your camera in the proper photog-

raphy of birds, as some of them have to be partially hypnotized

before placed in position to be taken. Then, as they recover

from the effect of this, they dress their plumage, assume a

natural posture, and then appear animated. You. now watch

your opportunity, and secure an instantaneous picture of your

feathered subject. In the forest you can often get most valuable

negatives of nests and similar objects, all of which are highly

prized by the scientific naturalist, and can be used in his work:

Large lizards, such as our “Gila Monster” of Arizona, I have

obtained by firmly strapping my camera in such a manner as to

have the line of the focal axis perpendicular to the floor, upon

which I have placed a sheet of white blotting paper, and then

allowed the reptile to walk over it, and as he came beneath the

lens, I secured a first-class negative of him, In the case of

mammals, I have obtained photographs of dead ones, placed in

natural postures, so faithfully done that they deceived the eyes of ©

the best experts afterwards. My badger, published in Forest

and Stream several years ago, was taken in that way, and very

numerous other subjects, both since and before it.

The field and line of work I have briefly indicated above, is

brimful of interest for the enthusiastic young naturalist, and one

wherein he will soon find that all his ingenuity will be most amply

demanded. As every faithful young biologist should keep his.

“journal” of observations made afield, and in the forest, or afloat,

he will very soon find that his camera will aid him immensely in

affording the means of furnishing permanent pictures wherewith

to illustrate his remarks, and these in addition to the ones used

from which his photo-electrotypes have been selected for printing. ©

PLATE XVI.

rae

GRA TRIED ype et a

Carettochelys insculpta.

SES eee Pep eee a

1891.] On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. 631

ON THE RELATIONS OF CARETTOCHELYS, RAMSAY

BY G. BAUR.

I May, 1886, Prof. E. P. Ramsay, (1) of the Australian Museum,

Sydney, described a peculiar new tortoise under the name of

Carettochelys insculptus} The description was based on an adult

female (carapace, eighteen inches in a straight line), which was

obtained in the Fly River, New Guinea. The new genus was

referred to the family Trionychidz, forming “a link between the

river tortoise and the sea turtles.” In 1887 Mr. Boulenger (2)

placed this genus in a special family (Carettochelydidz) of the

Pleurodira, for the reason that the specimen was found in New

Guinea, from which island only Pleurodira are known. The

characters of this family were given as: “ Plastral bones, nine.

No epidermic scutes on the shell. Limbs paddle-shaped, with

only two claws.” :

Prof. Gill, (3) nearly at the same time, wrote a review of Prof.

Ramsay’s paper, in which he reached the conclusion that the form

is the type of a peculiar family, Carettochelyide, and that “it `

may quite likely prove to be a Pleurodire.” Prof. Gill makes the

following remarks: “ But whatever may be the relations of the

new genus, whether to the cryptodirous or pleurodirous tortoises,

it has many quite peculiar characters. From all known forms it

is apparently distinguished by the absence of scuta, the peculiar

feet,and other characters. Undoubtedly, therefore, the new genus

does not belong to any of the established modern families, and

apparently not to any of the extinct ones named, although when

more is known of Carettochelys, as well as the extinct forms, it

may turn out that the Papuan animal is related to one of the

families now regarded as extinct.”

The family Carettochelydide of the Pleurodira was accepted

by Mr. Lydekker (4) in the same year, and Hemichelys Ly-

dekker, from the Lower Eocene of India, referred to it. In this

lIna preliminary note this form had been considered as a species of Cyclanostex:.

The species must be named i#scu/pra, not insculptus.

632 The American Naturalist. [July,

form we have five neuralia in contact with each other, and there

was probably a small mesoplastron present, according to Lydekker.

To conclude from the figure, it seems that there were eleven

peripherals on each side, as in the Pleurodira, for instance. I

believe, therefore, that it is more likely a Pleurodiran than a near

relative of Carettochelys.

In 1890 I published a short note on Carettochelys, (5) in which

I doubted the Pleurodiran nature of the genus. I said: “It is

true it belongs the Papuarian region, in which, so far, only

Pleurodira have been found. There are some characters, however,

not seen in the Pleurodira, but in another group of Chelonians

consisting of the families Cinosternidz, Staurotypidz, and Pseudo-

trionychide. It is only in this group that we find twenty-one

peripheralia (marginal bones), as in Carettochelys; the neural

bones are also reduced, and the dermal shields have disappeared

entirely, as in Pseudotrionyx; to the latter character, however, I

attach little value, as it may occur in any family.

“It seems to me that the systematic position of Carettochelys

is far from being clear. How easily could the whole question be

settled! Mr. Ramsay would do a great service to science if he

would undertake to have the cervicals and the skull extracted, or

the cervicals alone, if he fears for the skull. This could be done

withqut injuring the specimen, and the structure of these parts

would show at once the affinities of this peculiar genus.”

Not doubting that Carettochelys would prove a very important

form of the Testudinata, I wrote to Prof Ramsay, asking him if

he could not examine the osteology of the animal, and publish a .

note about it. A short time before I received an answer I read

Dr. Alexander Strauch’s Bemerkungen über die Schildkröten-

sammlung im zoologischen Museum der kaiserlichen Akademie

der Wissenschaften zu St. Pétersburg. (6) ;

Dr. Strauch, whose classification of the tortoises is far behind

the times, and certainly not accepted by anybody—(he does not

distinguish the Pleurodira from the Cryptodira, but places them

in one group, Testudinida, of the same rank as the Cheloniida!

so : The unfortunate separation of Dermochelys as a suborder Atheca |

— 5 ie kept up !)—places Carettochelys in a special “Abtheiliing ss

1891.] On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. 633

of the Thecophora, with the name Carettochelyda. “ Riickens-

child herzformig mit Randknochen. Brustschildknochen zu

einer Platte verwachsen. Schale ohne Hornplatten Floasenfiisse

mit 2 Krallen. Phalangen der Zehen mit Condylen.” Strauch

remarks: “Soweit sich nach der allerdings noch sehr unvoll-

kommenen Beschreibung Ramsay’s urtheilen lasst, muss seine

Carettochelys insculpta unbedingt zum Typus einer besonderen,

den Trionychiden und den Meerschildkröten gleich werthigen

Familie (nach Boulenger also Superfamilie) erhoben und im System

zwischen diese beiden gestellt werden.”

Shortly after I had read Dr. Strauch’s paper I received an

answer from Prof. Ramsay, which I will give in full: “I received

your note on Carettochelys in due time, but owing to the internal

alterations going on in the museum the specimen could not be

got at, and it is only now that I have been able to examine it.

Alas! there were zə cervical vertebra: to examine; the animal had

served the explorer for food, and the whole of the bones, except

the skull, had been cut away. I had this photographed for you,

and hope it will help to place the very interesting form in its

proper place. I shall be glad to help you in any way; but there

is nothing to work on, more than I have given in the Proc. Linn,

Soc. N. S. W., Vol. I., 1886, p. 158, with plates.”

This was bad news. Nothing left of the bones but the skull!

But probably it was possible to determine the systematic position

of the interesting animal from the photographs, which were on

the way. A few days after the letter the photographs came: 1,

two upper views of the entire animal; 2, one lower view; 3, the

upper view, and 4th, the lower view of the posterior portion of

the skull. To Prof. Ramsay I have to express my best thanks

for his great kindness and liberality.

The skull at once showed that this form was no Pleurodiran ;

that its nearest.living relatives appeared to be the Trionychia, its

very closest fossil relative the peculiar Pseudotrionyx Dollo, from

the Eocene, which I always had suspected as such.

The skull is only comparable with that of the Trionychia. As

in this group, we have three greatly developed, crest-like posterior

processes : the supraoccipital, and on each side the squamosal. The

634 The American Naturalist. -T

supraoccipital process is club-shaped and enormously developed,

—more than in any other tortoise known. Of course this

character alone would not be sufficient to establish absolutely the

near affinity of the peculiar form with the Trionychia; such a

development of the posterior portion of the skull could take place

in the Pleurodira or Cryptodira just as well. But there are other

characters which at once show that the form has nothing to do

with the Pleurodira. Before all, the pterygoids extend behind

between quadrate, basisphenoid, basioccipital, a condition never

seen in the Pleurodira. Whether the pterygoids are completely

separated by the basisphenoid as in the Trionychia cannot be

seen from the photographs; this question, therefore, is still an

open one. The quadrate is peculiar. The articular face with the

lower jaw is Trionychian, not Pleurodiran ; and so is the posterior

end of the lower jaw. The quadrate is not completely closed

behind, but only on its outer border, as in Podocnemis, for instance,

but not in such a great degree. As is well known, the quadrate _

of the Trionychia is completely closed behind ; this, of course, is

a secondary condition, and there cannot be any doubt that the

ancestors of the Trionychia had the quadrate open behind. The

quadrate of Carettochelys is exactly of such a form which we

may expect in the ancestors of the Trionychia. The pterygoids

resemble very much the same elements in the Trionychia. The

lewer jaw is rounded in front and has a short symphysis. The

upper side of the skull is very interesting. The greatest peculi-

arity is that the upper surface of the bones is granulated exactly

as the shell. The dermal plates described by Ramsay do not exist;

there are no plates on the skull at all. This peculiar condition

is only found in the Jurassic Compsemys plicatulus Cope. The

sutures of the bones of the upper side of the skull, which can be

seen, just as the sutures of the elements of the carapace and 5

plastron are visible, must have been taken as indications of dermal nt

plates by Prof. Ramsay.

The interorbital Space is very large, the orbits being com — a)

pletely lateral ; the postorbital arch is about half of the interorbital

space. The whole upper aspect of the skull reminds us of the

Dermatemydidæ, Staurotypidæ, Cinosternidæ; and the arrange —

on ella he alta,

seme

PLATE XIV.

Carettochelys insculpta.

insculpta.

Carettochelys

wee ae eaa

1891.] On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. 635

ment of the elements is the same, the frontals being excluded

from the orbits. There is no indication in the photograph of free

nasal bones. The nose is projected much in front, and must have,

when in fresh condition, an appearance very much like that in

the Trionychia, but not so much pointed. The zygomatic arch

is not elevated as in the Trionychia, but is in a line with the

maxillary and quadrate, as in the Cinosternide, for instance.

The neck, the vertebrae of which were unfortunately not pre-

served, was short; but I do not see any reason why the head

could not have been retracted, as in the Chelydride, for instance

Nothing is known about the shoulder-girdle and the pelvis. But

one thing seems to be sure: the pelvis was not codssified with the

carapace and plastron, but free. If it had been codssified

with the shell, as in the Pleurodira, it probably would have been

preserved with the shell. An important question is the number

of phalanges in the fourth digit; as is well known, in all Trionychia

we have more than three phalanges in the fourth digit. It looks

to me, as far as I can conclude from the photographs, that in

Carettochelys the number. three was not surpassed.

We have now to consider the carapace and plastron. Both have

been figured by Ramsay, but there was some. doubt about the

presence or absence of a mesoplastral element. In regard to the

carapace, I have nothing newto add. There is no trace of dermal

scutes on the shell. The number of neurals is six; they are very

slender and all separate from each other. The first six pleuralia

- meet in the middle line behind, being separated in front by the

neuralia. The seventh and eighth neuralia touch each other

completely in the middle line. There is only one postneural. The

number of the peripheralia (marginal bones) is ten on each side,

besides the single pygal. The most interesting new point to be

noted in the plastron is the presence of a small distinct meso- .

plastral element. The structure of the plastron is best seen from

the figure.

I have stated above that Paddan is the nearest relative of

Carettochelys. Pseudotrionyx was described by Dollo (6) in 1886.

` The portions found in the Middle Eocene of Belgium consisted

of the posterior part of the carapace, and the nearly complete hyo-,

636 The American Naturalist. [July,

hypo-, and xiphiplastron of the right side. The sculpturing o

the shell is the same as in Carettochelys. There is no trace of

dermal scutes. The number of the peripheralia is the same as in

Carettochelys. There is only one postneural, of the same shape as

in this form. There is a difference in the neuralia, however. There

are séven slender neuralia in Pseudotrionyx, which are all connected

with each other, separating the first six pleuralia completely; the

seventh pleuralia meet behind, and sthe eighth are entirely con-

nected. In all the pleuralia the rib heads are well developed. If

we now compare the plastron of Carettochelys with the portions

preserved in Pseudotrionyx, we are struck at once by the enor-

mous resemblance. The hyoplastra of both are nearly identical

in shape. I may call especial attention to the border connecting

the hyoplastron with the endo- and epiplastron. But to conclude

from Dollo’s figure, it seems to me that the hyoplastron was not

entirely united to these elements, but only connected with them

by ligament, as in the Cinosternidez. The most interesting point,

however, is that Pseudotrionyx doubtless also had a distinct meso-

plastral element as Carettochelys. Dollo held the opinion that

there was a small fontanelle at the outer border of the hyo- and

hypoplastra (Echancrure naturelle, reste d'une fontanelle latérale,

N. Fig, I., Pl. 1.) Besides, he thinks that the line of the con-

nection between carapace and plastron was very short. There can-

not be any doubt, however, that Pseudotrionyx showed about

' the same conditions as Carettochelys.

Pseudotrionyx is placed by Dollo, Zittel, and Lydekker amie

the Chelydride. A skull originally referred by Sir R. Owen to

Platemys is considered by Lydekker (8) as belonging to Pseudo-

trionyx. ‘It is stated that it agrees essentially with that of

Macrochelys ; and that this reference is confirmed by the total

absence of the impression of horny shields, indicating that the

skull, as in the Trionychide, was merely covered with skin. I

think it is at least doubtful whether this skull belongs to

Pseudotrionyx.

We have now to consider the relations of Carettochelys. Its

nearest relative is, as I have shown, Pseudotrionyx. There is no

idenceev from the present material that Tranio belongs to

eta pel

Sit a Meee we oe i aa ied Met seth Sali er ARC der a A i eke eet a

a a n a O e aaan a aaa aaa r aaa a a a a T a E he Pil at a a a er ea e a a EA a gm Ge Le A i ge

e daii

1891.] On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. 637

a different family from Carettochelys. I do not hesitate, therefore,

to place both genera in one family, Carettochelyidæ Boulenger,

1887, which name has the priority before Pseudotrionychidæ

Boulenger, a family established in the Encyclopedia Britannica,

(Vol. XXIII), p. 457, to contain Pseudotrionyx Dollo and

Anostira Leidy.

This family may be characterized in the following way :

CARETTOCHELYIDÆ.

Shell without epidermal shields. Plastron composed of eleven

elements, two small mesoplastra being present, which are sepa-

rated from each other. Only ten peripherals on each side, be-

sides the single nuchal and pygal. (Carettochelys, Pseudotrionyx.)

Upper surface of skull covered with small, round, raised

rugosities exactly as the shell, with three posterior processes, as in

Trionychia; skull resembling in shape that of the Cinosternidæ,

but snout more projecting. Limbs paddle-shaped ; digits much

elongate, only the two inner clawed. (Carettochelys.)

How far Pseudotrionyx agrees with Carettochelys in the latter

characters, new finds have yet to determine.

The question now is, To which group of tortoises does this

family belong? In a former paper I distinguished four -

groups of tortoises: the Amphichelydia, Cryptodira, Pleurodira,

and Trionychia. Of one thing we are sure: it does not belong to

the Pleurodira. Unfortunately we do not know the structure of

the cervicals, which is so characteristic of the three remaining

groups. From all that is at present known, it appears to me that

the Carettochelyidæ are nearest to the Trionychia, but show at

the same time characters of a group of Cryptodira, composed of

the families Staurotypidæ and Cinosternide. I expressed

a few years ago the opinion that the Trionychia did come from

forms which had the peripherals complete, and carapace and

plastron closed; that the Trionychia are not*an original, but a

highly specialized group. Carettochelys shows i in the structure of |

the skull, especially of the pos n, Tri

I nee that the anceste

638 The American Naturaiist. [July,

which in the structure of carapace and plastron were very much

like Carettochelys. On the other hand, there seem to be connec-

tions through Anostira with the groups of Cryptodira named

above. These affinities are shown in the shape of the skull and

plastron, and the peculiar number of peripherals. Until the cer-

vicals and pelves are known, I think it is impossible to determine

the correct systematic position of the Carettochelyide. The most

probable view seems to be this: The Carettochelyida came from

a group of tortoises related to the stock from which Staurotypide

and Cinosternide developed. It is probable that the Caretto-

chelyide are very close to the ancestors of the Trionychia, of

which they are only survivals. For the ancestors of the Triony-

chia we have to look in the Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous ; for

I have shown in another paper that the Trionychia of the Upper

Cretaceous (Laramie) are typical forms, in which the peripheralia

had been already entirely reduced. I have little doubt that these

started from the Amphichelydia.

There are some points which could be made out by examina-

tion of the unique type specimen of Carettochelys; the entire

structure of the skull, for instance, the condition of the first dor-

sal, which is probably preserved. It would be very important to

know whether the premaxillary is small and single, as in the

Trionychia, or whether it is developed, as in the Staurotypida, for

instance. It would be interesting to know whether the anterior

part of the centrum of the first dorsal vertebra is modified as in

the Trionychidz or not.

I can only hope that new specimens will be collected soon in

New Guinea. They doubtless exist there in great numbers,

` and I think the time will not be very far away when we will

know the whole anatomy of this most interesting tortoise.

Clark University, Worcester, Mass., April 5th, 1891.

AUTHORITIES CITED.

1. RAMSAY, E. P.—On a New Genus and Species of Fresh-Water Tortoise,

from the Fly River, New Guinea. Proc. Linn. Soc., New South Wales, Second

Series, Vol. I., Part I., May 25th, 1886, pp. 1 58-162, Pls. r11.—vI.

1891.] On the Relations of Carettochelys, Ramsay. 639

2. BOULENGER, G. A.—On a New Family of Pleurodiran Turtles. Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist., Vol. XIX., March, 1887, pp. 170, 171. Encyclopedia

Britannica, Vol. XXIII., p.457. Catal. of the Chelonians in the Brit. Mus.,

London, 1889, p. 236.

3. GILL, THEODORE.—A Remarkable Tortoise. Annual Report of the

Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Inst. for the year ending June 3oth,

1887, Part I., Washington, 1889, pp. 509-511.

. LYDEKKER, R.—Eocene Chelonians from the Salt-Range. Mem. Geol.

Survey India. Paleontology India, Series X., Vol. IV. Calcutta, 1887,

pp. 61-63, Pl. x11.; also Lydekker-Nicholson Manual of Pal., Vol. II.,

-p. 1101, 1889.

5. Baur, G.—Note on Carettochelys Ramsay. Amer. NAT., Nov. 1889,

p. 1017 ebita 1890).

6. Mém de l'Acad. Imp. des Sciences v. St. Pétersbourg, VII. C. Série,

Tome XXXVIII., No. 2, St. Pétersbourg, 1890, Decembre. _

7- DOLLo, o, Cibi mière note sur les Chéloniens du Bruxellien (Eocéne

moyen) de la Belgique. Bull. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat., Belg., Tome, IV.,

1886.

8. LYDEKKER, R.— Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Vol. XIV., p. 242. Catal.

foss. Rept., Part III., pp. 145, 146. Paleontology, p. 1195. .

640 The American Naturalist. [July,

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

: T is generally conceded that it is important to avoid the dupli-

cation of names of like rank in the nomenclature of each of

the great divisions of organic life. A genus of plants may bear

the same name as a genus of animals, but no two genera of either

must bear the same name. There has, however, recently developed

a difference of opinion as to what constitutes identity of name.

It was for a long period assumed that any difference is a differ-

ence, and that words identical except as to masculine or feminine

termination are different words. Thus no one thought of regarding

Picus and Pica as duplicates, and the two appeared together in

ornithologies for nearly a century. But the desire for change

stimulated somebody to consider the use of one of them a dupli-

cation of the other, and a new name was proposed to take the

place of the one which was introduced latest. Following this

example, numerous changes have been proposed for the same

reason. But there are other instances where the difference extends

to two letters, as in the case of Menodus and Menodon, and here

also change has been introduced. If a difference of two letters

is not enough to preserve two names, it becomes a question

how many letters will constitute diversity, and so on. There seems

to be a preference also that a difference of a letter in the beginning

of a name is of greater moment than such a difference towards _

or at the end of aname. Thus no one has proposed to change

the name Tinodon because there is also a name Dinodon, or

Momus because there is a Mimus, or Mora because there is a

Mola. The number of changes which may be made on such

grounds as these is very great, and the name-changers have yet a

large field before them.

From another point of view we can see that if differences of

one or two letters are not admissible, we are debarred from the

use of a large proportion of possible "ħames. Thus we cannot

have Manodus nor Monodus, nor Melodus nor Tenodus, nor

ae RE te S SRA

EA NE RE Ae AAE E T A.

1891.] Editorial. 641

Henodus, nor Menopus, nor Menotus, on account of Menodus,

and so on ad infinitum. The fact is, the changing of a name

which differs by a single letter from another name has no warrant

‘in any rule, or in common sense. The changing of names is an

inconvenience to be avoided as far as possible, and the zeal

frequently seen to make such changes without sufficient ground

should be abated. When the correct spelling of a name makes

it identical with another, change is necessary, since a name is

only recognizable when correctly spelled. Science is nothing if

not accurate.

642 The American Naturalist. [July,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

AGASSIZ, A.—On the Rate of Growth of Corals. Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool.,

Vol. XX., No. 2. From the author.

ALLEN, J. A.—Notes on a Collection of Mammals from Costa Rica. Ext. Bull.

Am, Mus. a Hist., Vol. III. From the author. ,

AMI, H. M.—On the Geology of Quebec and Environs, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

II., pp. 477- za From the Society

Anatomy, eee Hygiene. Compiled under the direction of the California State

Board of Educ

Annua pater ev, the Ackansas Geological Survey, 1889. From R. Ellsworth Call.

Annual Report of the Treasurer of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Aee

AYRES, A.—The Ear of Man: Its Past, Its Present, and Its Future, Reprint from

va I., Lectures ase: ol» Labor. From the author.

BARUS, C.—The aa eee of Hot Water, and Its Solvent Action on Glass,

Note on the Pressure rete tof the Voltaic Cell. Exts. American Jour. a Vol.

XLI., Feb., 1891. From the

——The Chemical apnee of Solids, in Its Relation to Pressure and to Tem-

perature. Ext. Ae os. ee an., 1891. The Isometrics of Liquid Matter. Ext.

Philos. Mag., Oct., From the author.

BAU k, G—Das ors der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Galapagos-

Inseln und Bem kungen iiber den Ursprung der Inselgruppe. Sonder-Abdruck aus dem

Biolagschen ESAD From the author

BEC . F.—The Washoe Rocks. Reprint Bull. No. 6, California Acad. Sci.

From the ae or.

BELL, R.—The Nickel and Copper ee " Sudbury Dist., Canada. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 125-140. From the Surv

BONNEY, T. ani iea a at bne s the Crystalline Rocks of the Alps.

Ext. Quart. Journ. Geo 1889.

——On th cute s races and Their Relation to the Mesozic aha in the Lepon-

tine Alps. Ext. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., May, 1890. From the a

BOULE, M.—Les Grands Animaux Fossiles de pias Stes Ta de la Revue

Scientifigue, 1891. From the author.

Bull. No. 74, North Carolina Agri. Exper. Station.

Bull. No. 10, Oregon Agri. Exper. Station.

Bull. Nos. 6, 7, and 9, Agri. Se Station Rhode Island State Agri. School.

Bull. 14, Miss. Agri. Exper. Station

Bull. T 12, Ilowa Agri. Exper. Sta

Butts, E—Recently Discovered Paapa of the Amphibian Age in the Upper,

Coal Measure Group of S City, Mo. Ext. Kansas City Scientist, February an

March, 1891. From the

CAJORI, F.—The Tatier and History of Mathematics in the United States. Cir.

Inf. No. 3, Bureau of Education, 1

Constitution, Officers, and List of Members of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences,

Te pe I, 1891.

CROSBY, W. O.—Physical History of the Boston Basin. trons the author

Eei N. H.—Mesozoic and Cenozoic kissaa ns of Eastern Virginia and

Maryland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 4

——Notes on the Geology of the Florida fatbast Deposits. Record of a Deep

Well at Lake Worth, Florida. Reprint am Jour. Science, Vol. XLI., Feb., 1891.

From the author.

Davis, J. w =the the Fossil ‘Fish of the Cretaceous Formations of Scandanavia.

Vis, W. M.,and S. W. Loper.—I'wo Belts of Fossil dssiliferous Shale in the Triassic ae

ee of Connecticut. Bull. Geol. Soc. Ama Vol. Il. “PP. 415-430. Tosha EE ie

18g1.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 643

DAWSON, J. W.—On Burrows and Tracks of Invertebrate Animals in Paleozoic

Rocks, and Other Markings. Reprint Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Nov., 1890

he Quebec Group of Logan. Reprint Can. Rec: Sci., Jaly, 1890. From the

author.

x . G.—Care in the Use of aay ae as a Remedy in Tuberculosis.

Reprint rou Times and Register, Feb., I. From uthor.

Eighth Annual Report of the Board of Control a State Agri. Exper. Station at

cee Mass.

, P. A—The Epithelium of the Brain Cavities. Proc. Am. Soc. Micros., 1890.

From pas var

Fos P M. Sperone Drainage and Recent Geological History of Western

Padaan. Ext. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol, XL., Nov., 1890. rom the author.

Fox, L. Parietal i of the Optic Nerve. Ext. Med. and Surg. Rep., Feb., 1891.

GAGE, S. H., and G.S. HOPKINS.—Preparation and Imbedding the Embryo Chick.

——Picric and Chromic Acid for the Rapid Preparation of doses for Classes in

Histology. Pek Am. Soc. Microscopists, 1890. From the soc

GaGE, S. P.—The Intramuscular Endings of Fibers in te Sadia Muscles of the

— and Laboratory Animals. Proc. Am. Soc. Microscopists, 1890, From the

GALLOWAY, B. T.—Treatment of Nursery renee for Leaf-Blight and Powdery Mil-

dew. wing S. Dept. Se Div. Veg. Path., Cir. No.

GEIGER, H. R., and A. KEITH. e PA of the Blue Ridge near Harper's

Ferry. ia Geol. san Am., Vol. I 155-164. From the society.

GOESSMAN, C. A Cisegier on eS ada Fertilizers. Mass. State Agri. Exper.

Station, March, 1 189r.

HAYES, C. W.—The Overthrust Faults of the Southern Appalachians. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am. , Vol. II., pp. o From the

ECTOR, J.—Reports o Aem Explorations in iNo Zealand during 1888-'89. From

the Colonial Museum, New Zeal

HOEGAERDEN, PAUL VON. SA Dérivation des Sources de Modane. From the

author

HOPKINS, GS gee or of the Stomach of Amia calva. Proc. Am. Soc. Micros.,

1890. From the au

LYDEKKER, R.—The Tortoises Described as Chaibassia. Reprint Jour. Asiatic

Soc. of Bit Vol. LVIII., Part 2, No. 4, 1889. “From the author.

MALLERY, G.—Greeting by Gesture. Reprint Pop. Science, 1891. From the

CCARTHEY, G.—The Best Agricultural Grasses. North Carolina Agri. Exp.

Station Bull. No. 73.

MINOT, C.-S.—Morphology of the Blood Corpuscles. Ext. AM. NAT., Nov., 1890.

On Certain Phenomena of Growing Old. Ext. Proc. A. A. A. S., Vol. XXXIX., 1 1890.

—A Co

NEWBERRY, J. S.—The Flora of a e Falls Coal Fields, Montana, Ext. A:

Jour. Sci., Vol. XL., March, 1891. i

Thee Genus Sphenophyllum. Esh Jas. Cin. Soc. Nat, Hist, Jan., 1891. From

the PY or, ; ;

NEWTON, E. T.—On the Occiirréie di f Lenisings tad ! Other Rodents in the Brick-

Sen A ee valley: Ext. ar Mags D, AR AIL, Vol. VII From the —

author. eee

644 The American Naturahst. [July,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Catalogue of Fossil Reptilia and Batrachia (Amphibia)

in the British Museum, Parts II., III., and IV.!—Dr. Lydekker

includes in Part II. the orders Ichthyopterygia and Sauropterygia; in

Part III. the Testudinata ; and in Part IV. the Placodontia, Theromora,

and the Batrachia (Amphibia). Part I. included the Archosaurian

series (Dinosauria, Crocodilia, and Ornithosauria) and the Squamata.

The order of treatment has not been a systematic one either ascending

or descending, possibly for reasons connected with the administration

of the museum. Apart from this, we are disposed to find fault with

some features of the system adopted which are more important. Thus

the streptostylicate series is quite heterogeneous, including the Rhyn-

chocephalia, which must go with the Dinosauria in the Archosaurian

line; and the Ichthyopterygia, which belong in the Synaptosaurian

series. The Rynchocephalia of Lydekker, however, include some types

(as Rhynchosauride) which, from their single codssified postorbital

bar, belong in the Synaptosauria.

In the treatment of the detail of the subject embraced by these

catalogues we find the conscientiousness and painstaking characteristic

of the author’s work generally. The definitions are comprehensible,

and the treatment of material judicious so far as appears. ‘The settle-

ment of questions of affinity and synonymy left uncertain by the older

paleontologists is a service for which students everywhere will be grate-

ful. This was especially needed among the Testudinata, which Dr.

Lydekker found in great confusion, but which he has reduced to com-

parative order. We have to thank him for the abolition of the name

Colossochelys, which cannot be distinguished from Testudo. Some of

his genera are probably too comprehensive, as, e. g., Cimoliasaurus (Sau-

ropterygia), as the author himself suggests. Trionyx also probably

includes more than one genus. Here is also the place to correct» some

statements of the author anent the Adocide. He remarks (p. 129) :

** The so-called Adocidz of Cope are probably also referable to the

Dermatemydide, the abortion of the ribs not being a character of

family value. In the Cretaceous genus Adocus there are traces of

vermiculation, which are more distinct in the Eocene genus Agomphus,

and it has yet to be proved that the latter is really distinct from the

1 Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum. By Richard

Lydekker. Part II., 1889; Part III., 1889; Part IV., 1890. London, Published by

the trustees of the British Museum

1891.] Recent Literature. 645

under-mentioned genus '’ (Trachyaspis). The fact is, that, as I showed

in 1873 (Ann. Report U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr., 1872, p. 621), Adocus

has an intergular plate, and a simple contact of the inferior pelvic

bones with the plastron, and is allied to Baéna, belonging therefore to

Lydekker’s group Amphichelydia ; and the absence of rib-heads is not

included in my family definitions. Also Agomphus has no trace of

vermiculation, while they are strong in Trachyaspis.

We refer to some points of nomenclature which arrest our attention,

The author establishes a ‘“ new family,” Dermatemydidz, and then

remarks that the ‘‘so-called Adocidz’’ belong to it. Should this be

the case, the proper proceeding would have been to have placed Derma-

temys and allies in the Adocide. The name Anomodontia is used

instead of Theromora for the order first defined by the present critic

under the latter name. Both Prof. Owen’s first and last use of the

former term are shown by Lydekker to have been for the division to

which the later name Dicynodontia has been also applied. The latter

name should be disused, both because it is a synonym and because

some of its members are edentulous. Dr. Lydekker is probably correct

in preferring the name~Theriodonta to that of Pelycosauria, as they

may refer to the same natural division, although the evidence is not

all in yet. The name Cotylosauria, though proposed with an erroneous

definition, is probably the proper one to apply to the subdivision

Pareiosauria, while Proganosauria should be probably used in place o

Procolophonia. The term Labyrinthodontia is resuscitated and used

for the Stegocephali, although its original definition and etymology

render it applicable to a limited subdivision only, whose actual bounda-

ries are not yet known. In the division of the Stegocephali into orders

or suborders considerable difference of opinion has developed. The

obvious and simple division into Ganocephali, Rhachitomi, Embol-

omeri, and Microsauri is objected to by Lydekker, Zittel, and Fritsch,

on grounds which seem to the present critic insufficient ; and the classi-

fications which it is proposed to substitute appear to stand on unsecure

foundations. The value of the presence of complete intercentra in the

cervical and dorsal regions in Embolomeri is said to be destroyed by

the fact that Archegosaurus (Ganocephali) possesses the character in

the caudal region; very inconsequent reasoning, it appears to us.

Objection to the systematic importance of the segmented or rhachi-

tomous structure is based on the fact that it is present in young Laby-

rinthodons, etc. “This is certainly a new reason for discarding a char-

acter from systematic biology. When a character is shown to be

inconstant in adults it should be relegated to the rear, but not before. :

’

646 The American Naturalist. [July,

yet be discovered, but it has not been as yet; and it will not be soon

observed with the embolomerous structure.

The author’s adhesion to the law of priority in specific and generic

names contributes much to the simplification of nomenclature. He is

not as strict in the matter of family names. We cannot agree with

him in changing a name as preoccupied, so long as it differs from the

supposed preoccupier by one letter. This is not preoccupation.—C.

A. S. Woodward’s Fossil Fishes.*—The fine collection of

fossil fishes contained in the British Museum has been at last utilized

as the basis of a systematic work. No better appointment could have

been made for the accomplishment of this purpose than Mr. A. Smith

Woodward, whose abilities as a systematic zoologist have been amply

tested in this difficult field. The first part of the catalogue is devoted

to the Elasmobranchii. Two hundred and ninety-six species are con-

tained in the museum collection, which is only a part of those actually

known. The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the reference

list of all described species given under the head of each genus. Of

the above species, twenty-four are included under the Ichthyotomi, of

which fourteen are Pleuracanthide, and the remainder Cladodontide.

The systematic position of the latter family is for the first time thus

indicated. The doubts expressed as to the segmentation of the skull

of Didymodus, expressed in this place by Mr. Woodward, have been

since set at rest by an inspection of the specimens themselves, as he

acknowledges in his report on American collections published in the

Geological Magazine at a later date,

In the second part of the work Mr. Woodward takes in hand the .

question of the systematic relations of the fishes in general. He dis-

cards the division Ganoidei as unavailable, and adopts the subclasses

Elasmobranchii, Holocephali, Dipnoi, and Teleostomi, as has been

done in this country. e does not adopt the Agnatha, but accepts

the superorder Ostracodermi * Cope, which, according to some authors,

represents the formér in the Paleozoic formations, and places them as

a fifth subclass of the Pisces. This is a great advance over previous

views held in Europe, and it now remains to be seen whether the

opinion that the Ostracophori are outside the class of fishes is to be

sustained by further discovery or not.

2 Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum. By Arthur Smith ———

Part I., 1889; Part II., 1891. Published by the trustees of the ‘British Muse

the apparent necessity f

3 This name was ee ec Gill i in 1861 s the Scleroderm enm Sohon. 3 regret

1891.] Recent Literature. 647

Another important point is the definite location of the Acanthodii

as a third order of the Elasmobranchii, for what appear to be entirely

valid reasons. These are quite sustained by the results of a study of

several species of Acanthodes, published in 1890 by Dr. Otto Reis, in

a paper which had not probably come into Dr. Woodward’s hands in

time for notice.‘ The next important systematic step is the location

of what is left of the old Placodermi after the abstraction of the

Ostracophori, represented by the Coccosteidæ. These Dr. Woodward

regards as Dipnoi, and the view is a plausible one. Doubtless paleon-

tologists have no better place for them, and new evidence is likely

to confirm the proposition. He names the order the Arthrodira.

Two orders of Teleostomi are adopted, the Crossopterygia and

Actinopterygia ; the Rhipidopterygia and Podopterygia being rejected.

We have given reasons in the Naruraisr for April why we think

these orders (or better, superorders) should be retained. Under Cros-

sopterygia, four suborders are recognized,—viz., Haplistia (Tarrasiidz) ;

Rhipidistia (Holoptychiide, Rhizodontide, Osteolepidide, and Ony-

codontide) ; Actinistia (Ccelacanthide) ; and Cladistia (Polypteridz).

The Actinopterygia are divided into two sections, A and B, corres-

ponding to our Podopterygia and Actinopterygia respectively. The

present work enters only the former division, which includes the

families Palzoniscide, Platysomatide, Catopteride, Chondrosteide,

Belonorhynchide, Acipenseride, and Polyodontide. The volume

concludes with the Platysomide.

Many important points in the structures of these fishes are discussed,

and the species which are included are placed on a permanent basis.

The work is illustrated by numerous good lithographs.—C.

Mrs. Bodington on Evolution.'—This book, of two and a

quarter hundred pages, is a popular presentation of many of the

facts discovered by the more modern laborers in several fields of

biology. Its nine chapters treat of the following subjects: The evo-

lution of the eye ; extinct and surviving mammalia; the flora of the

past; interesting facts in evolution; microdrganisms as parasites ;

puzzles in paleontology ; the air-bladders of fishes ; Neo-Lamarckism ;

the origin of the fittest. The authoress’ presentation of these topics is

both graphic and scientific, and is well calculated to interest ‘the | etl :

U de ar Dat. Aa os N gee

* Zurkentniss des Skel ts jer Acanthodinen,

des Kgl. bayer. Oberbergamts, r890. P s

5 Studies in Evolution and Biology. “By Allee Bodington.

8vo, T ;

648 The American Naturalist. [July,

eral reader. In fact, the work is an excellent one to put into the

hands of any person without scientific knowledge, who desires to get

an insight into questions that occupy at present the scientific mind.

An especial interest will attach to the book, in the minds of Ameri-

cans, because many of the facts and conclusions described are derived

from the work of their countrymen. This will be a recommendation

to those foreign readers who do not desire the labor of searching the

original sources in our scientific literature, for popularizers of Ameri-

can biologic work have not yet grown up on our own soil. The

authoress is the wife of an English physician who lived at Vancouver,

British Columbia, and is still a resident of that beautiful region.

Mrs. Bodington has become a Neo-Lamarckian in her views after an

impartial examination of the evidence offered by paleontology, and

she says: ‘‘ Neo-Lamarckism supplies the ‘ motif’ which runs through

almost every study in this little book. I had not met with the works

of Lamarck when these. studies were written, yet it seems to me that

every advance in the physical sciences which I have endeavored to

chronicle adds a fresh laurel to the fame of this most unjustly decried

genius. If we, who love and honor the name of Darwin, look upon

him as the Newton of evolution, we surely shall not detract from his

fame if we look upon Lamarck as its Galileo.’’

a ES ee ae ee ee ys | OAM thd OMe eed Pend foo.)

SON geal see Rs Nel « Rage ENS byte ge DR fe ate AE

1891.] Geography and Travel. 649

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

The Peary Exploring Expeditions for Greenland and the

Survey of Unexplored Regions of the Arctic Circle.—An

expedition that promises to the promoters and to science generally

discoveries and result of interesting import now takes the name of the

North Greenland Exploring Expedition. It has been fitted out by an

experienced investigator, Lieutenant Robert E. Peary, who is a civil

engineer, serving in the navy with the rank of lieutenant, and for the

past two years stationed at the League Island Navy Yard, Philadelphia.

He has obtained a long leave of absence in order to command this

enterprise, which he has personally projected and arranged, contributing

largely to the necessary expenses. His former experience in the far

north fit him thoroughly for his work. Five years ago he penetrated

far into Greenland with a companion, and obtained a knowledge

that is the basis of his present project of reaching and exploring the

most northeasterly promontory of Greenland, and, if the conjectures

of the existence of a polar open sea be well founded, to secure all the

information obtainable about that ocean.

Among the first to see the promise of Lieutenant Peary’s project

were the members of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences.

This institution not only extended sympathy and support, but organized

a special auxiliary corps, with this personnel: Professor Angelo Heil-

prin, Curator-in-Charge of the Academy, will be the geologist and

leader of the party ; Professor Benjamin Sharp, M.D., Ph.D., also of

the Academy, will be the zoologist ; Professor J. F. Holt, Professor of

Natural History at the Philadelphia High School, also zoologist; Dr.

William T. Hughes, ornithologist ; Mr. Frazer Ashhurst ; Dr. Robert

M. Keely, assistant ophthalmologist at the Jefferson Medical College,

Philadelphia, surgeon; Dr. William H. Burk, botanist; Levi W.

Mengel, Ph.G., of Reading, Pa., entomologist ; and Alexander C.

Kenealy, journalist.

For the voyage a diminutive but staunch steam yacht, called the

“ Kite,” has been secured. She was built expressly for sealing trips.

and has buffeted the ice-floes of Norway for nearly eighteen yea ,

and although perfectly sound, has been strengthened and put in orc:

650 The American Naturalist. [July,

for the proposed heavy work, and supplied with every means that

experience can suggest to fit her for the work.

The dimensions of the ‘‘Kite’’ are 117.6 feet long over all, 26.4

feet beam, and 14 feet hold. Her tonnage is 280 gross and 190 net.

The engine is a vertical one of fifty-horse power, placed well aft, soas

to give the propeller a short crank shaft, and thus lessen any liability

to breakage. The propeller can be triced up and the rudder unshipped

in thick ice. Her speed is from seven and one- -half to nine knots.

Her bow and sides are well protected with heavy pieces of iron and

dovetailed blocks of wood.

The vessel will be commanded by Captain Richard Pike, who went

with Lieutenant Greely in 1881, and was also one of the Greely rescue

party in 1883. His crew will consist of chief mate, Edward Tracy ;

boatswain, Patrick Dunphy; chief engineer, William Jardine ; second

engineer, Alexander McKinley ; steward, Lawrence Hackett ; assistant

steward, Patrick Welsh; cook, Thomas Pepper; firemen, Andrew

Roost, Edward Crook, and John Cunningham, and able seamen,

Thomas Collins, John Cummings, Timothy Looney, and John Verge.

McKinley is from Glasgow, and Pepper from London. The others

are Newfoundland seal fishermen.

Lieutenant Peary will be accompanied by his wife aiid five hardy

seamen who have experienced the rigor of polar winter weather, and

they are to stick to him in all his operations and movements. So the

entire ship’s company will consist of thirty persons. There will also

be four large Newfoundland dogs on board.

The ‘‘ Kite ”’ sailed from New York, in June last, direct to Ivigtut, a

cealing station at the southernmost point of Greenland, just back of

Cape Farewell. From thence the ‘‘ Kite ’’ will proceed to Upernavik,

on the northwestern coast, in latitude 73°. This is the northernmost

Danish settlement of Greenland. From Upernavik the ‘‘ Kite” will

break her way through the ice across Melville Bay, around Cape York

to Whale Sound, where Lieutenant Peary, his party, and all their sup-

plies will be landed.

It is expected that it will take a month to reach Whale Sound, where

a house will be built for Lieutenant Peary and his wife, who will

accompany him on his long journey. At this point the North Green-

land and the West Greenland parties will separate. The North

Greenland expedition will start out and establish provision stations

to the northward and eastward. About a year will be consumed

in making these preparations, and it is not expected that the

actual business of that part of the expedition will be begun until the

1891.) Geology and Paleontology. 651

summer of 1892. Lieutenant Peary will then take a northeast route,

skirting the coast, but keeping on the unbroken inland ice. As the

party proceeds, their route will bend to the northward and reach the

furthest point north of the Greely expedition, From that point an

effort will be made to reach the northern terminus of the land and

determine its character, and also the existence of an open polar sea.

At the same time the Academy of Sciences corps will proceed south-

ward. Lieutenant Peary states that he will make journeys from station

to station on snow-shoes and ice-skates or skias, while provisions will

be transported by Eskimo dogs and by members of the party. It is

believed by Professor Heilprin and others that the party will reach

within 350 miles of the North Pole by traveling, it is estimated, about

1,200 miles to and from the main station. This journey will con-

sume about three months, including rests, and the daily journey will

cover from eighteen to twenty miles. He proposes to see if the region

of the North Pole is of land or water, and hopes to discover the polar

open sea.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Name Huronian.—Professor Alexander Winchell, in the

Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, Vol. II., pp. 85-124,

remarks as follows:

‘‘ Clearly, the interests of geology'and of truth demand an adjust-

ment of these conflicting conditions in terminology. If Sir Wil-

liam Logan unwittingly extended the term Huronian over two systems

now known to be distinct, that usage cannot be continued. Either

the name must be restricted to the upper system, or it must be relegated

to synonymy. We think it may be appropriately attached to the

upper system. The early Canadian geologists sought a term which

would cover, first and chiefly, the great quartzites which were found to

follow the Silurian strata in downward succession. Underneath were

seen so-called chloritic schists and a slate conglomerate. In the

region first studied these were seen to rest on crystalline rocks, and

appeared to fill completely the gap between the Silurian and the

gnetsses. These strata were all conformable, and evidently constituted

a system. If it had not been previously named, the Canadian geolo-

gists conferred a service on science in giving ita designation.

* Soon, however, older schists than these were described ; hat ance. od

their structural discordance with these was not aces in the ran.

652 The American Naturalist. (July,

region, as known thirty years ago, and since their conglomerate and

slaty characters were similar to those in some strata of the system first

named, it was natural, or at least it was venial, to include these latter

with the former. If, now, we have learned that they are geologically

incongruous with the higher, it appears obviously necessary to drop

them off, however prolonged the period in which they have been

associated together.

‘* This is the view which we have maintained for several years. We

have insisted that the so-called Huronian of Lake Superior is an older

system than the Huronian of Lake Huron. But we were not aware, it

must be confessed, until our recent studies, that the same older system

was actually present north of Lake Huron,

«If, then, we restrict the term Huronian to the upper system, it

remains attached to the best-known and characteristic portion of the

old complex Huronian. There will remain the older system, not dis-

tinctively named until Dr. Lawson in 1866 bestowed upon it the name

‘Kewatian.’ In volume, in petrographic and stratigraphic characters’

itis a system. It should therefore receive a name of systemic form.

Such name is Kewatian, homophonous with Huronian, Silurian, and the

remaining systemic names. f

hether the term Huronian must not yield to the priority of

Taconic or Cambrian, we will not discuss. Whether Kewatian can

take precedence over Azoic, Taconic, and Cambrian, remains to be

decided, It is the misfortune of all these names, except Kewatian,

that they were originally intended to cover a complex of strata which

has been proved to constitute two distinct systems.”’

Pre-Paleozoic Surface of the Archean Terranes of

anada.—Mr, A. C. Lawson has collected evidence to show that

the hummocky aspect of the Archean terranes of North America is

not due to the action of the ice of the Glacial epoch, but that it was

characteristic of the surface upon which the earliest Paleozoic sedi-

ments were deposited. In pursuing the work incident to this paper,

Mr. Lawson found also excellent presumptive evidence that the greater

part, if not the whole, of the Canadian Archean terranes were at one

time covered by Paleozoicstrata. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I., pp.

113-174.)

A Mesozoic Fish Fauna in New South Wales.'—Mr. A.

Smith Woodward has recently published a memoir on some fossil fishes

1 The Fossil Fishes of the Hawkesburg Series at Gosford. By A. Smith Woodward,

F.ZS., F.G.S. Memoirs of the Geological Survey of New South Wales. Paleontology,

No. 4.

a E EENE E eerie

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 653

collected by Mr. Charles Cullen at Gosford, New South Wales. The

series comprises nearly four hundred specimens obtained from a layer

of dark-gray shale, four feet thick, interstratified with the massive beds

of sandstone belonging to the Hawkesbury formation. As. a result of

Mr. Woodward’s researches, they have been classified as follows: One

Dipnoan, possibly allied to Ceratodus, Gosfordia truncata. Of the

family Paleoniscide, Myriolepis clarkei, M. latus, Apateolepis aus-

tralis; of Catopteridæ, Dictyopyge symmetricus, D. tllustrans, D.

robustus ; of Belonorhynchidæ, Belonorhynchus gigas, B. gracilis ; of

Semionotidæ, Semionotus australis, S. tenuis, Pristisomus gracilis, P.

atus, P. crassus, Cleithrolepis granulatus, C. ? altus; of Pholido-

poridæ, Pholidophorus gregarius, ? Peltopleurus dubius. All the

species are new except, M. clarkei and C. granulatus. Of the enrm

Gosfordia, Apateolepis, and Pristisomus are new.

An examination of this list at once demonstrates that the piia is

of early Mesozoic age, and Mr. Woodward regards the Hawkesbury

beds as homotaxial with the Keuper of Europe, or, at the latest, with

the Rhætic. An important fact leading to this conclusion is the

absence in this series of fishes with well-developed vertebral centra.

Ten plates accompany the text, from which one learns how much

good work can be done with very fragmentary fossils.

A Cimoliosaurus from the Niobrara Cretaceous of Kan-

sas.—Prof. Williston has recently described a Cimioliosaurus from the

chalk of Western Kansas, which is of interest by reason of the nature

and preservation of the remains. The specimen comprises the skull

and twenty-eight cervical vertebræ, all attached, and with their relative

_ positions but little disturbed. The entire length of the skull is about

gpineteen inches, its greatest height about nine inches. It is evident

thas the skull was a long and narrow one, quite similar to that of

Plesiosaurus conybeari Sollas. Prof. Williston describes for the first

time the teeth of an American species.

Plistocene Subsidence versus Glacial Bana Pot Ly.

Spencer’s studies of the old shore-lines, such as beaches, terraces, and

sea-cliffs, in the northeastern part of North America, lead him to think

that these shores were constructed at sea-level, and not moulded in

glacial lakes. Under these conditions it is necessary to accept a great

subsidence of the continent, in later Plistocene times, to nearly 2,700

feet in Western Pennsylvania. He also cites foreign examples to show

that these continental move vements are not peculiar to America, b

that the record of subsidence ma read in the Barbadoes, in Asia, a

and in Europe. fleas Geol. Surv. Am. Vol. IL, pp- 465-476, pl. 19.)

654 The American Naturalist. [July,

On Some New Fishes from South Dakota.—The Rev.

D. S. McCaslin and the Rev. Wm. M. Blackburn have sent me some

specimens of fossil fishes obtained by the latter gentleman from the

Ree Hills in South Dakota. They are preserved on slabs of a soft,

chalky rock, and are in pretty good preservation. The age of the

horizon has not yet been determined. It is overlaid, according to

Mr. Blackburn, by a thin layer of glacial drift. There are five spe-

cies, all new to science. I describe them below, and reserve reflections

as to their probable geologic age until their characters have been

pointed out.

GEPHYRURA CONCENTRICA, gen. et sp. nov, Isospondylorum vel

Haplomorum.—Char. gen.—Mouth small, the superior border formed

by the premaxillary, the maxillary apparently not contributing ; no

teeth. Branchiostegal rays six, or probably seven. Dorsal fin median

in position, short, originating above a point just posterior to the

origin of the ventrals, and extending to a point above the anal fin-

Vertebre keeled, the last not modified by the development of hypural

bones, but terminating abruptly, or gephyrocercal (Ryder). Caudal

fin normal, and not elongate. Scales cycloid, with strong concentric

grooves, and a few proximal radii crossing them. No lateral line dis-

cernible, Fins without conspicuous spines, a

Char. specif.—The only specimen is broken vertically across the

middle, and the posterior half shifted so as to lie immediately below its

proper position. It appears that little or no part of the fish has been

lost. Radii, P.9; D. 9; C. 6-16-8; A. II 11. V. 1-6; vertebre,

to-18. Scales in twelve longitudinal rows between dorsal and ventral

fins, and equal in number to the vertebrze on the longitudinal line, or

twenty-eight. Head covered with scales ; five in a vertical line on,

the operculum. The dorsal, pectoral, and ventral fins are rather

small. The caudal fin is probably not much forked, if at all. The

orbit is large, but its outlines are not well preserved. The head enters

the total length four and a quarter times to the base of the caudal fin-

rays, and slightly exceeds the depth at the ventral fins. Total length,

1mm. ; do. of head, 15 mm.; do. to base of ventral fin, 24.5 mm. ;

do. to base of anal fin, 30 mm. ; depth at ventrals, 14 mm. ; depth at

caudal peduncle, 6 mm,

This fish may belong to the Cyprinodontide. It is peculiar in the

absence of the hypural bones, .

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 655

ception that it lacks the head. Its generic position is therefore not

positively determinable, although it is strongly suggested by the

parts preserved. If not strictly a species of Sardinius, it is an allied

form. The vertebrz have longitudinal fosse ; the hypural bones are

well developed, and distinct from each other. The dorsal fin com-

mences above the ventrals, and is of moderate length; anal not elon-

gate. The spaces between the caudal hzemal spines are traversed by

a slender rod obliquely downwards and backwards near the vertebre.

The scales are cycloid and with strong concentric grooves. Owing to

the loss of many of the scales, the presence of a lateral line cannot be

affirmed. One interneural in front of D. I.

Char. specif.—Radii, D. 1-7 (possibly one lost at the end); A. 8;

V. crowded together, but not less than six. Caudal vertebre, 17.

Depth at D. I entering length to bases of caudal rays, 1.5 times.

Depth of caudal peduncle, 2.25 in the same, Length from front of

base of D. to end of caudal fin, 29 mm. Length of caudal vertebral

series, 20mm. Vertical depth of caudal fin, 22 mm. Length of base

of dorsal fin, 6 mm. ; elevation of do. 8 mm,

PROBALLOSTOMUS LONGULUS, gen. et. sp. nov.—? Isospondylorum.

Char. gen.—Mouth small, ? superior, at the extremity of a prolonged

muzzle. Dorsal vertebre elongate, fossate ; caudal vertebre shorter.

Pectoral fin median, lateral; dorsal above ventrals, median; anal

small; caudal large, little emarginate. No conspicuous spines.

Hypural bones distinct from each other. It is probable that the single

species known is either scaleless or that the scales are extremely minute.

The affinities of this genus are not exactly determinable, owing to the

injured condition of the head. It may be allied to either of the two

genera already enumerated. The remarkable production of the muzzle

distinguishes it from either, as well as the elongate vertebræ, and

corresponding width of the intercostal spaces.

Char. specif—Radii, D. I 8; C. 6 21, a; A, 16; V se: P

10. There is a break behind the skull, so that the number of dorsal

vertebre is uncertain ; there were at least 1 3; caudal vertebrz, 18.

The form of the postcranial regions is slender, the depth at the dorsal

fin entering that region to the base of the caudal fin six times, and the

total length ten times. The head enters the total minus the caudal

rays, one and three-fifths times, or twice, including the caudal fin.

The caudal peduncle is long, and its depth enters the total length minus `

the caudal fin, thirteen times; its length enters the total minus the

head, two and one-half times, Total length, 87 mm. ; approximate

length of head, 29 mm. ; of caudal vertebre, 20 mm. Depth at ven-

tral fins, 7mm. Elevation of dorsal fin, 7 mm.

656 The American Naturalist. [July,

OLIGOPLARCHUS SQUAMIPINNIS, gen. et. sp. nov. Percidarum.—

Apparently allied to Lepomis, but I cannot determine the presence of

vomerine teeth or the number of the branchiostegal rays.

Char. gen.—Jaws with a few rows of conic acute teeth. Apparently

no palatine or pterygoid teeth. Operculum without notch or produc-

tion of the posterior angle or border. Bones of the head smooth, and

not serrate. Scales ctenoid, with rough area externally and concentric

grooves internally, and radii proximally. Spinous radii, D. X. ; A. III. ;

P. I. Spinous dorsal continuous with soft portion, both together

much larger than the anal fin. Caudal fin furcate. Skull with a

median crest, from which a series of interneural bones extends to those

supporting the dorsal fin. Lateral line not discoverable.

This genus appears to be allied to the Percid genera related to Cen-

trarchus, which now inhabit North American waters. It differs from

all of them in one way or another, as for instance in the form of the

opercular border, or in the number of the spinous rays and their pro-

portions. It is perhaps most closely allied to the extinct genus Plio-

plarchus Cope, differing mainly in the small number of anal rays;

that genus possessing from five to seven. These differences are the

same as those that separate some of the recent genera, showing that

the same diversities existed in Cenozoic times as now. In the best

preserved specimen I count six branchiostegal rays, but I am not sure

that this is the entire number. The pubes are connected with the

clavicles directly ; vertebrze with lateral fossæ.

Char. specif.—This species is the most abundant, as many as twelve

individuals having come under my observation. The largest is about

equal in size to our smaller existing sunfish, Lepomis pallidus. Radii,

D. X 9-10; C. 5, 17, 5; A. III 7-8; Vi-s; P.Ir2. The dorsal

spines increase regularly in length to the tenth ; the first rises above the

base of the ventral fin, which is a little behind the base of the pectoral.

The anal fin commences below the first soft ray of the dorsal fin, and

is nearly coterminal with the last soft ray of the same. The ventral

spine is quite as robust as any of the dorsal spines, and is subquadran-

gular, with the external and posterior faces convex, and the ‘anterior

grooved. The anal spines are robust, the third the longest. The

scales are in from twelve to fourteen longitudinal rows. In one speci-

men, of larger size than the others, there are seventeen rows. This

probably indicates another species, but it is too imperfect for charac-

terization. Scales rather smaller than those of the body extend on the

interspinous membranes of the soft dorsal and caudal fins, and on the

opercular and suborbital regions of the head. Vertebre, D. 12, C.

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 657

16. Length, exclusive of caudal fin, 52 mm.; length of head, 18

mm. ; do. to base of D. 1 (axial), 21 mm.; do. to base of ventral,

22mm. ; do. to base of anal, 35 mm.; depth at base of D: 1, 1

mm. ; do. of caudal peduncle, 10 mm. ; length of tenth dorsal spine,

8 mm. The specimen measured is one of the smaller ones, and is

selected on account of its good condition. The larger specimen above

mentioned measures 34 mm. in depth at the first dorsal spine, and the

head is 28 mm. in length.

MIOPLOSUS MULTIDENTATUS, sp. nov.—Represented by a specimen

nearly perfect, but wanting the caudal and anal fins. It conforms

exactly to the characters of Mioplosus Cope in the distinct dorsal fins,

the serrate inferior border of the preoperculum, the two anal rays, and

the ctenoid scales. Radii: Br. VI (? + ); D. XII-12; V. 6, no well-

developed spine. Dorsal fins slightly separated at the base; the

longest spinous ray the third; the first very short. Vertebræ, D. 14,

C. 16, the last one counted possibly not the last, as its distal end is

broken off. Scales in about twenty longitudinal rows at the ventral

fins, and twelve at the caudal peduncle; with proximal radii coarse,

and no concentric grooves. Posterior limb of preoperculum smooth;

the inferior with nine robust teeth directed forwards. A serrated crest

on the posterior part of the skull, which is either the superior branch

of the posttemporal or immediately adjoins it. Eye large; muzzle

short, not longer than diameter of orbit. Mouth opening obliquely

upwards. Ventral fin originating a little in front of dorsal, its rays —

quite long. Anal originating below anterior ray of second dorsal.

Depth of body at first dorsal a little less than one-third of length with-

out caudal fins, and equal to length of head. Length of head, 35 mm. ;

do. to base of first dorsal, 41 mm.; do. to base of second dorsal, 75

mm. Length of muzzle to orbit, 11 mm. ; depth of second dorsal, 23

mm. The proportions ofthis species are about as in the M. abdrevia-

tus, and the number of scales as in M /abracoides. The peculiarity

consists in the increased number of spines of the first dorsal fin (nine

in the other species), and dorsal vertebrae (ten in other species), and

preopercular teeth (five in other species).

GeEoLocicaL Posrrion.—The first observation to be made on the

species above described is that they differ as to species, and three of

them as to genus, from all others discovered elsewhere, both fossil and

recent. The next conclusion is that they include no Cretaceous types,

the only identification with a Cretaceous genus (Sardinius) being

_ purely provisional. The third point is that the genus Mioplosus has

been found hitherto in the Green River Eocene only, The age is

658 The American Naturalist. [July,

Cenozoic, but to which system the fauna belongs it is difficult to dis-

cover. None of the genera have been found in the Amyzon shales,

and but one in the Green River shales, so that their pertinence

to the Eocene fauna is doubtful. The chalky matrix much resembles

that of some localities of the White River Neocene (Oligocene), and I

should not be surprised if it should be found that this is the age of the

fossils. It is likely that they were lacustrine in habitat.—E. D.

Cope.

Geological News.—Paleozoic.—G. M. Dawson calls attention

to the great Cambrian formation of the Selkirk Range. Its estimated

thickness is about 40,000 feet. (Bull. Geo. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp.

165-176. )———Mr. H. M. Ami has found a fauna in the Quebec city

rocks which is distinct from that of Point Levis. If his determination

of the fauna is correct, the horizon of these rocks is that of the Tren-

ton. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 477-502.) Mr. J. L.

James considers the Maquoketa shales an extension of the Cincinnati

group. He bases this opinion on studies of rocks of the Cincinnati

age from Richmond, Indiana, to Savannah, Illinois. (Am. Geol.,

June, 1890.) H. R. Geiger and Arthur Keith classify the sandstones

of the Blue Ridge near Harper’s Ferry as Upper Silurian. (Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL, pp. 155-164, pls. 4, 5.) Mr. J. E

Whiteaves has recently described and figured several new species of

fossils from the Devonian rocks of Manitoba. The list comprises one

Brachiopod, three Mollusks, two Gasteropods, and nine Cephalopods.

(Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., Sect. IV., 1890.) Mr. S. A. Miller

reports forty new species of Crinoids from the Lower Carboniferous of

Missouri. More than half of the number belong to the genus Platy-

crimus. (Bull. No. 4, Mo. Geol. Surv.)

Mesozoic.—Mr. A. Smith Woodward has added the following new

species to the list of British Jurassic fishes : Eurycormus grandis, Hyp-

socormus leedsi, H. tenuirostris, Leedsichtlys problematicus, Brown-

eichthys ornatus. (Geol. Mag., Oct., 1889.)

Cenozoic.—During the past season Mr. G. F, Becker has found

additional reasons for maintaining the existence of diabase in the

Washoe Cenozoic rocks, and also for dividing the pyroxene andesite

into two distinct outflows, separated by a long interval of time. (Bull.

No. 6, Cal. Acad. Science.) —Mr. N. H. Darton, of the U. S. Geol.

Surv., names the Eocene formation which extends through Maryland

and Virginia the Pamunky, and the Miocene of the same region the

Chesapeake. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II,, pp. 431-450, pl. 16.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 659

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

New Minerals.—Agui/arite.—A new regular mineral from Guan-

ajuato, Mexico, has been named by Genth? aguilarite. It is imbedded

in colorless calcite as brilliant iron-black skeleton dodecahedrons,

elongated in the direction of one of the crystallographic or one of

the octahedral axes. The mineral is sectile. It possesses no cleavage,

has a hardness of 2.5 and density of 7.586. Its composition (Ag =

_ 79-07; S= 5.86 ; Se = 14.82) corresponds to Ag,S+Ag,Se. Upon

alteration it yields a scaly iron-black substance, with the composition

of cupriferous stephanite, and metallic silver. Griphite.—In the

granite at the Riverton Lode, near Harney City, South Dakota, occur

kidney-shaped masses of a phosphate, dark brown in reflected light,

and yellowish-brown or brown in transmitted light. It is amorphous,

and has no cleavage. Its density is 3.401, and its hardness 5.5. It is

easily fusible in the flame of a candle, and is soluble in acids. Its

composition, as found by Mr. Headdon,? is:

P,O, MnO CaO Al,O, FeO MgO Na,O K,O Li,O H,O Ce F Ues

38.52 29.64 7.47 10.13 4.00 .15 5.52 .30 tr. 4.29.11 tr. .16

On account of its composition, which cannot be represented by a

simple formula, the author calls the substance griphite, from yptgos, a

puzzle. Katiborite* is associated with pinnoite and boracite in the

upper layers of the Kainite zone at Stassfurt, Germany. It is a white,

granular substance with a density of 2.05. It is slightly soluble in water, `

and dissolves easily in dilute acids. Its composition is :

BO. M0 KO HO =k Met HO

57:40 1200 6.46 24.00 8 * E Bau t 391,0.

e new mineral falkenhaynite, described by Scharizer® from

Joachimsthal, Bohemia, is regarded by Sandberger ĉas a member of

the bournonite group, differing from annivite in containing more

antimony and less arsenic than this latter, and almost no bismuth. Its

composition, as found by Scharizer, is: .

wae S As Wi Ca Fe On

25.76 44:30 5.02 244 39:77 253 1.909

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Amer. Jour. Sci., May, 1891, p. 401. *

8 Amer. Jour. Sci., May, 1891, p, 415.

t Chemkier Zeits., 1889, p. 1188. Ref. N. J. B. f. Min., etc., 1889, I., p. 237.

5 Jahrb. I. K. K. Geol. Rich., 1890, p. 433.

ê Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1891, L., p.

p eE E ie : sios ees

660 The American Naturalist. uly,

The mineral is steel-gray, with a grayish-black streak. Sanguinite?®

is associated with argentite and proustite at Chafiarcillo, Mexico, as

bronze-red scales, containing sulphur, arsenic, and silver. By reflected

light the scales are black; by transmitted light they are red. The

streak is dark purplish-red, Crystallization probably hexagonal. The

material available was too scanty to allow of analysis. Kalhcite,

from Grube Friedrich, near SchGristein, on the river Sieg, in Prussia,

is a nickel sulph-antimonide of composition, according to Laspeyres,’ as

follows :

Sl As Bi Fe Co Nic

14.391 44.942 2.016 11.758 276 .889 26.943

equivalent to NiAsS+ 2NiBiS+1 3NiS6S. Its specific gravity is 7.011,

and its position in the systematic classification of minerals is with

ullmannite.——Sychnodymite is described by the same writer as a new .

cobalt-copper-sulphide from the Kohlenbach Mine, near Siegen,

Prussia, corresponding to polydimite among the nickel compounds.

The mineral occurs in little twinned octahedra of a darker color than

those of polydimite. It is associated with quartz, tetrahedrite, and

pyrite. Its density is 4.758, and composition :

S Cu Fe Co Ni ;

joba, 18.084 927 3706 pit OCN,

Mineralogical News.—Honey-yellow or greenish-yellow crystals

of axinite from Franklin, N. J., have an unusual tabular habit, with

the P! face largely developed. They also contain several rare planes,

well te ie and a new face, $P!,. Their axial peuo is a:b: c=

4921 : 1:.4797, and a= 82° 5# 13”, B==91° 51’ 43”, y = 131° qi

19”. Their specific gravity is 3.358, and composition :°

SiO, * 0, ALO, FeO, CuO QuO MnO MgO CaO Ign

-76 2.77 5-10 16.73 TF R48 13.609 23 18.25 -. :76:

Lamellar masses of the same mineral have a density of 3.306. Their

composition does not vary much from that of the crystals. Crystals of

the same mineral from Guadalcazar, Mexico, are associated with white

feldspar. These are sage-colored. They are tabular parallel to 'P,

and their faces are frequently rounded. Granular scaly masses identi- |

cal in character with the crystals yielded:

SiO, B,O, ALO, FeO, CuO MnO MgO CaO Ign

42.85 5.17 16.96 5.00.19 9-59 -87 18.49 .75

1 Miers. Mineralogical PoE IS, p.t.

8 Zeits. f. Kryst., X1X., 1891, p. 1

9 Genth, Penfield and Pirsson. ous Jour. Sci., May, 1891, P. 394.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 661

The density of. the crystals is 3.299. A small fragment of the same

mineral from McKay’s Brook, Northumberland Co., N. S., was not

large enough for analysis. Massive rose-colored eudialite™ from

Magnet Cove, Ark., has a specific gravity of 2.810. Analysis gave:

SiO, QuO, Ta,O,(??) FeO MnO MgO CaO NAO EO Cl Ign.

$9.83. 45.45 >39 4237-637 AL. ARF A320 As Aa ee

Sphene occurs at Magnet Cove, in small brown or brownish-yellow

crystals, associated with the constituents of elzeolite-syenite. They are

simple combinations of oP and —P.

SIO, HO, FeQ MgO CaO Ign Sp.Gr.

s87 30.84 39-35 “73 t. ee 3-457

At the same locality, in a coarse-grained calcite, are crystals and

crystalline grains of monticellite, associated with crystals of magnetite

and apatite.. The habit of the rare mineral is short prismatic, with

pyramidal terminations oP% and 2P% largely developed (axial ratio

= .4337: 1:.5757). The hardness is S; density, 3.108. The min-

eral, upon analysis, gave, as a mean of two sets of determinations :

SiO, AlO, MnO FeO MgO CaO P,O, Ign

33.40 TF 1:12 5.0% 20.61 35.24 2.03 2.2

deducting the P,O, as apatite, which was present in the assay, the

figures became : |

SiO, ALO, MnO FeO MgO CaO _ Ign

25:34. 19 3.27 5.25 21.64 34.21 2.40

corresponding to (Mg,Mn,Fe),SiO,+Ca,SiO,. A light-gray selen-

iferous bismuthinite, consisting of slender crystals imbedded in clay,

yielded Genth:" Bi=77.54; S=14.06; Se= 8.80, corresponding

to 4Bi,S,+Bi,Se, It probably came from Guadalajara, Mex. Its

density is 6.306. As the mineral was sent to the author as a specimen

of guanajualite, an analysis of a specimen of this from an old German

collection was made in order to discover whether or not it should be

regarded as a distinct species. The examination resulted in the figures :

Bi = 68.86; S—4.68; Se= 25.50, corresponding to Bi,S, + 2BiSe,.

Messrs. Melville and Luidgren ® have contributed to our knowl-

edge of the minerals of the Pacific slope some interesting observations

in cinnabar, metacinnabarite, struneyerite, and a few other rare sub-

stances, among which are the recently described minerals knoxvillite

10 Cf J. F. Williams. Amer. Jour. Sci., Dec., 1890.

u Amer. Jour. Sci., May, 1891, p.402.

12 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 61.

662 The American Naturalist. [July,

and redingtonite. Cinnabar from the New Idria Mine, -California, has

a prismatic or rhombohedral habit, with the basal plane and a series

of rhombohedra and tetarto-trapezohedrons well developed. The

crystals are made up of layers of dextro- and lxvo-rotatory material.

At Knoxville acicular crystals occur with -R, and oR. They encrust

metacinnabarite that occurs in seams in a vesicular marcasite. An

analysis gave: HgS = 98.48; FeS=.69; SiO, =.71. Analysis of

redingtonite and knoxvillite yielded :

SO, ALO, CrO, FeO, FeO NiO MnO MgO Res H,O at 100° °

R 35:36 5.14 7.5i+. «38 - 4.58 3.00 tr, 1.85 3.46 27.09

Ki 35.0% 4.84 7.41. 35.360 3-81 835 3-22 1.74 9.30

H,O above 100°

K 17.60

Copiapite in soft masses and sulphur-yellow scales and crystalline

particles contains:

SO, FeO, FeO MnO MgO H,O

39-97 26.54 -46 -21 3-06 30-43

Stromeyerite from the Silver King Mine, San Bernardino county, Cal.,

has a specific gravity of 6.28, asteel-gray color on a fresh fracture, and

n coiiposition : Ap =< 53:06; Cass 98.58; Pes 26; S ax 16.51;

Res = 1.55. The rare chromium chlorite Koftschudeite is found in

the serpentine at Green Valley, Cal., as thin, hexagonal plates

arranged in rosettes. The plates are twinned monoclinic crystals, with

an optical angle of about 30°, and an acute bisectrix nearly normal to

oP. The type mineral from the Urals is in apparently hexagonal

pyramids. The composition of the California mineral is:

SiO, 1,0; ARO; FeO MiO CaO MgO

35-74 11-39 674... iai 487... 183 35-18

Loss at 105° Loss above 105°

-365 12.68

In a note on some Canadian minerals Mr. Harrington ™ mentions

the existence of géthife crystals, forming a velvety druse on hematite,

calcite, and other minerals at Clifton, N. S. At the same place radiat-

ing needles of the iron compound are found capped with rhombohedra

of calcite, One specimen yielded: Fe,O,= 88.92; Mn,O,=.14;

H,O = 10.20; SiO, =.32. A white to pale apple-green serpentine

occurs as veins in a darker serpentine at an asbestos quarry near

13 Can. Record of Science, Vol. 1V., No. 2, 1890.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 663

Coleraine, in the Eastern Townships. When first mined it is so soft as

to be easily squeezed between the fingers, but on exposure it becomes

harder until a hardness of 3.5 or more is reached. It then hasa

density of 2.514, and a composition: SiO, = 43.13; MgO = 42.05 ;

FeO = .37; H,O = 13.88, with traces of MnO, NiO, and CaO.

Cinnamon garnet from Ottawa county, Ont., has a density of 3.58,

and a rose-red a/mandine from the Laurentian gneiss at Murray Bay,

Que., has a specific gravity of 2.59. Small red spessartites,4 imbedded

in the feldspar and: muscovite of a coarse granite vein at Villeneuve

Mine, Ottawa county, are much heavier. Sp. gr. = 4.117. The

composition of these is:

SiO, Al,O, FeO, FeO MnO CaO MgO Loss

Cinnamon aa IEA g -63 :

Almandine 37.97 22.44 2.39 26.12 1.18 5.27 5.42

Spessartite 36.30 19.20 10.60 -40.00° 367 W yA

From the dump heaps of the Grant and Emerald Mines, in Bucking-

ham, in the same county, specimens of mountain cork and mountain

leather were obtained that yielded :

SiO, AlO, Fe,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO Loss Sp. Gr.

53.99 455 roe 10.99. kio 32.53. 20.26 «2-56 3-05

Since pseudomorphs of asdestos after pyroxene are found in the

vicinity, it is thought that the material analyzed may be of the same

nature. Dawsonite and ifinertte occur at the Corporation Quarry, on

the west side of Montreal Mountain, and fine chalcedony concretions

are imbedded in the clay between Irvine and the Cypress Hills, in the

northwest territory. The analyses of several minerals are given in a

recent bulletin of the U.S. Geol. Survey, among which the following

are the most interesting: (1) fefalite, from the spodumene locality at

Peru, Me. ;- (2) sfessartite, from the Mica Mine, Amelia county,

Va.; (3) willemmite, Trotter Mine, Franklin, N. J. ; (4) kaolin, from

the Waterfall Mine, Gunnison county, Col.

SiO, AlO; Fe20; pa MnO ZnO CaO NaO K,O Li,O P,O; eo e

(1) 77.29 16.95 39 sat

(a 35:35 20.41 2.75 1.75 38.70 ac =

(4) 47.28 36.19 tr. 42 5I 5-74 57 8.72

Tripiite, from a tin mine near Rapid City, S. Dak., gave:

R ,0, FeO, FeO MnO CaO NaO P,O, H,O F SiO, Cl ae

2.36 r07 2013 0.72 5-25 39.68 3.67 2.35 - 43 225

ee traces of MgO,and K,O, and .13 per cent. LiO,.

1t Can. Record of Science, October, 1890, p. 225. .

‘16 Bull. No. 60, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 129-137.

664 The American Naturalist. [July,

ZOOLOGY.

Motion in the Protozoa.—Ryder has some interesting remarks

on the contraction of the Vorticellid stalk? which has not before been

properly understood. The muscle in the stalk is composed of alter-

nating discs of anisotropic and isotropic matter, the former being in

contact with the sheath on the inside of the coils, a type unknown

elsewhere. Notes are also given on the motion of Trypanosoma.

Morphology of the Siphonophores.—Brooks and Conklin have

recently studied ? the reproductive organs of a Siphonophore belonging

to Haeckel’s order Auronectz. The specimens came from near the

Galapagos Islands, and were subjected to sectioning. The authors

found only female organs, and are inclined to think that Haeckel’s

‘*androphores’’’ some long, spindle-shaped gynophores filled with

yolk, but into which the egg nucleus had not yet passed, or from

which it has been forced out by pressure. The development of the

gynophores is described, and the authors conclude that the ‘‘ monovone

gonophores’’ are true gonophores, while the ‘‘ polyovone gonophores ”

are merely pouches containing ova, and are not, strictly speaking,

gonophores. The attention is called to the fact that only male Physaliz

have been found, and the suggestion is made that in these two cases

the other sex may be so different in form as to have been classed as a

wholly different genus.

The Starfish Larva.—In a paper read before the National

Academy of Sciences,’ Dr. Brooks says that in numerous starfish larve

taken at Wood’s Holl, the water system is at first bilaterally symmetri-

cal in every particular, although the right pore and pore canal early

disappear. This is regarded as an additional argument for regarding

the larva as ancestral, and attention is called to the similarity in

ontogeny between the water pores of the starfish larva and the spira-

cles of Appendicularia and the tunicate tadpole.

Anatomy of the Synaptidz.—Among the results derived from

a study of the six species of Synaptide belonging to the genera Syn-

apta, Chirodota, and Myriotrochus, Drs. Ludwig and Barthels con-

clude‘ that in the adult Synaptid there is no radial water canal; that

1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1891, p. ro.

2 Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., X., p. 87, 1891.

3 Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., X., p. 101, 1891.

4 Zool. Anzeiger, Vol. XIV., p. 117, 1891.

1891]. Zoology. 665

semilunar valves constructed on the same plane are present in the

tentacular canals; that a pair of auditory vescicles are present on each

radial nerve where it emerges from the calcareous pharyngeal ring,

and these are probably functional in the adult; the so-called eyes of

Synapta vittata are undoubtedly sense organs, and the pigment spots

in other forms are probably the same. These spots in S. witfata have

a rich nerve supply.

Genito-Intestinal Canal in Trematodes.—S. Goto confirms 5

Ijima’s account of a canal connecting the oviduct, in the ectoparasitic

Trematodes, with the intestine. His studies have been made on eleven

species representing four genera.

Fertilization in the Cestodes.—Pintner ê has been very fortu-

nate in finding two proglottids of Anthobothrium musteli in copula, ‘and

ascertained that a true cross fertilization was taking place. He also

found another proglottid of the same worm in which the penis had

entered very deeply the vagina of the same joint. These observa-

tions show that both close and cross fertilization occurs in these an

possibly in all Plathelminthes.

Regeneration in the Oligochztes.—Miss H. Randolph has

studied the reformation of the tail in Lumbriculus.? She finds that

the processes are much like those of the growing embryo, except in

regard to mesoderm. When fission occurs the violent contraction of

the longitudinal muscles curves the ectoderm and entoderm towards

each other, and then a union between the two is effected. The more

rapid: growth of the ectoderm produces the material for the procto-

deum. The ectoderm gives rise to the ventral nerve chain and the

lateral nerve line, and between these occur two other anlagen, which

correspond in position to the ventral sete and nephridia, but Miss

Randolph has not traced them out. The mesoderm arises chiefly from

large cells (neoblasts) in the region of the ccelomic epithelium of the

ventral long muscles. These neoblasts represent the chorda cells of

Semper, and occur in every segment except a few anterior. From

these arise the embryonic mesoderm of the newly forming tail. It

soon becomes arranged into a median and two lateral elements. The

median becomes the ventral mesentery, and the walls of the ventral

blood vessel; the lateral elements form all the lateral mesodermal

structures except the circular muscles. These last arise from certain

cells whose origin was not traced.

5 Zool. Anzeiger, Vol. XIV., p. 103, 1891.

6 Arb. Zool. Zool. Inst. Wien., IX., 57, 1890.

1 Zool. Anz., XIV., 154, 1891. -

666 The American Naturalist. [July,

Distribution of Magelona.—Dr. E. A. Andrews calls atten-

tion ê to the existence of the adult worm Magelona at Wood’s Holl, and

points out that the larva described by Fewkes from Newport as pos-

sibly the young of Prionospio tenuis in all probability belongs to this

genus.

Budding in Polyzoa.—C. B. Davenport, contrary to Hatschek,

says’ that the stolonic mass in the Polyzoa arises from the ectoderm

soon after the two-layered stage, the disc thus forming sinking below

the general surface, and giving rise later to the first polypides. The

ccelomic epithelium arises by a sort of ingression of a tissue to be

probably regarded as mesoderm plus entoderm. In Paludicella each

young polypide arises in the adult colony independently of any older

polypide. It arises from a mass of embryonic tissue at the end of the

branch, and some of this tissue is left behind each time the tip moves

forward, and from this arise the lateral branches. As in the Phylacto-

lcemata, the hinder part of the alimentary canal progresses from the

anal toward the oral end. The cesophagus arises independently, and

the two pockets fuse. The tentacles at first lie in two parallel rows o

seven each, and the ectoproctous condition is not attained until the two

free ends of the ring canal become confluent between mouth and anus.

The so-called epistome described by various authors in early stages of

Gymnolzmata has no relation with the similarly named structure in the

other forms, but is merely the fold separating the brain cavity from

the cesophagus. Eight laws of growth are formulated, based upon

Bugula and Crisia as*typical.

The Crystalline Style.—This problematical structure in the

alimentary canal of many Lamellibranchs has recently been inves-

tigated anew by F. E. Schulze.” The idea that it is a supply of reserve

food material is rejected by him, from the fact, among other reasons,

that microscopic study shows it to be an epithelial secretion. He is

rather inclined to the view that it, along with the mucous surfaces of

the stomach, protects the intestinal walls by covering sand and other

sharp particles with a layer of mucus.

The Position of Limulus.—Packard contiues his studies of the

brain of Limulus." He claims that the brain differs fundamentally

from that of Arachnids, and is homologous with only that part of the

scorpion brain which lies in front of the chelicral nerves. The his-

8 me ents Hopkins Univ. Circ., X., p. 96, 1

rts and Sciences, x. 278, 1891.

wie B. Ges Naturforsch. Freunde, 1890, p. 42.

it Zool. pn ae X., 129, 1891.

1891.] Zoology. 667

tology is described, but is not easy to understand without figures, His

conclusions are that the lack of homology between the brain of Limu-

lus and Arachnids, the shape and grouping of the appendages, the

absence of urinary tubes, of trachez, the presence of branchiz, forbid

the association of Limulus and its fossil allies with the Arachnids,

although they may have had a common origin.

The Vertebrate Ear.—Dr. Howard Ayers, from a study of

mammalian and sauropsidan ears, concludes™ concludes that the so-

called membrana tectoria of the mammalian cochlea is not a mem-

brane which acts as a damper on the organ of Corti. He rather

regards it as an artifact produced from the very long sense hairs of the

cells of the cortian organ. The membrana basilaris further is not a

vibrating membrane. ‘‘ The physiological unit of the cochlea is a

sensory hair-bearing epithelial cell; the anatomical unit of the

cochlea is a group of hair-bearing and supporting cells,—7. e., a sense

organ comparable in a word to an ampullar sense-organ."’ Full details

are promised immediately.

Segmentation of the Vertebrate Head.—B. H. Waters

thinks !3 that the neuromeres of Beranek and others may be traced

into the mid- and fore-brains of Amblystoma and the cod, and he

would recognize three neuromeres in the fore-, two in the mid-, and

six or five in the hindbrain. The optic nerve is given a segmental value.

Description of a New Species of Catostomus (C. rex)

from Oregon.—One specimen, thirty-two inches long, from Lost

River, Tule Lake, Oregon, was added last year to the collection of the

California Academy of Sciences. The characters are as follows:

D. II., 1114; A. II., 6%. Scales, 13-80-8 ; about 35 before the dor-

sal. Head, 4; depth, 4. Eye, 8 in head, placed but little posterior

to the middle, the snout about 21% in head. Head broad, flattish, the

cheeks sunken and very long. Mouth small, lower jaw strong, the

maxillary spine forming a hump on the snout. Papillz small, appar-

antly but two rows on upper lip. Scales peculiar, the basal portions

covered with skin. Ventrals rounded, placed below anterior half of

dorsal, not reaching halfway to vent. Dorsal as high as long, angu-

lar, the last rays but little shorter than the anterior, inserted midway

between tip of snout and base of middle caudal rays. Pectorals reach-

ing halfway to ventrals. Caudal peduncle subterete, long. Anal just

reaching to caudal. Lateral line interrupted posteriorly. Pharyngeals

12 Anatom. Anzeiger, VI., p. 219, 1891.

13 Zool. Anz., XIV., 141, 1891.

668 The American Naturalist. [July,

narrow, the teeth gradually narrower from below upward. Blackish to

below the lateral line, many of the scales of the ventral surface dark

dotted. Fins blue-black, the paired fins darkest.—R. S. EIGENMANN.

The End of the Urodele Tail.—It has long been known that

in the tritons the skeleton of the tail terminates not by a vertebral

body, but by a ‘‘ cartilaginous end rod.’’ This has been said to have

no genetic connection with the notochord. Now Barfurth,' in study-

ing regeneration in.this region, finds that the chorda cells are capable

of regeneration in the Urodeles, and that the chorda cells become

altered into this terminal element, which he prefers to call ‘‘ chorda-rod.”’

The Gila Monster.—Mr. Samuel W. Garman has recently

studied a living specimen of this reputedly venomous lizard. It was

fed on eggs. It made its burrow in the sand in the box in which it

was kept, and it evinced great desire to bask in the sun. It was

“really good natured,” although it could be teased into a temper.

Mr. Garman is very doubtful of its deadly qualities. The venom

seems to affect small animals, but to have little danger for larger ones.

Several of the well-known accounts of its noxious character are quoted,

and then Garman details his own experiments with a cat, less than

one-third grown. This the ‘‘monster bit twice on the hand and

wrist. For half an hour this caused the kitten some distress, and was

licked and dressed as usual. Then followed an hour and a half of

sleep, from which the kitten woke as bright as ever, the hand being

slightly swollen, and in twenty-four hours no ill effects were seen.

The same kitten was then bitten again, and later the wounds were

studied, but no disintegration or other modifications of the tissue were

visible.”

Dr. R. W. Shufeldt, in the New York Medical Journal of May 23d,

1891, gives a summary of observations made up to date on the struc-

ture of the salivary glands, and the effects of the saliva when intro-

duced into wounds. He concludes that the evidence is conflicting.

Three good figures accompany the paper.

Recent Researches in the Herpetology of Africa.—The

Société Philomatique of Paris has recently published several papers by

M. F. Moquard on reptiles and Batrachians from Africa that will

interest zoologists, as they come from regions but little represented

either in museums or private collections. In the memoir on the rep-

14 Anatom. Anzeiger, VI., 104, 1891.

15 Bulletin Essex Institute, XXII., p. 60, 1890 (1891).

1891.] Zoology. 669

tiles from Somali and Zanzibar" the author prefaces his descriptions

with the following remarks :

‘‘ The new collection of reptiles and batrachians reported in 1884

from the Somali country and Zanzibar, by M. G. Revoil, is without

doubt the most important of all those which this zealous traveler has

sent to the museum during many excursions into regions at that time

almost unknown. One of these collections was described many

years ago by Professor L. Vaillant. This new one, richer in species,

is distinguished by some specific types and interesting genera which

appear to be new. Among these types we cite in the Lacertilian order

Hemidactylus tropidolepis, the dorsal aspect of which is covered with

unequal, keeled scales, and not with granulations, as appear upon many

of the species of Hemidactylus, or with equal, smooth scales, as

H. homeolepis ; an Eremias with nostril opened between four nasal

plates, and with the dorsal scales keeled, which I have dedicated to Pro-

fessor Alph. Milne-Edwards, Æ. edwardsii ; a new species of Agamo-

don, 4. compressum, characterized by a compressed body and by

having the lateral borders of the cephalic shields recurved.

“ Besides the new species of Dasypeltis, of slender form, D. elongata,

the Ophidians contain two Calamarians which we believe represent new

genera, the one a relation of Elapomorphus, but without the malar

or preorbital constitutes the genus Elaposchema, a name which

will suggest its resemblance to Elaps; the other, slightly removed from

Amblyodipsas, and to which I would give, on account of its size, the

name Brachyophis, is especially remarkable for the presence of a true

occipital plate behind the parietals. It seems proper to dedicate these

two new species, Elaposchema vaillantii and Brachophis revoilii, respec-

tively to M. Vaillant and M. Revoil.

‘« Among the species already described, but which until now

have remained in the museum we cite the following: Agamodon

anguliceps Peters, Psammophis biseriatus Peters, and Chiromantis

peterstt Boulenger ; the first is represented by nine specimens, and the

last two each by two.

“ In concluding this short introduction, we call attention to the fact

that two of the new species of which we have spoken above are bur-

rowers,—Agamodon compressum and Brachyophis revoilit. One readily

believes that other types of similar habits of life, and which have

hitherto escaped the researches of explorers, will be found to enrich

16 On a Collection of Reptiles and Batrachians sent from Somali and Zanzibar By M.”

G. Revoil. Memoires Publiés par la Société Philomatique à l' occasion du Centenaire

de sa Fondation, 1788-1888.

670 The American Naturalist. [July,

the oppa fauna of Eastern Africa whenever a thorough search

can Le made.

The collection includes thirty-four species, of which twenty are

lizards, twelve are snakes, and two are batrachians. Two plates,

admirably drawn, accompany the paper, giving in detail the curious

appearance of the three new species.

The other papers contain a description of a new snake (Atractaspis

leucura) from Assinie ;" a review of the genius Heterolepis, with the

addition to it of three new species, —H. stenophthalmus, H. guiralit, H.

savorgnanii ; and descriptions of snakes” and reptiles” from the

Congo country.

Of the latter, M. Mocquard described thirty-four species, four of

which are new,—JA“icrosoma fulvicollis, Coronella longicauda, Atheris

anisolepis, and Gontonotus brussauxii.

r ; EMBRYOLOGY.:

Development of Compound Ascidians.—Dr. M. v. Davidoff

has published a second contribution to the above subject, entitled

“ Untersuchungen zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Distaplia magni-

larva, etc.’’? He deals here with the general formation of the germ-

layers. The paper runs through more than a hundred pages, and the

author by no means confines himself to the title of the paper, but dis-

cusses the development of all other Ascidians, the problem of the meso-

derm formation, and touches upon the origin of the vertebrates them-

selves, The holoblastic segmentation of the egg is described for the

earlier stages. The most interesting fact in this connection is the

presence of the est cells between the segments of the egg for quite a

long time during the early stages. Subsequently they disappear, pre-

sumably degenerating. A solid mass of cells results from the segmen-

Sur une nouvelle espèce d’Atractaspis (4.ewcura). Ext. Bull. de la Société

Philomatique de Paris Séance du 28 Novembre, 1885.

‘8 Du genre Heterolepis et des espèces qui le np tO dont trois nouvelles. Ext.

Bull, de la Société Phildémathique de Paris, October, 1

19 Sur les Ophidiens rapportés du Pai par la Mission du Brazza. Ext. du Bull. Soc.

Philomathique de Pari ce dur 1886,

20 Sur une Collection de Reptiles pitta Ext. Bull. de la Soc. Philomathique de

la Paris, 8 serie, t. r, No. 4, page 143.

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

2 Neaples Mittheilungen, IX. Band, IV. Heft.

moa:

1891.] Embryology. 671

tation, those over one pole being very large, and are, as shown by their

fate, the endoderm cells, while those at the other pole go to form the

ectoderm. Both germ-layers are filled with large yolk masses. The

ectoderm cells partially surround the endoderm cells. Where ecto-

derm and endoderm come in contact around the periphery of the large,

open blastopore there is found a ring of small ectoderm cells, which go

to form the nerve-chord of the older larva, It is thus seen that the

nerve-chord is formed from two bilateral parts lying along each side of

the blastopore, then subsequently coming into contact form the nerve

plate. Before the blastopore is closed in, however, the large endo-

derm cells, which are still at the surface (within the rim of the ecto-

derm forming the blastopore lips) delaminate into a row of outer,

smaller cells—the endodermal plate—and larger cells in the interior of

the embryo. From the former there develops, at the sides of the

blastopore, the peristomial mesoderm. Later, as said above, the lips

of the blastopore close over the endodermal plate, and the nerve-chord

- is formed out of the cells from the two sides of the blastopore meeting

over the endodermal plate. J is thus seen that the blastopore corre-

sponds to the dorsal side of the embryo. In other words, the animal pole

of the eggs, where the ectoderm first forms, corresponds to the ventral

side of the Ascidian, and by inference to the ventral side of all Chor-

data. (Van Beneden had previously pointed out this fact, which is of

the greatest importance, since it bears directly upon two of the most

interesting problems of embryology,—viz., the relation of vertebrates

to other groups, and the polar relations of the egg to the adult ani-

mal.) There is no invaginate gastrula in Distaplia, andt he cavity of

the digestive tract appears later as a split in the endoderm. After a

review of gastrula within the group, the author concludes as follows :

“ Segmentation in the so/fary Ascidians is nearly equal, and leads to

a one-layered blastula, of which one-half flattens, then invaginates.

By this means there is formed a gastrula which comes nearest of all

Ascidians to the primitive type,—7.e., to a Archigastrula. In the social

Ascidians a modification is brought about in that the blastula is not

formed. With the disappearance of the latter the segmentation-

Cavity is reduced to a split between the embryonic cells, or fails pont

pletely. The result of segmentation is a two-layered plakula, into

which the elements of the two germ-layers differentiate quite early,—

at the eight-celled stage. The gastrula is here formed not by invagi-

nation of blastoderm cells, but by a splitting in the endoderm, while the

borders (periphery) of the plakula rise up and grow towards one

another,—a process that is brought about by unequal growth (increase}

672 The American Naturalist. : [July,

of the cells of the two germ-layers, and is to be distinguished from the

true invagination (embole) as pseudoembole.

‘ The development of the compound Ascidians is easily distinguished

from that of the social Ascidians. Here the plakula turns in by

another process, since the gastrula-cavity (which formed the archente-

ron in Clavellina) is filled in the dorso-ventral direction with dividing

endodermal cells. Now the archenteron arises neither by embole or

by pseudoembole but by delamination of the large endodermal cells

(Distaplia amarecum). ‘The closing over of the endoderm by the

ectoderm takes place in Distaplia by a different process in different

parts of the embryo; anteriorly it is purely epibolic ; posteriorly, on

the other hand, this takes place by a division of the dorsal endoderm

cells (endodermplate), which at the same time, together with the ecto-

derm cells in question, grows around a space (pseudogastrula-furrow),

which space is later filled by the endodermal cells themselves. This

process, taking place in the pseudoembolic region of the embryo,

must be looked upon as a rudiment of embole, which, in spite of great

changes in the egg of social Acidians, occurs in the typical way.”

This series of stages, from the simple to the social, to the compound

Ascidian, furnishes an excellent example of Hatschek’s law that ‘‘ by a

phyletic change in a group of animals not only the adults (end stage)

are changed, but also the whole series of embryonic stages, from the

egg to the adult’ (end stage.)

Rabl’s phylogenetic classification of the vertebrates according to

the accumulation of yolk is criticised and objected to. We need not

here enter into the detailed description of the origin of the mesoderm,

the digestive tract, and the notochord, which occupies the last fifty

pages of the paper.

Development of the American Lobster.—Two preliminary

papers, one on the habits and larval stages of the lobster, and the

other on the reproductive organs and early stages of the lobster, have

been published by Prof. F. H. Herrich.* ‘‘ The spawning season is con-

fined to the summer months, and the eggs which are then laid are

carried by the female throughout the fall, winter, and spring, and are

not hatched under natural conditions until the following summer.’’ The

number of eggs laid varies from about 3,000 to 36,000 ; a lobster 1034

inches long produces on an average 12,000 eggs. The lobster does

not breed annually. The eggs laid in summer develop with compara-

tive rapidity, and eye pigment is formed in 27 to 30 days. Develop-

ment slows up in the fall, and comes nearly to a standstill in the

3 Johns Hopkins University Circular, No. 87, 1891.

ar,

1891.] Entomology. i 673

winter. Soon after hatching a brood the lobster may moult, but eggs

are not laid again until at least another year.

When the young lobster hatches from the egg it moults, and in arti-

ficially hatched lobsters large numbers die on account of inability to

pass this moult. After six or seven days the second moult occurs.

Young lobsters swim at the surface six to eight weeks, and then dis-

appear entirely from the surface.

The second paper deals with the growth of the reproductive organs,

and the stages as far as the nauplius-like condition. The greatest dif-

ferences appear in the segmenting eggs. -The egg nucleus, with its

surrounding protoplasm divides near the center of the egg, and its

products wander to the surface, and the periphery breaks up into

irregular cells. Until about 40 hours after fertilization the peripheral

yolk is entirely segmented. About 30 segments are present. In all

the segmentation stage occupies three days. By the end of the fourth

day the invagination stage is reached. This is followed by the keel

stage, which lasts about four days. At the beginning of the tenth day

the nauplius appendages begin to bud, first the first pair of

antennæ and mandibles together, and a little later the second pair of

antennæ.

ENTOMOLOGY.

The “ Arrow Weed” and Mexican “Jumping Bean’

Insect.—It has long been known that the Indians in Mexico make a

powerful poison from some native plant, which poison, in a milder

form, is also used as a cathartic. It has also long been known that

seeds possessing the curious power of jumping are produced upon the

same plant in Mexico, and are sent to other parts of the world, form-

ing quite an article of commerce. The exact nature of this plant,

however, has hitherto remained a mystery. At a recent meeting of

the Washington Entomological Society, Professor C. V. Riley read an

interesting paper on the determination of the plant upon which these

‘jumping seeds” are produced. In the Transactions of the St. Louis

Academy of Sciences for 1875 is an account of Carpocapsa saltitans

Westwood, the insect which causes the saltation of the ‘‘ beans,’’ he

had called attention to the fact that the particular euphorbiaceous

plant upon which these seeds are produced was not determined.

Westwood, in his original description of Carpocapsa saltitans, states

that the plant is known to the Mexicans as Calliguaja, and in a recent

674 The American Naturalist. [July,

letter to Prof. Riley from M. Chretien, of the French Entomological

Society, the plant was referred to as a Mexican euphorbiaceous plant

called Colliguaja odorifera Moline. About this time Mr. J. M. Rose,

of the botanical division, brought to Prof. Riley specimens of plants

recently collected by Dr. Edward Palmer, who sent with the plants

specimens of the capsules, thus rendering it certain that the jumping

bean occurs on this particular plant. It turns out to be undescribed, ©

has been referred to the genus Sabastiania, and will be described by

Mr. Rose as S. palmeri. Prof. Riley decides that the reference given

by M. Chretien is erroneous, as Bentham and Hooker give Colliguaja

odorifera as from South America, and there is no record of it from

Mexico. Comparison of the specimens in the department herbarium

showed that while evidently closely allied, Colliguaja is quite distinct

from Sebastiania, which renders it rather remarkable that the name

given by the Mexicans to the plant should be identical with that

adopted for the South American genus. The name seems to be of

Chilian origin, and was doubtless introduced into Mexico by the

Spaniards. It is probably applied to various euphorbiaceous species

having the same poisonous attribute, whether occurring in Mexico or

south of the equator.

A closely allied species of Sebastiania from the same localities (as

yet undescribed, but which Prof. Watson will describe as S. pringlet)

also shows evidence of being infested with Carfocapsa saltitans, and a

third species (S. 4i/ocularis) is infested by an allied larva of a moth

which Prof. Riley describes by the name of Grapholitha sebastiania.

There is therefore good evidence that the insect causing the saltations

of the ‘‘ beans’’ develops in the capsules of at least two different

species of the genus Sebastiania. The young larva doubtless hatches

from an egg laid externally on the capsule, and penetrates the same

while quite young, very muchas in the case of the common pea weevil.

Dr. Palmer found S. palmeri only in certain cafions near Alamos,

where it is popularly known as palo de la flecha cuero de las simellas

brincaderos (arrow tree which produces the jumping beans). The

plant exudes a good deal of milky juice, which is what the Indians

use on their arrow-heads. It is a loose-growing shrub, from five to

eight feet high, the wood very hard, and the milky juice readily crys-

tallizing into a clear, white, brittle substance. In the appearance of

the wood it reminds one somewhat of our witch-hazel, and in the leaf

of a broad-leaved willow. As in the case of other Euphorbiacez, the.

carpels, or each of the three parts of the capsule, dehisce, or suddenly

split when ripe ; but when the larva inhabits the same the parts fail to

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 675

separate, being kept together by the carpet of silk which the larva

spins on the inside. The peculiar jumping motions of the carpel are

thus produced, as first described by Prof. Riley in the Transactions of

the St. Louis Academy aforementioned. The full-grown larva, by its

holding fast to the silken lining by its anal and two hind pair of

abdominal pro-legs, which have very strong hooks, then draws back

the head and fore body, the thoracic parts swelling and the thoracic

legs being withdrawn, The contracted parts being then suddenly

released, the larva vigorously taps the wall of its cell with its head,

sometimes thrown from side to side, but more often brought directly

down as in the motion of a wood-pecker when tapping for insects.

The seed will thus move whenever warmed for several months during

the winter, because, as with most tortricid larve, this one remains a

long time in the larval state after coming to its growth and before

pupating.

Remarkable as are the movements of this seed, Prof. Riley remarked

that they are thrown into the shade by a little jumping gall produced

on the leaves of our post-oak and other oaks. This is a little, spherical,

seed-like gall, and the insect within, which produces the fly known as

Cynips saltatorius, can make it bound twenty times its own length.

Here the motion is imparted by the insect in the pupa, and not in the

larval state.—Scientific American, June 13th, 1891.

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.!

The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-

historic Archeology of Paris, 1889.—( Continued from page 592).

Fifth Question: ‘The Relation Between the Civilization of Hall-

stadt and Other Danubian Stations, and those of Mycenz, Tirynthe,

Hissarlik, and the Caucasus.”’

This question brought up the most excited, because the only personal,

discussion of the congress. Captain E. Boetticher presented a paper

criticising the excavations made at Hissarlik by M. Schliemann.

Captain Boetticher was of opinion that the hillside of Hissarlik which

had been explored by M. Schliemann did not contain, as M. Schlie-

mann, thought, the débris of the walls or the temples or palaces, but

that it had been a necropole or crematory, a place for incineration or

cremation, and that the superposed territory contained the cinerary

1 Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C

Am. Nat.—July.—6.

676 The American Naturalist, [July,

urns and other objects which related exclusively to funeral and burial

customs. That, said he, which M. Schliemann took for walls of

defense or habitation were nothing but the surrounding walls of

furnaces where incineration had been practiced. The tumulus of

Troade, he contended, had the same origin as that of Hissarlik. Its

civilization was, according to him, essentially Assyro-Babylonian,

influenced in a large measure by the Phoenicians and by the Egyptians.

About 1500 years B.C. the civilization of which Troy may have been

the center extended over a part of Asia Minor and into Western

Europe. It was destroyed by the Hellenes that substituted for it the

classic civilization. Hissarlik, Mycene, ‘Tirynthe, Koban, and Hall-

stadt are the principal stations of this now destroyed and disappeared

civilization. Captain Boetticher enumerated his proofs, and insisted

upon the analogy between the objects of Italy and those which had

been gathered in Egypt, in Assyria, and in the north of Europe, and

of which the destination, said he, was essentially votive and funeral.

Dr. Schliemann rose, and, according to the official report made by the

secretary, he was saluted by an ovation which was entirely exceptional

in a scientific congress. Although a German, he spoke French with

facility, and I may remark, English equally well, and he expressed

himself with a vivacity which sometimes attained almost violence, in

his interesting and excited reply to the attack of Boetticher. He

commenced with a historic résumé of his excavations, of his first visit

to Troad in 1868, He recalled the fact that, disdaining all traffic and

commercial profit by the sale of the classic antiquities which he there

discovered, he had given to the museums in his native country and

others all the products of his research. He gave due credit to his aids

and assistants, of whom stood in the first rank his wife, a French

engineer, Adolphe Laurent, Emile Burnouf, director of the French

School at Athens, Joseph Holfor, the architect, of Vienna, Dr.

Virchow, and Dr. Doerpfeld. He acknowledged an international

concert of praise of which any man, scientific or not, had just right

to be proud. ‘The attacks of Boetticher had been responded to’ by

Virchow and Doerpfeld. The latter offered his services to accompany

Boetticher to Troy, and there take up the excavations, and M. Schlie-

mann declared his willingness that the whole should be done at his

expense. Dr. Schliemann then took up the details of the discussion.

He declared that M. Boetticher made choice of exceptions out of an

enormous series or mass of material, He replied to attack after attack

with apparent satisfaction and success, He extended his remarks, and

compared in detail the antiquities of Troy with those of Mycenz, of

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 677

Tirynthe, and Orchomene, and saying that their civilization had

become general in Greece at an epoch approximate with the seventh

century B.c. He concluded with a rapid summary of art and industry

since that time.

Monsieur Montelius then spoke, and arranged himself solidly upon

the side of Schliemann and against Boetticher. He had visited Italy,

and had there seen what to him were indisputable traces of a town,

—rather of several towns superposed. He expressed his belief that it

might yet be found that the tomb of Mycénes and the palace of

Tirynthe belonged to the age of bronze ; but he concluded with a com-

‘pliment and expression of confidence to Dr. Schliemann that he had

formed a veritable era in the study of preclassic civilization and

archeology.

M. J. de Morgan spoke of the antiquities found at Hissarlik by

M. Schliemann. He declined to enter into the discussion of the

differences between Dr. Schliemann and Capt. Boetticher. So far as

concerned those differences, he was decidedly upon the side of Dr.

Schliemann, and if he had any difference of opinion of his own with

Dr. Schliemann, it was rather that from his knowledge and his excava-

tions in the Armenian and Chaldean countries, and those farther to the

east than that of Italy,—it was to say that he thought Dr. Schliemann

had made the error of assigning too recent a date rather than too

ancient a one. M. de Morgan recalled the numerous evidences of the

knowledge of iron in Asia at times of high antiquity. The necropoles

of Warka and Mougheir, in Chaldea, were at least thirty centuries

B.c., and yet were in the beginning of the age of iron in that country.

At 1700 B.C. the Egyptian generals returned from their campaigns

in Asia bringing with them utensils of iron, to which they attached

great value in view of the rarity of that metal in the valley of the Nile.

At the beginning of the Assyrian empire iron had already become a

metal in current usage throughout that part of Asia. M. de Morgan

enumerated the evidences and indicated generally the locality of the

people of which he spoke. ‘Now, said he, these people were in con-

tact with the inhabitants of Troad, and therefore the latter ought to

have had a knowledge of iron, and by reason, The evidence of their

commerce and their contact with these people is undisputable, and

according to all archeology and history they certainly had a knowl-

edge of and acquaintance with iron. If the excavations made in the

Troad or at Hissarlik contained no evidence of iron, it is because of

one of two things: either the investigation has not been sufficient

to obtain all the evidences which there existed, or else the epoch to

678 The American Naturalist. [July,

which the excavations related were at an earlier period than that

indicated as having had a knowledge of iron. With our knowledge

of investigations of Dr. Schliemann one cannot suppose the first excep-

tion to have existed. The investigations were sufficiently profound,

sufficiently extensive, to satisfy one that if iron had had an existence at

that time in that locality, he would have found its evidence; and this

was evidence or proof, said M. de Morgan, that the inhabitants of

Hissarlik did not at that time possess knowledge of iron. The other

conclusion must then prevail, to wit: that the excavations at Hissarlik

made by Dr. Schliemann pertain to an epoch when iron was not known

or used by the inhabitants; and by this line of reasoning he demon-*

strated to his own satisfaction the error of Dr. Schliemann having

assigned to Hissarlik a period too recent, when it should have been

more ancient. M. de Morgan said that a study of the mines, whether

of iron or of copper, and all the excavations in the neighborhood

with which he was acquainted, confirmed the teachings of history, and

he thought he had correctly laid it down. In Russian Armenia the

excavations told the same story. M. de Morgan said he had opened

more than a thousand sepultures, all of which contained arms of iron,

which belong or could be divided into two simple groups: one of

which was anterior to the eight century B. c., the beginning or dura-

tion of which was as yet unknown, but which might have been very

much older than the date mentioned; the other was posterior, after

the grand invasions of the seventh century B c., but before the Persian

conquest. The age of bronze, said M. de Morgan, if in existence of

to be found in the Transcaucasie, was of comparatively short duratioh ;

and therefore, ranging himself upon the side of Dr. Schliemann

and against Captain Boetticher, he demanded, is it possible that

the whites of the Ægean sea, who were always moving from one

place to another, who were eminently the people of migration, of

_ commerce, of travel,—is it possible for these to have remained without

knowledge of iron while that knowledge was spread around them upon

every side? and his response to his own question was that it was not

possible. His conclusion was, as stated, that if the people of the east

had knowledge of iron at this epoch, the people of Hissarlik would

have it the same time, and as the investigations of Schliemann shows

no object or industry in iron, therefore his excavations pertains to a

period earlier than he had claimed.

This question was of deep interest to me. At my department in the

National Museum we had just obtained a series of the tombs and their

contents, the evidences of human industry (a very fine series), and

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. _ 679

which had been discovered and excavated by the Brothers de Morgan

in Armenia. These were objects from some of the thousand sepultures

mentioned by M. de Morgan, and they came from the mountain

range midway between the Caspian and the Black Seas. So these

objects both of bronze and of iron mentioned by him were quite

familiar to me.

Monsieur A. Odobesco presented some observations and descriptions

as to the prehistoric monuments in Roumania, in Northern Moldavia.

He described the objects of human industry as being arms made of

polished stone implements in gold, objects in pottery. Some of the

latter were covered with designs in color which resembled the volutes,

spirals, and cervides of the vases of Mycenes. There were also small

statuettes in terra-cotta. Monsieur Odobesco believed that the pre-

historic stations of this sort in Roumania, Valachia, Transylvania,

belonged to the same chain of civilization which had its origin in

Greece and Asia Minor and united the prehistoric Caucasus, and he

recommended the attention of the congress to this matter at some

future session. Thus was brought to an end the extremely interesting

and somewhat exciting discussion between Dr. Schliemann and Captain

Boetticher. (Zo be continued.)

Recent Discoveries of Egyptian Remains.—Writing to

the New York Wadéion from Keneh, Upper Egypt, on March 17th, Mr.

W. H. Goodyear describes an important and most interesting discovery

made by Mr. Petrie at Maydrom. Mr. Petrie has there unearthed

“the oldest known Egyptian temple, and the only pyramid temple

ever found.’ Apart from the ‘‘ Temple of the Sphinx’’ at Ghizeh,

this building is also ‘‘ the only temple of the Old Empire so far

known.” It was buried under forty feet of rubbish. It lies directly

at the center of the eastern base of the pyramid, on the side facing

which it has two round-topped obelisks. ‘‘ Obelisks and temple cham-

bers so far entered,” says Mr. Goodyear, ‘“ have the plain, undecorated

style of the Old Empire, as shown by the temple of the Sphinx, but

hieratic inscriptions in black paint found within fix the name of

Seneferoo as builder, and confirm the supposition to this effect hitherto

based on the fact that tombs near the pyramid contain his cartouche.

Seneferoo is the king connecting the third and fourth dynasties, and

variously placed in either. According to computations of Mariette

and Brugsch, the antiquity will be about 4000 B.C., or earlier. On

Tuesday, March roth, Mr. Petrie’s workmen reached a platform which

appeared to be a causeway terminating with two obelisks at the base of

680 The American Naturalist. [July,

the pyramid.’ ‘‘In the fagenoon of Wednesday,” continues Mr,

Goodyear, ‘‘a workman came to say that an opening had been found

under the platform on the side next the pyramid. This proved to be

the top of a doorway choked by detritus, through which Mr. Petrie

crawled into an interior of three chambers, and discovered the

inscriptions mentioned. I had the pleasure of following him. Mr.

Petrie thought the apartments had not been previously entered for

about three thousand years,—that is to say, that the rubbish fallen

from the pyramid had choked the entrance about three thousand years

after construction. A friend who was with me noticed on the floor

some dried wisps of papyrus, a plant now extinct in Egypt. The

chambers thus far found are so filled that one cannot stand erect in

them, and a door at the endjof the third chamber is blocked by large

stones. Over all lies an enormous mass of detritus, whose removal by

` Arab diggers is now progress. I had the pleasure next day of carrying

the news of Mr. Petrie’s find to the gentlemen of the Egypt Explora-

tion Fund at Beni-Hassan, and of witnessing their unaffected delight

over it.” —Scientific American, May 23d, 1891.

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 681

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The Royal Society of Canada.—This body met at Montreal,

from May 27th to June rst, inclusive. The officers were as follows:

Honorary president, Lord Stanley de Preston; president, Rev. Geo.

M. Grant ; vice president, Abbe J. C. LaFlamme ; honorary secretary,

J. G.,Bourinot ; honorary treasurer, Dr. A. R. C. Selwyn. e fol-

lowing papers were read in the department of geology and biology:

‘©On the Probable Occurrence of Gold-Bearing Rocks in New

Brunswick.” Prof. L. W. Bailey. ‘‘ Notes of the Pleistocene Plants

of Canada, with Descriptions of New Species from the United States.”

Prof. D. P. Penhallow, B.Sc. ‘* The Geological Formation of Quebec,

South of the River St. Lawrence.” R. W. Ells, LL.D., F.G.S.A.

Communicated by J. F. Whiteaves. ‘‘On the Present State of Botany

in the Dominion of Canada, with Suggestions as to Promising Lines

of Investigation, and a Proposal for United Effort in Systematic Ob-

servation throughout the Several Provinces and Territories.” George

Lawson, LL.D. ‘‘Note on Carboniferous Batrachians.’’ Sir Wm.

Dawson, F.R.S. ‘‘ Parka Decipiens—Notes on Specimens from the

Collections of James Reid, Esq.’ Sir Wm. Dawson, LL.D., F.R S.,

and D. P. Penhallow, B.Sc. ‘‘ Hibernation: A Preliminary Com-

munication,” Prof. Wesley Mills, M.A., M.D. ‘* The Orthoceratidze

of the Cambro-Silurian Rocks of Manitoba.’’ J. F. Whiteaves, of

the Geological Survey. ‘‘ The Ammonites of the Cretaceous Rocks

of the Valleys of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers.” By the same.

«On the Geology of the St. Claire Tunnel?’ Frank D. Adams,

B.A.Sc. Communicated by Sir Wm. Dawson. ‘‘ Observations on the

Distribution and Habits of Some New Brunswick Fishes, including

New Forms Lately Identified. Philip Cox, A.B., B.Sc., Newcastle,

N. B. Communicated by Prof. Bailey. ‘‘ Illustrations of the Fauna

of St. John Group, No. VI.” G. F. Matthews, M.A. ‘‘ Three Deep

Wells in Manitoba.” J. B. Tyrrell, M.A., B.Sc. Communicated by

Dr. G. M. Dawson. “On the Sequence of Strata Forming the Que-

bec Group of Logan and Billings, with Remarks on the Fossil Remains

Found Therein.’ Henry M. Ami, M.A., F.G.S., of the Geological

Survey of Canada. Communicated by Dr. G. M. Dawson. ‘‘ De-

scriptive Notes on Certain Implements, Weapons, etc., from Graham

Island, Queen Charlotte Islands, B. C.” Alex. MacKenzie. Com-

municated by Dr. G. M. Dawson.

682 The American Naturalist. [July,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The American Society of Microscopists.—This association,

now in the thirteenth year of its existence, will hold its fourteenth

annual meeting* in Washington, D. C., August roth, and continue in

session five days. Its roll of active members contains about three

hundred and fifty names, embracing very nearly every person in the

United States who is at all prominent as a microscopist. Its member-

bership consists of two distinct classes,—viz., professional men and

students of the natural sciences, who use the microscope in their daily

avocations as an instrument of research, diagnosis, or precision ; and

amateurs, or those who find pleasure and profit in the revelations of

the instrument. Many of the latter class, from having early chosen

special lines of study and investigation, have acquired high reputations

in their respective departments of microscopical research. In its

earlier years this class predominated in the membership of the society,

but at present the professional element is largely in excess.

The sixty-first meeting of the British Association for the Advance-

ment of Science will commence on Wednesday, August rgth, 1891, at

Cardiff, Wales, under the direction of the following officers : President

elect, William Huggins, Esa, D.C.L., LLD, FRS., ERAS;

vice presidents elect, ‘The Right Hon. Lord Windsor, Lord ete:

of Glamorganshire ; The Most Hon, The Marquis of Bute, K.T.

The Right Hon. Lord Rayleigh, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R. S.,

F-RA S., FRGS. ; The Right Hon. lao Tredegar ; The Right

Hon. Lord NOE GCB FERS, FRGS ; Sir]. TD. Llewelyn,

Bart., F.Z.5.; Archibald Geikie, Esq, For.Sec.R.S., F.R.S.E.,

Pres.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United

Kingdom ; general treasurer, Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D., LL.D.,

F.R.S., V.P.C.S., 17 Buckingham Street, London, W. C.; general

secretaries, Captain Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D.,

F.R.S, FELS., EGS., F.R.G.S.; A. G. Vernon Harcourt, Esq.,

MAW, DCE, int. FRS., ECS. ; ; assistant general secretary, G.

Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. ; local ee the meeting at

Cardiff, R. W. Akis. Esa., BSc., ECS he W

Lloyd Tanner, M.A., FRAS. Bank ar e Cardiff; local

treasurers for the meeting at Cardiff, T. Forster Brown, Esq., M.Inst.

C.E. ; Henry Heyword, Esq., a F CS,

1891.] Scientific News. 683

Ogden N. Rood, A.M., Professor of Physics in Columbia, says :

‘t No member of this department is engaged in any commercial or

outside work whatever. There is one feature of work in which some

college professors are accustomed to indulge, which cannot be too

strongly condemned. That is when a man under salary from a great

university, trading on the name and fame of the institution, holds

himself in readiness to testify as expert witness for a pecuniary con-

sideration. This practice, I take it, is one which ought to be discour-

aged by the authorities of the colleges where it exists. The time of a

college professor should be devoted to teaching and to original

research, to the interests of the students, and to the advancement of

science, ‘The office should not be prostituted in such a manner by

self-seekers and mercenary men. There is, so far as I know, only one

institution where this practice is not known: that is at Johns Hopkins.

The only reason that makes such expert testimony valuable in the eyes

of the jury is the fact that the witness is an officer in a prominent

institution of learning, and this looks, to me, like trading in the

reputation of the college, and, to say the least, isa great breach of good

taste.’’—Sctentific American, May 23d, 1891.

Edmond Andre, the well-known student of the Hymenoptera, died

in Beaune, January 11th, 1891.

Dr. Oscar Schultze is called to be extraordinary professor in the

University of Wiirzburg.

Dr. Lewis E. Hicks, for the past six years professor of geology in

the University of Nebraska, will leave his position at the close of the

college year.

Dr. Dostoiewsky has been elected prosector of histology and embry-

ology in the Medical School of St. Petersburg.

Antonio Stoppani, the Italian geologist, died January rst, 1891.

Dr. Gustav Retzius, well known for his classic work on the verte-

brate ear, has resigned his position in the University of Stockholm.

ee a aaa aaa a a a a aa a aa aaa

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There has been published and is now offered for sale what is

believed to be a complete list of the Phanogamous and Vascular Cryp-

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The Catalogue of Canadian Plants issued

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Many genera, too, have been revised by specialists,

and their revisions have been used in the preparation of the Check-List.

Several additional species discovered last year (1890) are included.

The price of the list is 50 cents per copy, 3 copies for $1.00.

Address,

JAS. M. MACOUN,

Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

22 _ ADVERTISEMENTS.

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CHAS. H. STERNBERG,

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XAV., AUGUST, 1861. 296.

THE: LITOPTERSA.

BY E. D. COPE.

T BERE has been known for many years a mammal of the

Pampean formation of Buenos Ayres-called by Professor

Owen Macrauchenia.' It is distinguished by many peculiarities,

but at the time of its first description its characters were chiefly

known from the skull and cervical vertebre. The former

resembles very much that of a horse, but has the strange

peculiarity of having the external nostrils posterior to their usual

position in land mammals,—that is, between the eyes, where it is

placed in the sea-cows or manatees. The teeth were generally

found much worn, but their general appearance was like those of

primitive three-toed horses ; but the canines were small and like the

premolars. The cervical vertebrz, on the other hand, displayed

characters like those found in the camels, especially in the

absence of an especial canal for the vertebral artery, which pre-

sumably ran in the canal of the spinal cord. The position of

this animal was absolutely uncertain, on account of the absence

of specimens of the feet; but Professor Owen was inclined to

place it in the Perissodactyla, and other authorities have followed

him (Plate XVII.).

Professor Burmeister, of Buenos Ayres, later obtained still better

specimens, which included parts of the hind feet. He found that it

had three toes on both feet, and he published a restoration of it. He

- | Zool. of the Voyage of the “ Beagle,” Fossil Mammalia, p. 35, Pl. V. and XV.,1389.

686 The American Naturalist. [August,

represented it as a long-legged and long-necked mammal, fur-

nished with the short proboscis of a tapir.? Within a few years

good specimens of the fore feet were received in Paris, and

Messrs. Scott and Osborn have given us a figure of that member,

which, with what was known before of the hind foot, enables us

to place the genus finally in the system. The carpus and tarsus

are both taxeopodous, or with the bones of the two rows in con-

tinuous lines and not alternating.» So this genus is a taxeopod,

and cannot enter the Perissodactyla, which is diplarthrous.

‘The lamented French paleontologist, Bravard, who perished in

the earthquake at Mendoza, thought he had discovered in Argen-

tina species of the European genera Paleotherium and Anoplo-

therium, which were found by Cuvier in the Eocene deposits

near the city of Paris. The discovery of these genera in this

region was unlooked for, and its announcement excited much

curiosity, if not credence.

In 1873 Prof. W. H. Flower described and figured in the Philo- .

sophical Transactions of London (p. 173) the dentition of a

new mammal, under the name of Homalodontotherium cunning-

hamii. He regarded it as allied to Rhinoceros on the one hand

and Macrauchenia on the other (Fig. 4).

Some years after this Burmeister announced the finding by

Moreno of the skull of a large mammal in the Eocene beds of

Patagonia, of remarkable character. It was represented as hav-

ing large and formidable canine teeth and a very short series of

molars, but of its affinities no definite idea was expressed. It

was named Astrapotherium patagonicum. :

In the great work on the “ Extinct Mammalia of Argentina,”

recently issued by Ameghino, which is reviewed in the present

number of the NATURALIST, the characters of these forms are

much more completely described than previously, and the rela-

tions of several of them have been clearly pointed out. ~Informa-

tion is furnished which enables us to estimate the position of

them with certainty. In the year in which this volume was

issued the present writer published in the NATURALIST a “ Syn-

2 Annal. del Mus. Pub. de Buenos Ayres, T. I., p. 32, Pl. 1-1V.; p. 252, Pl. XIII.

3 Transactions of the Amer. Philos. Soc., 1889, Vol. XVI., p. 540.

Sn aig QE. $<“ eo eee aad

S a aA A E he ne ce kore ek

1891.] The Litopterna. 687

opsis of the Families of the Vertebrata ” (1889). Here the

results of my study of the preliminary papers of Ameghino and

Burmeister were embodied in the following systematic form. The

Macraucheniide were placed in the suborder Toxodontia (p. 28).

Ameghino having shown that.the supposed Palzotherium and

Anoplotherium of Bravard were allied to this family, and should

be referred to the genera Proterotherium and Oxyodontotherium,

a family, Proterotheriidz, was proposed for the former, and it was

also placed in the Toxodontia. The Toxodontia were placed in

the Taxeopoda. Ameghino’s researches having shown that the

fore-foot structure of the Toxodontide and Mesotheriidz is that

of the Amblypoda, while the posterior foot only has the taxeo-

pod structure, it became evident that the Toxodontia must be

regarded as a distinct order between the Taxeopoda and the

Amblypoda. The Proterotheriide and Macraucheniidz having

the taxeopod structure of both extremities, must remain where I

' placed them. M. Ameghino, disregarding the question of taxe-

opody and diplarthry, places these families under the Perisso-

dactyla, and proposes to regard them as a suborder, with the

name of the Litopterna. This name will be retained, and will

apply in my system to a suborder of the Taxeopoda.

The structure of the feet of the Astrapotheriidz remains

unknown. Their location will depend entirely on the solution of

this question. M. Ameghino places them in the Amblypoda.

This position is rendered extremely improbable by the structure

of the true molar teeth. Those of Astrapotherium resemble

those of the Toxodontia, but still more those of Macrauchenia.

Homalodontotherium resembles Rhinoceros. Until the question

is positively settled by the discovery of the feet, I place them

in the Litopterna as their most probable position, following

Ameghino, so far as regards Homalodontotherium, which he

places here. ;

The suborder Litopterna is nearly related to the Condylarthra,

and it is probable that future discovery will obliterate the differ-

ences which we find to characterize the known types. The prime

characters in which the Litopterna differ from the Condylarthra

are the absence of epitrochlear foramen of the humerus, and the

688 The American Naturalist. [August,

ginglymoid articulation: of the astragalus with the navicular in

one, the anteroposterior, plane. In the Condylarthra this articu-

lation is ball and socket, or nearly universal, as in the Unguicu-

lates generally. The articulation in the Litopterna is of ungu-

late character, and has the same functional value in the fully

developed forms, such as Epitherium, as in the Artiodactyla. In

the known forms the fibula articulates with the calcaneum,

another point in which they differ from the Condylarthra. A

peculiar character, said by Ameghino to characterize this sub-

order, is the presence of four roots of some of the inferior pre-

molars and molars. This authority also states that they do not

possess a clavicle.

The three families differ as follows.

Superior molars essentially tritubercular, the two

external cusps modified into Vs; inferior mo-

lars with Vs; Proterotheriude.

Superior molars with straight external wall and

cross-crests, no Vs; Astrapotherude.

Superior molars with subequal external Vs and ;

cross-crests ; inferior molars with Vs; Macraucheniide.

The dentition of the Proterotheriidæ could be easily derived

from that of the Periptychidæ of the Condylarthra by the modes

of complication usual in other Ungulata. On the other hand

_ that of the Macraucheniidæ could have been derived from that of

the Meniscotheriide. The dental type of the Astrapotheriide

could have been derived from that of Protogonia by a.process

similar to that by which the Rhinocerotine line arose from a

primitive quadritubercular diplarthrous form. The parallel pre-

sented by the succession of the Litopterna in time as compared

with that of Diplarthra is most remarkable. The resemblances

in the dentition are such that the early students of the paleon-

tology of Argentina referred members of the Proterotheriidze and

Macraucheniidz to the Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla, and later

authors have referred one of the Astrapotheriidz to the Rhinocero-

tid. In the last case the resemblance may be traced in all parts

of the molar teeth, even including the plication of’the anterior part

of the external wall of the crown. The entire suborder is a

ee ee

1891.] The Litopterna. 689

remarkable illustration of the identity of results produced by

identical mechanical causes. The parallel is further increased

by the diminution in the number of the digits, in the cases when

the structure is known, in the course of geologic time.

The families range from the Lower Eocene to Plistocene time.

They have not been found hitherto outside of South America.

They thus continued much longer than the Condylarthra, and

must be regarded as a derivative of that suborder, which found

in South America conditions favorable for continuance which

were wanting in North America.

_ FiG.1.—Proterotherium ? cavum Amegh. ; last three premolars, grinding face ; natural

size. FIG. 2.—pitherium laternarium Amegh. ; true molars, from below; natural size.

Both from Ameghino, s

I now consider their characters in greater detail.

In the PROTEROTHERIIDÆ we have a type more closely con-

nected with the Periptychidæ of the Condylarthra than any later

form. The superior molars are tritubercular, the protocone with

well-developed accessory tubercles anteriorly and posteriorly, as

in Periptychus. The external cusps of these teeth are modified

into Vs, however, as in Meniscotherium. The three internal

cusps become confluent on wear (Figs. 1, 2).

The genera distinguishable in the material furnished by M.

Ameghino are as follows :

Digits? Symphysis not coössified; no in-

termediate tubercles of the superior

molars ; Proterotherium Amegh.

Like the last, but intermediate tubercles

present ; Anisolophus Burm.

Symphysis mandibuli coössified ; Thoatherium Amegh.

No intermediate tubercles ; ? symphysis ;

three digits, the lateral rudimental ; Epitherium Amegh.

690

The American Naturalist. [August,

It is not yet possible to determine the number of digits pres-

Fig. 3.—Epitherium

laternarium Amegh. ;

i posterior foot;

two-fifths natural size,

From Ameghi

‘ent in the greater number of the genera of

this family.. It is, however, extremely prob-

able that we have four or five in the Eocene

genera Anisolophus and Thoatherium. If so,

we have a successional reduction in later peri-

_ ods, similar to that which has been shown to

have occurred in the horse line. In Epitherium

Amegh. we reach a stage corresponding to

that of Hippotherium, the lateral digits being

reduced to the condition ot dew-claws, accord-

ing to Ameghino (Fig. 3). Proterotherium

and Anisolophus are the only genera in which

the dentition is well known, and our knowledge

is confined to the molars. The premolars

nearly resemble the true molars in both jaws.

Two species certainly belong to Proterothe-

rium, and they are from the “ inferior Oligo-

cene” of Patagonia. Three other species

from the Oligocene and Eocene of the same

region, described under distinct generic names

by Ameghino, have not been yet clearly distin-

guished from Proterotherium. Two species

are referred to Anisolophus, which with the

single one of Thoatherium are from the Eo-

cene. But one species of Epitherium (Æ.

laternarium Amegh.) is yet known. This is

a most interesting animal, and took the place

in the Miocene fauna of Argentina (accord-

ing to Ameghino) of the three-toed horses in the corre-

sponding age in the Northern Hemisphere. It was about the

size of a small guanaco, and was digitigrade, like the higher

Diplarthra.

In the MacrAUCHENIID& we have a line of modification differ-

ent from that of either of the other two families, resembling in

some respects both of them. Thus the superior molars are con-

structed on the one type in the modification of the external

"dees:

1891.] The Litopterna. 691

cusps into more or less distinct Vs of equal proportions, while

the internal part of the crown is modified from transverse crests,

such as are seen in the Toxodontia. The genera are as follows:

I. Canines one-rooted. ,

? Canines; incisors. small and sepa-

rated by diastemata ; Diatomicodon Amegh.

Inferior molars with simple Vs ; Scalabrintherium Amegh.

Vs of inferior molars with an external

transverse branch; Oxyodontotherium Amegh.

II. Canines above two-rooted.

? Canines; external nares advancing

to between premaxillaries ; Mesorhinus Amegh.

External nares bounded by maxillaries

in front ; Macrauchenia Ow.

But little is known of these genera, excepting Macrauchenia.

In this genus there are three subequal toes, both anteriorly and

posteriorly, and progression was digitigrade. The nostrils were

remarkable for their posterior position, being partly above the

orbits. The latter are closed behind. The last premolar teeth

only in both jaws are like the molars, and there is a short dias-

tema in front of the small canin Incisors like those of a horse,

without the cups. Dental formula: I. $; C.4; Pm. 4; M. $.

The molars, as is often the case in the Argentine forms, soon

wear so as to obscure the structure, and an internal cingulum

encloses the spaces between the cross-crests as fosse. The

absence of vertebrarterial canal from the cervical vertebre in

this genus is a repetition of what occurs in the Camelide. Four

species of Macrauchenia are described (Plate XVII). ;

Macrauchenia patachonica Owen was an animal of about the |

proportions of a mule. The posterior position of the external

nostrils has suggested that the habits were aquatic, or that it

possessed a short trunk like the tapir. It is a characteristic

species of the Pliocene beds of Buenos Ayres. A smaller

species, M. boliviensis Huxley, has been found in corresponding

beds in Bolivia. Scaladrintherium paranense Brav. and orthii

Amegh. are from Miocene beds of the Paraña. The same form-

ation has produced the Mesorhinus pyramidatus Amegh., which

692 The American Naturalist. [August,

had the dimensions of the guanaco. No genus of the family

has been yet reported from the Eocene.

The Astrapotheriidze include the largest forms of the Litop-

terna, if they belong truly to this suborder. Three genera are

certainly known, which differ as follows:

Dentition; I. rg; C.4; Pm.4;

M. 2; no diastema í Hlomatodontotherium Huxley.

Dentition; I. 4; C. į; Pm.2;

M. 4; a long diastema ; Astrapotherium Burm.

Dentition; I. ?; C.?; Pm. 4;

M. 3; a long diastema; Listriotherium Merc.

In Homalodontotherium the dental series is uninterrupted, and

the canines are small and resemble simple premolars. The pre-

molars differ somewhat from the molars, and the molar series

FIG. 4.—Homaladontotherium cunninghamii Flower; upper and lower dental series ;

about two-fifths natural size. From Flower.

generally has much the appearance of that of Canopus among

‘the rhinoceroses. Inthe inferior molars the resemblance is not so

great, although not wanting (Fig. 4). Nothing is known of the

typical and only species, H. cunninghamii Flower, but the denti-

tion, and this indicates an animal of the size of an ox.

In Astrapotherium Burm. the dentition is much more spe-

cialized. The canines are large, and they are followed by a dias-

tema. There are only two premolars above and one below. The

superior premolars differ from the true molars more than is the

case with Homalodontotherium, but they have the same character,

—1. e., an external wall, anda curved internal crest, the convexity

PLATE XVII.

Macrauch

1891.] The Litopterna. 693

inwards. They are much smaller than the true molars (Fig. 5).

Five species are known. The A. magnum Owen, the largest

mammal of the Eocene of South America, equals a rhinoceros in

FIG. 5.—Astrapotherium — Owen ; last five superior molars; about one-third

natural size. From Ameghin

dimensions. Its canine teeth, well developed in each jaw, ren-

dered it a formidable animal.

All the species of the Astrapotheriide are from the Lower

Eocene of Patagonia. |

EXPLANATION OF PLATE XVII.

Macrauchenia patachonica Owen; from Burmeister; much reduced.

Fig. 1.—Skull from above.

Fig. 2.—Skull from below.

Fig. 3.—Superior dental series.

Fic. 4.—Inferior dental series.

694 The American Naturalist. [August,

THE HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES.

BY E. L. STURTEVANT.

(Continued from page 744, Vol. XXIV., 1890.)

stacuys. ‘Stachys affinis Vil.

HIS plant was introduced into cultivation by Messrs. Vil-

morin-Andrieux et Cie, in 1886.! The roots are thick and

fleshy, and are called useful for pickles, and may be used fried.

According to Bretschneider the roots were eaten as a vegetable

in. China in the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, and are

described as a cultivated vegetable by Chinese writings of 1640

and 1742. It is used as a cultivated vegetable in Japan, and is

called choro-gi, and, as Mr. Tamari tells me, it is esteemed.

SUGAR BEET. Beta vulgaris var.

These are selected forms from the common beet, and scarcely

deserve a separate classification. Those figured by Vilmorin are

all of the type of the half-long red, agree in being mostly under-

ground, and in being very or quite scaly about the collar. The

sugar beet has been developed through selection of the roots

richest in sugar for seed-bearers.. The sugar-beet industry was

born in France in 1811, and in 1826 the product of the crop was

1,500 tons of sugar. The formation of the “sugar beet” could

not, then, have preceded 1811; yet in 1824 five varieties, the

grosse rouge, petite rouge, rouge ronde, jaune, and blanche, are

noted,’ and the French sugar or amber reached American gar-

dens before 1828. A richness of from sixteen to eighteen per

cent. of sugar is now claimed for Vilmorin’s new improved white

sugar beet.

! Vilmorin-Andrieux et Cie. Seed Cat., 1886, with figures.

2 Bretschneider. Bot. Sin., 53. 59, 83, 85.

3 L'Hort. Fran. , 1824.

í Fessenden. New Am., Gard., 1828, 40.

5 Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 1883, sr.

ê Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 399.

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. : 695

The names assigned by Vilmorin to the sugar beet are: France,

betteraves a sucre ; Germany, zucker-rube ; Flanders and Holland,

sutker-wortel ; Spain, remolacha de azucar, betabel de azucar;

Portugal, detarava branca d'assucar.

The discovery of sugar in the beet is credited to Margraff in

1747, announced in a memoir read before the Berlin Academy of

Sciences.

SWEET CICELY. Myrrhis odorata Scop.

This aromatic herb can scarcely be considered as an inmate of

American gardens, although recorded by Burr® in 1863. It has

also fallen into disuse in Europe, although yet retained by Vil-

morin” among garden vegetables. In 1597 Gerarde® says the

leaves are “ exceeding good, holsom, and pleasant among other

sallade herbes, giving the taste of anise unto the rest.” In 1778

Mawe? records that it is used rarely in England. Pliny seems

to refer to its usein ancient Rome, under the name azthriscus.

It finds notice in most of the early botanies.

Sweet cicely or sweet-scented chervil or sweet fern is called in

France, cerfeuil musque, cerfeuil d’ Espagne, cerfeuil anise, cicutaire

odorante, fougere musquee, myrrhide odorante, persil d'ane de

Lobel; in Germany, grosser spanischer wohlriechender kerbel ; in

Flanders, spaansche kervel; in Denmark, spanske kyjorvel ; in

Italy, finocchiella® or mirride ”

SWEET MARJORAM. Origanum sp.

But two species are enumerated by Vilmorin for European

culture, but several other species were formerly grown. The

leaves of all are used for seasoning.

Origanum vulgare L.

This aromatic herb, a native of Europe, has become natural-

ized sparingly in the Atlantic states, and is quite variable, afford-

ing a dwarf variety to culture. It is supposed to be the Cunila

TVilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 1883, 79-

. +» 1778.

Pliny. Lib. XXII., c. 38.

u Pickering. Ch. Hist., 488.

696 The American Naturalist. [August,

bubula of Pliny,? and the Origanum of Albertus Magnus ** in

the thirteenth century. It is not, however, indicated as cultivated. -

It is called “English wilde marjerome ” by Gerarde™ in 1597,

and “wild marjoram” by Ray * in 1686, who describes also the

dwarf variety. It is mentioned as cultivated by Mawe in 1778,

but not by Bryant” in 1783, although a hundred years’ earlier

Meager " gives the English name of “ pot or wild marjoram” to

one of the cultivated varieties, and includes also the “ pide,” which

is probably the variety with variegated foliage mentioned by

Burr,’ who enumerates this species among American garden

plants. Its culture is also mentioned by Worlidge in 1683, who

enumerates the partly colored and the white varieties,

Common marjoram, pot marjoram, or perennial marjoram is

called in France, marjolaine vivace ; in Germany, winter-mar-

joram; in F landers, orego; in Denmark, merian ;® in France

also, origan ; in Germany, dosten ; in Italy, regamo or origano ;

in Greece, rigani or riganon ;* in Telinga, mridu-maruvamu™

Origanum majorana L.

This is the species usually present in the herb-garden. It is

supposed to be the amaracus of Pliny, who speaks of it as cul-

tivated. Itis also the marjorana of Albertus Magnus * in the

thirteenth century, and is mentioned as cultivated in the early

botanies. Its modern culture is quite extended, and at Bombay

it is considered sacred to Siva and Vishnu.” It is said to have

Pliny. Lib, XX., c. 61. 7

— Magnus. De Veg., Jessen Ed., 544.

Herb., 1597, 541.

Ray. Hist., 1686, 539.

16 Mawe. ~, 1778.

“Bryant. Fl. Diet, 1783

Eng. Gard., 1683,

*! Pickering. Ch. Hist., 26r.

23 Birdwood. Veg. Prod. of Bomb., 65, 242.

” Pliny. LD XXi ¢ 4s.

* Albertus Magnus. L. ¢., 537.

3 Birdwood. L. c., 368, 242.

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 697

reached Britain in 1573,% and was a well-known inmate in

American gardens in 1806.”

Sweet marjoram, knotted marjoram, or annual marjoram is

called in France, marjolaine a coquille ; in Germany, majoran,

franzosischer majoran ; in Flanders and Holland, marjolijn ; in

Italy, maggiorana; in Spain, mejorana, almorady ; in Portugal,

manjerona;® in Norway, merian;™” in Greece, masouran,

mantziourana; in Egypt and Yemen, mardakus; ; in Hindustani,

marzanjosh, marwa, nazbo;* in Arabic, mirzunjoosh, marda-

kusch; in the Deccan, murwa; in Tamil, marroo;* in the

Mauritius, marjolaine* :

Origanum onites L.

Pliny * speaks of this species as called omitin or prasion in the

first century, but its introduction to Britain is said to have taken

place in 1759. It was in American gardens in 1806,” but does

not appear to have been much cultivated, although recorded by

Burr in 1863. Its name does not now occur in our seed-lists, as

it is inferior to the preceding variety.

This species has been called pot marjoram, a name which has

been applied to the O. vulgare.

Origanum heracleoticum L

This species has been identified with the Cunila gallinacea of

Pliny.* It is mentioned in the early botanies, and is said to have

reached England in 1640,” and is recorded in American gardens

in 1806.% It finds mention by Burr in 1863, but seems now to

have disappeared from our seed-lists. It is frequently mentioned

by early garden writers under the name of winter sweet marjoram,

and has a variegated variety.

38 McIntosh. Book of the Gard., II., 238, 239.

" McMahon. Am. Gard. Cal., 1806.

3? Don. Gard. and Bot, Be, IV., 767.

= Pliny. Lib. 1X,

” Pisay. Lib XX. ae

33 McIntosh. = Cj Mh, 238.

36 McMahon.

698 The American Naturalist. [August,

SWEET POTATO. Convolvulus batatas L.

This widely distributed cultivated plant, originally of South

and Central America, had developed many varieties at the period

of its discovery by Columbus. Peter Martyr” in his second

decade, written about 1 514, mentions ġatatas as cultivated in

Honduras, and in his third decade he gives the names of nine

varieties. In 1526 Oviedo% not only mentions sweet potatoes

in the West Indies, but says they have often been carried to

Spain, and that he had carried them himself to Avila, in Castile.

In Peru, Garcilasso de Vega” says the “ apichu ” are of four or

five different colors, some red, others yellow, others white, and

others brown, and this author was contemporary with the con-

quest. The.“ camote” of Yucatan, called in the islands ax and

batatas, is mentioned in the fourth voyage of Columbus," and

Chanc@, physician to the fleet of Columbus, in a letter dated

1494, speaks of ages as among the productions of Hispaniola.

In Europe, sweet potatoes are mentioned by Cardan * in 1556, ©

and Clusius,* in 1566, describes the red or purple and the pale

or white sorts as under culture in Spain, and in 1576 he notes

that their culture had been attempted in Belgium. Their mention

hereafter in the early botanies are frequent. Their culture is

noted for Virginia before 1650.“ In 17 50 Hughes * says that at

least thirteen sorts are known at the Barbadoes, and Wilkes “

notes that in the Hawaiian Islands, where the sweet potato had

been introduced, there are thirty-three varieties, nineteen of which

are of a red color and thirteen white. On the Mauritius, Bojer “

describes the round and long forms, white and purple. At the

present time Vilmorin® describes two varieties in France, and in

31 Peter Martyr, Eden’s Hist. of Trav., 1577, 88, 143.

38 Oviedo. Quoted by Gray and Trumbull, Am. Jour, Sci., April, 1883, 248.

3 G. de Vega. Roy. Com. Hak. Soc., Ed. II., 359.

Gen. Coll. of Voy. by the Port., 1789, 440.

t Pharmacographia, 1879, 452.

« Dek

“ Vilmorin. Les Pl. Pot., 401.

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 699

1863 Burr * describes nine varieties as in American gardens. Of

the varieties now known to me, not one type can be considered

as modern in its appearance.

The sweet potato is called in France, potate douce, batate, arti-

chaut des Indes, truffe douce; in Italy, patata; in Spain and

Portugal, datata.*

Other names have been, in English, in 1597, potatoes, potatus,

and potades (Ger.); by Clusius, 1576, datatas, camotes, amotes,

and ajes.

Native American names are, in Peru, apichu (Piso. de Vega);

at Quito, cumar (Markham); in Brazil, jetica (Piso. Marcg.),

Jettikt (Hans Stade); by the Portuguese in Brazil, datata(Marcg.),

patattes (Nieuhoff); in Mexico, camote (Unger); in Carib, mady

(Descourt.) ; in Tupi, Aetich (Gray); in Tupi-Guarani, yeti (Gray);

in Yucatan, camote (Port. Voy.); in Choctaw, ahe (Gray).

Other names are, in New Zealand and Otaheite, cuala (Cook);

in New Zealand, kumara (Wilkes); in Malay, #ġitora ; Javanese,

ubi; Chinese, at Batavia, antsoa (Nieuhoff); Central Africa,

veeazee (Grant); East Africa, in Wanika-land, fase (Krapf. jsi

the Soudan, dankali, doukali (Heuze).

In India, shukar-kundo (Firm.); in Bengali, shukar-kundoo-aloo ;

in Telinga, chillagada, grasugada (Drury); in Hindustani, penda-

loo; in Tamil, sukkaray-vullie ; in Ceylon, batala ; in. Persian,

sardak-lahori; in Malay, batatas (Birdwood); in Japan, imo,

kara imo (Thunb.).

TANSY. Tanacetum vulgare L.

Tansy is still included in the herb-garden as a condimental

and medicinal herb, yet it is very little grown, the wild plant

usually sufficing for all purposes, and it very readily becomes an

escape, thriving in out-of-the-way places without culture. It was

formerly in greater esteem than at present. In 1633 Gerarde™

says: “ In the spring-time are made with the leaves hereof newly

sprung up, and with egs, cakes, or tansies, which be pleasant in

taste, and good for the stomacke.” In 1778 Mawe” says: “This

4 Burr. Field and Gard. Veg., 1863, 99. : :

50 Gerarde. Herbal

erbal, 1633, 651.

5! Mawe.” Gard., 1778.

700 The American Naturalist. [August,

herb for its economical uses in the kitchen and medicine merits

culture in every garden,” and names for varieties the plain-

leaved, the curled-leaved, the variegated-leaved, and the scentless.

Both the common and the curled are figured by Dodonzus ® in

1616, and are mentioned in other botanies of this period. It was

in American gardens before 1806.

Tansy ® or tansie* is called in France, tanaisie, barbotine, herbe

amere, herbe aux vers, tanacee; in Germany, gemeiner rainfarn,

revierblume, wurmkraut; in Denmark, reinfang ; in Italy, ata-

nasia, tanaceto, erba santa-maria ; in Spain, tanaceto™

TARRAGON. Artemisia dracunculus L.

This plant, widely spread over South Russia, was brought to

Italy, probably from the shores of the Black Sea, in more recent

times. The first mention on record is by Simon Seth, in the

middle of the twelfth century, but it appears to have been scarcely

known as a condiment till the sixteenth century. The leaves

make an excellent pickle, and are sometimes used in soups and

salads. The flowers, as Vilmorin says, are always barren, so the

plant can only be propagated by division. Its culture is men-

tioned by the botanists of the sixteenth century, and in England

by Gerarde® in 1597, and by succeeding authors on gardening.

Rauwolf,” 1573-75, found it in the gardens of Tripoli. In

America it is mentioned by McMahon ® in 1806.

Tarragon is called in France, estragon, absinthe estragon, dra--

gonne, fargon, herbe dragon, serpentine, torgon; in Germany,

dragon, bertram, esdragon, schlangenkraut ; in Flanders and Pol-

and, dragonkruid ; in Denmark, estragon, kaisersalat ; in Italy,

dragoncello, targone, serpentaria ; in Spain, estragon; in Portu-

gal, estragas.®

52 onzus. Pempt.,

š Turner. Libellus, 1538.

55 Targioni-Tozzetti. Hort, Trans., 1854, 148.

5 Gerarde. Herb., 1597, 193.

5? Gronovius. Orient., 106.

EATR a

O A a r ae aa a a a aaa

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 701

THYME. Thymus vulgaris L.

A plant native to the southern countries of Europe, and which

has been long cultivated in more northern countries. In English

culture it is recorded about 1548,” and it is mentioned by Ger-

arde in 1597, and succeeding authors. It succeeds as an annual

even in Iceland,” and is recorded as grown in the tropical gar-

dens of the Mauritius.’ Three varieties are known: the narrow-

leaved, Thymus vulgaris, tenuiore folio of Bauhin 1596; the

broad-leaved, Thymus vulgaris, latiore folio of Bauhin,® 1596;

and the variegated, Thymus variegato folio of Tournefort,™ and

also mentioned by Bauhin © in 1623. It was known in American

gardens in 1806 or earlier, and the broad-leaved kind is.the one

now principally grown in the herb-garden for use in seasonings.

The common, French, or narrow-leaved thyme is called in

France, thyme ordinaire, faligoule, farigoule, frigoule, mignotese du

Genevois, pote, pouilleux ; in Germany, franzosischer thymian ; in

Flanders, ¢héymus ; in Holland, tm; in Denmark, thimian ; in

Italy, zimo, pepolino ; in Spain, tomillo ; in Portugal, tomilho ; *

in Norway, “imian;® in Arabic, kasha ; in Hindustani, tpar; ®

in India, espar.”

Thymus serpyllum L.

This is a very variable plant, occurring wild in Europe, and

sparingly naturalized in some localities in Northeastern America.

In 1726 Townsend” speaks of it in English gardens, but not as

a pot-herb; but it is placed among American pot-herbs by

McMahon ® in 1806. At the present time it is occasionally used

6 Booth, Treas. of Bot.

& Bauhin. Pin., 1623, 219.

., 89.

® Birdwood. Veg. Prod. of a bag 243.

10 Speede. Ind. Handb. of Gard.,

™ Townsend. Seedsman, 1726, oa

Am. Nat.—August.—2.

702 The American Naturahst. [August,

for seasoning in England. In Iceland it is used to give an

agreeable flavor to sour milk.”

Wild thyme or mother of thyme is called also in Britain, pell-

a-mountain ; in France, serpolet; in Germany, guendel ; in Italy,

sermollino, selvatico, serpillo; in Yemen, saater.”

Thymus citriodorus Pers.

This plant is considered by many botanists as but a variety of

the preceding. It was described by Bauhin in 1623, and was in

American gardens in 1806. The odor of the leaves is quite

agreeable, and it is thought to be a desirable seasoning for veal.

Lemon thyme is the thyme citronne of the French.

TOMATO. Lycopersicum sp.

The earliest mention I find of tomatoes is by Matthiolus ™ in

1554, who calls them pomi d'oro, and says they have but recently

appeared [in Italy]. In 1570, Pena and Lobel” give the name

gold apple in the German, Belgian, French, and English languages,

which indicates their presence in those countries at this date. In

1578 Lyte” says in England they are only grown in the gardens

of “ Herboristes.” Camerarius in his Epitome, 1586,” gives the

French name of pommes d'amours, which corresponds to Lyte’s

amorous apples; and in his Hortus Medicus, 1588,” gives the

names as pomum Indum, and the foreign name of tumatle ex

Peruviana ; but Guilandinus of Padua in 1572 had the name

tumatle americanorum, and Anguillara in 1561 names them poma

Peruviana.”” In Hernandez’s history of Nova Hispania, 1651, he

has a chapter on the fomatl, which includes our tomatoes and

alkekengis, and in 1658 the Portugese of Java used the word

® Burgsman. - Gard. Chron., Dec. 25th, 1886, 810.

13 Pickering. Ch. Hist., 272.

™ Matthiolus. Com., 1558, 479; 1570, 684.

15 Pena and Lobel. Adv., 1570, 108; 1576, 108.

76 Lyte’s Dodoens, 1578, 508.

77 Camerarius Epit., 1586, 821.

78 Camerarius. Hort., 1588, 130.

19 Gray. Am. Jour. of Sc., Aug., 1883, 128.

i EE E E E E E EA a SETE EO TEE EENE O

Se REA NEE A

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 703

tamatas® Acosta, however, preceding 1604, used the word

tomates, and Sloane,” in 1695, tomato.

Both the yellow and the red-fruited are named by Matthiolus”™

in 1554, but the prevalence of the name golden apple in the

various languages would indicate that this was the color most

generally distributed. The shades are given as golden by

Matthiolus 1554, ocher yellow by J. Bauhin ® in 1651, and deep

orange by Bryant™ in 1783. I give only the first authors when

the color is mentioned, and do not follow with succeeding authors,

who are Many.

The red color is noted by Matthiolus,” 1554, the pale-red

by Tournefort® in 1700, and ve purple-red in the Adversaria,”

1570.

The white-fruited is named i Lyte™ in 15 a by Bauhin ® in

1596, etc.

The versicolored by J. Bauhin ® in 1651.

The bronze-leaved ‘is indicated in Blackwell’s Herbarium,” 1750.

The cultivated species, following Dunal, are Lycopersicum

pimpinellifolium L., L. pyriforme L., L. humboldtii L., L. cerasi-

forme L.,and L. esculentum L. If these species are well founded,

then it seems as if an additional species should be formed which

hould include our globular, smooth, unribbed sorts, and this we

must do if we would follow out the history of the varieties.

Lycopersicum esculentum Dun.

This is the common species, with flattened and more or less

ribbed fruit, and is the kind first introduced into European cul-

ture, being described in the Adversaria of 1570, as well as by

many succeeding authors, and the earlier figures indicate that it

has changed but little under culture, and was early known as

% Bontius. Ind. Orient., 1658, 131.

3t Acosta, Hist., 1604, 266.

1696, 109.

J. Bauhin. Hist., 1651, IILI., 620.

% Bryant. FI. Diet., 1783, 2

%Tournefort. Inst., 1719, 150. e

% Bauhin. Phytopin., 1596, 302.

%1 Blackwell. Herb., 1750, t. 133.

Solanaceæ, II

704 The American Naturalst. [August,

now in red, golden, yellow, and white varieties, and a parti-colored

fruit is mentioned by J. Bauhin in 1651, and the type of the

bronze-leaved by Blackwell in 1770. It was probably the kind

mentioned by Jefferson as cultivated in Virginia in 1781, as it

was the kind whose introduction into general culture is noted

from 1806 to about 1830, when their growing was becoming

general. |

It has the following synonymy, gained from figures :

Poma amoris, an Glaucium Diosc. Lob. obs., 1576, 140.

‘Poma amoris. Lytes Dod., 1578, 440. Cam. Epit., 1586,

821; Ger., 1597, 275; Swert., 1654, t. 20, p. 2.

Poma aurea. Lugd., 1587, 628.

Poma amoris, pomum aureung Lob. ic., 1591, I., 270.

Solanum pomiferum, fructu rotundo, molli. Matth. op., 1598,

761.

Poma amoris fructu luteo et rubro. Hort. Eyst., 1613 ; 1713.

Aurea mala. Dod., 1616, 458; 1583, 455.

Tom d oro. Cast. Dur., 1617, 372.

Pomum amoris majus. Park. Par., 1929, 381, f. 3.

Amoris pomum. Blackw., 1750, t. 133.

Mala aurea. Chabr., 1677, 525. J. B., 1650, 3, 620.

Solanum pomiferum. Mor. Hist., 1699, s. 13, t. I, f 7.

Lycopersicon. Tourn., 1719, t; 63.

Lycopersicon galent. Morandi, 1744, t. 53, f. 8.

Common Large Red. Mawe, 1778.

Morelle pomme d'amour. Descourt., 1827, VI., 95.

Tomate rouge grosse. Vilm., 1883, 555.

Large Red. Burr; 1863, 646.

In form these synonyms are substantially of one variety. The

descriptions accompanying and others of the same date mention

all the colors now found. In 1719 Tournefort names a pale red,

red, a yellow, and a white variety in France, and in 1778 Mawe

but the common large red in England. In 1854 Brown describes

but two varieties, the large red and the large yellow, for American

gardens. The Lycopersicum esculentum L. is said by Bojer to

grow spontaneously in the Mauritius [as an ey

89 Jefferson. Notes, 1803, 54.

a | a

ati. Seer a

y yE ap d

i a i i e i r A T a

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 705

Lycopersicum rotundum.

I here place the larger unribbed round or oval varieties which

are now becoming popular, and also the fancy varieties known as

the plum, but I would not have it understood that at present I

consider this group as forming a true species in the botanical

sense, for my studies are not yet sufficiently complete. Of this

group there are no indications of their being known to the early

botanists, the first apparent reference I can detect being by

Tournefort in 1700, who places among his varieties the

Lycopersicum rubro non striato, and this same variety was

catalogued by Tilly” at Pisa in 1723. The xon striato not fluted

or ribbed, implying the round form. In 1842 some seed of the

Feejee Island variety was distributed in Philadelphia, and

Wilkes describes the fruit of one variety as round, smooth,

yellow, the size of a large peach, and the fruit of two other

varieties as the size of a small egg, but gives no other particulars.

This is the first certain reference that I find to this group. The

large smooth or round red and the small yellow oval tomato of

Browne,” 1854, may belong here. Here may be classed such

varieties as Hathaway’s Excelsior, King Humbert, and the Plum,

and some of the tomate pomme varieties of the French.

This form occasionally appears in the plants from seed ot

hybrid origin, as when the cross was made between the currant

and the tree tomato, some plants thus obtained yielded fruit of

the plum type. This, however, may have been atavism. The

botanical relations seem nearer to the cherry tomato than to the

ordinary forms.

Lycopersicum cerasiforme Dun.

_ The cherry tomato is recorded as growing spontaneously in

Peru,® in the West Indies,” Antilles,“ and Southern Texas.”

have also observed it in a railroad cutting in New Jersey. It

furnishes red and yellow varieties, and was noted in Europe as

% Tournefort. Inst., 1719, 150.

91 Tillius. Cat, Hort. Pisa, at Pisa, 1723, soi

u Descourtilz. P- Ant, v.,

706 The American Naturalist. [August,

early as 1623,” and is mentioned in 1 783 by Bryant® as if the

only sort in general culture in England at this time, but Mawe,”

in 1778, enumerates the large red, as also the red and yellow

cherry, as under garden culture. The following is its synonymy,

mostly founded on description :

Solanum racemosum cerasorum. Bauh. Pin., 1623, 167; Prod.,

1671, 90. ;

Solanum amoris minus, S. mala @thiopica parva. Park. Par.,

1629, 379.

Cujus fructus plane similis erat, magnitudine, figura, colore,

Strychnodendro, etc. Recchius Notes, Hernand., 1651, 296.

Fructus est cersasi instar (quoad magnitudine), Hort. Reg. Bles.,

1669, 310.

Solanum pomiferum fructu rotundo, molli parvo rubro plano.

Ray, 1704, III., 352.

Lycopersicum fructu cerasi rubro. Tourn., 1719, 150.

Lycopersicum fructu cerasi luteo. Tourn., 1719, 150.

Solanum lycopersicum. Bryant, 1783, 212.

Cherry-fruited. Mawe, 1 778.

Cherry. Mill. Dict., 1807; Burr, 1863, 640, 652.

Morelle cerasiforme. Descourt., 1827, V., 279, t. 378.

Lycopersicum cerasifolium. Noisette, 1829.

Cherry-shaped. Buist, 18 51.

Tomate cerise. Vilm., 1883, 559.

This species is probably the normal form of the tomato of the

gardens, to which the other species above given can, be referred

as varieties. Itis quite variable in some respects, bearing its fruit

sometimes and usually in clusters, occasionally in racemes. It is

but little grown, and then only for use in preserves and pickles.

(To be continued.)

he eee

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 707

RECORD OF NORTH AMERICAN ZOOLOGY.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY.

(Continued from Vol. XXV., page 557.)

VERTEBRATES.

Minot, C.-S.—The mesoderm and ccelom of vertebrates.

Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 877, 1890.

Ayers, H.—Concerning vertebrate cephalogenesis. Journ.

Morph., IV., p. 221, 1890.

RYDER, J. A.—A physiological theory of the classification of

the skeleton. Proc. Am. Philos. Soc., XXVI., p. 550, 1890.

* Ducros, G.—La perche argentic d’Amerique ou calico bass.

Rev. Sc. Nat. Appl., 1889, p. 12.

Minot, C.-S.—Zur morphologie du Blutkörperchen. Anat.

Anz., V., p. 601, 1890.

Ayers, H.—The morphology of the carotids, based on a

study of the blood vessels of Chlamydoselachus EE

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XVII., 1889.

* SPITzKa, E C: EE T A sketch of human duros

ment. Medical Standard, V., p. 133, 1889.

Minot, C.-S.—Morphology of the blood corpuscles. Am

Nat., XXIV., p. 1020, 1890.

Naxacawa, I.—The origin of the cerebral cortex and the

homologies of the optic layers of the lower vertebrates. Journ.

Morph., IV., p. 1, 1890.—Forms studied are: Menobranchus,

Rana, Spelerpes, Tropidonotus, Columba, Didelphys.

Gace, S. P.—The intramuscular ending of fibers in the skeletal

muscles of the domestic and laboratory animals. Proc. Am.

Soc. Microscopists, XIII., p. 132, 1890.

TUNICATA.

Brooks, W. K.—On the relationship between Salpa and Pyro-

soma. J. H. U. Circ., IX., p. 53, 1890.

Morgan, T. H.—The origin of the test-cells of the Ascidians.

Journ. Morph., IV., p. 195, 1890. 5

708 The American Naturalist. [August,

LEPTOCARDII,

WRIGHT, A. A—Amphioxus in Tampa Bay. Am. NAT,

XXIV., p. 1085, 1890.

Ayers, H.—Contribution to the morphology of the vertebrate

head. Zool. Anz., XII., p. 504, 1890.—Based on Amphioxus.

TELEOSTS (INCLUDING GANOIDS).

EIGENMANN, C. H.—The evolution of the catfishes. Zoe., L.,

_ p. 10, 1890,—Follows Sagemehl ; gives genealogical tree.

The Point Loma blind fish and its relatives. Zoe., I., p. 65.

—Typhlogobius californiensis and the other gobies.

Jorpan, D. S.—Fishes of the Yellowstone Park. Zoe., L., p.

38, 1890.—Habitat and lists of species.

EIGENMANN, C. H.—The Barracuda. Zoe., I., p. 55, 1890.—

Habits of Sphyrena argentea.

Sebastodes sagbe Zoe., I, p. 59, 1890.—From San

Francisco.

EIGENMANN, R. S.—Note on 7 perenne californiensis. Zoe.,

I., p. 181, 1890.—Tenacity of life.

Witson, H. V.—On the development of the sea bass (Serransis

atrarius). J. H. U. Circ., IX., p. 56,’ 1890.

Ryper, J. A.—The functions and histology of the yolk-sac of

the young toad-fish. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 107.

HENSHALL, J. A.—On a collection of fishes from East Ten-

nessee. Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., XII., p. 31, 1889.

EIGENMANN, C. H—On the egg membranes and micropyle of

some osseous fishes. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., p. 119, 1890.

Jorpan, D. S.—On the fishes described in Miiller’s supple-

mental volume to the Systema Nature of Linnzus. Proc. A. N.

S. Phila., 1890, p. 48.

Hopkins, G. S.—Structure of the stomach of Amia calva.

Proc. Am. Soc. Microscopists, XIII., p. 165, 1890.

GREEN, AsHpown H.—Description of a specimen of Chirolo-

phuss polyactocephalus from Vancouver Island. Proc. A. N. S

Phila., 1891, p. 105.

GILL, T.—Note on the genus Felichthys of Swainson. Proc.

U. S. Nat. Mus., XII., p. 353, 1890. .

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 709

Jorpan, D. S.—Notes on the fishes of the genera Agosia,

Algansea, and Zophendum. Proc. U., S, Nat. Mus., XIII., p.

287, 1890.

GARMAN, S.—On Balistes vetula Linné. Bull. Essex Inst.,

XXII., p. 53, 1891.—Occurs at Wood's Holl.

GILL, T.—Osteological characteristics of the family Amphi-

noid. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus, XIII., pr 299, 1800.

BATRACHIA.

Garman, H.—Notes on Illinois reptiles and Amphibians, in-

cluding several Species not before recorded from the northern

states. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist. III., p. 185, 1890.—AHyla

cinerea new to region. 7

KerLoce, J..L.—Notes on the Pronephros of <Améblystoma

punctatum. J. H. U. Circ, IX. p. $9, 1890. Vide Am. NAT,

XXIV., p. 969, 1890.

Stronc, O.—The structure and homologies of the cranial

nerves of the Amphibia as determined by their peripheral distri-

bution and internal origin. Zool. Anz., XIII., p. 598, 1890.

Core, E. D.—On a new species of Salamander from Indiana.

Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 966, 1890.—Gyrinophilus maculicaudus.

Dr. Leonard Stejneger on Bufo lentiginosus woodhouset.

AM. NAT., XXIV., p. 1204, 1890 (1891).

Hay, O. P.—The skeletal anatomy of Amphiuma during its

earlier stages. Journ. Morph., IV., p. 11, 1890.

Snow, F. H.—The mode of respiration of the common Sal-

amander from Indiana. Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci, XIL, p: 31,

1890.—Amblystoma mavortium has pharyngeal respiration, taking

water through nostrils.

REPTILIA.

Garman, H.—Notes on Illlnois reptiles and Amphibians, in-

cluding several speciés not before recorded from the northern

states. Bull. Ill. Lab. Nat. Hist., III., p. 185, 1890.—Forms new

to state are: Chrysemys belli, Pseudemys concinna, Eutenia radix,

Tropidoclonium lineatum.

Suarp, B.—Remarks on the exuvie of snakes. Proc. Phila.

Acad., "on p. 149.—Molting of Autenia sirtalis.

710 The American Naturalist. [August,

Brown, A. E.—On a new genus of Colubridz from Florida.

Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 199.—Stilosoma extenuata.

Baur, G.—On an apparently new species of Chelys. Am.

Nart., XXIV., p. 967, 1890.

HENSHALL, J. A., Cope, E. D.—Snakes in banana bunches.

Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 968, 1890.

SHARP, B—Remarks on the exuviæ of snakes. Proc. A. N.

S. Phila., 1890, p. 149.

RITTER, W. E.—The parietal eye in some lizards from the

Western United States. Bull. Mus. Comp., Zool., XX., No. 8,

1891.—Vide Am. Nart., XXIV.

GARMAN, S.—On the “ Gila Monster” (Heloderma suspectum).

Bull. Essex Inst’, XXII., p. 60, 1891.—See Am. Nar.

GARMAN, H.—The differences between the geographic turtles

(Malacoclemmys geographicus and M. leseuerit), Bull., Essex

Inst, XXIL., p. 70, 1891.

BIRDS.

Bryant, W. E.—Land birds of the Pacific district. Zoe., I., p-

277, 1890.

Found dead on the beach. Zoe., I., p. 282, 1890.—List

of dead birds in San Francisco county, Cal.

An ornithological retrospect. Zoe., I., p. 289, 1890.

AntHony, A. W.—Notice of a supposed new Vireo from

Oregon. Zoe., I., p. 307, 1890.— Vireo huttonii obscurus.

Lucas, F. A.—Notes on the osteology of the Paridz, Sitta, and

Chamza. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII., p. 337, 1890.

Bryant, W. E.—Notices of supposed new birds. Zoe, L., p.

148, 1890 —No good descriptions.

KEELER, C. A.—Observations on the life-history of the house

finch. Zoe, I, p. 172, 1890.—Carpodacus mexicanus frontalis,

with plate of young birds.

STONE, WITMER.—On birds collected in Yucatan and Southern

Mexico. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p. 201.—Nominal lists of

species.

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 711

Hancock, J. L—Brain-work of birds. Am. Nart., XXIV, p.

969, 1890.

BATCHELDER, C. F.—Recording the numbers of birds observed,

Auk, VII., p. 216, 1890.

KEELER, C. E.—Geographical distribution of land birds in

California. Zoe, 1., pp. 225, 257, 295, 1890; L, p. 337, 1891.

ANTHONY, A. W.—A new Junco from California. Zoe, I., p.

238.—/unco hyemalis thurberi.

Coorrr, J. G—A doomed bird. Zoe, I., p. 249, 1890.—

California vulture. E

TayLor, H. R—Abnormal nest of Vigor’s wren. Zoe, L, p.

276, 1890.

ALLEN, J. A.—To what extent is it profitable to recognize geo-

graphical forms among North American birds? Auk, VII., p. 1,

1890.

BENDIRE, C. E.—Notes on Pipilo fuscus mesoleucus and Pipilo

aberta ; their habits, nests, and eggs. Auk, VII., p. 22, 1890.

A second nest and eggs of Picicorvus columbianus taken in

Colorado. Auk, VII., p. 92, 1890.

BERTGOLD, W. H. Dorai PoPaa, in Erie county,

N. Y. Auk, VI., p. 209, 1890.

Borers, F.—Barred owls in captivity. Aus, VII., p, 161,

1890.

Brewster, W.—The little brown crane (Grus canadensis) in

Rhode Island. Auė, VII., p. 89, 1890.

——Capture of a Canada jay (Perisoreus canadensis) near Cam-

bridge, Mass. Auk, VIL., p. QI, 1890.

Bullock’s oriole in Maine. Auk, VII., p. 92,.1890.

——Recent occurrence of the turkey vulture in Eastern

Mass. Auk, VII., p. 204, 1890.

Food of young humming birds. Auk, VIL, p. 206, 1890.

The Acadian sharp-tailed sparrow and Scott’s seaside

sparrow on the coast of South Carolina. Auk, VII., p. 212,

1890. :

CANTWELL, G. G.—Shrikes of Minnesota. Auk, VIL, p. 213,

1890.

712 The American Naturalst. [August,

CHApMAN, F. M.—On the eastern forms of Geothylpts trichas.

Auk, VIL, p. 9, 1890.

On the winter distribution of the bobolink, with remarks

on its routes of migration. Auk, VIL., Pp. 39, 1890. '

Note on Cyanocitta stelleri litoralis. Auk, NIE- p. 91,

1890.

On the changes of plumage in the bobolink. Auk, NIL,

pP: 120, 1890.

Crark, H. L.— Coccothraustes vespertina at Amherst, Mass.

Auk, VII., p. 210, 1890.

CockErELL, T. D. A—Variation in the nesting habits of birds.

Nature, XLII., p. 6, 1890. ;

CoorER, J. G—Note on Pacific coast birds. Auk, VII., p. 214,

1890.

Doan, W. D.—Birds of West Virginia. Bull. 3, W. Va. Agr.

Sta., p. 41, 1880. i

Dwicut, J., Jr—The horned larks of North America. Auk,

VIL, p. 138, 1890.

ELLIOTT, H. W.— Quiscalus quiscala eneus killing and catch-

ing gold-fish. Auk, VII., p. 208, 1890. ’

Forsusu, E. H.—Evening grosbeaks in Hampden county,

Mass. Auk, VIIL., P. 210, 1890.

Hassrouck, E. M.—Picoides arcticus in Central New York.

Auk, VIL, p. 206, 1890.

Lucas, F. A.——The great auk in the U. S. National Museum.

Auk, VIL, p. 203, 1890.

Mearns, E. A.—Observations _ on the avifauna of portions of

Arizona. Auk, VIL., P- 45, 1890.

Addendum to “A list of the birds of the Hudson High-

lands.” Auk, VII., p. 55, 1890.

—— Capture of the Widgeon (Anas penelope) on the James

River, Va. Auk, VII., p. 88, 204, 1890.

* PATTERSON, R.—American bittern in County Londonderry

[Ireland]. Zoologist, XIV., pp. 24-26, 1890.

PENNOocK, C. J.—Ndote on the nesting of Buteo brachyurus at

St. Mark’s, Fla. Auk, VIL., p. 56, 1890.

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 713

Ripeway, R.—Suteo brachyurus and B. fuliginosus. Auk,

VII., p. 90, 1890.

Intergradation between Zonotrichia leucophrys and Z. inter-

media, and between the latter and Z. gambeli. Auk, VIL., p. 96,

' 18go.

Harlan’s hawk a race of the red-tail, and not a distinct

species. Ax, p. 205, 1890.

[On Colymbus adamsi]. Ibis, VL., ii., p. 129, 1890.

Roserts, T. L.—Notes on some Minnesota birds. Auk, VIL.,

p. 213, 1890.

Scorr, W. E. D.—A summary of observations on the birds of

the Gulf Coast of Florida. Aus, VIL, p. 14, 114, 1890.

The Key West quail dove at Key West. Auk, VIL, p.

90, 1890.

SENNETT, G. B.—The king eider at Erie, Penna. Auk, VIL.,

p. 88, 1890.

A new wren from the Lower Rio Grande, Texas, with

notes on Berlandier’s wren of Northeastern Mexico. Auk,

VII., p. 57, 1890.—TZhyrothorus ludovicianus lomitensis.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Notes upon Coccothoraustes vespertina as a

cage bird. Azk, VII., p. 93, 1800.

Progress in avian osteology for the year 1888-18809.

Jour. Comp. Med. and Vet. Sci.; Jan., 1890.

* —_On the use by certain young birds of the terminal claw

of the pollux. /dzs, VIL, ii., p. 128, 1890.

STEPHENS, F.—A new Vireo from California. Auk, VII., p.

159, 1890.—Vireo vicinior californicus.

Tuompson, E. E.—Evening and pine grosbeaks in Ontario.

Auk, VII., p. 211, 1890.

Treat, W. E—Mortality among bank swallows. Auk, VIL,

P. 96, 1890

Wituiams, R. De townsendii wintering in Montana.

Auk, VII., p. 98, 1890.

Wintte, E. D.—The evening grosbeak at Montreal. Auk,

VIL, p. 209, 1890.

Wortuincton, W. W.—The “So sparrow - in Georgia

Auk, VIL, p. 211, 1890.

714 The American Naturalist. [August,

Second supplement to the A. O. U. check-list of North

American birds. Auk, VII., p. 60, 1890.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Contributions to the comparative osteology

of Arctic and sub-Arctic water birds. Jour. Anat. and Phys.

XXV., p. 60, 1890.—Laridz, Stercorariidz ; affinities of divers,

auks, and gulls.

Antuony, A. W.—The nests and eggs of Townsend’s Junco

(Junco townsendi) and San Pedro partridge (Oreortyx pictus

confinis). Zoe, I., p. 5, 1890.

Bryant, W. E—Ornithological observations during the total

eclipse of January, 1889. Zoe, I., p. 21, 1890.

Taytor, H. R.—Nesting habits of the golden eagle. Zoe, I.,

P- 42, 1890.

Emerson, W. O.—Birds new or rare in California. Zoe, L, p.,

44, 1890.

KEELER, C. A—Songs of some Californian Zonotrichide.

Zoe, ly p. 72, 1890.

Emerson, W. O.—Migratory instinct in caged wild birds.

Zoe, 1., p. 80, 1889.

KEELER, C. A.—Song birds about San Francisco Bay. Zoe,

I., p. 116, 1890. i

Nest of the California bush tit. Zoe, I., p. 151, 1890.

‘—Psaltriparus californicus.

Ripeway, R.—Natural a survey of Illinois, State labo-

ratory of natural history. The ornithology of Illinois. Part I.

Descriptive catalogue. Vol. I. Springfield, 1889.

Stone, W.—On the genus Psilorhinus Ruppell. Proc. A. N. S.,

Phila., 1891, p. 94. ©

Ripcway, R.—Observations on the Farralon rail (Porzana

jamaicensis coturniculus Baird). Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIII.,

p. 309, 1890.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Observations on the osteology of North

American Anseres. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XL, p. 253, 1889.

* Hancock, J. L—Anomalies in the limbs of Aves. North

American Practitioner, Il., p. 405, 1890.

SuurELDT, R. W.—Contributions to the comparative osteology

of Arctic and sub-Arctic water birds. Jour. Anat. and Phys.,

Ee SERS Le S N

e a sea ea a ae

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 715

XXIV., p. 543, 1890; XXV., p. Co, 1890.— Vide Am. NAT.,

XXIV., p. 545.

Stone, W.—Catalogue of the owls in the collection of the

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. - Proc. A. N. S.

Phila., 1890, p. 124.—Nominal list.

On birds collected in Yucatan and Southern Mexico.

Proc. A. N. S. Phila., 1890, p. 201.—Annotated lists; none new.

MAMMALS.

BELpinG, L.—Migrations of the deer of the Sierra Nevada.

Zoe, L, p: 121, 1890.

Aurp, R. C.—A means of preserving the purity and establish-

ing a career for the American bison of the future. Am. NAT.,

XXIV., p. 787, 1890.

TUCKERMANN, F.—On the gustatory organs of some of the

Mammalia. Jour. Morph., IV., p. 151, 1890.—Study of twenty-

nine species.

Ossorn, H.—Catalogue of the mammals of Iowa. Proc. Iowa

Acad. Sci. for 1888, p. 40, 1890.—Sixty-one species.

Mearns, E. A.—Description of supposed new species and sub-

species of mammals from Arizona. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

IlL, p. 277—Vide Am. Nat., XXIV., p. 586, 1890.

RICKSECKER, L. E.—Notes on the yellow-haired porcupine,

Zoe, I., p. 235, 1890.

BELDING, L.—The wolverine (Gulo luscus) in California. Zoe,

L, p. 303, 1899.

Spitzka, E. C—Zur Monographie Dr. Theodor’s über das

Seehundsgehirn. Anat. Anz., V., p. 173, 1890.

Minor, C.-S.—On the fate of the human decidua reflexa. Anat.

Anz., V., p. 639, 1890.

Dosrson, G. E.—A synopsis of the genera of the family

Soricidæ. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1890, p. 49.

Ryper, J. A.—The eye, ocular muscles, and lachrymal glands

of the shrew mole (Blarina talpoides). Proc. Am. Philo. Soc.,

XXVIII., p. 16, 1890.

* TUCKERMANN, F.—On the gustatory organs of some Eden-

tata. Internat. Monat. Schr. f. Anat. u. Phys., VIL, p. 335, 1890.

716 The American Naturalist. [August,

ALLEN, H.—Description of a new species of Carollia, and

remarks on Carollia brevicauda. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc, XXVII

P: 19, 1890.

* Dosson, G. E—Monograph of the Insectivora, systematic

and anatomical. London.—Publishing in parts.

* HERRICK, C. L., and TIGHT, W. G.—Central nervous system

of rodents. Bull. Sci. Lab. Denison Univ., V., 1890.

TYRRELL, J. B—Reply to Mr. Thompson’s critical note. Proc.

Can: Inst., VII., p. 281, 1890.— Vide Am. NAT., XXIV p. 548.

SPENCER, T. B.—A comparison of the external and middle ear

of man and the cat. Proc. Am. Soc. Microscopists, XIII., p.

146, 1890.

Fıs, P. A——The epithelium of the brain-cavities [of the cat].

Proc. Am. Soc. Microscopists, XIII., Po 140, 1890.

Dycue, L. L—Notes on three species of Gophers found at

Lawrence, Kansas. Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci., XIL, p. 29, 1890.

— Spermophilus 13-lineatus, S. Jranklinü, Geomys bursarius.

* MEEK, A.—Note on the female organs of Erethizon dorsatum.

Studies Mus. Zool. Univ. Dundee, 1890. 2

TucKERMANN, F.—The development of the gustatory organs

in man. Am, Jour. Psychol., IIL., 1890. 3

ALLEN, H.—On the distribution of color-marks in the Ptero-

podide. Proc. A. N. S. Phila., 1890, p. 12.

Witcox, E. V.—Possible occurrence of the wolverine in Ohio.

Am. Nart., XXIV., p. 1206, 1890 [1891].

HoweLL, W. H.—The life-history of the formed elements of

the blood, especially the red blood corpuscles. Jour. Morph., IV.,

P- 57, 1890.— Vide Am. Nat., XXV., Pp. 59.

—— Observations upon the occurrence, structure, and function

of the giant cells of the marrow. Jour. Morph., IV., p. 117, 1890.

Fist, P A—The epithelium of the brain-cavities. Am. Mo.

Micros. Jour., XI., p. 256, 1890.—Ciliated epithelium in cavities

of cat.

Ie aa ae ee a

vn) GEES

rata weaned 1 oe ts St a

piaia ie

1891.] Editorial. 717

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

MONG the many uncritical propositions urged by would-be

reformers in recent years, few are more so than some of

those anent the interesting subject of women’s waists. We are

repeatedly told that a narrow waist is a deformity produced by

artificial compression, and that the just model for the healthy

normal woman is the robust and matronly Venus of Milo. Now

the anthropologist knows that this general assertion is not true

as applied to the civilized white woman. It is especially charac-

teristic of the highest types of woman of the Indo-European

race to have wide hips and a narrow waist, up to the age when

adipose tissue fills to greater uniformity of outline, the graceful

curve which is so generally admired. It is well known that the

form of the pelvis differs in the different races, so that in the

white race the female pelvis differs from that of the male more

than is the case with the African. In the latter the female pelvic

strait is as in the male, longer in anteroposterior than in trans-

verse diameter; in the female Mongolian the strait is subquadrate

in outline, while in the Indo-European the strait is oval, with the

transverse diameter greater than the anteroposterior. Thus the

white woman has wider hips than the woman of inferior races,

and she is in so far more unlike the male than they. The larger

pelvic cavity of the female is an adaptation to the increase in the-

bulk of its contents incident to gestation; and it follows that

when this cavity is not so occupied, the moveable viscera fill the

space. From this results the contraction of the abdominal walls

immediately above the pelvis known as the waist. It is then

clear that the diameter of the waist is inversely as the diameter

of the pelvis, and the differential of diameter is greatest as the

transverse diameter of the pelvis exceeds the anteroposterior.

The cause of the increased transverse diameter of the Indo-

European pelvic strait is probably mechanical. It may be due

Am. Nat.—August.—3.

718 The American Naturalist. [August

to anteroposterior pressure on the pubic arch. This in turn may

be a consequence of the monogamic customs of the Indo-

European subspecies due to the greater esteem in which women

are held. But on this point we can only speculate.

In any case the Venus of Milo has the form of a very mature

woman of her race, and many moderns can boast of far more

graceful figures than she. And these figures are not the result

of artificial compression of the clothing, but are the product of a

natural evolution of form. It is true, however, that all women

of the white race have not attained this stage, and not a few

retain the figure of lower races. It is not, however, proven that

the women possessing this figure are any better child-bearers than

those of modern type. Occasionally we meet women who toa

robust waist add a narrow pelvis,—an unfortunate structure, and

one not likely to be extensively reproduced, owing to the difficult

parturition which is indicated.

The women who are not satisfied with the figures which nature

has given them, and who endeavor to reduce a naturally robust

waist to the proportions which characterize their more favored

sisters by artificial means, deserve all the reprobation which the

above-mentioned reformers bestow so undiscriminatingly on all

alike. Excess of slenderness is not beautiful, and artificial com-

pression forces the viscera into positions which produce a deform-

ity of the abdominal wall more repulsive than a stout waist.—C.

_ —LABORATORIES of Marine Biology have been established at

various localities for the purpose of enlarging our knowledge of

animal and vegetable structure, development, and function, and

to furnish a headquarters for the instruction of the entire com-

munity in all matters connected with increased supply, avoidance

of disease, and cultivation of more varieties of sea foods.

Some idea of the extent to which the important bearings of:

Laboratories of Marine Biology are appreciated and encouraged

abroad may be gained from the following list, which will make

clear at the same time how much America is behind other nations

in giving scientific oversight to one side of the question of cheap

and plentiful food supply, a question growing in importance in

a A OSG eka Nga daar pista E om af) eg eat ee eye

taia BEELER RIE TT a ONT TIME ree ie ie ag ae ale Wy oh ae ss. eases Sy, ack ohl ARAL RRS, WL ae Sa AFTRA DR Stat hong.

nachos IAE NE aie Se ERN wi

1 Enea OAR a T Bee GR Pk!

ES ee a ae ee ees AM haga

ee E E E

1891.] Editorial. 719

direct ratio with the growth of population. The first of the

laboratories named in the list, that of Naples, has cost, in per-

manent plant alone, over $100,000, and is carried on at an annual

expense of $20,000. The laboratory and fittings of the English

station, at Plymouth, were completed at a cost of over $60,000,

raised by subscription. The two Austrian and the eight French

stations have been fostered by the intelligent and progressive men

of their respective countries, and have given abundant returns in

practical contributions to knowledge. The Japanese station has,

during its few years of existence, done much to alleviate certain

sources of public distress. The following list represents the

number of such stations and the countries where they are

situated: Italy, 1; Austria, 2; France,8; Holland, 2; Belgium,

1; Germany, 1; Sweden, 2; Great Britain, 5; Russia, 1 ; Japan,

1; New South Wales, 1. In the United States we have one at

Wood's Holl, Mass., and one under charge of the U. S. Fish

Commission, at the same place. In the wide range of our Atlantic

and Gulf coasts south of Wood's Holl no station exists.

Through the energy of Prof. C. S. Dolley, of the University of

Pennsylvania, and the liberality of Mr. Chas. K. Landis, of Vine-

land, New Jersey, ground has been obtained at Sea Isle City, Cape

May County, N. J., and a commodious building has been erected

on it to serve as a station for biological research.

The final establishment of the Laboratory of Marine Biology

upon the New Jersey coast is the outcome of a long and careful

consideration of ways and means, undertaken by the University of

Pennsylvania, to ascertain how it could best meet its own needs

and the requirements of biologists at large.

_ To place the laboratory upon the more northerly New England

coast necessitated its closure during the winter months on account

of climatic conditions.

To have accepted the offers of suitable properties in Florida,

or the Bahama Islands, would have necessitated the absence of a

number of the university's staff of naturalists during the collegiate

year, when their services are particularly needed at home. Com-

parative inaccessibility applied to either alternative. The decision

in favor of the present location of the laboratories is based upon

720 7 The American Naturalist. [August,

the fact that the fauna of the New Jersey shore waters and of its

numerous bays and thoroughfares is exceedingly rich, uniting to

a degree, greater perhaps than any other locality, the northern

and southern marine faunas. The plants of New Jersey are also

peculiarly interesting from the standpoint of climatology and

geographical distribution. New Jersey occupies a central position

as regards the great oyster industries of the country, midway

between Rhode Island and Virginia. Access is quick and easy

to the greatest centers of oyster consumption and distribution,

—viz., Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. The desirability

of the location is enhanced also from its proximity to three of the

greatest intellectual and scientific centers of the country, the

University of Pennsylvania, Columbia College, and Johns Hopkins

University, enabling the work of the laboratories to be conducted

in thorough accord with the university idea, and. available to the

considerable number of naturalists congregated at these institu-

tions and in the scientific organizations of the three great cities.

Ready access to the unsurpassed libraries and collections of these

three cities, and particularly to those of the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia, urged strongly in favor of the present

location.

An examination of the U. S. Coast Survey charts will show a

gradual widening of the littoral area towards the southern end of

New Jersey. This great shoal-water area is the home of myriads

of interesting marine animals, and the spawning and feeding

grounds of an equally important series of fishes, etc. The

numerous bays and the intricate maze of thoroughfares running

back through the salt meadows to the mainland are equally inter-

esting from a biological standpoint.

Sea Isle City, situated on Ludlam Island, affords unsurpassed

facilities for the utilization of this rich field for investigation. It

has direct railroad connection with New York and Philadelphia

by numerous fast trains, good harborage for collecting-boats, and

Ludlam Bay, with its oyster grounds of several hundred acres,

awaiting only the suggestions of the naturalist to replenish them,

and counterbalance the short-sighted policy of the oystermen.

Sea Isle City is located in an area the hard sand beach of which

een i

ee ee ee

EN ee, O

SE aar ai aa

1891.] Editorial. 721

shelves in the most gradual manner for a distance of several miles

below the sea-level. It is underlaid with a tenacious, black

alluvium, representing submerged meadow-land, and from the

permanency which this gives it, forms a favorite habitat to

mollusks of great number and variety, so much as to have gained

the name of “Shell Beach” among the inhabitants of this region.

The scientific staff consists of Professors Dolley (Director),

Jayne, Ryder, Wilson, and Cope.

—ATTENTION may be directed to the shortness of the time

permitted the meeting of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science, to be held in Washington, commencing

August the 19th. As originally announced it was to have closed

on August the 22d, thus covering only four days, of which three

may be regarded as working days. It is then succeeded by a two-

days’ session of the Geological Society of America. By a new

arrangement the two societies now overlap their sessions.

Equally inexplicable is the proposition to have the papers of

foreign geologists read before this society. Is there a scheme

on foot to extinguish the congress? or is this only one more

illustration of the confusion of geological ideas that naturally

emanates from Washington? We are of the opinion that there

is no proper reason for a meeting of the Geological Society in the

summer. The meeting during the winter holiday seems to satisfy

all requirements.

—IrT ts still far from certain that the execution by electric

shock is more humane than that by hanging. No detailed report

of the recent execution of four men at the New York State

prison has been yet made public, and some of those authorized to

make it, appear to have a prejudice in favor of this mode of exe-

cution. The only details which have been reported so far include

two remarkable statements. One is that these men, as was the

case with Kemmler, required two discharges to kill them. The

other was that the face of the only one of the four men which

was seen by an outsider, was seamed with burns, and that a hole

was burned in the leg to the bone. That a portion of the dis-

722 : The American Naturalist. [August,

charge passed over or near the surface of the body of Kemmler

was stated in the reports, and the similar statement in this case

requires explanation. The sentiment of humanity and decency

must be satisfied in this matter.

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ABBOTT, C. L.—Evolution, True or False. From the author

AGASSIZ -a of ETE: diomede, a New Stalked Sage from the

Galapagos. Ex t. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. at Harvard College. From the author

ALLEN, pein New Species of iiss . Reprint Proc. Amer. Phil Sie, Vol.

XXIX., Feb. r1th, 1891. From the author

ALLEN, J. A—The American Omithologists’ Union: A Seven Years’ Retrospect.

From the author.

Annnaire de L'Académie Royale des Sciences, des Lettres, et des Beaux-Arts de

Belgique, 1891. From the academy.

Ann eport of the Postmaster General of the United States, for the Fiscal Year

Ending June 3oth, 1890.

ER, G. F.—The Structure of a Portion of the Sierra Nevada of California. Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 49-74. From the author

BODINGTON, A.—The Flora of the Past. Ext. Hardwicke’ s Science Gossip. From

the author.

BRONN, H. G.—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs. Vierter Band, Vermes.

17 Lieferung.—Sechster Band, Aves. 35 u. 36 Lieferung—Sechster Band, |Mammalia,

35 u. 36 Lieferung. - From the author.

Bulletin de la Soc. Zoologique de France pour l'année 1890.

talogue of the Colonial Museum Library. Director Sir James Hecto

Cave Drawings. Ext. Appleton’s opin Cyclopedia and Register of Important

Events, of the year 1889. From the publis

ERNA, D.—A Study of the Physi aren Action of Kava-Kava. Reprint Thera-

peutic Gazette, Jan. 15th, 1891. From the author.

D'INVILLIERS, E. V.—Phosphate Deposits. of the island of Navassa. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 75-84. From the author.

= e ae R Fuel for Texas. Circular No. 8, Geol. Surv. Texas, 1890+

Foxtatve, "Ww. M., F. H. KNOWLTON.—Notes on Triassic Plants from New

Mexico. Proc. U. S. Nat. this Vol. XIII. From the Smithsonian Institution.

Foara Max.—Ueber die systematische Stellung der Hesperornithidæ.

Separatabdruck Ornith. Monatschrift des Deutschen Vereins z. Schutze der Fogelwelt.

GARMAN, S.—Massachusetts Carp.—The River Trout.—New England Saibling,

Exts. Twenty-fifth Annual Rept. Comm. Inland Fisheries of Mass

——The “Gila

onster,’ — Henochilus wheatlandii, Balistes vetula, Silurus

aristotelus. Exts. Bull. Essex Inst., Vol. XXII., Nos. 4, 5, and 6, 1890. From the

author. ay

E A

ree Fee

oF ae et ig

See ne

PS ee

1891. Recent Books and Pamphlets. 723

GEINITZ, H. Soha Mittheilungen iiber die rothen und bunten Mergel

der oberen Dyas bei Manchester. From the author.

GILL, T.—Osteological Characteristics of the Family Amphipnoidz, Ext. Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII. From the author.

GILLETT, P. G.—Deaf Mutes: Their Intermarriage and Offspring. Ext. Science.

OODE, G. BROWN.—Report upon the Condition nt à Pora of the U. S. Nat.

Mus. during the Year Ending June 3oth, 1888. From the Smithsonian Institution.

GREEN, A. H.—New York of the Future. From theauthor.

HACKEL, EDUARD. The True Grasses. From Henry Holt & Co., New York

uthor.

HERRICK, C. L.— sDayahoga Shale and the Problem of the Ohio Waveriy. Ext. Bull.

Geol. Soc. fee poe; II., pp. 31-48, pl. 1. From the author.

HILL, R. T.—Pilot Knob: A Marine Cretaceous Volcano. Reprint Am. Geol.,

Nov., 1890. From the author.

HIPPISLEY, A. E.—A Catalogue of the Hippisley Collection of Chinese Porcelain,

with a Sketch of the History of Ceramic Artin China. Ext. Rept. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1887-88.

From the Smithsonian Institution.

HYATT, A.—The Next Stage a the Development of Public Parks. Ext. Atlantic

Monthly, Feb., 1891. From the au

IRELAN, WM.—Tenth Annual an of the California State Mining Bureau, 1

LEwIis, T. H.—Bowlder T Figures in the Dakotas, Surveyed in the Summer of

1890. Ext. Am. Anthrop., Jan., From the a

MINOT, C.-S.—The eee Theory of the Jadeit Embryo. Ext. AM. NAT.,

1889. bars the author.

NEWBERRY, J. S—The Flora of the Great Falls reas Field, Montana. Ext. Am.

Journ. Sens Vol. XLI., March, 1891. From the au

P, J. I.—Notes on the Geology of the minat Ext, Trans. N. Y. Acad.

—tThe Birds of Andros Island, Bahamas. Ext. The Auk, Vol. VIII., No. 1,

Jan., 1891. From the author.

POHLIG, HANS.—Die grossen Saugetiere der a Ext. Zoologische Vor-

träge herausgegeben von Wm. Marshall. From the a

POUCHET, GEORGES.—Trois Communications sur he ‘Cétacés. Ext. des Comptes

Rendus des Séances de la Société de Biologie, Déc., 1890, Jan. 1891. From the author.

Proceedings of the Society for Psychical Research, Dec., 1890.

recombi: —Plante Europe. From the author. :

—The Parietal Eye in Some Lizards from the beers United States.

Ext. Ball aia Wus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XX., No. 8. From the a

SPENCER, J. W.—Deformation of the Algonquin Beach, and Birth “i Lake Huron.

Am. Journ. Science, Vol. XLI., Jan., 1891. From the author.

STEVENSON, J. J.—Proc. Semi-Annual Meeting held at Indianapolis, Aug. rgth,

1890. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II.

The a Bulletin. From the san => - —

TR RT et TOPSENT.—Sur u g

ianiai per côtes de la Mamche. From the authors.

TUCKERMAN, F.—The Dona of the Gustatory Organs in Man. Reprint from

Am, _— Psychology, Vol. ILI., No. 2

ry Organs of peat lotor.—The Gustatory Organs of Belideus

ariel. F Exts. Journ. Anat. and Physiol., Vol. XXIV.

UPHAM, W.—On the Cause of the Glacial Period. Ext. Am. Geol., Dec., 1890.

IAT fdlh

724 The American Naturaist. [August,

UPHAM, W., and FRANK LEVERETT, N. S. SHALER and O, W. CrosBy.—A

Discussion of the Climatic Conditions of the.Glacial Period. Ext. Proc. ih Soc,

Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIV., 1889. From W. Upham. :

WARD, H. A.—Lettre sur ve Musées Argentins. Ext. Revista del Mus. de la Platta.

Tome I., 1890. From the a

WALKER, E. H. secon of the School-Teacher. From the au

WILSON, E. B.—The Origin of the Mesoblast-Bands in Annelids. te Journ.

don ae. Soc., April r5th, 1890.—On the Tooth of a Carboniferous Dipnoan Fish, Cteno-

dus interruptus.—On the Head of Hybodus delabechei. Reprints Yorkshire mi SO

ap "Rept, — a New Species of — Fish, Mesodon damon

of Ely.—Visit to American Museums.

Exts. Geol. Mag., 1890.—A Synopsis of the Fossil Fishes of the English Gölten, Reprint

from Proc. Geol. Assoc., Vol. XI., No. 6. From the author.

1891,] Recent Literature. 725

RECENT LITERATURE.

Ameghino on the Extinct Mammalia of Argentina.'—We

have here a monumental work, such as can only be produced under

circumstances which seldom concur. The conditions are, first, rich

and newly discovered fossiliferous deposits; second, a man who is

competent to study and describe them ; and third, facilities for publi-

cation. Such a coincidence created the Ossemens Fossiles of Cuvier

in Europe ; a similar state of affairs has produced corresponding works

in North America ; and now South America has come forward with a

history and a historian worthy to take rank with anything that has

gone before. The richness of the Pampean beds of Buenos Ayres has

been made known to us by Owen and Burmeister, but it has been for

Ameghino to bring to our notice the extraordinary wealth of the

Miocene and Eocene beds of the Parana and of Patagonia. Indeed,

the wealth of Patagonia, of which a few jewels were brought home by

Darwin, turns out to be extraordinary, and the explorations conducted

by Senor Carlos Ameghino, brother of the author of this book, have

been more productive than those of any other known region, those of

some parts of North America alone excepted.

The orders of Mammalia most abundantly represented are those of

which examples had been already brought to light in a comparatively

small number of representatives by previous explorers. The number

of genera and species enumerated by M. Ameghino is as follows:

Genera. | Species.

? Marsupialia, 8 24

Edentata, nt qo 188

Glires, : 71 177

re areal Se 8 9

arniv 13 +4

Chivcpners II 16

Dao (Litopterna), 14 23

uadrumana), 4 4

Toxodontia 28 71

Diplarthra (Perissodactyla), 7 14

(Artiodactyla, 18 46

Cetacea, 13 17

Incertz sedis, 4 4

Proboscidia, I 6

Total, 286 643

1 Contribucion al Conocimento de los Mamiferous Fosiles de la Republica Argentina

etc., por Florentino Ameghino. Tomo VI., Actos de la Academia Nacional de Ciencias

de la Republica Argentinaen Cordoba. Buenos Ayres, 1889. Folio, pp. 1027, with Atlas.

726 The American Naturalist. [August,

The most important results achieved by M. Ameghino are as follows :

First, the discovery and definition of numerous marsupialoid or multi-

tuberculate forms from the Eocene of Patagonia; second, the discovery

of Creodonta in the same region and horizon ; third, the discovery of

Edentata with enamel bands on the teeth ; fourth, the definition of the

siborder Litopterna, and discovery of new types; fifth, the completed

definition of the order Toxodontia. To these points may be added

as only second to them in importance the discovery of Eocene forms

of Edentata with superior incisor teeth, and the great additions to

the number of forms of Edentata, Glires, and Toxodontia. i

The marsupialoid forms are of great interest. Abderites resembles

the Plagiaulacidz, while in Epanorthus we have a type which shows

how the singular cutting premolar of this type or that of the Marsupi-

alia Diprotodonta may have been derived from a primitive tuberculo-

sectorial tooth. The occurrence of these forms in the Eocene of

Patagonia is a fact of great significance, and M. Ameghino regards

them as true Marsupialia, and the ancestors of the Diprotodonta of

Australia. ;

The Creodonta mostly repose on the evidence of imperfect material.

Some of them have a simple dentition, and much remains before their

true affinities can be determined.

The suborder Litopterna deserves more detailed notice, and we give

it in another place in the NATURALIST. It is a most interesting modi-

fication of the Condylarthra, showing variations in dental and foot

structure parallel with those seen in the Perissodactyla, with which I.

think M. Ameghino wrongly combines them.

The light thrown on the structure of the Toxodontia is most impor-

tant. The structure of the posterior feet has been hitherto but partially

known, and that of the fore feet entirely unknown. M. Ameghino

shows that the former are taxeopodous, and the latter amblypodous,

proving conclusively the claim of the Toxodontia to be regarded as a

distinct order of ungulate Mammalia. An important feature of this

book is the number of new genera allied to Mesotherium which are

described and figured.

The great number of Glires described is remarkable. It is inter-

esting to observe that they correspond with existing forms of South

America, the Chinchillide and Caviide being most numerous, even in

Eocene times, while the Leporidz are very few, and present only in

the latest beds.

As a general result of M. Ameghino’s work it is now possible to

announce the following conclusions: The extinct Mammalia may be

1891.] Recent Literature. 72 7

referred to three categories ; first, the orders which have been mainly

restricted to the Southern Hemisphere, and have originated there,—the

Edentata, the Toxodonta, the Litopterna; second, cosmopolitan

orders,—Glires, Chiroptera, Marsupialia, Perissodactyla ; third, orders

which have come from the Northern Hemisphere at a comparatively

later period of geologic time,—Carnivora, Proboscidia, and Artiodac-

tyla. The further history of the origin of the truly Antarctic types

will be awaited with the greatest interest.

An atlas of 98 plates accompanies the text. The figures have been

executed under the careful eye of the author, and express the characters

referred to in the text. The great expense involved in their production

has made it necessary to employ some phototype process, which can

not give as good artistic effects as lithography.

We congratulate M. Ameghino on the completion of this great work.

We also congratulate the country which has produced it. It is works

of this character which give a nation its intellectual standing in the

world. Henceforth Argentina will be known to science as a country

which has added one of the largest and most important contributions

to its temple of life.—E. D. COPE

Furbringer’s Researches on the Morphology and Sys-

tematic of Birds.2—This is a work of great thoroughness in

the field which it covers. It is divided into two parts, each included

in a volume; the first describing the anterior limb and shoulder

girdle, and the second being a comprehensive review of the characters

and systematic relations of birds. In the first-volume the osteology,

myology, and neurology are thoroughly described, and the illustra-

tions cover the plates at the end of the second volume. The charac-

ters of many species are for the first time described and figured. In

the second volume the work already done in bird anatomy is reviewed,

both zoology and paleontology being thoroughly examined. The sys-

tematic results are set forth in tables. In one of these the structural

characters are tabulated. In another the divisions down to families

inclusive are displayed. We give this table, exclusive of the families,

as exhibiting conciscly the author’s views. Two phylogenetic trees

follow. On three succeeding plates three horizontal sections of these

trees are given, which display the affinities of higher and lower forms

in an expressive manner.

2 Untersuchungen zur Morphologie u. Systematic der Voegel; Zugl. ein Beitr. zur

Anatomie der Stütz tind Bewegungsorganen ; von Max Fiirbringer. Amsterdam Zj. von

Halkem: ema, 1888 ; ‘2 vols. folio, pp. 1751.

728 The American Naturalist. [August,

CLASSIS AVES.

Order. Suborder, Genus.

I.—Subclassis SAURURE.

ARCHORNITHES Archeopterygiformes Archzeopteryges

I1.—Subclassis ORNITHU RÆ.

STRUTHIORNITHES Struthioniformes Struthiones

RHEORNITHES Rheiform Rheæ

HIPPALECTRYORNITHES Casuariiformes Casuarii

Æpyornithiformes Æpyornithes

Palamedeiformes. la

Anseriformes Gastornithes

Anseres

Enaliornithes

Hesperornithes

Colymbo-Podicipites

Phænicopteri _

i Cirkin Pelargo-Herodii

PELARGORNITHES - ¢ Podicipitiformes

Procellariiformes

Aptenodytiformes

Aptenodytes

- Ichthyornithiformes

Ichthyornithes

Laro-Limicolæ

CHADRAORNITHES Charadriiformes

arr

Otides

Gruiformes ERA ygæ

Ralliformes Fulicarize

emipodii

Apterygiformes Apteryges

ALECTORORNITHES Crypturiformes Crypturi

iformes Galli

Columbiformes f Foren tes

umbee

Psittaciformes Psittaci

í Coccygiformes Coccyges

Galbulz

Pico-Passeriformes

Halcyoniformes

CORACORNITHES 4 {

' : Coraciiformes

1891.] Recent Literature. 729

The complex characters of bird affinities are well displayed in these

graphic methods. It is rendered partly clear that in a great many

instances nothing but actual paleontological discovery will reveal the

true connections.

Dr. Fiirbringer’s work, besides being a treasury of bird anatomy

and character, introduces us to the literature in a most exhaustive way.

Nothing has escaped him. We seem to be in the presence of aH the

workers who have contributed to the systematic of birds from the

beginning. All are recognized, and the share of each in the work is

duly recorded. As a standard of information on scientific ornithology

the book will always hold a first rank.

Miller’s North American Geology and Paleontology.’—

This work is an alphabetically arranged index of the genera and

species of Paleozoic plants and animals. The only scientific division

of the catalogue is that into classes. The names of the genera and

species are accompanied by one reference to a description, and fre-

quently by a good figure. The work opens by a general geologic

description, including the Mesozoic and Cenozoic formations, and by

an enumeration of the rules of nomenclature.

The work is an exceedingly useful one for reference. The alpha-

betic arrangement makes it necessary that one should know beforehand

what he wants to find. It is hence useful chiefly to the scientist. For

the purposes of the student such a work should be systematically

arranged throughout.

Some fault may be found with the description of the Cenozoic beds

of the interior of the continent in a few particulars, Thus it is stated

that the Wind River beds are Miocene, when they are Eocene, and the

Loup Fork beds are said to be Pliocene, when they are Upper Mio-

cene. Miocene and Pliocene pass into each other so completely,

however, that the names should be abolished, and the word Neocene

used in their stead. We only notice one serious objection to the sys-

tematic presentation of the subiect, and that is in the land Vertebrata.

Here the Batrachia and Reptilia are mixed together under the head of

Batrachia, an error for which it is difficult to account, since the dis-

tinction between the two classes hasgbeen maintained by the describers

of their respective contents. In the matter of etymology of names,

the present work is mainly up to the requirements of the subject. The

book is one which the working paleontologist cannot do without.

3 North American Geology and Paleontology, for the Use of Amateur Students and

Scientists. By S. A. Miller. Cincinnati, 1889, pp. 664, 8vo.

730 : The American Naturalist. [ August,

Bergen’s Primer of Darwinism.‘—This little book is a’ con-

venient one to put into the hands of a preliminary inquirer on the

subject of evolution. It takes up successively the variability of species,

the systematic order, and the parallels between the ontogeny and

‘phylogeny. A number of illustrations elucidate the subject-matter.

The authors have not gone into the discussion of the origin of varia-

tion, and of the Neolamarckian and Neodarwinian schools, nor into

the question of inheritance of acquired characters. As far as it goes,

the book is an excellent one.

Morris on Civilization.5—The history of civilization is the his-

tory of mankind written from the utilitarian standpoint, rather than

from the heroic or romantic. It is the real history, the one which will

take the place of all others in our institutions of learning when our

teachers have sufficiently escaped from tradition and custom. History

as now taught is largely political history, where the occupations of the

great majority of mankind are neglected, and in which the deeds of

ind which were best worth doing are unrecorded. Mr. Morris’s

book is a comprehensive synopsis of the progress of man in all his

activities, occupying twenty-four chapters. He treats of population,

government, religion, law, philosophy, commerce, wealth, science, art,

and education. ‘The erudition necessary for the production of such a

work is encyclopedic, and we may say that the work is well done

considering the limited space at the author’s disposal. His own views

are in touch with modern humanitarianism and modern thought, and

his unobtrusive presentation of them appears to be the natural outcome

of the logic of each subject as it arises. A more definite reference to

authorities would have added greatly to the value of the work.

4A Primer of Darwinism and Organic Evolution. E Y. Bergen, Jr., and Fanny

D. Bergen. Boston, 1890, Lee & Shepard. 8vo, pp. 260.

5 Civilization: A Historical Review of its E meer By Charles Morris. Chicago,

1890, S. C. Griggs & Co. 8vo, 2 vols., pp. 1

kiii

1891.] Geography and Travel. | 731

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

A Visit to the Philippine Islands of Masbate and Marin-

duqt'e.—On the first of May, 1888, after a month’s stay in the Eastern

Philippines, we sailed from the port of Catbalogan, in the island of

Samar, bound for the island of Masbate. Our vessel was a stout little

brig called the ‘‘ Salvamiento,’’ built in the islands, manned by a crew

of Indians, and commanded by a Spanish captain. Our cargo was

abaca (manila hemp), for the Manila market, and our only fellow-

passenger was an old Indian sergeant going up to Manila on furlough.

The southeast trades were just beginning to blow, and we set sail at

sundown. The month in the eastern islands had been one of the

hardest we had passed, with the jealousy of the authorities, poor food,

the beginning of the rainy season, and a most difficult and mountain-

ous country to hunt over, and we were pleased enough to be once more

turned towards the north and home. ‘The evening was pleasant, and

we sat in the moonlight on the deck far into the night listening to the

old sergeant’s stories, and then turned in to sleep in a shake-down of

sails on the cabin floor. :

The next morning found us still moving leisurely along under the

same gentle breeze, and in the common highway from the Eastern and

Central Philippines towards Manila. Islands were in sight on both

sides all day, most of them more or less cultivated. In the afternoon

we reached the southern point of Masbate, and sailed along the eastern

shore. The country looked bare and brown enough. Most of it was

campo, a rolling prairie, covered with coarse grass, now mee with

drouth, and in many places blackened with fire,

Just at night we turned into the little harbor of Palanoc and dropped

anchor, the captain saying that he would wait and put us ashore in the

morning, so that we might have time to hunt a house to stop in. He

then took me ashore in his boat, and we climbed the steep bank of

sixty or eighty feet, up to the little town, and there, guided by the

moonlight, along a little crooked street to a low shop kept by a China-

man, in which were an antiquated billiard table and a bar, and where

were assembled the four or five Spaniards who made up the official

corps of the island ; for Masbate is’a province, and Palanoc its capital.

The captain introduced me as “ Un señor naturalista Americano,”

732 The American Naturalist. [August,

and an old, grizzled officer in half-military dress began to tell remark-

able stories of a young American naturalist whom he knew in the

islands many years before. I finally made out to recognize myself in

one of these stories, and the old man as an officer whom I had met and

stopped with in-the island of Basilan in ‘*’74.’’ He was acting gov-

ernor of Masbate now, and the next morning put the whole establish-

ment at our service. We were too many to accept his hospitality, and

he ordered the school-house, which was closed for a vacation, to be

put ai our disposal. The palm thatch was in bad repair, but we had

left the oncoming rainy season behind at our last stopping place, and

the tables and benches served us well for our work. Several prisoners

in chains were sent to transport our baggage up the steep hill, and we

moved in immediately and got over breakfast in our new home while

the ‘‘Salvamiento’’ was slowly making her way out of the harbor.

The same day several of our party got out to some patches of woods

not far away, and found the country so dry that great cracks ran

through the soil in every direction. Birds of several kinds, especially

parrots and cockatoos, were abundant. All the birds brought in had

a familiar look, and the next day the same; and there was now no

doubt of it, we had struck another island of the central group, and

the birds were identical with those of Panay and Negros. Masbate is

distant enough from these to have a fauna of its own, but a study of

the sea-bottom will probably show shallows which have not long ago

connected it with the other central islands. After we had spent four

or five days at Palanoc, and just as we were planning a trip into a

wilder and better-timbered part of the island, the steamer “‘ Taal ’’ came

into the harbor, and began loading with cattle for Manila. We found

she would touch at Marinduque, our next stopping place, on her way,

and, after a hurried consultation, concluding we could add but little

of value to our collections from Masbate, we packed our goods and

got on board the same evening, some of the woodsmen bringing us a

few fine tree snails while we were on our way to the steamer. The /

species of land and tree snails of the Philippines are more restricted

in distribution than even the short-winged birds. ~

e next morning found us well on our way, and passing through a

multitude of islands, several of them of considerable size and impor-

tance. e southeastern extremity of Luzon was also in sight, and

the famous volcano of A y.

We arrived at the port or roadstead of Boac, in the island of Mar-

induque, just at night again, and we and our baggage were set ashore

just before dark. The town was several miles away, but a few houses,

1891.] Geography and Travels. 733

forming a little fishing village along the road leading up to it, were

the sight among cocoa groves. The inhabitants of the place were an

inhospitable lot, and, failing to make terms with them, we camped for

the night on the beach, among our baggage. The next morning, con-

cluding the port to be better fitted for our purpose than the inland

town, we hired a little house just big enough to put a table into and

to hang up our hammocks, and moved in, and, hiring an Indian boy

as cook, were ready to look about us. The country along the coast

was level and sandy, and much of it planted in cocoa groves, the rest

showing ditches and banks made for irrigating rice, though the fields

were now dry and grown up to grass and weeds, the last year having

been too dry to raise rice. Troops of horses were feeding over these

plains. Behind this level land the country rose up in low hills, which

were rocky and covered with thick bushes. The only virgin forest in

sight was several miles away, inland, and on steeper, higher hills.

The birds shot in the cocoa groves about us proved to be distinct,

many of them, from any we had as yet procured, though we afterwards

found them to be identical with those of the great island of Luzon.

There had been a gradual increase in the number of species of birds

found nesting since February, but we now found nearly all species in

the full tide of nesting. It seems strange that this should agree so

closely with the nesting season in the north temperate regions. Bee-

birds, kingfishers, cuckoos, shrikes, fruit-thrushes, orioles, fly-catchers,

sun-birds, crows, starlings, pigeons, rails, herons, ducks, parrots, and

cockatoos were all nesting. When the natives heard that we had cash

to pay for such things, we were fairly besieged with boys and girls and

women, with birds’ nests and eggs, and land and tree snails. The

ladder leading up to our room usually had two or three people upon it,

who would hold up their collections whenever any of us came in sight.

The native name of the bird was always required, and the nest with

the eggs as far as ‘possible. One day an old woman brought a basket

- with a number of round, white eggs, new to us. She was required to -

bring the nest to which the eggs belonged before being paid, but said

the nest was a ‘‘ pogo,” and was then told to bring along the ‘‘ pogo.”

A few days after we found that the eggs were those of the beautiful

Merops bicolor, the prettiest of the two Philippine bee-eaters, and that

they are laid in a hole in the ground, and this was the “ pogo ” we.

had demanded of the old woman,

The number of birds building nests in holes here seemed to me to

be rather remarkable. Among these were the bee-eaters, kingfishers,

Am. Nat.—August.—4.

734 The American Naturalist. [August,

swallows, shrikes, two species of starlings, cockatoos, parrots, owls,

woodpeckers, and hornbills. But for the help of the natives our col-

lections would have been poor ; but the island seems over-populated,

at least for the methods of cultivation used, and the people were

anxious to get our money. Among the animals brought us were two

of the curious Philippine rats (Phloeomys). They were nearly as large

as our common gray rabbit, light-gray in color, with short black tails.

They were brought living, tied together to a stick, and had nearly cut

each other to pieces before we received them.

A trip down the beach to the south two or three miles brought us

to a small creek flowing out of the hills, and following this up we

found some woodland in the steep ravines, and many birds, among

them two species of beautiful pittas, in abundance, and further above,

a few of the great hornbills (Buceros hydrocorax), and the curious

crested cuckoos (Dasylophus), before supposed to be limited to Luzon.

At about the same distancé to the north there was a tract of lowland,

much of it planted in rice, which was now being harvested, and here

all kinds of waders were abundant,—rails and gallinules and herons of

several species, most of them nesting, and a few Philippine mallards.

Along the sea beach were thickets of small timber, and upon these we

found one of the prettiest of the Philippine tree snails quite abundant,

while the natives brought us from further inland quantities of Budimus

philippenensts and woodianus, two of the largest and finest species in

the islands, The weather, which was dry when we arrived, gradually

changed. Rain-clouds gathered over the hill-tops, and before the

close of the month we had several heavy showers, and the rainy season

had begun, and we prepared to move before it again,—this time to the

little-known island of Mindoro, which was in sight across the strait,

twelve or fifteen miles away.—J. B. STEERE, Ann Arbor, Mich.

Pe a ia eee

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 735

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Elevation of America in the Cenozoic Periods.—Mr. W.

H. Dall writes as follows to the Geological Magazine-for May, 1891:

“ I notice in recent numbers of the Geological Magazine that Mr.

Upham has been discussing his views on the elevation of the Gulf of

Mexico, etc. It seems a pity that gentlemen who desire to launch

such startling hypotheses should not devote more time to settling the

facts upon which these hypotheses are based before promulgating their

new views. As the statements made by Mr. Upham may be taken as

properly verified, and more confusion be thereby occasioned, permit

me to call attention to a few facts which have been verified.

‘1. The late Dr. Maack, when on the Isthmus of Darien, did not

collect any Pleistocene fossils from the summit of the Atrato divide,

763 feet above the sea, 2. The Pleistocene fossils collected by Dr.

Maack were from an elevation of only 150 feet on the Panama side,

ten miles from Panama City. The fossils above this height collected

by Dr. Maack are Eocene or Miocene exclusively, and related to the

Miocene fauna of Santa Domingo, as indeed was pointed out by Gabb

nearly twenty years ago (Proc. Am. Philo, Soc., Vol. XII., p. 572).

3- The summit or dividing line is not fossiliferous, and is probably not

later than the Mesozoic epoch.

“I may add, from information to be shortly published, that the

Supposed great elevation of Florida at any time since the later Eocene

is as improbable as any hypothesis which could well be conceived.

The conclusions which the facts necessitate in the case of Florida may

be briefly outlined as follows: During the later Eocene, West-Central

Florida was an island, like one of the Bahamas at present, composed

exclusively of organic marine sediments, which in the Vicksburg epoch

attained an unbroken thickness of more than 1,000 feet. The whole

submarine plateau above which the present Florida rises may turn out

to be of this age and constitution. This island had a land-shell fauna

derived from the south, The strait between the island and the main

coast north of it was more than fifty miles wide at the narrowest point,

and was only closed at the beginning of the Pliocene. There have

been gentle changes of level since the Eocene, but nothing violent,

and the vertical range has been small, The Eocene and the old

Miocene faunas were of a subtropical character, like the Antillean

fauna at present. A change took place in mid-Miocene by which a

cool, temperate, or colder water fauna invaded the Floridan region

i j S

730 The American Naturalist. [August,

from the north, and about 200 feet of strata (Chesapeake Group) were

deposited, equivalent to the well-known Miocene beds of Virginia

and Maryland. With the elevation which connected the Floridan

islands with the continent a warmer era was again inaugurated in the

sea, and an invasion of Pliocene vertebrates began on the peninsula of

Florida.

‘ There were unquestionably great changes of level on the conti-

nent, increasing as one goes northward, both in Miocene and Pileisto-

cene times. Inthe Antilles it has been proved that great changes

have taken place. But the Floridan region, for some unknown rea-

son, escaped, and Yucatan probably also.

‘ I have been making a special study of Floridan geology for some

years, and hope to publish a considerable amount of new information

on that subject during the coming summer.’’

Discovery of Coal near Dover, England.—In the Contem-

porary Review, April, 1890, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins gives a his-

tory of the discovery of coal in Southeastern England, As far back

as 1826 Buckland and Conybeare recognized the physical identity of

the coal-bearing districts of Somerset on the west with those of North-

ern France and Belgium on the east. In 1855 Godwin-Austen showed

that the general direction of the exposed coal fields in South Wales

and Somersetshire and those of North France and Belgium was ruled

by a series of folds running east and west parallel to a great line of

disturbance centered in the ‘‘ axis of Artois,’’ and concluded, from a

careful study of the region, that there are coal fields beneath the

OGlitic and Cretaceous rocks in the south of England, near enough to

the surface along the ridge to be capable of being worked. His views

were reinforced by Prestwich, in a report made to the Coal Commis-

sion of 1866—71. At length, in consequence of a report made by Mr.

Dawkins to Sir Edward Watkin, chairman of the Southeastern Rail-

way and the Channel Tunnel Company, a shaft was sunk on the west

side of Shakespeare Cliff, near Dover, to the depth of forty-four feet,

and from the bottom of this a bore-hole has been made to the depth

of 1,180 feet. The Coal Measures were struck at a depth of 1,204 feet

from the surface, and a seam of good blazing coal was met with twenty

feet lower. This discovery establishes the fact that there is a coal field

lying buried under the newer deposits of Southeastern England, and

proves up to the hilt the truth of Godwin-Austen’ s hypothesis, after a

lapse of thirty-five snes

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 737

Occurrence of Texas Lignites.—The lignites of Texas occur

in the Fayette Beds and Timber Belt Beds of the Tertiary deposits.

The borders of this area have been determined and have been fully

described by Prof. E. T. Dumble in the Mineral Resources of the

United States, 1887, since which time they have not been changed

materially by the later investigations. The Fayette Beds underlie the

coast clays and other Quaternary deposits of Texas. Their outcrops

cross the entire State from the Sabine River to the Rio Grande, and

consist of clays, sands, limestones, and pebble deposits. The under-

lying Timber Belt Beds are composed of siliceous sand and greensand

marls, interstratified with clays, generally of a brown color, and thin

ds of limestone. The beds of lignite contained in both these series

of rocks are very numerous, sometimes occurring in lenticular masses,

greater or less extent, thinning out in every direction, and again form

extensive seams of considerable thickness, frequently fourteen feet.

The Texas Tertiary has been but little disturbed. The force lifting

these strata to their present level has caused a gradual and slow eleva-

tion, leaving them as originally laid down by the Tertiary sea. How-

ever, though no violent volcanic eruptions have distorted these beds,

they are nevertheless found sometimes broken, faulted, and bent,

caused by the drying and compression of loose, moist underlying

deposits. (Second Ann. Rept. on the Iron Ore District of East Texas,

1890. )

The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minne-

sota.'—The report of the Geological and Natural History Survey of

Minnesota for 1889 embodies a summary of American opinions on the

older rocks of North America by Alexander Winchell, and the record

of Mr. N. H. Winchell’s field observations in the northeastern part of

the state during 1888 and 1889. These observations confirm the views

lately set forth by Irving, Bonney, and Samson, and the conclusions

published by the reports of the Minnesota survey, to the effect that

the Huronian system, as now defined and understood by the Canadian

geological reports, really embraces two or three formations ; that one

of these is the true Huronian, as at first described and mapped by

Murray, another is the Keewatin of Dr, A. C. Lawson, containing the -

iron ores at Tower, Minnesota, and another is the series of crystalline

schists which have been styled Vermilion series. These three forma-

tions are distinctly separated by lithology and unconformities that have

been noted from Vermont to Minnesota, and should no longer be

! The Eighteenth Annual Report of the Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. of Minnesota, for

the year 1889; N. H. Winchell, directo

738 The American Naturalist. [August,

jncluded under a single term,—at least not under the term Huronian,

which at first had a correct and adequate definition, embracing but one

of them.

This report gives an idea of the progress that is being made in the

intricate geology of the northeastern part of the state, and of the

economic resources that are being developed there.

Geological News—Archean.—Mr. Arthur Harvey thinks that

the nodules found in the Animikie slates in the region of Thunder

Bay are fossil organisms simpler in structure than sponges. In appear-

ance they resembled the puff-balls of our meadows, varying in size

from a hen’s egg to a coal-scuttle. (Transactions Canadian Inst.,

March, 1891.)

Paleozoic.—A. Smith Woodward reports two new Devonian fishes,

—Onychodus arcticus, from Spitzbergen (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

August, 1889), and Chmatius latispinosus, from New Brunswick (Geol.

Mag., November, 1889). Mr. R. B. Newton has described and fig-

ured a new mollusc (Porcellia latidorsata) from the Carboniferous lime-

stone of Ireland (Geol. Mag., 1891). Mr. Newton proposes to change

the name of Porcellia Lev. to Leveillia, because it resembles the Por-

cellio of Latreille; an entirely inadmissable proposition. E. N.

Ringueberg has described and figured five new crinoids from the Lower

Niagara limestone at Lockport, N. Y. Callicrinus acanthinus, Gly-

plaster (Eucrinus) lockportensis, Ichthyocrinus conoidens, Eucalyptocrinus

muralis. (Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., July, 1890.)

Mesozoic.—According to A. Smith Woodward, the so-called Cre-

aceous lizard, Raphiosaurus, is founded upon the anterior half of the

dentary bone of a characteristic Cretaceous fish, Pachyrhizodus. (Aza.

and Mag. Nat. Hist, November, 1889.) Mr. David White has

found Cretacic plants at several points about Gay’s Head at Martha’s

ineyard. They seem to be nearly related to those of the Middle

Cretacic of Greenland, and there is reason to believe them identical

with the flora of the Amboy clays, (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. L., p.

554-)——Mr. R. T. Hill divides the Comanche series of Texas into

several separate and distinct terranes, the lower two of which may pos-

sibly be of the pre-Cretaceous age. He gives both stratigraphic and

Se ae proof that such a division is neccessary. (Bull. Geol.

m., Vol. II. pp. 503-528.) A new genus of Paleoniscid

pas from the Karoo formation of South Africa has been described

by A. Smith Woodward under the name of Atherstonia scutata. In

appearance of the scales, the situation and proportions of the fins, this

dije Geology and Paleontology. 739

South African fish most nearly approaches Gyrolepis, from the Euro-

pean Trias and Rhetic, and Rhabdolepis, from the European Lower

Permian. (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., September, 1889.)

Cenozoic.—Mr. Sirodont has been studying the fauna of a Ceno-

zoic formation at the foot of Mount Dol, on the southeastern side. He

is of the opinion that the débris there accumulated belongs to a period

anterior to the movement which elevated the shores of certain regions

about the Baltic Sea. (Revue Sci., June, 1891.) Mr. E. Riviere

reports the finding of the teeth and bones of Aguus caballus fossilis,

Bos primigenius, and a deer as yet undetermined, in the sands of Cergy.

(Revue Sci., May, 1891.) Dr. Reusch has found glacial striæ and

boulder clay in Finmark, belonging to a period much older than the

“ice age.” The ice-marked sandstones are probably Permian, but

may belong to the Cambro-Silurian series. (Geol. Mag., May, 1891.)

General.—M. L. Cayeux announces the discovery of an important

formation of Diatoms in the tufa which contains Cyprina planata in the

north of France and Belgium. This tufa results from the agglomera-

tion of sands of the same horizon cemented together by a colloidal or

chalcedonis silex. -Among the Diatoms which are thus found in great

numbers the author cites Synedra, Triceratium, and Coscinodiscus.

(Revue Sct., May, 1891.) Mr. A. Lindenkohl reports a sunken

river channel in Chesapeake Bay. A narrow and deep channel can be

traced nearly throughout the entire length of the bay, from the mouth

of Bush River to that of the Rappahannock, a distance of 120 miles.

(Am. Jour. Science, June, 1891.) On his return from Koukou-nor,

while crossing the Nau-Chang, Mr. Martin discovered a large band of

Jade encased in a rather friable rock. It is true Jade, as fine as that of

Siberia, and is worked by the natives to make ornaments, often of

great value, for the Chinese. (Revue Sci., May, 1891.)——As to gla-

cial records in the Newark system, Mr. I. C. Russell says that after

personally examining nearly every area occupied by it, he fails to find

any evidence to support the hypothesis that glaciers assisted in its

deposition. (Am. Journ. Science, June, 1891.)

740 The American Naturalist. [August,

ZOOLOGY.

Abnormal Duplication of Urosome in Rana catesbiana.—

While searching the stores where aquatic supplies are sold it has been

my fortune to obtain two tadpole monstrosities,—one from a dealer in

Harlem, and one from a store near Cooper Union, New York city.

The occurrence of two such specimens during the same season, each

obtained from a different locality, sets aside the probability of either

being the result of accident. A careful examination has led to the con-

clusion that the malformations are congenital. As I am assured by

Dr. John A. Ryder that nothing of the sort has been observed hitherto,

I furnish herewith a description and sketch, as being of possible interest

in their bearings on the morphology of monsters,

Both are tadpoles of Rana catesbiana, far enough advanced to possess

the posterior limbs. These, however, have very small thighs, and pre-

sent a dwarfed appearance as compared with those of normal tadpoles

of same size. One of the tadpoles died soon after coming into my

possession ; the other is alive. In both the abdomen is oval and flat,

instead of swollen and globular. This characteristic has been persist-

ent with the tadpole now alive, although it has been furnished with

Anacharis, Utricularia, and other food-plants, and has fed upon them -

constantly with as much zest as is shown by ordinary tadpoles. In the

tail of each a bifurcation takes place toward the tip, and there follows

_a duplication of the tail above and below the axis of the body. In

both the dorsal and ventral branches of the fin-fold occurs a series of

muscle-plates, and a dorsal and ventral branch of the chorda corre-

sponding to the diverging limbs of the tail-tip. The plates-extend a

little beyond the point of bifurcation, and the notochord to the

1891] Zoology. 741

extreme tip of each branch. In each three vein-like structures extend

to the tips of branches, which I suppose to be the spinal cord, aorta,

and caudal vein; but, as neither specimen has been dissected, and

these structures are not very clearly defined, this point must rest in

doubt.

The lines which cross near bifurcation appear to do so in each speci-

men, a dorsal branch of chorda passing into ventral, and a ventral

branch into the dorsal fin-fold.

So far as known, all duplications of this kind have been to the right

and left of a median line; as in Japanese goldfishes, and this vertical

duplication, with the result of appending to an ordinary tadpole a struc-

ture closely resembling the forked caudal fin of some fishes, may suggest

one of the methods of evolution of fishes and frogs from the same

ancestral vertebrate form. xy

I should be pleased to correspond with any one interested, and to

communicate further if other facts can be obtained by a closer exami-

nation of this exceedingly rare and unusual larval form.

[Nore.—These cases of abnormal tadpoles described by Mr. Sher-

wood have seemed to me so remarkable that it appeared very desir-

able that they should be figured. The method of duplication of the

tail is precisely the reverse of that observed in the case of the so-called

‘‘fan-tail’’ races or double-tailed goldfishes from Japan and China.

What disturbances of ontogenetic processes may have led to the devel-

opment of this singular form of monstrosity in the tails of tadpoles

remains to made out. The origin of such irregularities may be

coupled with actual mutilations, as seems to be indicated in other cases,

by the experiment of cutting off the tails of tadpoles, as described

in the Archiv f. mik. Anatomie, 1891 (D. Barfurth on functional adap-

tation and the regeneration of tissues in the Amphibia). In the

memoir referred to it was found that the angle, with reference to the

notochordal axis, at which the tip of the tail of a tadpole was cut off

determined the direction of the inclination, upwards or downwards, of

the tip of the tail, which was reproduced. If the tail was cut

square across or at right angles, there was no departure from the nor-

mal form of the reproduced tip. If, however, the tip of a tadpole’s

tail was cut off so that the upper half of the plane of section, or that

above the notochord, formed an acute angle with the latter (the angle

` opening forwards), the now newly reproduced tip of the tail would

have its axis directed upwards. If the lower half of the plane of

section formed an acute angle with the notochordal axis (the angle

opening forwards), the tip of the tail which would now be reproduced

742 The American Naturalist. [August,

from the stump at the plane of section would be directed downwards

instead of upwards, as before. In other words, the direction of the

plane of section in these cases of the mutiliation of tadpole’s tails

determined the direction of the axis of the finally completed and

restored tails.—J. A. R.]

Snakes in Banana Bunches.—Since the notices published on

this subject in the NATURALIST (1890, Aug. and Oct., p. 968) three other

instances have come under my notice. Prof. J. Lindahl, of Spring-

field, obtained from a fruit dealer in Chicagd’a specimen of the harm-

less dipsadine snake, S14on annulatum Linn., which he obtained from a

bunch of bananas. Wm. Cherrie, of San José, Costa Rica, informs

me that as many as six men were killed during 1890 by the bites of a

venomous snake which lives in the banana bunches, which they load on

vessels at the port of Limon on the Caribbean Sea. From figures and

descriptions Mr. Cherrie recognizes the species to be the Z: elesuraspts

schlegelit Berth., which abounds in Costa Rica. It has the prehensile

habit fully as well developed as in the Boidz, which have been found

in the like situation. The Philadelphia Zoological Garden has received

a specimen of a small boa, the Ungualia pardalis, which was taken

rom a banana bunch from Jamaica. The list of banana-dwelling

snakes now includes five species,—viz., three boas, one harmless colu-

brine snake, and one venomous species allied to the copperhead.—

E. D. Corr,

Description of a New Jumping Mouse from Nova Scotia

and New Brunswick.—But one species of Zapus has been recog-

nized by recent writers on North American Mammalogy, hence it was

with much interest that I examined three specimens taken at Resti-

gouche, N. B., during the summer of 1880, by Mr. E. A. Bangs, of

Boston, who recently sent me the skins for determination, saying that

he had always considered them different from the animal found in

Massachusetts. The mice were collected on the banks of a river in

the depths of the forest, and were very difficult to procure, as they

could not be induced to enter any kind of a trap, and it was necessary

to shoot all the specimens taken. About half a dozen skins were

obtained, all but three of which were subsequently destroyed by insects.

These three specimens represent a species evidently distinct from Zapus

Audsonius, and may be named and characterized as follows:

ZAPUS INSIGNIS, sp. nov.—Meriones labradorius Dawson, Edinb. N.

-= Phil. Journ., III., January, 1856, 2, not of Richardson and Sabine.

Sp. ch.—Size and color about as in Zapus hudsonius, from New

PREITY Be PES) I meer maemo

1891.] Zoology. 743

York and Massachusetts ; tail slightly longer proportionally, white all

around for about 25 mm. at tip. Length 225, tail 126, hind foot

30 mm. (Type q ad.; No. $84, collection of G. S. Miller, Jr., Resti-

gouche, N. B. ; September roth, 1880 ; E. A. Bangs, collector.) The

skull closely recibi that of Z. hudsonius, but is slightly larger, with

brain-case a trifle broader and flatter.

The other two specimens are males. They agree perfectly with the

type, except that the tails are longer, with the white tips reduced to 13

and 11.5 mm. They measure: Length 224, tail 141, hind foot 30.8;

and length 235, tail 140, hind foot 30.4; and were taken at Resti-

gouche, September 8th and roth, respectively.

The three specimens agree in lacking the upper premolar usually

usually found in Zapus hudsonius ; but as all are old, and have the teeth

much worn, it is possible that this tooth may have been shed, leaving

no trace of its former presence. I can find no published account of

the occasional absence of this premolar in Z. hudsonius; but Mr. F.

W. True writes me that a single specimen from Pennsylvania in the

U. S. National Museum shows this peculiarity.

Apparently the only description of a jumping mouse with white-

tipped tail is that given by Dawson (Edinb. N. Phil. Journ., III., 1856,

2), who describes the animal from near Halifax, and uses the name

Meriones labradorius Rich. for it. Richardson took his name from

Sabine (Zool. App. Franklin's Journ., 1823, 661), whose specimen

‘ from Cumberland House’’ was imperfect, having the tail only 2.50

inches long, thus rendering the name /aévadorius undeterminable. The

first adequate description given under the name /aéradorius is that of

Richardson, in the ‘‘ Fauna Boreali-Americana,”’ and this refers strictly

to Z. hudsonius, or at least to a dark-tailed animal.

My warmest thanks are due Mr. Bangs for his kindness in permitting

me to announce this new species, which is his discovery rather than

my own.—GERRIT S. MILLER, JR., Peterboro, N. Y., June 28th, 1891.

Descriptions of Three New Species of Mexican Bats.—

During a recent collecting trip, made for the-Comision Geografica-

Exploradora, to Las Vegas, Canton of Jalapa, Vera Cruz, I found what

appears to be a new species of Vesperugo.

‘Close by the hamlet of Las Vegas is a small, long-since-extinct

volcano, on the sides of which are found numerous “‘ sink-holes’’ that

give entrance into long, narrow caves or tunnels, through which for-

merly flowed the lava after it had ceased to be fluid on the surface,

Some of these tunnels are as smooth and clean as though but lately

emptied of their fiery contents, whilst others are strewn with great

744 The American Naturalist. [August,

heaps of angular fragments of lava, jarred down from the roof by some

earthquake. Not infrequently two or three superimposed tunnels

have been united in parts of their length by their respective floors

having fallen through. In these caves, even on the hottest day, the

air is fresh and cool, and has a perceptible current down the mountain

side, which at the constrictions becomes a strong breeze. This cool-

ness of the atmosphere was a fortunate circumstance for my collecting,

as because of it I found most of the bats in a state of semi-hibernation,

enabling me to take with the hand all those within arm’s reach. Prof.

J. A. Allen’s recently described Vespertilio velifer was the prevailing

species, abounding in hundreds, and of which I took with the aid of my

assistant, Sefior Carlos M. Teran, 193 specimens ; 151 being males, and

the remaining 42 females. This I take to be a fair average of the pro-

portion of the sexes in what is probably one of their permanent head-

quarters. P/ecotus macrotis was scattered about in very sparing numbers,

but five specimens being seen. Unlike my former experience with this

species in the valley of Mexico, all were found solitary, completely

isolated from the other species as well as from one another.

_ While collecting these bats I came across one whose small size

Immediately distinguished it from the two other species ; yet from its

general similarity in form, viewed by the uncertain light of a stearine

candle, and its almost exact identity in color with ve/ifer, led me for

the moment to suppose that it was a young of that species. But upon

finding another of these small bats I made a closer examination, and

at once saw that I had another species to deal with, new to me, and I

fancied new to science. A search through all the literature of the

subject that I have at hand confirms me in the belief that it is an unde-

scribed species.

Six specimens, five males and one female, were taken, and no

others were seen. In every case they were hanging from the sides of

the caves, instead of from the roofs, as was the case with velifer, and

unlike it were always solitary,—a point on which I place no special

stress, as I find this and several other habits of bats to vary with

locality, etc. Some were taken not far from the entrances, where,

when the eyes were accustomed to the darkness, a faint sort of phos-

phorescent glow could be seen in the direction of the mouth of the

cave. Others were taken many hundreds of yards within, where inter-

vening abrupt angles rendered it absolutely impossible that the slightest

ray of light could at any time of day penetrate. That this locality is

not the headquarters of this species I am satisfied ; whether higher up

in the “erra templada, or below in tierra caliente, will prove to be its

12 et A NORIO

1891. : Zoology. : 745

center of distribution I am not positive ; but I think that it will be in

tierra caliente, at least during the winter months. The semi-hiberna-

tion of the specimens taken point toward this opinion, for I am inclined

to believe that here, where ten miles of travel may bring an entire

change of climate, the bats, as a rule, prefer to migrate rather than to

hibernate.

These bats, when first taken, were entirely motionless ; but in a few

moments the heat of my hand revived them, whereupon they occasion-

ally gave voice to a faint, high-pitched squeak,—so high in pitch that

I fancy it lacked little of being beyond the range of the ordinary

human ear. They went into none of those ecstasies of rage seen in

many of the larger species that bite Whatever comes within range of

their mouth, be it their own foot or wing. One, found in a compara-

tively dry part of a cave, was completely beaded over with dew, indi-

cating, I think, that it had passed at least several days since taking

flight. When taken into the daylight they closed their eyes and

covered them over with the carpal portion of their wings.

VESPERUGO VERECRUCIS, sp. nov.—All six specimens were indistin-

guishable one from another in point of color. The following color-

description is taken from a dried skin, whereas all the rest of the

description is taken from a specimen preserved in alcohol.

Vesperugo verecructs.

Hairs of back clove-brown for basal half, followed by two equal

zones respectively broccoli-brown and clove-brown ; some of hairs

furthermore tipped with light Vandyke-brown, giving a decidedly

“‘rusty’’ tone to the back. Ventral surface, bases of hairs slightly

lighter than those of back, followed by light hair-brown, producing a

grayish or smoky effect.

Wing membranes naked, except a very limited area on upper surface

along sides of body, not exceeding three or four millimeters in width ;

and on lower surface, the area included between a line passing from

Pig 1

746 The American Naturalist [August,

the middle of humerus to the knee and the side of the body is scantily

haired.

Interfemoral membrane with a small, triangular patch of hair on its.

upper surface, covering base of tail, and extending to one-fourth of its

length.

Legs and arms naked. Wing extending from base of outer toe.

Antebranchial membrane losing itself at middle of radius. Two

caudal vertebre free from membrane. :

Black glandular prominences between eyes and nostrils well devel-

oped, fringed with longish hairs on both upper and lower edges, and

with three or four long, black, bristly hairs growing from its upper

surface. í

Inner edge of ear conch evenly convex. Outer edge coming up, in

an even, sweeping curve, from angle of mouth to level of tip of tragus,

where it meets a slightly concave line leading up to the obtusely

rounded tip. A nearly semi-circular antitragus is developed from that

part of the conch passing below the tragus. Bone of inner margin of

tragus concave, thus throwing this organ forward, followed by a straight

margin. Bone of outer margin with a sub-triangular lobe, followed

by a deep notch, above which the greatest width is quickly reached.

From here a nearly straight line leads to the tip, which is obtusely

rounded. (See Fig. 2.)

Measurements in millimeters: Length of head and body, from tip

of nose to base of tail, 37.5 ; length of tail, 36; length of tail beyond

membrane, 3; length of head, 15; height of ear, from notch between

antitragus and conch to tip, 10; height of tragus, inner margin, 4.5 5

height of tragus, outer margin, 6; greatest width of tragus, 2; length

of antitragus, 2; height of antitragus (approximately), .75; length

of forearm, 31; length of thumb, including claw and excluding meta-

carpus, 7.5. Second digit—metacarpal, 29. Third digit—metacarpal,

30.5; first phalanx, 11.5; second phalanx, 11; cartilaginous tip, 5.

Fourth digit—metacarpal, 29 ; first ‘phalanx, 10; second phalanx, 7 ;

cartilaginous tip, 2.5. Fifth digit—metacarpal, 28; first phalanx,

8.5; second phalanx, 5; cartilaginous tip, 1. Interspace between

tips of third and fourth digits, 16 ; interspace between tips of fourth

and fifth digits, 37; interspace between tip of fifth digit and juncture

of membrane with foot, 42; extent of outstretched wings, 212; length

of tibia, 13.5 ; length of foot, 9 ; length of calcaneum, about 8.

Teet ie = ES = 30.

Middle upper incisors separated by 1.5 mm., inclined forwards and

inwards ; a large internal cusp on posterior-external edge halfway up

1891.] Zoology. 747

from base to tip. Outer incisors simple, conical, inclined parallel to

their respective inner mates, separated from canines by about .75 mm.

Lower incisors tri-lobate, evenly spaced. Upper canines long, simple,

slightly recurved. Lower canines straight, with basal cusps on forward

edge only. First upper premolar interior to tooth line, visible from

the exterior. Second upper premolar longer than any of its corre-

sponding molars.

A prominent conical excrescence is on the lower gum, opposite the

space between the premolars, in front of which the point of the upper

canine passes. Two much less prominent excrescences are on the upper

gum immediately above this lower one. Type No. 527 &, Las Vegas,

Vz., Feb. 19, 1891. Collectors, H. L. Ward and C. M. Teran.

Vesperugo verecrucis appears to be most closely related to V. georgi-

anus ; therefore I append a comparative table of measurements :

ee Sol b a t od S

oi ga sé as aa 2

shee PE pe Fe. &

V. verecructs. Roe: Se SS on

527. % 37:5 3°. ST, 23.5 56: aiz. a

528. Q@ 38.5 360. 32. 14. 55: 21%5- coholic specimens i

b20: D 37e 3k 30r I3 57 tO e Eer = ba

O 94. 3a. 30 eee Si 207 Exploradora.

i bh Soom Fr aeee

— er 46. p gb. XB Ot. -2g7- > Bee ios ie. N

Smallestindividual} 47, 38.5 33.5 15.5 56. 219-) imime

From this table we see that, with but a single exception, —i.e., third

finger, —the smallest measurements given by Dr. Allen of georgianus

exceed the largest measurements of verecrucis. Were this the only

difference found, I should probably consider my specimens as repre-

senting a smaller southern variety ; but taken in consideration with

difference of color pattern, the dorsal hairs having three and some

even four distinct bands of color, instead of but two, as georgianus is

described, the nakedness of the legs, less extent of hair on interfemoral

membranes, etc., an apparent difference in the form of the ear, and

slight differences in the teeth, lead me to also consider this difference

in size as a characteristic of the species.

NYCTINOMUS DEPRESSUS, sp. nov.—For about a year I have been

aware of the existence in this museum of an apparently undescribed

species of Nyctinomus, an adult male taken within the museum building,

I have vainly endeavored to obtain other specimens of this species, but

748 The American Naturalist. [August,

have so far found no other of the genus except érast/iensis, which is

extremely numerous here, as well as in several other parts of the country

where I have collected. j

The specimen under consideration appears to be more closely allied

to W. macrotis than to any other described species, but quite ‘distinct

from this, as will appear by a comparison of the figures and description

here given with Dobson, Catl. Chiroptera in Brit. Mus., pp. 435, 439,

Pl. xxu., Fig. 6.

Above, burnt umber ; below, Prout’s brown ; bases of hairs on both

surfaces, white. Membranes and ears, in the alcoholic specimen,

nearly perfectly concolor with the under surface of body. A line of

Pig 4 Rig.5.

Nyctinomus depressus.

very short hairs bordering humerus and radius on upper surface of ante-

branchial membrane, so fine as scarcely to be perceptible when wet.

On upper surface of wing membrane, short lines border the radius,

except at the extreme elbow, and occupy the angle formed by the

juncture of the fourth and fifth metacarpals. On both upper and

lower surfaces the membrane is covered with hairs to a line extending

from the proximal third of humerus to the middle of the femur. Inter-

femoral membrane covered for three or four millimeters below femora

on upper surface, and naked on lower. Inner edge of ear evenly

convex when flattened out, but from its vertical waviness appearing as

in Fig. 5. The forward interior margin is reflexed over the deep

depression at the upper extremity of the keel, thus forming a sort of

pocket. Outer margin bilobate, the lower lobe arising from a short,

straight base coming up from behind the antitragus, the upper lobe

being continuous with the tip and inner edge. Keel large, strongly

reflexed at angle near base, extending slightly exterior to the antitragus.

Tragus straight on inner and upper margins. Outer margin formed by

two slightly concave lines producing a slight lobe by their juncture at.

1891.] Zoology. 749

the center of this margin. Conch with seven diagonally transverse

flutings appearing as furrows on the upper and as ridges on the lower

surface, the posterior one being very slightly marked. On the outer

surface, passing through the centers of these flutings, and at right

angles to them, is a slight ridge formed by a doubling of theskin. The

peculiar depressed angle formed by the juncture of the two lobes of the

external margin of the conch (vide Fig. 4) gives to the ears of this

species a peculiar drooping appearance that has suggested to me

depressus as a fitting specific name.

Nostrils circular, opening forwards, outwards, and very slightly down-

wards. A prominent subcircular swelling between the eye and nostril

and slightly below a line connecting them. Side of face with five

flutings extending to lip. A deep furrow under eye. Face and chin

nearly naked. Wing membranes from inner surface of distal ends of

tibia and from calcanea, indefinitely edged with yellowish-white, more

defined in centers of interdigital spaces and in center of the space

between the fifth finger and tibia. Outer edges of first and fifth toes

closely fringed with shortcurved white hairs; on the fifth toes, dorsal

‘to this outer fringe, is a row of less numerous curved hairs, exceeding

them about three times in length. From the upper surface of base of

each claw spring three or four long curved hairs, about 8 mm. in

length on chord. No gular pouch. Thumb with well-developed

callosity at base of first phalanx.

Teeth = = = =

Upper incisors semi-conical, parallel, separated by space of 1 mm.

Lower incisors bifid, crowded ; the middle pair in a straight line, the

outer ones starting from near centers of inner surfaces of middle pair

and diverging at an angle of 45° from them. Canines long, with dis-

tinct, unbroken anguli, somewhat dilated on posterior-internal part of

lower one, but not forming a true cusp. The upper canines are curved

backwards, saber-shaped, passing 1.5 mm. below gums of lower teeth

when the mouth is closed, the lower pair fitting into sockets between

upper incisors and canines. First upper and lower premolars much

smaller than second ones, in middle of spaces between these and

canines. Second upper premolars decidedly longer than molars, with

very acute outer cusps; the internal cusps not particularly developed,

as is the case with macrotis.

Measurements in millimeters from alcoholic specimen: Length of

head and body, from tip of nose to base of tail, 79; length of tail,

52; length of -tail beyond interfemoral membrane, 33; length of

Am. Nat.—August.—5.

750 The American Naturalist. [August,

head, 31; length of ear, from notch between antitragus and conch to

anterior point of margin, 25; length of antitragus, 7; height of

antitragus, 4.5 ; height of tragus at inner border, 2.5 ; height of tragus

at outer border, 4.5; width of tragus at top, 2.5; ears unite at base

for 3.5; length of forearm, 60; length of thumb, not including meta-

carpal, 8. Second digit—metacarpal, 55. Third digit—metacarpal,

58; first phalanx, 24; second phalanx, 22; cartilaginous tip, 7

Fourth digit—metacarpal, 56 ; first phalanx, 21; second phalanx, 2.

Fifth digit—metacarpal, 29; first phalanx, 20; second phalanx, 5.

Interspace between tips of third and fourth digits, 31; interspace

between tips of fourth and fifth digits, 60; interspace between tip of

fifth finger and attachment of membrane to tibia, 60; extent of out-

stretched wings, 357; length of tibia, 18; length of foot, 13;

length of calcaneum (poorly defined), about 16.

Type, and only specimen, No. 516 % ad. Tacubaya, D. F., Mar.,

1887. Collector, Louis G. Ruoz.

A comparison of the measurements of this species with macrotis shows

that although the length of ear, forearm, and peculiarly short second

phalanx of the fourth digit are the same in the two species, yet depressus

is considerably the larger bat of the two. |

CENTURIO MINOR, sp. nov.—I have in hand an adult female Centurio

that I cannot identify with either C. senex or m murtrii, because of

some apparent differences in the cutaneous folds of the chin, and

because of differences in measurements that I cannot believe to be due

to individual variation. Unfortunately the collector commenced to

make a skin of the specimen, dissecting the head to forward of the

eyes, before deciding to preserve it in alcohol. For this reason I give

only a figure of the lower jaw, for I know by experience

that at best I could make but a guess at what was the

sAN Original shape of the head. Forttnately the specimen

has never been permitted to dry, so that the cutaneous

folds and ears are in their normal condition.

The specimen contained a (about half-ripe) foetus

Fig b. that is preserved entire, and that shows all the cutaneous

Centurio minor. folds of the adult, and besides possesses a curious cone

of skin springing from the occiput, looking like the top-knot of hair

of macmurtrii as figured in the Biologia Centrali-Americana.

Description of type, No. 525 female ad, Cerro de los Pajaros, Las

Vegas, Vz., July or August, 1888. Collector Carlos M. Teran.

Color, above Brocolli-brown, lighter on occiput and neck, darker

toward the tail. Each hair three-zoned ; base brown, middle white,

Ee a Coes ET

1891.] Zoology. 751

and tip brown; the white occupying one-half of entire length. On

the lower part of back the white becomes more and more soiled until

it is scarely noticeable. Or the hairs may be described as brown on

lower back, with slightly lighter centers that fade to pure white on neck,

and occiput. Belly same as back, becoming lighter on head and neck,

which is white, washed with brown. No distinct zones of color as on

dorsal surface. At ventral aspect of junction of antebranchial mem-

brane with the body is a small, triangular spot of white fur. Wing

membrane externally covered with unicoled hairs, same shade as dor-

sum, to line from middle of humerus to near knee. Upper surface of

interfemoral membrane thinly clothed, same color as rump. Wing

membranes from tarsi. Antebranchial from bases of first phalanges of

thumbs. Face naked, with the exception of a few white bristles and a

row of short white hairs from corner of mouth to antitragi. Lower

jaw naked in front, bordered by a fold of skin, free in central part

that passes from antitragus to antitragus. Another narrower fold

leaves this at corners of mouth extending across the line in a slightly

curved line. In its center this fold is greatly widened (see Fig. 6), hav-

ing a slight central depression or pit with a small one on each side of

it. From this widened part of fold a straight sided, naked patch

extends backwards having, a trifle below its center, a laneolate pit.

Below on each side this naked space throws out an arm terminating

in a rounded lobe. Lower down, and separated by a line of hair, are ,

two warts, one on each side of central line, each with a slight depres-

sion in its center. The sketch will, I think, explain this more easily

than words. The white hair bordering this inverted T-shaped, naked

space is very short and fine, quite invisible to the naked eye when the

specimen is wet. I have purposely greatly exaggerated its length in

the sketch that it may not be overlooked.

Ears divided into two lobes of equal, proportion, and form with

those of senex as figured by Dobson in Catl. Chir. Brit. Mus. Facial

cutaneous folds, and the peculiar markings between the fourth and fifth

fingers, and internal to the fifth, are apparently the same. These

markings are not exactly the same on each side, several of the lines

being branched, tuning-fork shaped, and not conforming one side with

the other. They, therefore, can probably be but little relied upon for

diagnostic purposes,

Teet z gees re a AE de |.

The only noticeable difference between the teeth of this specimen

and those of senex (vide Dobson) is that in minor the second lower

752 The American Naturalist. [August,

molar is equal to the first instead of the = its size, and sectionally is

quadrangular instead of triangular.

Comparative measurements of minor and senex in millimeters,

those of latter species reduced from measurements in inches given by

Dobson :

C. minor. C. senex.

Length of head and i (es eo ar aDOut) 65 77

Length of head .. . Btn os Og ghd ees. es ne E 25

BRIN OF ORE er a BC eee ee ee sie T 17

TRG GF agi Oe a 4 7S

Length of forearm eee ae yee ce cece SAO 53

Length of thumb .. See oe eee cr ere 13

Length of second nae KERER PR eee 2 oe oe 38

Length of third ET:

Metacarpal : we PE. 38.5

First phalanx . 14 27.5

Second phalanx ... 22 23

Third phalanx? ‘ ‘ II 15.5

Length of fourth finger :

Metacarpal e 6262. ans eR ee a en, 34 34

Eet WAIN os ioe gee ve eS eke ee 84S 14

Second SIAN r on eee Sega FS 14

Length of fifth finger :

Metacarpal . 36 35-5

PASE DURRS o oo a gh ace oe 14. 15

Second phalanx . . 12.5 14

Interspace between tips of third sad fjürnth Sora 32

Interspace between tips of fourth and fifth fingers 45

Interspace between tip of fifth finger and foot . . 52

Extent of outstretched wings

ee ee 277

Eene OF UDA o os Ss a ee AG 17

bepgth of chicaretm = ooe an ee SG 6.5

ROMER OL ORA a ao” a aa a FA 10

In three of these measurements, —fż.e., thumb, fourth metacarpal, and

tibia,—the two species measure the same; in three others,—z.¢., first

phalanx of fourth finger, fifth metacarpal, and foot, minor is the larger;

in all the other thirteen comparative measurements it is the smaller.

The difference in length of forearm, 12.5 mm., is much more than I

1 This is greatest possible measurement,—i. e., taken on extreme outer margin ; that of

inner margin is 2.5.

2 This is the osseous phalanx; with cartilaginous tip itis 14.

Ce Ce ee aia ee

1891.] Embryology. 753

have yet found in individual varieties of bats. That of the foot and

of the ear, each 4 mm., is great for so short organs. The difference

in tragus, 3.5 mm., particularly strikes the attention. I am inclined

to believe that this is the least variable organ in bats.

Notwithstanding these differences the closeness of these two bats is

very marked, and I should not be surprised if azor should eventually

prove to be but a variety of senex. However, until there is positive

evidence that such is the case, it is advisable to consider it as a separate

species, :

The collector failed to note the date of capture, but informs me that

he is certain that it was in July or August, and probably in the former

month. From this I imagine that the young bat would have been

born some time in September. The specimen was taken at night while

flying about a bonfire.—HENRY L. Warp, Tacubaya, D. F., Mexico,

April 20th, 1891.

EMBRYOLOGY.!

Some Notes on the Breeding Habits and Embryology of

Frogs.—The following notes are the outcome of several years of ob-

servations on the breeding habits and stages in the development of frogs.

They are confessedly very incomplete, having been collected rather as

an amusement than with any desire to increase our present knowledge

of amphibian embryology. Some older observations have been

verified, and I believe a few new observations made which perhaps are

worth recording. From many points of view I think the develop-

ment of the frog is better adapted to the need of students beginning

the study of embryology than the classical chick. Certainly this

seems to be true if a clearer knowledge of the phenomena of develop-

ment in general is desired, and not merely an introduction to human

embryology,—the best excuse offered for presenting the hen’s egg and

chick, with its mystifying yolk and white and its incomprehensible (to

the beginner) larval membranes. On the other hand, the ease with

which the young chicks are to be obtained at all seasons makes a very

strong argument in their favor. Correspondingly, the difficulties of re-

moving the youngerstages of the frog’s egg from the surrounding jelly has

been a great drawback to its study. Appreciating this last difficulty,

I have experimented for several years on methods of removing these

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

754 The American Naturalist. [August,

jelly membranes. At last I think that I have successfully solved the

problem, and can now obtain with the greatest ease the most difficult

stages, which are also in perfect histological condition. The method

will be given in the last section—g. Clay models of the early stages

of segmentation of the egg have been a very useful addition in pre-

senting to others the arrangement of the cells. These, of course,

should be copied from actual eggs, and not from the perfectly regular

(but entirely schematic) figures of the ordinary text-books.

The following topics are touched upon: (1) Time of Laying, and

Localities. (2) Laying in Confinement. (3) Polar Bodies. (4) Seg-

mentation of the Eggs. (5) Orientation of the Egg. (6) Enclosure

of the Light Pole by the Dark Pole. (7) Effect of Temperature.

(8) Times of Hatching, etc. (9) Methods of Technique.

1. Time of Laying, and Localities. —The observations were made in

the vicinity of Baltimore, Md., during the spring months of the years

’88, ’89, 90, 91. I shall only speak of those species of whose iden-

tity I am certain. Other and more imperfect observations are left out,

The first frogs to lay, and amongst the very first (Acris gryllus excepted)

to appear, are the wood frogs (Rana sylvatica). A few warm days in

early spring suffice to bring them out. The following records give a

general idea as to the time: February 23d, ’91, and March 8th, goth,

and roth, ’80. The eggs of these had been laid several days. The egg-

bunches are found in small pools on the edges of woods, generally

amongst the low hills, and are often stuck to twigs of bushes. The

bunches are generally large, four to six inches in diameter, and contain

very many good-sized eggs. In the same pools it is quite usual to find

the firmer egg-bunches of Amblystoma, as this Urodele also lays its eggs

very early.

Somewhat later two species of tree frogs appear in the small pools

in the woods, generally in quite small, and therefore, during the day-

time, often quite warm, puddles; sometimes in the same pools as the

wood frogs, oftener in the ditches by the side of the road. These tree

frogs are Hyla pickeringit and Chorophilus triseriatus. They are often

found paired, and may be in this condition carried to the laboratory,

where they continue to lay for hours without abatement. The eggs of

these species are very similar, and I know no certain method of dis-

tinguishing the one from the other. The bunches are small, attached

to bits of grass, or lie simply on the bottom, and each bunch contains

from five or six to fifteen or twenty eggs. I have the following records

of times at which the eggs were found: Hyla—March oth, roth, 13th,

_ April M "go ; Chorophilus—February 23d, ‘91, March 13th and

sas a

1891.] Embryology. 755

The eggs of Rana halecina are found still later, sometimes -in the

same localities as the wood frogs, oftener in pools in the open ground

quite away from the woods. The eggs are individually smaller, so

that although the jelly masses are often as large as those of the woo

frogs, the number of eggs is greater. The following are the records :

March 2sth, April 5th, ’90. The eggs of Rana clamitans are not

so certainly referred to its adult, and I have only strong probability

showing them to belong to that species. The bunches much resemble

those of Æ. halecina, but the eggs are larger and the jelly firmer.

Those I have found were also attached to twigs of bushes, which

is not always the case in #. Aalecina.

The toad (Bufo lentiginosus) in this latitude lays very late in the

spring. The eggs are easily distinguished from the frog’s, as they are

laid in long strings, often yards in length, the eggs arranged

(generally) in a single row. They were recorded April 14th, ’go,

April sth and 6th, ’91. The best localities seem to be those parts of

rivers or streams where the water backs up, and to one side protected

by abar, so that the eggs are not carried away by the water, and where

the water itself is often exceedingly warm. Copulating individuals

are easily obtained, and they continue to lay in confinement.

2. Laying in Confinement.—lIf frogs are caught at the height of the

breeding season, they can often be got to lay in confinement. The

surest way is to get the paired individuals, frightening them as little as

possible, and placing them in dishes or aquaria containing the requisite

amount of water. Only once have I had the wood frogs lay in the

laboratory, although with proper precaution there seem to be on

very great difficulties of obtaining in this way the eggs of this species.

A single large bunch of eggs were laid by this pair during the night,

which developed normally.

By far the best and easiest eggs to be obtained by bringing frogs into

the laboratory are those of the tree frogs named above. They will

continue to lay small bunches of eggs for as much as twenty-four hours

after catching them. By removing the bunches as fast as laid, an exact

record may be kept as to the age of the different lots. Moreover, the

eggs of these species are small and the jelly clear, so that they are

well adapted for study of the segmentation stages under the micro-

scope. The distinction between the cells derived from the black

(animal) pole and those from the yellow (vegetative) pole is very

sharp, and the fate of the cell® more easily traced through the later

stages of segmentation. Toads brought into the laboratory and placed

under proper conditions continue to lay for many hours. A single

756 The American Naturalist. [August,

copulating pair, which were laying eggs when captured, were isolated

over night from other individuals, and in the morning a long string of

eggs were found. Dr. E. A. Andrews carefully estimated the number

of these, and found that inside of ten hours the female had laid the

astonishing number of 28,000 eggs, and the male had fertilized them.

This was at the rate of forty-one eggs per minute for ten hours.

After the eggs are laid the male and female separate, and while

formerly they remained quietly in the dishes or aquaria, they now

proceed to climb out, and show a tendency to wander over the

building.

3. Polar Bodies.—I have seen these extruded in the egg of the tree

frog. They are found at or near the apex of the black pole, and

appear as two white spots with a black periphery. Sometimes they

are quite near to each other. Again, I have seen them separated by

quite a wide distance. They were extruded about one hour after the

eggs were laid as nearly as could be calculated.

4. Segmentation of the Eggs.—The series of diagrams ordinarily found

in text-books on embryology are exceedingly diagrammatic, and give

an entirely erroneous impression as to the appearance of the segment-

ing egg, especially during the later stages. I found this to be the case in

the eggs of the tree frogs (see above) and the common toad, and ex-

pected to find a parallel case in Rana ‘temporaria,—that studied by

Ecker, and from whom the text-bock figures are taken. During the

present spring (’91) I have procured the early stages of segmentation

of this frog, and found it to agree in every particular with other

species, and therefore to depart from the text-book or classical type.

Rauber has given excellent figures of the later stages of the frog eggs,

and in many points I have verified his account. The first furrow

divides the egg into two equal halves. The second at right angles to

this gives four equal segments. The third furrow is not equatorial, but

lies nearest the dark pole of the egg, the result being in four-equal black

cells and four larger, but equal, light cells. At the next stage the

marked regularity of the preceding stages is lost, and each of the eight

cells divides, as it were, independently of the rest. The text-book figure

at this sixteen-celled stage may be taken to represent an ideal to which

the egg never attains. The division of the sixteen cells into thirty-two

does not conform to any rule, although again, but in .a less degree,

Ecker’s figures may be taken to represent in the most diagrammatic

way possible the planes of cleavage. Without figures it is impossible

to describe the precise method of segmentation ; those of Rauber

approximate, I believe, most nearly to the truth. In general, we may

1891.] Embryology. 757

Say that up to the eight-celled stage the segmentation is very regular,

but that after that no particular plane of division can be prophesied

for any segment. Often during the sixteen-celled stage the upper

sight (black) cells are arranged in almost a perfect bilateral symmetry,

and not a radial one, as given by Ecker.

5. Orientation of the Egg.—The relation of the first plane of segmen-

tation to the adult has attracted a great deal of interest during recent

years. The relation found in the frog’s egg has been already studied,

with varying results. Newport’s experiments in 1851, ’53, ’54, are, I

think, the most to be relied upon, and during the present spring I

have had the pleasure of verifying his results on asmall scale. The

eggs of the tree frog were used in the experiment. The outer layers

of the jelly were removed from an egg which had not yet divided or

had only undergone the first cleavage. A small, triangular piece of

card-board was then cut out,and a drop of collodion placed on it.

The egg with its thin layer of surrounding jelly was placed on the drop

of collodion as soon as the latter began to stiffen, and card-board and

egg were then immersed ina dish of water. With a pencil a line was

drawn on the card-board corresponding to the plane of first division.

The water was changed several times until all trace of ether was gone,

and afterward set aside in a quiet and warm place. Several other eggs

were prepared by the same process. At the end of forty-eight hours

the medullary folds began to appear, and it was then seen that the

plane between these corresponded exactly, in most cases, to the plane

indicated on the card-board, and therefore the obvious conclusion is

drawn that the first plane of division divides the egg into two parts,

corresponding to the right and left halves of the adult body. In

a few eggs the first plane was somewhat to the right or left of the

mid-line of the adult. The embryo begins to rotate in the egg-

capsule very soon after the appearance of the medullary folds, so

that unless observations are made at the very first appearance of

the folds the results will be falsified, on account of the rotation

of the embryo from its original position. The eggs of the tree

frogs are especially good for experiments such as these, on account

of the rapidity with which they develop, decreasing therefore the

possibilities of a secondary change in position of the egg after it has

come to rest and,it plane of division marked. I think it would be

possible, by keeping the eggs in a warm room, to cause them to develop

the medullary folds within twenty-four hours after the eggs are laid.

6. Enclosure of the Light Pole by the Dark Pole—In studying

‘a series of eggs from the segmentation period to the formation

758 The American Naturalist. [August,

of the blastopore, the so-called overgrowth or epibolic growth of the

black cells has been observed. I am quite sure, however (except in the

immediate region on the dorsal side of the blastopore, and later over

its whole extent), that the yellow cells disappear from the surface not,

by an overgrowth of the first-formed black cells, dut dy a process of

splitting off of cells from the upper corner of the yellow cells themselves.

In other words, there is not a general migration of black cells, but each

remains approximately in the position in which it was first formed,

and new black cells are continually added at the periphery of the

black cap by the splitting off of cells from the upper ends of the yel-

low cells, so that Balfour’s sentence, that the disappearance of the

yellow cells ‘‘ is effected by the epiblast growing over the yolk at all

points of its circumference,’’ is somewhat misleading. Asa corollary

to what I have said, it follows, of course, that there is a continuous

formation of new pigment taking place at the periphery of the black

area within the new cells that are being formed, and also within the

ends of the yellow cells which go to form the new cells in this region.

I have not studied with sufficient care the gradual turning in of the

cells around the rim of the blastopore. In one living egg, however, I

saw in the dorsal region of the blastopore some of the cells forming

the floor of the archenteron gradually disappear wiżAin the blastopore.

7. Effect of Temperature.—lIt is impossible to give any exact time to

the different stages of development, as the time is directly proportional

to the temperature of the water within certain limits. The highest

temperature is not always the optimum, for several bunches placed in

an incubator for hen’s eggs were entirely destroyed. The freezing of

the water in which the eggs are kept does not seem to injure the eggs

in the least, but simply to retard their development. I have had eggs

completely surrounded by ice, and afterward development quite

normally. However, when the eggs themselves are actually frozen

they seem to be destroyed, perhaps by the formation of ice spicules

within them. The wood frogs, which lay their eggs so early, generally

lose in this locality great numbers of them on account of getting caught

in the ice. Those which are not so caught develop later, when the ice

melts, and do not seem, in any way, to be injured by water at the

freezing-point. I think there is here a most interesting field for

experimentation by the physiological embryologist, and I regret I have

not kept exact records of the effects of heat and cold.

8. Times of Hatching, etc.—The different species of frogs leave the

jelly membrane at different ages. Some have the tail well developed,

and are quite active. Others have the tail just appearing, and are

1891.] Embryology 759

only able to twist their bodies slowly from side to side, as they cling

to the jelly-mass by means of the suckers below the mouth

The young tadpoles of the wood frog leave the water as small frogs

in the late spring of the same year in which they were laid,—that is,

become frogs in four to six months. Eggs collected about March

17th began to change to frogs about June rst to 14th. These were

kept in quite cool water, in a basement room, away from the sunlight.

At the time of, transformation into tadpoles a sudden decrease in the

length of the intestine is brought about. The tadpoles cease to eat,

and the intestine is entirely freed from extraneous matter during this

time. The change takes place at the same time that the tail is absorbed

within the body (not dropped off, as popularly supposed), and at the

same time the pair of fore feet, which were enclosed within the bran-

chial fold, break through to the exterior. The intestines were removed

and measured from the pyloric end of the stomach to the proximal end

of the rectum. Their lengths are recorded in the accompanying

table for the wood frog :

| |

a b c d e J g

(a) From a large tadpole, with whole tail and two large posterior feet.

(b) From a tadpole, with whole tail and two large posterior feet. (¢) From

a tadpole, with whole tail and two large posterior feet. (ď) From a young

frog, tail beginning to disappear, and four feet. (¢) From a young frog,

4 tail and four feet. (/) From a young frog, % tail and four feet.

(g) From a young frog, no tail, and out of water two weeks.

9. Methods of Technique.-—The eggs during the periods, in which

it is difficult or impossible to remove the inner jelly membrane, can

760 The American Naturalsst. [August,

be freed in the following manner: With a pair of sharp scissors each

egg must be cut out from the general jelly-mass, retaining as small an

amount of surrounding jelly as possible. It is then put into an alco-

holic solution of picric acid for an hour or longer (one to twelve).

The solution is prepared by saturating 35 per cent. alcohol with picric

acid, and adding the same amount of sulphuric as in Kleinenberg’s

solution. The solution is not diluted, but used saturated with picric

acid. The eggs are then washed for several hours in 35 per cent. alco-

hol, several hours in 50 per cent. alcohol, and placed in 70 per cent.

for several days, changing the alcohol once or twice if necessary.

About the second day the inner membrane begins to swell, due to a

slow osmotic action, I think, as the membrane is stretched by tension

from within. On the third or fourth day the swollen membrane may be

pierced by a sharp needle, and the egg taken out, which is then placed

permanently in 80 per cent. alcohol. The method is exceedingly

simple, and consists largely in waiting a few days for the osmotic

action to take place. Such eggs, if properly prepared, are in excel-

lent histological condition. This simple method has proved so suc-

cessful that I have not further experimented with it. It is possible

that it may be improved by varying the strength of alcohol used, but I

have not seen the need of looking further. The membrane does not

swell in stronger alcohol than 70 per cent., and weaker would macerate

the eggs.

Certain precautions are necessary in imbedding the eggs to prevent

brittleness. This is obviated by soaking the eggs before imbedding,

for several hours, in a solution of turpentine saturated with paraffine,

and kept in a warm place,—not so hot as the water-bath (50° C.).

Heat causes the egg to become brittle. This is obviated by the above

process of soaking, so that the egg need not remain so long as an

hour in the melted paraffine of the water-bath. In the younger stages

there is no need for very thin sections, but sections ro x thick are suf-

ficent for all purposes. If the sections are cut too thin the yolk tends

to break up and crumble.—T. H. Morcan, May rst, 18921.

a * Entomology. . 761

ENTOMOLOGY:.!

The White Wax Insect.—The following account of the pro-

duction and use of the white wax of China, about which very little is

known in America will be read with interest. We find it in the issue

of the N. C. and S. C. and C: Gazette for March 26th, 1891.

The native candles of the north are made of sheep’s tallow, but

those of the central provinces are partly manufactured from bean oil,

which is able to be utilized for this purpose by the addition of white

insect wax in the proportion of about one-eighth, Where bean oil

cannot easily be procured the seeds of S#ldingia sebifera are employed.

‘his tree grows most extensively in the south. A picul of its seeds

yields twenty or thirty catties of tallow, and when this has been pressed

out, subsequent grinding and steaming result in the production of an

oil called ch'tmg yu out of the albumen. Insect-made white wax is

added in the proportion of three catties to a hundred catties of the

tallow. It is the wax which gives it sufficient consistency to remain

thoroughly congealed in ordinary temperatures. From Hankow in

1889 about 120,000 piculs of the tallow of the tallow tree were exported,

and of this quantity nearly half found its way to Shanghai in the same

year. An enormous quantity of candles are made in Shanghai and its

vicinity, and the pressing out of bean oil for the manufacture employs

a large number of water buffaloes. The old industry is that which has

for many ages made use of the tallow-tree product. The new has

grown out of the Newchwang trade which supplies Shanghai with

beans. The vast industry which is an essential to the use of the vege-

table tallow began, we are told, about six centuries ago. Till recently

we knew generally that the wax is made at Luchou Fu, in Anhui, at

Kiahing in Chékiang, at Hinghua Fu in Fukien, as well as in Hunan,

in Kweichou, in Yunnan and Szechuan. But the processes were never

fully described, and there was a need for fuller information. That

want has been supplied by the inquiries of Mr. Alexander Hosie, of

the British consular service in Szechuan. The tree on which the

insects produce the wax is an inhabitant of a different part of the

country from that which produces the insects. Chinese ingenuity

brings the insects from their birthplace to their new home many miles

away, and sets them to the work of wax-making. It is this curious

history which Mr. Hosie has been the first thoroughly to investigate,

! Edited by Prof. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N. H.

762 The American Naturalist. [August,

The white wax insect was frequently referred to in old works on

China. One object of Mr. Hosie’s recent journey to the Chienchang

valley near Mount Omi was to procure from the tree on which the

insect live specimens of the foliage and flowers, for Sir Joseph Hooker.

These he procured, and specimens of the living tree with the incrusted

white wax on it, as well as samples of the latter, as it appears in com-

merce, and of the Chinese candles made from it. The said valley is

5,000 feet above the level of the sea, and is the great breeding ground

of the insect. The tree is an evergreen, with the leaves springing in

pairs from the branches, very thick, dark green, glossy, ovate, and

pointed. In May and June it bears clusters of white- flowers, suc-

ceeded by fruit of a dark purple color. The Kew authorities now say

it is the Ligustrum lucidum,-or \arge-leaved privet. In March Mr.

Hosie saw on the trees certain brown pea-shaped excrescences attached

to the bark of the boughs and twigs. Opening some larger ones they

presented either a whitey brown pulpy mass, or a crowd of minute

insects looking like flour. Their movements were just perceptible to

the naked eye. From two or three months later they become brown

creatures, with six legs and a pair of antennez. These are the white-

wax insect or Coccus pela. There is a beetle which is a parasite on the

Coccus. It is a species of Brachytarsus. It is found in many of the

excrescences above mentioned, and burrows in the inner lining of the

scale, which seems to be its food. When a scale is plucked from the

tree the Cocci escape by the hole which is made. It is in the town of

Kiating that insect white wax is produced. This city is 200 miles to

the northeast of the Chienchang valley. The scales are gathered in

e valley, and made up into paper packets of about sixteen ounces

each. Sixty of such packets make a load, and they are conveyed by |

porters from the valley to Kiating in the night-time. If carried by

day the insects would develop and escape from the scales. As it is,

an ounce is lost in transit. A pound of scales in good years is-sold

for half a crown. In bad years it is worth twice this amount. In

favorable years a pound of scales produces four or five pounds of wax.

In the plain around Kiating very many plots of ground are seen edged

with stumps, from three or four to twelve feet high, with numerous

sprouts growing from their gnarled heads, as on pollard willows in our

own country. The tree is probably Fraxinus chinensis,;—a kind of

ash. The leavesspring in pairs from the branches, and are light green,

ovate, pointed, serrated, and deciduous. On the arrival of the scales

in May they are made up in small packets of from twenty to thirty

scales, which are enclosed in a leaf of the wood oil tree. Rice straw

Se ES See

1891.] Entomology. 763

is used to suspend the packet under the branches of the ash or white-

wax tree. Rough holes are drilled in the leaf with a blunt needle, so

that the insects may find their way to the branches through the open-

ings. The insects creep rapidly up to the leaves, where they nestle for

thirteen days. They then descend to the branches and twigs, and

take up a position on them. The females then begin to develop scales

on which to deposit their eggs, and the males to excrete the substance

known as white wax. It first appears as an undercoating on the side

of the boughs and twigs, looking like snow. It spreads gradually, till

in three months it is a quarter of an inch thick. In a hundred days

the deposit is complete, and the branches are lopped off. The wax is

removed chiefly by hand, and is placed in an iron pot of boiling

water. The wax, on rising to the surface, is skimmed off, and deposited

in around mould. Thisis the white wax of commerce. It is used to

coat the exterior of animal and vegetable tallow candles, and to give

greater consistency to the tallow. It is also used to size paper and

cotton goods, to impart a gloss to silk, and as a furniture polish. From

Hankow each year at present about 15,000 piculs of white insect wax

are exported in a year, and the main portion of it finds its way to that

port from Szechuan. Chinkiang absorbs 1,000 piculs, and Shanghai

14,000 piculs. At Shanghai one-half is for home use, and the other

half to distribute again to other ports. Tientsin requires 1,000 piculs,

and Canton and Swatow a thousand piculs each. Thus it appears

that while Szechuan is not the only producing center of insect white

wax, it produces enough to furnish the most distant cities with the

means to make a sufficient number of candles to maintain the temple

worship, as well as to enable the people everywhere to equip their lan-

terns for walking in the evening, and aid in night illumination

generally.

Recent Station Bulletins.—Mr. James Fletcher, of the Central

Experimental Farm of Canada, has recently issued an admirable popu-

lar bulletin (No. 11) concerning injurious insects and insecticides.

The Delaware Station issues as Bulletin No. XII. a somewhat similar

account of certain noxious species, together with a record of experi-

ments with remedies. Prof. C. P. Gillette issues as Bulletin No. 15 of

the Colorado Station timely articles concerning the Codling Moth and

Grapevine Leaf-Hopper. Mr. H. E. Weed, of the Mississippi Station,

publishes as Bulletin No. 4 a pamphlet of forty pages, in which he

discusses the following topics: The Screw Worm, Pea Weevil, Bean

Weevil, Striped Cucumber Beetle, Ox Warble Fly, Plum Curculio,

Codling Moth, Insecticides, and Spraying Machinery.

764 The American Naturalist. [August,

Food Habits of Coccinella convergens.—Since the publica-

tion of Prof, Forbes’s paper upon ‘‘ The Food Relations of the

Carabidze and Coccinellide ’’ various obververs have found that at

least one species (Megilla maculata) of the family Coccinellide is a

vegetable feeder.

I have noticed another species, Coccinella convergens, doing con-

siderable damage to cabbage plants this season. The first noticed

cabbage thus eaten was sprayed with Paris green, and upon examina-

tion the day following several dead specimens of C. convergens were

found on the ground under the plant. Since then I have noticed

others eating the leaves of several cabbage plants.—Howard Evarts

Weed, Mississippi Agricultural College.

Transformations of Coleoptera.—Mr. Wm. Beutenmiiller, of

the American Museum of Natural History, has lately published in the

Journal of the New York Microscopical Society (Vol. VII., pp. 1-52),

a Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of

North American Coleoptera, for which he deserves the thanks of his

entomological brethren. In arrangement and style it is similar to Mr.

Henry Edward’s catalogue of Lepidoptera. Three hundred and

ninety-six species are included in the list,—a striking commentary

upon the paucity of our knowledge of the immature stages of this

great order.

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.:

The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-

historic Archeology of Paris, 1889.—( Continued from page 679).

Sixth Question: ‘* Firstly, The Human Remains of the Quaternary

Epoch Discovered Within the last Fifteen Years; and secondly, The

Proper Ethnic Elements Belonging to the Men of the Different Ages

of Stone, Bronze, and Iron.”

The discussion of this question was opened by Monsieur Fraipont,

of the University of Leige, Belgium, who had been the discoverer of

the celebrated cavern of Spy, on the river Meuse, in Southern Bel-

gium. He exhibited the skulls and bones which he had there found,

and said that these were the most complete representatives now known

of the race of Canstadt, as has been classified by MM. de Quatre-

fages and Hamy. ‘This man was contemporaneous with the mammoth

1 Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 765

and the Rhinoceros tichorinus, but was subsequent to and not contem-

poraneous with the RAznocerds merkii and the Elephas antiquus. Mon-

sieur Fraipont enumerated the pithecoid characters found in the

skeletons of Spy, and concluded that there was ‘‘an ascending

evolution, the most characteristic of humanity’’ during the Qua-

ternary Period.

Monsieur de Quatrefages reserved his opinion upon the characters

named by Monsieur Fraipont as simian or pithecoid.

Dr. Topinard was doubtful if the facial portion of the skull of the

man of Spy was correct, and in consequence thereof the osteology of

the face must rest doubtful.

Monsieur Manouvrier admitted the general resemblance of the men

of Spy with those grouped around the skull of Neanderthal, but

explained some of their diversities. He investigated the morphology

of the femur and tibia of the men of Spy, and interpreted it differ-

ently from Mr. Fraipont.

Dr. Deniker could not agree with M. Fraipont in the simian char-

acters which he found in the man of Spy. Dr. Topinard stated also, .

on the side of Dr. Deniker, that the incurvation of the tibia existing

among the gorillas is not found among the orangs.

M. Fraipont explained his meaning of the terms simian and pithe-

coid, so that they did not appear so strong as he had at first stated.

Dr. Hamy said that the discovery made by M. Fraipont at the

cavern of Spy gave proof of the existence near the middle of the

Quaternary period of the existence of a special human race. His

discoveries had rehabilitated the skull of Neanderthal, and completed

the passage between the exaggerated type of that race and the speci-

mens less accentuated of Brux of Canstadt and of Engisheim, and

permits us to utilize the most precious pieces known, now nearly for-

gotten, the debris of the skeleton of Lahr. Dr. Hamy recounted the

circumstances in which Ami Boue discovered the skeleton of Lahr in

1823, of their translation to the museum, and that they had finished

by taking their legitimate place by the side of the remains from

Neanderthal and de la Naulette. He described rapidly the bones of

each member, the fragments, etc., going on from head to foot, and

showed the analogies which these pieces presented with those of

Spy, and demonstrated by these comparisons that the skeleton of

Lahr was indeed contemporaneous with the Lehm from which it

been extracted, and it was now, by reason of the discovery of Spy, to

be classed among the human remains of the race of Canstadt.

Am, Nat.—August.—6.

766 The American Naturalist. [August,

Dr. Hamy, continuing the discussion of Question Sixth of the

program, reviewed the new documents on the subject of the arche-

ology of the primitive human race since the publication of his great

work on the Crania Ethnica. The fragments found in the Grotte de

Gourdan, which had been recently published, the under jaw from the

Grotte of Malarnaud, found by M. Regnault, and described by

Filhol, and which M. Hamy had presented,—these are, along with the

bones of the men of Spy, the site new acquisitions of the race of

Constadt.

The race of Cro-Magnon is Se by several new discoveries,

of which the most important was the discovery of the skull in the

Grotte du Placard, which had been exhumed by M. Maret.

Dr. Hamy described this piece, and assigned it a place in the ana-

tomic series of the race of Cro-Magnon. We possess, said he, no new

document or specimen of the types of Furfooz, the second type of

which appears more and more to attach itself to the age of polished

stone, which furnishes from one time to another in Southern Belgium

new specimens, more or less characterized as belonging to this ethnic

roup.

Monsieur Felix Regnault sent a human lower jaw, incomplete, found

in the Grotte of Malarnaud, in Ariege. Dr. Hamy declared it to

have -great affinity with the similar pieces from Naulette, Goyet, etc.,

and other caverns in Belgium.

Monsieur Marcellin Boule described the caverns of Malarnaud from

which this under jaw came, and presented to the congress his written

notes thereon. A section of the earth of the cavern and the place

where this jaw was found was thus composed: rst, the superficial rub-

bish ; 2d, the deposit of clay and gravel containing the remains of

divers animals of prehistoric times,—the auroch, the reindeer, the

mountain goat, etc; 3d, astrata of stalagmite; 4th, clay and gravel,

—in this were the cave bear and lion, the wolf, mammoth, etc., and it

was from this strata that the under jaw came. This is the stratum of the

machoire de la Naulette, the skeletons of Spy, the skull of Engisheim,

and probably that of Neanderthal. There were no specimens of

Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros merkii, or hippopotamus, or the ani-

mals characteristic of the early Quaternary period, and which cor-

respond to the human industry of Saint-Acheul and Chelles, and

therefore, said Monsieur Boule, the Quaternary prehistoric man,—he o

f the Chelleen epoch,—remained still unknown.

r. Lagneau gave it as his opinion that this under jaw of Malarnaud

belonged to the race of Canstadt or of Neanderthal, and he spoke of

a i a NN i aaa i alah

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 767

the great extension of territory which this man covered in prehistoric

times.

M. de Quatrefages presented a :manüsoripi of M. Hardy, of Peri-

gueux, which was entitled, ‘‘ The Discovery of a Sepulchre of the

Quaternary Period of Chancelade in Dordogne,” and gave several

observations upon the skull of which Hardy has presented the photo-

graph. ‘The skull was dolichocephalic, but asymetric ; the face large,

the orbits of elongated form; the front was well developed, the

femurs were columnar, the tibias platycnemic, and it altogether pre-

sented the most striking and apparent characteristic of the race of

Cro-Magnon.

M. Manouvrier read a communication on the platymetry or flatten-

ing of the antero-posterieur of the upper third of the diaphyse of

the femur, that he had often observed upon human femurs in the neo-

lithic period.

M. Goldstein presented his pantometre, and explained its use and

necessity in anthropological photographs.

Dr. Verrier presented two Australian skulls.

Dr. Soren Hansen presented his paper on prehistoric trepanning.

Dr. Benedickt explained his method and apparatus on crainometry,

and referred to his display at the exposition.

Dr. Jacques presented the human remains gathered by the brothers

Siret in Spain. These brothers Siret were civil engineers in Antwerp,

and I had the privilege and the pleasure of wisiting and studying their

collection while in that city. Their excavations were conducted prin-

cipally in Southeastern Spain, in the country between Carthagene and

Almeria. We have their magnificent and extensive volume, costing

$1oo, in our library. Their investigations were regular, methodical,

and scientific. The prehistoric epoch to which these investigations

belonged were principally the neolithic period and the age of bronze.

Dr. Jacques had studied seventy of these skulls and skeletons, the

former complete, the latter more or less so, and gave his opinion as to

the divisions to be made as to the races to which they belonged. One

race, the most common, presented many analogies with that of Cro-

Magnon, but with an-occasional characteristic of the type of Furfooz.

The race of Furfooz was there shown by some specimens, though not

so frequent as the former, A third group identified by Dr. Jacques

compared with those of the Basques, and his conclusion was that the

neolithic people southeast of Spain comprised cane belonging to-

the most ancient epoch in the Iberian penins

Dr. Topinard delivered a most interesting sie entitied “ Paleo-

768. The American Naturalst. [August,

anthropology.” He said the congress was interested in prehistoric

anthropology as in prehistoric archeology. There was a paleo-

anthropology as a paleoethnography. The former required the

services of a naturalist and anatomist ; the latter required the ethnog-

rapher and the archeologist. The excavator serves to unite the two

former, as the traveler serves to unite the two latter. -It is because of,

or by means of, this link that the work of the one is rendered benefi-

cial to and aids the other. It is exceedingly rare that the anatomist

is an explorer. For every one competent archeologist there are

hundred amateur excavators. The latter interest themselves bu

slightly over the human remains. Museums and private collections

are gorged with industrial and artistic objects of prehistoric man,

but are almost entirely without any of his remains. He lamented

these gaps in the means of our information, and was much impressed

with our poverty in this regard when he came to make an inventory of

our knowledge concerning the ancient races of man. He declared the

necessity of having numerous series in order to study with success the

craniology, and entered into the details of methods employed in order

to find the necessary facts, and gave a résumé of our knowledge con-

cerning our prehistoric ancestors. Then followed his remedy. He pro-

posed that the congress should take the initiative in preparing detailed

instructions for the usage of excavators, in which, said he, they can be

made to understand that the work on which they are engaged is indefi-

nitely more difficult than they had believed, that the skulls and human

bones are at least as interesting and as valuable to preserve intact as

the objects of human industry. He declared in unmistakable terms

that prehistoric stations, once disturbed, were forever destroyed. He

enlarged upon the necessity for anthropological science that the exca-

vations, when done, should be well done ; if not, they are lost to us, or

our children and our grandchildren, and a great part of our national

treasure will be scattered and destroyed.

MM. Cartailhac and de Mortillet came to the aid of Dr. Topinard,

and seconded him in his views, It was finally agreed that a com-

mission should be appointed which would be charged with preparing

these instructions, and the congress appointed Drs. Topinard, Hamy,

Reinach, and Cartailhac to prepare it.

(Zo be continued.)

Preliminary Notes on the Archeology of Southwestern

New Mexico.—In connection with the geological work which the

writer has been conducting in Southwestern New Mexico, during the

past two years, investigations in the archeology of the region have also

been pursued, and with gratifying results. This ancient home of the

ale et SE

1891. Archeology and Ethnology. 769

Aztecs and cliff-dwellers is indeed one of the regions o the most

profound interest to the archeologist to be found on the American

continent. Almost everywhere on the now bare and desert plains, in

the fertile valleys, lovely cafions, and even lofty mountain-tops, the

ruined houses and pueblos of this most interesting and once-powerful

people, exist.

It is evident that both the Aztecs and cliff-dwellers (were they dis-

tinct races?) were driven out by a stronger race, whether by the Span-

iards or others. Their houses have been burned, and in every room

in the ancient pueblos which the writer has examined there are found

from one to several well-preserved skeletons of men, women, and

babes, all apparently laying where they fell by the hands of foes.

All inflammable material, as the reeds, grasses, and poles forming

the roof and posts, have been consumed, and the rocks and adobe

fallen in, burying the bodies of their former inhabitants where they

fell. Generally the household utensils, etc., are found where they were

apparently last used.

In the Mimbres valley and elsewhere these ancient ruins are very

numerous, occurring from one-fourth to two miles apart

In making excavations in these ruins the writer has found beautiful

clay and sandstone dishes, clay (made from fragments of painted pot-

tery), bone, stone, and turquoise beads and ornaments, various stone

implements, utensils, etc.

At Cook’s Peak extensive mining irena were carried on by

these ancient people,! and now are to be seen large numbers of their

ancient workings, which had been filled with débris worked from the

mountain-side, but which have since been cleaned out, and the mines

now worked.

These old mines are of great interest, and much time and study have

been given them by the writer. The ore is mainly a low-grade argen-

iferous ‘‘sand-carbonate.’’ In mining, fire and water and rude stone

hammers were used.

Of these hammers the writer has found more than thirty. When

these mines were cleaned out ashes and large quantities of charcoal

were found, all presenting as fresh an appearance as if the work had

been done but a short time ago. When the hard galena ore was

reached the mines were abandoned. There have been found in these

mines small voyers, broken pottery, arrow-points, bone, crystal, and

aah beads, stone hammers, etc., most of which are now in the

r’s possession. I also found asmall, rude smelter near one of these

pe mines, = a nasotity of slag oam br

lt A } le were feoned by the

At mmay F pl iti WEIG worked a F

770 The American Naturalist. [August,

Near these mines ancient reservoirs for the storage of water are

found in the ‘‘ gulches.’’ The water doubtless was used in mining.

In some sheltered places in the valleys and canons can still be plainly

seen old cornrows and sakeys (irrigating ditches).

On the east, west, and middle branches of the Gila River, in the

Mogollon Mountains, is to be found as rough, wild, and broken a tract

as is to be discovered in any part of the great Rocky Mountain region.

Here in the rugged cliffs are found great numbers of ancient cliff-

dwellings, some of which are unsurpassed in interest.

Considerable time was devoted to the study of these dwellings, mak-

ing explorations in, and plans and sketches of, them, as well as draw-

ings of many of the more interesting and extensive hieroglyphics

painted on the rocks by the former inhabitants of these dwellings.

One of these ancient cliff-dweller’s pueblos (if I may so term it), situ-

ated in a lofty cliff which forms the side of a deep, narrow cafion that

extends out from the west branch of the Gila, is of special interest in

many ways. This cliff-dwellers’ village is in a fine state-of preservation,

and consists of upwards of twenty-eight rooms.

Several days were spent in making explorations in these dwellings.

Large quantities of valuable relics were found in the débris of the rooms.

Among the relics obtained were specimens of several kinds of cloth,

all made from the fibre of the Spanish dagger, matting of bear-grass,

willow-work, sandals, cords of various sizes, feather-work, a ball and

large skein of twine of the same material as the cloth, human and ani-

mal bones, stone utensils, great quantities of corn-cobs, corn, squash

or pumpkin rinds, seeds, and stems, corn-husks, beans, gourds, pottery,

braided human hair of a brown color, etc. ; and last, but by no means

least, a perfectly preserved cliff-dweller mummy. This was a mummy

of asmall child, with soft brown hair, similar to that found braided,

only finer. It was closely wrapped in a considerable amount of two

varieties of coarse cloth, woven from the fiber of the Spanish dagger,

then wrapped in a large, nicely woven mat of bear-grass, and tied on

by cords of the same material as the cloth to a small, curiously

shaped board of cottonwood. The position relative to the relics

found, together with much other evidence, Aemonstyate conclusively

that this is a mummy of a true ‘ Cliff-dweller

So far as I am aware, this is the only sueciionn of its kind ever dis-

covered; and as to the value of the relic and discovery every archeolo-

gist can judge.

In the near future I propose to publish a detailed account of the

results of my archeological researches in this strange country. —CLEM-

ENT L. WEBSTER.

1891.] Microscopy. 771

MICROSCOPY.!

The Nervous System of Convoluta.2—The discoverer of the.

nervous system of the accelous Turbellaria, Yves Delage, recommends

gold chloride as a means of demonstration.

A number of Convoluta are placed in a watch-glass, and most of

the sea-water removed. Formic acid (33 per cent.) is then poured

over them, killing them almost instantly. At the end of two minutes

the formic acid is removed, and gold chloride (one per cent.) put in

its place. After ten or twelve minutes’ exposure the gold chloride is

replaced. by formic acid (two per cent.), in which the Convoluta

remain, in the dark, until the stain is complete (from one to three

days). It is well to allow the planarians to become uniformly violet

and opaque, and then to decolor them with cyanide of potassium (one-

half per cent.). This reagent is allowed to act, according to the case,

from two to twenty-four hours. The decoloring action can be arrested

by washing with formic acid (two per cent.), The preparations can

be mounted in balsam, but glycerine, with a slight admixture of

formic acid, gives the best results. The prolonged action of the

formic solution renders the animals supple, so that they are easily

arranged on the slide.

The results obtained with gold chloride are notoriously variable.

According to Delage’s experience, out of three or four trials one at

least is sure to be a success. In the same operation the results are

different for different individuals. The best-stained specimens are

easily recognized with a low magnifying power, and these alone are

set aside for mounting.

If sections are required, the worm, after being decolored in formic

acid, must be hardened in the usual grades of alcohol. It is important

to have the object extended and free as possible from wrinkles and

contortions, This end can be best secured by subjecting the worms to

slight pressure under a cover-glass while applying the formic acid (33

per cent.).. Even then many of them will find space to twist them-

selves out of shape, but some will remain straight, and these can be

selected for cutting.

In order to cut several individuals at once, all oriented alike, Delage

passes them through chloroform, with a mixture of chloroform and

paraffine. From this he removes them to a slide smeared with oil, and

1 Edited by C.O. Whitman, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

2? Yves Delage. Arch. de Zool, Exp. et Gén, 1886, p. 113.

772 The American Naturalist. [August,

arranges them with a small brush. The slide is then carefully lowered

into a dish of warm paraffine, and usually reaches the bottom without

deranging the specimens. After cooling, the slide is taken out with

the Con¥oluta still in place. From six to a dozen may thus be im-

bedded and cut in a single series.

Osmic Carmine for the Histology of the Nervous Sys-

tem.—The gold chloride method serves only for the coarser anatomi-

cal features of the nervous system. The finer structure can be studied

to best advantage after treatment with osmic carmine. This new

reagent is prepared as follows: Take a strong solution of carmine in

ammoniacal water, and evaporate it on a water-bath until the appear-

ance of red clouds on the surface indicates that the excess of: ammonia

has disappeared. After cooling, add an equal volume of osmic acid

(one per cent.), and filter under a bell-jar. A very dark fluid is thus

obtained, which has the staining properties of carmine and the fixa-

tive properties of osmic acid. At the end of some days this reagent

loses its odor and becomes darker. Its fixative properties have disap-

peared, leaving ita good macerating reagent. It is best, therefore,

for preservative purposes to mix the acid and the carmine solution at

the time of using, or at least not many days before.

The Convoluta designed for sectioning ought to die extended.

They will do this in a concentrated solution of sulphate of iron. As

soon as they have been killed by this reagent they should be trans-

ferred to the osmic carmine, and left from one-half to twelve or more

hours, after which they may be hardened in the usual grades of alcohol

or the examination of the ‘frontal organ’’ (olfacto-gustatory

organ) in the living animal it was found necessary to resort to some

immobilizing agent. Experiments with the various agents in common

use showed that chlohydrate of cocaine (ten per cent.) was the best.

A drop of a solution in distilled water was placed on a slide and

evaporated slowly overa lamp. When the water had disappeared and

- the slide had cooled a number of Convoluta were placed on the small

spot of cocaine by the aid of a pipette, leaving as little water as pos-

sible, so that they would be slightly compressed by the cover-glass. A

good immersion lens was necessary, and examination had to be made

with haste, as only two or three minutes elapsed before the tissue

became opaque and began to change.

1891.] Scientific News. 773

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

A living illustration of the truth of the evolution theory has been

dredged in 392 fathoms off one of the Galapagos Islands, in the shape

of a stalked crinoid, or sea lily, in which are united the characteristics -

of three distinct fossil genera of the same group of organisms,—

Apiocrinus of the Bradford clay deposits, Hyocrinus, and Rhizocrinus

This interesting survival of a very old and complex type will shortly

be described by Mr. Alexander Agassiz.

Dr. Schliemann, like Robertson ‘‘ the naturalist of Cumbrae,’’—

whose life, by the Rev. T. R. R. Stebbing, has just been issued by Messrs.

Kegan Paul & Co.,—is another striking illustration of the class of men

who become distinguished in science in spite of adverse circumstances

in early life and subsequent pressure of business avocations. Mr.

Robertson in his youth was a farm laborer, but found opportunities,

nevertheless, to cultivate his mind as well as the soil. He

through a Glasgow medical course, but selected a business career, and

retired on a competency thirty years ago. Then he found leisure at

last to gratify his tastes for natural history, settled on the island of

Cumbrae, and worked at various branches of marine zoology, observing

and recording natural phenomena. He is acquainted with many

distinguished naturalists, and enjoys an honorable and honored old age.

The ninth annual report of the Geological Survey of the United

States, for the years 1887—’88, recently issued, is of unus

general interest, as it contains full accounts of the great earthquakes

in Charleston and its vicinity, from persons who witnessed the

shocks,—that of Mr. Carl McKinley, editor of the Charleston News

and Courier, being a most vivid and realistic description,—and from

numerous well-equipped scientific observers. The city of Charleston,

with the exception of Boston, was the oldest and most English-looking

of any in the United States. It is interesting to note, from the report

of Dr. C. E. Manigault, that the houses built prior to the revolutionary

era on the English system of bricklaying, in which shell lime was used,

sustained the successive shocks with the least injury. After 1838 in-

ferior lime and methods of building were adopted, and these erections

suffered severely. Not half a dozen houses escaped altogether.

Nearly twenty buildings were burnt, and all of these were on fire at

once on the first eventful night. The actual number of killed was

774 The American Naturalist. [August, 1891.]

seven whites and twenty colored persons ; of deaths attributed to cold

and exposure, eighty-seven. The number of wounded was never ascer-

tained. Low wooden houses appear to be the best suited and safest

habitations in earthquake regions. The shocks were felt as far north

as Toronto in Canada, south as the island of Cuba, east as Boston, and

nearly a thousand miles off in a southwesterly direction in the upper

Mississippi region. ‘The volume is illustrated with views of the ruins

of Charleston and Summerville, of the fissures on the banks of the

Ashley River near the phosphate works, the craterlets of Summerville,

and many plans, maps, and diagrams, In fact, the Charleston earth-

quake was the best observed and most photographed ‘shake ’’ on

record. The shocks traveled at the rate of three miles per second.—

AGNES CRANE.

The summer meeting of the American Geological Society is to be

held Monday and Tuesday, August 24th and asth, in the Columbian

University, Washington, D. C., and will doubtless be one of unusual

interest. The meeting will be preceded August roth to 22d by the

meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,

and will be followed by the International Geological Congress, which

meets August 26th, and remains in session one week. The three

societies wilt meet in the same building. The foreign members of the

International Geological Congress are to be invited to read papers `

before the Geological Society, and their papers will be given pre-

cedence on the program. A number of excursions will probably

_be arranged. The local arrangements are in the hands of a com-

mittee, Mr. G. K. Gilbert, chairman.

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Cheki a of Canadian: Plants:

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and their revisions have been used in the preparation of the Check-List.

Several additional species discovered last year (1890) are included.

The price of the list is 50 cents per copy, 3 copies for $1.00.

Address,

JAS. M. MACOUN,

Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

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PAGE.

EPLY TO PROFESSOR MA scot ad “NOTE ON

MESOZOIC MAMMALIA” eae

Ë Osborn,

LocK AND PARSLEY, o-i sig W. Bailey,

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VoL. XXV. SEPTEMBER, er 297.

A REPLY TO PROFESSOR MARSH'S “NOTE ON

MESOZOIC MAMMALIA.”?

BY PROF. HENRY F. OSBORN.

z Cy more than a thousand specimens of Cretaceous mam-

mals on which my investigations are based he has not

seen a single one, and no others are known, except a few frag-

ments.”

In the above paragraph Professor Marsh refers to the fact, also

stated very distinctly in my review of his “ Discovery of Cre-

taceous Mammalia,” that I had not examined his material, and

implies that my criticism is of less value because based solely upon

his descriptions and figures. This, I may explain, was not from

any lack of appreciation of the importance of studying type-

specimens, but because these types, together with the other large

mammalian collections belonging to the government, are not

accessible to American paleontologists. I should certainly

have examined them if I could have done so under conditions *

similar to those in which specimens belonging to the various

foreign museums are made accessible to others and myself.

'Thi * pri is a reply toan article entitled “A Review of the Cretaceous Mam-

malia,” F. Obsorn. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc., Phila., 1891; and was read before

Geological stead A. A. A. S., Washington: D. C., August arst, oe

The original unaltered copy of " Note on Mesozoic Mammalia,” as privately printed

and distributed abroad, was reprinted in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for July, with the

original copy of the “ Review.” For the amended " Note” see Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc.

Phila. .

3 In former papers I have made full acknowledgments of the opportunities afforded me

by Professor Marsh for examining his types. Such were also extended to me in connec-

tion with the Cretaceous mammals, but under conditions which I could not accept,

776 The American Naturahst. [September,

Without question, these and all other U. S. Geological Survey

` types, now that they have been described and figured by the

author, should be placed in the National Museum, where they

could be studied under the ordinary museum restrictions. The

examination of type specimens which the author regards “as a

matter of courtesy ” is rather a matter of custom and necessity ;

especially is this true-where the types are not private but public

property, and have been employed in official reports.

Nevertheless, after carefully reading the author’s “ Note,” I am

more confident than before that an examination of the types will

fully confirm all the main points raised in my review. As the

“ Note” contains very little in the nature of direct consideration

of my criticisms, I had not intended to answer it ; but my attention

has been called to the probability that, like the author’s original

papers on the Cretaceous Mammalia, this one might have consid-

erable weight with naturalists who happen to be entirely unfa-

miliar with the morphology and literature of the Mesozoic Mam-

malia. We find two features in the “ Note”: first, a number of

definite statements in regard to the structure and classification

of the Mesozoic mammals which bear directly upon this discus-

sion,—these I shall now consider and answer; second, a number

of unfavorable but indefinite comments upon the character and

methods exhibited in my paleontological papers. To the latter

I shall make no reply, because, if these papers are of no value,

my personal statement to the contrary would have no weight;

moreover, such discussion would merely divert attention from the

real question at issue, as raised in my review,—viz., the character

of the evidence advanced by Professor Marsh for the existence of

a very numerous and highly varied Cretaceous fauna. Of the

twelve specific statements made by the author in his “ Note,” four

are in defence of his “ Cretaceous Mammals,” eight are in criti-

cism of alleged errors in my papers upon the Jurassic and Triassic

mammals, especially in the “ Memoir Upon the Structure and

Classification of the Mesozoic Mammalia.” I may first reply to

the latter.

1. It is first stated that I separated Dromotherium from Micro-

conodon upon insufficient grounds, and figured the type of the

1891.] A Reply to Professor Marsh. 777

latter genus inaccurately. I would say, in reply, that Microcono-

don is entirely distinct from Dromotherium in the structure both

of the teeth and jaws, excepting only in the imperfect division of

the molar fangs, which in this instance is not a generic but at the

least a subordinal gharacter. The figure of Dromotherium syl-

vestre was drawn with the utmost care, yet I will be glad to cor-

rect any inaccuracies if the author will kindly point them out.

2. That I attributed a pineal foramén and eye to Tritylodon, and

later was compelled to retract it. The facts are that in a note

to Science I based this suggestion upon Owen’s figure and

description of an apparent “ fontanelle ” between the parietals and

frontals. At the same time I wrote to the British Museum asking

Dr. Baur to make a careful examination of the skull itself, and,

upon my learning that there was no foramen, I immediately

published a correction in CENA and moreover withdrew the

suggestion in my memoir.°

3. That my figure of Phascolotherium was inaccurate in four

important points. In reply, I may say that three years ago I

published’ a correction of the only error in this figure,—viz., the

elevated position of the dental foramen. In regard to all three

other inaccuracies the author of the “ Note” is mistaken: 1. As

may be seen by. reference to Flower & Lydekker’s recent work,”

the first incisor is present ; 2. The mylohyoid groove is correctly

figured, as may be seen by comparison with figures published by

Owen and others; 3. As stated in the explanation of the plates,

the last molar was restored from Dr. Buckland’s figure,’ which

was made before this tooth was detached and lost,—a perfectly

legitimate proceeding.

4. That I misquoted the title of “Discovery of Cretaceous

Mammalia.” This is the only point in which the author is

entirely correct. I find that inadvertently the article “the” was

included in quotation marks.

4“ Mesozoic Mammalia," p. 222.

5“ Mesozoic Mammalia,” p. 220, foot-note.

6“ No parietal eye in Tritylodon,” Science, 1887, p. 538.

1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sc., 1888, p. 294.

8" Mammals: Living and Extinct,” p. 114.

778 The American Naturalist. [September,

5. That my definition” of the Multituberculata (1) omitted some

of the characteristic features of this group, and (2) embraced accu-

rately the genus Mastodon. I find that my definition included

the only three distinctive and universal characters of this group

which were known at the time (1888) ; in fact, no additional char-

acters have since been published, nor are any mentioned by the

author of the “ Note.” No one, except the author, could confuse

my definition with that of the Mastodon, because the Multituber-

culata was placed as a suborder of the Marsupialia. The best

criterion of the clearness and sufficiency of this definition is that

the term defined has been universally adopted in subsequent

official and standard publications (see Flower, Lydekker, Troues-

sart, Doderlein, Ameghino, and others).

6. That I overlooked the strong probability that the type of

Bolodon is an upper jaw of a species of Plagiaulax, and made it

the type of a new family. The fact is, that so far from overlooking

the resemblance between Bolodon and Plagiaulax, I have given

the fullest discussion which has ever been published ™ of the

evidence for and against the union of these forms into one genus

and family. The author, moreover, does not mention that the

latest expression of opinion upon the subject is his own, and in

favor of the very views he is here criticising, as shown in the fol-

lowing sentence: “These fossils evidently belong to the family

named by the writer (¢.¢., by Marsh) the Allodontide, which

includes the American genus Allodon,and Bolodon from the Juras-

sic of England.”

7. That I have overlooked the probability that the type of

Stereognathus is an upper jaw, although heretofore described as a

lower one. Nothing can be said in support of such a proba-

bility. The universal opinion of English writers, following the

exceptionally careful figures and descriptions of Charlesworth

and Owen, is that this type is a lower jaw. I have not examined

9 Op. cit., Fig. 29.

10" Mesozoic Mammalia,” P. 213.

1‘ Mesozoic Mammalia,” p. 217.

VA. C. Marsh, Amer, Jour. Sci., p. 179. See also same journal, April, 1887, p, 329.

1891.] A Reply to Professor Marsh. 779

the type itself, but even since the author’s suggestion" that the

type is part of a maxilla it is again described and figured as a

lower jaw in Flower and Lydekker’s “ Mammals,” “

8. That I followed Cope’s error in founding the genus Menis-

coéssus upon a supposed premolar, which is, in fact, a reptilian

tooth. It is distinctly stated in my review, as well as in Cope’s

original description, that the type of Meniscoéssus is the molar

tooth, as is also implied by the term itself.'® Professor Cope

himself expressed serious doubts as to the mammalian nature

of the “premolar.” When I examined it, finding a basal cingu-

lum and close histological resemblance to the molar, I described

it as a premolar, and figured it as a probable premolar.

There is, however, reasonable doubt as to its mamma-

lian character, for the basal portion of the crown is entirely want-

ing, removing all evidence as to the character of the fangs.

g. That I mistook two portions of a fish (Hybodus) tooth, arti-

ficially cemented together, for a mammalian premolar. I con-

cluded my description of this tooth inthe following way: “ If it

is actually from the Rhetic beds, it probably represents a premo-

lar of Triglyphus.” I thus clearly expressed my doubts as to its

reference to a long-established genus, and was far from selecting

such a specimen as the type of a new genus and family of mam-

mals, as the author has done in the case of Stagodon.

It thus appears that of these eight alleged errors I have myself

long since published corrections of the two relating to Phascoloth-

erium and Tritylodon; that nothing has been added by recent

discovery to my definition of the Multituberculata ; that my asso-

ciation of the supposed premolars with Meniscoéssus and Trigly-

phus was in each case accompanied by an expressed doubt,

either in the description or figure; finally, that my conclusions

regarding the Bolodontidz (Allodontidz), if erroneous, have never-

theless been adopted and supported by the author himself. The

author’s criticisms will therefore have little weight with persons who

183 Amer. Jour. Sci., April, 1887, p. 343.

14P, 110, Fig. 27.

‘S The question of this nomenclature is fully discussed in the AMERICAN NATURALIST,

July, 1891.

780 The American Naturalist. [September,

are fully familiar with the literature of this subject. Let us now

consider the four points which the author has advanced in reply

to my review of his determinations of twenty-seven distinct types.

1. First, as regards the types of the genus Stagodon and

family Stagodontidz, the author still considers them as mam-

malian teeth, and remarks: “I distinctly stated that this tooth

has two fangs, and the bases of these were indicated in one of

my figures.” As this point is an interesting one, I reproduce for

a second time the figures of the teeth which were selected as the

1.—(STAGODONTID&.) a, Stagodon nitor. AfterMarsh. Types. 4, Platacodon

nanus, pre Marsh. Types.

types of Stagodon, and allow the reader to judge. We must

direct our attention only to these types, remembering that the

other teeth were all found isolated, and the fact, as urged by the

author, that “other teeth described as premolars,” and “ well-

preserved specimens since obtained” show distinct fangs, has no

bearing upon the question, since the association of these teeth

with the types is purely conjectural.

2. The order “Allotheria.” The author claims that he has

defined it, that it is prior to Multituberculata, and should be

adopted. There is no question as to the priority of definition

of the Allotheria; let us consider the character and applicability

of the definition. A fundamental objection to this term, as well

as to Pantotheria, is that Gill and Huxley had previously em-

ployed the termination ‘teria for the three great subclasses of

Mammalia (represented to-day by the Monotremata, Marsupialia,

and Placentalia); the termination had thus acquired a distinctive

and useful subclass rank. Even, therefore, if All6theria had been

properly defined, it could not well be adopted for a group which

16] have found a number of ‘errors in my writings upon the Mesozoic mammals

which are not in the author's list. I have also taken great care in every instance. to

publish corrections of them as soon as discovered,

1891.] A Reply to Professor Marsh. 781

constitutes at most an order included in the Prototheria or Meta-

theria. We may consider it fortunate, therefore, that the term

was not given a distinctive ordinal definition, but one which,

upon the author’s own statement,” failed to separate it from the

Marsupialia,—viz: 1. Teeth much below normal number; 2. canine

teeth wanting; 3. Premolar and molar teeth specialized; 4.

Angle of lower jaw distinctly inflected; 5. Mylohyoid groove

wanting. The best criterion of the definition and of the inutility

of this term Allotheria is the fact that it has been rejected

by every subsequent writer.

The third and fourth points advanced by the author in reply

are extremely comprehensive, and, if they can be substantiated, will

to some extent invalidate my criticism. It will be observed,

however, that both points are advanced very cautiously.

3. He states that “no true Plagiaulacide are known with

three rows of tubercles upon the upper molars.” This i$ equiva-

lent to saying that we have no positive evidence that the upper

molars have three rows; it is not- stated by the author that any

upper Plagiaulax molar is zown with. two rows. I may recall

the fact that in my review I called attention to this lack of posi-

tive evidence, and enumerated the strong cases of indirect evidence

to the contrary which we find, first, in the association of loose

molars of three rows of tubercles with the lower jaws of Nco-

plagiaulax, not to speak of Cimolomys; second, in the three

rows of the maxillary molars of Polymastodon, a genus very

closely related to Plagiaulax ; third, in the analogy of Tritylodon.

I consider this indirect evidence so strong that it is very unlikely

to be refuted by subsequent discovery, and believe that the author

will never be able to substantiate this first statement.

4. Finally, he states that “no Allotheria (Multituberculata)

are known with certainty to have three rows of tubercles in the

lower molars.” In support of this cautious assertion, the author

first refers to the type of Stereognathus as probably a portion of

a maxilla; this probability we have already shown rests upon no

stated evidence whatever. He observes, secondly, that “ there is

now conclusive evidence that the Cretaceous molar teeth with

17 Amer. Jour. of Science, 1880, p. 239. a

782 The American Naturalist. [September,

three rows of crescentic tubercles belong to the upper series, as

I have described them.”

In reply, I may say that undoubtedly some cfescentic tuber-

cular teeth, in three rows, will be found in the upper jaws of some

Cretaceous species, if for no other reason, because the ancestors

of Polymastodon will be found in the Cretaceous, and these

ancestors will exhibit three rows of subcrescentic tubercles in the

upper molars, since such is the character of the large Polymas-

todon upper molars.

It remains for the author to show specifically that the types of

Selenacodon and Tripriodon are maxillary teeth. I should

myself have considered them as such but for the fact that the

type of Dipriodon robustus, with two rows of tubercles, was de-

scribed as a maxillary tooth, and figured with a supposed frag-

ment of the zygomatic arch attached to the alveolar border. If

this tooth proves to be mandibular,.and the molars with three

rows of crescents are shown to be maxillary, the author will have

substantiated his second statement ; but such proof will not help

him out of his synonomic dilemma, for it will still appear that he

has founded three families, five genera, and as many species upon

different teeth belonging to the same dental series, and all syn--

onyms of Meniscoéssus.

Enough has been said to make it clear that, whatever evidence

the author may hold in reserve for his future memoir, this “ Note

on Mesozoic Mammalia” contains no positive evidence in defence

of his “ Cretaceous Mammalia.” ;

In closing, I may quote a concluding paragraph in the author’s

reply: “Noone who has earnest work to do can afford to spend

time in the ungracious task of pointing out errors in the work of

others.” I have always been of the same opinion that criticism is

an ungracious and thankless task. In this case I deferred my

“Review” for nearly two years, and endeavored to avoid it

entirely by sending to the author all my main points of doubt in

regard to his paper, and asking him to revise it. After waiting

for the author to avail himself of this opportunity, I came to the

conclusion that the “ Cretaceous Mammals,” sent out with the

authority of the distinguished author’s name, and under the

Seen i Fie ain ne ae ete Sree a toa Cor ne Ee a A

1891.] A Reply to Professor Marsh. 783

| auspices of our National Survey, might spread abroad a score of

Ka synonyms which, finding their way into literature, it would require

years to eliminate. I am happy to see, however, that all recent

writers, guided by their own critical faculty, and in some measure

perhaps by my “ Review,” have taken from the two papers on

“ Discovery of Cretaceous Mammals” only what they actually

contain,—namely, valuable and interesting additional characters of

two or three multituberculate genera, already partly known, besides

the discovery of two small trituberculates, and have not recog-

nized the four orders, eight families, sixteen new genera, and

twenty-seven new species constituted by the author.

SO a ee aaa aa

‘+

arkeano

at ren Noe an

5 TE, AR et ONES R ee HT

784 The American Naturalist. [September

HEMLOCK AND PARSLEY.

BY W. W. BAILEY.

TE study of the order Umbelliferæ presents peculiar diffi-

~ culties to the beginner, for the flowers are uniformly small,

and strikingly similar throughout the large and very natural

group. The family distinctions or features are quite pronounced

and unmistakable, and it is the determination of the genera which

presents obstacles, — serious, indeed, but not insurmountable.

“ By their fruits shall ye know them.”

The Umbelliferæ, as we see them here, are herbaceous, with-

hollow, often striated stems, usually more or less divided leaves,

and no stipules. Occasionally we meet a genus, like Eryngium

or Hydrocotyle, with leaves merely toothed or lobed. The

petioles are expanded into sheaths; hence the leaves wither on

the stem. The flowers are usually arranged in simple or com-

pound umbels, and the main and subordinate clusters may or may

not be provided with involucres and involucels. To this mode of

arrangement there are exceptions. In marsh-penny-wort (Hydro-

cotyle) the umbels are in the axils of the leaves, and scarcely

noticeable; in Eryngium and Sanicula they are in heads.

The calyx is coherent with the two-celled ovary, and the border

is either obsolete or much reduced. There are five petals inserted

on the ovary, and external to a fleshy disk. Each petal has its

tip inflexed, giving it an obcordate appearance. The common

colors of the corolla are white, yellow, or some shade of blue.

Alternating with the petals, and inserted with them, are the five

stamens,

The fruit, upon which so much stress is laid in the study. of

the family, is compound, of two similar parts or carpels, each of

which contains a seed. In ripening, the parts separate, and hang

divergent from a hair-like prolongation of the receptacle known

as the gynophore. Each half fruit (mericarp) is tipped by a

persistent style, and marked by vertical ribs, between or under which

_lie, in many genera, the oil-tubes or vittæ. These are -channels

RR ee ee ete

ee TPR eS ek ee ke, te

1891.] Hemlock and Parsley. 785

containing aromatic and volatile oil. In examination the botanist

makes delicate cross-sections of these fruits under a dissecting

microscope, and by the shape of the fruit and seed within, and by

the number and position of the ribs and oil-tubes, is able to

locate the genus. It of course requires skill and experience to

do this, but any commonly intelligent class can learn the process.

It goes without saying, and as a corollary to what has already

been stated, that these plants should always be collected in full

fruit; the flowers are comparatively unimportant. Any botanist

would be justified in declining to name one of the family not in

fruit. An attempt would often be mere guesswork.

In this family is found the poison hemlock (Conium) used by

the ancient Greeks for the elimination of politicians. It is a

powerful poison. The whole plant has a curious mousy odor.

It is of European origin. Our water hemlock is equally poisonous,

and much more common. It is the Cicuta maculata of the

swamps,—a tall, coarse plant which has given rise to many sad

accidents. Æthusa cynapium, another poisonous plant, known as

“ fool’s parsley,” is not uncommon, and certainly looks much like

parsley. This only goes to show how difficult it is for any but

the trained botanist to detect differences in this group of plants.

Side by side may be growing two specimens, to the ordinary

eye precisely alike, yet the one will be innocent and the other

poisonous.

The drug assafcetida is a product of this order. All the plants

appear to “ form three different principles: the first, a watery acid

matter; the second, a gum-resinous, milky substance; and the

third, an aromatic, oily secretion. When the first of these pre-

dominates they are poisonous; the second in excess converts

them into stimulants ; the absence of the two renders them useful

as esculents; the third causes them to be pleasant condiments.”

So that besides the noxious plants there is a long range of useful

vegetables, as parsnips, parsley, carrots, fennel, dill, anise, cara-

way, cummin, coriander, and celery. The last, in its wild state,

is said to be pernicious, but etiolation changes the products and

renders them harmless. The flowers of all are too minute to be

individually pretty, but every one knows how charming are the

786 The American Naturalist. [September,

umbels of our wild carrot, resembling as they do the choicest

old lace. Frequently the carrot has one central maroon-colored

floret.

Though most of the plants are herbs, Dr. Welwitsch found in

Africa a tree-like one, with a stem one to two feet thick, much

prized by the natives for its medicinal properties, and also valuable

for its timber. In Kamschatka also they assume a sub-arboreous

type, as well as on the steppes of Afghanistan.

As mistakes often occur by confounding the roots of Umbel-

liferze with those of horse-radish or other esculents, it is well,

when in doubt, to send the plants, a/ways in fruit, if possible, for

identification. None of them are poisonous to the touch,—at least

to ordinary people. Cases of rather doubtful authenticity are

reported from time to time of injury from the handling of wild

carrot. We have always suspected the proximity of poison ivy ;

still, it is unwise to dogmatize on such matters. Some people

cannot eat strawberries—more’s the pity !—while the rest of us

get along with them very happily. Lately the Primula obconica

has acquired an evil reputation as an irritant, so there is no telling

what may not happen with certain constitutions.

Difficult as is the study of Umbelliferze, it becomes fascinating

on acquaintance. To hunt upa plant and name it by so scientific

a process brings to the student a sufficient reward.

Providence, Rhode Island, July 2d, 1891.

ee Se RR oe N: EENE E EERE SSSI EA re OT Te ST Ge ee SLN Magee ane

1891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 787

THE PROBLEM OF THE SOARING BIRDS.

_ BY I. LANCASTER.

> Darwin, in the naturalist’s voyage around the world.

“ When the condors are wheeling in a flock round and round

any spot, their flight is beautiful. Except when rising from the

ground, I do not recollect ever_having seen one of these birds

flap its wings. Near Lima I watched several for nearly half an

hour, without once taking off my eyes: they moved in large

curves, sweeping in circles, descending and ascending without

giving a single flap. As they glided close over my head, I

intently watched from an oblique position the outlines of the

separate and great terminal feathers of each wing; and these

separate feathers, if there had been the least vibratory movement,

would have appeared.as if blended together ; -but they were seen

distinct against the blue sky. The head and neck were moved

frequently, and apparently with force; and the extended wings

seemed to form the fulcrum on which the movements of the neck,

body, and tail acted. If the bird wished to descend, the wings

were for a moment collapsed; and when again expanded with an

altered inclination, the momentum gained by the rapid descent

seemed to urge the bird upwards with the even and steady move-

ment of a paper kite. In the case of any bird soaring, its motion

must be sufficiently rapid so that the action of the inclined sur-

face of its body on the atmosphere may counterbalance its gravity.

The force to keep up the momentum of a body moving ina

horizontal plane in the air (in which there is so little friction)

cannot be great, and this force is all that is wanted. The move-

ment of the neck and body of the condor, we must suppose, is

sufficient for this. However this may be, it is truly wonderful

and beautiful to see so great a bird, hour,after hour, without any

apparent exertion, wheeling and gliding over mountain and river.”

The above remarkable words for many years have served to

sustain my interest in the endeavor to substitute the actual

for his provisional solution of soaring flight.

788 The American Naturalist (September,

I presented in this magazine certain papers of a suggestive

character, the results of much observation and experiment, in the 5

hope of directing attention to curious facts, not recognized, bear-

ing upon this subject. Three years ago I moved to my present

location, Egeria, Colorado, where, during the past eighteen

months, I have done the principal work necessary for this under-

taking.

I consider myself successful in obtaining important results.

In this paper I propose dealing with an experiment so obviously i

simple, as it now stands, that I am dazed to think of the labor

that has been expended upon it. This device, in wind, really

exhibits the entire soaring case in a very concise way, so far as its

fundamental principles are concerned; but I give briefly the same

experiment in calm air, as supplementary. The first form of the

experiment can be tried by any one with a fair amount of con-

structive ability, and it cuts an awful chasm through the teachings

of the mechanical schools on atmospheric resistance, and unerr-

ingly pointg, to practical air navigation.

A rough-board platform, about twelve feet square, with a post

and cross-beam fixed upon it, the whole being capable of hori-

zontal rotation to present the plane to the wind from whatever

direction it might blow, is the framework.

The plane should bė a flat pyramid,—5x5 feet square is a good

size on the base, and two inches high. The edges of such

shape, being sharp, give the effect of a true plane without thickness.

The whole should be finished smooth, similar to the top of an

ordinary piano. Perfectly seasoned white pine or red cedar is an

excellent material to use, glueing thin strips together in the rough,

and dressing to shape.

To one edge of the plane two fine steel wires are fastened,

which are suspended from two ordinary spring balances, fixed by

their rings to the cross-beam of the platform. When thus sus-

pended the plane will sway freely too and fro, like a child’s swing,

the flat side being in a vertical position when at rest.

To the apex at the back of the plane is fixed another wire pro-

vided with another spring balance, the ring of which is fastened

è to the rear part of the cross-beam, when the plane is drawn back-

ik sid E E rates og

EE E EA EEEE RES ORT T TAT LO TFE EA E EEP Oe EOE EE A

1891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 789

ward to any desired angle of obliquity with the horizon. This

wire must in all cases be kept perpendicular, and the other two

parallel to the plane. ‘

It is obvious that the plane can be pulled backwards through ©

all degrees of the quadrant, and suspended at any position by the

wires and balances in a state of rest. While the plane hangs

vertically all its weight will be on the parallel wires, half on each.

As it is pulled to the rear less and less weight will be on the

parallel wires, and more and more on the normal wire, until at a

horizontal position, 90° from the starting point, all weight will be

on the normal wire, and none on the parallel.

If we assume the soaring inclination of a bird to be 5° from

horizontal, and pull the plane back to that angle, the normal

scale will mark twenty-seven pounds and the parallel one pound

each, small fractions of weight being neglected. If anangle of

45° be used, the normal scale will mark about nineteen pounds

and the two others 9% pounds each.

Fic. I.

To operate this device, a time of calm air is chosen, and the

plane is pulled back to any desired angle, say 45°, the normal

scale fastened in position, and the weight indications of each

scale noted. When wind arises, rotate the platform to face it, so

that the plane will stand squarely across its direction. This is

not done to expose the plane to any particular direction of wind,

but to get all the resistance possible out of it. Then observe the

scales to see what effect wind has on the normal and parallel

gravity stresses. Any perceptible breeze will be shown by the

normal scale, which will indicate less and less weight as wind

increases. If the air moves with sufficient force, all weight- will

SE AE AA, esc RTE A CE iat) es UTD ys gt E T AANA,

790 The American Naturalist. [September,

be taken from the normal scale, the wire may be cut, and the

plane will rest on the air pressure beneath its surface, in which

event pressure is substituted for tension on the normal line,

otherwise the stress being unchanged, either in direction or

magnitude.

If the plane be suspended at the soaring angle of 5°, and

wind is strong enough to lift it to that angle, all tension will be

taken from the normal scale, the plane resting on air pressure as

at the 45° inclination, and so on through all degrees of the arc.

During all this time the parallel scales indicate the weight

recorded by them at the various angles in calm air, so that they

are not influenced by wind inthe least degree, however great its

force might be.

If at any angle of obliquity the plane be held by a wire from

each corner, perpendicular to it, and fastened to the platform, no

force of wind will vary the parallel scales, the tension of the four

wires holding the entire wind resistance, however great, In

short, there is no way to get wind to affect the parallel scales.

If variation in them occurs, it shows at once some error in the

experiment, either the wires being out of adjustment, or some

` warpage of plane or other disturbance having taken place.

The rotating arms for trying this experiment in calm air are

60 feet radius, their ends describing a circle of 120 feet diameter.

The plane is hung under the arm, and all the conditions of the

other experiment complied with. No change could be noted in

the results, excepting that motions of plane were made with

greater smoothness, on account of greater steadiness in artificial

wind. By no means could air resistance be brought to bear on

the parallel component of gravity. It acted the same in wind as

in calm air, undisturbed by atmospheric resistance.

Before anything is inferred from these experiments it will be

best to state the facts of the case. So completely subversive of

the usual conceptions of the action of air on surfaces is this trial

_ that it seems imperative to get the facts right before attempting

to range them in the order of mechanical sequence.

For convenience, I will number a few of the conspicuous ones.

1. The scales, being marked in half pounds, do not register

1891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 791

small fractions of force, so that if there be friction down the

plane caused by slipping air, such resistance would act on the

parallel scales, but, being of small magnitude, could not be read

from the index.

2. Neither the cross-arm in wind, nor the rotating arm in calm

air, holds the plane against the air. They simply. neutralize the

parallel factor of gravity, and prevent its acting upon the plane.

3. The normal gravity component does work upon the air by

disturbing it in various ways, such as changing its motion, and

condensing it, and it is the only fraction of weight that meets

with atmospheric resistance, if we neglect the unknown elements

of friction.

4. The experiments are in obedience to the law of normal

resistance of fluids to surfaces compressing them.

5. There is no resistance to the plane on the line of motion of

either plane or air. Even the hypothetical friction is not on such

line.

6. Wind or calm air produce identical results ; the only require-

ment being that air and plane shall meet, motion of either, related

to the earth, being indifferent.

The consequences flowing from the above are many and im-

portant, and in the briefest manner I will notice those which

seem to demand the earnest attention of every student of nature,

however abhorrent they may be to’ text-book devotees.

It is obvious that the wires of the experiment, when the plane

is adjusted to any obliquity in calm air, resolves weight in the

same way that an ordinary inclined plane would if the latter were

rough, the stresses being of the nature of pressure instead of

tension.

Then we have in the mathematical formula of inclined planes

without friction what also applies to oblique atmospheric resist-

ance. For when the plane of the experiment, held by the wires,

is submitted to air pressure, the shape, size, and obliquity of that

plane determines the shape, size, and obliquity of the plane of air

pressure beneath it, which plane being destitute of friction the

component along it must be neutralized, as is done by the paral-

Am. Nat—Sept.—2,

792 The American Naturalist. [September,

lel wires, to preserve stability ; otherwise, the experimental plane

would slip down the air plane.

It follows that atmospheric resistance is a purely static feature

in all cases; as completely so as a rigid inclined plane, resolving

all forces impinging upon it. This becomes still more evident

when we see that it is the experimental plane that determines the

direction of air resistance, and not the direction in which plane

and air meet. If air moved vertically upwards, or from the rear,

or from any other direction, against the lower surface, the direction |

of resistance would be unchanged, and the experiment equally : |

Er A a TN

effective. It was not to employ horizontal wind that the experi-

ment was arranged, but to parallel the case with a soaring bird,

the working force of which is gravity.

Magnitude of resistance would vary, with the same wind, as E .

its direction approached or receded from the normal line, but, as ,

will be shown farther on, magnitude is unimportant, direction

being the vital matter.

If the experimental plane were supposed to be of the same

specific gravity as the air it displaces, and some other force used

to hold the plane against, or drive it upon air, the same result a

would follow. This force would be resolved, as gravity is resolved,

by the air plane.

The enormous error of the mechanical schools in estimating

resistance of air to oblique surfaces is now conspicuous. This

error has the sanction of the great name of Newton, and stands

squarely across the pathway leading to artificial air navigation,

setting up scarecrows along every avenue to success.

But it is consoling to know that no man, not even a Newton,

can diagram a force into nature that was not there before the

diagram was made.

The entire nature of air resistance is misconceived. The case

is a curious one of ġouleversement, The activities are turned

upside down. Instead of the surface resolving the resistance, it

is the resistance that resolves whatever forces drive the surface

upon it. I have examined over a hundred text-books of

mechanical teaching, and have found no exception to the preva-

lence of this error. They all get resistance on the line in which

se oy

Pri tee ee aT Nees othe SE

EST

3 S EREA

EENES EEPE ASEE EE S al RP N E S

EAE A aS

1891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 793

plane and air meet. They do not all go about it in the same

way, but in the end that is where they locate it. So far as I can

determine, the error is on the increase, the later authorities being

more emphatically astray than the earlier ones. The last utter-

ance that I have seen is contained in a lecture delivered to the

students of Sibly College, Cornell University, in May, 1890, by

O. Chanute, C.E. On pages 28 and 29 of the published paper

the error comes out glaringly. In speaking of M. Drzewieki’s

work on Duchemin’s formula, he says: “ Next he calculates the

horizontal components of the normal pressure, this being the

resistance to the advancement of the plane.” His entire exposi-

tion is saturated with the blunder, for no horizontal resistance

exists. Mr. S. P. Langley, in his recent submission of experi-

ments and suggestions in aérodynamics, entertains the same

delusion in its full force, otherwise he seems notably free from a

priori bias. ;

But my thanks are due to some unknown friend who has just

sent me a copy of Science, dated May ist, 1891, in which

I find marked a letter to the editor on “Flying Machines,”

by H. A. Hazen. The writer is wholly unknown to me;

but I infer that he is neither a “crank” nor a dabbler in

science, but a well-grounded expert of wholly intelligent attain-

ments. Without presuming to defend Mr. Langley in the

remotest manner, I am justified in holding that Hazen’s statements

are accepted by the mechanical schools, and I herewith call

attention to the utterly erroneous nature of such teaching by con-

trast to the following facts.

1. A bird does support itself in soaring flight by going fast,

and in no other way.

2. There is no evidence that a bird in the act of soaring ever

remained stationary in still air for an instant; and whether air is

hurled against bird or bird against air, the result is the same;

meeting in opposition of bird and air is required by the very

nature of soaring flight.

3. “ Solution of the problem ” is unchanged by “ great velocity.”

4. As parallel motion on the upward slant is what gives

“velocity ” to the bird, and as atmospheric friction is the only

794 The American Naturalist. [September

resistance to such translation, speed of flight is determined by a

force which may, for all practical purposes, be left wholly out

of the account.

5. “As a matter of fact,’ the statement that “it would be

much easier to go slow than fast ” is a burlesque.

6. Resistance of air at one mile or one hundred miles per hour

is practically the same.

So far as I can see, the paraphrased arguments of LeConte do

not touch the problem of soaring flight in any way, but all the

errors of the mechanical schools are evidently adopted by him. _

But here is by no means the end of this catena of difficulty.

There are three ways, shown in the subjoined diagram, in

which a surface and air can meet.

1. Parallel to the surface.

2. Obliquely to the surface.

3. Normal to the surface.

Sg ee

The first meets with frictional resistance.

The second with both friction and pressure.

The third with pressure rcsistance only.

The direction of the first and third resistance is in the line on

which plane and air meet, there being a single stress on that line.

The directions of the second resistances are both parallel, and

normal to the plane, there being two stresses perpendicular to

each other, and no stress on the line in which plane and air meet.

It directly follows that direction of motion of the second case

is a resultant, composed of two velocities, one on the line of fric-

tional, the other on the line of pressure resistance, the plane

being a body subject to two forces, neither of which are in the -

line of motion.

” x891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 795

No single force, however great, could drive a plane obliquely

through air. There must of necessity be not less than two

stresses, derived either from the application of two forces, or the

resolution into two components of one.

I need go no further in this direction, but will add a few words

regarding my work during the past year and a half, in the way of

direct flight.

It is sufficiently obvious that a force of about two pounds’ con-

stant pressure applied to the plane, either in wind or calm air, in

the above experiments, to take the place of the cross-arm and

rotating arm, neutralizing the parallel component of gravity,

would, if obtained from the constant flow of twenty-seven pounds

pressure escaping from beneath the surface, produce a true soar-

ing plane in calm and wind.

A smooth plane has no tendency to throw two pounds of this

twenty-seven pounds (over 90°) against the obstructive component.

The true problem of flight consists in so manipulating the

surface as to perform this function. I have hitherto taken the

wing of a soaring bird as a model, and have had unexpected and

most gratifying success.

I can produce true soaring flight in natural wind with a plane

exceeding two pounds to a square foot of surface whenever I

wish to do so and can obtain wind strong enough for the pur-

pose. During the above-mentioned period of time I have made

about fifty planes of various shapes and sizes, and from 25

' to 400 pounds in weight. These planes are not set free in wind,

but used as in the experimental cases above, with rigid rods in

place of the parallel wires. These rods run in large rings and

have a cross head at their outer ends, allowing the plane to run

to the front until its edge rests against the rings. In the best

trials the parallel component is neutralized at 10° from horizon-

tal, far exceeding my expectations derived from observations of

the birds; their angle of obliquity being rarely over 5°.

On a few occasions these planes accidentally escaped me in

time of highest wind, and were ruined at once for all purposes

excepting fire-wood ; in each case being a loss of two or three

months’ work, and playing havoc with my finances. One that I

796 The American Naturatst. [September,

valued particularly plunged to the front in a violent blast of wind

with force sufficient to tear out the rings. It rose into the air

gradually higher and higher, until an elevation of at least 3,000

feet was attained, when some part of the device giving away it

lost equilibrium, and plunged through the air, striking the earth

about two-and-a-half miles from the starting point, and 1000 feet

higher than that locality. Another mile would have carried it

tothe summit of the Flat Top Mountains. It was in the air

about three hours, and I walked beneath it during its flight. Its

course was directly against the highest wind I have experienced

during my residence here. At times it did not progress, but

went higher. It weighed one hundred and ten pounds, and had

been well balanced for experimenting on surface manipulation.

There was no lesson taught in this flight, the birds having been

doing the same thing for a long time. It was an interesting

spectacle to look at; so is a large bird in the same act. I presume

Mr. Darwin’s provisional solution would apply to this plane as

well as to the condors, but I am trying to explain the actual

mechanical activity of both.

The best effects produced were with a plane of 400 pounds

weight and eighty square feet of surface. In a wind that would

be rightly termed a gale, arising about midnight, this plane was

thrown to about 7° from horizontal. It ran to the front against

the rings at 10°, where the entire parallel component was neu-

tralized, and at 7° it hugged the rings with a force that required

a backward pull of fifteen pounds to detach it. ;

This plane would make a splendid air navigator, and I would

have no hesitation in trusting myself to it when steering, equi-

librium, and alighting or stopping items had been worked out.

I mean to say that it would navigate wind. Iam now just enter-

ing on a course of experiments in calm air.

The front ledge is an important factor in steadiness, but the

rear curve I have entirely abandoned, surface manipulation being

depended upon to produce the parallel thrust. My judgment is

that I have succeeded in separating the mechanical devices of a

bird’s wing which produce flight from those serving other life

purposes of the animal. It has been an arduous task. At the

1891.] Problem of the Soaring Birds. 797

close of experimenting in this line I hit upon a method not

exhibited by the birds, which promises best results, but which

waits further developments.

Let us suppose a soaring bird of twenty-seven pounds weight, —

with stretched wings on an angle of 5° from horizontal, translat-

ing itself in calm air, or stationary when related to the earth in

wind. Suppose, further, the initial impulse to have been made

so that its motion is uniform.

Then its weight is resolved into a normal and parallel compo-

nent by the air plane of pressure beneath it. The normal com-

ponent does work by driving the air out of place, thereby chang-

ing its motion. The parallel component acts upon the bird,

tending to drive it on the downward slant, backwards. The air

in being condensed reacts in all directions, and reaction towards

the front being resisted by the surface manipulations, the bird is

driven against friction and the small component, on the upward

slant, and, completing the diagram of velocities, the result is

horizontal flight.

FIG, 2.

If the parallel factor be supposed out of the way by neutraliza-

tion arising from surface manipulation, and the air to be calm,

then the normal factor would drive the plane against air pressure

from a to å in any given unit of time, say one second.

Simultaneously with this motion a small excess of parallel force

over that required to balance the parallel factor—say one-half

pound constant pressure—would drive the plane from a toc,

against friction, in which case motion would occur on æ d, the

resulting line of horizontal flight.

I have said that direction, and not magnitude of force, was the

_ vital point in the soaring activity. This fact must now be quite

sho nue, - |

. ORS ee As

798 The American Naturalist. [September,

plain. Magnitude of force depends on weight of plane, and on

that alone. The gravity stress existing between the plane and

the earth’s center is the only conceivable force in action, and air

will meet any demand made upon it by the normal factor of this

force, against which it is a reaction. This factor is determined

by the angle of obliquity of plane in each case, and the work

done upon the air goes on independently of the parallel motion

of the plane on the upward slant, which alone gives a soaring

movement. It is obvious that whether wind should move from

the zenith downwards, or from the earth vertically upwards, or

horizontally, or from any angle of obliquity whatever, the soaring

activity is not affected. That goes on as it does in calm air.

Motion of plane as related to the earth would of course vary with

wind, if inclination remained the same, but the soaring action,

considered by itself, is absolutely independent of wind,—meaning

by that word motion of air as related to the earth.

I had prepared specimen feathers from the wings of various

birds during the past twenty-five years, intending to prepare a

paper for publication on the subject of surface manipulation,

which I hold to be the most curious and interesting feature about

a bird, yet almost paralleled by the wonder that it has hitherto

escaped notice. But we have a rat, if it be a rat, that is endowed

with a peculiar moral nature. With it, exchange is no robbery.

A nest of them inhabited the building in which I kept my speci-

mens, and they bartered what I laid claim to for an indescribable

lot of miscellaneous rubbish of no earthly use to me. Their

views and mine were very different. They had cut the feathers

into small bits and mixed them with dirt, and stowed them away

in all sorts of holes and corners. I shut acat in the room for

some days, which caused the rodents to vanish, but my feathers

were ruined.

If you will take a primary wing feather of any large bird—

say a wild goose, or especially a frigate bird——and cut squarely

across the ribs, and examine the divided part endwise with a

magnifying glass of low power, you will see nature’s plan of

surface manipulation to get the forward thrust against the small

component of weight and air friction. Cut on 4c, and examine

Moe MDP e es, Vn tes ean OR ae anes Sr in aN cite AY ego Mees Pak rae

Ry Merge eaten Meee aE me AT

a PR ee a ee

5s Ray Te ae ae e a :

ac fia oo

FIG. 3.

800 The American Naturalist. [September,

the cut ends of the ribs along a. You will see something like d.

If we suppose an unpressed small portion of air to be represented

by a small circle 0, and the same air when pressed, by a flat disk

<>, and then mesh this disk with the sort of surface made by

the manipulation, the nature of the front thrust will be made

thinkable. I enlarge it below. That part of the air particle to

-FIG 4.

the rear of the dotted line as 4 slips easily over the ribs, while the

front part, a, engages with them and tends to carry them to the

front. I have worked out all this artificially with excellent

results, and can give you a paper upon it if a large part of the

actual size and shape of the ribs in different birds is left to mem-

ory, as the rats have destroyed my samples.

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 801

THE HISTORY OF GARDEN VEGETABLES

BY E. L. STURTEVANT.

(Continued from page 706, Vol. XXV., 1891.)

Lycopersicum humboldtii Dun.

This is very like the preceding, but the racemes of the flowers

smaller, the calycine segments being never the length of the

corolla, and the berries one-half smaller, red, and, when culti-

vated, not less angular than those of L. esculentum? It was

noticed by Humboldt? as under cultivation at La Victoria,

Neuva Valencia, and everywhere in the valleys of Aragua, in

South America, and is described by Kunth* in 1823, and by

Willdenow, about 1806, from plants in the Berlin garden from

seeds received from Humboldt. The fruit, although small, has a

fine flavor. I suspect the Turban, Turk’s Cap, or Turk’s Turban

of our seedsmen, a novelty of 1881, to be referable here, although

this cultivated variety is probably a monstrous form.

Lycopersicum pyriforme Dun.

This, which is to be classed as one of the fancy varieties under

cultivation, occurs with both yellow, red, and pale yellow or

whitish fruit. It was described by Dunal in 1813, andin Persoon’s

synopsis in 1805. It is mentioned in England in 1819, and

both the colors in the United States by Salisbury in 1848. It

is liked by some for garnishing and pickling. The common

names are pear-shaped and fig.

Lycopersicum pimpinellifolium Dun.

The currant tomato bears its red fruit, somewhat longer than a

common currant, or as large as a very large currant, in two-

1 Don. Gard. and Bot. Dict., IV., 443.

? Humboldt. Trav., Bohn. Ed., II., 20.

3 Kunth. Syn., "e EL, 187

t Dunal.

lan.,

5 Salisbury. Trans: x Y. Ag. Soc., 1848, 371.

A: AR ee a E aie a Ea

a e ie A A O E AAE AA eke WS Sky ce A cL tah Ci a ES

802 The American Naturalist. [September,

ranked racemes, which are frequently quite large and abundantly ; l 4

filled. It grows wild in Peru and Brazil, and is figured by

Feuille® in 1725, but not asa cultivated plant, and is described

by Linnzus’ in 1763. The grape or cluster tomato is recorded

in American gardens by Burr® in 1863, and as the red currant

tomato by Vilmorin?’ in 1883 and 1885. It is an exceedingly

vigorous and hardy variety, with delicate foliage, and fruits most

abundantly. The berries make excellent pickles.

According to the test of cross-fertilization, few, if any, of the

above are true species. Two only of the above named—the

cherry and the currant tomato—do I find recorded in a truly

wild condition. The tomato has, however, been under cultiva-

tion from a remote period by the Nahua and other Central

American nations, and reached European and American culture,

as all the evidence implies, in an improved condition. If there

is any evidence that any of our so-called types arose spontaneously

from the influences of culture, I have failed to note it. We may

well ask, Why did not other forms appear during the interval

from 1558 to 1623, when but one sort, and that figured as little

able,vari received the notice of the early botanists ?

The modern names of the tomato, or love apple, are in France,

tomate, pomme d'amour, pomme d'or, pomme du Perou ; in Ger-

many, tomate, liebesapfel ; in Flanders and Holland, tomaat; in

Italy, pomo d'oro; in Spain and Portugal, tomate; in P

kjoerlighedsaeble

In Arabic, dydingan toumaten;™ in Burma, kha-yan-myae-

phung ;” in Ceylon, maha-rata-tamattie ; in the Deccan, wall-

wangee; in Egypt, dydingan toumaten; in Malaya, tomatte ;

in Tagalo, tomates, camatis ; ® in Tamil, seemie-takalie-pullam ; ®

6 Feuille. Per., 1725, 37, t. 25.

T Linnzeus. Sp., 1763, 265. —

8 Burr. Field and yri Veg., 1863, 646. :

+» 554-

9 Vilmorin. Les Pl.

10 Schubeler. CO. gl.

n Delile. Fl. Æg. Ill.

12 Pickering. Ch. Hist.,

13 Birdwood. Veg. a a Bomb., 173.

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 803

in Indian gardens, goot-begoon, oou lacetee buengun ; in Mexico,

jomatl ; in Japan, akanasu, red egg-plant.!®

TURNIP. Brassica sp.

Vilmorin in his “ Les Plantes Potageres,” 1883, classes all the

turnips under Brassica napus L.; but the older authors referred

them, more correctly as we think, to Brassica napus and B. rapa.

Decandolle,” who makes this distinction, separates the first into

three groups, based on color, the white, yellow, and black; the

second into groups, comprising the white, yellow, black, red, and

green. In the thirteenth century Albertus Magnus describes the

napus as with a long root, which is eaten, and the rapa as having

a spherical compressed bulb, and sometimes red in the stalk. The

turnip is of ancient culture. Columella,” a. D. 42, says the napus

and the vapa are both grown, and the latter the larger and greener

for the use of man and beasts, especially in France; the former

not having a swollen, but a slender, root. He also speaks of the

Mursian gongylis, which may be the round turnip, as being espe-

cially fine. The distinction between the napus and the rapa was

not always held, as Pliny ™® uses the word napus generically, and

says that there are five kinds, the Corinthean, Cleonzum, Liotha- -

sium, Boeoticum, and the Green. The Corinthean, the largest,

with an almost bare root, grows on the surface, and not, as

do the rest, under the soil. The Liothasium, also called Thra-

cium, is the hardiest. The Bceoticum is sweet, of a notable round-

ness, and not very long as is the Cleoneum. At Rome the

Amiternian is in most esteem, next the Nursinian, and third our

own kind (the green?). In another place, under rapa he mentions

two kinds, the one broad-bottomed (flat?), the other globular,

and the most esteemed those of Nursia. The zapus of Amiterni-

num, of a nature quite similar to the rapa, succeeds best in a cool

place. He mentions that the rapa sometimes attain a weight of

l4 Speede. Ind. Handb. of Gard.,

15 Heller. U.S, Pat. Of. Rept., — 411.

16 K, Tamari

17 Decandolle. Mem., 1 =. 30.

18 Columella. Lib., II. etc.; X.,

19 Pliny. Lib., XIX., é aa ‘Lib. AVIU. X ws 35.

804 The American Naturalist. [September,

forty pounds. This weight has, however, been exceeded in mod-

ern times. Matthiolus,” in 1558, had heard of turnips that

weighed a hundred pounds, and speaks of having seen long and

purple sorts that weighed thirty pounds. Amatus Lusitanus,”

in 1524, speaks of turnips weighing fifty and sixty pounds. In

England, in 1792, Martyn ” says the greatest weight that he is

acquainted with is thirty-six pounds. In California, about 1850,

a turnip is recorded of one hundred pounds weight.

Brassica napus esculenta DC."

This differs from the Brassica rapa oblonga by its smooth and

glaucous leaves. It surpasses other turnips by the sweetness of

` its flavor, and furnishes white, yellow, and black varieties. It is

known as the Navet or French turnip.” It was apparently the

napa of Columella. It was certainly known to the early bot-

anists, yet its synonymy is difficult to be traced from the figures.

I think, however, the following are correct :

Napus. Trag., 1552, 730; Math, 1554, 240; Pik, 1561,

144; Cam. Epit., 1586, 222; Dod., 1616, 674; Fischer, 1646.

Bunias sive napus. Lob. ic., 1591, I., 200.

Bunias silvestris lobelii. Ger., 1597, 181.

Napi. Cast. Dur., 1617, 304.

Bunias. Bodzus, 1644, 773.

Napus dulcis. Blackw., 1765, t. 410.

Navet petit de Berlin. Vilm., 1883, 360.

Teltow turnip. Vilm., 1885, 580.

The zavews are mentioned as under cultivation in England by

Worlidge,™ in 1683, as the French turnip by Wheeler,” in 1763,

and Millers Dictionary, 1807. Gasparin” says the navet de

Berlin, which often acquires a great size, is much grown in

20 Matthiolus. Com., 1558, 240.

21 Amatus Lusitanus. In Diosc., 1554, 247.

22 Martyn, FI. Rustica, 1792.

23 A, Williams.. U.S. Pat. Of. Rept., 1851, 4.

24 Syst. Hort. By J. W. Gent, 1683, 181.

25 Wheeler. Bot. and Gard. Dict., 1763, 8I.

26 Gasparin. Cours de Agr., IV., 116

Ee pao Pees ekg tats 3 i eye a pA x 5 a z hiai 8

EAR T Ne ee a eT A a A aa T AN eee E eR | ML ee aa EE a e T a E AES E a e A R E a E r E A A E e ere aa a a A E E A N ee A PRE RE ORS SS pt a AAA z ~

Se | Qe eer a oe Ge erect eee see

1891.] The History of Garden Vegetables. 805

Alsace and inGermany. In China, according to Bretschneider,”

it was known in the fifth century.

Brassica rapa depressa DC.

This has a large root expanding under the origin of the stem

into a thick, round, fleshy tuber, flattened at the top and bottom.

It has white, yellow, black, red or purple, and green varieties. It

seems to have been known from ancient times, and is described

and figured in the earlier botanies. ;

A. Flattened both above and below.

Rapum. Matth., 1554, 240; Cam. Epit., 1586, 218.

Rapum sive rapa. Pin., 1561, 143.

Rapa. Cast. Dur., 1617, 386.

Navet turnip. Vilm., 1883, 583.

B. Flattened, but pointed below.

Orbiculatum seu turbinatum rapum. Lob. ic., 1791, I., 197.

Rapum. Porta, Phytognom, 1591, 120.

Rapum vulgare. Dod., 1616, 673.

Rave d’ Auvergne tardive. Vilm., 1883, 369.

Rapum. Trag., 1552, 728.@

Rapa, La Rave. Tourn., 1719, 113.

Navet jaune d'Hollande. Vilm., 1883, 370.

Yellow Dutch. Vilm., 1885, 588.

Brassica rapa oblonga DC.

This race differs from the preceding in having a long and

oblong tuber tapering to the radicle. It seems an ancient form,—

perhaps the Cleonzum of Pliny.

Vulgare rapum alterum. Trag., 1532, 729.

Rapum longum. Cam. Epit., 1586, 219.

Rapum tereti, rotunda, oblongaque radici. Lob. ic., 1591, I.

‘197.

Rapum oblongius. Dod., 1616, 673.

Rapum sativum yoda and oblongum. J. Bauh., 16 $1, H,

838.

* Bretschneider. Bot. Sin., 78.

806 The American Naturalist. [September,

Rapa, La Rave. Tourn., 1719, 113.

Navet de Briollay. Vilm., 1883, 372.

Briollay turnip. Vilm., 1885, 591.

This representation by no means embraces all the turnips now

known, as it deals with form only, and not with color and habits.

In 1828 thirteen kinds were in Thorburn’s American seed cata-

logue, and in 1887 thirty-three kinds. In‘ France, twelve kinds

were named by Pirolle in 1824, and by Petit in 1826. In 1887

Vilmorin’s wholesale seed-list enumerates thirty-one kinds.

The turnip is believed to have reached England from Holland

in 1550,” but before this it had reached the New World. In

1540 Cartier ® sowed turnip seed at the present Montreal, in

Canada. In 1609” turnips are mentioned in Virginia, as also in

1649;* they are mentioned as cultivated in Massachusetts in

1629.” In Peru they are said by Acosta, in 1604, to have

increased so abundantly as to become a nuisance in the planting

of grain.

The turnip is called in France, navet, gros navet, grosse rave,

naveau, navet turnips, rabiole, rabtoule, rave plate, tornep, turneps,

turnip; in Germany, herbst-rube, stoppel-rube ; in Flanders and

Holland, raap ; in Denmark, rõæ,; in Italy, navone, rapa; in

Spain and Portugal, wado;** in Arabic, 4,” /uft; in Bengali,

shalgram ; in Persia, shalgram ; in Sindh, gokhru ;* in Japan,

buset, aona (the round form).

78 Booth. Treas. of Bot

29 Cartier. Third Voy., Pinkectoh Voy., XII., 667.

80 A True Decl. of Va., 1610, 13.

31 A Perfect Desc. of Va., 1649,

Higginson. Mass, Hist. Soc. Col, 1st Ser., I., 118.

33 Acosta. Hist., 1604, 261.

34 Vilmorin. Les = Pot , 1883, 357.

35 Delile. Fl. Æg.

86 Birdwood. Veg. Fa of Bomb., 137.

31 Thunberg. Jap., 375.

j a { ,

Ae Breit epee wit pero eRe eB) Syke a Syne ae ER eee

3 r O TIRTA,

ee e ar ee Re a pe ie eee

1891.] Editorial. 807

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

“He fortieth meeting of the American Association for the

Advancement of Science was held at Washington, between

August 17th and 25th, inclusive. It was a successful and

enjoyable occasion, and the membership present exceeded 800.

Representatives from almost all parts of the country, including

the Pacific coast, were present. The papers read were generally

of a high order of merit. A noticeable feature was the large

number of new specialists who appeared, especially in the Bio-

logical and Geological Sections, an indication of increased

activity in these fields, due in the main to the good work which

has been going on in our. universities. The overflow of entomo-

logical papers was large enough to give the Entomological Club

plenty to do,anda_ good many geological papers went over to the

Geological Society of America, whose meetings overlapped those

of the American Association. The address of the retiring pre-

_ sident, Professor George L. Goodale, on the possibilities of the

introduction and cultivation of plants, now only known in the wild

state, which shall be of utility to man, was of wide interest. The

addresses of the vice presidents were as various as usual. That of

the president of the Geological Section was technical, while that

of the president of the Biological Section was didactic. Professor

Prescott made an excellent presiding officer. Excursions were not

allowed to interfere with the work of the association, and they

were the more enjoyable on that account. The closing meeting,

on the evening of the 25th, was an occasion of much hilarity. Not

the least important contribution to this feeling was the ad-

_ dress of a youth who presented the association with an invitation

to hold the meeting of 1893 at Chicago, during the exposition.

In well-considered language the association was asked to con-

tribute its mite to one of the vast aggregate of congresses to be held

there, and thus take part in the rejuvenation of the human race

which it was anticipated would date from that event. Rochester

was selected as the place of meeting for 1892.

—TueE American Society of Geologists met on August 24th

and 25th, during the meeting of the American Association in the

Am. Nat.—September.—3. l oe

808 The American Naturalist. __ [September,

same building (the Columbian University), in Washington. As the

24th was occupied by the association in excursions, the meeting on

the 24th was devoted to papers by foreign members who had arrived

with the intention of attending the International Congress. These

were Steinmann and Rothpletz,of Germany ; Harker and Gregory,

of England ; Schmidt, Krassnow, and Pavlow, of Russia ; De Geer,

of Sweden ; and Stephanescu, of Roumania. Some of these will

appear in future numbers of the NATURALIST. The most important

papers contributed by American members were those of President

F. C. Chamberlin, Mr. R. T. Hill, and Mr. W. J. McGee. The

society was the recipient of papers suitable for the International

Congress, after it was decided to restrict the work of the latter

body to discussion of definite questions only. Professor Steven-

son, of New York, presided over the sessions with his usual ability,

and Mr. McGee made an admirable secretary.

—TueE fifth meeting of the International Congress of Geologists

met at Washington from August 26th to September Ist, inclusive

The attendance from foreign countries was larger than was an-

ticipated, although not so large as the list published by the

reception committee would indicate. The foreign members were

distributed as follows: Austria-Hungary, 2; Belgium, 4; Canada,

3; France, 3; Germany, 17; Great Britain, 6; Mexico, 3; Nor-

way, 1; Roumania, 2; Russia, 4; Sweden, 4; Switzerland, 2 ;

total, 51. Several members were accompanied by ladies; Great

Britain sent 2; Roumania. 2; and Russia, I; total, 56. With

some names not classified above, the total number present was

about 65. The language selected for the conduct of the affairs of

the congress was English, although French has been hitherto

universally employed. This was due to the fact that the members

of the U. S. Geological Survey, who had assumed the manage-

ment of the congress, could neither speak French nor understand

it when spoken.

Professor Newberry, the acting president, was ill, and unable to

attend, so that his place was occupied successively by the first

vice president, Professor Jos. Le Conte, and Professors Von Zittel of

Munich, and Gaudry of Paris. The honorary presidents were

Professors J. D. Dana and James Hall. The second and third vice

presidents were Maj. J. W. Powell and Mr. Raphael Pumpelly.

PA Ras RETR Se aaa 3 . PLY. 5 rid

‘ Pi aiiisig K hse Merc

SRS OU AEAF W

pT ae ay Boye | amen Py Rai oe RR RR nc WERE |S I Self & CASAS TAC oe er Oe CE Oa, SL LYNN ESO Ry Pema a a Oe 04" c SRE De E S a

1891.] i Editorial, 809

The discussions as arranged by the committee of management

had reference, 1st, to the general principles of stratigraphic correla-

tion ; 2d, to the system of colors for geologic maps; and 3d, to

the system of classifications of the Plistocene deposits. The

necessity for discussion of the principles of correlation was not

very apparent, since those principles are well known and generally

adopted. The discussion, however, brought out some considera-

tion of intercontinental and transcontinental applications of these

principles, which were entirely appropriate to an international

congress. Much of the discussion, however, bore on the question

as stated, and was either inappropriate or local in its bearings.

The discussion on the classification of the Plistocene was based

on two systems, one offered by Mr. McGee and the other by

President Chamberlin. Both are physical systems, and not histori-

cal, as was observed by various gentlemen who took part in the

discussion. They were, however, of universal application, and

many interesting facts were brought out, especially with reference

to. the existence or not of an interglacial warm climate on both

hemispheres.

The congress was entertained by receptions at the Arlington

Hotel, the U.S. National Museum, and the private houses of

Messrs. Thomas Wilson and S. F. Emmons. Nearly all the

foreign members took part in the excursion to the Rocky Moun-

tains, Grand Canyon of the Colorado, and Yellowstone Park,

which left Washington, September 2d, from which they are

expected to return about September 25th. Before the meeting of

the congress many of the members visited the paleontological

collections at New Haven and Princeton, and during the con-

gress, the collection of Prof. Cope at Philadelphia. Some interest-

ing specimens from New Haven were exhibited in the U. S.

National Museum.

The congress was overtaken at its opening bya spell of hot

weather, which constituted a drawback to the enjoyment of some

of the members. As an educator to the younger American

geologists it was a successful occasion. We can point out some

material defects of management which would not have occurred

had the meeting been held in Philadelphia, as originally intended ;

but we postpone this for another occasion.

810 The American Natu: alist. = [September,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

@ALLE . A.—On a Collection of Mammals from oe Texas and ER

Ser ‘Ext. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. III., No. From the

BRAINERD, E.—The Chazy Formation’ in the Cheetos Valley. Bull Gash Soc.

p. iety

CA L, H. D., and W. G. OWN X.—Compostion of Certain Mesozoic Igneous,

Rocks of Virginia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 339-348, From the society.

D: AVIS, W. M., and WARD LOPER.—Two Belts in the PN anaa of Con-

, T.—Note on the Aspredinidæ.—The Charasteristios or he e Family of Scatopha-

ziii rezy Ext. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vo iz Ill. From the

HATCH, F. H.—An Introduction to the Study of Pr. The Igneous Rocks.

From acts & Co.

IVES, J. E.—Crustacea from the Northern Coast of Yucatan, the Harbor of Vera Cruz

the West Conant of Florida, and the Bermuda Islands. Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Science.

March, 1891. From the author.

Lapp, C. E.—The Clay, Stone, Lime, and Sand Dinti of St. Louis City and

County. Bull. No. 3, Geol. Surv. Mo. From the author.

LANE, A. C.—On the Recognition of the Angles of Crystals in Thin Sections. Bull,

Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 365-382. From the societ

LAWsoN, A. C.—Note on the Pre-Paleozoic Sultaee of the Archean Terranes of

Canada.—The Internal vere sg and Taxonomy of the Archean of Central Canada.

Exts. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I., pp. 163-174, 175-194. From the society.

LECONTE, J.—Tertiary and a ertiary Chan of the Atlantic ae Pacific Coasts,

Se aga R.—On the Generic Identity of Sceparnodon and Phascolonus,

c. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLIX.—On Certain Ornithosaurian and Dinosaurian Remains.

Ext Ouars: aps Geol. Soc., February, 1891.

ER —A Description of Some Lower Carboniferous Crinoids from Missouri.

Bull. No. k ae Survey of Missouri. From the author.

OSBORN, H. F.—A Review of the Cretaceous Mammalia. Reprint Proc, Acad. Nat.

Sci., Phila., a uary, 1891. From the a

OSBORN, H.—The Pediculi and Mallochage Affecting Man and bz Lower Animals.

Bull. No. 7, U. S. Dept. Agri., Div. Entomol. From the departm

PACKARD, A. S.—Fifth Report of the U. S. Kasana. aime Forest

ceedings Annual Meetings held at t New York, December, 1889. Bull. Geol. Soc.

TA; vol ie ch 517-593. From the society.

PUM —The Relation of Sie Rock Disintegration to Certain Transitional

Cystine i$ ta Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 209-224. From the societ

Rep e American Sube omite, International Congress of Geologists, 1888.

Records Australian Museum, Vol. I., N

Report of the Board of Managers of th é Obserratoly of Yale University, 1889-'go.

Report Missouri State Geologist to the Thirty-sixth General Assembl

Reports of Sub-Committees on Classification and Nomenclature, inberoatianal Geol.

ngress.

;

Report upon the AEA Extension Movementin England. From the society.

RINGUEBERG, E, N. S.—The Crinoidea of the Lower Niagara Limestone at Lockport,

N. Y., with New Species. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. V., July, 1890. From the author.

RUSSELL, I . C.—Notes on the Surface Geology of Alaska. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

-I., pp. 99-162. From the survey.

. x TOENN 7 ray

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 811

eventh Annual Report of Board of Control of the State Agri. Exp. Station at Am-

herst, Mass., 1

SMITH, S. I.—Report on the Decapod Crustacea of the ‘‘ Albatross '’ Dredgings off the

n Coast of United States. Ext. Annual Report of Com. Fish and Fisheries for

885. From the author

he PENCE, T. B.—A Coinpatiéon of ha External and Middle Ear of Man and the

Cat. Proc. Soc. Micros., 1890. -From the society.

o . W.—Ancient Shores, Boulder Pavements, and High-Level Gravel De-

posits in the Region of the Great Lakes.—The High Continental Elevation During the

od. .A 1. I., 1889.

—Post-Plistocene Ceticidinse versus Glacial Dams. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL.,

pp. — From the societ

Summary Report of the Canadiai Geological Survey Deroo for the Year 1

TROTTER, SPENCER.—Effect of Environment in the Modification of the Bill and Tail

of Birds. Ext. Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1891. From the author.

TROUESSART, E,—Extrait de l'Annuaire Geologique Universal. Tome V., Mammi-

féres. From the author

UPHAM, W.—Gla cal Lakes in Canada. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 243-276.

—— Report of the Exploration of the Glacial Lake Agassiz in Manitoba. Geol. and

Nat. Hist. Survey Canada, Part E, Vol. IV., 1888-'89.

The Floods and Great Lake Basins of North America Considered as Evidence of

Pre-Glacial aoe Elevation, and of pa During the Glacial Period. Bull.

Geol. Soc . Vol. I. From the society.—Artesian Wells in North and South Dakota.

n. fret . From uthor.

“VossION, S.—Khartoum et le Soudan d'Egypte. From the oe or.

WARD, L. F.—The Course of pati te wed ia From the author

WEED, W. H.—The Cinnabar and Boz n Coal Fields of icin’ Bull. Geol. Soc.

m ‘the author.

WILDER, B. G.—Macroscopic Vocabulary of the Brain, with Synonyms and Refer-

ences.—List of Scientific Publications.—Excerpt from the Trans. Am. Neur. Ass —Reprint

Jour, Nerves and Mental Diseases, November, 1890.—On the Lack of the Distance

Sense with the Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus\), From the author.

WINCHELL, A.—A Last Word with the Huronians. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II.,

pp. 85-124. From the auth

WooD-MASON J.—A opus of the Manatodea. From the trustees of the Indian

Museum.

WOODWARD, A. E.—The Mineral Waters of Henry, St. Clair, Johnson, and Benton

Counties. Bull. No. 3, Missouri Geol. Surv. From the survey.

OODWARD, A.S.—On Atherstonia, a New Genus of Paleoniscid Fishes from the

t e So d Lizard

Raphiosaurus, Ext. Ann. and Rel Nat. j 1889. Ae Fossil Fishes of the Hawks-

bu or ina at Gosford. Ext. Mem l. Surv., New South Wales Paleont, No. 4.—

On Paleontology —

in ie Malton Museum.—Note on Pisanen “bugesiacus, a Selachi an Fish from the

Lithographic Stone.—Preliminary Notes T ti ew and pHa gst e British Je-

rassic Fishes. Ext. Geol. Mag., Decade 5 ¥ I., 1889. From

WOODWARD, A.S.,and C. D. Se BN Cail of British Fossil aai.

Ext. Geol. Mag., January, 1891. From the a

812 _The American Naturalist. [September,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Morris’s Aryan Race,'—This work opens with a general descrip-

tion of the races of mankind, and then proceeds to discuss the origin

of the Aryans, their migrations, and. their history in general. The

author adopts the view of Latham and others, that their original home

was Southeastern Russia, and not the highlands of Western Asia. e

summarizes the evidence, which is largely derived from the Sanscrit -

language. That the original home of the Aryans was not South-

western Asia is indicated by the fact that that language contains no

names for the lion and tiger ; that it was not from Northwestern Asia is

shown by the absence of a name for the camel. The supposition that

Scandinavia was the land is shown to be incorrect by the fact that

there is no word for the reindeer, and because the Aryans were a pas-

toral people, and not dwellers in forests.

His discussion of the ethnic origin of the Aryans is of course

speculative. He supposes that the dark-colored tribes which now

inhabit the more southern latitudes from India to Spain were derived

by descent from the negro race, while the northern light-colored types

were derived from the Mongolian. The derivation of the Aryans from

the Mongolians at a remote and prehistoric period is among the possi-

bilities, but that the darker forms have a negro origin is scarcely so.

The origin of both must be traced to prehistoric—say neolithic—man,

and it may be that the light (Xanthochroic) Aryans really represent

the race in its pure. form, and that the darker races (Melanochroi)

represent either the primitive neolithic race, or are the product of

hybridization between it and the Xanthochroi.

r. Morris describes briefly the western migrations of the light

tribes, the Celts, Teutons, and Slavonians; and those of the darker

Pelasgi, Hellenes, etc. ; and later treats of the eastern extension to

Persia and India, which established the Iranian and Hindoo popula-

tions. These supposed migrations are illustrated by the descriptions

of the Gauls and ‘Peutons left us by the Roman authors

` The chapters on the religious, philosophical, and poetic achieve-

ments of the Aryans will instruct the general reader, and the concise

definitions of the intellectual and moral merits of the race form" a

scientific index of the line of human progress. The last chapter con-

tains a brilliant forecast of the increasing greatness and power of this the

latest and the best product of human evolution.

1 The Aryan Race: Its Origin and Its Achievements. By Charles Morris. S. S. Griggs

& Co., Chicago, 1888, pp. 8vo. 350.

Sepa OREN eee SPOIL Mea TAA IN Nat EO E Re Ree Maly Cota wor gates a

1891.] Recent Literature. 813

The work is necessarily, from its brevity, synoptic in its treatment

of the subject, and as such is especially adapted to instruct persons

_ engaged in active life, whose time for reading is limited. To such

persons we can recommend the work, as expressing in a brief space

the results of recent research in a field of the greatest interest to all

students of mankind or of our own part of it—E. D. Cope.

Boulenger on Rhynchocephalia, Testudinata, and Croco-

dilia.?—In this book of 300 pages we have another valuable result of

the labors of Dr. Boulenger, which will be of great utility to the

students of the Reptilian orders named. The very full collections at

the disposal of the author enable him to settle many questions of

specific characters that have awaited elucidation, and to assign to their

proper places in the system many forms which have been named.

system adopted is clear, and expresses the present state of our knowl-

edge. For many of its good points the. author is indebted to Dr.

George Baur, whose recent researches in this field have been of great

value. Dr. Boulenger has used Dr. Baur’s observations with judg-

ment, attaching values to them in accordance with their merits. We

think he has undervalued the character of the mutual attachment of

the plastron and carapace. On the other hand, the peculiarity of the

nuchal bones has enabled Baur to distinguish the Dermatemydidæ

from the Emydidæ. We do not now give as high a rank to the Athecæ

as does Boulenger, nor would we abolish the suborders, as is proposed

by Baur, but have adopted an intermediate course.

Dr. Boulenger reaches a -remarkable conclusion as to the relations

of the Trionychidæ with broad alveolar surfaces for crushing, to those

with acute edges of the jaws. He finds that species of India, China,

and Africa present individuals with both kinds of structure, which are

otherwise undistinguishable, except by a few correlated characters.

He thinks that the facts indicate a dimorphism in such species, one

form being piscivorous and the other conchivorous. He has not found

- any young individuals with broad grinding alveolar surfaces, and sus-

pects that that modification is acquired by the animal’s entering on a

diet of Mollusca, and that it is maintained by persistence in it through-

out life. The genus Platypeltis thus becomes a modification of Trionyx.

e This is certainly a remarkable proposition, and it ought not to be

difficult to prove or disprove it by observations on our Zytonyx ferox,

the only North American species supposed to present constantly broad

and flat alveolar surfaces.

? Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians, and PA in the British

Museum By G. A. Boulenger. Published by the trustees, 1

814 The American Naturalist. (September,

The whole number of Testudinata recorded by Dr. Boulenger is

195. Perhaps there are a dozen species omitted. Of the Crocodilia

23 species are recognized.—E. D. Cope.

Frazer’s Mineralogical Tables.2—The object of Dr. Frazer’s

tables is to enable the students to determine the nature of the most

important minerals without recourse to blowpipe analysis. As is webl

known, the first edition was a translation of Dr. Weisbach’s ‘‘ Tabellen.’

In the third edition but little of Weisbach’s original descriptions

remain. Except the plan, the entire contents of the little book are

Dr. Frazer’s, so that the volume as it now stands is essentially a new

production, in which are incorporated many of the most important

portions of Groth’s chemical tables and Weisbach’s latest determina-

tive tables. The arrangement of the tables is briefly as follows: The

minerals are divided in accordance with luster and streak. These

groups are printed together, and in columns opposite the names of the

various members of each group are given their hardness, tenacity,

crystal system and habit, cleavage, chemical composition, density,

paragenesis, and a few blowpipe reactions in rare cases. With its aid

there should be almost no trouble in deciding the name of any com-

mon mineral. The tables are especially valuable for field determina-

tions. They are bound flexible cloth, and are of a convenient size

for carrying in the pocket.—W. L. B.

3Tables for the Determination of Minerals. By Persifor Frazer. Third edition.

Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott Company, 1891, pp. IX

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 815

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Geological Survey of New Jersey, 1890.'—This annual re-

port covers the work done under the direction of Mr. I.S. Upson,

assistant-in-charge under the late Dr. G. H. Cook, and the present

state geologist, Mr. J. C. Smock. It includes the report of Frank

L. Nason on the crystalline rocks of the Highlands, and of the mag-

netic ores of that district; Mr. Coman’s notes on (1) the sediments

overlying the upper marl beds in eastern Monmouth county, (2) evi-

dences of former shore-lines above the present sea-level, (3) the gravel

of the Trenton terrace; Mr. C. C. Vermeule’s report on the observa-

tions of stream-flow and rainfall up to date; a. paper from Mr. Lewis

Woolman describing the artesian wells in the southeastern coast-belts

of the state; and, finally, an account by G. W. Howell of the

drainage work inaugurated by the survey and carried on with so

much success and such beneficial results.

Mr. Nason’s careful examination of the outcrops has resulted in the

discovery of organic remains in the crystalline limestones, which have

been referred by Prof. C. E. Beecher to the Cambrian, and below

the Potsdam sandstone formation, as has been done by Mr. Lewis

Woolman in Pennsylvania. His ideas concerning the limestones of

Sussex county are summed up in the following conclusions : :

‘“ First, the white limestones of Sussex and Warren counties are of

post-Archean age. Second, the white and blue limestones belong to a

„synchronous horizon. Third, this horizon is the horizon of the

Olenellus fauna.’’

The extent of these conclusions is more far-reaching than is at first

sight apparent. First, it demands that a careful search be made for

fossils in the whole belt, or rather belts, of limestones, sandstones,

slates and shales hitherto called and regarded as Potsdam, Trenton, and

Hudson River. The result may prove the existence of a great horizon

‘of rocks in New Jersey, New York, and Pennsylvania hitherto unsus-

pected, and may also throw much light on the question as to the posi-

tion of the Green Pond Mountain rocks. Second, in this belt are

rocks—limestones, sandstones, slates, iron and zinc ores—in every

1 Geolo*ical Survey of New Jersey : Annual Report of the State Geologist for the year

1890.

816. The American Naturalist. [September,

degree of metamorphism. The belt is penetrated by various kinds of

igneous rocks; and the petrography and chemistry of rocks and

minerals in every stage of metamorphism, induced by pressure and

heat, can be traced out and its history deciphered to its minutest de-

tails. It is rare to find rocks of known geological age in which such

favorable conditions exist. ‘The histories thus elaborated can be used

most advantageously in deciphering other localities whose history is

written in less legible characters.

Elevated Sea-Beach on Grand Cayman.—Southeast from

the Isle of Pines, and distant about two and one-half degrees, lies

the Grand Cayman Island. Politically it is a dependenty of

Jamaica, from which it is separated about as far as it is from the

Isle of Pines. - Geographically it seems to be more closely associated

with Cuba than with Jamaica, in so far as any argument derived -

from the ocean depths around would indicate. The water. gradu-

ally deepens from about three hundred and fifty fathoms at Cape Cruz

(Cuba) to about eight hundred at Cayman Brac and Little Cayman;

thence to over one thousand one hundred fathoms as one approaches

the Grand Cayman. The course from Cape Cruz to the Grand

Cayman is west by south. The distance is one hundred and forty

nautical miles; and as the smaller islands of Cayman Brac and

Little Cayman lie almost in the line indicated between Cape Cruz

and Grand Cayman, and asthe water deepens north and south of the

line, one readily recognizes the presence of a submarine ridge stretch-

ing from Cuba to Grand Cayman, of which =r Caymans are them-

selves merely coral-capped summits.

The main fact here indicated is the distance, and the depth of ocean

which surrounds this island of the Grand Cayman ; to the south of it

two, and even three, thousand fathoms are found. - During the past:

winter I made a brief visit to the southern shore of the Grand Cay-

man. My attention was called to a sea-beach or wall, fifteen feet above

the present tide-level. The most casual observer could not fail to

notice that it indicated the action of the water, and that the materials

of the beach came from the water. The broken and worn masses o

coral along this higher shore led to but one conclusion. I immediately

began speculating on the time required to form that shore-line, and how

long it took place, etc. The fact is, however, that the whole thing

happened in a single day, during one of the fearful hurricanes which

swept over the island in the earlier part of thiscentury. The testimony

on this point is quite too direct and positive to admit of any doubt.

PLATE XVIII.

; STORM BEACH ON GRAND CAYMAN.

spybot nln thine

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 817

The vast depth of water to the south of the island, and the long

unbroken sweep of the ocean in the same direction, prepare one to

believe anything might be possible when that vast body of water was

urged on bya tropical hurricane. The illustration shows the hurricane

beach above and the present line of the water below. (Plate xvi.)

The most obvious lesson of this special case is a due caution in

reasoning on shore elevations, unless all the elements of the problem

`- are absolutely known.—J. T. ROTHROCK.

New Acquisitions to the Eocene Fauna from Southern

Patagonia.—In a letter dated May 5th, 1891, M. Florentino Ameghino

informs us of the paleontological researches of his brother, Carlos

Ameghino, on the borders of the river Gallegos, in Patagonia,—

whose former researches we have already made known to our readers.

The new results may be summed up as follows :

1. The lemurs (Prosimiz) are for the first time found in the Eocene

of Patagonia.

2. The discovery of new species of Microbiotheriide in good con-

ditionsserves to confirm the opinion advanced by M. Ameghino in his

last work on the Plagiaulacide. The Microbiotheriidz have multiple

incisors (four on each side), and so seem to represent the ancestral

type of the Plagiaulacidse and of the Diprotodont Marsupials.

The same formation furnished an entirely new group of Plagiaula-

cidze with multitubercular molar teeth, but with the same dental for-

mula as the species already known. ‘The last molar is, however,

entirely rudimentary. These new types connect the Plagiaulacide of

Patagonia previously described with the Plagiaulacidz of Europe and

of North America. (Revue Scientifique, July 4th, 1891.)

The Progress in Geology for the Years 1887-1888.—In a

résumé of the geological work done in the years 1887-1888, Mr.

W. = McGee cites the following as the most important:

. The transition from an empiric classification in geology to a nat-

al one by processes or by fundamental principles and laws.

2. The birth of the new geology, which interprets geologic history

from the records of degradation, as e old geology did from the

records of deposition.

3. The invention of a method of determining the depth of earth-

quake centers and of the velocity of earthquake transmiŝsion.

4. The recognition and definition of a great geologic group,—the

Algonkian, and also of a subgroup of rocks,—the Lower Cretaceous,

and the correct determination of the succession of the subordinate

818 The American Naturalist. [September

divisions of the Silurian and Cambrian in the structurally complex

field east of the Hudson River. (Smithsonian Report for 1888.)

We fail to see that Mr. McGee sustains the comprehensive claims

made under the first and second heads. Both departments of geology

referred to had been fully established prior to 1887 !

Fossil Birds from the Equus Beds of Oregon.—In the

AMERICAN NATURALIST of last April (1891) the present writer invited

attention to the fact that he had in hand for description a large collec-

tion of fossil birds from the Upper Pliocene of the Silver Lake region,

Oregon. A small part of these had been loaned by Professor Condon,

of the University of Oregon, but the great bulk of the collection

belonged to the cabinet of Professor Cope, who had with marked

generosity placed them at my disposal for the aforesaid purpose.

My labors upon this fine collection have now been completed, and

the work is ready to be passed into the hands of the printers and

engravers. The memoir will make a quarto volume of upwards of a

hundred pages, and is illustrated by four quarto plates, presenting over

- forty figures of the bones of the new species and genera.

The present notice pretends to be nothing more than a brief

abstract, giving a list of the species described, with remarks thereon.

hose indicated by an * have already been either noticed or de-

scribed elsewhere by Professor Cope.

PYGOPODES.

1. <ichmophorus occidentalis.* 3. Colymbus auritus ?

2. Colymbus holbellit. 4. Colymbus nigricollis californicus.”

5. Podilymbus podiceps.*

LONGIPENNES,

6. Larus argentatus smithsonianus. 10. Larus philadelphia.

7- Larus robustus. Sp. nov. 11. Xema sabintt,

8. Larus californicus ? 12. Sterna elegans ?

9. Larus oregonus. Sp. nov. 13. Sterna fosteri ?

14. Hydrochelidon nigra surinamensis.

STEGANOPODES,

15. Phalacrocorax macropus.* 16. Pelecanus erythrorhynchus ?

ANSERES.

17. Lophodytes cucullatus. 20. Anas carolinensis.

18. Anas boschas. 21. Anas discors.

19. Anas americana. 22. Anas cyanoptera ?

1891,] Geology and Paleontology. 819

23. Spatula clypeata. 29. Branta hypsibatus.*

24. Dafila- acuta. 30. Branta propinqua. Sp. nov.*

25. Aix sponsa. 31. Branta canadensis ¥

26. Aythya marila nearctica ? 32. Anser condoni. Sp. nov.

27. Glaucionetta islandica. 33. Anser albifrons gambelit.*

28. Clangula hyemalis. 34. Chen hyperborea.

35- Olor paloregonus.*

ODONTOGLOSSÆ.

36. Phænicopterus copei. Sp. nov.

HERODIONES.

38. Ardea paloccidentaiis. Sp. nov.

PALUDICOL.

39. Fulica americana ¥ 40. Fulica minor. Sp. nov.

LIMICOL2.

ig 41. Phalaropus lobatus.

GALLINA,

42. Tympanuchus pallidicinctus. 44. Pediocetes lucasii. Sp. nov.

43. Pediocetes phasianellus colum- j Pediocætes nanus. Sp. nov.

bianus. 6. Paleotetrix gillii. Gen. et Sp.nov.

ACCIPITRES. :

47. Aquila pliogryps. Sp. nov. 48. Aguila sodalis. Sp. nov.

STRIGES,

49. Bubo virginianus.

PASSERES.

50. Scolecophagus affinis. Sp. nov. 51. Corvus annectens. Sp. nov.

Of the fifty-one species here enumerated ten have already been

noticed by Cope, three of which were described as new, and one of which

has since proved to x new,—/. e., the brant I have described above

as Branta propingi

Larus obi is i reprenie by a left coracoid, which is nearly

perfect. This bone is shorter and stouter than the corresponding

element in Larus glaucus; otherwise its characters are almost

identically the same. Zarus robustus was a gull rather smaller than

- glaucus, with which it may easily have been closely related.

820 The American Naturatst. [September,

Another gull was Zarus oregonus, an extinct species new to

science, which was about the size of Larus delawarensis, and its

existence is based upon two humeri, both from the left side of two

different individuals. The characters exhibited on the part of these

bones are distinctly different from those of other gulls of this size.

Anser condonit is a great extinct goose, vastly larger than our present

existing Canada goose (B. canadensis). Its remains are represented

in Professor Cope’s collection by a fractured os furcula and the parts

of two others. These were carefully compared with the furculz of a

number of our wild geese and swans of the genera Chen, Anser,

Branta, Dendrocygna, and Olor, and it was found that, upon the

whole, the majority of its characters agree best with Anser albifrons.

These characters and comparisons are dwelt upon in detail in my

forthcoming memoir. I have named this goose after Professor Thomas

Condon, of the University of Oregon, the first naturalist who discovered

and collected any of the remains of fossil birds in the Silver Lake

region of Oregon, A fine series of bones represents the new brant,

Branta propingua,—a small goose evidently referred to by Cope asa

species that came ‘‘near nigricans.’ > I propose the above name for

this now extinct form.

One of the most interesting discoveries made in the Silver Lake

region was the fossil remains of a new species of a now extinct

flamingo, which I have called Phenicopterus copei, in honor of

Professor E. D. Cope, who discovered it. I found a number of bones

belonging to this species in the collection, and a study of them reveals

the fact that P. copei was a somewhat taller and longer-winged flamingo

than P. ruber, though at the same time it was probably not quite so stout

in the body.

A small heron, to which I have given the name of Ardea palocci-

dentalis, and a new coot, Fulica minor, smaller than Fulica americana,

were, as will be seen in the list given above, also among the novelties.

The first-named was a species somewhat larger than 4. candidissima,

and smaller than 4. egretta, with osteological characters identical with

existing herons. Osteologically, too, the two coots agree, the species

differing only in size.

It will be observed that the Gallinze were very well represented in the

avifauna of Western Oregon during the later Tertiary times, and among

their fossil remains I found three species of them that proved to be new.

Both of these were closely related to Pediocetes phasianellus colum-

ianus. The larger form, Pediocætes lucasii, I have named in honor of

my friend, Mr. F. A. Lucas, in recognition of his published labors in

cam

1891.) Geology and Paleontology. 821

avian osteology, and his past and present museum work, both in

paleontology and bird-structure.

. manus was smaller than co/umbianus, and decidedly smaller than

P. ucasti.

Another grouse was Palæotetrix giilii, a rare form apparently, and

one smaller than a female Centrocercus, but considerably larger than

the largest forms of Tympanuchus. It was probably related to several

of the existing species, and may have been in the ancestral line of the

sage cocks. Its remains exhibit osteological characters that differentiate

it generically from our present tetraonine types. I have named it in

honor of Dr. Theodore Gill, the eminent ichthyologist and biologist.

Two new eagles were also discovered, but their fossil remains were

not abundant. Aguila pliogryps I believe to have been a large bird,—

somewhat larger than 4. chrysaétos, to which it was apparently related.

In its proportions it was apparently of a more slender build, however,

and may have had habits akin to the falcons, and was at any rate a

very formidable bird. Aguila sodalis was a considerably smaller eagle

than 4. pliogryps, though not much smaller than 4. chrysaétos. None of

the lesser Accipitres were discovered.

Among the Passeres, I met in the collection with the remains of an

extinct blackbird, which I have called Scolecophagus affinis, it being

related to Brewer’s blackbird, and probably in those Pliocene times

resorted in numbers to the vegetal growth of the margins of the lakes.

Corvus annectens was a raven, smaller in size than any of our present

ravens, to which it was very closely related.

It isnot my intention here to abstract any part of my ‘‘ conclusions ”’

in reference to the avifauna of the Equus beds of Oregon, as such

remarks can well remain until the ea of the general work upon

the subject.

In closing, it gives me pleasure to tender my sincere thanks to

Professor G. Brown Goode, of the National Museum, for the unlimited

facilities extended to me in the matter of the loan of so skeletons of

existing birds from the museum’s collections ; also to Mr. Lucas for his

kindness in getting them to me after my request in iar direction had

been granted. That material, added .to my own collection of bird

skeletons, was ample for all purposes of comparison, for all the neces-

sary existing species were at my command.—2&. W. Shufeldt, M.D.,

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.

Geological News.—General.—Mr. L. J. Clark confirms Flem-

ming’s theory that the Island of Toronto is formed of material which

came originally from the Scarboro’ Heights, and that the- mechanical

Se BLE Ne O AE SA Pe ey ee ae? IR ee eal fr eae

822 The American Naturalist. [September,

force which transported the material to its present resting-place was the

storm action of waves. (Trans. Can, Inst., March, 1891.) The

most interesting fact developed in the recent surveys of the Pacific

coast is that the coast-line of Southern California is more abrupt than

that of any part of the Atlantic or other portion of the Pacific. (Scien.

Am., July 25th, 1891.)

Archean.—Professors Solas and Cole call attention to the streaki-

ness which characterizes the interlamination of an olivine and coral

sand-rock, and note its resemblance to eozonal and serpentinous lime-

stone. (Proceed. Roy. Dublin Soc., 1891, p. 124.)

Paleozoic.—Sir William Dawson has described a new fossil plant,

Lepidodendron murrayanum, from the Carboniferous rocks of Newfound-

land.. The specimen shows the character of the old stem, branches,

and leaves. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. IL, p. 532). ev.

Herzer has found in the Upper Helderberg limestone, near Sandusky,

Ohio, a fossil fragment of an Alga, which has been described by Prof.

Lesquereux under the name, Halymenites herzerit. The specimen is

remarkable, and of great value, from the fact that its internal structure

is so well preserved that its characters are clearly discernible. One or

two specimens only of that kind are recorded by paleobotanists

(Proceeds Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII.) Mr. H. M. Ami has contributed

a paper to the Canadian Record of Science, April, 1891, in which he

says that it is perhaps premature to state the precise geological hori-

zon of the strata at Quebec city, but in his opinion they occupy a

position in the Ordovician system higher than the Lewis formation,

but lower than the Trenton, and are probably an upward extension of

Sir William Logan’s ‘Quebec Group.” This would make them

about equivalent to the Chazy formation of the New York and Ontario

_ divisions.

Mesozoic.—M. Kilian and M. Leenhardt have decided that from

a stratigraphical standpoint the sands of the valley of the Apt, in

Southeastern France, are Cretacic, and not Tertiary, as has been thought.

(Bull. No. 16, Tome II., de la Carte Geol. de la France.) Mr. A. J.

Jukes-Brown and Rev. W. R. Andrews have ascertained, by means of

a well sunk at Dinton, Eng., that there is a well-developed Upper

Purbeck series in the vale of Wardour, with a thickness of 70 or 80

feet, and this is succeeded by representatives of the Wealden and Vec-

tian series, which, however, are poorly developed, and taken together

are less than 100 feet. (Geol. Mag., July, 1891.)———Mt, Diablo is an

isolated peak of the Coast Ranges of California, lying about 27 miles

1891.] Geology and Faleontology. 823

east by north of San Francisco. H. W. Turner reports that it consists

of a central mass of metamorphic rocks. The strata immediately sur-

rounding the metamorphic mass are, except for a space on the south-

west, of Cretaceous age. Next to the Cretaceous, going away from the

mountain in any direction, are Eocene (Tejon) strata, and these are

followed successively by Miocene, Pliocene, and Plistocene deposits.

(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 385-414.)

Cenozoic.—M. Depeéret has recently published a list of the fauna

from the different Pliocene beds of Theziers. It contains 302 species,

and many varieties, of invertebrates, comprising 112 Gastropods, 107

Lamellibranchs, 3 Pteropods, 5 Brachiopods, 3 Crustaceans, 4 Echino-

derms, 7 Polyps, and 1 Bryozoan. This is much the most extensive

that has been given for any single formation of the valley of the Rhone.

(Bull. No. 6, Tome II., de la Carte Geol. de la France.) ——M. Gaudry

announces the discovery of mastodon remains near Chérichira, in

Tunis, probably the jaw of M. angustidens, similar to that of the Mid-

dle Miocene of Sansan. (Rev. Sci., Ju 20th, 1891.) In a recent

paper (Bull. Wash. Philos. Soc., Vol. XI., pp. 385-410.) on the

Mohawk beds in Eastern California, Mr. Henry Ward reaches the fol-

lowing conclusions: ‘“ The Mohawk valley is the bed of a Plistocene

lake caused by the damming up of the cañon of the Feather River

y a flow of andesitic lava. Glaciers existed contemporaneously

with the lake.’’ According to R. Ellsworth Call, the Loess of

Eastern Arkansas is Plistocene ; the gravels and sands, Tertiary ; and

the lower clays, as indicated by the few fossils found, are Eocene Ter-

tiary. The Loess about Helena is rich in fossil land-shells, but in

general the fossiliferous exposures are few. Minerals of economic

importance are not to be found, nor are the lignites of any importance

from an economic standpoint. (Ann. Rept. Ark. Geol. Sur., 1889.)

Recent researches by W. J. McGee have shown that the Appomat-

tox formation consists of a series of obscurely stratified loams, clays,

and orange sands, with local accumulations of gravel about waterways.

It forms a widespread terrane, almost continuous with the Costal Plain

between the Rappahannock and the Mississippi. No characteristic

fossils have been found in it, but its stratigraphic position, unconform-

ably below the Plistocene, and uncomformably above the Miocene,

indicates an age corresponding roughly with the Pliocene. (Bull.

Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I.)

Am. Nat.—September.—4.

824 The American Naturalist. [September,

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

Petrographical News.—lIn an argumentative article on the

individuality of rocks Lang? proposes to regard asa rock individual

the product of a continuous (uninterrupted) rock-forming process.

Accordingly he would class interbedded clays, sandstones, and con-

glomerates deposited from the same body of water by a gradual lessening

of its velocity, as a single rock, With clayey, sandy, and conglomeratic

facies. In the eruptive group, that is a rock individual which has been

forced from the depths of the earth by a single earth-throe. The

beginning and end of a rock-forming process thus marks the limitations

of arock individual, even though a second period of similar processes

should subsequently give rise to a rock of the same nature as that pre-

viously formed. The ideas discussed in the article are of great interest,

but the practical advantages to be gained by regarding rocks from the

point of view of its author are not immediately perceptible.

_ Another article of some theoretical interest is Justus Roth’s criticism

of Rosenbusch’s* recent paper on the chemical nature of eruptive

rocks. After giving a short historical review of the attempt to explain

the variation in eruptive rocks upon a chemical basis, the author * pro-

ceeds to examine critically the views set forth by Rosenbusch. In the

first place, he states that ten of the sixty-three rocks whose analyses are -

quoted by this writer are much altered from their original condition ;

others are but local in distribution, while of others, again, the analyses

are incomplete. He further continues by showing that the fundamental

magmas by whose mixture the various types of rocks are regarded as

made up, far from giving rise to definite varieties when mingled in

definite proportions, may themselves consist of different combinations

of different minerals. He then calls attention to what appear to be

weak points in Rosenbusch’s calculations, and concludes with the state-

ment that there is not yet sufficient knowledge concerning the chemical

character of eruptive to warrant the construction of a theory concerning `

their Loewinson-Lessing® has attacked the chemistry of

the eruptive rocks in a little diffetent way from Rosenbusch. He com-

pares the relations between the bases and the acid in a rock, and calls .

1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Maine.

2 Miner u. Petrog. Mitth., X1., p. 467.

3 AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1890, p. 1071.

4 Zeits. d. deuts. geol. Ges., 1891, p. 1.

5 Bull. Soc. Belge de Géol., etc., IV., 1890, p. I.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 825

those rocks acid that contain an excess of the latter,—/. e., more than

enough to saturate the bases present. This excess shows itself as free

quartz, Thus it is not the percentage of silica in a rock-mass that carries

it into the acid, neutral or basic class, but it is the lack or excess of silica

as compared with the bases. Several empirical formulas represent the au-

thor’s types. They are based on the determined ratio between bases and

acid in neutral rocks, in which the amount of silica necessary to saturate

the bases (in percentage) is represented by formula SiO, = 2(R,O+ RO)

+R,0,. In neutral rocks this relation exists, consequently the for-

mula represents the composition of such rocks. The amount of silica

in basic rocks is represented by SiO, = R,O+RO-+R,O,, and in acid

rocks SiO,= 2(R,O0+RO)+R,0, jase é., the percentage of

silica in thésé i is greater than twice the sum of the percentages of R,O

and RO, plus R,O,, by as much as there is quartz in the rock. The

author then uses these formulas, with others deduced from them, as a

basis for the classication of eruptives. His paper is interesting reading,

and if facts justify his formulas the conclusions reached by the author

will prove of value to petrographers. Some recent discussions on

the pressure alteration of basic eruptives have added quite a little to

our information regarding this phenomenon. Welch ê has described the

alteration of diabases into schists in the region of the Soonwalde, in

the Taunus, on, the left side of the Rhine. Well-developed diabases

exist near Rauenthal. Under the influence of pressure they have given

rise to schistose rocks containing actinolite, and others in which chlo-

rite and epodite have replaced the original augite. Other schists, whose

relationship to diabase can be determined only by a microscopical

examination, have been called hornblende-sericite-schists, augite-

schists, and sericite-calc-phyllites. The author has made a careful

study of all these, which has resulted in their separation into schists

composed of actinolite and epidote, those containing a blue amphi-

bole, and finally those made up principally of chlorite. In some of

these derived rocks augite may still be detected, in others the diabase

structure is still visible, while in a third class no traces of the original

constituents nor of their arrangement are recognizable. All show

evidence of pressure in the shapes of their components and in their

nature. In the first class the epidote and chlorite have been derived

from augite. The second class contains, in addition to glaucophane, a

bluish-green actinolite, sericite, and biotite. Epidote is entirely want-

ing. The rocks of the third group are combinations of chlorite,

quartz, sericite, and generally calcite. In each the structure is schis-

6 Zeits. d. deuts. geol. Ges., XLI., 1890, p. 394-

826 The American Naturatst. [September,

tose, and the mother-rock was a diabase or a diabase-porphyrite. The

paper concludes with a discussion of fifteen analyses. of the rocks de-

scribed, Dynamically altered diabase and gabbros (sometimes schis-

tose) occur also as sheets and dykes cutting altered sediments at St.

Johnstown and Raphoe, in N. W. Ireland. Among them are epidiorites

in which, according to Hyland,’ the hornblende still preserves the

ophitic structure of the original augite. The original feldspar was

labradorite, but the changes effected in it have yielded a quartz-feldspar-

epidote mosaic in which the secondary feldspar is oligoclase. e

schists, granulites, and even some of the massive rocks of the Lizard,

England, are distinctly banded. To account for the phenomenon it

has been suggested that it is due either to original sedimentation, or to

the deformation of eruptive rock-masses, or to the injection of rock

material along planes of weakness in preéxisting rocks. Since the |

schists are now known to be eruptive, the first explanation is not avail-

able. Against the second Somervail® brings the following objections,

viz.: the symmetry of the banded structure, the frequent transitions

between adjacent bands, and the uniform banding in large masses of

the same composition. The injection theory is contradicted by the

absence of irruptive contacts. He accounts for it on the supposition

that segregations formed during the cooling of the magmas,

yielding ‘‘schieren”’ that were afterwards squeezed. A green schis-

tose rock from near Zermatt, in the Pennine Alps, occurs so associated

with other schists that Bonney ° is compelled to regard it as a pressure

schist derived from serpentine. The rock is so. very fissile that it may

be split into sheets one-eighth of an inch thick. Only two essential

constituents are observed in it, one an olive-green mineral, occurring

in small translucent flakes with a cleavage like mica and an extinction -

parallel to this, and the other a chromite or magnetite. The former

mineral may possibly be antigonite. Associated with this rock are two

other schists: one, a green schist, is a soft chloritic rock, composed

of chlorite, magnetite, and zoisite (?). The composition of the chlo-

rite is probably near that of chloritoid. The other schist is full of

talc. The origin of neither of these could be determined. A

suggestion in explanation of the cause of the transitions sometimes

seen between crystalline and clastic rocks has recently been offered by

Prof. Pumpelly," who believes that rock disintegration by weathering

T Geol. Magazine, 1890, p. 205.

8 Ib., Nov., 1890, p. 509.

9 Ib., Dec., 1890, p

10 Bull. Geol. Soc. pid Vol. i 209.

1891.] Mineralogy and Fetrography. 827

has, in many cases, given rise to thick accumulations of loose material,

which has subsequently been used in the manufacture of the detrital beds.

If the new beds were laid down under the influence of gentle currents

their basal member would contain a large proportion of the material

of the older rocks, and would thus simulate them to a greater or

less extent. If this explanation is found to hold good, it will

obviate the supposed necessity of regarding granite and gneiss as

derived from fragmental rocks by some form of obscure metamor-

phism. Rosenbusch ™ attacks the subject of the origin of the

schists from a chemical standpoint. He shows by citing analyses that

some foliated rocks have compositions corresponding to those of mas-

sive rocks. These he regards as squeezed eruptives, Others are dif-

ferent in composition from any known eruptive. These he regards as

dynamically changed sedMMentaries. The foundation principle under-

lying the argument is that dynamo-metamorphism affects but little

chemical change in the material upon which it acts, except such as

may be brought about by*percolating water.

Mineralogical News.—The unique mineral me/anophlogite has

been made the subject of recent study by Friedel ? and by Streng.!

The former writer has examined the apparent cubes of the mineral in

polarized light, and has found them to consist of six tetragonal pyra-

mids, with their apices turned in and their bases forming the sides of

the cubes. When heated the substance blackens and finally becomes

opaque. Its density is 2.030—2.052, and the angle between contiguous

cubic faces g1° 23’. The cubical cleavage reported by Lacroix does

not exist. Some crystals appear to be simple cubes, while others are

made up of many individuals, which in their section appear as fibers

‘radiating from a center. They owe their form, consequently, not to

pseudomorphism. They are pseudo-regular. A very careful analysis

of these crystals yielded a result corresponding to 20SiO,+SO,, with

small quantities of SrSO, and carbon. The crystals are implanted in

opal. Other crystals, very similar to those described above, are the

pseudomorphs of quartz described by Mallard. They have not the

same density as melanophlogite, nor the same optical properties.

The formation of the latter mineral is ascribed to the action of SO, on

quartz. The author also describes fibrous crystals formed by the

grouping of hexagonal lamelle with most of the properties of the

u Miner. u. Petrog. Mitth., XIL., p. 49.

12 Bull, Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 356.

13 Ber. d. Oberhess, Ges. f. Naturw. und Heilk, 1890, p. 114. Ref. Neues Jahrb. f.

Min., etc., 1891, I., p. 18. ;

828 The American Naturalist. [September,

tetragonal melanophlogite. Analysis of these gave SiO, = 93-2 per

cent., SO, = 5.7 per cent.- This substance loses twelve per cent. of

its weight on heating, while the tetragonal mineral loses six per cent.

- treng declares that the mineral does not contain sulphuric acid, since

it yields SO, only when treated with an oxidizing agent. Whether the

sulphur is in the form of free sulphur or of an organic sulphide, could

not be determined by him. The crystals, according to this author, are

bounded by %0% and %02, and are probably pseudomorphs of opal

and quartz after some unknown mineral. A little more than a year

ago the nodular rose-red eudtalite of Magnet Cove, Arkansas, was

described by Hidden and Mackintosh. Recently crystals of the sub-

stance have been investigated by Dr. J. F. Williams, These are tabu-

lar transparent or translucent rose-colored or crimson bodies traversed

by cracks in all directions. They are hexag@mal with a: ¢ = 1: 2.1174.

OR, wP2, R, —%4R, —2R appear on one crystal, and on another

occur in addition —8R, R. 4R and —3{R°. The density varies

between 2.804 and 2.833, and the double réfraction is positive. It is

one of the youngest of the constituents of the eleolite-syenite in which

it occurs. The negatively refracting eucolite, of about the same compo-

sition as eudialite, appears in brownish-yellow crystals in the same rock.

In it a cleavage parallel to OR is quite pronounced. OR, R, — 1R,

œR, and œP2 bound its crystals. Its specific gravity is 2.6244—-2.6630,

and its hardness 5-5.5. He thinks it may be an altered eudialite.

The zinc-bearing rhodonite from Franklin and Sterling, N. J., has been

reinvestigated by Pirsson.!® The crystals are usually tabular and

elongated, parallel to oP. The new planes 2P=, 4Pa and 4P

were observed. The axial ratios, calculated from the best measure-

ments obtained, are: g: 6: ¢ = 1.078: 1: .6263, a = 103° 39;

R = 108° 48’ 30”, y = 81° 5s’. The cleavage is prismatic, and the

extinction on the basal plane is 54° from the edge OPaPy. Since the

crystallographic constants and the extinction of the mineral differ so

slightly from those of rhodonite, it seems that the isd aia action

of the zinc is but slight. Composition :

SiO, FeO -Z200 MnO CaO MgO

46.06 3.63 7.33 34.28 7.04 1.30

corresponding to RSiO,. Upon data collected during the course of

many analyses of wraninite from American and foreign localities, Mr.

1 Amer. Jour. Sci., XXXVIIL., 1889, p. 494.

15 Ib., Dec., 1890, p. 457.

16 Ib., XL., Dec., 1890, p. 484.

a n

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 829

Hillebrand” concludes that nitrogen is a constant constituent of the

mineral, and in a form different from any hitherto observed in the

mineral kingdom; that its composition varies widely, and with it

the physical characteristics ; and, finally, that the composition does not

correspond with any formula proposed to represent? it. The author

proposes to continue its study, and asks the aid of.mineralogists in

securing specimens, Excellent transparent crystals of anthophyllite

have been obtained by Mr. Penfield !8 from Franklin, Macon county,

N.C. They are prismatic with oP and œP% , but no terminations.

The ratio a: 4, based in approximate measurements, is .51375: 1.

The cleavage is perfect parallel to the prism and the brachypinacoid,.

and poor parallel to the macropinacoid, 2Vna = 88° 46’, with the

corresponding index of refraction for § = 1.6353; a = ÁA, b = Ð,

c = C. The double refraction is negative for green and yellow light,

and positive for red light. Density = 3.093. The composition is:

SiO, FeO MnO MgO CaO H,O ALO, Loss at 100°

57:90 16.39 <31- 26.09.20" “2:67 “G9 ‘tf

— The so-called perowskite ® from Magnet Cove, Ark., proves upon

analysis to contain niobium and tantalum, and, therefore, to belong

with dysanalyte, and not with perowskite. Its density is 4.18, and

composition ;

CaO MgO FeO Fe,0, (Y.Er.Ta),O, sare Nb,O, TAO, TiO, SiO,

33-22 .74 .23 6.16 5-42 4.38 5.08 44.12 .08

—Some new facts with reference to the Jderyls, bertrandites, and

phenacites from Mt. Antero, Col., are communicated by Penfield.” The

crystals occur implanted in granite or on the feldspar and quartz of

this rock. The beryl probably afforded the beryllium for the other

two minerals. It occurs in light-green or blue prismatic crystals,

usually simple combinations of P and OP, but occasionally also

with 2P2 and œP% The peculiarity of the crystals is the number of

depressions observed on various planes. These are pits bounded by

pyramidal faces, and into them long needles of beryl project. The

forms on the needles are 12P8, 12P2 and 2P. The axial ratio of the

bertrandite is .5993, instead of .5953, as printed in the author’s first

paper”! on the mineral. Some of the crystals of phenacite are inter-

17 Tb,, Nov., 1890, p. 384.

18 Ib., Nov., 1890, p. 394.

19 Ib., Nov., 1890, p. 403.

2 Ib., 1890, p. 488.

21 Ib., XXXVI., 1888, p. 52.

R EEV E ERE: A

E E AE AE NS g EEE Peat E A O T kel E a AE Sa N EEA N

830 The American Naturalist. [September,

penetration twins, with the base the twinning plane. Harmotome is

announced by Ferrier” as occurring in calcite filling vuggs in veins cut-

ting the Animikie slates in the vicinity of Rabbit Mountain, Ontario.

Besides calcite, the minerals associated with the harmotome are

amethyst, fluorite; and pyrite. Black tin-bearing vw/z/e crystals, sup-

posed to be from the Harney Peak district, in the Black Hills, have a.

density of 5.294. Its composition, according to Headdn eand Pirsson,

is TiO, = 90.79; FeO = 8.01; SnO, = 1.35. The habit is ortho-

rhombic, with Poo, oPoo and P, twinned parallel to 11Poo. Tin

ere has not yet been found in workable deposits in Texas. Most of the

material from that state reported as being cassiterite is keilhanite,*4

tourmaline, or black garnet.——Analyses of rhodochrosite from

Franklin Furnace, N. J., yielded Browning,” after correcting

impurities, the following figures :

MVO CAG ZnO = MgO FeO FEO. CO Sp. Gr:

OGG. TIAE TAG TJO 22 -10 40,40 3:47

Miscellaneous.—It is a pleasure to know that Messrs. Clarke and

Schneider” are busy with experiments looking toward the settlement

of problems relating to the constitution of natural silicates. The

methods employed by them resemble somewhat those that have afforded

such excellent results in organic chemistry. Silicates are exposed to

the action of hydrochloric acid gas at high temperatures, and to its

solution at ordinary temperatures, and the effects in each case are

noted. They are then ignited and subjected to other reagents, and

the products here obtained are compared with the results of the former

experiments. In this way the presence of groups of elements is recog-

nized that are analogous to the residues of carbon chemistry. ‘Fhe

conclusion already arrived at by the authors are to the effect of zade is

an acid metasilicate (Mg,H,(SiO,),), and not a basic salt of pyrosilicic

acid (Mg(Si,O,),(MgOH),) as Groth suggests. Serpentine is thought

‘be a substituted orthosilicate corresponding to Mg,(SiO,),H,(MgOH),

and its relation to olivine and chondrodite are represented as follows :

Olivine = Mg,(SiO,),; chondrodite = Mg,(MgF)(SiO,), ;_ serpen-

tine = Mg,(MgOH)H,(SiO,),. Ch/orite is regarded as R”,(SiO,),R’,

or olivine with half the magnesiem replaced by R’, and the fluoriferous

- Tb., Feb., 1891, p. 161.

26 Ib., 1890, XL., p. 312, 405.

sped. «<4 Zoology. 831

phlogopite from Burgess, Ont., as Al(SiO,),;Mg,KH,+Al,(SiO,),Mg,K

(MgF). Belowsky* finds that green hornblende, when subjected

for some time to the heat of a bunsen burner, changes its color, the

character of its pleochroism, the strength of its double refraction, and

the position of its planes of extinction, and becomes in all respects

similar to the basaltic variety. Upon the addition of a little sodium

chloride #8 to a solution of sodium sulphate, the latter salt crystallizes

upon evaporation as ¢henardite, and not as mirabilite. A mixture of

potassium and sodium sulphate under the same conditions yield

glaserite. A few illustrations of regular growth of pyrite crystals are

given by Smolar.* Some of the crystals (all of which are from Pied-

mont and Elba) are probably interpenetration twins according to

some new law, while others are regular growth only. The author

believes that our knowledge of twinned crystals is still in its infancy,

and advises many more observations on regular intergrowths before we

conclude as to the conditions of twinning. Rhombic pyramids of

sulphur® crystallize from picoline or pyridine saturated with sulphur-

etted hydrogen. The oölitic tron ores of the Cliniton group in the

Alleghenies are not cemented concretions, as was supposed, but they

are pseudomorphs of bryozoons, or of fragments of these.*!

ZOOLOGY.

Sipunculus gouldii.—Dr. E. A. Andrews, in a paper! that should

have received earlier notice, describes the structure of this common

east coast Sipunculid. Tle principal points brought out are the rich

peripheral nervous system ; the presence of ‘‘ pseudostomata-’ in the

splanchnic epithelium, the function of which remains unsettled ; the

division of the alimentary ae into Sarian on Merata i

anatomical and histological p th babili

is asucking organ ; the confirmation of the ias that the reproduc-

tive organs were on the posterior surface of the origin of the posterior

retractor muscles. Andrews thinks that the points which he has

27 Neues Jahrb. J. Min., etc., en I., p. 291.

28 Retgers. Ib., r8gr, I.,

29 Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIII., 180,

30 Ahrens. Ber. 4 deutsch $ sf le Ger XXIII., 1890, p. 2708.

31 Amer. Journ. Sci., Jan., 1891,

1 Studies Biol. as “Johns Hopkins eat IV., p. 389, 1890.

832 The American Naturalist. [September,

brought out emphasize the similarities which exist between the Sipun-

culids and Phoronis. He also thinks that in spite of the absence of

metamerism there is nothing in the anatomy of the adult which could

not be explained on the theory of lost segmentation in these worms,

while he institutes a striking comparison between the gonads of the

Polychete placed on the posterior side of a dissepiment and those of

Sipunculus attached to the posterior surface of the pharyngeal retractors.

Sipunculus nudus.—H. B. Ward describes? the anatomy and

histology of this Mediterranean form. The material at command

embraced only the anterior portions of the body, so no study was

made of many features worked out by Andrews. ‘The histology of the

body-wall and of the nervous system receive most attention. Among

the many points brought out, the most interesting is the existence of a

‘“ cerebral organ,” consisting of a canaleopening to the exterior in the

dorsal median line, and connecting posteriorly with an area in close

connection with the brain, which the author is inclined to regard as

sensory, and to homologize with similarly situated organs in Phymo-

soma and Sipunculus gouldii. The general accounts of structure given

by Andrews and Ward agree well in broader features, but differ con-

siderably in detail. From the evidence afforded by the nervous sys-

tem Ward is inclined to the view that there is only a remote relation-

ship between Sipunculus and the Annelids.

The Eye in Blind Crayfishes.—G. H. Parker has studied è the

eyes in Cambarus setosus and C. pellucidus. In both species the optic

ganglion and optic nerve are present, "e latter SETI in 58 hypo-

dermis. In C. setosus the retina has almost completel ted, while

in C. pellucidus it is represented, bya thicker portion of “the hypodermis

with scattered multinuclear granulated bodies. These Parker regards as

degenerated clusters of cone cells. Thus Cambarus setosus from the

caves of Missouri has gone farther in the line of ophthalmic degenera-

tion than its ally from the caves of Kentucky and Indiana.

“The Compound Eye of Crustaceans ” is the title of a larger

paper * by the same author. He gathers together all that is known,

adding much himself in the endeavor to solve certain problems sur-

rounding these organs. The retina of the compound eye is composed

of anumber of similar units or ommatidia, but the structure of the

ommatidium varies considerably in different groups. One question

2 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXI., No. 3, 1891.

3 Ib., XX., No. 5, 1890.

í Ib., XXI., No. 2, 1891.

1891.] Zoology. 833

which Parker asks is: ‘‘ What are the means by which ommatidial types

are modified, and what is the significance of the changes through

which these types pass?’’ The argument of the present paper is that

the ommatidia composed of four cells are more primitive than those

containing many cells, and to show how cell-division can have caused

the modifications and what other factors may be concerned.

Parker recognizes three types of compound eye so far as retinal

structure isconcerned: I., represented by Decapods, Schizopods, Sto-

matopods, Isopods, Leptostra, and Branchiopodidz of the Phyllopods,

has the retina a simple thickening in the superficial ectoderm ; II., in

Apodide, Estheride, and Cladocera, the retina does not retain a

superficial position, but becomes covered by a fold of the ee

the pocket remaining open in some and closed in others; III.,

Amphipods, and possibly Copepods, the retina is completely uke

from the hypodermis, not by an infolding, as in the second type, but

by delamination. Of this the author is not certain from actual obser-

vation, but he gives a number of facts which warrant his conclusion.

Types II. and III. pass through a stage comparable to type I., and

hence may be regarded as derivatives from it.

Detailed descriptions of the structure of the ommatidia in various

forms are given and illustrated by numerous figures. Continuing his

work with that of his predecessors Parker tabulates the ommatidia of

the different Curstacea in a manner which conveys at a glance the

difference between them so far as numbers of cells are concerned. In

an ommatidium going from the surface to the optic nerve there are

present (1) the cells of the corneal hypodermis which secrete the

cornea; (2) the cone cells, varying in number from two to five, one

function of which is to form the crystalline cone ; (3) the retinular cells,

which may be either undifferentiated or divided into two groups,

proximal and distal, the total number varying between three and

nine; and (4) accessory pigment, cells which are either of ectodermal

or mesodermal origin, all of the rest of the eye being clearly ecto-

dermal.

All compound eyes of the Crustacea are thus clearly built upon a

common plan, and the variations between them are traced to (1) the

differentiation of cells, (2) the suppression of cells, and (3) probably to

multiplication of cells by division, although this last has not been

demonstrated by observation. ;

arker traces the origin of the ommatidium to such structures as are

seen in the Chzetopod Nais, where there is an eye composed of a few

large transparent cells, the distal portions of which are in part covered

834 The American Naturalist. [September,

by pigment cells. The transparent cells are the forerunners of the cone

cells, while the pigment cells represent an as yet undifferentiated

_retinular region. This view is clearly opposed to that of Watasi,

already noticed in our pages, by which each ommatidium is regarded

as an involution of ectodermal cells, the members of which may still

retain their power of secreting cuticular structures. The ommatidium,

on the contrary, is a differentiated cluster of cells in a continuous

unfolded epithelium. Patten’s view that the ommatidium is a hair-

bearing sense-bud receives no confirmation in Parker’s studies.

Eyes in Arcturus.—Beddard describes the eyes in deep and

‘shallow-water species of Arcturus. He finds that some at least of the

deep-sea forms show evidences of degeneration in the visual apparatus.

Thus in three species he finds the conical lens showing signs of becom-

ing opaque, while in three others there is alteration of size and curva-

ture. In several others the rhabdom affords similar evidence, while in

many deep-sea forms the decrease in amount of pigment is also regarded

as an indication of degeneracy.

The Northern Limits of the Scorpions.— During a recent

collecting trip to the Bad Lands of the Hot Creek Valley, in the ;

extreme northwestern corner of Nebraska, Mr. F. C. Kenyon, a mem-

ber of the party, found a living scorpion (Buthus sp.). This is, so

far as I am aware, some three hundred miles further north than any

member of the group has ever been found east of the Rocky Moun-

tains. West of the mountains, I am informed by Mr. Henshaw, they

extend north to Oregon and Washington.—J. S. KINGSLEY.

Glands in Orthoptera.—H. Garman describes, in the current

volume of Psyche, peculiar glandular structures borne between the

ninth and tenth terga of the abdomen of the cave cricket. Their

function is unknown ; but the author points out the- fact that scent

glands occur in the females of certain Bombycids. Apparently he is

not familiar with the recent literature of abdominal glands in the

_ Hexapoda.

Notes on Tunicates.—Herdman thinks® that the usual divisions

of the Tunicates, while convenient, do not express the true relation-

ships of these forms. According to him, the Synascidiz are in reality a

_polyphyletic group, the members of which touch the Ascidiz simplices

at various points. Hence a strictly phylogenetic classification will

5 Proc. Zool. Socy. London, 1890, p. 365, pl. XX XI.

6 Nature, June 11th, 1891. 5

1891.] Zoology. 835

ignore the Ascidiz: Compositz of our text-books, although the division

may be retained for convenience.

Walter Garstang’ gives the first part of a review of the Tunicata of

Plymouth, England. Species of the families Clavellinidz, Peropho- “

ride, and Diazonidz are enumerated and described at length.

Pycnoclavella is a new genus.

A. Herdman promises a monograph of the British Tunicates.

The Affinities of Polypterus.—H. B. Pollard has studied some

points in the structure of Polypterus which, he thinks, throw light

upon the relationships of this form. The ear, except in lacking the

ductus endolymphaticus, is distinctly Urodele in its character, as is

shown by the immense sacculus, which reaches the level with the semi-

circular canals, and by proximal division of the auditory nerve. The

so-called opisthotic corresponds to the Urodele petrosum ; the opthal-

micus profundus and superficialis pass through a foramen into the

nasal capsule ; the supracranial fontanelle is partially roofed over by

cartilage ; the ‘‘ paired vomer’’ is really dermopalatine, and corre-

sponds to the so-called vomer of the Batrachia. The jaw muscles corre-

spond to the Batrachian rather than the Teleostome type, while the

nervous system corresponds almost to detail with that of larval Sala-

mandra. The conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that the

ancestry of the Urodeles must be sought in Crossopterpgians. Turn-

ing now to the affinities of the other piscine forms, Pollard promises to

show homologies of Polypterus with the Stegocephali, while the posi-

tion of the Dipnoi and Holocephali must be different from that usually

accorded them. Chimera, etc., are Dipnoan forms which have lost

their dermal bones, and are retrograded in some respects toward the

Selachian type. If the Dipnoan formsare to be regarded as ancestors of

the Batrachia, we should expect to find in the larval Urodeles the

same relations of quadrate and palatines to the cranium, but such

is not the case. In the young Cryptobranchus the quadrate has nearly

the same relationships as in Polypterus. The suprapharyngobranchial I.

articulates with the auditory capsule, and from it the author traces the

origin of the Urodele stapes. This paper isasample of the errors into

which it is easy to fall in ignorance of the facts of paleontology.

The Pineal Organ of Ichthyophis and Protopterus.—

_ Burckhardt thinks? that all previous authors have mistaken an arterial

T Jour. Marine Biol. Assn. United Kingdom, 1891, Vol. II., p. 47.

8 Anat, Anzeizer, VI., 338, 1891..

9 Anat. Anzeiger, VI., 348, 1891.

836 The American Naturalist. (September,

plexus for the pineal organ in these forms. In Ichthyophis, on account

of the enormous folding of the arterial plexus the roof of the thalam-

encephalon is completely covered. It falls into an anterior wall,

` embraces the ganglia habenulz on either side, and a posterior wall

between the posterior and superior commissures, At the spot where

these swellings meet is a small pear-shaped vesicle, which extends into

the space between the hinder part of the arterial plexus and the roof of

the thalamus. Development shows that this is the pineal organ. In

Protopterus the pineal organ is a small, irregular sac, which extends

directly upwards from the boundary between the mid- and twixt-brains

into the abundant connective tissue of that organ. Burckhardt has

not yet traced its lumen into connection with.the third ventricle.

Foetal Period of the Seal.—Grieg has studied the period of

pregnancy of Phocena communis.“ He analyses the known literature,

and finds great diversity of opinion. He then studies thirty-five

embryos, with dates of capture of the mother, and comes to the con-

clusion that the period is about nine or ten months. According to the

Norwegian fishermen, copulation takes place usually in July and Aug-

ust; but he finds that the breeding season may extend, according to

locality, from July to October, and the young are born from March to

June. At the time of birth the young measure from 700 to 860 milli-

meters, and may reach a length of 880 millimeters.

Extent of the South American Fresh-Water Fish

Fauna.—There are more fresh-water fishes in the neotropical than in

any other region. A comparison made by Carl and Rosa Eigenmann

of the latest lists of European and North American fresh-water fishes,

with alist of the South American species, shows the extent of the South

American fauna. In summing up the species they find 126 European,

587 North American, and 1,147 South American species. (Proceeds.

U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIV., pp. 1-81.)

The Chromididz of the Fresh Waters of Madagascar.—

One of the most interesting peculiarities of the fresh-water fish fauna

of Madagascar is the presence of the Chromididz, coincident with the

absence of the Cyprinide and the Characinide, although these two

groups are found in Africa, and the great paucity of Siluride, so that

the Chromidide are, so to speak, the only fresh-water fishes of this

large island. i

At the present time the Chromididæ are a family of South America

and of Mexico, 230 species out of 260 having been described from

that region.

10 Jena Zeitschr., XXV., 544, 1891.

Ce ope

1891.] | Zoology. 837

Known for some years past by a single species referred to one of the

most widely distributed forms in Africa, Chromis niloticus, the Chro-

mididæ are to-day represented in Madagascar by nine series belonging

to four genera, the affinities of which are as follows:

The Paretroplus are distinguished from the Hemichromis, which

belong to Africa and to Asia Minor, by a greater number of anal spines.

The Paretroplus belong to an African type.

If the Paratilapia have certain affinities with the Hemichromis, they

are still more closely allied to the Acara, from which they are distin-

guished only by the indentations of the bony projections of the external

branchial arch ; but the Acara belong to tropical South America.

The Paracara also have close affinities with the Acara.

As to the Ptychochromis, Steindacher has shown that they are

separated from the Chromis by the presence of a lemelliform, com-

pressed projection from the upper part of the first branchial arch.

This character is found in the genus Geophagus, from South America.

The genera of the Chromidide peculiar to South America have

ctenoid scales, while those of Africa and Western Asia have cycloid.

Among the Chromididg of Madagascar, the Paretroplus, we may say,

belong to the African type, as they have cycloid scales. All the other

Chromididze of Madagascar have ctenoid scales. Thus the Chromidide

of Madagascar are more closely related to the fresh-water species of

tropical South America than to the African species.

From a study of the herpetological and ichthyological fauna of the

fresh waters of Madagascar, it appears that this island, Southern

Africa, and South America formed in a pre-Tertiary epoch, parts of the

same continent, which had a fauna of the same origin and charac-

ter. While South America and Africa have received since the Pliocene

epoch invasions of animals of another creation, Madagascar has had,

on the contrary, no connection since that epoch with any other land,

and presents to-day the same fresh-water fish fauna as it did in the

Middle Tertiary, without any addition save that of the Carassius

recently introduced. The division between Madagascar and Southern

Africa must have happened before the commencement of the Miocene,

for neither Cyprinide or Characinide are found in Madagascar. Com-

_ munication must have lasted for a much longer time between South

Americaand the South of Africa, which, toward the Pliocene epoch, had

received an influx of Characins; whilst the Cyprins, introduced into

Africa from the European continent, or rather from the South Asiatic,

had hardly penetrated South America. (Dr. H. E. Sauvage, Bull. Soc

Zool. de France, 1891, p. 190.)

838 The American Naturaist. [September,

EMBRYOLOGY. $

Notes on the Development of Engystoma.—This interesting

Batrachian occurs in the Piedmont section of North Carolina, near

Littleton, and within twelve miles of the southern boundary of

Virginia. Its presence after a rain may be discovered:by its peculiarly

plaintive note. Oviposition seems to occur in the evening and during

cloudy afternoons. It is now late in July, yet two lots of ova have

been found by me which had been very recently deposited by the

parent female ‘‘ frog-toad,’’ as it is known here amongst the natives.

The eggs are heavily pigmented at the upper or animal pole, being

darker than the eggs of Rana, and also considerably smaller. They

are laid in strings, but so coiled as to form a nearly complete single

layer over aconsiderable surface of water. The gelatinous coating, as

in Rana, spreads out under the surface of the water, where by its

adhesion to the layer of molecules at the surface a certain amount of

support is thus gained for the eggs. It is therefore evident that surface

tension is an important agent in keeping the eggs of this genus, and

those of Rana, at the surface of the water. Other genera, such as

Bufo, do not have the eggs supported on the surface, but are laid in

strings formed of one row of eggs, wrapped in a gelatinous cord which

lies on the bottom of the pond in which oviposition occurs. Still

other forms have the eggs glued together in large masses and supported

upon water weeds; this is notably the case with some Urodeles,

such as Amblystoma. :

The development of the eggs of Engystoma is rapid; three days

after deposit the larvee escape from the egg-envelopes. Throughout

the course of development there is well-marked evidence of geotrop-

ism, or of the action of gravity in maintaining the equilibrium of the

egg. The animal or black polé remains uppermost, the heavier or

light-colored vegetative pole remains lowermost ; the whole egg is thus

maintained in a position of static equilibrium with the earth’s center.

There seems to be no tendency to rotate the egg through ciliary action,

previous to the closure of the medullary folds. That cilia are entirely

absent on the eggs of Engystoma is proved by the fact that at the

-time the medullary groove is still open every egg of the same age is

in exactly the same position in respect to the center of the earth, and

remains so for a long time, or until the tail fold is well developed and

the medullary groove has been closed. Before the closure of the

ee IE

1891.] Embryology. 839

medullary groove, but after the egg has begun to elongate and the

paired, secretory, adhesive surfaces of the under side of the head have

appeared as rudiments, the position of the animal and vegetative poles.

is still the same as in the undeveloped ovum. The head end of the

egg is slightly elevated above the caudal end. This is due to the for-

ward growth of the head, and the retention of the heavier yolk, farther

backward under the posterior half of the medullary groove. The medul-

ary groove thus comes to be inclined downward a few degrees from

the head toward the tail, but the groove looks exactly toward the

zenith, while the yolk looks downward in every egg, even the inclina-

tion of the medullary groove with respect to the horizon ~~ the

same for every egg of the same age.

At this stage I neglected to note an extremely important fact,—viz.,

~ whether the cephalic and caudal poles of the same row of eggs were all

of them lying in the same direction. The fact that no change of

position occurs for a long time in the eggs of Engystoma would indi-

cate that possibly we might find that the future cephalic pole of the

egg bore a constant relation to the cephalic pole of the parent Engys-

toma, such as is known to be the case in Batrachus tau. Such relations

between parent and offspring exist to a marked degree, if they are not

universal, in plants, and it is desirable to know to what extent the

same rule holds with respect to animals. According to what has pre-

ceded, the early development of Engystoma is peculiarly favorable for

the purpose of testing the theory that the cephalic and caudal polari-

ties of the parent are transmitted directly to the offspring, or that the

future long axis of the embryo already conforms, even in the egg, to

that of the parent.

The next step in the development of Engystoma is somewhat simi-

lar to that of Rana.’ As soon as the larve have the tail-fold well

developed they turn over and lie on the side, curved upon themselves,

within ghe egg-envelope. This is the condition of the eggs on the

second and early part of the third day. On the third day the larve

leave the egg, and then tend to fall upon the bottom of the pool or

_ receptacle in which hatching occurs. Soon after this they begin to

swim about actively, and, singularly enough, instead of swimming like

a fish, for some reason, which it is difficult to make out, the larve

revolve on their own long axes. This singular mode of locomotion is

probably due to the peculiar manner in which the tail is vibrated. This

mode of swimming lasts about a day, after which the larve begin to

swim in the usual fish-like way. At this stage, when the larvae come

to the surface, the head is in contact with the surface of the water, and —

Am. Nat.—September.—s. n fa

- 840 The American Naturalist. [Septembe?,

when quiescent the axis of the body, when in a condition of equilib-

rium, assumes an angle of about eighty degrees with the surface.

The adhesive organs near the mouth now become functional. Up to

this time the light area on the yolk is prominent, and enables one to

watch the singular rotation of the larva. The head now begins to

widen rapidly, and the light area on the belly becomes darker. The

tail-fold soon becomes very thin, and bordered all round by a delicate

edging of black pigment. The larve cease to rotate on the fourth

day, and no longer take up their angular position at the surface of the

water, and now behave very much like the larve of Rana.’ They are

now very heavily pigmented over the whole of the body; the light

area over the space where'the yolk was formerly placed has disap-

peared, and the larve are now black as seen from above. —J. A. RYDER.

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.!

_ The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-

historic Archeology of Paris. (Continued from page 768.)

Seventh Question: ‘‘Ethnographic Survivals Which Can Throw

Light Upon the Social State of the Primitive Population of Central or

Western Europe.”

M. Hassler, of l’ Assomption, opened the discussion of this question |

with a general presentation of the subject. t

, . Lumholtz, of Christiania, Norway, gave a long and interesting

description of his four years’ residence in Australia.

M. Glaumont, of Bourail, presented the result of his studies of the

usages, customs, and manners of the neo-Caledonians. M. Glaumont

presented a series of fetiches which were used. by the people.

Signor Belucci, of Perugia, presented a catalogue of his grand col-

lection of amulets displayed at the exposition. g

Dr. Hamy recalled a discussion which had taken place at the Society

of Anthropology upon the subject of the savages of Mariannais, whom

it was sought to prove were men living in ignorance of the use of fire ;

but Dr. Hamy presented a large fragment of pottery which had very

evidently been made by fire and subjected to its use in cooking or

otherwise. .

_ M. Chily Naranjo, from the Canary Islands, recalled the conclusions

which had been presented to the congress of 1878 by M. Verneau

1 Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution.

1891. | Archeology and Ethnology. 841

upon the subject of anthropology of the Canary Islands, He ranged

himself on the side of M. Verneau in the belief that the Guanche

population of these islands at the moment of their discovery were of

the race of Cro-Magnon, and had come to a slight degree of higher

civilization.

M. de Zmigrodski, of Cracow, presented a large chart of the

objects which had been exposed at the exposition, containing the

designs of more than 300 objects on which were the sign of the

svastika, or ancient cross. He divided these into five parts: Asia

Minor and its influences, the Greco-Roman epoch, Christian epoch,

the prehistoric in Europe, and the contemporaneous of the nineteenth

century. Several members expressed doubt as to the conclusions of

this gentleman.

M. Dumoutier presented to the congress the costume of a woman of

Muong, of Western Tonkin, which was ornamented with svastikas.

Mr. Jammes, of Realmont (Tarn), had spent many years in

Cambodia, and had made many and extensive excavations in his

search for evidences of prehistoric man in that country. He pre-

back. The collection was purchased by me for the United States

National Museum ; and these objects, with the locality whence they

came, were described by me in the Naturatist for March, 1890, p. 286.

M. Belucci announced the discovery of a number of flints chipped

by intention. The discovery was made by MM. Cuchi and Biauchi,

Italian travelers, in a locality named Denghis, in a high valley of the

Abai Abyssinia. These chipped flints were in every way comparable

to those of the prehistoric ages of Europe.

Eighth Question : ‘ To What Extent do Archeologic or Ethnographic

Analogies Sustain the Hypothesis of Relations or Migrations Among

Prehistoric Peoples ?

M. Ernst, of Caracas, opened the discussion by a memoir on the

ancient inhabitants of Merida, in Venezuela, The author occupied

himself especially with small vases in the form of cuvettes, with legs,

the extremities of which were joined between themselves by transverse

pieces which formed a square, with angles more or less round or

occasionally a circle. M. Ernst described three known types of these

vases, their ornaments in relief, their colored designs, and gave

reasons for the belief that these were objects of luxury, possibly of

religion or cult. The distribution of the original type in Vene-

zuela, in Costa Rica, and possibly in the countries of New Grenada

842 The American Naturalist. [September,

and Chiriqui, appears to assign to these ancient populations a com-

munity of origin.

Their language seems to confirm these ideas. The currents of the

dispersion of this human family should have taken rise in the center of

South America, from which they were directed from the ae and the

northwest.

M. Verissimo, of Para, said: ‘‘ There are two Indian families in

juxtaposition in Brazil. Oneof these is the Tupi Guaranis, who speak

the ngoa geral; the other is that of the Tapouis,—that is to say, the

barbarians, to which belonged, possibly, the men of Sambaquis.’’

„The pottery discovered in the Isle of Marajo, at the mouth of the

Amazon, and of which M. Verissimo presented a remarkable speci-

men, appeared to indicate other affinities than those from the north.

The prehistoric men of Marajo had probably come from Central

America, and followed the coast of the Atlantic. Among the dis-

coveries which tend to confirm this hypothesis, M. Verissimo cites the

implements of wrought jade which were met with in Brazil, and of

which he presented a specimen sculptured in the form of a batrachian

or frog.

M. Hamy observed that the figure of the object presented by M.

Verissimo was sufficient to justify the supposition of a northern or

western origin, as had been attributed to it by Verissimo,—that is, in

the Antilles on the one part, in the Cundinamarca and Central America

on the other, where abound those representations of the frog which

have a role so important in the mythologic iconography of Central

America, The representations of the frog in the New World author-

izes the formula adopted by this question, ‘‘ The Hypothesis of Pre-

historic Migrations.’’

M. L. Netto, of Rio Janeiro, had some words to say upon the com-

munication of M. Verissimo, upon the Sambaquis or shell-heaps of

Brazil, and presented a number of objects found during their excava-

tion, and particularly a grand fetich of the form of a fish, others ot

mortars in the form of fishes and birds, which could be nothing else

. than the work of actual savages. As to the question of the expansion

of jade or jadeite in South America, M. Netto was of the opinion that

it is a phenomenon that has not yet been satisfactorily explained.

Baron de Baye recalled and recited the theory adopted by Professor

Putnam as to the Asiatic origin of the mineral of which these objects

were made in Central America.

Gosse, of Geneva, was of the opinion that the question now

under discussion was not more advanced in America than in Europe,

eon a eee

Pg eR ee ee

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 843

and that the origin of these hard stones employed in Europe during

the age of polished stone is as yet undecided and much to be discussed.

Mr. Thomas Wilson described how the nephrite implements were

used in Alaska, and how the mineral of which they had been made had

been found by Sir George Dawson, in the form of smooth and worn

pekbles, in the valleys of the Lewis, the Kowak, and the Yukon rivers.

He said that Dr. Gosse was right to advise us to wait for further infor-

mation. The elements of jadeite and nephrite were quite common.

Why was it that these rocks should not be found in America as well as

in Europe? -

Mr. George F. Kunz, of New York, presented to the congress a

votive hatchet in jadeite, beautifully sculptured, of extremely large

dimensions, from Canada. It was his opinion that this mineral came

from the southern part of Mexico; but the Mexicans of modern times

had never yet discovered its origin. It might be perhaps upon the

summit of some mountain. He continued by giving a description of

several new minerals, similar to jadeite, which had been used in America

for such implements, and have been identified by Professor F. W.

Clarke as pectolite, wollastonite, pagolite, and agalmatolite. Imple-

ments made of these minerals have been found in divers portions of

the United States of America, and therefore there was nothing curious

or wonderful in finding the origin of the jadeite and nephrite in that

country.

M. Netto presented a portrait of a woman of the tribe of Indians of _

Boticude, and with it gave a description of what was called the dotogue,

which much resembles, if it was not actually, a labret; and he said

that many American people used it in distant portions of the country.

In this he was supported by Dr. Hamy, who presented several curious

specimens from his:museum of ethnography, and especially those from

the northwest coast of America. Both Dr. Hamy and M. Netto were,

however, in doubt whether these objects would show a relationship

between two peoples so widely separated. :

Mr. Thomas Wilson instituted a parallel between the paleolithic

period in the United States and that in Europe. This period has been

manifested in the United States of America by implements found deep

in the river gravels at three places or more at great distances from each

other,—the Delaware, the Minimi, and the eee a the Mississippi

Rivers. He TEUER ities and the of and associa-

tions in which the p ic impl ts were found,—likeness between-

` them and paleolithic ais the river gravels in Europe. Their

rad ile oa mode of rea igct tae were much the same. The diference

844 The American Naturahst. [September,

between them was principally that of material, and this was in some

cases much the same ; for argillite implements were found at Trenton,

while the quartzite implements of Piney Branch would comp&re in all

respects with those found by MM. d’Ahemar, Noulet, and Cartailhac in

the valley of the Garonne. Mr. Wilson continued his discourse at

some length by the comparison of the neolithic types from America

with those of Europe. Many of both kinds were shown, some by the

original and others by photographs and drawings

M. Verneau discovered in the islands of the Canaries the polished

stone hatchets of which the material, form, and work recalled those

which were found in the Antilles, and, above all, at Porto Rico. There

were other things of the same order which showed analogies, particu-

larly the pintaderas of the Canaries, with the imprints of the ancient

Mexicans.

M. Cartailhac gave a resume of the EEE E which he had just

terminated upon the prehistoric archeology of the Balearic Isles, and

proved that all the affinities of the archipelago were with the south.

He had not found a trace of the age of stone, and the grand monu-

ments had an African aspect or appearance.

. Tardy dilated upon the beginnings of civilization in Algeria, and

the synchronisms of the first stages of the earlier ages of humanity in

Africa and in Europe.

M. Belucci ‘presented a note upon the relations between the central

and southern portions of Italy at the epoch of the polished stone.

These relations are established not only by the obsidian of Lapiri, which

came from Central Italy, but also by the particular forms of arrow-

heads, and by the scrapers and knives of a variety of flint which had

its origin in the southern provinces; finally by the polished stone

hatchets of the form doméé, which were common in Southern Italy,

and which were met, though rarely, in Central Italy.

M. Adrien de Mortillet communicated a summary of the results of a

mission which had been confided:to him by the Commission of Mega-

lithic Monuments: to study the monuments of the same nature in

Algeria, and to compare them with those of France.

M. Hamy did not agree with these conclusions, and he commended

conservatism in our opinions, and advised us to guard against generali-

zations in regard to prehistoric monuments of countries which, though

FETE yet offer from the archeologic point of view such profound

differences

——

1891.] Psychology. 845

PSYCHOLOGY.

Note on the Evolution of the Upright Tail in the Do-

mestic Dog.—My attention has recently been called to the work on

‘“ Organic Evolution ’’ by Professor Eimer, page 114, to a paragraph

in which he seems unable to account for the dogs in Constantinople

carrying the tail upright. In speaking of the subject he says: ‘‘ But

the reason why these dogs begin to erect the tail and carry it upright,

while the ancestral jackal, like the wolf, carries it hanging down, is

not so easy to discover, although the fact could scarcely be explained

as a case of adaptation.’ I beg to offer a provisional explanation of

this phenomenon, and also to take exception to the latter statement,

—that it cannot be explained as a case-of adaptation, While my ob-

servations were not made at Constantinople, the dogs accompanying

the several tribes of Indians I observed in the Western United

States, some of which arc tamed wolves, or are directly descended

from the wild American wolf known as the coyote, offer opportunities

of study which brought me to a realization of this subject, which may

be summed up in a few epitomized remarks.

As the dog becomes domesticated it is prone to use the tail as an

organ of expressing mental states, especially those of emotion’ for

example, the wag of the tail expressive of delight, or sudden dropping

of the tail between the legs at some disappointment or fright. The

ancestral or wild wolf carries the tail hanging down, because that

position (the tail being especially bushy and large in the wild animal)

would be less conspicuous and more compatible with life in a free

state of nature, or, as it were, to better elude detection. A family

of wolves playing together undisturbed occasionally carry their tails

curled upwards. By degrees the tail acquires naturally the upright

position as a result of coincident evolution of the mind of the wolf

incidental to domestication, and moreover thus instancing the slow.

adaptation of the appendage as an organ of expression. The cessation

of ‘natural selection in the domestic dog would give to the tail greater

freedom of motion without detriment to life; and artificial selection.

perfects the caudal appendage into many diverse shapes. Still greater

influence is exerted by certain expressions of. the mind by that appen-

dage, tending to keep it up, and by the influence of heredity, trans-

mitting those tendencies. The muscles correlatively become strength-

ened and developed, and the erect position ultimately passes into an

apparently fixed character in some varieties of the dog.—Dr. ue

L. Hancock, July roth, 1891.

1 The words ods and wolf are used er in this note.

846 The American Naturalist. [September,

MICROSCOPY .!

Fixation of the Methylenblue Stain.—In the last number of

the Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftliche Mikroskopie (Vol. VIIL., 1, 1891,

p: 15), Prof. Dogiel offers some new points on the use of methylen-

blue in staining nerves.”

Nerves exposed to the direct action of methylenblue often stain so

intensely that they appear dark blue, almost black. Such preparations

should lie in the fixing medium (saturated aqueous solution of picrate

of ammonium) twenty-four hours or more, otherwise the color fades

quickly after transfer to glycerine. Long exposure to sunlight causes

the stain to fade.

The fixing medium often macerates, loosening the epidermis and

rendering difficult the investigation of intra-epithelial nerves. The

macerating effects may be checked by adding osmic acid (1-2 cc. of a I

per cent. solution to 100 cc. of the fixing fluid). This mixture pre-

serves the tissue, and at the same time blackens the medullary sheaths

_of the nerve-fibers. As the axis cylinders stain dark violet, it becomes

easy to distinguish medullated from non-medullated fibers. The prep-

arations are mounted in dilute glycerine.

If the tissues are to be prepared for sectioning, a stronger per cent.

of osmic is added (1-2 cc. of a 1 per cent. solution to 25-30 cc. of

picrate of ammonium). The preparation lies in this fluid twenty-four

hours, and is then cut in liver or pith, or with the freezing microtome.

Biedermann * recommends as a fixative in the case ‘of invertebrates

the following mixture :

Saturated o solution of picrate of ammonium ... .1 Phe

Glycerin vol.

Solution of salt, Xu per cent, (sea-water i in case of marine 2 forms) 2 svali

The nervous system is dissected out for exposure to the staining

fluid. That the exposure may be as direct as possible, the nerve-cord

(Hirudo, Lumbricus, etc.) should be freed from its sheath. A` very

dilute solution of methylenblue is used, and allowed to act from

two to three hours. If the preparation, after the exposure, be place

on a slide wet with the staining fluid, and left for one-half to

one hour in a moist chamber, the color effects will be intensified. This

t Edited by C. O. Whitman, Clark eas Worcester, Mass.

2 Cf. this journal, Dec. 1890, p.

3 Jenaische Zeitschrift fur Mediocre XXV., 3 and 4, 1891, P. 433-

me anes Microscopy. eT

“airing ’’ is not required with marine animals, as with them the color

differentiation is completed in the staining fluid.

In the case of marine animals the methylenblue is dissolved in sea-

water. It dissolves less readily than in fresh water, and owing to this

weak solubility it is liable to form a fine granular or crystalline pre-

cipitate on the surface of the preparation. As a large part of the

dissolved, staining substance is lost by filtering, it is best to prepare it

fresh each time, and to allow it to settle, so that the clear fluid can be

turned off for use. In the case of Nereis the nerve-cord is not

obscured by a thick opaque sheath, and hence it is only necessary to

open the dorsal wall lengthwise and spread it out flat in order to apply

the stain.

Vasale’s Modification of Weigert’s Method:*—The pieces

of the nervous system to be prepared are hardened in Miiller’s fluid or

in bichromate of potash, and then, either with or without washing, left

in alcohol until they are wanted for sectioning. For staining, the three

following fluids are required :

1. Hematoxylin 1 g., dissolved in 100 g. water by heating.

2. Neutral acetate of copper, saturated, filtered solution.

3. Borax 2 g., ferricyanide of potash 2% g., dissolved in 300 g.

water.

The sections taken from alcohol are placed in solution 1 for three

to five minutes; then for the same time in solution 2, in which they

become black. They are next washed quickly in water and put into

solution 3, which is stirred, and in which the ganglion-cells, neu-

roglia, and the degenerated parts are quickly discolored, while the

medullated fibers remained stained dark violet. Finally the sections

are washed in water and quickly placed in absolutealcohol. They are

cleared with cardo/-xy/ol (three parts xylol to one of liquid carbolic acid),

and mounted in xylol balsam. This clearing mixture hasthe advantage

that it does not shrink sections inclosed in celloidin. A contrast-stain

may be obtained if the sections, after being washed, are treated with

alum carmine or picrocarmine, or according to Pal’s method.

Upson’s Gold-Staining Method for Axis-Cylinders and

Nerve-Cells.°—Pieces of the central nervous system are hardened in

potassium bichromate, beginning with one per cent. and increasing to

2% m cent. They are left in this fluid in the dark from four to six

tRivista sperimentale di Freniatria e r Medicina legale, Vol. XV., 1889., p- son's.

Zeitschr. J. Wiss. Mikr., VIL., 4, 1891, p. 5

5A. Mercier. “ Die Upson'schen caus fiir Achseneylinder und Zellen (Gold) ,

Färbung. Sni Wis Mikr., VII., 4, P- 474, 1891.

Sag The American Naturalist. [September,

months, then washed quickly and placed in alcohol of 50 per cent. two

to three days, which should be renewed a few times. They are then

transferred to 95 per cent. alcohol, and left until they show plainly a

greenish color (two to four weeks or more),

The preparations are then ready for sectioning, and may be cut

without imbedding, or after imbedding in celloidin. Two methods of

ease are used :

. The section is placed in a one per cent. solution of gold ehtoadés

to heli two per cent. hydrochloric acid has been added (about two

hours), then washed in distilled water, and transferred to a ten per

cent. solution of potash for half a minute.

The section is then washed in distilled water, and there left until the

following reducing fluid (to be made fresh each time) is prepared :

Acid. sulfurosum . E A AE E A Oee

Tinct. iodi., 3 per cent. (kid Ge wre et g OS Grops,

Mix, and add

Ligo fetrichlord: o reos as ei, os 1 drop:

This fluid must be made very exactly and quickly, and the moment

it is ready the section is placed in it and left until it assumes a rose

color. If left only a few seconds too long it becomes dark red, and is

worthless. :

As soon as the proper color appears the section is transferred to

distilled water, and then to absolute alcohol ontheslide. After ten to

fifteen minutes it may be cleared in clove oil and mounted in balsam.

The slide is to be kept in the dark.

2. The section is placed for two hours in the following solution :

Gold chloride, 1 per c co rg OE

Ammonium van nadia; aa solution . . to drops.

Mid DYGROCM OR oii soe o 6 ss oa fe g reps.

Wash, and transfer to the following (freshly prepared) mixture for %

to 1 minute :

Caustic potash, 10 = aa pee E a

Ammonium vanadicum . . Seo A UME

Permanganate of anah. 10 per cent. . a w tO dróps

Wash, and expose to the following reducing fluid, freshly prepared :

Tin eo og oe ee Pree ee

Aq. des

Tron se tio on. neers cs

Acid. sulfarosanii be a ee

gap! tt “s/s atop.

i i ngee

1891. Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 849

The moment the acid sulfurosum is added a thick precipitate arises,

and at this moment the reducing fluid is strongest.

The method of handling the section is the same as in method 1.

The tin solution is made by adding so much chloride of tin to three

per cent. tincture of iodine until the color is white or yellowish. The

iron solution is a saturated solution of ferrum phosphoricum in distilled

water.

The method is somewhat cumbersome, but the results are said to be

extraordinary.

Method of TERED Rotifers.^—The first difficulty which one

experiences in studying the rotifers is their constant motion. This

difficulty is overcome, according to Masius, by the use of a mixture of

methyl alcohol, water, and cocaine in weak solution.

After being anæsthetized by this fluid, the rotifers may be fixed with-

out contraction in the ordinary preservative ee E s fluid,

for example.

For the study of the head, an anæsthetized specimen is piad upon

a slide, and the head cut off in a transverse plane as near as possible to

the anterior end. The section thus obtained can be examined easily

from any side in water or weak alcohol.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Natural Science Association of Staten Island.—April 11th_—

Mr. Arthur Hollick stated that a nest of the barred owl (Syrnium

nebulosum) was found on Staten Island, March 27th, by Mr. Chas.

Rufus Harte, a student of Columbia College, This isan addition to

the list of birds known to breed here, and the following memorandum

from Mr. Harte was read :

‘ In the woods which are the continuation of the swamp (near Bull’s

Head) I came upon a sweet gum, having an ‘ owlish’ looking cavity.

As I turned aside to investigate, a barred owl flew out and away

into the depths of the woods, appearing again once or twice, but

always at a very respectable distance. The tree was about two feet in

diameter, with no limbs below the opening, which was some thirty

feet up, and very irregilar in form. The cavity into which it opened

was about eight inches in diameter, and was filled to within six inches

of the mouth with dead leaves and feathers. On this bed lay the three

6 Arch. de Biol., X., 4, 1890, p. 652. -

850 The American Naturalist. _ [September,

eggs, which were nearly hatched and very dirty. I did not see any

remains of birds or mammals either in or about the nest,”

May 9th.—A communication was read from Mitchell’s Book Co.,

830 Broadway, N. Y., stating that they had the original deed of sale

of Staten Island by the Indians, in 1670, and inquiring if the associ-

ation desired to purchase or copy it. The corresponding secretary

stated that he had requested Mr. E. C. Delavan, Jr., to examine the

document, with the following result :

56 Wall Street, New York, May goth, 1891.

ARTHUR Ho.tick, Esq., New Brighton, N. Y.:

Dear SIR :—I have examined the conveyance in possession of the

Mitchell Company, 830 Broadway, referred to in their letter to you.

While the document presents many internal evidences of authenticity,

two points strike the professional reader as odd. In the recital of parties

the names of the grantees are first written, followed by the names of

the grantors. The grantees are Governor Lovelace and James Duke

of York, the former representing the latter, The grantors are various

sachems.

The second point that seems to me unusual is that no totems have

been drawn by any of the sachem grantors, and in their place are the

ordinary marks that would likely be adopted by any illiterate.

Granting the authenticity of the document, what is its value? The

price placed on it by the company is $600. Its highest interest

attaches when it is viewed from a purely antiquarian standpoint.

Historically its interest is secondary. The first grant of Staten Island

to Michael Pauw (1629-1630) was conditional on his ‘acquiring the

Indian titles, which we must assume that he accomplished. Pauw

subsequently reconveyed to the West. India Company (see Gay’s

History). After the English ousted the Dutch authorities a conveyance

by the Indians of Staten Island to Governor Lovelace, before 1760,

is said to have been made, followed by a deed of confirmation in 1760

(see Clute). The latter is probably the same instrument now under

consideration.

From the lawyer’s standpoint Indian deeds are now of little or no

practical importance. It has been held that the Indians had no title

which would be recognized in the courts of this country. The only

legally recognized title was that of discovery and conquest. (Trustees

of the Freeholders and Commonalty of the Town of eS

respondents, vs. The Mecox Bay Oyster Company, 116 N.

Johnson zs. McIntosh & Wheat (U. S.), 543- Martin vs. Waddie

16 Peters 367.) _ Very truly yours,

7 Epwarp C. DELAVAN, JR.

mae a cathy Prete Can em nd OE LA Mer S ITEA EEE ekg E Meas As A IY fon ee UN ead Sea Mg aPC par Ror mek, nS Pep Race Be pay EREE AE en RS ES Seat aro Yt any SURI, TRE Me eR a

a EE EE

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 851

Mr. Arthur Hollick read by title a list of 35 fungi collected at

Tottenville, October 4th, 1890, and determined by Chas H. Peck,

State Botanist. This will be published as a ‘‘special’’ at some future

ate.

Mr. Hollick presented a specimen of Spirophyton caudagaili, found

on the shore of Tottenville,—an addition to the local list of paleozoic

fossils found in the Drift.

Mr. L. P. Gratacap showed specimens of Lymnea palustris, and read

the following memorandum: The Zymnæa palustris, which was found

last autumn by Mr. Davis in the brook that courses along Washington

Avenue, and which was identified by Mr. Sanderson Smith, has been

kept in confinement by me during the winter. The tank in which the

individuals were placed was kept in a very cold room and partook of

of the changes in the winter weather. Two only survived the experi-

ence, and these have not hibernated, but maintained a sluggish life all

winter. This spring seven gelatinous capsules exuded, each containing

about twenty-five embryos. Amongst the authorities the opinion

seems entertained that adults do not generally live over the winter, and

that maturity is reached in one year. This opinion seems very

questionable. he species may repay some attention, On this conti-

nent it ranges as far north as Great Bear Lake in Canada, and in the

' United States extends from New England through Pennsylvania and

Kansas to California and Oregon. Abroad it ranges from Siberia to

Algeria and Sicily. About five varieties are recorded by writers. The

black patches of Lymnea upon the cement blocks just under the

overflow from the new pond recently made in the Snug Harbor

clearings, south of Castleton Avenue, may also prove to be this species.

Mr. Davis noted the Carolina wren, as an addition to the

list of birds known to breed on the island, and read the following note :

On the 26th of last April I discovered a family of Carolina wrens

(Thryothorus ludovicianus) on Richmond Hill near the old British fort.

One of the parent birds was perched on top of a small Ailanthus tree

calling vociferously, while the other accompanied the young, which

were hidden in athick growth of low briers, grass, etc., in and out of

which they crept. They were just able to fly,—indeed, one of them

could only do so for a yard or two, and much preferred climbing about

the briers. Later in the day the little birds had congregated under a

small cedar, whose lower branches touched the ground, but they quickly

sought the protection of the briers again when approached. It is hoped

that they will not be molested, but continue to abide on Staten Island,

852 The American Naturalist. [September,

for the Carolina wren remains all the year round where once it has

fixed its home.

Mr. Davis also contributed the following botanical notes :

A swamp of three or four acres lies just north of the Amboy road,

between Gifford’s and the road to Richmond. At present it supports

a thick growth of huckleberry bushes, poison sumachs, young red

maples, a number of magnolias, etc. Several bushes of the mountain

holly (Wemopanthes canadensis) also grow there, which species has not

before been reported from the island. In July, 1889, the deep red

berries were conspicuous ; in 1890o the bushes bore no fruit; but on the

26th of April, this year, they were found in blossom. (Specimens were

here shown. )

The peat is particularly thick and quaking in this swamp, and

fifteen or twenty years ago, before it had been drained so extensively,

the pitcher plant (Sarracenia purpurea) grew in its northwest corner,

as I was informed by a man who lived in the vicinity. The common

cranberry also grew there, and the man who told me about the pitcher

plant, said his mother used to pick them for family use, but in his

time he had never gathered over a handful. Now they appear to be

exterminated. There is, however, an unreported patch of cranberries

(Vaccinium macrocarpum), or perhaps more properly several patches,

in the low, open woods between Washington Avenue and the road fro

Annadale. _ ;

1891.] ; Scientific News. 853

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

There has been no little change among biologists in the United

States during the present year. The opening of the Leland Stanford,

Jr., University made a number of new positions. Dr. D. S. Jordan, the

president of Indiana University, was called to the presidency of the new

institution, and so far he has announced the following natural science

aculty : J. C. Branner, of Indiana University, professor of geology ;

O. P. Jenkins, of De Pauw University, professor of physiology and his-

tology; J. H. Comstock, of Cornell, non-resident professor of ento-

mology ; C. H. Gilbert, of Indiana University, professor of vertebrate

zoology ; D.H. Campbell, of Indiana University, professor of crypto-

gamic botany. Prof. J. M. Coulter, of Wabash College, accepted the

presidency of Indiana University ; C. H. Eigenmann is appointed pro-

fessor of zoology, and David Mottier instructor in morphological botany,

in Indiana University. Prof. L Underwood, of Syracuse University,

goes to De Pauw to take the place vacated by Dr. Jenkins; and Prof.

C. H. Hargitt and Mr. O. F. Cook are promoted to the chairs of

biology in Syracuse University. Dr. Bleile has been elected professor

of comparative anatomy and physiology in Ohio State University.

Professor H. F. Osborn, of Princeton, has been elected professor of

vertebrate zoology, and Prof. E. B. Wilson, of Bryn Mawr, associate

professor of invertebrate zoology, in Columbia College. Prof. E. H.

Barbour, of Iowa College, has been appointed associate professor of

geology in the University of Nebraska; and H. W. Norris goes to Iowa

College as professor of natural history.

Dr. Franz von Wagner is a oi prat docent in the University of Strass-

burg.

Peter Martin Duncan, the well-known student of fossil Coelenterates

and Echinoderms, died in London, May 28th, 1891.

Professor Chun’s place in Königsberg is taken by Dr. Max Braun,

of Rostock, while Dr. Fr. Blochman goes to the zoological chair in

Rostock,

Edmond André, the student “te the Hymenoptera, died at Braune,

January 11th, 1891.

_ Dr. A. Viallanes has been appointed director of the zoological

station at Arcachon, France.

854 The American Naturalist. [September, 1891.]_

Edward Burgess died in Boston, July 12th, 1891. He was born in

Sandwich, Mass., in 1848, graduated in 1871 from Harvard University,

and was for several years professor of entomology in the Bussey Insti- `

tution of Harvard. He was secretary and librarian of the Boston

Society of Natural History from 1873 to 1883, when he resigned to

devote himself to naval architecture. Mr. Burgess described some

Diptera, but the bulk of his work was on the anatomy of insects.

He was a careful dissector and a good artist, his ‘‘ Anatomy of the

Milkweed Butterfly,” published in 1881, being a good example of

what anatomical work should be. ’

. M. Stedman, formerly of Cornell University, now of the U. S.

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Vol. XXV.

OCTOBER, 1891.

No. 298.

CONTENTS:

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTH Soy

Gustav Steinmann,

NOTES ON THE HEARTS OF CER ee egress ar

H. Hyde,

VIVISECTION; o cesa Gos 8 Frederick Gaertner,

iard T reai MONUMENTS ¢

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THE DOUBLE MONSTER ROSA- gen

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GENERAL NOT

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AGE,

Geology and Paleontology. —The Desert Senpage

Depos sits at Hen on, England, soon

Botany.—Botany at the wanes Meetings,

ology e in pinata opods—The Re-

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University

Entomology.—Entomology at Washington,. . .

Archeology and Ethnology.—Proceedings of the

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R. H. C. HOVEY, in an article in the Sczentific American of August Fag says:

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meteo i ght from one- “sixteenth

The fact of sre interest may be accepted as prove

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‘ THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV. OCTOBER, 1891. 298.

A SKETCH OF THE GEOLOGY OF SOUTH AMERICA.

BY GUSTAV STEINMANN.?

oy preparing a sketch of the geology of South America I feel

obliged to add some explanatory remarks. This sketch’ ac-

companies a map which forms a part of the second edition of the

Physical Atlas of Berghaus (Gotha, Justus Perthes), which publi-

cation will be finished at the end of this year. Besides many

other maps, the geological part of this atlas has sketch-

maps of all continents, which represent the actual state of our

knowledge. In preparing the sheet of South America I was

aided by many geologists who, like myself, had occasion to

explore some parts of this continent, especially by Orville

Derby for the part of Brazil, by Luis Brackebusch for the part

of the Argentine Republic, and by many others.

I thought it of some interest to the Association of North

American Geologists to explain the main resemblances and dif-

ferences which exist between the northern and the southern part

of the great American continent, and to urge some remarkable

points in the geological evolution of South America.

I pass by the primordial rocks, very imperfectly studied as yet

in South America. The Paleozoic rocks are better known, and

offer great interest. By the investigations of d’Orbigny, Forbes,

Kayser, Rathbun, Clarke, Orville Derby, and those made re-

cently by Dr. Ulrich, of Strassburg, upon the rich collection of

1 Professor of Geology in the hacen of Freiburg i, B. Read before the Geological -

Society of ETUE August 25th, 1

856 The American Naturalist. (October,

fossils I brought home from the central plateau of Bolivia, the

two following interesting points have been demonstrated :

1. That nearly all parts of the Paleozoic formations “are repre-

sented in South America by marine deposits, being known by Cam-

bian, Lower and Upper Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous fossils.

As far as our knowledge extends, the older Paleozoic deposits—

t. e., the Cambrian and Silurian formations—are generally more dis-

turbed and metamorphosed than the Devonian and Carboniferous

series. In consequence of this fact, the faunas of the latter forma-

tions are better known than those of the former.

2. The richest Paleozoic fauna as yet known from South

America is that of the, Devonian formation. More than 150

different species have been described. The rich and well-preserved

fauna collected by me in the eastern part of the Bolivian

plateau has enabled Mr. Ulrich to show that the Bolivian deposits

form a very important link between those of North America on

one side, and those of Brazil, the Falkland Islands, and South

Africa onthe other side. The highly fossiliferous clay slates,

sandy clays, and sandstones widely distributed in Bolivia and

Brazil are the equivalents of the Oriskany sandstone, the Upper

Helderberg, and the Hamilton groups of North America. Their

fauna bears an American, not a European, character, as proved

by the two commonest and most characteristic Brachiopods :

1. Leptocælia flabellites. This fossil has been found in North

America, Bolivia, on the Falkland Islands, and in South Africa.

2. Vitalina pustulosa is known from North America, Brazil,

Bolivia, and South Africa.

Partly by the identity, partly by the similarity of the Devonian

faunas of the named regions, it appears quite evident that a great

Devonian sea embraced large parts of both Americas and South

Africa.

The Carboniferous deposits seem to be much more restricted

in South America than the Devonian. . The sub-Carboniferous

is mostly composed of non-fossiliferous sandstones; the Upper

Carboniferous, containing representatives of universally distributed

Brachiopods and Gastropods, and of the genus Fusulina, is known

from Peru, Bolivia, and some parts of Brazil.

1891.] A Sketch of the Geology of South America. 857

During the Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic epochs the greatest

part of the South American continent, in the same manner as the

North American, was above the sea-level, for according to the

‘researches made by Brackebusch in the Argentine Republic, by

myself in Bolivia, and by Derby in the Matto-Grosso region, a great

if not the greatest, part of the redsandstones generally considered

to be of Permian or Triassic age seems to belong to the Cretaceous

formations,—probably to the lower part of it. The flora which

existed during the Permianand Triassic periods upon the South

American continent is of high interest. The coal-bearing

deposits of South Brazil and those of the Argentine and Chilian

Cordilleras contain many representatives of the so-called “ Glosso-

pteris flora” known from South India, Australia,and South Africa.

The age of these coal deposits is not everywhere the same. The

flora of South Brazil has been referred to the younger Paleozoic,

because it contains some Paleozoic types of plants; those of the

Argentine and Chilian Cordilleras belong tothe Rheetic group,

and are partly covered conformably by marine deposits of the

Lower Lias.

Marine deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic formations have

only been found in the western part of the continent,—namely, in

the Cordillera between the 5° and 35° of southern latitude. The

Triassic fossils are of the same type as those found in California

and Western Canada, the leading fossil being a species of

Pseudomonotis of the group of Ps. semicircularis Gatt. From

the Jurassic formation nearly all horizons have been found in

a fossiliferous state, and the rich collections made in different parts

ofthe Argentine, Chilian, and Peruvian Cordilleras have enabled

us to determine that the succession of marine organic life during

this period was quite the same on the Pacific slope as in Europe

and East India, and there have existed very intimate faunistic

relations between these regions. As regards the extension of

marine deposits of the Triassic and Jurassic epochs, there exists

a remarkable similiarity between North and South America,

being themselves confined to a small strip parallel to the Pacific

coast.

858 The American Naturakst. [October,

In contrast to this small extension of marine Triassic and

Jurassic rocks, the Cretaceous deposits cover a very large area in

South America. Marine Cretaceous fossils are found in nearly

all parts of the Cordillera from South Patagonia to East

Venezuela, and Mr. White has discovered a rich fauna of the

Cretaceous formation of East Brazil. The invasion of con-

tinental areas by the sea at the earlier Cretaceous period, which

has been observed. in many parts of Central Europe, seems to

have taken place on a much larger scale in both Americas. We

know now, by the investigations of Hill and White, that a part

of the Cretaceous strata of Texas formerly regarded as Upper

Cretaceous belongs to the lower part of this formation. The

Cretaceous formation of Mexico appears as a direct continuation

of the Texas deposits; and as far as our present knowledge

extends, the relations between the faunas of the older Cretaceous

of these regions and those of Venezuela, Colombia, and North

Peru are very intimate. It is interesting to see certain char-

acteristic fossils of the Lower Cretaceous of the north reappear in

the south. The famous genus Aucella, widely distributed on the

slopes of the North Pacific, has been recently mentioned by N.

Ritin from Mexico; by White from Brazil; I know it also from

the invirons of Lima associated with Ammonites of the Neocomian

of Europe. The Cretaceous sea which covered the central part

of America probably continued farther to the east. We find, there-

fore, some remarkable relations between the Lower and Upper

Cretaceous faunas of South America, especially of Colombia and

Peru, and those of North and West Africa. Some forms of Buthi-

ceras known from Algiers are found abundantly in the Upper

Amazonian region. The truly marine deposits of the central part

of America disappear to the north and the south, and seem to be

replaced by sandy deposits without marine fossils. Probably a

great part of the red sandstone formations which occur

in Brazil, Venezuela, Bolivia, and in the north of the Argentine

Republic, take the same place relative to the marine sediments of

the older Cretaceous as do the Atlantosaurus beds, the Trinity

and Tuscaloosa formations in the north,—namely, underlying

themselves or forming an equivalent of them.

1891.] A Sketch of the Geology of South America, 859

I cannot conclude my remarks upon the Mesozoic formations

of South America without mentioning the two following pecu-

liarities. The first is the fact that, wholly independent of the

marine Cretaceous deposits of the Cordillera on the Pacific coast

of South Chili, glauconitic sandstones are found which contain

a rich fauna of the uppermost Cretaceous, especially on the Island

of Ouiriquina. Besides many Ammonites and Baculites, partly

identical with those from South India, this fauna is characterized

by the abundance of Gastropods ofa Tertiary type. The Cre-

taceous beds are covered conformably by a lignitic formation,

whose fauna does not contain the Cretaceous fossils; but strati-

graphically both formations are intimately united. So acurious

parallelism seems to exist in these deposits of South Chili,

with the Chico-Tejon group of North California.

The second point to be pointed out is the abundance of eruptive

rocks within the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous formations of the

Cordillera. On the western side of the border of Chili and Peru,

where the marine deposits of these formations predominate, only a

very small part of the rocks are formed by Misaone, clay slates,

or sandstones. These appear , however, tob id between strati-

fied masses of Dropiyriic, melápliyric; and andesitic material, the

entire thickness of which strata reaches several 1000 meters. So far

as we know, this is the largest area of eruptive formation of

Mesozoic time. The Cordillera of South America is famous for

its eruptive formations of the latest time, but it merits no smaller

attention for its submarine eruptions during the Mesozoic time,

and for the injection of the Mesozoic strata by truly granitic

and dioritic rocks.

The Tertiary formations, well developed in the erent

Republic, have been subdivided into a number of groups by Doring.

-According to the researches of Ameghino, the younger Tertiary

deposits of South America show a remarkable peculiarity. This

paleontologist discovered the remains of human beings not only

in the Pliocene, but also in the Miocene, deposits. I must confess

that, comparing the European Mesozoic strata with those of South

America, quite another classification of the latter seems to be indi-

cated. What has been called the Pampean formation in the Argen-

860 The American Naturalist. [October,

tine Republic, and referred to the Pliocene, is no other than the

Loess in Europe, whose formation took place between the two

latest glaciations. Adopting this view of the case, the so-

called Miocene strata probably belong to the great ice period, and

the Pehuelche stratum represents only the morainic deposits of the

last ice period. The Plistocene deposits of South America are

not yet studied in detail, but the glacial deposits I met in South

Patagonia can be easily distinguished into two different groups:

those of a former more extended and overarched formation,

covering not only the lower parts, but also the table mountains of

over 100 m. in height; and the younger formation, the kettle

moraines of which are found along the foot of the Cordillera. The

extension of true glacial deposits within the Cordillera seems to

be much greater than generally admitted. Twenty years ago

Raimondi described clearly true moraines from the Cordillera Nev.

of Ancachs (about 9° s. lat.), reaching down to 2500 m. above

the sea-level. I myself found moraine deposits in the Cordillera

of Copiapo (28° s. lat.), about 1200 m. above the sea-level, and

these observations coincide quite well with those made north of

the equator by Sievers, who found the traces of former glaciation

in the Sierra Nevada do Santa Marka and in the Sierra Nevada do

Tarija. These facts seem to prove that the glacial periods did

not alternate on both hemispheres, but that they were contempo-

raneous. In this respect further studies upon the Plistocene

formations of the Cordillera of South America will be of great

scientific value.

Besides the true glacial deposits and the zeolean formation of

Loess and loam, there exist in South America, especially on the

High Plateau of Bolivia, like deposits of great extent. Terraces

and tufa deposits analogous to those of the Great Basin of the

West indicate a formerly much wider extension of the Lake

Titicaca over the whole High Plateau from Southern Peru to the

Argentine frontier. It seems that this former extension of lakes

in South America coincides also with that of the lakes of the

Great Basin region.

1891.] Notes on the Hearts of Certain Mammals. 861

NOTES ON THE HEARTS OF CERTAIN MAMMALS.

BY IDA H. HYDE.

FA preparing a thesis forthe degree of bachelor of science at

Cornell University, in the spring of 1891, certain facts were

observed and conclusions reached which have been thought

worthy of presentation, if only as an evidence that further investi-

gation is needed.

Professor Wilder placed at my disposal the following materials :

Many hearts of the sheep and domestic cat, several human hearts,

and the hearts of a monkey, panther, raccoon, hyena, dog, deer,

calf, horse, donkey, and rabbit.

Special attention was given to the following parts: The

Tuberculum Loweri, Eustachian valve, Thebesian valve, coro-

nary sinus, and the oblique vein of Marshall, a few of the

facts that seem of chief importance I shall state in the briefest

possible manner.

The Tuberculum Lowert—According to “ Wilder and Gage's

Anatomical Technology,” “the distinct presence of the Tuberculum

Loweri and the Eustachian valve have as yet not been determined

in the cat.” Nevertheless, I found what I consider the homolo-

gue of the Tuberculum Loweri of the human heart present in

every heart examined. Although Hyrtl denies its presence in

the human heart, all other authorities agree that it is a constant

feature of it.

The Eustachian Valve-—Of the hearts examined, the Eustachian

valve was found only in man, monkey, and a remnant of it in the

cat, but not extending above (cephalad) the coronary sinus

orifice as in man and monkey, but below it (caudad) and protects it.

In the foetus of the cat it is of relatively as great in extent as in

man, but in the adult cat only a valve guarding the coronary sinus

orifice remains, It is this valve that has been mistaken for the

Thebesian valve by several anatomists.

The Thebesian Valve—The statements conce ing the Vieussens

and Thebesian valves are perplexing. Allen and Gegenbaur say

862 The American Naturalist. [October,

“the Thebesian valve covers the opening of the coronary vein,”

whereas that valve over the orifice of the coronary vein is known

as Vieussens valve, in honor of its discoverer. According to

Heath, “ the coronary valve guards the opening of the coronary

sinus.” But Thebesius was the first to make known the form and

position ofthe valve over the termination of the sinus, and in his

honor it is called the Thebesian valve.

According to Marshall, “the Thebesian valve is present in

every instance in which the coronary sinus receives blood from

the heart alone, as in man, monkey, dog, and cat, but absent in

those animals that have a left azygos or left precava.” Since the

Thebesian valve was found only in man, monkey, and rabbit, and

not in the cat, panther, and dog, where Marshall says it ought to

exist, and one is present in the rabbit, where he says it ought not

to be, this generalization will not hold good. A valve existed

over the orifice of the middle cardiac vein in every heart

examined, and as it is not named in any work as far as I know, I

would suggest that it be called coronary valve.

The Coronary Sinus——Morrell says “the coronary sinus of

the sheep is the lower dilated part of the left azygos.” Marshall

holds that in those animals in which a left azygos or left precava

exists it empties directly into the right auricle, and the coronary

vein opens into it.

Bourgery, Owen, Gegenbaur, and Howell think the coronary

sinus is but the dilated part of the coronary vein.

Personal observation causes me to differ from the above-named

authors as to the homologue of the sinus. It is my opinion

that the coronary sinus is the persistent primitive left Ductus

Cuvieri, and that the left precava or left azygos, when they exist as

as well as the great coronary vein empty into it; thus sending

their blood through it to the heart. The great coronary vein

empties into the sinus, and not in one case into an azygos, in another

into a cava, again directly in the auricle. In support of this, Bar-

deleben says “the left azygos as well as the left precava, when pre-

sent, empty into the sinus. That piece of vein under discussion is

the left Ductus Cuvieri, which does not disappear in any mamaml.”

The Oblique Vein of Marshall—It was surprising to‘find that

sgh e Pee a ü

1891.] Notes on the Hearts of Certain Mammals. 863

the oblique vein of Marshall, which cccupies the place below the

pericardium that the left precava does when present, is not shown in

the illustrations or mentioned in the works of Owen, Wiedersheim,

Howell, or Wilder and Gage’s Technology. Not sending branches

into the substance of the heart, it is not, as older anatomists thought,

a branch of the great coronary vein. Although said to be im-

provided with a valve, I found one over its orifice in the heart of

the monkey (Cercocebus fuliginosus). Marshall holds that the

oblique vein of Marshall is the remnant of the left azygos of the

foetus. Since those animals that have the oblique vein of Marshall

shall have also the termination of the azygos emptying into the

left brachio-cephalic, I cannot agree with Marshall in this res-

pect. The embryo heart shows the oblique vein to be the termi-

nal portion of the primitive left precava.

864 The American Naturalist. [October,

VIVISECTION.

BY FREDERICK GAERTNER.’

N this essay I propose to examine the question whether vivi-

section should be permitted in the interest of humanity and

and science; and if so, with what restrictions.

Vivisection is the term employed for designating the operation

performed with the knife upon living animals. This term,

although including operations upon the human being, is applied

principally to those performed upon the lower animals, such as

the cat, dog, rabbit, guinea pig, etc., even frogs and fishes.

The performing of a surgical operation upon a human being,

whether under the influence of anzsthetic or in a comatose or

hypnotic condition, is simply one kind of vivisection. Now why

should vivisection of the lower animals be prohibited when the

same operation is performed upon human beings every day?

What are the objects of vivisection? I answer: first, the

increasing of our knowledge of physiology; second, the con-

firmation of facts previously known; third, the acquisition of

dexterity in operative surgery; and fourth, the experimental

application of inoculative medicine, including vaccination and

preventive and curative inoculation.

Without this process commonly called vivisection the sciences

of medicine, surgery, anatomy, physiology, histology, embryology,

and pathology would even yet be in their infancy, and in some

respects at least would remain forever undeveloped.

Vivisection may be traced back as far as the years 377 and

460 B.C. Hippocrates, the greatest of ancient scientists, was a

vivisector. A%sculapius, Celsus, Aulus, Cornelius, and later,

Galenus Claudius, and other great ancient scientists, practiced

vivisection upon the lower animals, and even upon human beings.

It is too well known to be disputed that Galenus Claudius

(Galen), who lived from 131 to 201 A.D., was the first to discover

that the arteries in the human body contained blood instead of

1 A.M., M.D., Pittsburgh, Pa.

1891.] Vivisection. 865

air, as had been previously supposed. How else than by the

process of vivisection could he have made this wonderful dis-

covery ?

Let me cite a few of the principal benefits that have accrued to

physiology, and hence to the art of healing, by means of vivi-

section. By this course of procedure the doctrine of the circula-

tion of the blood, the lymphatic circulation through the lymphatic

vessels, and that of chyle through the lacteals, were established.

Thus also our present knowledge of the nervous system and its

functions is due to vivisection, since these facts could not have

been obtained by the most minute anatomical research. Our

present rational modes of treating epilepsy and the various forms

of paralysis are due to the experiments of Brown-Sequard,

Bernard, and others, upon the living animals,

The causes of the sounds of the heart would never have been

understood without vivisectional experiments, and the stethoscope

would have been useless in the diagnoses of cardiac diseases.

The true nature of diabetes was thus discovered.

The Hunterian treatment of aneurism by ligature is the result

of experiments upon the living animal.

The study and application of anzsthetics, one of the greatest

boons to mankind, could be pursued only by experiments upon

` the living animal. Who would regret the suffocation of even

greater numbers of animals when he considers the amount of

agony and misery saved to man ?

If there be a solution—and doubtless there is one—of such

questions as the best method of restoring to life one apparently

drowned, the restoration of one suffering from apparently fatal

effects of chloroform, why chloroform kills, etc., who would

regret the sacrifice of the animals necessary for these solutions ?

What have been the results of vivisectional experiments during

the last century? By means of vivisection the great French

chemist and bacteriologist, Pasteur, discovered his wonderful

preventive inoculative treatment of hydrophobia.

Dr. Austin Flint, Jr., proved that the liver is an excretory as

well as a secretory organ. By comparing the blood drawn from

the carotid arteries of a dog with that contained in the jugular

866 . The American Naturalist. [October,

veins he has demonstrated that cholesterine—z.c., the excretion of

the liver—is the product of nerve action. Thus he was enabled

to study that condition of blood poisoning which results from:an

abnormal accumulation of cholesterine in the vital fluid.

By means of vivisection we have been led to the present

advanced state of knowledge in regard to the processes of diges-

ticn, assimilation, and nutrition.

Thus the Old World, leaning upon the staff of experience, is

steadily advancing, climbing the lofty heights of science with a

firm and certain tread. But we Americans, an enterprising nation,

are sitting idly by, shackled by false ideas of humanity, while

over our heads hangs an obscuring pall called the laws prohibiting

vivisection.

Who are making the great scientific discoveries, the investiga-

tions and researches of to-day ? Who are advancing every branch

of medical and surgical science? Who are the great protectors

of humanity? Answer, the vivisectors.

Science cannot advance without the aid of vivisection ; there-

fore vivisection must and will be practiced, in spite of laws and

governments. Then why not regulate and control the practice

of vivisection, instead of prohibiting it ?

Congress should be urged to passa law making the art of

vivisection part of the curriculum of every reputable medical

college. Our government should assist and encourage scientific

vivisectors in their researches and investigations, just as England,

Germany, France, and Austria have done during the last century,

by offering capital prizes and honorary medals to scientists,

microscopists, and physiologists. Why not ? Allis jn the interest

of science, and principally for the protection of humanity against

diseases.

But at the same time this process, this science of vivisection,

should not be free to every meddler and dabbler in science. It

should be practiced only by scientists, such as expert microscop-

ists, physiologists, and pathologists. If an ordinary physician or

other learned man wishes to practice vivisection for study or

experimental purposes, let him be compelled to do so under the

1891.] Vivisection. : 867

supervision and instruction of a licensed vivisector at his labora-

_ tory, and under his personal observation.

Let Congress authorize the President of the United States to

appoint a board of examiners for the purpose of examining appli-

cants for the position of vivisector. Of course such applicants

would be no other than expert scientists, microscopists, pathol-

ogists, and histologists. Let such a licensed vivisector be con-

nected with every reputable medical college having a pathological

and histological laboratory.

I am a strong advocate of anticruelty societies, but ‘at the

same time I believe that man has the first claim upon humanity.

If the suffering of mankind can be alleviated, is it not cruel to

refuse relief ?

If the practice of vivisection is properly regulated the suffering

of the animal can be greatly diminished. Let the work be done

scientifically, with dexterity, ingenuity, and skill, and whenever it

is possible let the animal be placed under the influence of an

anesthetic, chloroform or ether.

I have had the opportunity of studying the process of vivi-

section and its results, during my sojourn in Europe, at Virchow’s

laboratory, Berlin, Rokitansky’s laboratory, Vienna, Pasteur’s labor-

atory, Paris, and the Von Recklinghausen laboratory, Strassburg,

and I have witnessed several thousand vivisections, and in each

and every instance I came to the conclusion that vivisection is a

necessary procedure, and of paramount importance in the study

of medicine and surgery, their kindred and contributing branches.

It is simply impossible to obtain a practical knowledge of physi-

ology, histology, etc., without vivisection.

To prove that my assertions are correct, and based upon scien-

tific principles, I will narrate a few practical cases in medicine and

surgery in which by no other means than vivisection were the

scientists able to demonstrate to the medical profession of the

whole world that a certain medicine, or a certain described surgi-

cal operation, is necessary to save the patient and insure a speedy

and complete cure.

Let us consider, first, surgery. The various surgical operations

and procedures, especially as to their technique, have been

868 The American Naturalist. [October,

developed and perfected by means of vivisection. Consider par-

ticularly the abdominal operations, such as those performed upon

the stomach, intestines, liver, spleen, kidneys, etc. The honor of

perfecting these operations is due principally to Prof. Billroth, of

Vienna, Austria, the boldest surgeon that ever lived. He, in the

year 1879, performed for the first time that operation known as

gastrotomy, upon a living human being (a woman). This oper-

ation consisted of a resection of the pyloric end of the stomach

for cancer of the stomach. A complete recovery resulted. (An

excision of a portion of the stomach was made, and the intestine

was sewed to the stomach.) Of course the original idea was

developed by means of vivisection.

Previous to this adventure Prof. Billroth and his assistant, Dr.

Woelfler, had performed this operation upon ten living dogs.

This was done in order to determine positively, first, whether or

not this bold surgical operation was possible and justifiable ;

second, the best mode and technique of this surgical procedure ;

third, the rate of mortality; and fourth, the applicability of

operative surgery in the treatment of such grave afflictions.

In all the various surgical operations upon the intestines there

arose questions in regard to the technique, and principally as to

the best application of stitches, sutures, instruments, antiseptic

dressing, etc., as to the form, quality, and quantity applied.

All these questions and difficulties were answered and overcome

by experiments upon living dogs and cats. Excisions of the

spleen, of one kidney, and of a part of the liver, were tried time

and again upon living animals long before the operations were

performed upon human beings with good results.

The various plastic surgical operations, operations upon the

muscles, nerves, and bones, operations upon the eye, ear, nose,

and throat, were first developed and perfected by vivisectional

experiments upon animals.

Some of the more delicate surgical operations, such as castra-

tion, oophorectomy, ovariotomy, etc., were first thoroughly studied

and then applied in operative surgery after repeated experiments

upon living animals. These experiments and proofs have justified

1891.] Vivisection. 869

the surgeons in such bold surgical operations for the relief and

permanent cure of such dreadful pathological disorders.

Since the term vivisection includes all experiments upon the

living animal, whether the knife is used or not, there is also a

medical phase of the question, and here it will suffice to say that

the physiologicak action of all medicinal preparations would never

have been thoroughly understood had it not been for experiments

upon living animals. These experiments serve to determine, first,

the physiological action of a drug or preparation; second, the

minimum and maximum dosage; third, the poisonous effects of

drugs, and their antidotes; and 4th, the effects of hypodermic

injections and inoculations.

o an unbiased thinker I believe I have proved that vivisection

is both necessary and justifiable. Even the humanitarian, if he

be a sportsman, thinks little of the pain given to animals in the

chase. No one objects to the killing of animals for food or for

their commercial value, even though the animal die a lingering

and painful death. If it is legitimate to slay animals in order to

supply food and luxuries, and even amusement, why should it

not be legitimate to inflict pain upon or to slay an animal for the

higher and nobler purpose of relieving suffering humanity and

prolonging human life ?

Therefore, again I say, remove the prohibition, but regulate

and encourage the practice of the indispensable accessory of

scientific progress,—vzv7section.

870 The American Naturalist. [October,

AMONG THE PREHISTORIC MONUMENTS OF

BRITTANY.

BY ALPHEUS S. PACKARD.

OT far from the Land’s End of France, and adjoining tne

picturesque coast of Finisterre, a favorite resort not only

of French, but also of English and American artists, lie the

barren and almost treeless plains of Morbihan, one of the eighty-

six departments into which the French Republic is now divided.

Morbihan is Celtic for “ The Little Sea,” and the district is famous

not for its scenery, for the landscape is very tame, but for its

impressive and mysterious so-called Celtic or Druidical ruins.

These remains are mounds, tombs, and monoliths erected by a

race whose remote descendants still occupy the soil, their farms

and dwellings and hamlets bordering upon, and in part inclosing,

the tombs and lines of stone pillars which keep silent watch over

the region. The most imposing and best known of these series

of pillars or “ menhirs” are the great “alignments” of Carnac,

which have for centuries excited the curiosity and interest of

travelers and antiquarians.

Such monuments, if they ever existed in so great perfection in

other parts of France, have been removed by farmers in clearing

their lands, or in building their own dwellings, as with us glacial

boulders have been removed and used for building stone walls.

On the remote coast of Morbihan, however, where the land is

comparatively sterile and treeless, and the population is sparse,

not only have the monuments been tolerably well preserved, but

the Bretons themselves, perhaps speaking a language derived

from their pre-Celtic ancestors of the later stone and early bronze

age, have preserved in a degree the probable features, the folk-

lore, and some of the customs of the times when these monuments

were erected.

Hence a journey to Morbihan, with its weird, somber land-

scape, its cider-drinking, superstitious, Celt-speaking peasants,

1 From the New York /ndependent.

Ss tbe a e a a E T rS EE S E "3

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 871

clad in their sober black garments, environed by the many

mounds, tombs and standing stones, rising as silent witnesses of

the mysterious past, and becoming an integral part of the every-

day life of the inhabitants,—a journey among such scenes has a

strange fascination.

From Paris to Carnac seemed like a journey to Ultima Thule.

Ordinary maps in guide-books, and the books themselves, threw

little light on this obscure corner of France. Had it not been for

valuable information kindly afforded us by Prof. Gabriel de

Mortillet, the distinguished founder of the prehistoric section of

the vast Museum of National Antiquities at St. Germain-en Laye,

who drew a rough map of the Carnac region, together with

information given us by Dr. Topinard, the learned successor to

the chair of anthropology formerly held by Paul Broca, who

freely gave us his personal cards for use among the local anti-

quarians of Morbihan, we should have lost much time in seeking

the most interesting places to visit.. We were also indebted for

useful suggestions to Mr. Thomas Wilson, who spent part of a

previous summer in and about Carnac, and has, in company with

M. Gaillard, the chief antiquarian of Morbihan, explored a number

of dolmens, and whose article in the AMERICAN NATURALIST for

July, 1888, was of much aid. Acting on such good and reliable

advice, I made M. Gaillard’s hotel at Plouharnel my headquarters,

and from there made excursions to Lockmariaquer, to Carnac,

to Erdeven, and to the Peninsula of Quiberon, thus seeing all

the alignments and many of the typical tumuli and dolmens of

Morbihan.

A journey in any direction from Paris through Brittany to the

Atlantic coast is a delightful one. It was the middle of August,

delightfully cool, often misty, to be sure, but with no pouring

rain, and often a bright sun,—ideal weather for walking and

driving in village carts. Leaving the Mount Parnasse station at

eleven in the forenoon, the train shot by Versailles, with its

palace, gardens, and surrounding forests, and after taking us

through Chartres and Le Mans, left us early in the evening at

Rennes, where we slept. Early the next morning we visited the

museum of the university, and though it was closed,—it being a

Am. Nat.—October.—2,

872 The American Naturalist. [October,

fête day—the keeper politely gave us a short hour of his time to

enable us to see the pre-Celtic and other prehistoric remains of

stone, bronze, and iron. Here are amassed the rich vertebrate

remains, including the bones of the mammoth from Mont Dol,

Brittany, associated with human flint implements, many polished

stone axes taken from dolmens; but of especial value are the

fine Gallo-Romari remains and the many relics of the Merovingian

age excavated from the Necropolis of Caranda. Among the

many fine objects in the geological museum of interest to the

anthropologist is an immense mass of jade from New Caledonia,

perhaps a foot square. Merely glancing at the valuable zoological

and art collections gracing the halls of a lyceum in a French

provincial city of 60,000 inhabitants, and heaving a sigh at the

utter lack of local museums and art collections in far wealthier

provincial cities in the United States, we hurried to the station

and took the train for Vannes. The afternoon was spent

at this strikingly picturesque town, with its ancient timbered

houses, leaning over toward each other across the narrow

streets in such a social mood; with its medizeval walls and

towers, its three notable gateways, its Norman cathedral, and

lovely park and flower gardens. It was the fête day of the Vir-

gin, and aprocession of men and boys, with women and girls in

their white-starched caps, such as perhaps only gather in unique

Brittany, filled the square and moved slowly down the incline,

closing its ranks as it approached the most ancient of the city

gates, the Porte Prison, situated between two machicolated towers

rising from the town walls.

One should visit the excellent museum here before passing on

to Carnac. The Musée Archéologique is situated in the third

story of a very old, rambling, timbered building, with creaking

oak stairs and ghostly corridors. The rooms are small, but the

cases contains very rich collections taken from the dolmens and

tumuli we were afterward to visit. Here were placed together

in the case the relics excavated in 1862 from Mont St. Michel, at

Carnac, the largest burial mound in France. It comprises superb

series of polished axes in jadeite, chloromelanite, fibrolite, and

diorite, with a beautiful necklace of green turquoise. There was

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 873

also a fine series from the tumulus of Mané-er-H’roék at Lock-

mariaquer, comprising besides six jadeite axes ninety-two of

fibrolite, which is a dark variety of serpentine. The pottery

of the mound was represented, and among them were seen the

rude, unfinished earthenware, precursors of our bowls, tumblers,

and cups and saucers. Some of the “ green turquoise” heads

were cylindrical, perforated, and exactly resembled in shape and

color a jade bead we had obtained at Cholula, from a Mexican

Indian. The jadeite implements were illustrated by unworked

specimens of jadefrom Thibet, and of jade nephite from Siberia,

as well as saussurite from the valley of the Saas.

Reluctantly leaving this quaint and attractive town, we took

the evening train for Plouharnel Carnac, reaching the Hotel du

Commerce, kept by the two daughters of M. Félix Gaillard, to

whom we took a card of introduction from Professor Topinard,

and from whom we received every kind of attention and aid, the

learned archeologist freely giving us the benefit of his many years’

exploration of neolithic menhirs and dolmens, as well as Gaulish

burial-places. Part of the hotel is devoted to a very rich local

museum, crowded with stone implements, ornaments, and articles

in bronze and gold, pottery, including funeral lamps with holes

for the wick, and three graves removed with their contents from

Quiberon, the whole illustrated by stone implements from North

America and New Caledonia, with objects from the Swiss palafitts,

or pile dwellings, which M. Gaillard told us are of the same age

as the dolmens of France.

And now, before we actually visit these strange memorials of

past neolithic occupation, let us explain the meaning of the Celtic

names applied to them. The megalithic monuments are rude

monoliths of the granite of the Breton coast, called menhirs, from

two Bretoh or Celtic words, men, a stone, and zr, long; they are

also called peu/vans. The menhirs are arranged in groups of

from nine to thirteen rows, each row being called an alignment.

The tomb-like structures called dolmens are so named from

men, a stone, and dol, table. They consist of a few large, broad,

flat stones set up on edge so as to inclose a more or less oblong

space; the larger ones are about six feet high, and covered over

874 The American Naturalist. [October,

by a single great slab (called table) or several flat stones. The

smaller ones are said to resemble tables and altars. Many of

those in the Morbihan are approached by covered galleries, which

are generally straight, but at times curved ; the main structure or

chamber is sometimes wider than long. They, in nearly each

case, face the east, and were places of sepulture or tombs, being

the precursors of the old-fashioned tombs of our cemeteries, and

were covered by mounds of earth called zumuli. A tumulus

sometimes enclosed a cairn or gi/ga/, or heap of squarish stones,

six or eight inches or a foot in diameter, thrown or laid over the

` dolmen to protect it from wild beasts. A cromlech in France is

a circle or semicircle of menhirs or upright stones. The stones

composing a cromlech are usually smaller than the majority of

the menhirs, and the stones touch each other, while in an align-

ment of menhirs the individual stones are from two to several

feet apart. The word cromlech is from rouwmm, curved, and

lec'h, meaning sacred, or, according to some writers, smaller stones. _

There are in the single department of Morbihan 306 dolmens,

and throughout France 3,410. They are rarer in the north and

east than in central, southern, and western France. Beginning

with the most eastern point at which dolmens occur, archeologists

have observed them in western India, where they have been used

to the present. They are found in Palestine, near the Dead Sea,

in the land of the Moabites. Going west, we find them on the

other side of the Caucasus Mountains, in Circassia and the

Crimea. Passing farther to the westward, they occur in Central

Europe, northeast of Dresden, from Mecklenburg through Den-

mark into southern Sweden, but none occur in Norway. Return-

ing to Germany, many have been discovered in Hanover and the

Low Country, as well as in Belgium, in Luxembourg, and Switz-

erland. They also occur on the Channel Islands, in* Cornwall,

in the Isle of Man and of Anglesea, some in western and a few

in the eastern counties of England, while many occur in Scotland

and in Ireland. Turning to the Mediterranean region, there are

the ruins of dolmens in Corsica, in northern Spain, in Andalusia,

in Portugal, while in northern Africa they are abundant from

Morocco to Tripoli, especially in Algeria. Mortillet rejects the

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 875

theory once held that the. dolmens were constructed by a migra-

tory people, maintaining that they were the work of a sedentary

population, and not of one and the same race, as skeletons of

very different races have been found in them. At the same time

many facts tend to show that the dolmen-builders in the first

place came from the east. Mortillet also states that dolmens

were burial chambers used as places of sepulture by families or

by tribes. The menhirs were also quarried and erected by the

designers and builders of the dolmens, who roughly hewed and

chipped the monoliths into their present shapes with small axes

of polished flint, jade, and the harder varieties of serpentine.

Before we inquire into the traits and customs of the Neolithic

tribes, let us glance at the monuments they left behind them.

After breakfast we clambered into a Breton village cart, driven

by a youthful latter-day Celt, with M. Gaillard as our courteous

guide, and set out over an excellent road, often bordered with the

broom and hedged with gorse, past farms and scattered dwellings

of stone, through the village of Carnac, with distant views of the

Atlantic, dotted with the brown sails of the sardine fishing boats,

and on our left overlooked by the tumulus of San Michel, the

highest elevation in the neighborhood. The road soon passes

over a causeway bordered with salt vats; and after an hour’s

drive we cross the ferry a little above the fishing village of La

Trinité. The ferry, by the way, was an interesting study.

Although the amount of travel on this road would hardly seem |

to warrant it, the road on each side of the arm of the sea was

elaborately paved with granite blocks to a point below low-water

mark. The boat was a big scow, large enough to hold two

carriages, and was slowly, laboriously pulled across by means of

a large iron chain.

At the village of Lockmariaquer, which was the site of Dari-

origum, or of some other Roman settlement, we walk out to the

end of the solid granite jetty, whose earliest foundations are

attributed to the celts, the Romans afterwards improving upon

them. We engage two fishermen to take us in their boats to

Gaverne or Gavr’Inis, anglice Goat Island, on which is perhaps

the most interesting tumulus and best-preserved sculptured dolmen

876 The American Naturalist. [October,

in the Morbihan, and probably in Europe. With a fair westerly

wind and a bright sky we hie on, taking the opportunity to eat

our lunch of cold meat, bread, and cider, with a course of excellent,

though tiny, raw oysters, which are usually offered at the hotels

throughout the coast towns of Brittany. Clambering ashore

over the slippery rocks we walk up a lane bordered with fig trees,

and ascend the eastern side of the mound, which is a galgal, or

cairn, twenty-six feet high, and covered with soil overgrown with

the broom and prickly gorse.

The view from the summit of the mound, over the Gulf of

Morbihan and its shores, is one of much interest, from the fact

that some of the distant eminences are artificial mounds, and that

on some of the islands there are dolmens. We can look across

a narrow passage swept by swift tidal currents to the little ragged

island of Er-Lanec, with the remnants of one cromlech, half of

the circle on the shore and the other half below high-water mark,

while beyond, at low water, can be seen the prostrate stones which

once formed a second cromlech. The land has fallen, and the

sea has partly torn down this and all the other islands since the

times when the dolmen builders inhabited this region.

Descending, we enter the gallery of the dolmen by a path

walled in with the square porphyritic granite blocks taken from

the sides of the galgal, and, passing through the low, narrow

gallery about twenty-five feet long (Cartailhac says thirteen meters)

we enter the chamber, which runs east and west. About forty

huge slabs form the pavement, the walls, and the ceiling. One

of the slabs in the ceiling is of quartz; and we judged the largest

slab to be about eighteen feet square. But the distinguishing

feature of this dolmen is the mysterious sculpturing on the slabs.

All the granite wall-slabs are thus sculptured, the marks being

cut in. And what was the nature of the tools? The quartz

slabs alone had been untouched. Cartailhac argues, with good

reason, we think, that the implements could not have been of iron,

as only the softer granite was grooved and engraved, and that the

engravings were made with stone tools. It is also noticeable

that in other dolmens we visited, symbolic stone axes, mounted

wu handles, are engraved on the slabs of the ceiling, while on a

1891.) © Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 877

single upright slab in the dolmen we are now describing there

are eighteen such axes figured, with others in the same gallery.

The marks themselves roughly resemble the tattoo marks of

Pacific Islanders. As Cartailhac remarks in his “La France

Préhistorique ” (1889), they are diverse linear combinations, being

straight, curved, waved lines, either isolated or parallel or ramified

like fern leaves, or arranged in segments of concentric circles,

either limited or not, and trimming. certain compartments of

spirals with short turns, recalling exactly the figures made by

the wrinkles of the skin on the palms of the hands and the

finger-tips.

The last-described marks are certainly the most typical and

abundant, and perhaps were suggested to the proto-Celtic engraver

by studying the lines on his hands. The artist was not hurried

in his work, and, as Cartailhac says, the sculptures must have

been made before the stones were put in place.

But the tide is going out, and we must unwillingly leave this

fascinating ruin and return to Lockmariaquer, to visit other

dolmens, One of the most notable, situated south of the

town near the base of an elliptical mound, thirty-nine feet high,

is the dolmen Mané-er-H’roeck (the mountain of the fairy). The

opening to the gallery, as in all the other dolmens, faces to the

east; and to enter it we pass by two enormous but prostrate

menhirs, one thirty-one and the other twenty-five feet long. The

walls of the dolmen are built in horizontal layers, and one of the

stones raised on the right side of the entrance is ornamented with

very beautiful and curious sculptures, some like escutcheons,

besides ten figures of symbolic axes with handles. Thence

walking across a potato field, occasionally stopping to pick up

fragments of Roman tiles, we approach the “ king of the menhirs,”

called Mane-ar-Groac’h. His monolithic majesty is second in

size and height to none in Europe, or any other country; the

next largest one in Brittany being thirty-seven feet high. It lay

however, prostrate, and broken into four pieces. When entire it

was sixty-seven feet six inches long, seven feet six inches thick

in one diameter, and thirteen feet six inches in the broadest

portion. This colossal menhir, as usual when one or'two stand

878 The American Naturatst. [October,

alone, served as a monument, and was evidently in direct relation

to the tumulus and the inclosed dolmen, for we noticed one

standing sentinel over a dolmen ; and they are sometimes erected

on the summit of a tumulus, as at Ile de Sein ; in such case they

may have been put up to indicate burials. The dolmen near the

base of the Mane-ar-Groac’hsis a famous one, and, like many of

the others, has been purchased and restored by the government.

It is the Dol-ar-Marc’hadourien, or Table of the Merchants. On

the under or inner side of the great table or covering slab, which

is twenty feet long by thirteen feet wide, was engraved a large

stone symbolic hatchet with its handle. That these images are

in reality rude. representations of hatchets seems plausible. Stone

axes, apparently made expressly for ceremonial use, are found in

nearly all dolmens, having been placed there by the side of the

dead; and they are in nearly all cases beautifully finished, with

sharp, unbroken edges, and often of jade, which is only now to

be found in Asia and Polynesia, being one of the rarest minerals

in Europe, Some authors suppose that the axe was regarded by

the people as the symbol of separation, an emblem of the end of

life. However this may be, whether from its utility alone in `

every-day life, or its use as a weapon of war, it must have been a

highly prized and venerated instrument, to be so often engraved

on tombs, and so invariably buried with the dead.

This region is especially rich in dolmens, as they are scattered

all about Lockmariaquer ; the dolmen of Mane Lud being situated

on one of the principal streets, next to a house, the tumulus once

inclosing it rising behind.

A little way out from the town is the dolmen of Kervress;

remarkable for the cup-shaped pits in the under side of the cov-

ering slab, and which, of course, must have been made before

the stone was put in place. These cup-shaped hollows are

scattered irregularly over the surface, varying somewhat in size,

the largest being about an inch and a half in diameter. They

are a great puzzle to archeologists, who can make nothing of

them. Occurring in Germany, Switzerland, among the Alps and

the Pyrenees, and in Portugal, both in dolmens and on menhirs,

they had some meaning to the men of the stone and of the bronze

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1891. | Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 879

age, after which they ceased to be formed. It is only to be said,

with Cartailhac, that at-the present day Hindu women at the

approach of maternity may be seen carrying water from the

Ganges, with which they sprinkle these symbolic cups in rig

temples with prayers to the divinity indwelling.’

Such superstitions still prevail, unless they aré of new awe

independent growth, in France, and in the Pyrenees, in Sweden, as

well as in Switzerland, where they are either regarded as the work

of elves, or visited by young girls and widows in the hope of

getting husbands. The great mound of St. Michel looms up’ as

on our return we approach the little village of Carnac. It is the

largest tumulus in France, overlooking the rather flat surrounding

country and the Atlantic, with Belle Isle in the distance and to

the right the peninsula of Quiberon. The tumulus is now 65 feet

above the surrounding fields, though originally it must have been

considerably higher, its summit having -been leveled by the

Romans, who built a temple upon’ it, while the remains of a

Gallo-Roman villa are still visible near its base. In place of the

Roman temple stands.a humble and not at all interesting chapel,

dedicated to St. Michael. We ascend the tumulus by the fifty-two

steps made of the small granite blocks taken from the galgal

which protected the dolmen, the great elliptical mound of earth

covering both dolmen and cairn, being 400 by 200 feet in its

greater and lesser diameters. Toward the north and northwest

are plainly to be seen the famous alignments of Kerlescan,

Kermario, and Ménec, which we were to visit on the morrow,

when M. Gaillard was again our guide, philosopher, and friend.

Without his intimate knowledge of these striking monuments we

should not have half seen or understood them, and the kindly

man, full of enthusiasm and enlightened interest, told us all he

knew of the alignments and their probable object. His conclu-

sions seem to us to be in advance of what has been published

by the leading French archeologists, who have only made com-

paratively brief visits to the region. Fortunately the government

has for a number of years taken possession of the alignments and

most of the dolmens, restoring them by setting the buried or fallen

880 The American Naturalist. [October,

stones into their original places, so that we saw them under more

favorable auspices than earlier travelers. -

With our old white Breton horse and ricketty cart, and youth-

ful Breton presiding over the reins, we again drove through Carnac,

past Mont Saint Michel, and turning sharply north at the salt

vats, drove through a delightful lane shaded by chestnuts and

oaks, with walls of turf overgrown by the gorse, leading to an

old chateau, buried from sight by a thick wood. It was just the

day for exploring alignments. The same blessed sun which for

so many ages had shown upon these same stones while being

planted by throngs of Neolithic workmen, perhaps under the

inspiration of their priestly leaders,—the same sun shone brightly

under the menhirs rising from the gay purple heather which

clothed the undulating plain. M. Gaillard had wisely conducted

us to the easternmost point, and was now to lead us for three or

four miles westward, so that we could review, one after the other,

beginning with the thirteen alignments of Kerlescan, and ending —

with those of Ménec. |

There are at Kerlescan thirteen rows or alignments, comprising

262 menhirs, and extending westward about 1,000 feet. At the

western end is a cromlech now restored, which, instead of being

semi-circular, is somewhat square, inclosing a space about three

hundred feet in diameter. We then visited the interesting

elliptical mound inclosing the dolmen of Kerlescan, lying just

north of the middle of the group of menhirs, which is exceptional

and indeed unique in Brittany from having been surrounded by

an elliptical cromlech or circle of menhirs, some of which were

six or seven feet high, and placed a few feet apart, not touching

each other as in those of the alignment. Then retracing our

steps, picking our way back through masses of the prickly, for-

bidding gorse, which bore an occasional yellow pea-like flower,

we examined the cromlech, and, taking to our cart, drove on to

the next series of alignments, the larger one of Kermario.

The avenues of Kermario consist of 855 menhirs planted in ten

rows, extending over the undulating heath for nearly a mile, or,

to be exact, 4,037 feet. The standing stones are impressive for

their size and height, some of them being twelve feet high.

aha. Ieee A SRY ApS I,

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1891. | Among the Prehistoric Monuments of brittany. 881

Moreover, an added interest are the traces of Roman occupation

on the south side near the western end,—in fact, traces of the

civilization of Rome of the period of the Gallic wars are scattered

over Morbihan; and the peasants call the alignments Czsar’s

Camp. Indeed their explanation of these lines is that their

patron Saint Corneille was pursued by the Roman army, which

was, as a punishment, turned to stone, the taller pillars represent-

ing the officers.

After crossing another interval we reach the eastern end of the

alignment of Ménec, whose cromlech, at its western end, incloses

some of the farmhouses of the hamlet of Ménec, which is not far

from Carnac. The menhirs lie to the north of the road between

Carnac and Plouharnel. The group is a little shorter than that of

Kermario, being 3,376 feet long, and consists of eleven instead

of ten lines, and the stones are not quite so high and imposing as

those of the middle group. The stones or pillars vary much in

shape; some are much rounded; many were, however, planted

with the smaller end down; and whether it is a mere coincidence

or not the highest stone is about eleven feet high, the number of

rows is eleven, the alignments themselves are about eleven yards

apart, while the spaces between the stones composing each line

are often ten or eleven feet apart. In this, as in the other groups

of alignments, the rows are not mathematically straight, but more

or less wavy, and the stones vary much in distance apart, all the

way from perhaps three or four to ten or eleven feet. In general —

the stones decrease in height toward the end, where they are not

much over four or five feet high. The groups follow the natural

inequalities of the plain, whose surface is rolling, the country

slightly descending from Ménec to Kerlescan. |

The semi-circle of stone or cromlech at the western end of the

Ménec group was inclosed by standing stones from about five to

six and even eight feet high, which touched each other. At

present many are prostrate, and there are two or three small stone

farmhouses within the circle. Fortunately the government pur-

chased the entire group in 1888, and will raise and plant the fallen

stones; and as the inhabitants of the houses die or remove, the

buildings will be taken down. The restoration of the Kermario

he eae The American Naturalist. [October,

group is nearly accomplished, and is almost entirely inclosed by

a low stone wall.

It was hard to leave this weird, fascinating, and impressive

landscape, in which the natural features were tame enough, the

strange interest being due entirely to the work of the heads and

hands of a forgotten and extinct people, who have passed away

leaving not a tradition behind them,—only these imposing monu-

ments of stone.

“No priestly stern procession now

Streams through their row of pillars old;

No victims bleed, no Druids bow,—

Sheep make the daisied isles their fold.”

Returning to our hotel to breakfast, we spent the afternoon in

exploring the dolmens and alignments of the Quiberon peninsula,

accompanied by M. Gaillard, who was so enthusiastic and inter-

ested in having us see everything of archeological interest.

The carriage road to St. Pierre, which is a little village situated

on the new railway running to Quiberon, passes over a dreary,

monotonous waste of sand, and as it runs along the middle of the

neck of land reveals few extended views of the ocean. On our

way we pass on the western shore, not far from the site of a

Gaulish burial-place, from which M. Gaillard had recently exhumed

seven skeletons, with bronze bracelets and Gaulish coins and

pottery. After visiting the dolmens and tumuli of Port Blanc, on

the west shore near St. Pierre, gathering pieces of pottery, bones,

and flint chips, and seeing how the ocean has encroached on the

slowly subsiding coast, so as to undermine the cliff and the

tumulus, which must have been situated much farther inland in

pre-Celtic times, we walked over the grassy, sandy wastes back

to our cart, and drove past the village of Saint Pierre and its old

windmill to the menhirs and cromlech on the shore. How long

the rows of standing stones were originally, it is difficult to say,

because the coast has sunken and the waves have undermined and

overturned the stones at the eastern end. Walking down across

the field, where the men, and women, too, were digging potatoes,

we stood on the edge of the falaise, or sandy cliff, and the tide

SP Pe Nags Poa F eee eee TE ey Mee ee eee TT Ee he hE ee eS LS

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 883

being partly out, we could trace some of the lines into the sea,

A few of the stones were lying prostrate on the beach, while others

beyond were overgrown with sea-weed, and still beyond lay some

under the waves. There are in all five lines, which extend in a

southeasterly direction for 635 feet seaward. At a distance of

about ninety yards from the head stones of the rows, the highest

menhirs being about eleven feet, is situated the ruined cromlech

which, according to Lukis, was two hundred feet in diameter. We

did not attempt to measure it. The group has not yet been

restored, and only about a dozen of the stones are still upright,

M. Gaillard had brought his compass with him, and now dem-

onstrated a curious fact to us. He had already called our atten-

tion, while visiting the alignments of Kermario and of Ménec, to

the occurrence between certain of the rows of a single menhir,

standing by itself, and which has been overlooked, he said, by all '

other archeologists. In the alignments of Kerdescan this mys-

terious odd stone is situated, we think, between the seventh or

eighth space between the rows. It is about eleven feet high, and

from nine to ten feet thick at its greatest diameter, which is not far

from the top, the stone being smaller at its base. In the align-

ments of Ménec the single menhir is in the third space from the

northern side; namely, between the third and fourth rows of

planted stones. In each group of alignments, at least in four of

them, this odd menhir occurs, though varying in situation, de-

pending apparently on the position of the rows, none of which

are exactly in an east and west course, as their builders had no

compass. They are all situated not many paces—perhaps fifty,

more or less—from the cromlech. :

Now our friend and guide took the greatest interest and satis-

faction in placing his compass on one of the middle stones of the

cromlech at St. Pierre, and demonstrating to us that the line of

50° (it varies from 45° to 50° in different groups of alignments)

intersects the single menhir. M. Gaillard has been here, {s well

as at the other alignments, at sunrise on the morning of the longest

day in the year, the 21st of June, has placed. his compass on this

menhir, and at the moment the sun appeared above the horizon

the odd or single unaligned menhir was seen to be in line with

884 The American Naturalist. [October,

the median stone of the cromlech and with the sun. It is there-

fore inferred, and very naturally, that the designers and builders

planted these stones in accordance with a fixed plan, and that the

inclosure must have been the scene of some ceremony at the time

of the summer solstice. And this confirms the idea insisted on

‘by archeologists, among them MM. Cartailhac and Gaillard, that

the groups of standing pillars were planted after a common design

and nearly at the same epoch, and that the people who erected

them were possibly worshipers of the sun, having brought with

them from the far east, their original home, the cult so char-

acteristic of eastern races. On the morning of our last day spent

in the Morbihan—and what soul-stirring and awe-inspiring days-

they were, with the charm of the fresh Atlantic breezes, and

the bright sun lighting up the heaths and plains, the quaint cos-

tumes and dialect of the peasants lending an unusual human

interest to the scene—we drove to the dolmens and alignments of

Erdeven, through a region of lilliputian farms. The property of

the country people is chiefly in land, and the farms handed down

from one generation to another becoming gradually halved and

_ quartered, though many were triangular or polygonal in shape,

until some of them seem scarcely large enough to support a sheep

or cow, or to afford room enough for even a small potato patch.

‘Moreover, they are hedged in by high turf walls overgrown with

gorse, one of the most forbidding of prickly plants. Some of the

farms were inclosed in turf fences, perhaps four or five feet high,

with the corners elaborately built of stone.

The largest of the dolmens in Brittany is that of Crucuno,

called La Roche aux Fées, or the Stone of the Fairies. A farmer

had built his house next to it, and the dolmen, by no means of

fairy-like proportions, was used as a cow-house until its purchase

and restoration by the government. It is twenty-four feet long

by twelve wide, and one can stand upright in it. From this im-

pressive dolmen a path, which a boy will point out for a slight

cupreous gratification, leads across the fields to the very remarka-

ble dolmen of Mané-Groh, which is galleried, and besides the

principal chamber, has four lateral inclosures.

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 885

We shall now dismiss the dolmens, which are so numerous and

interesting. They are regarded as the tombs or burial-places,

possibly in some cases ossuaries, of tribal chiefs and their families.

They were opened at intervals, perhaps for the interment of the

successors of the warriors for whom they were first built. Many

of them have a circular hole in the stone door a little over a foot

in diameter, too small for the passage of a body, and probably

used for the deposit of food for the service of the departed in

his wanderings in the other world. It is not improbable that

our pre-Celtic, neolithic ancestors brought with them from their

eastern homes the observance of burial rites, and very primitive

religious ideas, involving some notion of a future life, besides the

worship of their ancestors and of the sun.

On the whole the Erdeven group of alignments is more im-

pressive than the others, on account of the greater length of the

rows, the larger, higher stones, and their greater number, 1,120

having been counted by M. Gaillard. They extend over the

rolling plains a distance of more than two kilometers, or over a

mile,—viz., 6,886 feet. One of the standing stones near the

western end is nineteen-and-a-half feet in height, and two others

a little over twenty feet high; one of the prostrate stones is

called “ the sacrificial stone,” but the furrows in the surface seem

due rather to weathering than to artificial means.

Could one stand at or near the head, and overlook the entire .

group of alignments, the impression made would be of course

more striking than at present, since many of the stones have

fallen, and the lines are much broken, while they make a turn to

the southeast near their middle. But as they stand, the longer

the observer lingers among them the more impressive they

become; and not to see the alignments of Carnac and of Erdeven

is to miss one of the wonders of the world. They rank in im-

portance and interest with the ruins of Central America and of

Mexico, and the so-called Pelasgic walls and burial-mounds of

Greece, while they are by far the most imposing relics of pre-

historic times.

Rows of standing stones are not, however, confined to the

Morbihan; the menhir-erecting and dolmen-building race, judging

886 The American Naturalist. a (October,

by the monuments it has left behind, existed in other parts oe

France and of the Old World. According to the latest and

most trustworthy authority, M. Cartailhac, whose work entitled

“La France Préhistorique” appeared in1889, thereare in Morbihan

eight of these groups of alignments, including the cromlechs con-

nected with them, and nine, far less important, in Finisterre, five

in the department of Ille-et-Vilaine, and six or seven others, of

small size and slight importance, in the rest of France, most of

them only forming one or two short rows of standing stones.

Mortillet says there are in France fifty-six alignments, in fifteen

departments. Analogous to the alignments in France are the

Sarsden Stones in Berkshire, England, which are eo ap ob i

i 800 menhirs.

Solitary standing stones or monoliths of a later age occur in

the Pyrenees, in Corsica, and in Northern Africa, and at present

the natives of Madagascar and the Khasias of Northwestern India

raise stone columns around their tombs ; but these areganalogous

to the solitary menhirs planted near the dolmens, or those com-

posing the cromlechs, surrounding dolmens, or tumuli. Whether

of original prehistoric growth or a later development, the solitary

menhirs are in Thibet and in other lands venerated as symbols of

the reproductive powers of nature, Finally, we have the solitary

obelisks of Egypt, and the monumental stones of medizval times,

which have survived to our day in the granite shafts and marble

columns memorizing great national events, or sacred to the mem-

ory of the departed.

The alignments were not made spasmodically, at irregular inter-

vals, one stone after another being set up during a long period,

as in a modern cemetery, but they were evidently built at one

period after a fixed design or pattern, to which all conform.

Those of Morbihan and of Finisterre were undoubtedly planted

at the same time by the same people,—a race animated by other

ideas than those of living merely an animal existence. It is not

probable that they were memorials of some conquest or other

event of great importance. It seems natural to conclude that

these vast and imposing relics, whether we consider the size of

the stones themselves, their enormous number, their repetition

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 887

over a not very extensive region, and their similarity of plan and

contemporaneity with the dolmens, were the outcome or tangible

expression of the religious nature of the pre-Celtic mind. The

people had, long before starting on their westward migration,

emerged from savagery, and after centuries of physical and intel-

lectual effort, having peopled Europe, now strong in numbers, and

dominated by lofty conceptions and wonderful zeal and industry,

had met together, and working, as if impelled by a common

inspiration and impulse, under the direction of their priests, raised

these unique monuments. The population must have been dense;

it was not now migratory, but an agricultural as well as pastoral

people. The materials for the dolmens and menhirs were not far

off. No traces of quarries have survived, because the Atlantic,

in conjunction with the plutonic forces at work in the earth’s

crust, has lowered the coast, and washed away all traces of these

mighty workers in stone. As we noticed in the materials of

some of the dolmens and menhirs, the rock is a porphyritic

granite, with oblong crystals of feldspar and scales of black

mica, readily rusting on exposure to the air. On the cliffs at the

ferry, on the way to Lockmariaquer, we noticed the rock in. place.

It readily and naturally breaks by the action of frost into square

or oblong blocks, fitted either for monoliths, or for the small,

squarish blocks with which the galgals were formed.

More industrious and inventive than savages, they made use of

their oxen, and, whole families or tribes cooperating, the busy

multitudes, swarming like bees, with the use of stone axes and

chisels, and the aid of fire, quarried the big slabs for the dolmens,

and the monoliths for the alignments. They probably moved

them on rollers a few hundred yards, or even one or several miles,

inland, and then, with a skill developed by long experience, and

probably after many a bitter failure, set the stones in place. Some

of the menhirs stood on the surface, without any foundation; in ~

other cases foundations for them were carefully laid. So long

have they stood that all marks of quarrying have been effaced by

the agency of the atmosphere. As Wilson states, a menhir in the

headline of the Erdeven alignment, which had been overturned

and used as a fireplace, though with tool-marks on it, and buried

Am. Nat.—October.—3.

888 The American Naturalist. [October

during Roman occupation, must have remained prostrate from

fifteen hundred to nineteen hundred years; “ yet it had previously

stood on end long enough a time for the top to become so

weathered as to be plainly distinguishable from the bottom.”

What, then, was the use of these remarkable monuments? No

burials took place among them. The chiefs and their families

were deposited at death in the dolmens. The question is still an

open one, the best archeologists differing as to whether they were

monuments to the dead, or whether they were temples. The

common design pervading all the larger alignments, showing that

they were erected at the same epoch, forbids one accepting the

view that they were simply commemorative of different persons,

that they were a kind of archive, each stone recalling a fact, a

person, or a date. The remarkable care observed in burying the

dead proves that these people were strongly religious. The care

taken to put in the proper place the odd stone, and its relation in

the summer solstice to the rising sun, indicate that the align-

ments were erected for the worship, on stated occasions, of the

sun. M. Gaillard told us that he believed the menhirs were

erected by this early race as monuments to their ancestors. The

English archeologist, James Miln, who lived for many years at _

Carnac, and who founded and built the interesting local museum :

which bears his name, tells us in his “ Fouilles Faites a Carnac”

that after taking into account the association in this region of

menhirs, of alignments,.of cromlechs, and of dolmens, he con-

- cludes that “these monuments are the débris and the remains of

an immense necropolis,” and perhaps this is the more natural and

logical view to hold. At the same time, while this involves the

worship of their ancestors, the sun may also have shared in their

adorations.

Judging by the contents of the dolmens, some bronze bracelets

and other articles having been found in them, these megalithic

monuments were erected during a period of transition from the

stone age to the age of bronze; and they are supposed to be

contemporaneous with the pile dwellings of the stone age of

Switzerland. Who were these stone axemen, these neolithic stone

masons, who could with their polished celts quarry, and could

NR TRE On ery ee ae et ee o aa a ee eS ee a a re

1891.] Among the Prehistoric Monuments of Brittany. 889

transport monoliths weighing more than some of the obelisks of

Egypt, the great menhir of Lockmariaquer being nearly 68 feet

long, and weighing 240 tons? Were they genuine Celts? Prof.

Gabriel de Mortillet says no. “All these primitive monuments

formerly bore the collective name of Celtic or Druidical monu-

ments. It was supposed that they were peculiar to the Celts,

and raised by their priests, the Druids. It is a great error.

These monuments are found in abundance in regions which have

never been occupied by the Celts, as Denmark, Spain, Portugal,

Morocco, Algeria, etc. They are even very probably in greater

part anterior to the great Celtic invasions ; and if they attracted

the attention of the Druids, it was only when they were already

partly in ruins and lying on the surface of the soil” (“La

Préhistorique Antiquite de Homme,” 1885).

Cartailhac, in his excellent work on Prehistoric France (1889),

also says that we must abandon the views of the older archeolo-

gists, who believed that these were Druidical monuments, and

should be attributed to the Gallic or Celtic race, or to any single

race of emigrants from the east. Within twenty years, owing to

the rapid course of discovery in France, so many dolmens having

been opened, in which were found the skeletons of different races,

the tendency among the most experienced French students is,

with Mortillet, to deny any special ethnic value *to these monu-

ments. For example, De Quatrefages discovered the bones of

two races in the same dolmen, and Hamy has demonstrated that

the population of France was almost as much mixed during

neolithic times as to-day. Cartailhac concludes that the problem

of the megalithic monuments is exactly that of the advanced

civilization of Europe, which even in prehistoric times became

almost universal, and which is called neolithic. “Did it,” he

asks, “reach our country with new races or populations ? _ Was

it spread by contact of one people with another? We have no

response to make to these questions. The truth is probably

scattered throughout all systems, and that which is true for one

country will be inexact in another.”

All archeologists, however, agree that these monuments were

erected by the neolithic race or group of races, who used pol-

‘

890 The American Naturalist. [October,

ished stone axes, and that this complex of races originated in the

east, perhaps between the Caspian and Black Seas, migrated into

Europe, bringing with them the cereals, flax, and the domestic

animals and burial practices, and that they had religious ideas.

As compared with the paleolithic races of the Old World, or

those who were simply hunters and fishermen, and were of a

purer, more savage, and primitive race, the neolithic peoples were

a most- composite type. To narrow down the problem, the

French archeologists acknowledge that the megalithic monu-

ments of France were of the same age as the pile-dwellings at

Robenhausen, near Zurich, which are of the polished stone age.

It is well known that the lake-dwellers of Switzerland, as the

centuries went on, received from the east and south bronze imple-

ments, and a knowledge of the art of making bronze tools. It is

also known that the dolmens of Northwestern France were still

used as places of burial as late as the beginning of the bronze

age. Hence it seems natural to infer that the people who built

these monuments were the ancestors of the Celt-speaking Welsh,

Irish, and Bretons. The Robenhausen civilization was not prob-

ably much older than that of Egypt; and it seems reasonable to

suppose that the menhirs and dolmens of France were of recent

age, compared with the troglodytes of Spy and Neanderthal, the

cave-dwellers of Cro-Magnon, of Dordogne, and of Kent’s Hole

or the men of the Mentone rock-shelters.

At all events—and this is the great charm of such inquiries—the

problem is as yet unsolved. We may wander up and down these

alignments, so weird and awe-inspiring, and speculate as to what

manner of men were their builders. Few places in the world are

enveloped in such an atmosphere of myth and doubt. The very

people now inhabiting these stone-studded plains, perhaps their

remote descendants, speak a semi-fossil language, go about

among these monuments of the dead in a funereal garb of black,

still cherish a few pagan, almost prehistoric, superstitions. They

can readily talk with Celtic, Irish, and Welsh, but French is a

foreign language to them; and, in short, they are a link between

the present and the age of stone. Many English travelers visit

this strangely interesting region. Why is it that so few Ameri-

cans care to wander to the Morbihan ?

CRS eee aes ae ee eee Ses A IS PO ees ee ae

1891.] The Double Monster Rosa-Josepha Blazek. 891

THE DOUBLE MONSTER ROSA-JOSEPHA BLAZEK.'

moe and Josepha Blazek were born January 2oth, 1878, a

Skreychov, in Bohemia. Their birth, which seems to have

taken place without any difficulty, was accomplished under the

care of a village nurse.

The mother, aged twenty-two years, had been delivered, two

years previously, of a well-formed and healthy daughter. The

parents are sturdy peasants, of some means, but of limited intelli-

gence. Until recently they have been opposed to a public exhi-

bition of their children.

A short notice printed at Prague in 1878 shows that six

months after their birth they were visited by M. Auguste Breisky,

then a professor of the German Faculty of Medicine of that city,

and director of the Gynecological Clinic. After an examination,

M. Breisky stated that the development of Rosa-Josepha was in

accordance with their age. M. Marcel Baudoin relates that soon

after their birth the parents, horrified, took the advice of an old

woman, and left them eight days without food, expecting them to

die. 7

At first sight the sisters Rosa-Josepha give the impression of

two little girls, rather small for their age (now thirteen years), very

blonde, slightly pale, with a gentle, amiable manner, and eyes some-

what languid in expression. On seeing them sitting side by side

on the same footstool one would hardly suspect their union when

they are dressed; but if one makes the slightest movement the

other follows immediately.

The trunks are not parallel, the axes of the vertebral columns

diverging perceptibly, making a large V, the apex of which cor-

responds to the union of the pelves. Each trunk is bent on itsel

at an angle of 45°, to give the faces their proper positions. More-

over, the heads are inclined a little toward each other, for the same

reason. The contact of the trunks is, less—although Rosa-

Josepha is only thirteen years old—than that of the double mon-

From the Revue Scientifique.

892 The American Naturalist. [October,

ster Millie-Christine, aged twenty-two, in whom the right shoulder

of one individual touches the left of the other.

The faces of these two little girls closely resemble each other ;

they have a rather old and worn appearance, but the mental and

physical strain to which they have been subjected since leaving

their own country aose account for ig to a certain degree.

In fi the t much more so than

petwech ordinary brothers and sisters, d ee more than is often

the case between twins of the same sex.

It is only when one examines them. in profile that it can be

seen that they are united by the posterior pelvic wall as com-

pletely as the famous Hungarian pygopage, Helen-Judith, descrip-

tions of whom may be found in all the old works on monsters.

The angle formed by the bodies—the point of the V repre-

senting the trunks—is made by the intimate union of the sacral

and coccygean regions at the center, and those of the four nates

by the lateral parts. One finds there a real saddle, of which the

bony skeleton resembles a wooden saddle similar to those of the

Breton horsemen. There is a single pelvis of exaggerated size,

consisting of four iliac bones, to which are attached the four legs,

which are well formed, if one can judge from the gambols in

which these young persons indulge without difficulty.

Beneath the sacral conjunction, in a quadrilateral, dome-like

space, limited by the origin of the four lower limbs, there is found

a region the description of which is of the first importance in the

history of monsters. In the language of a German gynecolo-

gist who is very exact on this point, and also of M. Isch-Wall,

there would seem at first sight to be a single set of organs; one

urethra, one uterus, and one anus. It is certain, however, that

there are two bladders, for a desire to urinate is not felt by both

individuals at the same time ; in this they resemble other pygo-

pages, and it is easily understood if one believes that the allan-

toides are formed when the union of the embryos takes place, and

by reason of their very anterior situation, they are not close to the

point of contact, which is posterior.

he other internal genital organs are double.

1891.] The Double Monster Rosa-Josepha Blazek, 893

The rectum is probably single for some distance, as they are

actuated by a single impulse to defecate; but there are undoubt-

edly two large intestines.

According to Breisky, at the age six months there was a

remarkable asymmetry of the heads of the two children, very

noticeable if one looked at them from above or behind.

As regards psychological phenomena, it is now well known |

that monsters of this kind constitute two distinct personalities,

and that one has to deal with individuals where brains function

entirely independently of each other.

The two girls speak “ Czech,’—that is to say, the language of

their native land. They can occupy themselves in many ways

independently of each other. One sleeps while the other is

awake. The showman relates many amusing stories about the

different sensations that they experience, but these need to be

verified. It has been proved, however, that they have not the

same tastes in the matter of food. One likes beer, the other

wine; one is fond of salad, the other detests it, etc., etc.; when

one is thirsty the other does not necessarily experience the same

sensation.

The two hearts do not beat in unison, for the radial pulses are

not synchronous.

With Millie-Christine, Paul Bert demonstrated that a touch on

the lower limbs of one individual was perceived by the other;

whence it was concluded that the caud@e eguine of the spinal

marrow were united. It does not seem to be so with Rosa-

Josepha; there is only a very restricted zone in which a sensation

may be experienced by both at the same time, and this zone cor-

responds to the middle part of the skin which covers the trans-

verse mass placed between the pelves,—a place where it might be

possible to separate the two girls if it should become necessary

through the death of one of them. It can be inferred from this

that the union is less intimate than in the case of Millie-Chris-

tine, and that if the spinal canals communicate at the level of the

sacrum—which is probable—the -cords are either not united at

all or but slightly.

894 The American Naturalist. [October,

The movements are supple and graceful. When one walks the

other does not have to walk backwards. Progression takes place

in many ways that would take too long to describe here. Ordi-

narily, as with Millie-Christine, the two internal feet advance

together, then the two external ones. Rosa-Josepha can walk,

each by herself, the one carrying the other. The walker throws

herself a little in advance, the one who is carried resting on the

other’s hip, having only to lift her feet a little from the ground.

Sometimes they walk on three legs, or even two, going up stair-

ways, and practicing the dancing lesson which is given them every

day.

The pathological history of their pygopage would be very

interesting if it could be exactly known. It is on record that one

of the children was sick, when a year old, with croup which the

other did not have. Shortly after the well individual was seized

with convulsions, which did not attack the one which had had |

the croup. =

The case of Rosa-Josepha is not entirely analogous and com- ;

parable to the two other pygopages, Helen-Judith and Millie-

Christine. The former, who has disappeared from public view

since 1874, had the spinal cords united, but in Rosa-Josepha this

does not seem to be the case. In other respects these two girls

resemble Helen-Judith, and they probably constitute a type inter-

mediate between the latter and Millie-Christine.

SFI, OES ea a eG T E EN meee ee ee ee

ei Editorial. 895

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

as question is often asked the editors, With but limited funds,

what journals related to biology should our college take ?

As others may be in the same position as these inquirers, the

answer is made here. Of course this journal should-occupy the

first place, since it is the only American periodical which regu-

larly presents abstracts of the more important papers in all

departments of natural history. Next in importance is the

Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society (London, $7.50 a year),

which, besides one or two original papers in each number, con-

tains abstracts of work done in botany, zoology, and in micro-

scopy and microscopical technique. The Zoologischer Anzeiger

(Leipzig, $4) presents every two weeks original communications

upon zoology, and also a classified list of all zoological publica-

tions from all parts of the world. The Amatomischer Anzeiger

(Jena, $4) contains only anatomical and embryological papers,

and an index to the current literature of those subjects. The

Biologisches Centralblatt (Erlangen, $4) is made up of original

communications and longer résumés of zoological and botanical

papers.

In the line of botany every library should have the Botanical

Gazette (Crawfordsville, Indiana, $2) and the Bulletin of the Tor-

rey Botanical Club (New York, $2). For the larger and more

important papers the Annals of Botany (London), the Annales des

Sciences Naturelles Botanie (Paris), the Botanisches Centralblatt,

and the Jahrbücher für wissenschaftliche Botanik, are the most

indispensable.

For the original contributions to zoology the most useful

are the Journal of Morphology (Boston, $9), the Quarterly Jour-

nal of Microscopical Science (London, $10), the Zeitschrift für

wissenschaftliche Zoologie (Leipzig). Where more funds are

available this list can be indefinitely increased.

896 The American Naturalist. (October,

—Tue organ of the Brooklyn Entomological Society, Extomo-

logia Americana, has ceased with the completion of its sixth

volume. In the years which it has been running it contained a

number of valuable papers on entomology, and especially was it

noted for its synopses of the various groups of insects. In

another aspect the demise of the journal is not tobe regretted, for its

editors apparently allowed everything that came to be published,

and the result was that each number contained several articles

each about a page in length. Such a course does not advance

entomology ; it is rather a drag upon it, for no one can by any

possibility keep track of the multitude of short notes thus poured

out, and by-and-by there may be quarrels resulting because some-

body’s ten-line squib has been overlooked. Entomologia Ameri-

cana was, however, not alone in this fault.

—Unirormity is in many respects desirable in many things,

but uniformity may result in deformity. Whata worldthis would

be were all men to think alike! The editors of the AMERICAN

Natura ist have their little differences of opinion, but this-does

not interfere with the conduct of the magazine. For instance,

one of our number exhibits tendencies towards a strict uniformity

in geological nomenclature, while the other is more conservative

and perceives deformity in the uniformity of the newly modified

names of the geological (geologic) ages. Triassic and Jurassic

are good and long-accepted terms, but Siluric and Cretacic have

a barbarous sound. Carbonic has a flavor of the deadly CO,; and

then Cambric !—it recalls handkerchiefs and pillow-slips, and any-

thing except. ancient Wales. However, the advocates of the new

“terminatiology” are not thoroughly consistent. Ancient roots

should not stand in the way of Eocic, Miocic, Pliocic, and the

like, when uniformity is to be gained.

E A EAEE E F NE E EES TEE EEA SE N en E A EE OEE AAE A aa inn A EE Pees. Maes, AN T E N SE T,

ESE ae ee ee ee

ee ast eee ee ee

1891] Recent Books and Pamphlets. . 897

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. w Species and a New Sub-Species of the Genus

Lepus. me Bull. a, Mus. begs ean Vol, III., Oct . 1890. From the author

AMI, H. M. of Quebec and Environs. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol,

IL, pp. uhh pl.

BA F_ the “Ascent of Man. Reprint Am. Anthropol., Oct.,1890. From the

author.

BAK R, S. W.—Wild Beasts and Their Ways: Reminiscences of Europe, Asia,

Africa, oat America, London: McMillan & Co., and New York, 1890. From the pub-

lishers

CAJORI, prp —The Teaching and asad of riage: in the United

States. Bureau of Ed. Cir. Inf., No. 3, 1890. m the autho

A e Cost of a (Site ogical Stared of Iowa. Ext. Monthly Review,

Iowa Weather and Crop Service. pirate Paper on Artesian Wells in Iowa. From

the autho

RUS, PAUL.—The Soul of Man: An rhc ites of the Facts of Physiological

ang cr Psychology. From the a

CATTELL, J. MCK.—Psychology at t the aia of Penna. Reprint Am. Journ.

pag rth ih Vol. oe ee 1890, From Prof. Cattell.

A. J.,and G.C. DAV VIS. neil Emulsion.—Some New Insects. Bull. 73.

ax Ag Exp. sale, Zool. Dept., 1891. From the station

N, N. H.—Notes on the Geology of the Florida Phosphats Deposits.—Record

ofa Dea Wei at Lake Worth, Southern Florida. Ext. Am. Journ. Science, Vol. XLI.,

Feb., 1891.

Dupont, M. E.—Mollusques recueillés au ati BA x SET Roy. de Bel-

gique, n: série, t. XX., No. 12, pp. 559-566, 1890. m the

EDW. . L.—Beschreibung einiger neuen greia d eines neuen Cope-

ierra Krebses, Leužartella paradoxa. Inaugural Dissertation, einer Hohen

Philosophischen Facultat der Universität Leipzig zur erlangung der Doctorwürde vor-

gelegt. From the author.

teenth Annual Report of the Minnesota Geological and Natural History Survey,

TE iie the N. H. Winchell.

N, B. K.—On the Triassic of Massachusetts, Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am,

Vol. yp , PP- pu pl. 17. From the socie

MING, S.—Time Reckoning for the Twentieth Century. Ex. Smith. Rept., 1889.

From a Smithsonian gone ;

FLOWER, W. H., and R. LYDEKKER. —An Introduction to the Study of Mammals,

Living and Extinct. London: Adam and Charles Black. From the publishers,

OSHAY, P. M., and R. R. I ae grooves at the Southern Margin of the

jety

64, pl.

Fourth Annual Report of the Canadian cise (session of 1890-'91).

GALLOWAY, B. T.—Fungous Diseases of the oe and TheirTreatment. Farmers’

Bull. No. 4, U. S. Dept. Agri. From the departme

GILBERT, C. H.—A Supplementary List of Hai reg at the Galapagos

Islands and Panama, with pecans z One New Gen d Three — Species.

t. Proceed .S. Na PP- 449-455. Ph fom was Muse

“GILL, aoe on the Genus irand of Swainson. Ext. Crickets U S. Natl.

Mus., Vol. X

— 0O

n E ‘Relations of ae Ext. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol.

XIIL, pp. 361-376, pl. 28-30.—The Osteol cal Characteristies of the hert Hemitrip-

teridæ, do., Vol. XIII., pp. 377-380, pl. 31. Tio the Smithsonian.

KELLY, E. A.—Notes on the Myology of Ursus perde Ext. Proceeds. Phila.

Acad. Natl. Sciences, 1888. From the author.

Keyes, C. R.—A Geological Section Across the Piedmont Valley.—Stratigraphy of

the —— in Central Iowa. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 277-292,

pls. 9.1

898 © The American Naturalist. (October, “8

VERKUHN, P.—Fremde Eier im Nest. Ein Beitrag zur Biologie der Vögel.

Lucas, F. AS Notes on the Osteology of the a Sitta, and Chamea. Ext.

oceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 337-345, pl. 27. From the Museum.

LYDEKKER, R.—Catalogue of the Fossil Birds in the British Museum, 189.

From the Trustees of the Museum.

MATTHEWS, W.—The Inca Bone and Kindred Formations Among the Ancient

Arizonians. Ext. Amer. Anthrop., Oct., 1889. From th e auth

MOCQUARD, M. F.—Recherches anatomiques sur l' Estomac di Crustacés Podoph

NEWTON, R. B.—On the Genus Leveillia, with a Notice of a New Species from the

Carboniferous Limestone of Ireland, Ext. Geol. Mag., Decade III., Vol. VIII., May,

1891. From the author

pleri Annual part of the Board of Directors Phila. Zool. Soc

PRESWICH, J.—On the Age, Formation, and Successive Drift-Stages of the Valley

of the ain with Remarks on the Paleolithic Implements of the District, and on the

Origin of Its Chalk Escarpment. Ext. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., May, 1891. From the

auth

Proceedings of the Thirteenth SETE of the Empire State Association of Deat

Mutes.

M.—Zur Kenntniss des Skelets der Acanthodinen. Separatum der geogn,

Jahr. a Kel. Bayr. Oberbergamts Jahr., 1890. From the author

, C. V.—Insecticides and Means of Applying eat to Shade and Forest

rees. pi Fifth Report U. S. Entomol. Com. From the author.

RYDER, J. A.—The Sturgeons and Sturgeon Industries a the Eastern Coast of the

United States. Ext. Bull. U. S. Fish Com., Vol. VIII., 1888, pls. 37 to 59. From the

author.

venth Annual Report of the sepak of the State Reservation at Niagara

for the Fiscal Year from Oct., 1889, to Sept 1890. >

Sixth Annual Report of the Board of cae of the State Agri, Exp. Stations

Amherst, Mass., 1888.

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Medical and Other Opinions upon the Poisonous Nature o,

the Bite of the Heloderma. Ext. New York Medical Journ., Muy 23d, 1891. From the

author.

SMITH, J. B.—Contributions Towards a Monograph of the Noctuidæ of Temperate

North _America.—Revision of the Species of Hadena Referable to Sig igor and

Lup Ext. Proceeds. U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 497-447, P pls. 36, 37

STEARNS, R. E. C.—On the Nishinam Game of “ Ha” and the Boston Game of

THOMPSON Sr ei Ext Poes U.S. Natl. Mus., Vol.

ER z Be 457-649, hi 38. From th

i Canadian taak. Vol I., Pt. 2, March, 189r.

Promo H, ae k Lake Beds. Ext. Bull, Philos. Soc. Washington, Vol.

XI., pp. 385-410, pl. 4. From the author.

i = J. A—Megalonyx Beds in Kansas. Ext. Am. Geol., June, 1891. From

the a

Watery. H. M.—Synopsis of a Course in Soragerras for Pharmaci

——A Consideration of gee of the Parts of a Microscope Saa e Tana to

. From the autho

Rel Sas .0.— The Nasarallet; s Occupation. Reprint from Biological Lectures,

1890.

the author.

WALLACE, A. R.—Natural Selection and Tropical Nature : Essays on Descriptive

— Peera Biology. Published by MacMillan & Co., London. From J. B. Lip-

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Wikio. J.—Postal Savings Banks: An Argument in Their Favor. From

_ the author.

1 891.] Recent Literature. 899

RECENT LITERATURE.

Geological Survey of Arkansas, 1889.'—This volume of the

Geological Survey’s reports relates principally to Crowley’s Ridge,—

the only marked topographic prominence in the country between

Little Rock and Memphis, the geology of which is most admirably

discussed by R. Ellsworth Call, who contributes, also, notes on the

forest trees of this region, and a description of a new mollusk, Mytilus

harnatoides, trom the Tertiary of Eastern Arkansas. Prof. R

Salisbury has a chapter upon the relations of the northern drift to the

Plistocene deposits, where he clearly sets forth the succession of events

in the northern part of the United States during Plistocene times,

and points out the relations of those events to the influences that

shaped Crowley’s Ridge and its adjacent territory. A valuable paper

from Prof. F. H. Knowlton, on the ‘ Fossil Woods and Lignites of

Arkansas,’’ and a brief explanation from J. C. Branner as to the

origin of Crowley’s Ridge, make the report on this region of

Arkansas complete.

Zoological Geography.?—The study of the zoological distribu-

tion of animals is one which is making continual advances. It is wit

the view of presenting the principles of this science in a comprehen-

sive yet brief and simple manner that M. ener has written this

book. It is one of the Bibliothèque Scientifique Contemporait: , and,

like the others of that admirable set, is well sion with pictures,

diagrams, and tabulated statements to express at a glance the author’s

meaning.

In general, the greater divisions established by Sclater and Wallace

have been followed, but some changes have been necessitated by the

progress made during the last five years.

In chapters I. to V. the author describes the great continental

regions which have been distinguished according to the distribution of

the higher vertebrates. Chapter VI. is a study of the means of the

dispersion of animals, both by their own locomotive powers and by

agencies outside of themselves. Here, also, will be found a sketch of

the faunal characters of the different regions,—a branch of the subject

1 Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas, 1889. Vol. II., “ The Geology

of Crowley's Ridge,” by R, Ellsworth Call, M.S

- 2 La Géographie Zoologique. Par Le Dr. E, L. Trouessart. Librairie J. B. Bailliere et

Fils, Paris. :

goo The American Naturalist. [October,

too often neglected. The second part (chapters VII. to XI.), de-

scribes in detail the successive and regular distribution of each class of

animals, the classification being based on their means of locomotion.

In the last chapter the author calls attention to the relations existing

between paleontology and zoological geography.

M. Trouessart is to be congratulated for the masterly way in which

he has presented the subject, and on his success in popularizing it.

The Ancestors of Our Animals.*—This exceedingly attractive

little book is one of the Bibliothèque Scientifique Contemporaine

series. In it Dr. Gaudry has combined the ideas concerning the

origin and development of animal life previously published in scattered

articles. There is a resume of his works on Pikermi and the Leberon

which will be appreciated by students who have been unable to pro-

cure the original volumes. Finally a chapter is devoted to the

paleontological work done in the Museum of the Jardin des Plants.

M. Gaudry has introduced many figures to illustrate the text, many of

which are restorations, and give the general reader a better idea of the

animal than could be obtained from the fragments of bones which

mean so much to the student. The book is a capital demonstration of

scientific facts made popular. Prof. Gaudry states that he has been

materially assisted in this work by M. Marcellin Boule.

Morphology of the Avian Brain—This is the title of by no

means an unimportant contribution to the first volume of the Journal

of Comparative Neurology, of Cincinnati, by Mr. C. H. Turner. The

memoir includes oyer fifty octavo pages, and is illustrated by five

plates, three of which are folding. They present many figures of

brains, of divers views, of different birds of this country. There are

also sectional microscopical views. Mr. Turner informs us that his

investigations are based upon the study of ‘over one hundred and fifty

birds, belonging to nine orders, twenty families, more than forty genera,

and about fifty species.” A brief but clear account of his methods of

research is given, and this is followed by his remarks upon the external

form of the bird’s brain in general, followed in turn by sections devoted

to descriptions of the various parts, as the rhinencephalon, the prosen-

cephalon, the hemispheres, the mesencephalon, the diencephalon, the

epencephalon, the metencephalon, and finally the cranial nerves.

Measurements and ratios of all these structures are given under the

3 Les Ancêtres de nos Animaux dans les Temps Geologiques. Par Albert Gaudry.

Libraire J. B. Bailliere et Fils, Paris, 1898,

1891.] Recent Literature. gol

various divisions treating of them. He republishes Coues’s description

of the cranial nerves as presented in his second edition of the ‘“ Key”

to North American birds, and states that he is in error when he says -

that the ‘‘ optic lobes are never covered ” in the avian brain by that

part of the encephalic mass above them (p. 50).

In the second section is discussed the ‘‘ Relation of Brain Measure-

ments to Taxonomy,’’ wherein the classifacatory schemes for birds

given by Huxley and Parker are contrasted, and a special table treat-

ing of the taxonomy of the North American Passeres as it has been

given by Coues, the A, O. U., and by Shufeldt, is also presented.

Mr. Turner supports the views of Shufeldt with respect to the posi-

tion in the system of the Corvide, the Icteride, the Fringillide, and

_the Turdidz, and departs but slightly from him in the other families.

In giving the Paride a high place, he agrees with Coues, but gives

Shufeldt due qredit for having long ago pointed out their being a very

highly organized group of birds.

Although the present writer has adopted, in one or two instances,

the exhibition of the affinities of families by means of tabulated serial

lists, I must say here that upon the whole the scheme is very deceptive

and often misleading. It is very much like an attempt to show the

mode of growth and branching of a tree by similar means. It is quite

out of the question. I consider that we have twenty families in the

group Passeres in this country, and Mr. Turner has dealt with but sen

of them. Further investigation may induce him to recast to some

extent his taxonomical scheme of the North American Passeres, and

we trust that such studies will soon be forthcoming.

Space will not admit of my giving Mr. Turner’s valuable recapitu-

lation of his observations upon the avian brain here, and I must be

satisfied with this brief notice of a paper that will well repay the care-

ful reading of all those interested in vertebrate morphology, and in

the structure and natural classification of birds in particular.—R. W.

SHUFELDT, August roth, 1891.

902 The American Naturalist. [October,

General Notes.

GEOGRAPHY AND TRAVEL.

CHATHAM ISLAND, GALAPAGOS ARCHIPELAGO, Aug. 28, 1891.

Having returned from a trip of two months through the Galapagos

Islands, I take the opportunity to send you a few lines about the prog- -

ress of the expedition. As you know, Mr. C. F. Adams and myself

left New York on May ist. Having direct connection at Panama, we

reached Guayaquil May 13th. Unable to find any convenient ship

to take us to the islands, we had to stay at Guayaquil until June

1st, on which day we sailed on a schooner to Chatham, the most east-

ern island of the group, on which the hacienda of Senor Manuel Cobos

is placed. We arrived at Chatham June gth. Here we remained,

examining the island and making extensive collections, until June 26th.

From this date to August 26th, when we returned to Chatham, the

following islands were visited : Charles Island (stopped at three different

rts and went over the whole island), Hood, Barrington, South In-

defatigable, nies pea landed), South Albemarle (opposite Brattle), —

Grossman (no ed), Duncan, West Indefatigable, Jervis, East

Albemarle aen Cowley), West James, North James (two differ-

ent ports visited), North Chatham, West Chatham

On the second trip we intended to visit the following islands, and all

arrangements had been made: Tower, Bindloe, Abingdon, West Albe- '

marle, Narborough, Weismann, and Culpepper ; but on my return here

I found news from home which necessitated my return at once.

Therefore I proposed to make only a short visit to the most important

of the above islands—Tower, Bindloe, Abingdon—on my return to

Guayaquil.

The following collections have been made: Mammals, birds (so far

about 600 skins prepared by Mr. Adams, and the same number in

alcohol), reptiles (many hundred specimens, complete series of Tropi-

durus from all islands), spiders, land shells, insects, etc. The flora I

have collected as much as possible of every island touched at.

had been collected on these islands since Darwin’s visit

in 1835. Mr. Adams shot a bat on Chatham (the first one ever col»

lected) and saw one on Albemarle. Hesperomys was secured on

1891.] Geography and Travel. 903

Barrington (eight specimens), South Albemarle (one specimen), Dun-

can (one specimen), East Albemarle (one specimen) ; on Chatham one

was observed. There cannot be any doubt that this mammal is an

original inhabitant of the group. 5

The birds are exceedingly interesting, and I hope to be able to give

a satisfactory solution of the Geospiza question. As I have shown in

a paper published in the Biologische Centralblatt, the Iguanoid `

Tropidurus is represented by a single species on each island, and

nearly every island contains a different species or race of Tropidurus.

This has been absolutely sustained. Now in the plastic genera of birds

we find exactly the same. Let us first consider the genera Nesomimus

and Certhidea, of which only a single species is found on each island.

The genus Nesomimus is represented by a different species or race on

every island, and there is never more than one species or race found

on one island. The same is true of Certhidea, but this genus is not

quite so plastic. On Hood, as it is known, Nesomimus is much differ-

ent from the other species ; but so are Certhidea and Tropidurus. On

the central islands—Chatham, Indefatigable, Jervis, James, Albe-

marle—Nesomimus shows only slight differences; but so do Certhidea

and Tropidurus. What I want to state is the absolute harmony in the

distribution and the grade of difference in these forms. This is also

true of the flora, as far as I could make out.

It is now necessary to examine such genera as Geospiza, Camarhyn-

chus, and Cactornis, which are represented by a greater number of |

species on one island. As it is well known, there has been a great

uncertainty as to the number of species found one ach island ; on some

islands not less than eight species have been recorded.

So far asmy present investigation reaches, probably on none of the

islands visited is the number of species greater than three; but these

three species vary nearly on each island, each separately, as if they

would represent three different genera. The same view I have for

Camarhynchus and Cactornis, and all such genera which contain more

than one species of a genus on a single island,—like Bulimus, for

instance. But often we find that the highest number of species is not

reached by every island, but that the number of species is reduced.

This can be explained by the extinction of one of the species. In this

respect I have first to make some remarks about Nesomimus. As is

known, Nesomimus existed on Charles Island in 1835 when Darwin

visited the island ; it still was found there in 1868 during Dr. Habel’s

visit. We did not see a single specimen on Charles Island, notwith-

HRA the whole island was crossed and three different ports were

at.—October.—4.

904 The American Naturalist. [October,

visited, and there is hardly any doubt that Nesomimus is extinct on

Charles Island; and the same is true of Duncan. We have been all

over the island, and not a singlespecimen was seen. On all the other

islands Nesomimus was exceedingly common. It is highly interesting

tosee that Tropidurus is greatly reduced on Charles Island. During my

whole stay there I saw two specimens, of which I was fortunate enough

to secure one. I do not need to state that I took the greatest pains to

find more. On Duncan only twelve specimens could be secured after

long hunting. On all the other islands Tropidurus is exceedingly

frequent. Exactly the same we find in such genera which are repre-

sented by different species on one island.

One or two, perhaps three, of the ‘three original species’

may be extinct. This condition can only be explained by the

subsidence theory, which, as I have stated in my article published

in your journal, also gives the only satisfactory explanation of the

harmonious distribution and differentiation of fauna and flora.

My opinion is that at the time when these islands were still in

connection there existed already a great number of species of certain

genera. As soon as separation begun each of these species was differ-

entiated for itself, just in the same way as if it were a genus. It

might happen that one or more, even all, of the species of such a genus

became extinct on certain islands, or were not present there during the

time of separation.!

Let us suppose the number of the species of Geospiza was four in

. the time when these islands were still in connection. These four

species may be called a, 4, c, d, and may be represented by G. fuliginosa,

G. fortis, G. strenua, and G. dentirostris, which latter species I have

not yet seen. a, 5, ¢, d is dependent on the different conditions on

the different islands; taking three islands with the conditions x, y, Z,

we can express the species on these three different islands, which

formerly were all in connection, in this way:

ist island, a x f(x) — 6 x f(x) — c x f(*) —d x f(a)

ad island, a x f(y) — b Xx f(y) —¢ Xf) —@ xf)

3d island, a x f (2) — b x f(z) —¢ x f(s) —adx f (2)

The greater the difference between x, y, z, the greater the time of

separation, which may be expressed by f(x), the greater will be the

1] may state here the fact ee ae Oe e principal

portion by barren lava fields, does not contain a single species of Camarhynchus, nor

Nesomimus, nor Certhidea,

iatea nei Alien dn eae Aak ERT

1891. Geography and Travel. 905°

difference of the species. If one or the other of the species dies out,

we can have, for instance :

E E E o —cx f(x)—adx f(x)

2d island, o — b 4 f(x) — 0 —d x f(x)

3d island, ol o —c+ f(x) — o

This, I think, will be sufficient to express my opinion on the differ-

entiation of such genera which contain more than one species.

. Now some words about the birds themselves. Creagrus, of which, so

far as I know, only four specimens exist in the museums, has been

considered a very rare bird ; all the authentic specimens of which have

been collected at Dalrymple Rock, west of Chatham. This bird is

quite common here. Wé have seen it near Freshwater Bay, Chatham,

between Charles and Hood, and found it in considerable numbers on

the rocks in Gardner Bay, and on Gardner Island, near Hood, in

hundreds of specimens ; it was seen on Brattle, where many specimens

were collected ; it was also found on a rock north of Sullivan Bay,

ames, and on the Seymour Islands, north of Indefatigable. Creagrus

is probably found on every steep rock which contains holes, in which

the bird breeds.

On Albemarle, from which island only a few species of birds were

known, we found over forty species (South Albemarle), a number

greater than ever recorded from any island. Geospiza magnirostris,

not observed since Darwin, was found on South Albemarle and Jervis;

it is simply the representative of G. strenua of other islands, as

G. conirostris is the representative of this form on Hood.

I will conclude this letter with a few words about the reptiles. Of

Tropidurus I have already spoken. Geckos were found in great

numbers on Charles (one species, G. galapagoënsis), on Albemarle, and

on Chatham. Snakes I observed on Hood (one specimen collected),

Barrington, and Albemarle. Conolophus exists in great numbers on

Barrington and the Seymour Islands, but was not noticed on Any of the

others. Amblyrhynchus is found on all islands, but is rare on some ;

on Charles only two specimens were seen.

The land tortoises are extinct on Charles, Chatham, Barrington,

and Jervis, on which islands they formerly existed. They are probably

extinct on Hood, on which a thorough search of two days over the

whole island was without result. They are said to still exist in reduced

numbers on James (an examination of two days was without result) and

on Indefatigable. On South Albemarle, where we remained twenty

days, we found the land tortoises still in considerable numbers, but it is

906 The American Naturalist. [October,

exceedingly difficult to reach the places where they live. We secured

eight living ones, of different size: five with shells one meter or more

in length, and one, probably the largest one ever taken from the

islands, with the carapace one meter and forty centimeters in length.

You may imagine the amount of work when I tell you that these speci-

mens had to be carried from eight to twenty miles over the lava fields

and through the densest brushwood.

I do not need to say that there was no possibility of bringing the large

tortoises down alive. The largest one must have had a weight of 400

pou On Duncan we secured eight tortoises; they are much

smaller than the forms from South Albemarle, and resemble the

Abingdon specimens, On the northeast side of Albemarle I tried to

penetrate to the interior, but had to return after two days on account

of the nearly impassable lava fields.

So far I can say that the expedition has had the greatest success,

and I am convinced that my expressed opinion on the origin of this

group of islands is the correct one. I may add that in a single

instance (near Barrington) I have found a land bird flying over the

ocean ; it was the common Dendreca aureola, found on all islands.

It is certain, therefore, that these birds do not travel from one island to

the other, as is also fully sustained by the collections.

The birds are still as tame as formerly, especially on such islands

which are not often visited. On Duncan a Buteo galapagoénsis sat

down on a bush next to me, I touched him with a stick; he did not

move. I began to tickle him on the head; this he seemed to like ;

and an hour later, when I had gone to a smaller island near that place,

he also came over and sat down next to me to be tickled by the stick.

Myiarchus is the tamest bird, and often sat down on my hat or my

stick when I kept quiet.

` I finish this letter, hoping that the expedition will be followed by

others of the same nature. Biology is of the greatest importance for

dynamical geology, and is in many cases the only source of informa-

tion. The Fiji or Friendly Islands, which are considered as oceanic

islands, but which I believe to be continental, ought to be examined,

and also a group of islands which is doubtless of oceanic origin.

Harmony or disharmony in the distribution of flora and fauna will

always, I think, solve the problem of the origin. That variation goes

on in definite lines, determined by the nature of the conditions, I am

fully convinced. The theory of natural selection, especially the

view of the ‘‘ Neo- Darwinians,”’ has not received any support; but

more about this question later. -

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 907

I left Chatham on September rst for Tower Island. This island was

very interesting, having never been visited before. Creagrus was found

there in great numbers, breeding, besides Fregetta, Sula, and Phzethon.

Of Fregetta a considerable number of embryos and nestlings were

procured. Of land birds the TARATA —- were found: Geo-

piza, two species; Cactornis, one species; Nesomimus, one species ;

Certhidea, one species ; Dendrceca, one sites the dove and owl were

also observed. Not a single specimen of Tropidurus was seen ; Am-

blyrhynchus is frequent, but small.

From Tower we went to Bindloe. All the birds collected by Dr

Habel were also obtained. Tropidurus is very common, and quite dis-

tinct from the Abingdon form. Nesomimus, which had not been

recorded before from this island, is a very abundant bird.

On Abingdon we remained only a very short time. oe new is

to be added to the results of Dr. Habel and the ‘‘Albatros:

We reached Guayaquil September 16th, and sailed to ‘ides on

the r9th on the ‘‘ Santiago.’’—G. Baur, Clark University.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Desert Sandstone of Australia.—A paper by Mr.

Charles Chewings, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Geograph-

ical Society, June, 1891, contains the following interesting account of

the ‘‘ desert sandstone ’’ of Central Australia :

“At what period or periods the Lake Eyre depression was formed

has not yet been satisfactorily decided ; but we may fairly conjecture

that an opening at one time existed to the south into Spencer’s Gulf.

During Cretaceous times, however, that and all other outlets were

things of the past, and the detritus from the Macdonnell and James

ranges, as well as many other high lands, was washed into this large

basin, of which, so far as ascertained at present, the outline extends

from the Coast range, situated a little south of the Gulf of Carpentaria,

westward nearly to the overland telegraph line. It then runs north-

east towards Lake Eyre, and, skirting the Macdonnell ranges elevation,

curves round to the north of the Charlotte Waters telegraph station,

in about the latitude of Lake Amadeus, which lake it approaches, if

not includes. This is probably the western boundary of this system.

“ From Lake Amadeus the Lake Eyre system extends northeasterly

towards Port Augusta, takes a curve to the eastward, and runs along

908 The American Naturalist. [October,

east and west a few miles to the south of Lake Eyre. It then makes

southeasterly for Barrier, and taking a long sweep to the east and north

embraces the extent of those rivers that flow from south of the Gulf of

Carpentaria into Lake Eyre. The shape is semicircular, and crescent-

shaped, extending towards a half moon. No doubt detritus from the

extensive area covered by the already-mentioned red sandstone forma-

tion contributed largely towards filling it up to a level much higher

than the present level of the country ; this is easily seen by the numer-

ous tent-hills and table-lands scattered throughout the area of the

basin, ranging from 200 to 500 feet high, of which Chamber’s pillar is

aremnant. As the basin sank, or surrounding land became elevated,

so the flood waters carried this newer Cretaceous formation to the lowest

depression, cutting deep gullies and wide waterways through the newer

deposits, and generally lowering the basin. This has been going on

probably from time immemorial ; certainly from Cretaceous (second-

ary) age, down through Tertiary and Quaternary ages to the present

time. When the seas that washed the softer and newer deposits away

from the Macdonnell ranges and laid bare much of the primary rocks

had subsided, and Central Australia was elevated quite above sea-level,

and long ages of scorching summers had evaporated its larger lakes and

surface waters, and the Cretaceous age (during which Lake Eyre was an

inland sea) was rapidly becoming a thing of the past, a newer influence,

and one that exists to-day,—viz., that of the wind,—probably blew

into all secluded and rock-bound spots, depressions, shallow lakes, and

like places the sandy weatherings from around their base, and a newer

formation was the result. This is the commonly called ‘desert sand-

stone,’ for what reason I have never had a satisfactory explanation.

oth as a shallow-water deposit and a dry wind-blown deposit it

retains its unmistakable characteristics. Its color is that of an ordi-

nary grindstone, and it consists of horizontal layers, the cap of each

being harder than that underneath it. By weathering its sides get

hollowed out, and in the caves thus formed the aborigines find a refuge

from the extremes of weather, often painting devices on the walls.

“ The great extremes of heat and cold, a dry atmosphere, and strong

winds caused through radiation, tend to constant degradation of the

rocks, the detritus being blown into sand-hills and distributed through-

out this large area. In Western Australia, along the line of route taken

by the Hon. John Forrest, surveyor-general of Western Australia, in

lat, 26° S., a sandstone is met with that covers all other rocks from E.

long. 122° to E. long. 126° 30’. In this extensive area of ‘desert

sandstone’ all the rising ground is composed of it. ‘Very often one

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. | 909

side of the rise forms a cliff.’ Further to the north the late Colonel

Warburton found this same sandstone formation taxed his camels to

the utmost. In the eastern colonies a desert sandstone exists, but

whether similar to that in Western Australia, I cannot say. Mr. Wood-

ward has satisfied himself that this formation overlies most, if not the

whole of the western coast formations from Cambridge Gulf to King’s

Sound, and that it extends far inland towards Central Australia.

« Under this sandstone formation the Carboniferous series he

describes as well developed, and if it continues right across the conti-

nent, as it does in China, coal deposits may yet be found in the

interior of Australia. He has also discovered a large lava flow in the

northwest, and fixes the Leopold range as of Carboniferous age ; also

that the coast of Western Australia is rapidly rising, and he describes

the sandstone area as extending inland ‘asa vast table-land of from

1,000 to 2,000 feet above sea-level. No volcanoes exist in the colony

of Western Australia, and the general appearance of the country

throughout indicates a condition of remarkable quiescence, continuing

even further back than the Carboniferous epoch.’ He describes the

rivers, for the most part, as ‘simply immense storm-water channels.

Several large rivers have their sources in the western edge of this

plateau, and cutting deep gorges through their upper horizontally

bedded rocks, expose the underlying crystalline rocks across the strike

of which they have cut their channels,’ and considers that ‘ precious

stones may be found in the amygdaloid regions. The mineral-bearing

districts have been greatly decomposed and altered by thermal waters

and steam at the time of the deposition of the lodes, and later by the

heat evolved by the oxidation of the metallic sulphides.’ He corrob-

orates the opinion that the uppermost or desert sandstone is of ter-

restrial origin, and probably formed shortly after the elevation of this

continent. In places these beds are of terrestrial origin, there is not

the slightest doubt ; in other places the indications point to a swampy

or lacustrine source.”’

Structure of the Piedmont Plateau.—Prof. Williams, of Johns

Hopkins University, offers the following hypothesis as to the structure

of the Piedmont region in Maryland:

‘‘ That the eastern area is composed of rocks far more ancient than

the western, which extend out under these, forming the floor upon

which they were deposited ; and that although already much folded and

metamorphosed, this crystalline floor underwent at least one more fold-

ing after the schists had been laid down, carrying these with it and

gio The American Naturakst. [October,

involving them in a considerable but not an extreme amount of dis-

turbance and metamorphism.”’

The hypothesis seems to account for the difference between the rocks

of the two areas and for the abruptness of their contact, while at the

same time it explains the conformity along this contact, and the fact

that this boundary and the axes of the synclinals are not coincident.

(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 301-322, pl. 12.)

The Triassic of Massachusetts.—Mr. Benjamin Emerson does

not accept the theory that the Triassic deposits of Massachusetts are, as

a whole or in part, of glacial origin, but that they result from cur-

rents. This will explain the sudden and irregular transitions from

coarest to finest sediments, and the derivation of many of the coarse

beds from rocks not known in place among the crystallines of the sur-

rounding region. He believes the region to have been a narrow bay,

with tides that swept up the eastern and down the western side, and

left the center of broad, shallow mud-flats at a considerably higher

level than the shoreward portion, so that they alone were regularly

abandoned by the water at low tide. It follows from this that the

deposits were contemporaneous, and this is shown by the position of

the trap sheets. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 451-456, pl. 17.)

The Relations of the Traps of the Newark System in

New Jersey.—Mr. N. H. Darton makes known the following facts :

‘ The trap outcrops inclosed by the Watchung Mountains of North-

eastern New Jersey, and the outlying mass near New Germantown, are

lavas, contemporaneous with the inclosing ae while all the

other traps described are intruded sheets and

‘ The igneous rocks are basalts, the apy i are fine-grained and

generally somewhat glassy, and the intrusives are coarser-grained, gen-

erally being dolerite, in some cases including considerable biotite and

often near gabbro in structure.

‘“ The great hooks characterizing the southernmost outcrops of the

Watchung traps are mainly due to flexure, and the bowed course of

their northern terminations and of Towakhow Mountain are due to the

same cause.” (Bull. U.S, Geol. Surv., No. 67.)

The Iron Ore District of East Texas.—The second annual

report, 1890, of the Geological Survey of Texas contains an interest-

ing account of the iron ore district of East Texas, by Mr. E.

Dumble. The territory described lies east of the 96th degree of longi-

tude and north of the 31st parallel of latitude. From this area is |

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. QII

excluded, as being non-iron-bearing, the portion north of Sulphur

Fork, and also the northwestern corner, in which the black waxy

prairies of the Cretaceous are the prevailing formation.

In this district, so restricted, there are nineteen counties, containing

in the aggregate 14,430 square miles. In each of these counties iron

ore exists in greater or less quantities and of varying qualities.

The region is underlaid for the most part by strata of Cenozoic age.

In only a few places are there exposures of Cretaceous strata, and when

they do appear as inliers they belong to its uppermost members and

are accompanied by salines.

Meniscotheriidz and Chalicotherioidea.—The Meniscotheriid

family of Condylarthra, which has been found only in the American

Wasatch, and is represented by a single genus, has always been placed in

a very doubtful phylogenetic position, Dr. Wortman in 1886! was in-

clined to ‘‘regard Meniscotherium as the direct ancestor of ars

Hyracoidea, ee their wide separation in time and space.’

Schlosser in the same year? recognized the striking likeness of the molars

of Meniscotherium to those of Chalicotherium, which was at the time

believed to be a true perissodactyl, so that he naturally did not trace

any ancestral relationship between these forms. He considered Men-

iscotherium (of. cit., p. 120), with Macrauchenia, to be Perissodactyla

which had retained a very primitive foot structure. Since this paper was

published Chalicotherium has been removed to a separate division of

‘Mammalia, affiliated to the Perissodactyla, but representing a distinct

line.

I find there are many striking resemblances between the dentition of

Meniscotherium and Chalicotherium, and it appears to me probable

that the Wasatch genus is related to the ancestral forms of Chalico-

therium. The resemblances consist (a) In the enlargement of the

posterior half of the dental series, and reduction of the anterior half.

(6) The upper molars are of precisely the same pattern ; the protocone

is isolated; the hypocone and metaconule are united in a short

transverse crest. (c) The similarity in the lower molars is seen espe-

cially in the reduplication of the metaconid in both forms, and the

absence of the third lobe upon the last lower molar.

The differences between these genera are such as separate many

higher from lower types, in the displacement of the foot bones and

1“ Comparative Anatomy of the Teeth of the Vertebrata,” p. 476.

2“ Beit. z. Kennt. Niss der Stammes-geschichte d. Hufthiere,” Morph. Jahré., Band

I2, p. 21. =

gi2 The American Naturalist. [October,

evolution of the teeth. Chalicotherium shows a diplarthrous condition

of both carpus and tarsus and no fibulo-calcaneal facet; there is no

third trochanter ; the anterior intermediate cusps of the upper molars

(protoconule) is reduced.

We shall remain in the dark as to the truth of this suggestion until

we find the complete feet of Meniscotherium. In the meantime the

striking resemblances seen in the teeth point strongly towards a distant

relationship between these forms.—HrEnry F, Osporn, American

Museum of Natural History, New York, August 27th, 1891.

The Family of Astrapotheriidz.—Senor Alcides Mercerat has

recently published a paper on the Astrapotheriidz, to which he refers

two’ new genera, Listriotherium and Xylotherium, as well as Bur-

meister’s genus, Astrapotherium. Listriotherium is represented by two

new species: Z. patagonicum Merc., from the Eocene of Monte Leon,

and Z. filholii Merc., from the Eocene of Santa Cruz, Xylotherium

has but one representative, X. miradile Merc., also from the Eocene of

Santa Cruz. To Astrapotherium belong A. patagonicum Burm., A.

augustidens Merc. sp. nov., A. marshii Merc. sp. nov., A. gaudryi

Merc. sp. nov., all from the Eocene of Mt. Leon, Patagonia; also A. -

magnum Owen, A. burmetsterii Merc. sp nov., A. robustum Merc. sp.

nov., from Santa Cruz, Patagonia, and A. voghtii Merc. sp. nov., from

the Eocene of Chubut. (Extr. Rev. Mus, de la Plata, Tomo I.)

On a Skullof the Equus excelsus Leidy, from the Equus

Bed of Texas.—I have received from my valued correspondent,

William Taylor, a skull of the Æguus excelsus, which is of much

interest as the first that has come to light in the United States. It

lacks only the posterior and inferior walls of the brain-case, and the

premaxillary region was detached in such a way that its length is not

absolutely certain, though contact of the adherent matrix was found.

This skull shows that the Æguus excelsus is intermediate in characters

between the horse and the quagga and allied species, and possesses

some Hippidium characters in addition. The resemblance is, how-

ever, greater to the quagga. This is shown by the shortness

of the premaxillary region, the abbreviation of the maxillary

posterior to the last molar, and the long excavation of the posterior

nares, which extends to the line of the anterior border of the penul-

timate superior molar, It differs from both of these species in the

posterior prolongation of the vomer over the presphenoid, and in the

small size of the last superior molar. The latter tooth is smaller than

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 913

the penultimate, as in the species of Hippidium and the three-toed

horses. The glenoid surface of the ERRE " ‘of —— a

width, as in the Hippidiums, and not

as in the horse and quagga. The Æ. zetels differs from the quagga

in the very slight decurvature of the symphyseal portion of the pre-

mariilary Sone x REREN nearer e horse, bari is even TY The

incisor t

seen in the two recent species mentioned. The patterns of the crowns

of the superior molars are much like those of the two species named,

but the internal inflections of the anterior and posterior borders of the

external lakes are not so deep as in one or both of those of the Æ.

quagga and Æ. caballus. The size of the skull is about that of the

quagga.

The skull is that of an adult hoe The frontal bone is crushed in

between the orbits so as to crush the descending anterior plates of the

former behind the nasal cavity. The free orbital borders and the

pariétal bones are not crushed. It is singular that that part of the

arch of the skull which presents the strongest resistance to pressure is

crushed, while the weaker regions remain entire., Unless a stone

occupied the exact position calculated to produce this result, it might

be imagined that this horse was knocked in the head with a stone

hammer, such as has been found in the same bed by Mr. Taylor.—

E. D. COPE

The Glacial Deposits at Hendon, England.—In a paper read

before the London Geological Society, May 27th, 1891, Mr. Henry

Hicks showed that glacial deposits had been spread out to a much

wider extent over the Hendon plateau than had hitherto been sup-

posed. There is evidence to show that these deposits have extended

in a south and southwest direction across the Brent and Silk valleys,

and now occur on most of the heights in the parishes of Kingsbury

and Willesden. As the sands, gravels, and boulder clay which cover

the Hendon plateau are found to rest on an undulating floor of Lon-

don clay, the author considers it clear that the main physical features

of this portion of Northwestern Middlesex were moulded at a very

early stage in the Glacial period, and before the so-called middle

sands and gravels and overlying upper boulder clay were deposited.

At this time there could have been no barrier of any importance to

prevent these deposits from extending into the Thames valley, and

the evidence clearly points to the conclusion that the implement-bear-

ing deposits on the higher horizons in the Thames valley should be

914 The American Naturalist. [October,

classed as of contemporaneous age with the undoubted glacial deposits

at Hendon, Finchley, and on the slopes of the Brent valley. Mr. ©

Hicks is therefore satisfied that man lived in the neighborhood of the

Thames valley in the early part of the Glacial period, probably in pre-

Glacial times. (Geol. Mag., July, 1891.)

BOTANY.

Botany at the Washington Meetings.—From the 12th until

the 29th of August there were almost constant sessions of scientific

men in Washington at which botanical papers were presented, In the

first place, the Association of the American Agricultural Colleges and

Experiment Stations held a four days’ convention, and during the

opening session there was a report from the chairman of the botanical

section of the work done at the various stations by the botanist thus

employed. It was evident from this report that while systematic

botany, making of collections, and the field study of various plants

were important features, the main one in several states is the study

of the fungous enemies of cultivated crops. In the meetings of the sec-

tion of botany much time was spent in a consideration of the question

of an exhibition to be made by the stations at Chicago in 1893. The

work in botany will be divided, and those workers best able to exhibit

fungi of the cereals will have them in charge, while others take the

fruits, etc. Professor Tracy, of Mississippi, is chairman of the Botan-

ical Committee of the Columbian Exhibition.

Professor Atkinson presented a paper upon the cotton fungi, and

exhibited several oil paintings of diseased leaves showing the rust, blight

“ frenching,’’ etc. The question of the importance of common names

for fungi came up, and was discussed, with the conclusion that finely

illustrated bulletins are the best way to overcome the difficulty. Pro-

r Alwood presented two papers, one upon an apple-leaf blight

which is very destructive in Virginia, and the results of his successful

crossing of wheats. Many specimens of the latter were shown, and a

lengthy discussion followed. A bacterial disease of the cabbage was

reported upon by Professor Garman, while Professor Crandall exhib-

ited a quantity of Rocky Mountain June berries, and spoke of them

as one of the coming fruits for Colorado. Professor Brewer exhibited

some hybrid butternuts, and Professor Halsted presented a paper upon

the germination of spores of species of fungi.

During the sessions of the College and Station Association, Mr. R. _

Worthington, F.C.S., of Rothamsted, England, decan six lectures? —

1891.] Botany. 915

a large portion of which was made up of botanical matter. The

microbes, for example, that take an active part in the nitrification of

the soil were shown, enlarged by lantern projection upon a screen, as

also were some other forms of bacteria of great interest to agriculture.

During the two days of the meetings of the Society for the Promo-

tion of Agricultural Science there were many botanical papers. Thus

Professor Arthur presented the results of field experiments under the

title of ‘ʻA Physiological Basis for the Comparison of Potato Produc-

tion.’’ Many practical points were developed. Professor Beal considered

the description of varieties of strawberries and raspberries. Additional

information was presented by Professor Burrell upon the bacterial dis-

ease of potatoes that is now quite widespread throughout the country.

Professor Forbes treated of a bacterial disease of the chinch bug, while

Professor Kedzie still further considered bacteria in his paper upon soil

extract in relation to development of tubercles on clover roots.

Injurious fungi received attention at the hands of Professor Galloway,

who gave results of some experiments made the present year in the

treatment of plant diseases, while Professor Halsted outlined conclu-

sions from soaking seed beans to check anthracnose. Professor Green

considered arsenic and copper as a fungicide and insecticide, and also

gave the results of a treatment of raspberry anthracnose with fungi-

cides. Professor Taft reviewed his work with fungicides for apple

scab, and Professor Pammel considered some of the conditions which

modify the appearance of parasitic fungi in plants.

The opening day of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science had its full share of botany. President Coulter, as chair-

man of the section of biology, gave an address upon the future of sys-

tematic botany, and in the evening Dr. Goodale, as retiring president,

unfolded the possibilities of economic botany. These excellent

addresses the reader will peruse with much profit as presented in the

scientific journals.

On Thursday, at the first meeting of the Botanical Club, Professor

Arthur explained the working of some apparatus to be used in

physiological botany ; Professor Halsted spoke of a fungous disease of

the egg-plant ; Professor Atkinson showed the connection between a

cercospora and sphærella; while Professor Pammel considered some

conditions favoring the growth of fungi. In the discussion the

importance of making yearly notes of important species was

mentioned. Professor Fernow spoke of the value of a national

arboretum, and resolutions were offered favoring it. In Sec-

and dimorphism of Hypocrea tuberiformis. Professor MacFarland, of

Edinburgh, added another chapter in the history of the Venus fly-trap ;

g16 The American Naturatist. [October,

specimens illustrating the peculiar quality of irritability possessed by

these plants were shown and the subject discussed. Professor Camp-

bell gave a paper on the prothallium and embryo of Osmunda clayton-

tana and O. cinnamomea, fully illustrated by blackboard drawings. A

new nectria found upon the sweet potato and associated with the stem

rot was treated of by Professor Halsted. The Composite collected by

Dr. Palmer in Colima, and the flora of Carmen Islands, were two

papers by Professor Rose. Professor T. Smith illustrated fully the uses

of the fermentation tubes in bacteriology by a score of specimens,

many containing important disease germs.

On Friday, during the morning hour for the Botanical Club, papers

were presented by Professor Fairchild on a new currant disease, by

Professor Riley upon Mexican jumping beans, by Professor Rose upon

two new weeds, while one of the most enjoyable features was the presen-

tation to the members of the club of a souvenir by the Washington

Botanical Club, consisting of twenty-two photographs of Washington

points of interest, neatly bound. In the biological section notes upon

bacteria of Cucurbits by Professor Halsted were followed by the four

papers of the physiological series prepared by appointment, as follows:

‘‘ Transportation or Loss of Water in Plants,’’ by Professors Bessey

and Woods ; ‘‘ Movements of Fluids in Plants,’ by Professor Beal;

“Absorption of Fluids by Plants,’’ by Professor Pammel; and ‘‘ Gases

in Plants,’’ by Professor Arthur. After some discussion, and particu-

larly as to the absorption of carbonic gas in soil water by roots, the botan-

ical papers for the day in the section closed with notes upon an

anthracnose by Professor Halsted. The botany for the day, however,

was continued far into the evening by Professor John M. MacFarland,

who gave a public lecture upon heredity in plants, by which it was

shown with a series of three simultaneous lantern projections that the

differences in the parents were blended in the offspring even to the size

of cells, ducts, thickness of bark, and many other microscopic details.

On Saturday, at the Botanical Club, the first paper was read by Miss

Southworth, on some strange fungi. Dr. Mohr gave a contribution

upon some phanerogams of Alabama. A novel method of caring for

Myxomycetes was explained by Professor Cook, and Mrs. Claypole

gave a paper upon an onion disease. In Section F Professor Riley

treated of microdrganisms as insecticides, followed by further observa-

tions on a bacterial disease of oats by Professor Galloway. Dr. Vasey

outlined the botanical field work of his division, while Professor Waite

presented results from recent investigations of pear blight. The spec-

troscope in bacterial studies, by Professor Brashear, closed the long list

of botanical papers presented at Washington.—Byron D. HALSTED.

- 189%.) | Eméryology. 917

EMBRYOLOGY.!

Studies in Cephalopods.?—Dr. S. Watase, of Clark University,

publishes under the above title No. 1 of his contributions on the cleavage

of the ovum. The opening paragraph indicates the contents of the paper.

‘* In the following pages I will first attempt to treat the general mor-

phology of the animal ovum from the standpoint of some embryological

and morphological facts and theories. In the next place, the relation

of the external phenomena of cleavage, as shown in the behavior of the

cytoplasm, to the internal phenomena of nuclear or karyokinesis will

be discussed. In this connection some theories on karyokinesis will

examined, my interpretation of the cleavage phenomena being that

they are essentially the analysis of the potential tissues contained in

the cleavage nucleus, and this karyokinesis is the method of such

analysis and the achromatic spindle the instrument used in the analy-

sis. The cleavage of the squid will then be described, and finally .

variations in the cleavage of the same animal will be discussed.’’ It

is impossible to here go into the theoretical discussions that occupy the

larger part of the paper, but the following quotations, taken here and

there, may serve to give some idea of the author’s convictions. From

a'review of the literature the author concludes that ‘‘ however diverse

the examples, they all point to one and the same conclusion,—namely,

that in the metazoan ovum and its derivations the tissue cells are more

than a homogeneous, isotropic mass of protoplasm devoid of a definite

symmetry. The study of the karyokinetic figure shows, Van Beneden

points out, that the cell is not only unaxial, but also bilateral. In

several forms of ova, carefully studied, the axes of the karyokinetic

figure correspond in a definite way with the recognizable axes of a

given ovum, the external shape of which is chiefly determined by the

quantity and distribution of the food yolk. The axes thus determined

are maintained through the different stages of growth, and give rise to

definite axes of the larve or of the adult organism. If these facts

be more firmly established by the further investigation of the subject,

we may say with Van Beneden ‘that the old theory of evolution is not

deprived of all foundation, as is generally believed to-day.’

In this connection a communication from Dr. C. Ishikawa is of

great interest,—viz., that the summer and winter eggs of a “certain

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

2 Journal Morphology, Vol. IV., No. 3.

918 The American Naturalist. [October,

form of Daphnide undergo different types of cleavage, one being

holoblastic and the other meroblastic, the difference being probably

produced by the amount of food yolk; the summer eggs belong

to the regular holoblastic type of cleavage; and the winter egg to the

meroblastic type, showing a close resemblance to the ova of some

insects.”

The author’s view as to the mechanism of karyokinesis is explained.

The conclusion is based largely on a study of karyokinesis in the squid

and starfish, and the author believes this same explanation may apply

to the whole phenomena of cell divisions, the essential point of the

theory being that the ‘“‘archoplasmic filament’’ radiates from two

centers on opposite sides of the eggs penetrate the cell membrane,

flattening the chromosomes into a plate, the radiating fibers (archo-

plasmic filaments), continuing to push, break up the plate into two

portions, driving each in the opposite direction,—#.e., away from the

archoplasmic spheres. The bilaterality of the egg of the squid is the

same as the bilaterality of the adult animal ; and the arrangement of

the protoplasmic cap at the animal pole also shows well-marked

bilaterality, corresponding to that of adult animal,

The Regeneration of the Tail of Lumbriculus.’—Miss Ran-

dolph has an abstract of her work on the growth of new tails in the

Annelids. The new ectoderm arises by proliferation of the ectoderm

around the line of fission. From this new ectoderm arises the ven-:

tral nerve-chain and the dorsal sete. The new digestive tract is

formed from the cells of the old. The most interesting fact is in the

formation of the new mesoderm, which “is formed in great part

from specialized cells in the region of the peritoneal epithelium of the

ventral longitudinal muscles, on each side of the ventral nerve-cord,

een it'and the ventral row of sete. These cells, which I propose

to call neoblasts, are distinguished from the cells of the peritoneum

by their great size and by the presence of acell body. They are to

be found in every variety, with the possible exception of one or more

at the anterior extremity, and represent the ‘chorda cells’ described

by Semper in the Naids and Chetogaster. Very soon after the fission

of the worm the neoblasts in the end somite begin to divide, and give

rise to the greater part of the embryonic tissue that is afterwards differ-

entiated into mesodermic structures.

“ The neoblasts are to be regarded as specialized embryonic cells,

set apart for the rapid formation of new mesodermic tissue immedi-

3 Zool. Anz., No. 362, 1891.

1891.] Embryology 3 919

ately upon the fission of the worm. They are present in great num-

bers in the Naids, where the formation of new tissue is much more

rapid than in Lumbriculus, and also in Tubifex, in which regeneration

is a very slow process.”

Neuroblasts in the Arthropod Embryo.‘—Mr. William M.

Wheeler publishes a short paper on the discovery of neuroblasts or

formative ganglion cells in Arthropods. ‘‘ Carefully made transverse

sections through either lateral chord are seen to consist, in early stages,

of two kinds of ectoderm elements: smaller ones with rather deeply

stainable elongate oval nuclei, and four large succulent cells with pale

spherical nuclei. These four large cells, the neuroblasts, lie side by

side just beneath the smaller ectoderm elements in a plane parallel to

the surface of the yolk.’’ The author believes the eight rows of the

lateral chords to be homologous with the two rows of cells derived from

the neuroteloblasts of Annelids, and ‘‘ the fact that there are two rows

in an Annelid, whereas there are eight in Xiphidium, can constitute on

very serious obstacle to this homology.’’ The neuroblasts have been

seen in Xiphidium, Melanoplus, Blatta, and Dolyphora.

Morphological Notes from the Biological Laboratory of _

the Johns Hopkins University.—The anatomical and embryo-

logical work done in the morphological laboratory of Professor Brooks

is published annually, in the form of complete papers and preliminary

notes, in the University Circular?

The May (1891) number contains the following embryological

articles :

‘ On the Structure and Development of the Gonophores of a Certain

Siphonophore Belonging to the Order Auronectz Haeckel.” By W. W.

Brooks and E. G. Conklin.

“ Preliminary Note on the Embryology of Crepidula fornicata and

Urosalpinx cinerea.’ By E. G. Conklin.

“The Anatomy and Transformation of Tornaria: A Preliminary

Note.” By T. H. Morgan

‘ Note#on the Habits ind Larval Stages of the American Lobster,”

By F. H. Herrick, of Adelbert College.

ine E Organs and Early Stages of Development of

the American Lobster.” By F. H. Herrick, of Adelbert College.

“ On the Early ek of Echinoderms.” By W. H. Brooks,

4 Journal Morphology, Vol. IV., No. 3, 1891.

5 Vol. X., No. 88, May, 189r.

Nat.—October.—s.

920 The American Naturalist. [October,

‘‘Contributions to the Embryology of Asterias vulgaris.’ By

G. W. Field

The first of these contributions treats of the structure and develop-

ment of the Gonophores in Rhodalia, from the Pacific Ocean. Haeckel

regarded the animal as so unlike all other Siphonophores as to necessi-

tate its being placed in an entirely new order,—Auronecte. Haeckel’s

description of the structure of the female (and male) gonophores is

shown to be in all probability erroneous. The authors conclude:

‘<The egg-pouch must be regarded as a part of the stem where the

growth of the cells may take place while the gonophore is developing.

Assoon as the gonophore is formed, one of the eggs, already quite large,

-passes into it, where it lies between the ectoderm and entoderm of the

mambrium. Then by the disintegration of the egg-cells remaining in

the egg-pouch, and by the formation of large entodermal folds which

have a secretory function, the egg is rapidly nourished, and grows to

a very large size. The whole arrangement is to secure as rapid a

development of the sexual cells as possible,’’ as in the Hydromedusz.

r. Conklin has studied the early stages in the development of

Crepidula and Urosalpinx. Of the first four macromeres two meet in

the center on a line which Rabl has called the ‘‘cross furrow’’ ; the

other two are acute towards the center, and do not meet each other.

‘“ By the position of the macromeres with regard to the ‘ cross furrow’

the first and second cleavage furrows may easily be distinguished ;

e.g., if the egg be viewed from the formative pole, and so that one of

the cleavage furrows is in the line of vision, the macromere to the

right of this furrow and farthest from the „observer will be acute at its

center if the furrow on the line of vision be the first cleavage furrow ;

it will be obtuse,—z.e., will meet the opposite macromere in the cross

furrow—if the furrow in the line of vision be the second cleavage fur- _

row. Of course the reverse would hold if the egg were viewed from the

vegetative pole. The examination of many hundred eggs has shown

that the position of the macromeres in reston to the cross furrows

and to the first cleavage planes is a constant one,’

enan differs from Crepidula in the fact that while the four

macromeres of Crepidula are equal in size, the four macromeres of

Scalise are very unequal, one being much larger than the other

three. ‘‘ Two furrows appear simultaneously, and seem to divide the

ovum into one large sphere and two smaller ones. Really, however,

one of the smaller spheres is not completely separated from the larger

one, and soon after fuses with it. This smaller sphere is merely a con-

stricted portion of the larger sphere, and contains the nucleus. Thus

1891.] Embryology. g21

it is seen that of the two furrows mentioned but one is a true cleavage

furrow, and it divides the egg into a larger and asmaller moiety. One

_ of these protuberances is cut off to form a macromere equal in size

with the two smaller ones; the other protuberance is a part of the

larger macromere, and again fuses with it. There have thus been formed

by two vertical furrows, comparable to the first and second cleavage

furrows of Crepidula, three small and one large macromere.”’

A preliminary note is published by T. H. Morgan on the larva of

Balanoglossus,—Tornaria. Reasons are given for regarding the common

Tornaria of the New England coast as belonging to a different species

from the B. kovalevshti of the same coast, so that the parent form is not

at present known in connection withthe larva. A description is given

_of the formation of the different organs as they appear in the life of

the larva; for instance, the so-called heart (proboscis vesicle or

gland) probably originates from a very few mesenchyme cells; the first

pair of paired cavities arise as proliferations from two points in the

walls of the stomach, and the second (last) pair of paired cavities

arise as solid folds from the posterior division of the digestive tract

(endodermal); the nerve-chord is formed by the collar rolling over

the invaginating plate of ectoderm from the two sides, exactly as in

Amphioxus. ‘‘ The similarities of Tornaria to the Echinoderm larva

are very numerous, and I cannot believe are due to superficial resem-

blances. If this be true, the antiquity of the larva must be very great,

though not necessarily ancestral. The relationship of Balanoglossus to

the vertebrates seems more than probable, as Bateson has pointed out.”

The two papers by Prof. F. H. Herrick on the American lobster have

been already reviewed in the July number of the NATURALIST.

Prof. Brooks has a short note on some interesting structures in

the early stages of echinoderm larve. ‘‘Several observers have

recorded the occurrence of a right water pore and pore canal, as well as

those which occur normally on the æft side, . . . but the former have

heretofore been regarded as monstrosities, Inthe summer of 1889 I

collected with a tow net, in the open waters of Wood’s Holl, great

numbers of normal, vigorous starfish larvee ; and upon studying their

structure by serial sections I found that the water system is at first

bilaterally symmetrical in every particular, although the right water pore

and pore canal degenerate and disappear very early in the life of

the larvæ, so that the older larve exhibit no traces of those structures,

. The phenomenon in question has a direct bearing upon the

significance of the ciliated, bilateral swimming larva of Echinoderms,

922 The American Naturalist. [October,

and it furnishes a strong argument in favor of the view that the larva is

ancestral,

Mr. Field published a contribution to the Embryology of

Asterias. In this form the mesenchyme formation precedes and

is continued during the process of invagination, confirming the view of

etschnikoff and Korchelt as to the absence of two “‘ urmesenchyme-

zellen’’in the Echinoderms. The author agrees with Semon’s recent

paper on the formation of the adoral band. At the apex of the

preoral lobe there is an ectodermic thickening comparable with the

apical plate of Tornaria and Trochophore. The formation of a right

water pore is described in detail, confirming Prof. Brooks’s discovery

and reaching the same conclusion that ‘‘ the state with two bilaterally

symmetrical water pores is a definite stage in the ontogeny of

Asterias, and that it has a phylogenetic significance. The view

that the bilateral larval form of the Echinoderms is ancestral, and not

secondarily acquired, is gaining ground,’’ and the author believes that

the bilateral water pores may be homologous with a pair of nephridia.

The later history of the Enteroccels is described.

ENTOMOLOGY.!

Entomology at Washington.—Three entomological societies

_™met at Washington, in connection with the Association of Agricultural

Colleges and Experiment Stations and the A. A. A. S., during the

week of August 15th to 22d. These were the Section of Entomology

of the Experiment Stations, the Association of Economic Entomolo-

gists, and the Entomological Club of the A. A. A. S. Besides these

gatherings many papers upon entomological subjects were read before

the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science and Section F

of the A. A. A. S. Many entomologists were present at these

meetings from various states, and the entomologists of Washington

added greatly to the interest taken in these meetin

ECTION OF ENTOMOLOGY OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS. —The opening

session of this section was held on Saturday afternoon, August

15th, at the Columbian University, and consisted of a discussion of

the proper duties of the entomologist of a station, Nearly all the

members present held that so far as practicable but few subjects

1 Conducted by Prof. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N, H.

1891.] Entomology. 923

should be investigated at a time, and that as soon as a subject had

been thoroughly studied and the results and remedies published in a

bulletin of the station, that particular investigation should be con-

sidered ended, unless future investigation brought to light some new

points of importance. It was not considered the duty of a station

entomologist to visit various parts of his state for the purpose of

showing individual farmers how to handle insecticide machinery or

how to destroy the locusts, after such a subject had been thoroughly

explained in a station bulletin.

any other subjects relating to station work were brought up and

discussed. An election of officers resulted in the choice of Lawrence

. Bruner, of Nebraska, chairman, and F. M. Webster, of Ohio,

secretary.

Monday evening Prof. A. J. Cook, of Michigan, read his report as

chairman for the past year, before the Association of Agricultural

Colleges and Experiment Stations. The report consisted of a resume

of the work done at the stations during the year, and that which is now

in progress. Owing to the early date at which a report was called for,

many of the stations had not reported ; but from the reports obtained

it is seen that the present season has been a most active one on the

part of the station workers in entomology. The results obtained at

the different stations were given, and the equipments of the stations

were also described. In most of the stations the entomologist has

some other department in charge, and in some cases teaches as well.

The best combination shows itself when the entomologist has no other

department of the station, but teaches entomology and perhaps zoology

in the college ned with the station.

THE aaao OF ECONOMIC EnToMo.ocists.—This association,

while as yet very young, promises to become one of if not zhe

foremost of its kind. Twenty-six working entomologists were present

t the opening meeting on August 17th. Many new members were

elected, some being corresponding members residing in foreign

countries.

The opening address by Prof. James Fletcher, president of the

association, was listened to with marked interest. Prof. Fletcher

thought the entomologist should strive to popularize entomology as

much as possible, in order that all might realize the importance of the

subject from an economic standpoint as well as its possibilities, that

‘all may see the beauties of the study of insects, even though ‘‘ we don’t

eat them ee

924 The American Ni aturalist. [October,

Locust Appearances of 1891.’ r. Bruner had just returned from

the western states, where the locusts are unusually abundant this year.

It is feared that, unless prompt action is taken to destroy the eggs now

being laid, many localities will be laid waste next year. Newspape

reports stated that railroad trains had been stopped by the locusts, and

have implied that the locusts were so thick that the trains could not

force their way through. The manner in which trains are stopped,

however, has been by the crushing of a few hoppers upon the track,

which so greased the rails as to stop the trains until sand was put upon

‘the rails. In many of the localities infested local species have been

found, although the migratory locust (M. spretus) was the most

commonly distributed. Other species common are M. brevitatus,

M. atlantis, and D. longipennis.

Mr, C. L. Marlatt read three short papers from C. H. Tyler Town-

send, of New Mexico, upon some observations made in that region.

Prof. J. B. Smith followed with papers upon ‘‘ Notes on Blackberry

Borers and Gall Makers,’’ and ‘‘ The Melon Borer, Me/ittia cucurbite.”’

Several points of interest were brought out.

Prof. Geo. F. Atkinson presented two papers: ‘‘A Cotton Cut-

_Worm,”’ and ‘‘ Note on a Nematode Leaf Disease.’ The case of the

cut-worm upon the cotton was thought to be new.

Dr. D. S. Kellicott read a paper on “ The Horn Fly in Ohio.” He

spoke of the appearance of this insect in Ohio and New York, and the

probability as to the damage in the future.

Dr. . Riley presented a paper on ‘‘ Kerosene Combines with

Prehn” The origin and use of the so-called pyrethrum-kerosene

emulsion was given. Many trials of this emulsionfas proved it of but

little value, and it does not merit the praise it has received.

Howard Evarts Weed followed with a paper on the ‘‘ Work of the

Season in Mississippi.’’ The results of many experiments made during

the season were given. Hippodamia convergens had been found

feeding upon the cabbage, showing it to be an injurious insect. Screw

worms (Compsomyia macellaria) have been abundant in some parts of

the state during the year. Cattle at the station are kept free from

ticks by feeding sulphur and salt in equal parts by keeping it before

the cattle a// the time. Cotton-leaf worms (Aletia) and boll worms

(Heliothis) have so far appeared in but small numbers this season.

The secretary read a letter from Miss Eleanor A. Ormerod, of Eng-

land, giving the results of Paris green experiments in England. Miss

ae Bruner followed with an interesting paper upon ‘‘ The

1891.] Entomology. 925

Ormerod is a corresponding member of the association, and by her

work had done much to popularize entomology in Englan

Dr. C. V. Riley then presented two papers: n Derneriis vulpinus in

Tobacco,” and “ Government Work gs. the Patent Office.’’ The first

paper dealt with a case of serious damage to a large cargo of tobacco

while in shipment. It was thought the Dermestes had gained access

to the tobacco while in shipment, and that it was not in the tobacco

at the time of packing. The second paper presented the difficulties

undergone by the Department of Agriculture owing to that depart-

ment not having a lawyer to represent it in the courts. The hydro-

cyanic acid gas treatment for scale insects in California originated with

the department, but a man not connected with the department has

recently received a patent on the mere technicality of using the treat-

ment at night. In the discussion which followed it was the opinion of

most of the members that the patent would not be valid if brought up

in the courts.

Prof. E. A. Popenoe, of TER gave an account of a recent out-

break of Dissostira longipennis in that state. The outbreak has

covered an extensive area, and much damage has been done.

Mr. M. H. Beckwith, of Delaware, presented some interesting

‘ Notes on a Corn Crambid.’™ In some localities much injury has

been done.

Prof. J. B. Smith next presented two papers, one on ‘‘A Note on

the Habit of Saperda candida,” and the other, ‘‘ Notes of the Year in

New Jersey.’ The latter consisted of an account of the principal

insects which have caused injury in New Jersey the present year.

Mr. L. O. Howard presented an interesting paper on ‘‘A Note on

Parasites.’ Several new genera and species were exhibited.

Prof. Herbert Osborn presented a joint paper by himself and Mr.

H. A. Gossard on ‘‘ Experiments with the Hopperdozer for Grass-Leaf

Hoppers.’’ The paper gave the results obtained with this machine in

Iowa this season. The hopperdozer was said to be an excellent agent

in the destruction of the leaf hoppers.

Another paper, on “ The Clover-Seed Caterpillar,” by the same

authors as the above, was read by Prof. Osborn. This insect has been

very numerous at Ames this year, and has proved very injurious.

paper upon ‘‘ Notes ‘of the Season in South Dakota’’ was read by

the secretary from Mr. J. M. Aldrich. Grasshoppers have appeared

in large numbers in this state the present season, but by the constant

use of hopperdozers many are killed, and fall plowing is practiced in

order to kill the eggs.

926 The American Naturalist. [October,

‘Prof. Osborn gave the results of ‘“ An Experiment with Emulsions,”

in which it was thought the Hubbard formula was the best combination

of soap, water, and kerosene.

At the meeting last year Mr. W. B. Alwood was Ses chairman

of a committee to request the various force-pump manufacturers to use

a standard fitting on spray machinery, in order that any nozzle will fit

any pump. Entomologists and others who have had occasion to use

spray machinery have had difficulty in using nozzles upon spray pumps

other than the pumps made for the particular nozzle used. Mr. Alwood,

in presenting his report, stated that most of the manufacturers had

agreed to use a standard fitting for the spray nozzles manufactured by

them. Correspondence with the manufacturers will be continued still

further, and a printed report will soon be made, giving the arrange-

ments made by the committee and the names of the manufacturers

who have given their consent to the arrangements made by the

committee.

The meetings of the association were held at the Columbian University

the two days preceding the meeting of the A.A. A.S. The committee

on nominations of officers presented its report as follows, which was

adopted :

President, Dr. J. A. Lintner, of New York; first vice president, Dr

S. A. Forbes, of Illinois; second vice president, Prof. J. H. Comstock,

of New York; secretary, F. M. Webster, of Ohio.

Prof. Cook gave some interesting notes upon some parasites, and

Mr. Wallace presented a paper upon silk culture. At the conclusion the

association adjourned to meet next year on the Monday and Tuesday

before the meeting of the A. A. A. S., and at the same place.

ENTOMOLOGICAL Cius.—The Entomological Club of the A. A. A. S.

_ held its meetings at the Columbian University, at Washington, August

_ Igth to 22d. Many entomologists were present, and it was probably

the largest meeting of entomologists ever held in this country. Byan

arrangement with the Association of Economic Entomologists papers

relating to economic entomology were presented before this body,

while those relating to life-histories and classification were presented

befére the club.

President's Address.—In his address as president of the club

Herbert Osborn made several recommendations of much importance.

One was the advisability of an international gathering of entomologists

at the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893. He ae

ceed that a manual of entomology be prepared.

oe Myce ee ee

I8] Entomology. 927

The Encyrtine with Branch Antenne.—Mr. L. O. Howard presented

specimens and drawings of several species of this subfamily in which

the antennz were variously branched.

Insect Life in the Hot Springs of Yellowstone National Park.—This

consisted of a letter to Mr. Schwarz from Mr. H. G. Hubbard, who is

now collecting at the Yellowstone Park. Mr. Hubbard complained of

the scarcity of species in this region.

Preliminary Notes on the Insect Fauna of the Great Salt Lake, Utah.

—Mr. Schwarz presented many interesting notes upon the insect fauna

of this region, especially Coleoptera. j

Occurrence of the Pear Midge, Diplosis pyrivora.—Dr. Lintner gave

an account of the appearance of this insect in various parts of New

York.

Notes on the Pear Tree Psylla, Psylla pyricola. ‘These notes were

presented by Dr. Lintner, who also exhibited specimens.

Eye-Spotted Bud Moth in Western N. Y. Some of Our Orgygias.—

These two papers were presented by Dr. Lintner. The first treated of

Tmetocera ocellana in western New York, habits, and damage caused by

this insect.

Habits of Xyleborus dispar and Volucella fasciata.—Mr. J. B. Smith

presented two papers-upon these insects. Xyleborus dispar has been

quite injurious this season in New Jersey, and samples of the borings of

this insect were presented. .

Upon the Classification of Lepidoptera.—Prof. Smith is preparing a

new list of this order, which will be out soon. Many changes have

been made in the arrangement of the list from that of previous lists,

and the reason for these changes were given. Prof. Smith also presented

two papers upon “‘ Revision of the Genus Cucullia,” and “Staining

Insect Structures.’’

Preserving Larve for Class Use.—Prof. E. W. Claypole spoke of

the various means for preserving larve for study and illustration in

collection,

A Substitute for Cork.—In this paper Prof. Claypole recommended

cross-sections of soft woods as asubstitute for cork. Itseemed to be the

general opinion of the entomologists present, however, that substitutes

for cork did not pay, as specimens are more apt to be broken.

Natural Habitat of the Screw- Worm.—Prof. H. E. Weed presented

observations upon this insect, which leads to the belief that its natural

habitat is in dead flesh and decaying vegetable matter, rather than live

animals, as is generally supposed.

928 The American Naturalist. [October,

The following papers were also read: ‘‘ Two Borers Destructive to

Mountain Ash,” by Dr. D. S. Kellicott; ‘‘ Bibliography of Ento-

mology,’’ by Mr. B. P. Mann; ‘‘ Notes on Sphecius speciosus.” ‘Some

Interesting Phylloxere,’’ by C. V. Riley ; “ Longevity of Ixodes and

Trombidium,’’ by Miss M. E. Murfelt; ‘‘ Modification of Habit in

r Wasps,’’ by Miss Murfelt, showing that these wasps sometimes -

use paper already made instead of making it from wood.

The committee on recommendation of the president’s address

reported that a manual of entomology should be-prepared, and recom-

mended that specialists in the different orders be invited to prepare

such a manual. The committtee was continued another year, with

instructions to correspond with specialists in the different orders and

publishers, to report at the next meeting of the club.

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President,

E. A. Schwarz; secretary, F. M. Webster.

The following entomological papers were read before Section F of

the A. A. A. S.: “Origin and Development of Parasitic Habit in

Mallophaga and Pediculidz,’’ by Herbert Osborn ; ‘‘ The Origin and

Development of Parasitism Among the Sarcoptide,”’ by H. Garman ;

‘On the Habits of the Proctotrypidæ,” by Wm. H. Ashmead ; “rRe

Biology of the Chalcididæ,” by L. O. Howard; “ Parasitism in Cole-

optera, in Diptera, in Ded, and Ychueimenide.” by C. V: Riley ;

. ‘‘Microérganisms as Insecticides,” by C. V. Riley; ‘Enemies of

the Honey-Bee,’’ by A. J. Cook; ‘Notes on the Homology of the

Hemipterous Mouth,” by John B. Smith; ‘‘ Epipharynx and Hypo-

pharynx of Odonata,” by John B. Smith ; “The Mouth of Copris

carolina, and Notes on the Homology of the er by John B.

— Smith.

Before the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science the

following papers were read: “ Fighting the Rose Chafer,’’ by A. J.

Cook; ‘Bees and Fertilization,” by A. J. Cook; “ A Bacterial

ae of the Chinch Bug,” by S. A. Forbes ; i Northwind Spread

of a Tropical Injurious Insect,” by L. O Howard ; ‘‘The Kerosene

Emulsion and Its Increasing Usefulness,” by C. V. Riley.—Howarp

Evarts WEED, Agricultural College, Mississippi.

a aa

1891.] 7 Archeology and Ethnology. 929

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

Proceedings of the Section of Anthropology (H) of the

American Association for the Advancement of Science.—

Washington, D. C., August 17-25, 1891.—The section held its first

session in the Chemical Hall of the Columbian University on Wednes-

day, August 19th, at 2 P.M., Prof. Joseph Jastrow, of Madison,

Wisconsin, vice president of the section, and Mr. W. H. Holmes, of

Washington, D. C., secretary.

Vice president Jastrow’s annual address was entitled ‘‘ The Natural

History of Analogy.” He described the study of analogy in its

bearings on various forms of culture, and went on to indicate that this

form of argument is used only with great caution by societies of to-day.

Analogy was, however, a very predominant method of argument

amongst primitive people. The speaker defined analogy by speaking

of instances of a further degree of resemblance from a given degree

of resemblance. The various types of agreement differing slightly

from the standard were also treated. In almost all savage customs and

beliefs, the professor said, abundant instances of reasoning by analogy

were to be found. In magical practices, in interpretations of omens

and dreams, in medicinal practices, and social and tribal customs

striking instances of analogous argument abounded, e Zulu who

chews a bit of wood to soften the heart of the man he wants to buy an

ox from; the fetish determining by whether a stick stands or falls

whether a war shall be kept up or allowed to stop ; the medicine man

who performs incantations over some personal belonging of his victim

or by the use of out-of-the-way drugs,—all these were instanced as the

results of analogy or the feeling of analogy. Similar traits in children

were described and illustrated. He said that an abundant field of

illustration was found in the popular superstitions, folk lore, and

customs that have survived from a lower to a higher culture. The

modern dream book, household medicinal practices, charms, and, in

the more elaborate system of details of astrology, the doctrine of

sympathies, and kindred pseudo-sciences were the fields from which he

took his illustrations. From this progressive scientific thought has

reached its present place instead of the shifting position once occupied

by the argument of analogy. ‘‘ That which was serious reasoning to

our forefathers,’ he said in conclusion, ‘now takes its place as

proper instrument for amusement and lies at the basis of a joke. This

930 The American Naturalist. [October,

offspring of our race is also connected by history with this earlier form,

and, furthermore, close relation is traced between the bypaths of

modern civilization and the outgrown forms of culture among which it

originated.’’

The committee elected by the section were as follows: Fellow to the

council, Rev, J. Owen Dorsey, Washington. Sectional committee,

Prof. O. T. Mason, National Museum ; Prof. Thomas Wilson, National

Museum ; Prof. George H. Perkins, University of Vermont. Member

nominating committeé, Prof. Thos. Wilson. Subcommittee on nomi-

nations, Prof. Paul Carus, editor Monist; Prof. C. P. Hart, Wyoming,

Ohio; Mr. Walter Hough, National Museum.

The meetings for reading papers commenced Thursday morning,

August 20th, at 10 A.M. Prof. W. H. Leaman delivered an address on

“ The Essentials of a Good Education, with a New Classification of |

Knowledge.” Mr. Walter Hough gave a description of ‘‘ The Custom

of Kava-Drinking as Practiced by the Papuans and Polynesians,”

followed by Major J. W. Powell’s exhibition of his new linguistic

map of the Indians of North America. .

This map is the chef-d’ euvre of the Bureau of Ethnology, and one

in which Major Powell takes much pride. It represents many years of

patient, careful labor of himself and some of his most valuable assist-

ants. It has been presented before in rather an inchoate form to

several scientific societies, but now it has been completed and will

appear in the next volume of the reports of the Bureau of Ethnology.

It attempts to represent the locality of the various Indian tribes of

North América at the beginning of history. As the Atlantic coast

was occupied by white men much earlier than the interior and the

„Pacific slope, so of course its representation on this map dates to an

earlier time. Fifty-eight linguistic stocks or families are represented

on the map, and these are divided into 264 dialects, representing as

many different Indian tribes. The major said that over 1,000 Indian

languages are spoken, which can be divided among seventy-five differ-

ent stocks, and that while the number was large the tendency was-

not toward multiplication, but toward a unification or parent stock.

He explained his system of segration and aggregation, and said that

this map represented our earliest knowledge of the locations of Indian

tribes in North America as shown by their language. It might require

correction in the future, according as our knowledge of them might

increase. In conclusion he made some humorous remarks on Volapük |

as a universal language, and compared it to the most barbaric of bar-

baric tongues, and that it approached ‘closely primitive Indian tongues

1891] Archeology and Ethnology. 931

of North America. He showed that civilized languages had little or

no inflection, while the more primitive a language the greater the

extremes of inflection, which is the case with Volapük. ‘‘To go to

Volapiik for a modern language would be like taking up the old wooden

plow in agriculture again.”’

Mr. E. P. Vining, of St. Louis, Mo., criticised the map, disputed

some of the propositions, and declared our knowledge of the Indian

language of early times to be too indefinite and uncertain to forma

foundation for so extensive a scheme of localization.

Dr. Thomas Wilson presented a collection of fifty or more of gold

ornaments from his department of prehistoric archeology in the

National Museum, taken from prehistoric graves chiefly in the province

of Antioquia, United States of Colombia, lately procured; also a

series of prehistoric jade implements from Mexicoand Central America,

All of them were beautifully wrought, and many of them had been

sawed into two or more parts, and holes drilled for suspension as for

amulets. Dr. Wilson said these were one of the varieties of jade called

jadeite, the component parts of which were silica 59.4, alumina 25.8,

soda 15.3. Hedescribed other varieties of jade,—nephrite, which was

' silica, magnesia, lime; fibrolite, silica and alumina ; pectolite, silica,

lime, and soda ; and said pectolite was local in Arizona and New Mexico,

implements made of it in prehistoric times being found among the ruins

of the cliff dwellers of those territories. Nephrite was local in Alaska

and British Columbia, where the wrought implements were found

belonging to both historic and prehistoric times. These jadeite imple-

ments were confined to Mexico and Central America, though none of

the raw material had been found nearer than New Zealand and the

Asiatic coast. On this, with some addition, he said Prof. Putnam

had founded the theory of the migration of the Central American and

Mexican aboriginal population from Asia. If the theory be true, he

did not believe that it had been, as claimed, by way of Behring Strait,

because throughout the length of the continent no trace of such a pas-

e had been found. On the contrary, similar implements made of a

different material coming from the Yukon and other rivers had been

found for a thousand miles over this route between Behring Strait and

Mexico, Prof. Morse called on Prof. Putnam (who had just come in),

and he expanded his theory, which in turn was attacked by Major

Powell, who prophesied that jadeite would yet be discovered in that

country. Prof. Putnam replied when it was there would be time

enough, etc.

932 The American Naturalst. [ October,

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey read a paper, and described, with charts, some

of the peculiarities and phonetic types of the Siouan language.

Mrs. Anita Newcomb McGee read a paper entitled ‘‘ An Experi-

ment in Human Stirpiculture.’’

« It is not generally known that a carefully planned and methodi-

cally conducted experiment in human stirpiculture, probably the most

extensive and systematic of modern times and civilized people, was

carried on during the years 1808 to 1879 in Central New York.

originator of the experiment was a zealous but logical enthusiast, the

late John Humphrey Noyes; the purpose was the promotion of sanc-

` tity į the place and the means were the Oneida community.

« In early life Noyes founded the peculiar sect called perfectionists,

which in 1848 gathered disciples to the number of eighty-seven at

Oneida. Here the community of goods and also of person was prac-

ticed, a system of complex marriage in which the amative and propa-

gative functions were separated having been established.

« Until 1868 the birth-rate in the community was carefully limited,

but at this date, financial success being assured and the members having

increased to 250, the experiment in stirpiculture was begun. Its object

was the increase of sanity in succeeding generations in order that sin,

disease, and finally death might be abolished. Physique, intellect,

hereditary qualities, mutual attraction, etc., were secondarily con-

sidered.

“ The first principle of this stirpiculture was continued in and in

breeding with judicious mixture of foreign blood from time to time.

Its second principle was the careful selection of individuals. From

1869 to 1880 sixty children were born in pursuit of this plan. Of these

five died at birth from unforeseen causes depending on the mothers,

and one child was acknowledged a failure physically. Otherwise the

experiment was progressing admirably, the children being given the

best of care, when an unexpected result caused the failure of all Noyes’s

plans. The spirit of monogamy, ruthlessly kept in check before,

became so strong in consequence of the mating of one-quarter of the

community for stirpicultutal purposes that the complex marriage system

was given up in 1879. ‘The dissolution of the Oneida commtinity by

mutual consent followed a year later. Noyes, foreseeing the end, had

retired from Oneida, and died in 1886.

“Of the stirpicultural children only one has since died, The

others, now aged eleven to twenty-two years, are on the whole some-

what above the outside average in physique and intellect. The blood

: of the children came largely from farmers and mechanics, with a

I ee ee

1891. Archeology and Ethnology. 933

strong infusion from the intellectual Noyes family. It is therefore

noteworthy that of the oldest sixteen boys ten are in business as clerks,

foremen, etc., one is a musician of repute, two are students of law and

medicine, two at college, and only one following a manual occupation,

being a mechanic. Of the oldest six girls, two are at college and one

is a student of the kindergarten system,”’

Mrs, Zelia Nuttall’s paper on ‘* Relics of Ancient Mexican Civiliza-

tion ° was, in her absence, read by Prof. Putnam. It described many

Mexican antiquities, and threw a great deal of light on the civilization

of ancient Mexico. The paper was illustrated with a number of small —

reproductions of Aztec ornamental designs, and of a chief’s shield sent

to Italy by Cortez, the only thing of the kind known to anthropolo-

gists, which were collected by the distinguished lady. One of the

drawings she presented represented four peculiarly horri ble-looking

Aztec gods.

Prof. Edward S. Morse, of Salem, read two very clever papers on

the allied subjects of ‘‘ Bow Stretchers’’ and. ‘‘ Prehistoric Bows.”

The first of these papers referred to the puzzling little bronze imple-

ments found associated with Roman antiquities. The professor

exhibited one of them, They are usually a couple of inches long,

with three spurs of varying size and shape on one side, the ends of the

main portion of the implement being two rings large enough to allow

a man’s fingers to be thrust through. They have always Leen called bow

stretchers on the supposition that prehistoric archers used them in draw-

ing back thestrings of their powerful bows ; but Prof. Morse pointed out

the fallacy of such a conclusion, and showed the impossibility of their

being so used. What the little affairs were used for by prehistoric man

is, and may always be, a conundrum to the world’s anthropologists.

Incidentally Prof. Morse described the way various nations held and

drew the bow-string, and said that in China the archer of to-day shoots

his arrow by hooking his thumb around it, his thumb being protected

by a peculiar ring, just like an immeasurably ancient bronze ring that.

the professor had got from prehistoric graves that dated back to the

bronze age of man. His second paper, on ‘Prehistoric Bows,’’

showed the great simplicity and similarity of the prehistoric bows

found in Peru, Egypt, the peat bogs of Denmark, Holland, the Swiss

lake villages, and other places.

“ The Nez Perce Country,” written by Miss Alice Fletcher, was read

by Mrs. Barnes. ‘This paper was an explanation of a map of the Nez

Perce country, drawn by a native of the tribe, and showing the location

of seventy-eight villages, and giving the Nez Perce names of mountains

934 The American Naturalist. [October,

‘and streams. A summary of the dithensions and groups of these villages

was given and an outline of the tribal organization, with a brief

account of the mode of living in the village and some deductions

concerning the relation of the environment to the development of the

people. A short biographical sketch of the Indian who made this map

was also given and his photograph shown.

Dr. Wilson told of his connection with the Nez Perce tribe of

Indians in his endeavor to recover possession of the land now occupied

by the Lapwaii reservation for the benefit of the A. B. C. F. M. (for-

eign missions), who had sent the first missionaries to that country

before it became the property of the United States, and who had by

their possession materially aided in making it such. The title of the

board to the 640 acres, one mile square, was, he said, as good as that of

any person in Washington to the house in which he lived; but they

had never been able to get possession.

Mr. Frank Leverett, of Madison, Wisconsin, described by means of

maps and charts the ‘‘ Relation of the Loveland, Ohio, Implement-

Bearing Terrace to the Moraines of the Ice Sheet.”

‘“‘ The Utility of Physical Study of Child Life” was next presented

by Mrs. Laura Osborne Talbott. If ‘« the child of to-day is to become

the man of to-morrow,”’ is not the responsibility of the present gener-

ation great regarding the civilization of the coming century? No

thoroughly philosophical study has taken up the subject of child life at

a sufficiently early period; the school laws do not permit a child to

enter the public school before the age of six years, This is the most

important period of a child’s life, as its acquired perceptions then are

most numerous, its inherited tendencies become fixed, and the creative

power of the brain is most easily awakened. From the time that

consciousness begins to unfold there is begun a series of acts that

might engage the attention of psychical experts whose duty it would:

be to watch every indication of development for good or for evil. No

crude management is required for child life, but teachers of rarest gift,

whose tact, discernment, and wisdom will best assist in bringing forth

from the embryo the fully rounded and complete being. Comcnius,

Pestalozzi, and Froebel have, in their philanthropic labors, conferred

great benefits upon mankind, yet deeper insight into the child’s mind

is demanded than has been afforded by them. The demand of the

age is for more creative power, or for an intellectual force that may be

able to harmonize the different elements of our civilization. All ques-

tions arising from the mixed conditions of our present civilization must

eventually revert to the final question, How can we best develop all the

ee eee Ce ee ee ee

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 935

energies of the individual? According to Herbert Spencer, ‘‘ the pro-

cess in which life essentially consists is the continuous maintenance of

an equilibrium between the organism and its environment.’’ It is

evident that this want of equipoise or correspondence between the inner

and outer life of the individual causes great failures in life. For ages the

human race has been a prey to every variety of crime, and nations have

risen only to fall into degradation. The same fate is before us unless we

give to each child its inalienable right to develop its whole nature to its

highest power of development. What an uplifting to all civilization

would take place in a few generations if a truly wise and philosophical

training could be given to young children in order rightly to stimulate

their mental and moral powers. There are families who for many

years have given great attention to this important subject, but there

has been no general movement toward this object. From an economical

standpoint it might by wise to endeavor to uplift the masses in this

manner, for the ancients teach us that one member cannot suffer injury

without danger to the whole body.

The paper on the ‘‘ Origin of the Name Chautauqua,” by Albert S.

Gatschet, stated at length the linguistic reasons why this name, which

is worded on the Seneca-Iroquois language still spoken in Western New

York, cannot signify anything else but ‘‘one has taken out fish

there.’’ It is pronounced by these Indians T’kan Tchatak Wan, and

the old English and French documents vary enormously in their mode

of writing it. It is probable that fish were taken out by the Indians

from Lake Chautauqua to stock the brooks and ponds of the vicinity.

The author proposes to change the orthography of Oe into

the more scientific Chatakwa.

Am. Nat.—October.—6.

936 The American Naturalist. [October

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

American Association forthe Advancement of Science.—

The fortieth meeting of this body met in Washington, D. C., from

August 1gth to 25th, inclusive. The officers were: President,

Albert B. Prescott, Ann Arbor, Mich. Vice Presidents, (A) Mathe-

matics and Astronomy—E. W. Hyde, Cincinnati, Ohio; (B)

Physics—F, E. Nipher, St. Louis, Mo.; (C) Chemistry—R. C.

Kedzie, Agricultural College, Mich.; (D) Mechanical Science and

Engineering—Thomas Gray, Terre Haute, Ind.; (E) Geology and

Geography—J. J. Stevenson, New York ; (F) Biology—J. M. Coulter,

Bloomington, Ind. ; (H) Anthropology—Joseph Jastrow, Madison,

Wis. ; (1) Economic Science and Statistics—Edmund J. James, Phila-

delphia, Pa. Permanent Secretary, F. W. Putnam, Cambridge (office,

Salem), Mass. General Secretary, Harvey W. Wiley, Washington,

D.C. Secretary of the Council, Amos W. Butler, Brookville, Ind.

Secretaries of the Sections, (A) Mathematics and Astronomy—E. D.

Preston, Washington, D. C.; (B) Physics—A. Macfarlane, Austin,

Texas; (C) Chemistry—T. H. Norton, Cincinnati, Ohio; (D)

Mechanical Science and Engineering—William Kent, New York,

= Kes ; (E) Geology and Geography—W. J. McGee, Washington,

; (E) Biology—A, J. Cook, Agricultural College, Mich. ; (H)

PRUO ARH H. Holmes, Washington, D. C.; (I) Eeorionie

Science and Statistics—B. F. Fernow, Washington, D. C. Treasurer,

William Lilly, Mauch Chunk, Pa.

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 19TH.—In the afternoon the chairmen of the

sections delivered their addresses. Prof. Stevenson, of Section E,

spoke ‘‘ On the Relations of the Chemung and Catskill on the Eastern

Side of the Appalachian Basin.’’ Prof. Coulter, of Section F, spoke

“ On the Future of Systematic Botany.’ The subject of the address

of Prof. Sahil of Section H, was “The he History of

Analogy.” In the evening the retiring president, Prof. G. L

Goodale, delivered an address ‘‘On the Possibilities ie Additions to

our Cultivated and Useful Plants from New Sources.’’

The papers read in Sections E, F, and H were as follows:

. THURSDAY, AUGUST 20TH.—Section E.—Source of Supply to Lateral

and Medial Moraines, John T. Campbell. New Meteoric Iron from

Arizona Containing Diamonds, A. E. Foote. Post-Glacial Anticlinal

Ridges near Ripley and Caledonia, N. Y., G. K. Gilbert. Purposes of

Se ee

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 937

Mountain-Building and Their Relationship to the Earth’s Construction,

Warren Upham. Notes on an Extinct Volcano at Montreal, Canada,

Henry Capai. On a New Horizon of Fossil Fishes, E. D. Cope.

On the Cranial Characters of Zguus excelsus Leidy, E. D. Cope. On

Problematic Organisms and the Pteservation of Algæ as Fossils, Joseph

F. James. On the Age of the Moùnt Pleasant, Ohio, Beds, Joseph F.

James. Preliminary Report of Observations at the Deep Well near

' Wheeling, W. Va., William Hallock. The Eureka Shale of Northern

Arkansas, T. C. Hopkins.

Section F.—Notes on the Physiological and Structural Changes in

Cayuga Lake Lampreys, Simon H. Gage. Notes on the Heart of

Certain Mammals, Ida H. Hyde. The Transformation of the Ver-

milion-Spotted Newt, Simon H. Gage. On the Kinds of Motion of

the Ultimate Units of Contractile Living Matter, John A. Ryder. On

the Extinction of the Scapular and Pelvic Arches and Limbs of Lacer-

tilia, E. D. Cope. On the Structure and Dimorphism of Hypocrea

tubertformis, Geo. F. Atkinson. Another Chapter in the History of

the Venus Fly Trap, J. M. Macfarlane. On the Prothallium and

Campbell. A New Nectria, Byron D. Halsted. The Composite

Collected by Dr. Edward Palmer in Colima, Joseph N. Rose. The

Flora of Carmen Island, Joseph N. Rose. Uses of the Fermentation

Tube in Bacteriology, with Demonstrations, Theobald Smith. The

Foraminifera, with a New Device for the Exhibition of Specimens,

James M. Flint.

Section H.—The Essentials of a Good Education, with a New Classi-

fication of Knowledge, Wm. H. Seaman. The Custom of Kava-

Drinking as Practiced by the Paquans and Polynesians, Walter Hough.

A Linguistic Map of North America, J. W. Powell. Jade Implements

from Mexico and Central America, Thomas Wilson. Gold Ornaments

in the United States National Museum from the United States of Col-

ombia, Thomas Wilson. Siouan Onomatopes Interjections and

Phonetic Types, J. Owen Dorsey. On a Collection of Stone Pipes

‘from Vermont, G. H. Perkins. The Importance and Methods of the

Science of Comparative Religion, Merwin Marie Snell.

FRIDAY, 21st.— Section E.—Fossil Tracks in the Triassic of York

county, Pa., A. Wanner. New Footprints of the Connecticut Valley,

M. N. Mitievier. The Plant-Bearing Deposits of the American Trias,

Lester F. Ward. A Reply to Professor Marsh’s Note on Mesozoic

Mammalia, Henry F. Osborn. Principles and Methods of Geologic

Correlation by Means of Fossil Plants, Lester F. Ward. Exhibition of

938 ; The American Naturalist. [October,

Certain Bones of Megalonyx Not Before Known, James M. Safford.

On the Probable Existence of a Second Driftless Area in the Mississippi

Basin, R. D. Salisbury. The Cincinnati Ice Dam, Frank Leverett.

The Structure of the Ouachita Uplift of Arkansas, Leon S. Griswold.

The Relations of the Archean and*the Algonkian in the Northwest,

C. R. Van Hise. Results of a Well-Boring at Rochester, N. Y., Her-

man L. Fairchild.

Section. F.—A Monograph of the Carolina Paroquet, Edwin M.

Hasbrouck. Notes on Bacteria of Cucurbits, Byron D. Halsted. On

Coloration in Certain Reptilia, E. D. Cope. Transpiration or the

Loss of Water in Plants, Chas. E. Bessey and Albert F. Woods.

Movements of Fluids in Plants, Wm. J. Beal. Absorption of Fluids

by Plants, Li H. Pammel. Gases in Plants, J. C. Arthur. Notes

Upon an Anthracnose, Byron D. Halsted. Origin and Development

of Parasitic Habit in Mallophaga and Pediculide, Herbert Osborn.

The Origin and Development of Parasitism Among the Sarcoptide,

H. Garman. On the Habits of the Proctotrypide, Wm. H. Ashmead.

The Biology of the Chalcidide, L Howard.

Section H.—An Experiment in Human Stirpiculture, Anita New-

comb McGee. Relics of Ancient Mexican Civilization, Zelia Nuttall.

Bow Stretchers, Edward S. Morse, Prehistoric Bows, Edward S.

Morse. The Nez Perce Country, Alice C. Fletcher. Relation of a

Loveland, Ohio, Implement-Bearing Terrace to the Moraines of the

Ice Sheet, Frank Leverett. Utility of Psychical Study of Child Life,

Laura Osborne Talbott. Origin of the Name Chautauqua, Albert

Gatschet.

SATURDAY, 22D.—Section E.—The Attitude of the Eastern and

Central Portions of the United States During the Glacial Period, T. C.

Chamberlin. Neocene and Pleistocene Continent Movements, W. J.

McG esults of a Well-Boring at Rochester, N. Y., Herman L.

Fairchild. On a Deep Bore near Akron, Ohio, E. W. Claypole. The

Relations of the Archean and the Algonkian in the Northwest, C. R.

Van Hise. A Study of the Fossil Avifauna of the Silver Lake Region,

Oregon, R. W. Shufeldt. The Peninsula and Volcano Cosignina, J.

Crawford. The Geological Survey of Nicaragua, J. Crawford. The

Highest Old Shore Line on Mackinac Island, F. B. Taylor. Strie

and Slickensides at Alton, Illinois, J. E. Todd.

ction F—Parasitism in Coleoptera, in Diptera, in Braconide, and

Ichneumonide, C. V. Riley. Microdrganisms as Insecticides, C. V

Riley. Enemies of the Honey Bee, A. J. Cook. Notes on the

Homology of the Hemipterous Mouth, John B. Smith, Epipharynx

iy te EAE amas Sara tere Aceh Wk onl AA YS ae a NEIDE AE IAN

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 939

and Hypopharynx of Odonata, John B. Smith. The Mouth of the

Copris carolina, and Notes on the Homology of the Mandible, John

B. Smith. On the Phylogeny of the Archegoniata, Douglas H.

Campbell. On the Turtles of the Genus Malaclemys, O. P. Hay.

The President Condition of the Study of the Deep-Sea Fishes, G.

Brown Goode. On the Injection of Blood from the Eyes of Horned

Toads, O. P. Hay. Abnormal Bees, A. J. Cook. On the Importance

of a Table at the Naples Station, Chas. W. Stiles. Further Observa-

tions on a Bacterial Disease of Oats, B. T. Galloway. Botanical

Field-Work of the Botanical Division, George Vasey. Results

from Recent Investigations of Pear Blight, M. B. Waite.

The Spectroscope in Botanical Studies, I. S. Brashear. The Per-

sistence and Relation of Faunal Realms, Theodore Gill. The New

Zealand Fish Fauna, Theodore Gill. A Case of the Loss of Sense

of Smell, Joseph Jastrow. A Novel Color Illusion and a New Method

of Color Mixture, Joseph Jastrow. Modification of Habit in Paper-

Making Wasps, Mary E. ‘Murtfeldt. The Fate of the Fur Seal in

American Waters (lantern illustrations), Wm, Palmer.

Section H—An Ancient Human Cranium from Southern Mexico,

F. W. Putnam, The Length of a Generation, C. M. Woodward. Burial

Customs of the Hurons, Chas. A. Hirschfelder. The Messiah Religion

and the Ghost Dance, James Mooney. Study of a Dwarf, Frank

Baker. Stone Drills and Perforations in Stone from the Susquehanna

River, Atreus Wanner. Evidences of the High Antiquity of Man in

America, Thos, Wilson. On Bone, Copper, and Slate Implements

Found in Vermont, G. H. Perkins. Some Archeological Contraven-

tions, Gerard Fowke. On the Distribution of Stone Implements in the

Tide-Water Province, W. H. Holmes. Aboriginal Novaculite Quarries

in Arkansas, W. H. Holmes. Games of Teton Dakota Children,

James Owen Dorsey. Geographical Arrangement of Prehistoric

Objects in the U. S. National Museum, Thos. Wilson. Curious Forms

of Chipped Stone Implements Found in Italy, Honduras, and the

United States, Thos. Wilson. Inventions of Antiquity, Thos. Wil-

son. Study of Automatic Motion, Joseph Jastrow. Race Survivals

and Race Mixture in Great Britain, W. H. Babcock.

Excursions.—On Saturday, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday the

following excursions were proposed for the association: To Luray, Va.

(expense, $7.50) ; to Atlantic City ; Norfolk, and Virginia Beach, Va.

(expense, $8.00); Baltimore ($2.00); Mount Vernon, Va. On

account of the expense, some of these excursions were not or but little

patronized. This was a unique feature in the history of the American

Association. | ce —

940 The American Naturalist. [October,

On the evening of Friday the 21st, Prof. John M. Macfarlane, of

Edinburg, delivered an address consisting of ‘‘ Illustrations of Heredity

in Plant Hybrids,’’ which was illustrated by enlarged views of plant

cell structures thrown on a screen.

At the conclusion of the lecture- the council met and elected the

following officers for 1892 :

President, Prof. Joseph LeConte, of the University at Berkeley,

Cal. ; permanent secretary, Prof. F. W. Putnam, Cambridge, Mass. ;

general secretary, Prof. Amos W. Butler, Brookville, Ind. ; council

secretary, Prof. T. H. Horton, of Cincinnati University; and treas-

urer, William Lilly, Mauch Chunk, Pa. The vice presidents of sections

number: A, Prof. J. R. Eastman, of the Naval Observatory, Washing-

ton; B, Prof. B. F. Thonias, State University, Columbus, Ohio; C,

Dr. Alfred Springer, Cincinnati; D, Prof. J. B. Johnson, Washington

University, St. Louis; E, Prof. H. S. Williams, Cornell University ;

F, Prof. S. H. Gage, Cornell University ; H, W. H: Holmes, of the

Ethnological Bureau ; and I, Prof. S. Dana Horton, Pomeroy, Ohio.

Dr. H. Wheatland, of Salem, Mass., and Mr. Thomas Meehan were >

chosen auditors, and the following gentlemen will be the new secre-

taries of sections:

A, Prof. Winslow Upton, Brown University, Providence, R. I. ; B,

Prof. Browne Ayers, Tulane University, New Orleans; C, Prof. I L.

Howe, Louisville Polytechnic Institute; D, Prof. O. H. Landreth,

Vanderbilt University ; E, Prof. R. D. Salisbury, University of Wis-

ems F, Prof. B. D. Halsted, Rutgers College, New Brunswick,

; H, Dr. Stewart Culin, Philadelphia ; and I, Lester F. Ward, of

the Geological Survey, Washington.

The council was in receipt of a hearty invitation to select Racia,

N. Y., as the place of the next convention, and a ballot resulted in the

choice being made.

‘general session was held on the evening of Tuesday, August 25th,

when the above officers and place of meeting were chosen for 1892.

An invitation to meet fh Chicago during the exposition in 1893 was

presented by a Mr. Young in a speech commensurate with the antici-

pated grandeur of the event. Resolutions of thanks to the various

entertaining bodies and authorities were adopted.

The Geological Society of America.—This organization com-

menced its session August 24th in the Columbian University building,

Washington, D. C., and closed it on the evening of August 25th.

a ca

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 941

Owing to the death of the president, Prof. Alex. Winchell, the vice

president, Mr. G. K. Gilbert, took the chair.

In opening the meeting the acting president, Mr. G. K. Gilbert,

made a few brief remarks, in which he welcomed the society to Wash-

ington, and, in the name of President Welling, to the university. A

touching memorial of the deceased president of the society, Alexander

Winchell, was read by Prof. N. T. Winchell, brother of the deceased.

The paper gave a sketch of the life and work of Prof. Winchell, and

was a fitting tribute to a man who occupied his high position among

geologists.

The following papers were read :

MONDAY, AUGUST 24TH.—A Geological Map- of South America,

Prof. Dr. Gustav Steinmann, University of Freiburg, Germany. On

the Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic Formations in the East Indian

Archipelago (Timor and Rotti), Dr. August Rothpletz, University of

unich, Germany. Thermometamorphism in Igneous Rocks, Mr.

Alfred Harker, St. John’s College, Cambridge, England. The Lower

Silurian (Ordovician) Ichthyic Fauna, and Its Mode of Occurrence,

C alcott. Relations of the Plant-Bearing Deposits of the

American Trias, Lester F. Ward. Studies in Problematic Organisms :

The Genus Scolithus, Pa, F. Pon The Tertiary Iron Ores of

Arkansas and Texas, R. se, Jr. Contribution to the |

Geology of the Plains, EAEE ao iñ Northwestern Nebraska,

Robert Hay. ' Some Recent Experimental Reproductions of Scottish

Mountain Structures, Henry M. Cadell, Esq., Scotland. Mechanics of

Appalachian Structure (with lantern illustrations), Bailey Willis.

TUESDAY, AUGUST 25TH.—The Relations of the Fossil Echinoid

Faunas of Europe and America, Mr. John Walter tig British

Museum, London, England. On the Eurypterus Beds o l as

Compared with Those of the Waterlime of North America, i Fried- —

rich Schmidt, Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia. Sur les

Couches Marines Terminant le Jurassique et Commengant le Crétace

et sur l’Histoire de leur Faune, Prof. Alexis Pavlow, University of

Moscow, Russia. Sur Homme Contemporain du Mammouth en

Belgique, Prof. Max Lohest, University of Liége, Belgium. On the

Quaternary Changes of Level in Scandinavia, Baron Gerald de Geer,

State Geologist, Stockholm, Sweden. The Black Earth of the Steppes

of Southern Russia: Its Origin, Distribution, and Points of Resem-

blance With the Soils of the American Prairies, Prof. A. Krassnof.

Sur l’Existence du Dinotherium en Roumaine, Prof. Gregoire Stefan-

escu, University of Bucharest, Roumania. ‘The Present Standing of

942 The American Naturalist. [October,

the Several Hypotheses of the Cause of the Glacial Period, Thomas

C. Chamberlin. On the Northward and Eastward Extension of Pre-

pleistocene Gravels in the Basin of the Mississippi; On Certain

-Extra Morainic Drift Phenomena of New Jersey, R. D. Salisbury. In-

equality of Distribution of the Englacial Drift, Warren Upham.

Defloration and Deformation of Alluvial Deposits in New England,

\ Homer T. Fuller, The Elzolite Syenite of Beemerville, N. Y., J. F-

Kemp. On the Separation and Study of the Heavy Accessories of

Rocks, Orville A. Derby. Contributions to the Areal Geology of the

Texas-New Mexico Region: (a) The Tertiary History of the Rio

Grande Embayment ; (4) The Llano Estacado and Edwards Plateau ;

Craters; (<) The Las Vegas Raton Plateau, R. T. Hill. The Missouri

Coal Measures and the Conditions of their Deposition, Arthur Wins-

low. The Well’s Creek Basin and Uplift in Stewart and Houston

Counties, Tennessee ; The Pelvis of the Megalonyx, and the Lot of

Undescribed Bones Among which It is Found, from Big Bone Cave, in

Tennessee, James M. Safford. The Cienegas of Southern California ;

A Description and Discussion of Their Geological Structure and Origin,

E. W. Hilgard. Notes on the Crystalline Rocks of Central Texas, .

with Maps, T. B. Comstock. Ona Deep Boring near Akron, Ohio,

and Its Signiflcance, E. W. Claypole. The Natural Bridges of Florida

and the Chattahoochee Embayment, Lawrence G. Johnson, On

Some Peculiar Causes which are Influencing Topographical Changes

and Geological Formations in the Channel Islands of California,

Lorenzo G. Yates.

The International Geological Congress.—This body met in

the Columbian University, Washington, D. C., from August 26th to

September 2d, inclusive. The officers of the meeting were: Honorary

presidents, J. D. Dana, James Hall. President, J. S. Newberry.

Vice presidents—United States, Joseph Le Conte, J. W. Powell, and

Raphael Pumpelly; Canada, J. C. K. Laflamme and W. Macfarlan ;

Mexico, A. del Castillo ; England, T. McK. Hughes; Scotland, H. M.

Cadell; France, A. Gaudry and Charles Barrois; Belgium, E.

Van den Broeck; Holland, G. A. F. Molengraaff; Norway, H.

Reusch ; ‘Sweden, Gerard de Geer; Russia, Th. Tschernychew,

F. Schmidt, and A. Pavlow; Denmark, Dr. Johnstrup; Germany,

Dr. Von Zittel and H. Credner; Austria, Dr. E. Tietze; Hungary,

Joseph Von Szabo; Spain, M. F. de Castro ; Portugal, Joaquin Filippe

Nery Delgado ; Italy, Prof. G. Uzielli; Switzerland, H. Golliez ;

i r RL O E SRL O E Fh A E

2 |

ee |

mn Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 943

iu ia, G. Stefanescu ; India, F. R. Mallet; New Zealand, F.

Hutton ; Australia, Arch. Liversidge; Chili, F. J. San Roman.

General Secretaries, H. S. Williams, S. F. Emmons. Secretaries,

J. C. Branner, Emm. de Margerie, G. H. Williams, Dr. F. Frech, Dr.

Diener, Whitman Cross. ‘Treasurer, Arnold Hague.

Owing to the illness of Prof. Newberry the chair was taken by

Prof. T. McKenna Hughes, of England; Prof. Karl Von Zittel, of

Munich ; Prof. Albert Gaudry, of Paris ; and by Prof. Joseph LeConte,

first vice president. Prof. Hughes made the opening address, and was

succeeded by the Hon. Gardner C. Hubbard, of Washington, in an

address of welcome from the city. On behalf of the president and

, the government Hon, J. S. Noble, Secretary of the Interior, iio

an address of welcome, which was followed by a few remarks from

Major J. W. Powell.

The program of proceedings was as follows:

WEDNESDAY, AUGUST 26TH.—I0 A.M., meeting of the council for

nomination of bureau. 2 P.M., opening of the congress, election of

bureau, addresses, etc. P.M., reception at the Arlington Hotel by

the Geological Society of America.

THURSDAY, AUGUST 27TH.—1I0 A.M., meeting of the council. 11 |

A.M., morning meeting of congress. 2.30 P.M., afternoon meeting of

congress. Evening reception by Mr. and Mrs. S. F. Emmons, at 1725

H Street, 10 P.M., and by Mr. and Mrs. Thomas Wilson, 1218

Connecticut Avenue.

FRIDAY, AUGUST 28TH.—10 A.M., meeting of council. 11 A.M.,

morning session of congress. 2.30 P.M., afternoon session of con-

gress. Evening, the National Museum was opened to members of the

congress. ;

SATURDAY, AUGUST 29TH.—IO A.M., morning session of congress.

Afternoon, no special program made.

Monpay, AUGUST 3IST.—1I0 A.M., meeting of council. Ir A.M.,

morning session of congress. Evening, 9 to 11, reception by the

director and members of the Geological Survey at 1330 F Street.

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER IST.—10 A.M., meeting of council. 11

A.M., Closing session of congress, Afternoon, excursion on the

Potomac, on steamer furnished by the committee, and dinner at Mar-

It had been recommended by the managing committee that the

discussion open on the following topic :

944 The American Naturalist. [October,

I. Time correlation of the clastic rocks.

1. Correlation by structural data.

a. By stratigraphical data.

4. By lithological data.

c. By physiographical data.

2. Correlation by paleontological data.

a. By fossil plants, a. By marine fossils.

4. By fossil animals, b. By terrestrial fossils,

II. General geological color schemes and other graphic conventions.

II, Genetic classification of the Plistocene rocks.

The consideration of the first division of the above plan was taken

up by the presentation of a synopsis of the subject by Prof. G. K.

Gilbert. The third part of the subject was opened by the presentation

of two systems of glacial phenomena, one by President Chamberlin

and the other by Mr. W. T. McGee. The discussion was as follows:

Prof. Gaudry spoke as follows: In the Parisian basin there are two

different horizons distinguished by different faunas, the one indicating

a cold, the other a warm climate. It is, however, impossible to decide

` which of these two periods was the earlier. In England the same con-

dition of affairs is to be observed. In Germany there is but one

Quaternary fauna, which indicates a cold climate, whilst in Italy the

fauna of the cold period is absent. :

Prof. H. Credner: The North German plain contains deposits

closely related to those of the Plistocene in America. Prof. soap

lin’s classification is admirable and wholly applicable to Germ

Baron de Geer expressed his approbation of the aon po

posed by Prof. Chamberlin. He had for some years been advocating

a similar classification for Scandinavia. A few minor alterations might

be suggested to suit Scandinavian conditions ; for instance, the marine

deposits might be made’ a separate class; classes IV. and V. of Prof.

Chamberlin could, perhaps, be reduced to subclasses under III., as

the formations frequently seem to be accidental or local. He agreed

with the distinction suggested between osars and kames,—that is, that

the former are in the main radial and the latter peripheral with refer-

ence to the distribution of land ice.

Prof. T. McK. Hughes pointed out that the classification given by

Prof. Gaudry was purely chronological, whereas that suggested 2

Prof. Chamberlin was purely genetic. He then explained the abun

dance of striated boulders in one part of the glacial deposits and their

absence in another. If the supply of material (that is, of rock bosses —

"R Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 945

above the ice) ceases at any point, then all the boulders will gradually

sink through the ice and become glaciated at the bottom. Prof.

Hughes also thought that two distinct types of ridges formed of glacial

material were confused under the names kames, osars, and eskar. He

also explained that ‘‘ pitted plains °’ as due to an unusual iecrapition

between the hills or ridges of eskar character. He expressed his opin-

ion that the Glacial period was a continuous one, in England at least,

except for slight changes due to unimportant oscillations.

r. Wahnschaffe advocated the chronological classification, and con-

sidered such a one possible for the Quaternary deposits of North

Germany. ‘These deposits begin with pre-Glacial sands and gravels

containing Paludina diluviana, which is still a living form, and Lztho-

glyphus naticoides. Above these follows a typical ground moraine,

which is overlaid by stratified sand and gravel, containing the well-

known diluvial fauna; and to these again succeeds the upper till,

considered now as the ground moraine of the second glacial epoch.

Prof. H. Credner: The occurrence of the sand between two ground

moraines indicates a retreat. and second advance of the ice sheet.

Such interpolated sands are in Germany always local, and no proof

of a real interglacial epoch. The sand layers between the moraines

are not continuous, but local, and cannot be given the significance

attributed to them by Wahnschaffe.

- Prof. Pavlow: In order to secure a satisfactory classification of

Quaternary deposits, we must.secure a satisfactory definition of Pleis-

tocene. Prof. Pavlow said he would like to give his own views, but

would postpone them until such accepted definition had been arrived at.

Baron de Geer agreed with Wahnschaffe that the chronological

classification is at least locally possible. He also recognized two glacial

epochs, due to two great oscillations. These cannot always be

separated, as, for instance, in Russia. For this reason it is best to

commence with a genetic classification, since this causes less confusion

to the field geologist.

Dr. Wahnschaffe replied to Prof. Credner’s assertion that there is no

proof of an interglacial period in Northern Germany. He that that ,

the existence of a diluvial fauna between the two tills is sufficient

roof.

Prof. Credner replied that no complete skeleton had been found,

but only single bones which might have been transported and ae

with the gravel.

Dr. Wahnschaffe again replied that the bones occurring in these

_ gravels are proportionately large, when compared with the oes

946 The American Naturalist. [October,

themselyes, and therefore cannot well have been transported from a

distance.

Prof. Shaler: Organic deposits may possibly occur very near the ice

sheet, which allows an interweaving of organic and glacial deposits.

. K. Gilbert remarked on the observation of I. C. Russel in

Alaska, that where the movement of the ice is very sluggish it may

become covered with soil, or even with a growing forest, in which such

animals as bears still live.

Dr. Diener remarked that intercalated beds of sand were no positive

proof of interglacial periods. In the Austrian Alps moraines no more

than twenty years old are covered with pasture, and in the Caucausas

the rhododendron grows to the very edge of the ice.

Dr. Holst mentioned two moraines separated by interpolated sand,

and thought that they might both have been formed by the same ice

sheet. The melting of the ice leaves un unoxidized (blue) ground

moraine, with an overlaying oxidized (yellow) upper moraine. This

also occurs in Northern Sweden, where there is no indication of a

retreat of the ice,

Baron de Geer could not understand the occurrence of thirty or forty

feet of stratified sand between two moraines of the same glacier. The

colors are sometimes the reverse of what has been stated by Dr. Holst,

and the boulders in the two moraines have been derived from different

sources.

Mr. Christie described the section of peat and silt between two layers

of till occurring on the river Clyde, above Glasgow.

Mr. Cadell described some five distinct layers of till occurring in a

pre-Glacial river channel in Eastern Scotland; and also mentioned —

another river channel, filled with coarse gravel derived from rocks

occurring farther north in Scotland, which was covered with a later

layer of boulder clay.

_ Mr. McGee mentioned the importance of land forms in interpreting

geological processes. Any primary geological classification must be

genetic. He discussed in detail the following scheme of classification

_ of Plistocene deposits :

Classification of Plistocene Formations and Land Forms.

"Á. Aqueous :

1. Below base level. :

t; Lacustral.

Diet ie Y

iad

r891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 947

2. At bass level.

a. Littoral.

arsh.

c. Alluvial (certain terraces, etc.)

3. Above base level.

a. Torrential.

ő. Talus (including playas).

B. Glacial :

1. Direct. (Chamberlin’s class I.)

2. Indirect. (Chamberlin’s classes II. to V., in part.)

C. Aqueo-Glacial: (Chamberlin’s classes II. to V., in part.)

D. Eolic : (Chamberlin’s class (?) VI.)

1. Direct.

a. Lava sheets.

é. Cinder cones.

c. Tuffs, lapilli sheets, etc.

2. Indirect.

a. Ash beds.

ġ. Lapilli sheets.

Prof. Chamberlin, in closing the discussion, said that there was great

difficulty in applying a chronological classification, and that such a

classification might even act as a barrier to observation and to the

recognition of the truth. ‘Chronological classification is the ultimate

goal of glacial studies, but it is something for which we are not as yet

repared. Red, oxidized subsoils are not developed in northern

latitudes. Organic deposits between glacial layers are abundant in the

west, but do not belong toasingle horizon. Many facts of erosion

and physical geology indicate that the Glacial epoch in America was

widely differentiated, and of long duration. How many distinct

periods it embraced we do not as yet know.

Prof. Cope: An abundant tropical fauna is found in the ‘‘ Equus

beds,’’ which, if they be of interglacial age, indicates at this time a

warm climate. This fauna is succeeded by a truly boreal fauna. In

this is contained material for a chronological subdivision of Pleisto- .

cene deposits.

Prof. Gaudry read the following remarks at the close of the

congress :

Mr. President and Ladies and Gentlemen:

We regret that Prof. Joseph Prestwich, president of the fourth in-

ternational geological congress, was not able [to be present to install

948 The American Naturalist. [October,

the officers of the fifth congress, but we are pleased that he should

have delegated in his place Prof. Hughes, who is so appreciated by all

geologists. We regret also that Prof. Newberry is not in attendance

to preside over our deliberations, as we had hoped. In the excellent

work which he has recently published on the fossil fishes we were

shown a sample of his vigor and his spirit, but unhappily his physical

strength would not permit him to attend at our call, and preside over

this congress. But to console us we have chosen another eminent

geologist, Prof. Joseph LeConte. In the name of my brother geolo-

gists I have tothank him for the talent and kindness with which he has

directed our session. It is now thirteen years since we organized at

Paris the first international congress of geologists. My friends

M. Delaire and Barrois, who are here with us to-day, and who were

secretaries of that first congress, can tell you that we were not then

without inquietitude for its success. Thanks to the Lord and thanks

to you, it has developed into a complete success. We ought not to

forget that if it was at Paris that the first congress was organized, it

was in America that the project was started. Hence sprang the

generous and fecund idea to unite the different members of the great

family of geologists. I am but the interpreter of the sentiments of my

brother members of the international congress of geologists, whether

present or absent, in addressing the most cordial thanks to the Ameri-

can savants who were the inspiration of this congress. The congresses

at Bologna, Berlin, and London had grand success, while this at Wash-

ington is not less satisfying. In truth, we have not made any new

regulations, and the anterior congresses made many. There are regu-

lations for nearly everything en peu faut, pas n'en faut. We should |

guard against personality, and ought always to respect the liberty of

science. It is most important that we should elevate science in the

greatest degree possible. Our domain is immense, since we make the

history of all the earth. We should give to our spirits an amplitude

equal to that of the vast domain which we are charged to explore. By

the natural force of things each one of us is drawn to study special

branches; in order to make original work, one must concentrate his

power upon a single branch of science. Some of us are pleased to

make our researches among the vertebrates,—strange and gigantic

animals which peopled our continents in past times. Others attach

themselves to the study of invertebrates,—creatures humbler, but which

render great service to geology in the determination of the ages of the

earth. Still others consider the flora, and make corresponding classifi-

cations. Some prefer the primitive ¢errains which reveal to us the

PR ye eT eS. oe RS ESE

1891. | Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 949

origin of life, while still others prefer the secondary and Tertiary

terrains, which show the world in a more advanced state, and so con-

tinue the mystery of the origin of humanity. Many of our brethren

occupy themselves with physical or chemical geology. We have reason

to hope much from this division of labor. It is necessary that at

certain periods we should collect all the products of our activity, that

we should show to the world wherever interested, and to our brother

geologists, the various processes by which we have arrived at our con-

clusions. Each one of us is but a minimum, but the entirety of our

knowledge will form a marvelous structure, and one of great strength.

Such is the work of our international congress.

Gentlemen, we have the good fortune to be co-workers, and as such

we should love and be loved by one another. I believe I am the

oldest of all the geologists who have crossed the Atlantic Ocean to attend

this congress. I have met many ardent workers in my life, and I

declare to you in all the sincerity of my soul that the more I see and

the better I know the men of science the more and better I love

them. It is a long time since we learned to admire the American

geologists, but we come now to learn to love them. In returning to

our homes in the Old World we will carry with us a cherished souvenir

of the members of the international congress of Srey at Wash-

ington.

The following names were recorded as the Founders’ Committee :

James Hall, T. Sterry Hunt, J. W. Dawson, J. S. Newberry, C. H.

Hitchcock, R. Pumpelly, J. P. Lesley, T. H. Huxley, O. Torell,

. de Baumhauer.

“The following members of the congress were present from foreign

countries: Austria-Hungary—Dr. Karl Diener, a, d. k. k. Universi-

tät, Wien ; Dr. Emil Tietze, Chefgeolog des K. K. geol. Reichsan-

stalts, Wien. Beletum—Prof. Max. Lohest, a l Université, Liége ;

Dr. Xavier Stainier, Com. géol. de Belgique, Bruxelles; Mr. E. Van

Broeck, Commission géoligique de Belgique, Bruxelles; Canada—_

Frank D. Adams, McGill College, Montreal ; Thomas MacFarlane,

Inland Revenue Dept., Ottawa. /rance—Prof. Dr. Charles Barrois,

a l’Université, Lille; Mr. Marcellin Boule, du Muséum d’hist. nat.,

Paris; Prof. Albert Gaudry, du Muséum d’hist. nat., Paris; Mr. Emm,

de Margerie, Service de la carte géol. de la France, Paris. Germany

—Prof, Dr. Achilles Andreae, an der Universitat, Heidelberg ; Prof.

Dr. E. W. Benecke, an der Universitat, Strassburg; Dr. Alfred Ber-

geat, München ; Dr. Georg von dem Borne, Halle; Prof. Dr. Her-

950 The American Naturalist. [October,

mann Credner, an der Universitat, Leipzig. Prof. Rudolf Credner, an

der Universitat, Greifswald; Dr. F. Frech, an der Universitat, Halle ;

Dr. Otto Jaekel, an der Universität, Berlin; Prof. Dr. Emanuel Kay-

ser, an der Universitat, Marburg; Dr. W. Koenigs, an der Universitat,

München ; Dr. Carl Ochsenius, an der Universität, Marburg; Dr.

Alfred Osann, an der Universitat, Heidelberg ; Herr Felix Plieninger,

Miinchen ; Herr Julius Romberg, Berlin; Dr, August Rothpletz, an

der Universitat, München ; Herr Ulrich Séhle, München ; Prof. Dr.

G. Steinmann, an der Universitit, Freiburg ; Dr. Arnold, Ulrich, an

der Universitat, Strassburg; Herr Adolf Viedenz, Bergrath, Ebers-

walde-Berlin; Dr. Felix Wahnschaffe, an der Universitat, Berlin ; Dr.

Bruno Weigand, Strassburg; Dr. Baron Sidney von W6hrmann,

München ; Dr. E. A. Wiilfing, an der Universitat, Tübingen ; Prof.

Dr. von Zittel, an der Universität, München. Great Britain—John

W. Gregory, Esq., F.G.S., British Museum, London ; Alfred Harker,

Esq., F.G.S., St. John’s College, Cambridge, Eng. ; Prof. T.

McKenny Hughes, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., Cambridge University,

Cambridge, Eng. ; Mrs. Mary C. Hughes, Cambridge, Eng.; Hugh

Leonard, Esq., late Chief Engineer Indian Pub. Works Dep’t,

London ; Lieut.-Col. A. O. Tabuteau, F.G.S., Bath, Eng. Mexico

—Antonio del Castillo, Dir. de l’École des Ingénieurs, City of

Mexico. Norway—Dr. Hans Reusch, Director of the Geological

Survey of Norway, Christiana. Roumania—Prof. Stefan Sihleana, à

l Université, Bucharest ; Mdme. Henriette Sihleano, Bucharest; Prof.

Grégoire Stefanescu, à l’Université, Bucharest; Mdme. Maria G.

Stefanescu, Bucharest. ussta—Prof. A. N. Krassnof, a l’ Université,

_ Charkow ; Prof. Alexis Pavlow, à l’ Université, Moscow ; Mdme. Marie

Pavlow, Moscow ; Prof. F. Schmidt, Comité géologique de la Russie,

St. Petersburg ; Prof. P. Tschernyschew, Comité géologique de la

Russie, St. Petersburg. Sweden—Gerard de Geer, Geological Survey

of Sweden, Stockholm ; Nils Olaf Holst, Geological Survey of Sweden,

Stockholm ; Hjalmar Lundbohm, Geological Survey of Sweden,

Stockholm Prof. Hjalmar Sjégren, at the University, Upsala.

Prof. H. Gollier, à l’Université, Lausanne; Prof. Dr. C.

ibe à P Université, Bale.

An excursion to the Rocky Mountains under the guidance of the

Ws Geological Survey followed the adjournment of the congress.

On reaching Salt Lake the party divided, one part visiting the Grand

Canyon of the Colorado, the other the Yellowstone Park. A remark-

able peculiarity of this excursion was the fact that it was made at the

expense of the visitors, the hosts charging each of them $26s.

ù E ELI RA T VROT VAE

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Betulites vestii, var. ovalis Lx.

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CONTENTS.

PAGE. PAGE.

LANGUAGE AND MAX MÜLLER, Mineralogy and Petrography. — Petrographical Sa

l S. V. Clevenger, M.D., 951 | News—Mineralogical New “ies e E SE I

THE PERMIAN, TRIASSIC, AND JURASSIC ie Botany.—The Flora of ‘Chi icago—The Action of

MATIONS IN THE EAST-INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO Bacteria on the Rapid Souring of Mi uring

( AND ROTTI ugust Rothpletz, 959 under Storms—The Parry Herbarium—Palmer’s

THE HAT CREEK BAD LANDS [Ilustrated], Mexican and Arizona Plants o a TS Months

J. S. Kingsley, 963 of Elementary Botany, . . A E

TITY AND DYNAMICS OF ANIMAL Zoology.—The e Anatomy of Phagocata ta—Crustacea

z niie a = eg . J. Lawton Williams, 972 and Echinoderms eo Japan—The Affinities of the

Molluses—The Head of says magne Bes a o.

RECORD OF ' AMERICAN ZOOLOGY, J- S. Kingsley, 9 production of the Conger—A New w Species « of "Frog

EpITORIAL.— Tariff se he s on a Works— from New Ba pann ical Notes : bance

Lon Powell's Geological Maps—Recent Pro-

_ gress in the Discovery of the Piviogeny of Man,

Embryology. ibryolo ogy © of oe The

99° Development of Hydra—M orpholo; pot the. Verte-

RECENT ee AND PAMPHLETS, . 2 i 29. 6% 993 brate Head—Tri iple Fertilization in £f Domes- es is

RECENT LITERATURE.—Doelter’s Allgemeine Che- tic Fow! tilius strated], 1020

mische Mineralogie—Fewkes's Coelenterata asi Archeolo, ogy and Ethno rete pn E Taternaiiouat

p Echinoderms, «o o iae ue ruo oe 995 ew ae of Anthropology and Prehistorie Arche-

z GENERAL NOTES. ology of Paris, 1889 [Continued]—The Prehistoric

Er Man of Spy—Continuation and Close of Proceed-

Se eee ok of White Ant be ings of the ENTE Association for the Advance- B

~—More New Mammalia from the Eocene of ment of Science, s s 1 ++: See

Si e 907 unin ke o a 1039

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV. NOVEMBER, 18ot. 299.

LANGUAGE AND MAX MULLER.

BY S. V. CLEVENGER, M.D.

Ee E talented linguist who has contributed the series on “ Lan-

guage and Thought” to the Open Court says: “ Certain it is

that no philosopher has as yet utilized the new facts which the

science of language has placed at his disposal.” As most of these

new facts are but corollaries of the evolutionary theory, and as

philology was revolutionized by that theory and put upon a sure

foundation, the remark is incautiously made. Herbert Spencer

pointed out paths for the philologist and anticipated much that

has been proven; August Schleicher discusses in accordance

with the theory of natural selection how the various forms of

speech have developed and divided into dialects and species; and

Wilhelm Bleek has dipped into the origin of language. Friedrich

Miller's ethnography, which accords language the first place in

racial determinations, supplanted the Blumenbachian division into

five races, based upon the Semitic myth of descent from a single

pair.

Language and speech are used interchangeably by Max Mil-

ler, though gesticulation is tacitly and finally directly included ; and

how proper this inclusion is the science of cerebral physiology

fully shows, yet not a single allusion was made to this important

field of research, Müller'claims a place among the physical

sciences for the science of language, though he seems to com-

pletely ignore brain anatomy, general physiology, ethnology, and

_ other cognate sciences that interpret speech processes.

952 The American Naturalist. [November,

There should be no underrating of the great value of Max

Müllers work. He has built himself an enduring monument in

his contributions to philology ; but I affirm that his labor has been

more in the line of polyglot grammar generally. It is no slur

upon the value or extent of Müllers work to say this, for this

department of philology is just as capable of being deeply mined

as any other portion of human knowledge; but Müller has

missed availing himself of what had been worked out by other

thinkers.

That he has become entangled in the mere wordiness of some

ideas is apparent in his stating that Darwin has shown the

inappropriateness of the word species, but that he has substituted

varieties in its stead. Miller admits genera and individuals, but

neither varieties nor species. Now if there was one thing above

all others that Darwin did make clear, it was the trashiness of all

these terms, from genus to variety, when used in the olden fixation

sense. Nevertheless, in chemistry, botany, zoology, and even

where the arbitrary relative terms genus, species, and variety are-

indispensable, nothing is capable of absolute classification ; for

everything is relative. Even the vertebrates cannot be sharply

set apart from the invertebrates, for we are compelled to include

the notochordal animals without backbones among the verte-

brates. What Darwin did was to show that species, the limbs of

a tree, were not trunks of separate trees, but that twigs and

branches were often undistinguishable apart.

Throughout Max Miiller’s writings he is handicapped by his

exaggeration of the importance of his particular line of research

carried on as an isolated study. Could he but have a fair

knowledge of associated sciences, such as that of anthropology,

anatomy, physiology, and zoology, the value of his work would

be greatly’ increased, and his inferences would undergo radical

changes. He seems to base everything upon the derivation of a

word, and says that etymology should not be laughed at.

Undoubtedly a careful study of vocabularies aids us in tracing

the origin of races, but languages have always been in an eternal

flux, even though the meaning of words may sometimes show the

-intention with which words were framed, and in a few instances —

1891.] Language and Max Miiller. 953

give an insight to the thoughts of Paleozoic people. Those who

have lived with savages, and are familiar with the puerility of their

conceptions and their disposition to incessantly invent words and

then forget them, are able to estimate gibberish at its proper

value. When Chicago was a frontier trading post, log cabins and

tents domiciled the people. Frame houses took the place of

these as the village grew. Occasional small brick houses

appeared as the town spread out; but scarcely a vestige of any of

these dwellings remains among the towering masonry of the

Chicago of to-day, with its million and a quarter of inhabitants.

Too little attention has been paid to the fact that a growing, living

language receives:accessions from all sides. Our modern English

is a fearful jargon, combined from many ancient and modern lan-

guages, civilized and savage; and necessarily so will speech be

with a people who are living, expanding, in a restless age, accu-

mulating ideas from all parts of the world. It is a very common

mistake of the theologically biased, who imagine that language

had a directly divine origin, that simplicity of construction of a

tongue indicates this and is to be admired; when the fact of the

matter is, irregularity of declension and conjugation are invaria-

bly produced by the mingling of people who ‘tie different

languages.

The Australian savage language is S ir and

simple, in keeping with its poverty of ideas. The Spanish lan-

guage is probably the most beautiful, resonant, inflexible, of any

of Latin descent. But what is there in the Spanish language ?_

The inquisition, in destroying thousands of thinkers in that

country, male and female, helped to fix and impoverish Spanish

brains and tongues. There is always wanting a proper consid-

eration of the fact that, so far from being dependent upon

language, far too often language has deranged thought, intro-

duced confusion where even the deaf and dumb have thought

more clearly. Gesticulation is an important means of communi-

cation between savages, so much so that the Australian primitive

people could not understand each other in the dark; and the

Chinese frequently resort to writing to make teenies better

understood.

954 The American Naturalist. [November,

Müller wishes language to be regarded as a physical science.

Granting that it is such, why then should it be isolated from

all other sciences? Chemistry would be lame indeed without

physics; and what would astronomy be without either ?

Berkeley was right in saying that words are often impediments

to thoughts. They do in many cases convey wrong impressions.

They are false symbols, and, being inadequate, choke the intel-

lectual processes.

Huxley says that the sooner you forget the derivation of a word,

and use it in zoology, etc., as a mere arbitrary associated name

(nomen proprium), the better you are off.

The fact cited, that the Greeks had but one name for language

and thought, is about as important as that the Cheyenne Indians

have but one word for head and leg.

The illustration of Gambetta shows that by habit thinking can

be elicited in some only by speaking. It is an exercise of the

symbolic field; but how is it that we find some of our greatest

thinkers most reticent? Sir John Hunter could express himself

with difficulty, and the most voluble elocutionist or orator may

have an empty head.

Müller is unequivocal in making thought inseparable from

language and considering them identical. “We think in names,

and names only,” he says. Do we? What did Caspar Hauser

name his guardian ?

Hobbes is quoted approvingly in saying that “truth and falsity

have no place but among such living creatures as use speech,”

when the fox and wolf resort to subterfuges, and dogs and cats

know that playing is not in earnést.

He reduces all languages to a few words, and then turns his

back upon what it indicates—that man came from primitive

stock. He states that “ nature produces the greatest effects by

the smallest means,” and yet Miiller turns to the supernatural to

account for language.

e “bow-wow theory” is contemptuously disposed of, and

“clamor concomitans” is not anatomically referred to as depend-

ing upon effort and air expulsion from the throat.

1891.] Language and Max Müller. 955

He is like a blind would-be botanist who tries to picture

trees by listening to the wind blowing through the branches.

Attempt a word analysis of a single expression,—appearance

of eyebrows, wrinkles, corrugations, depression or elevation of

nose and mouth,—and reflect what cumbersomeness words entail

upon thought.

What words does the momentarily rapidly performed face

reading require? You see expressions of myriad kinds flitting

over faces,—you read them, but not in words. You cannot or do

not analyze them. The unconscious association of the expression

_ with an impression, true or false, which that expression makes

upon your mind, it is impossible to put into words.

Mill is referred to as making logic depend upon words. Now

imagine the logical deduction of a soldier who sees a gun pointed

at him, and hence reads himself an essay that ends in advising

himself to dodge behind a tree.

“ Dumb animals” cannot be denied thought, they do not even

analyze consciously their impressions, yet they study conditions

to advantage, make up their minds to act offensively or defensively

without a word; the infant does pretty much the same, so do the

deaf and dumb.

Passing now to demonstrate facts, making a study of the

machine instead of the noises it makes, it is well known to

physicians that the seat of language in the brain in right-handed

people is in the left side a little in front of and above the ear. In

left-handed people the location is upon the corresponding right

side of the brain.

These facts have been ascertained by exceedingly simple means,

an injury to those portions causing an interference with the speech

function, sometimes to the extent of destroying it. This speech

function may be wholly and totally obliterated by disease, and |

yet the individual may be capable of transacting business, buying,

selling, and directing his affairs generally and intelligently. He

may make a will disposing of his property, he may think

deeply and correctly, and yet be unable to express himself by

speech; and on the other hand thought may be badly deranged

and the speech faculty may remain intact. If language and

956 The American Naturalist. [November,

thought develop together and symmetrically, then the voluble

Blind Tom should be a pundit instead of the idiot which he is.

The ability to write may be taken away from us by disease and

the faculty for speaking be left unimpaired ; and per contra aphasia,

or speech interference, may exist without agraphia, or the loss of

the ability to write. These facts alone tend to disprove Max

Miiller’s dicta. But much more can be added. . In the disease

called chorea or St. Vitus’s dance, if the derangement of the

motions begins on the left side the speech is not affected until the

right side also of the body is diseased. Although in a very

severe case of chorea in a young lady of twenty two the patient

told me that her thoughts were perfectly clear until she attempted

to speak, and’ then she became confused, this does not indicate

that her thoughts and speech were inseparable, but that when she

voluntarily attempted to translate her thoughts into speech the

want of coordination produced mental confusion, and conse-

quently speech inability. The maniac thinks too fast to be able

= to connect his words intelligently. It is a pernicious notion that

ideas depend upon words; but “ object teaching ” alone disproves

it. The senses may know things better than words can express

them. We know that we can understand objects better by seeing,

feeling, etc., rather than by description. Words indicate things ;

but we have to understand what those words mean first, showing

that understanding precedes words. Language may in some

increase the capacity for higher thought, but language cultivation

alone does not increase thoughtfulness. The gymnast is not a

watchmaker or pianist, nor is the elocutionist an originator. The

. talking ability of the parrot may be cultivated to its highest

extent, but that bird will remain as thoughtless as any of his dumb

ancestry. ` ;

When the Holit side of the body is paralyzed the speech ability

is usually lost at the same time, and the mind may or may not be

involved; but when the left side is paralyzed the speech is not

impaired unless the patient is left handed, and the mind is less

apt to be affected in left-sided paralysis.

~ An arm, a leg, one side of the face may be paralyzed, with or-

R aeS EES from 1 brain, dejong, PET apn = :

1891.] Language and Max Müller. 957

part of the brain affected. Certain areas of the brain preside over

voluntary control of fingers, arms, legs, lips, lungs, etc., and move-

ments of these to perform intelligent coördinate action are regu-

lated by spots of brain surface called centers, which are nourished

by special blood vessels. According to the extent of damage to

these vessels will be the degree of paralysis, whether restricted or

general, involving one or many bodily parts.

Slanting diagonally downward and forward in the outer part of

the brain, just above the ear, lie these centers that control the

arm, leg, fingers, and speech parts, and this portion has been

appropriately termed the “ symbolic field,” because through its

exercise and integrity man is able to gesticulate, point, threaten,

with hands or feet, or to regulate the motions of the diaphragm,

larynx, tongue, lips, in a comparable manner, to produce con-

ventional sounds that serve better purposes than making ges-

tures, but to the same end,—to make himself understood. It is

difficult for us to consider the regulation of sounds into language

as equivalent to gesticulation, but nevertheless nature makes but

little distinction between her methods of symbolizing in these

ways. The savage uses gestures where his speech centers are

poorly educated, and the linguist represses his use of bodily con-

tortions because his words can make him better understood. The

ear has been trained to understand the minute variations in sound

involved in speaking, where previously the eye interpreted less

satisfactorily the symbolic movements.

And just as the symbolic field develops in man, so that part of

the brain was built up and lifted the forehead into a more upright

plane. But the fact that this symbolic field may be destroyed and

thought remain shows that thought is not centered in that part,

but is merely associated with it. To a great extent the mentality

resides in the left frontal lobe, just in front of this symbolic field.

This part may develop with or independently of the speech, leg,

or arm centers, proving that thought is not language, but that

language is merely a means of expressing thought, just as any

other gesticulation is.

The baby’s movements are at first badly regulated; he kicks,

sprawls, and throws his arms, often in the wrong direction, when

PA ees SN

p Narta na hatin a Cer ei

958 The American Naturalist. [November,

he attempts to grasp some object. He merely denotes pleasure

and pain in general by laughing and crying. Little by little the -

infant regulates his movements for walking and handling, and

acquires the ability of pointing at or motioning away persons,

denotes pleasure by nods and smiles, and displeasure by shaking

his head or turning away, and soon he begins to articulate such

words as “ go way,” “lemme alone,” etc.

Nothing could be simpler and more convincing, by way of

refutation of Miiller’s position, and innumerable facts of the kind

could be additionally brought forward to demonstrate that thought

is one thing and language another, and that he might as well say

that thought is gesticulation of all kinds, for language is, after all,

only gesture of vocal parts.

An important inference from this is that manual training would

develop the symbolic field of the brain and afford a basis for

mental development, where purely linguistic studies would tend

to create inefficiency by crowding the speech center with symbols

that are seldom used, comparable to the differences in education

and usefulness that exist between the skilled mechanical engineer

and the clownish contortionist.

ee Se si EN fa catty Sco eh HB asl

Å‘

~~” ee

1891.] Formations in the East-Indian Archipelago. 959

THE PERMIAN, TRIASSIC, AND JURASSIC FORMA-

TIONS IN THE EAST-INDIAN ARCHIPELAGO

(TIMOR AND ROTTI).'

BY AUGUST ROTHPLETZ.

S eke years ago my friend Wichmann, professor in the Uni-

versity of Utrecht, in Holland, sent me a rich collection of

Mesozoic and Paleozoic fossils, which he had made during his

geological exploration of the Dutch colonies in India, in 1888-'89.

All these fossils came from the west side of the island of Timor

and the little neighbor island of Rotti.

Timor is a locality well known for Carboniferous fossils, which

were described in 1865 by Professor Beyrich, in Berlin. He

knew then eighty species from a little river._near Kupang, and

from another place one Ammonite, which he considered as a rep-

resentative of the Mesozoic fauna. But Professor Wichmann

found nearly the same Ammonites in the Paleozoic strata of that

little river near Kupang. Therefore we must regard all these

Ammonites as of Paleozoic age.

Though Triassic strata are not yet known at Timor, they have

been found on Rotti by Wichmann, with the shells of European

species of Monotis and Halobia; and in the mud of a volcano

have been included, together with some Paleozoic fossils, like

those of Timor, a few truly Jurassic remains,—also in part o

European character. From the Paleozoic strata I know at pre-

sent forty-three species, of which twenty-five are not yet known

from any other country. The other eighteen only give us the

opportunity to make out the exact age of these deposits. I shall

mention them especially :

Six species are spread out over many parts of the earth and

during many epochs of the Carboniferous and Permian periods:

Spirigera royssi, Spirifer lineatus, Spiriferina cristata, Productus

semireticulatus, Fenestella virgosa, and perhaps Amplexus corallot-

des. Three species are found in the Upper Carboniferous and Per-

1 Read before the American Geological Society, August 24th, 1891.

960 The American Naturalist. [November,

-mian strata of India, and in part of Russia: Terebratula hima-

layensts, Retzia grandicosta, and Spirifer musateheylensis. Nine

species at least belong only to the Permian period, and seven of

them have been found in the Salt range of India, three in Armenia,

and one in Russia. ©

So we have in Timor no species which could be considered as

of exclusively Carboniferous age (except perhaps Amplexus coral-

_loides), but nine species of exclusively Permian age ; and therefore

we cannot doubt that the fossiliferous Paleozoic strata of Timor

belong really to the Permain period. i‘

` In favor of this opinion may also be mentioned the presence of

Ammonites, which are not yet known as having existed in the

Carboniferous period. The Ammonites megaphyllus, which was

described by Beyrich, and placed, together with the Triassic

Ammonites farbas, ina particular group, has since played a remark-

able part in the story of systematic arrangement.

First it was raised by Mojsisovics to the rank of a head of the —

genus Megaphyllites,in 1878. But after a few years the head got

disgusted with his family, and fell in love with a young American

lady, called by Hyatt Propanoceras (1886), in whose bonds he

remained but a very short time, for he had become a very

fickle fellow, and was running after some other Russian and

Italian ladies, as Waagenia, Waagenina, and Stacheoceras. But

these seem to have been only transitory passions, and, becoming

older and calmer, he found at last the harbor of the genus Arcestes,

where I hope he will pass his days peacefully, together with his

new compatriot, the Arcestes tridens.

Now we have to consider another very interesting fact : that

none of the exclusively Permian species of Timor occur in Aus-

tralia or America. This seems to prove that Timor was a part

of that Permian sea that covered the northern part of East

India, Armenia, and Russia, and which was limited at the south,

and perhaps at the east too, by that old Australian-Indian and

African continent on which, in the same time, the wonderful Glos-

sopteriy flora was growing.

) also no near relations exist with the middle and northern

a - : ieee of oe The Rampa flor. and marine fauna of the

1891.] Formations in the East-Indian Archipelago. 961

Permian period is more distinguished from the Carboniferous flora

and fauna by the dying out of older species and genera than by _

the growing up of new types. It looks as if Europe, with her

shallow seas and her isolated and often inundated land masses,

had been at that time the refuge for the Carboniferous world,

which was retiring from the battle with younger and stronger

people that came in from the east and south.

Therefore, if we would become acquainted with the true Permian

flora and fauna, we must not address ourselves to Europe, but to

the eastern and southern continents. There we find the marine

fauna ina free and rich developement like that which we are

accustomed to see in the Lower Carboniferous period in Europe;

and this gives to the eastern Permian fauna an appearance by

which it looks more'related to the older Carboniferous than to the

contemporaneous Permian fauna of Europe. Some geologists

have been really disappointed by that appearance, and take the

true Permian fauna. as the development of a separate period

that existed between the Carboniferous and the Permian periods,

and which they have called the Permo-Carboniferous period.

But in this they are quite wrong. The aggregation of Car-

boniferous and Permian species in the fauna at the beginning of

the Permian period is nothing extraordinary or nothing that

should not be expected. We know the same as existing on the

boundaries of the Triassic and Liassic, of the Jurassic and Creta-

ceous, of the Cretaceous and Tertiary periods. The fact is suffi-

ciently marked by the names of Rhætic and Infraliassic, of Tithonic

and Berrias, and of Laramie.

The Triassic formation is represented on the island of Rotti by

white, gray, and red limestone plates, sometimes full of bivalves,

Except one new species, Halodia wichmannit, I could state the

presence of six European species : Monotis salinaria, Halobia lom-

melt, lineata, charlyana (syn. of mediterranea Gemallaro), norica’

and Daonella cassiana. All are representatives of the upper

Alpine Trias, three have also been found in Sicily and two in the

Himalaya. Therefore we must suppose that, as in the Permian

period, so also in the Triassic time, a large sea-basin existed that

covered and united Europe and East India.

962 The American Naturalist. [November,

But as the Permian fauna did not show a close relation to the

eastern fauna, so also there are no relations between the East Indian

Triassic fauna and that of New Caledonia, New Zealand, and

Japan, where the Monotis seems to be mepresénted by the genus

Pseudomonotis.

That this remarkable connection of the East-Indian archi-

pelago with Europe by the intervention of the Himalaya still

continued during the Jurassic period is proved by the discovery

of Liassic and Oölitic fossils on the island of Rotti, —as, for exam-

ple, Arietites geometricus, Harpoceras cf. Eserii, and Belemnites

gerardii. i

It is probable that only after the Jurassic period the East-

Indian archipelago came out of direct connection with the Euro-

pean sea, and remained so until now.

See EST

1891. | The Hat Creek Bad Lands. 963

THE HAT CREEK BAD LANDS.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY.

A WEEK to spare in the last part of May, railroad transporta-

tion available, and the Bad Lands of Nebraska accessible,

—who could refuse the trip? The four who made up our party

certainly could not. So we started, taking the train for Harrison,

Sioux county, aiming to visit the little Bad Lands of the Hat

- Creek valley, for these were more easily reached than the larger

Bad Lands of the White River, and besides they were not as well

known or so much explored.

A week’s trip is not much to write about, but in a week one

can see a good deal, and then in a week the novelty of the strange

scenes has not worn off, and the features of the wonderful land-

scape can be better described. No inhabitant of the West Indies

could describe these striking features in such a striking manner

as has the late Canon Kingsley. The Bad Lands are often

mentioned, but as yet the descriptions of the regions are not

numerous.

The journey from Lincoln was without event. First came the

_climbing out of the valley of Salt Creek, then the long, straight

line of track for thirty-five miles, and next the descent into the

valley of the Platte at- Grand Island. The Platte is a strange

stream. Geologically speaking, it is a new river, which has not

yet been able to master its sediment. It is broad and shallow,

and a deep hole is excavated only to be immediately filled by the

shifting sands of the bottom. In dry seasons there are long

_ stretches where no water is visible, but down in the sand the

water is still running to the Missouri.

Across the Platte the railroad strikes for the Loup valley,

crosses the South Loup, and follows up the fertile fields of Mud

Creek. A little beyond Broken Bow the “sand hills” are

reached, and through them for two hundred miles we ride. There

is nothing picturesque in the landscape now. One can easily

imagine himself among the sand dunes of Cape Cod or the New

964 The American Naturalist. [November,

Jersey shore. Yet these hillocks of shifting sand and scattered

tufts of coarse grass are interesting, for in them we find evidence

that this portion of Nebraska was not so treeless as it was when

the first settlers entered it. As the sand blows it uncovers here

and there the well-preserved trunks of pine trees. What could

have caused their extinction? Certainly not change of climate,

for in the cañons in this same region the same pine grows

abundantly.

Beyond Alliance we cross the upper Niobrara, and the land-

scape again changes, for we have now to cross that long line of

hill, Pine Ridge, which extends for over a hundred miles across

the northwestern corner of the state. On the southern side there

is nothing striking except the pine trees. These have a different

habitus from pines in the east. In Maine and in Michigan the

pines form dense forests; but here they are scattered like the

spruces on a lawn. The train now goes through a tunnel, and we

enter the valley of the White River. What a change in the

landscape! It is no longer tame, but it is cut and eroded into the

most fantastic shapes. To the north is the valley of the river—

here a small stream,—and from it the grassy slopes ascend gradu-

ally for several miles ; then a more rapid rise, and then the Buttes.

Look where you will, you see them. You are among them while

far to thenorth. Clear across the White River you see the same

formations. One cannot help thinking that here the process of 3

world-making was suddenly interrupted.

From Crawford to Harrison we follow up the White River.

We climb first to the foot of the Buttes; then above them to a

broad, level prairie, much like those in the eastern part of the

state. Here we find the town of Harrison, 5,000 feet above the

sea, where we leave the cars ¿and take a wagon for the Bad _

Lands

For three miles north the road gradually ascends, and we strike

the head of one of the cafions which are to lead us to the Hat

Creek valley. Did I say we were above the Buttes? Even in

this highest point we see here and there slight piles of rock, the

last remnants of Buttes which once covered this region.

Pans

1891.] The Hat Creek Bad Lands. 965

Down the cañon we go, three or four miles, thirteen hundred

feet fall. Again we enter the line of Buttes. Those we saw

before were the buttresses on the White River side of this divide ;

those we now see are those of the Hat Creek valley. Follow the

horizon around, and everywhere there are the same fantastic forms,

extending thirty or forty miles tothe north. Away beyond them

rise the dark outlines of the Black Hills, and towering above all

is Harney’s Peak, a hundred and twenty miles away.” Halfway

down the cañon we followed, came in a side cañon, and here were

the most wonderful Buttes of all. In their outlines they reminded

us of ruined castles, fortifications, and the like, on a gigantic scale.

The lines of stratification of the creamy-white limestone resembled

the courses of masonry, while the crevices cut the outline into

buttresses, terraces, and embrasures. At the end of the cafion

nearest us the resemblance was most striking. The corners were

square cut, and the perpendicular walls were between a hundred

and fifty and two hundred feet in height. Above them, in the

center, towered another mass of rock, fifty feet or more,—just as

did the keep in many a medizval castle.

The broad valley of Hat Creek slopes gradually down from the

Buttes, and as we first saw it it looked as if carpeted with grass.

A closer glance at the vegetation showed us that here the buffalo

grass was not extinct, while the cactuses and sage-bush showed

that the land was none of the best. A most striking feature was

the number and brightness of the flowers. A little white lily was

everywhere, while the bright-colored “loco weeds” (Astragalus

and Oxytropis) gave a variety. Throughout all the west these

weeds are said to render the animals which feed upon them crazy

or “locoed.” There is a chance for some investigation here. One

of the most striking of the flowers was a little Frittillaria, never

before known to occur as far east as Nebraska. It is a graceful

lily, with its petals nicely marked with yellow and a purplish

brown. At Lincoln fully half the flowers were old acquaintances

which I knew in the Atlantic states ; but here, four hundred miles

from Lincoln, every plant was a novelty. It was interesting to

note how closely every plant hugged the earth, the sage-bush and

the — Bayon excepted.

966 The American Naturalist, — [Novena

As yet no Bad Lands. At last, as we rode along, one of the

party, who had been there before, told us not to look up until he

spoke. Three minutes passed, and then the signal'came. We

gazed on the most desolate spot I ever saw. For miles it was all

the same. The names Bad Lands and its French equivalent,

Mauvaises Terres, need no defense. Not a bit of green,—nothing

but that creamy-white, calcareous, clayey rock; and this was

not level and flat, but eroded into the most irregular surface one

could imagine. Ridge and gully, ridge and gully succeeding

each other for miles,—the summits of the ridge as sharp as the

roof of a house, while the gullies in most instances were not wide

enough to allow the passage of anything larger than a wheel-

barrow. It was a magnificent chance to study erosion; but how

was it eroded? The gullies were as dry as the crests of the

ridges. Here and there we struck broader gullies, but even here

soil was lacking and nothing green was to be seen. The light

reflected from the creamy ground was very trying to the eyes,

while the heat on a warm day was oppressive. Not a breeze

finds its way into these narrow valleys. The walls sometimes rise

at the angle of forty-five degrees; at others they are all but per-

pendicular. They vary from fifty to one hundred and fifty feet in

height. The strata of which they are composed are not homoge-

neous. For the most part they can be easily cut with a knife; but

here and there there are harder bands, and this alternation gives

rise to strange erosion figures. The lower and softer strata wear

away more rapidly than the upper and harder beds, and at one

place the result was startlingly like a sitting man with a slouch

hat. In places one finds vertical fissures filled with—now gyp-

sum, now calcite.

These Bad Lands are most celebrated for the fossils they con-

tain. Inthe higher levels of the Buttes fossils are scarce. I am

told that they yield but few turtles, and nothing else. In these

lower strata of the Bad Lands mammalian remains are abundant, as

well as turtles. Some of these latter are small, scarcely three

inches in length ; some are veritable giants, the carapaces measur-

ing nearly three feet by four. Turtle remains are very abundant.

Some are as perfect as when the animal died, while others have

AA.

PLATE

ee web ese tt ate

‘MTaUD LVH AO SANVI avg

1891.] The Hat Creek Bad Lands. 967

succumbed to the frosts and present the collector naught but

disarticulated plates. The scarcity of turtle skulls is noticeable ;

our party collected only a lower jaw, while we found two turtle

eggs, one in perfect condition. In one place the turtles presented

an interesting phenomenon. They had resisted erosion better than

the underlying stone, and as a result in a small area there were

about a dozen turtles, each supported on a slender post about two

feet above the surrounding surface, while there were as many more

which had tumbled down and left the standard to disintegrate.

We had not sufficient time to carefully hunt for fossils and to

take only the best, so we did but little digging. It is a tedious

process to get a fossil out from its bed. The necessary apparatus~

consists of a picking hammer, a quantity of tough manilla paper,

paste, and patience. When a fossil is found imbedded in the

rock, the exposed portions are covered with paper pasted on, and

then the paste is allowed to dry. Now more is uncovered with

the pick; paper is pasted on again, and so on until the whole is

separated from the rock. Excavated in this way the bones are kept

in just the relations in which they were found, while the paper

protects them from injury in transit. Instead we followed- along

the gullies searching for the fossils which had been weathered

out, and when a portion was found we followed up the wall above

it hunting for the rest of the animal. The result of this method

of collecting was that we got quantities of fragments ; but we also

found considerable that was more complete, some of it valuable.

Most abundant of all the mammalian remains were the Oreodons

gracilis and major. These were small animals about the size of

a good-sized dog, unlike anything which now exists. Their line

is extinct. In some of their features they resembled the pigs, and

in others they were more like the ruminants.

Prof. Cope has recently shown their position in the conspectus

of the vertebrates which he has published in this journal. He

also published a synopsis of the Oreodontide in the Proceedings

of the American Philosophical Society for 1884, while Prof.

Scott, of Princeton, has a valuable and beautifully illustrated

paper on them in the Morphologisches Jahrbuch, of later date.

Other forms which occur more or less abundantly in these beds

hardly agree with the fauna of Nebraska to-day. There are

Am. Nat.—November.—a.

968 The American Naturalist. [November,

bones which recall the camels and the alpacas ; forms which are

intermediate between the rats and the squirrels, and others which

may be the granddaddies of the horse. Then there were still

others which fed on these grass-eating species: tigers with enor-

mous canine teeth, and the still larger Hyznodons with teeth

which close together like shears. It was a wonderful fauna

which inhabited Nebraska and Dakota in the ages long past.

Will the Bad Lands ever be exhausted of fossils? The treas-

ures of this region and of the larger bad lands of Dakota adorn

the museums of the east, and every year collectors are at work.

Of course the specimens which are weathered out can soon be

picked up, but there are quantities left. In fact, the beds may be

said to be inexhaustible. Each spring a new crop may be

expected. What has been the history of the region? How did all

these animals accumulate here? What makes the land bad? Why

is it not like disintegrating rock elsewhere? These are some of the

questions. There are few problems in geology which give their

“answer in a plainer manner. It is a veritable classic and pony.

= These regularly stratified beds, layer after layer of marly,

material, twelve or fifteen hundred feet in thickness, must have

been deposited on the bottom of an inland sea, while the charac-

ter of the fossils—for mollusks occur here and there—shows that

the water must have been fresh. To-day these strata are nearly as

level as when they were first laid down. The eye cannot detect

any departure from the horizontal ; and in the Buttes to the north

can be traced layer for layer the same beds which occur in the

Buttes to the south. There is, however, a slight dip in the strata

caused by the upthrust of that strange mountain region, the

Black Hills, to the north.

This lake drained the region around, but the geological history

of all that region known as the plains shows that then, as now,

the streams largely ran from west to east. Hence the principal

“affluents of this Miocene lake must have come from the west.

The climate then was probably different from that to-day, for

nowhere within two hundred miles is there rainfall sufficient to

maintain such a lake as this.

On the shores of this lake and on the banks of the tributary —

streams lived those animals whith > the fossils of Ba co

1891.] The Hat Creek Bad Lands. 969

First and most abundant were the Oreodons and their allies.

The number of their remains shows that they most probably

formed large herds. Rarer were the horse-like forms, which, how-

ever, resembled but little the horses of to-day. Then there

were camels and rhinoceroses, and largest of all the immense

Menodus, the lower jaw of which measured about two feet in

length. These animals fed on the vegetation, while the cats

and Hyzenodons of the time preyed on these. How the bodies

were transferred to the place where we find the bones is a prob-

lem easily solved. Probably there were freshets caused by abun-

dant rains, and numbers of animals were swept by the stream

into the lake. Here the bodies floated about, disturbed by the

gases of decomposition, until a part dropped here and another

there. This explainsethe scattered condition of the bones to-day.

Even in the solid rock it is unusual to find more than two or

three bones together. Certain it is that these animals were not

mixed where we find them.

At length the conditions changed. The lake still remained,

gathering sediment at the bottom, but the mammalian remains

are much scarcer than before, and even in the upper portions of

these bad-land strata they are much less abundant than in the

lower beds. What was the cause? I do not know. ,, Still the

lake continued laying down stratum after stratum until there was

at least more than a thousand feet of rock piled upon the top of

the fossils. How much more there was we do not know. The

Buttes are our sole register in this respect. We no not know

how much erosion there has been from their tops.

At last the lake became dry, and its old bottom was exposed

to the air, and now erosion began. Looking across the Bad

Lands from the tops of the Buttes, and seeing that valley forty or

fifty miles across, and with an average depth of eight hundred or

a thousand feet, one no longer wonders at the muddy Missouri

or at the immense alluvial deposits which the Mississippi has

made; and yet this same erosion is going on and has been going

on ata thousand other places of equal extent.

Rapid erosién now ceased, and the broad valley with its gently

undulating surface gained a soil. Then a second erosion began,

and it is this second erosion which has produced the Bad Lands.

is not available for agriculture. A few

970 The American Naturalist. [November,

Here and there in this area we find a bit of what might be termed

tableland or a small scale. The upper surface is covered with a

scanty vegetation of buffalo grass, cacti, sage-brush, and Agave

angustifolia, with the ever-present loco weeds. But the slopes of

the tableland are abrupt, and not a bit of green can be found on

them. The geological history of the region can be predicted.

This erosion will go on until the ridges are all worn away, and

the bad lands again become reduced to a plain. Then as Hat

Creek wears a deeper channel, erosion will again be increased, and

the Bad Lands will be repeated.

At first sight we all thought that the erosion was extremely

rapid. The rock looks at first sight as if it would melt like

sugar when it rained, but apparently this is not the case. My

conclusions are that the winter frosts are the really efficient agents

in the process. Rain and melting snow penetrate for an inch or

two into the rock, and then the expansion of the freezing water

disintegrates the outer surface of the rock, and it is only this

outer portion which is soft. We found a place where for two

years an irrigating ditch had emptied itself into the Bad Lands.

It had nearly washed away this outer softened layer. The solid

rock showed no signs of wear.

In studying erosion in this region one must remember that

here the rainfall is not excessive. Some ten or fifteen years ago

Prof. Samuel Aughey published some charts and tables, the object

of which was to show that the rainfall was increasing rapidly in

‘Nebraska. The lines on his maps were as firmly drawn as the

contour lines in a topographical survey. But alas! there is no

evidence, nor has there ever been, to support these charts and

these conclusions drawn from them. The annual rainfall is given

or regions and times when there were no observations and no one

there to observe. To-day our statistics are scanty, and now reach

back far enough to enable us to say whether the annual rainfall is

increasing at all. Apparently from the slight data we have in the

Bad Land region a rainfall of sixteen inches in a year is unusual.

With that slight amount extensive erosion is not probable. .

The question is asked, Will these Bad Lands ever be of value?

Not in the immediate future. A country so extremely irregular

years ago this whole

1891.] The Hat Creek Bad Lands. 971

region was occupied by cattle rangers, and thousands of heads

were to be found here. Here and there, flowing down from the

cafions, are small streams which afforded water, while in the dry

climate the grass cures on the ground and is available for

pasturage the whole year round. Rarely are the snows suffi-

ciently deep to preyent the animals feeding in the open field. A

few years ago the region was preémpted by settlers. The cattle

were driven out, and to-day the barb-wire fence shows the limits

of the farms. But these farmers have a sorry time of it. No

rain,no crops. I should not be surprised to see the whole country

go back to grazing.

Owing to various circumstances we had but twelve hours’

actual collecting time; and we went over but a corner, some six

miles across, of the Bad Lands. Not much could be expected in

so short a time and in such hurried and superficial collecting, yet

when we got back to the railroad and packed our fossils we

found that all four had obtained over 450 pounds. A list of the

species we obtained would prove dry, but a rapid examination of

the fossils showed some thirty or forty species represented by

fragments or more complete remains.

Of animals we found comparatively few traces. The region is

not such as to support an extensive fauna. We were told that

mountain lions, timber wolves, and coyotes were comparatively

common. Inthe Bad Lands and in the country surrounding we

found several skulls and a good many horns of the buffalo.

Horned toads are comparatively common in the whole region.

The cacti form a habitation for a true cochineal insect; but to me

the most surprising find was a scorpion in the Bad Lands. I did

not suppose that they occurred nearer than Southern Kansas and

Colorado, three or four hundred miles nearer the equator.

One of our party was an entomologist, and he obtained

numerous good things on the trip. One evening, as we were

making up our beds in the open air, we were completely covered

by a small June bug. The entomologist told us that the species

_ was described but a few years before from specimens which he

collected. Scarcely half a dozen specimens represented the

species in all the collections of the world. He took hundreds of

specimens away with H

972 The American Naturalist. [November,

ON THE QUANTITY AND DYNAMICS OF

ANIMAL TISSUES.

BY J. LAWTON WILLIAMS.

VERY ONE knows that the animal tissues are not fixed and

unvarying quantities. From the time of an animal’s first

appearance in the outer world to that of its disappearance by the

natural processes of dissolution it exhibits many morphological

changes, so obtrusive as not to require comment. They are spoken

of as developmental changes, and are often so radical and

thoroughgoing that the later forms in the series bear no resem-

blance to their antecedent forms. Such are the total metamor-

phoses of certain insects, crustaceans, worms, and sponges. Partial

metamorphoses are gone through even by the highest types, so

that the adult form often possesses morphological characteristics

which are not present in the young, or vice versa. But there are

other less obvious changes which affect the tissues, and are not so

easily studied by direct observation. Such are the changes in

quantity arising from varying rates of nutrition and other dis- -

turbing causes. Besides these fluctuations, which are directly

referable to immediate causes, there are others which appear to be

constitutional, and proceed along definite paths of development

throughout the lifetime of the animal. Moreover, these less

apparent changes seem to adhere to animal species with much the

same persistency that the more ostensible outward differences do.

That is to say, just as one can distinguish an adult deer from its

young by change in the form of its antlers, so, if he were a

thorough expert, he could detect equally important changes in its

internal parts which might serve as the basis of distinctions just

as important as the ones here employed. In the absence of any

extended investigations, it is impossible to speak with quantitative

exactness of the inner changes from the time of birth to the

attainment of old age. Such a record upon any one animal would

: be impossible from the very fact that the first investigation would :

ce n the animal of life. To conduct intelligent experiments

Se re ee ne E ee ee Ty ee ee ee Er

1891.] Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. - 973

on different representatives of the same species would require a

knowledge of the age, food, and environments of the different

animals dissected, and then we would have to proceed upon a

supposition, probably never realized in nature, that all the subjects

of the experiment varied together in the quantity and distribution

of all their tissues. Obviously such a supposition would be

purely artificial; and to insure all the conditions for the faithful

execution of the experiment would require precautions so labored

and extraordinary as to baffle the most skillful experimenter.

But while itis impossible to obtain exact and absolutely reliable

data which may serve as the basis of laws of specific develop-

ment, yet there are certain general and approximate methods

which may lead to very much the same end. Such data may be

derived in part by observations of the outward contour as deter-

mined by the plumpness or leanness of the animal. It is true

that inferences based upon such observations may often be mis-

leading, owing to our ignorance’ as to just what tissues produce

the fullness or shrinkage in any given instance, and as to whether

the same amount of shrinkage at different times is caused by the

degeneration of the same or different tissues. Many valuable

suggestions may be gleaned, however, from post-mortem examina-

tions of typical cases. Such examinations, if found to be often

confirmatory of previous conjectures, will tend to inspire confidence

in our methods and results. There can be nothing more certain

than that most mammals are subject to easily observable changes-

in.their external contour from the time of their birth onward.

Puppies and kittens, for example, are clumsy and thick-set when

born, the latter being positively corpulent. As growth proceeds,

however, the legs and body elongate, and the relative proportions of

limbs and body are altered in a marked manner, the body becom-

ing often quite lank. Quite the reverse happens to the calf and colt.

They are very gaunt and long-legged, to begin with ; but grown

cows and horses become decidedly thick and sometimes unwieldy.

The muscles also change in form and relative dimensions.

Changes like these are points of common remark in the human

subject. Plump babyhood and childhood, spare youth, stout

manhood, and weazen old age have all found place in familiar

974 The American Naturalist. [November,

proverb and song. All these outward changes are certainly

expressions of inner changes equally important and significant.

In early life the vegetative functions preponderate. Eating and

attendant growth are the all-important activities. But bye and

bye the animal functions pf motion come into play. Nutrition

then ceases to be the dominant function, and the surfeited tissues

give up their useless store to the growing demands of higher

activities. The result is a redistribution to suit the specific needs

of the animal organization in question. This redistribution does

not cease until a new equilibrium is established which harmonizes

with the existing orders of activity. Then a stage of equilibrium

ensues, which may be called the balance of middle life. It con-

tinues until the already abridged functions of nutrition begin to

yield further ground, weakened by the approaching exhaustion of

an ebbing and dwindling vitality. This waning of the nutritive

functions is manifested by a loss of flesh, and the angular, bony

framework projects out through the wasted habiliments of mus-

cular and adipose tissue. At last the vital store is exhausted, the

nutritive processes cease, and the animal dies. Such, in brief, is

the story of the average mammal’s life, though the details are

often disguised in various ways. While we cannot exactly for-

mulate the variations of tissue at different periods, yet an average

of many weighings will not lead us much astray. Such averages

of different species closely allied may be compared with profit.

We are all more or less familiar with certain differences of abso-

lute and relative weight and volume in the homologous tissues of

different species. Results of this sort, especially on the brains of

animals, are quite frequently met with. In all such cases, how-

ever, we are often perplexed to know, especially in animals

with only remote systematic affinities, just how far it is legitimate

to compare apparently homologous organs, and where such com-

parisons should end. For this reason it is generally well to

restrict our comparison to animals of the same subkingdom, and,

better still, of the same class, for the greater the divergence of

remotely analogous tissues the less reliance can be placed on the

comparative results. There are other difficulties which arise in

~ the study of the quantities of tissue in the same animal. In

1891.] Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. 975

highly organized animals the differentiation of parts is often

carried to such extremes, and the histological and anatomical

lines of division are so ill defined, that we cannot say precisely

where one tissue begins and another ends, and even the distinc-

tions of a tissue as the material endowed with specific physiolog-

ical functions is necessarily arbitrary and includes heterogeneous

elements. To illustrate, it is not uncommon to find tables of the

comparative weight of vertebrate brains. The value of such

tables from the standpoint of strict homology is not very great.

How utterly impossible it would be to find strictly homologous

parts in all the cerebral tissues even in the different members of

the class Mammalia! Certainly the range of physiological and

psychological functions which these tissues discharge in the

different members of the class is a very wide one. Some of them

are unique and peculiar to one order, and are not represented in

the others. Considerations like these bring us to realize that all

quantitative studies of the tissues must necessarily proceed upon

arbitrary assumption as to what parts are proper subjects of com-

parison. Probably, after all, the best method of pursuing such

studies is to compare tissues with approximately the same physio-

logical functions. This method I have pursued in the case of a

few of the higher animals. The weight of the skins, skeleton,

muscles, bones, and viscera were made the subjects of comparison.

Under the last division were included not only the viscera proper,

but also the lungs, brain, and all parts not properly falling under

the other divisions. Under the head of skeletal muscles, tendons

and ligaments were necessarily included ; and under the head of

the bones, cartilages and fatty marrows were included. Only a

few dissections were made, and hence all inferences based upon

them are necessarily incomplete, and require to be stated with

extreme caution. The following comparative table gives the

results : 3

Animals. _. Skins, Bodies. Ratios of Skin to Body

(approximate).

Woodchuck, I2 oz. 80 oz. 227

‘Rabbit, 3 oz. 23 02. 1:8

Gray squirrel 5 oz 25 OZ. 1:5

Black squirrel, 4 oz. 24 02. 1:6

Skunk, © 13 OZ. 3 Ibs. 10 oz. 1:4%

976 The American Naturalist. [November,

Animals. Muscles. Bodies. Ratios n Muscles o Body

mate

Woodchuck, -1 1b.4 oza | 5 lbs. 1:4

it, Ooo 23 02. 1:2

Gray squirrel, 12 oz. 25 02. it?

Black squirrel, 11 oz. 24 OZ. eae

Skunk, 13 02, 3 lbs. 10 oz. 1:4%

Animals. Bones. Bodies. Ratios of Bones to Body

: approximate).

Woodchuck, tib, 5 lbs. E;

Rabbit, 5 OZ. 23 OZ. 3 4 y

Gray squirrel, 4 02. 25 02.

Black squirrel, 4 Oz. 24 0z. I: n

Skunk, IT öz. 3 lbs. 10 oz. 15

Animals. Viscera. Bodies. Ratios of Viscera to Body

i pproximate).

Woodchuck, 1 lb. 12 oz. 5 lbs. 1:3

Rabbit, 5 02. 23 oz, 1:4%

Gray squirrel, 4 02. 25 úZ. Lie

Black squirrel, 5 02. 24 Oz. 1:5

5 ig of: > 3 lbs. 10 07; 1:4

The fact which impresses us most about these figures is that the

relative proportions of the tissues here considered are far from con-

stant in the same and in different animals. The right-hand figures

in the column of ratios are well calculated to emphasize this fact.

The tegumentary, bony, nutrient, and motor tissues do not each

have equal weights in the same animal, and the ratio of their

weights to the body-weights are not the same in different animals.

For example, the ratio of the weights of the skin to the body vary

all the way from 1: 8 in the rabbit to 1: 414 in the skunk; the

ratios of the muscles from 1:2 in the rabbit and squirrels to

1:4% in the skunk; the ratios of bones from I :4% in the rab-

bit to 1:6 in the squirrels; and the ratios of the viscera from 1: 3

in the woodchuck to 1:6 in the gray squirrel. Thus it appears

that variations of one-half are not uncommon for the same tissue

in different animals, and much profounder differences exist in the

weights of different tissues of the same animal. Without doubt,

more extensive dissections would reveal even greater extremes —

in the quantities of tissue in other mammals and in verte- —

raies Sees ieee the 1 nerves and the brain oe 7

ee ee ee Se ee A

1891. Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. 977

immense quantitative differences in animals of different species-

While the brain of the elephant, the largest of terrestrial mam-

mals, has the greatest absolute weight, and that of the whale, the

largest of all mammals, the next in size, yet among the smaller

animals it is well known that the brain of man is preéminent in

size. The brains of fishes and reptiles are exceedingly small in

proportion to the size of the body, and the brain of Coryphodon,

the prototype of the Ungulata, from the early Tertiary, was rela-

tively much less than the average existing mammalian brain.

The several tissues differ immensely in the range of their quanti-

tative variations. Some of them, as the bones and muscles, grow

_ under mutual limitations prescribed by the mechanical conditions

of animal movement. If the animal is to move it must have

motor tissues, and it must have hard parts upon which the motor

tissues canact. The existence of the one necessitates the existence

of the other, and that in certain quantity as well. The quantity

of the one is reactionary upon the quantity of the other. If one

is destroyed the other no longer has any use, and eventually

suffers degeneration. Like relations subsist between certain cor-

related organs of the viscera. They act and react upon one

another, and hence their growth and decline must go on together.

There are other tissues the growth of which is mutually antago-

nistic. Darwin and Cope have cited the examples of the Artio-

dactyla where the evolution of the antlers is accompanied by a

disappearance of some of the teeth. .Facts of like import are not

wanting in the case of the other tissues. Cope explains them by

assuming that the animal has a fixed complement of vitality or

bathmic force, and hence, by the principle of the conservation

of energy, an expenditure in one form of growth must be com-

pensated for by an equivalent suppression of some other form of

growth. Cephalization is really a special case of this general

principle, where the lines of maximum growth converge in a com-

mon direction. The acceleration of parts headward is coincident

with the abortion of parts tailward. Under this view it is easy to

suppose that the disappearance of the tail in man was accom-

plished by an enlargement of his cranial capacity, and the vital

energy that was expended in its movement has now been trans-

“

978 The American Naturalist. [November,

formed into some higher psychical energy. Finally, there are

some other tissues’ the quantity of which does not seem to be

subject to the limitative adjustments of other tissues, because they

are not directly concerned in the vital economy, and they fluc-

tuate very perceptibly with the changing conditions of the ani-

mal’s environment. Such is the adipose tissue. Cells of fat may

increase independently of any mechanical laws prescribed by

other tissues (of course within limits compatible with life), as in

the omentum of corpulent people and the layers of adipose tissue

in swine. We thus see that there are quite well-defined types of

growth among the tissues of animals. There are those which

increase and decrease together, those which increase at the expense

of others, and those which vary independently. Of course these

lines are not absolutely distinct, and probably every tissue in

some degree embodies them all. This classification is given as

having a general value only; but while there are specific and indi-

vidual variations which have no apparent connection with any

general evolutionary principles, there are variations, extending

over longer periods of time, which have a historical value to the

anatomist and paleontologist. They are the larger cycles of

change in which these individual cycles move and exist. In the

brief period of a human lifetime they are disguised by the seem-

ingly irrelevant fluctations of the present, and it is only in the light

of a remoter history that we gain a full conspectus of the progress

of these events.

All through the Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages there was a remark-

able profusion of moll and radiate life. Lime-secreting animals

were the prevailing type in all seas, and the seas were everywhere.

In many places the rocks are almost entirely composed of the

remains of these animals. Finally fishes made their appearance.

They continued to develop, and have reached their highest phase of

specialization at the present time. Then the reptiles came, and at

length the mammals. This succession has been marked by a

concomitant succession in the relative quantities of animal tissues.

When the primeval seas were surcharged with carbonate of lime

~ the organisms then living rapidly used up the excess in secreting -

: poe coverings for their softer he in some of the =

1891.] Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. 979

Brachiopoda, as Discina and Productus, a calcareous shell made

up a large part of their weight. The rugose and tabulate corals,

the Cephalopods, and many other forms were permeated through

and through with walls and tables of calcareous masonry. This

process continued for a long succession of ages. Even when the

early fishes appeared they too were plated and shielded by thick

secretions of carbonate of lime. But as the type of fishes

expanded a new tendency became developed, which has con-

tinued to manifest itself ever since. Even the early Ganoids pos-

sessed a much greater quantity of soft tissue in proportion to the

hard parts than did the Brachiopods and ‘corals. This, of course,

was an indispensable prerequisite to the free and roving life which

they led. Had they been weighted as heavily as some of the

Brachiopods, locomotion would have been out of the question ; in

fact, it may be enunciated as a general principle that wherever an

animal is found capable of vigorous and long-continued locomo-

tion, there we may be sure to find the motile elements of the body

sustaining a high ratio to the inert elements. But later on forms

like the Cestracionts and other sharks must have hada very large

excess of soft parts over hard parts. Later still the heavy ganoid

scales were discarded for the lighter ones of the Teleosts. The

secretions of lime became less, and the excess of hard parts over `

soft parts was diminished until the opposite relation existed.

While this tendency may not be traceable in all cases, yet there

are a sufficient number of instances to warrant the generalization

that the development of animal life has been marked by a grow-

ing diminution in the quantity of hard parts, and a relative

increase in the quantity of soft parts. The gigantic reptiles of the

Cretaceous age and mammalian life of later times all point to this

conclusion. The change in the relative quantities of hard and

soft parts was attended by other correlated changes. As the soft

parts were liberated from the incubus of the hard parts they

gradually differentiated in various directions, to suit the altered

conditions of their environment. By reducing its calcareous _

integument the animal was more exposed to the attacks of its

enemies ; and this exposure necessitated one of two things,—either

it must take on protective colors or spines, or it must differentiate

980 The American Naturalist. [November,

motor tissues and organs by which to escape those enemies. In

some cases both lines of development have been pursued in some

part by the same animal. The locomotive function must certainly

have played a highly important part in the life of fishes from the

very first, and in birds its manifestations are even more intense.

But with the evolution of locomotive powers there arose a need

of a system of external or internal leverage, and the result of that

necessity is the exoskeleton and endoskeleton of the Arthropoda

and Vertebrata respectively. A nutritive apparatus necessarily

coéxisted with the lime-secreting activity. But when the factor

of locomotion became added to the animal life new differentia-

tions of structure were called into being. Function and tissue .

reacted again and again in endless combinations, and the present

diversities of organic structure were the result. That result was

marked not only by qualitative but quantitative peculiarities, and

it is these peculiarities that we have been discussing. Such, in

brief, is the historical outline.

We now pass on to consider the dynamics of the subject. It

is a patent fact that a division of labor is beneficial to all the

laboring elements. It is no less true that it results in some

' degree of dependence between those elements. The degree of

the dependence is heightened the farther the specialization is car-

ried. This is eminently true of the animal organism. ‘In its

simplest expressions as Protameba an absolute independence

between the parts everywhere prevails. All parts alike respond

to all stimuli, and no part is anything in particular, but every-

thing in general. In higher forms the structures are more diver-

sified, and they assert their individuality by differential responses

to external stimuli. Moreover, each member gives a complete

response only when it sustains a connection with all its fellow-

members. The several members form a joint society, whose

union is strength and whose dissolution is ruin. Such is the

polity of the animal body. Now we have seen that the several

tissues vary in quantity. They vary in the same individual at

different periods of life, and in individuals of equal age in the

same and in different species. Such variationsin the tissues must —

poheslly afet ee e a Suppose we

1891.] Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. 981

compare two of the animals given in the tables, the woodchuck

and the rabbit. The ratios of the weight of muscle to the weight

of body in the two animals stand in the proportion of 1: 2

That is to say, the rabbit has two pounds of muscle for every one

possessed by the woodchuck, which it can use in moving its body,

Now the specific energy of striped muscle in animals as widely

separated as the bird and man stand only in the insignificant ratio

of 1200: 1087 (“Animal Mechanism,” E. J. Marey), so that

we do not feel that we are assuming too great impossibilities when

we call the specific muscular energies of the woodchuck and

rabbit equal. Now this equality can only subsist for a period of

extended duration on condition of equal metabolic activities in the

two tissues. These activities, in turn, will depend on the food

supply, digestion, and all the preliminary acts of nutrition. But

to avoid complications we will adhere to our first assumption.

. Now the woodchuck has to move twice the inert mass in propor-

tion to its muscular weight as the rabbit. To do this it can exe-

cute only one-half the quantity-of motion as the rabbit. Then

the rabbit leads a life twice as active asthe woodchuck. But the

viscera of the woodchuck are to those of the rabbit nearly as

3: 2, and assuming equal nutritive powers in equal weights of the

viscera, the difference of muscle weight would be partially offset

by a canceling difference in the rates of repair of the wasting

tissues. This assumption, however, that equal quantities of vis-

cera repair equal amounts of waste, is not a safe one. Besides, it

will be remembered that in these experiments organs as widely

diverse in function as the brain, lungs, liver, and heart were, to

avoid confusing details, weighed together and classed as viscera.

The rate of assimilation and repair of the muscles would clearly

depend upon the size and activity per unit quantity of the organs

concerned in the vegetative functions. Organs of different func-

tion, as the brain (which is extremely variable in size), would viti-

ate the comparison between equal quantities of viscera as here

employed. But, what is still more adverse to the assumption,

there is no good reason for supposing that equal quantities of

organs discharging the same functions create equal functional

products. Butchers ~ that in old cows the intestines have a

982 The American Naturalist. [November,

ae : *

much greater size in proportion to the body than in young cows

and heifers. They are also poorer, and it requires a much greater

amount of food to produce a given amount of flesh than in

younger animals. This case seems to indicate that the efficiency

of the organ degenerates with increasing size. Of course this is

not always true, and there are marked instances to the contrary,

as in the relatively large brains of certain intellectual prodigies

and the heavy biceps of professional pugilists. Probably the dif-

ferences of size in the functional organs of the viscera are, in

many cases, due to the growth of indifferent tissues as fat and

connective fibers. Perhaps their presence in the case of the cows

already mentioned may even impede the normal discharge of the

functions. Be this as it may, it is undeniable that the greater

quantities of viscera are by so much an added incubus to the

movements of the animal. It is, of course, self-evident that in

most cases all the tissues not directly concerned in the contrac-

tions which produce motion are in some degree adversative to

such contractions. Only a few of the voluntary muscles are used

in any one movement, and all the rest of the body is, for the time

being, a dead weight to be overcome; so that in the simplest of

our daily movements the active and passive parts are continually

shifting about, and ‘the waves of maximum activity travel now

here and now there. All the tissues, save the voluntary muscles,

are perpetually inert relative to movements in the environment.

They are at one time impelled to passive movements, and at

another time are quiescent, according to the character of the

movement. They are in one sense a necessary evil, impeding and

yet indirectly promoting the movements of the animal.

Lastly, we have to consider the bones. Without doubt they are

inert elements. Yet that very inertness serves a useful purpose in

the animal movements. If we compare the ratios of the bones to

the body and of the muscles to the body in the woodchuck and

rabbit, we are surprised at the absence of parallelism which a

knowledge of their mutual connection would lead us to expect.

While the muscles of the woodchuck are to those of the rabbit

relative to the body as 1: 2, the bones are nearly equal in the

same comparison. This is explained by the fact that the total

1891.] Quantity and Dynamics of Animal Tissues. 983

weight of body to be supported is greater in the woodchuck, and

since the quantity of muscle is relatively smaller, the animal is

forced to a sedentary life and does not move about much. Even

the forms of body in the two animals harmonize with this view.

The woodchuck is stout and heavy, the rabbit is agile and slender.

Just as the heavy bones of the woodchuck are indicative of its

sluggish habits, so the light bones of the rabbit point to an

opposite inference. Very much more could be said of the quan-

tities and dynamical values of the animal tissues, but this must

suffice at present. It is hoped that further evidence will be

brought forward on some of the points here barely alluded to.

The subject is certainly a very fruitful one for future research.

984 The American Naturalist. [November,

RECORD OF AMERICAN ZOOLOGY. -

BY J- S. KINGSLEY.

(Continued from Vol. XXV., page 716.)

GENERAL.

Ossorn, H.—Local problems in science. Proc. Iowa Acad.

Sci. for 1888, p. 19, ia —Résumé of warlc done on natural his-

tory of Iowa.

Corg, E. D.—Lamarck vs. Weismann. Nature, Shis p. 79,

1889. ;

a McNIELL, J.—The male element the originating factor in the

+ development of species. Psyche, V., p. 269, 1889.

oo RYDER, J. A.—Proofs of the eflactn of habitual use in the modi- be

ec fication of animal organisms. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., XXVI., p.

o 541, 1889. fe

Kirscu, A. M—Cytology or cellular ie tg — RAs

p. 360, 1890 —Statement of Carnoy’s work. So

_ Guck, J. T.—Divergent evolution and the Darwinian theory,

Am. Jour. Sci, XXXIX. ‚0 21, 1890.

RYDER, J. A—An attempt to illustrate some of the primary

: laws of mechanical evolution. Proc: A N S Phila, 189i,

2 p- Do be

Ree: ORCUTT, C. R—A marine labratory. West Am. Scientist,

r = VIL, p. 59, 1890 .—Suitable localities near San Diego, Cal. ae

-Sas R E C—On accidentally introduced forms of a ani-

a8 mals. West Am. Scientist, VIL, p. 107, 1891. :

= JEFFRIES, 5. A.—Lamarckism and Darwinism. Proc. Bost +

“Soe. N. H., XXV., p. 42, 1890. a

= Ryper, J. A—tThe origin of sex secu oie integra .

tion, and the relation « of sexuality to the gek of EN pae

POTA

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 985

PROTOZOA.

Stokes, A. C.—Notices of new fresh-water Infusoria. Proc.

Am. Phil. Soc., XXVIII., p. 74, 1890—18 new sp. New genera

tare: Macromastix, Furcilla (preoc.), Homalozoon. As usual, no _

“localities are given.

ATWELL, C. B.—Procuring amoeba for the usay Am.

Mo. Micros. Jour., X1., p: 264, 1800. ~

Ryper, J. A.—On two new and undescribed methods of con-

tractility manifested by filaments of protoplasm. Proc. A. N. S.

Phila., 1891, p. 10.— Vide Am. NAT., XXIV., p.

SPONGES.

Ports, E.—Fresh-water sponges. V. The determination of the

species. Microscope, X., p. 307, 1890.

Leipy, J.—Note on the boring sponge of the oyster. Proc.

A.N. 5. Phila, 1891, D 122.

Potts, E- Report on some fresh water sponges collected in

Florida. Trans. Wagner Free Inst, IL, p. 5, gT sp.,

Spongilla wagneri.

CŒLENTERATA.

Brooks, W. K., and Coxx, E. G.—On the structure and

development of the gonophores of a certain siphonophore belong- |

ing to the order Auronectæ Haeckel. J. H. U. Circ., X., p. 87,

1891.—See Am. Nat., XXV.

BIGELOW, R. Nees on the physiology of Caravella maxima

Haeckel (Physalia caravella ean J. HA, Circ, Xo Pp.

90, 1891. ;

Agassiz, A—On the rate of growth of cone Bull. Mus.

_ Comp. Zool., XX, No. 2, 1890.

Forses, S. A—On an American earthworm of the family

_ Phreoryctide. Bull. Įll. Lab. N. H, IIL, p. 107, 1890—Phre-

a EF emmissarius.

Fe J—Beroe on the New a coast. Proc. Phila,

\ 890, Pe a eto

mar | Ve lel

986. The American Naturalist. [November,

HEILPRIN, A.—The corals and coral reefs of the western waters

of the Gulf of Mexico. Proc. A. N. S. Phila., 1890, p. 303.

Fewkes, J. W.—A new instance of parasitic hydroids. Micro-

scope, X., p. 329, 1890.—Sertularia on Hemitripterus.

HEILPRIN, A—Rate of coral growth. Proc. A. N. S. Phila.»

1891, p: 75.

ECHINODERMATA.

Brooks, W. K.—On the early stages of Echinoderms. J. H.

U. Circ., X., p. 101, 1891.

Fietp, G. W.—Contributions to the embryology of Asterias

vulgaris. J: H U: Circ., X. p. 101, 1891.

Ives, J. E—Echinoderms from the northern coast of Yucatan

and the harbor of Vera Cruz. Proc. A.N.S. Phila., 1890, p. 317.—

H. silamensis and H. nitida are new; new genus, Thyraster for

_ Echinaster serpentarius ; notes on other forms.

PLATHELMINTHES.

BRANDEGEE, K.—Ccenurus of the hare. Zoe, I., p. 265, 1890.

Leipy, J.—Notices of Entozoa. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890,

p. 410—Describes as new Distomum trapezium (from Osprey),

D. aniarum (from Tropidonotus sipedon), D. gastrocolum (from

Trichiurus lepturus), D. ischium (from Saurus fetens), D. lasium

(from /lyanassa obsoleta), Cercana platyura (Wyoming), Tenia

nematosoma (from Esox reticulatus), Phyllobothrium inchoatum (from

Mesoplodon sowerbiensis).

Parasites of Mola rotunda. Proc. A. N.S. Phila., 1890,

p. 281.—Distomum pedocotyli nov., Anthocephalus elongatus.

Suarp, B.—On a probable new species of Bipalium. Proc.

_A.N.S. Phila., 1891, p. 120.—B. manubriatum (greenhouse in

Penna.).

Woopwortn, W. M —Contributions to the morphology of the

Tubellaria. I. On the structure of Phagocata gracilis Leidy.

Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXI., No. 1, 1891.

NEMATOIDA, | :

_ Mark, E. L.—Trichine in swine. 20th Rep. Mass. Board of

Health, p.113, 1888 [1890]. ee Oe :

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 987

Cavin, S.—Notes on Trichina, Bull. Lab. Nat. Hist., Univ.

Iowa, II., p. 85, 1890. g ;

Lerpy, J.—Notices of Entozoa. Proc. Phila. Acad., 1890, p.

410.—New forms are: (?) Faria primaria (from Orang), Ascaris

diacis (purple grackle), Atractis (Ascaris) opeatura (from Cyclura

beolopha), Trichosomum (2) tenuissimum (brown rat).

ACANTHOCEPHALI.

Lerpy, J.—Notices of Entozoa. Proc. Phila. Acad, t8q0.— *

Describes (p. 413) as new, Echinorhynchus paucithamatus (from

black bass).

ANNELIDA.

Ives, J. E—On Arenicola cristata and its allies. Proc.

A. N: S. Phila, 1890, p. 73.

ANDREWS, E. A.—A commensal annelid, Am. Nat, XXV.,

p. 25, 1891.—Folydora commensalis.

The distribution of Magelona. J.-H: U. Circ, X., p:

96, 1891.—See Am. NAT.

RanpotpH, H.—The regeneration of the tail in Lumbriculus.

Zool. Anz., XIV., p. 154, 1891.—See Am. Nat.

PROSOPYGII.

Anprews, E. B—A new Phoronis. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

June, 1890. Vide Nat., XXIV., p. 1083.

Darı, W. H.—Notes on some recent Brachiopods. Proc.

A. N.S. Phila, 1891, p. 172.

_ Davenport, C. B.—Cristatella: the origin and development of

the individual in the colony. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XX.,

1890.

—Preliminary notice on budding in Bryozoa., Proc. Am.

- Acad. Arts and Sci., XXV., p. 278, 1891.—See Am. NAT.

_ Anprews, E. A.—Notes on the anatomy of Sipunculus gouldii

- Pourlatès. Studies Biol. Lab. I Tor Univ., IV., p 389,

1890.

988 The American Naturalist. [November,

: | a Ma@tusca.

Conxuin, E. G—Preliminary note on the embryology of

Crepidula fornicata and Urosalpinx cinerea. J. H. U. Circ., X.,

p. 89, 1891.

_WATASE, S.—Studies on Cephalopods. I. Cleavage of the

ovum. Journ. Morp., IV., p. 247, 1891..

STEARNS, R. E. C.—On the distribution of Planxorbis bicarinatus.

West Am. Scientist, VI., p. 110, 1889.

Pirspry, H. A.—New and little-known American molluscs,

No HiL Proc A. N:S. Phila., 1890, p. 296.—Vide Am. NAT.,

-XXIV., pp. 354, 814. New forms are: Pupa syngenes (Ariz.)

Zonites shimeki (Lowa), Vaginulus EEI (Bermuda), Goniobasis

crandallii (Ark.).

Yates, L. G—The Mollusca of Santa Barbara county,

California. Bull. Sta. Barbara Soc. Nat. Hist., L, p. 37, 1890.—

Nominal list.

a -New shells from the Santa Barbara channel. Bull. Santa.

- Barbara Soc. Nat. Hist., I., p. 46, 1890.—New species are: Venus

fordii, Vertagus lordu, Vermiculus fewkesi.

-Cockerett, T. D. A—The Virginia had of Helix wince git

| Nautilus, III, p. 73, 18809.

Baker, F. C.—Description of a new species of Ocinebra,

Nautilus, III., p. 80, 1889.—0O. jenksii ; hab. unknown.

Stearns, R. E. C_—Helix (Stenotrema) hirsuta Say, on the West

Coast. Nautilus, III., p. 81, 1889.

Carpenter, H. the shell-bearing Mates of Rhode

Island. Nautilus, u., p- 82, 1889. —Continued.

Pirspry, H. A—Note on a southern Pupa. Proc. A.N. >

‘Phila., 1890, p. 44.—P. hordeacella (Tex., Ariz., Fia) oe

_ Baxrr, F. C—Remarks « on Urosalpine perrugatus. Proc. :

A. N-S. Phila., 1890, p. 46.

Oe PILSBRY, H. A—On a new Bulimulus. Ries A.N. S. Phila, i

a 1890, p. 63.—B. ragsdalei Sar a >

Baker, F. C.—On the modifi

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 989

SHarp, B.—Variations in Bullimus exilis. Proc. A. N. S. Phila.,

1890, p. 148,

Pirssry, H. A—On Helix albolabris, var. maritima. Proc.

A. N.S. Phila., 1890, p: 282.

Jackson, R. T.—Studies of Pelecypoda. Am. Nart., XXIV.,

p. 1132, 1890 [1891].

The mechanical origin of structure in Pelecypods. Am.

NatT., XXV., p. 11, 1891.

Van IncEN, G.—Preliminary list of the land snails of Pough-

keepsie, N. Y. Trans. Vassar Bros.’ Inst., V., p. 161, 1890.

Baker, F. C.—Remarks on the Muricidæ, with descriptions of

new species of shells. Proc. A. N. S. Phila., 1891, p. 56.—

Ricinula (Sistrum) rugosoplicata (lower Cal.) is the only new

American species.

—Notes on a collection of shells from Southern Mexico; /.c.,

p. 45.—Nominal list.

Yates, L. G.—A new locality for Helix ayresiana. West Am.

Scientist, VII., p. 8, 1890.—Islands off California coast.

* Darl, W. H.— Results of dredging in the Gulf of Mexico

and the Caribbean Sea, [etc.].—Report on the Mollusca. Pt. II.

a and Scaphopoda. Bull M. C. Z., XVIII re escribes

385 n.

eaae sans branchies. Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr.,

XIII. -p 207.

* Bryney, W. G.—Third PERE TE to the fifth volume of the

terrestrial air-breathing molluscs of the United States. Bull.

MC Z ALA. p 183.

SHIMEK, B.—A new species of fresh-water mollusc. Bull.

Lab. Nat. Hist., Univ. Iowa, Lop 24 oe E obliquus

(Nebraska).

Hempuitt, H.—A collector's notes on variation in hells with —

some new varieties. Zoe, I., p. 321, 1891—New forms are

= varieties of Anodonta ,

ee STERKI, V.—On new forms of Vertigo. Proc, A-N. S.:Phila.,

fs sto p aer callosa (Mass., Ohio), V. dinneyana N

V. oscariana a K er m — !

a of which. we ees to be soe or not.

990 The American Naturalist. [November,

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

WE have had occasion from time to time to animadvert on the —

attitude of our government towards the intellectual rights

of the people as exhibited by its tariff taxation on scientific and

and artistic books and apparatus. After several years of per-

sistent applications to Congress, a committee of the American

Association for the Advancement of Science has succeeded in

obtaining a remission of the 25 per cent. duty levied on scientific

books not printed in the English language. All apparatus, and

books printed in English, must still pay the tax. Engravings,

photographs, etc., not bound in books must still pay duty. All

this means a great deal to the science of the country. The

money thus obtained by the United States government comes

directly from the pockets of a class whose profession is not

remunerative, but whose activity it is of the greatest importance

to the country to preserve.

But this exaction does not satisfy the authorities of the treasury

department at Washington. To make it more onerous it is now

ruled by Secretary Foster that engravings, photographs, and

other representations of objects, natural and artificial, are not

mailable, but must be sent by express. Fancy this government

collecting duties on photographs of minerals, insects, geological

sections, etc., made in foreign countries and sent to scientific men

in this country for their proper information, and for use in the

preparation of scientific memoirs and books. Fancy the corps |

of men employed at large salaries in inspecting and appraising

_ these matters of which they know so much (!) and add to this

the express charges that necessarily exceed those of the post on

packages weighing from a half ounce upwards. Add to this the

_ time employed in these examinations and transmissions from hand

to hand, and the injury SA done to delicate objects in the —

process, and we find jering whether this is a ss E

1891.] Editorial. 991

The fact is that the Republican party has made itself odious

all over the land by the extreme to which it has carried the idea

of protection, and the pettiness of its tariff legislation. (Among

the objects recently detained or sold undêr our tariff laws may be

mentioned imported snakes, monkeys and postage stamps.)- It is

a party that has been of great service to the country, but it is

estranging more and more the most intelligent class of our

citizens. The Democratic party will havea trial in our next

Congress, and we will see whether it will do better or not. It is

probable that the intellectual interests of the country will have to

fight for existence for many years to come, or until it is better

represented in the councils of the nation. \

—WE are glad to see that Major Powell, director of the United

States Geological Survey, kas withdrawn his proposed scale of

colors for his geological maps, in favor of a more reasonable

system. The scheme presented by him to the international

congress at Washington was more in accordance with that in

general use, and though it did not escape some criticism, it passed

the ordeal fairly well. It is cause of just congratulation that the -

country has been spared an expense of many hundreds of

thousands of dollars for geological maps, which would have gone

far towards making us ridiculous in the eyes of geologists and

their friends. The protest of the NATURALIST has wrought such

a saving to the government that we feel that we are entitled to

some special consideration at its hands; say a subscription which

will place a copy on the table of each member of the Senate and

House of Representatives in perpetuum.

—CONSIDERABLE progress has been recently made in the dis-

covery of the phylogeny of man, two steps of which are

noticed in the present number of the NATURALIST. In the first

place, the men of Spy (Belgium) described by MM. Lohest and

Fraipont, of Liége, constitute a well-marked ancestral type

within the genus Homo. The Neanderthal skull, represented by

a calvarium only, was for a long time without corroborative

~ Support as the representative of a race of man, and it was hence

_ supposed by some persons to have belonged to an idiot or a

992 The American Naturalist. '[November,

monster. The discovery of similar crania near Cannstadt, Wür-

temberg, rendered it certain that the type was widely distributed iu

Europe, and was not a mere anomaly, and # received the name

of the Canstatter race. * A lower jaw which presents some simian

characters was found at Naulette, Belgium ; but as the lower jaw

of the Canstatters had not been found, its probable relation to

this race could not be proven. The two neatly complete skeletons

of Spy have completed the evidence as to the characters of. the

race. Not only does the lower jaw of Naulette belong to it, but

some of the parts of the skeleton display characters more dis-

tinctly simian than any known race. The tibia is distinctly

, shorter than is characteristic of other- men, and the femur is-

curved anteroposteriorly, as in the chimpanzee. Taking it

altogether, the Canstatter race answers the expectations founded

on theory as to what an ancestral type of man ought to be.

Distinct traces of it are’ said to have been found also in Bohemia >

France.

Se The senior editor of the NATURALIST has expressed the view _

~, that the anthropoid apes and man were probably descended

from the anthropoid lemur Anaptomorphus, without passing the —

intervention of the true monkeys of the Old-World type (Cerco-

_Tecently brought forward by M. Ameghino, of Buenos Ayres,

in the discovery of a new species of a new genus of quadru-

manous mammal from Patagonia, which he calls Homunculus —

patagonicus. At first regarding it as an anthropoid lemur, M.

Ameghino now places it in the Simiidæ or Old-World monkeys ;

: but whether he means by this the anthropoids or the true mon-

_ keys, is not yet clear. It is, however, apparently intermediate in

| the characters of the skull and teeth ween the lemurine |

_ Anaptomorphus and. the anthropoid apes, with some human

-dental characteristics found in the former. From any point of

view, the discovery of M. Ameghino is of high importance, since

7 P in the fossil `o or recent atete i in Eae Aei E

neither lemurs nor Old-World monkeys have been hitherto met

L ree ETTA

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 993

< RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALLEN, J. A.— Description of a New Species of a Big-Eared Bat of the Genus His-

tiotus, eons Southern California.— Further Notes on Maximilian Types cf South Ameri-

can Birds.—Notes on a Collection of Mammals from Costa Rica. Extrs. Bull. ‘Am

Mus. Nat. Hist., 1891. From the author.

BAYLEY, W.S.—A Teia of Progress i in Mineralogy “and Petrography. in 1889.

BELDING, I. ileus Birds of the Pacific District. From the Cal. Acad. Sciences,-

BROWN, A. P.—On the cred of seni ls ag Say. Ext. Proceeds. Phila.

cad. Sciences, 1891. From the

Bulletin of the U. S. Fish pen Vol. VHI., 1888. From the Smithsonian

Institution, ;

CHANCE, H. om — Geology of the Choctaw Coal Field. From the author.

G. N. COLLINS.—Notes on the North American Mere poda of

; OOK, O. F.,

the Family Se opaitidien with Descriptions of Three Genera. Ext. Proceeds. U. S. Natl.

Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 383-396, pls. 33-35., From the Museum.

O wai M.—Practical Education.e From the author.

DaRTON, N. H.—Mesozoic and Cenozoic Formations of Eastern Virginia and

Maryland. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. H., 431-450, pl. 16. From the society.

N, G. M.—Note on the Geological Structure of the Selkirk Range. Ext.

Bull. were 2 Am., Vol. IT., pp. 165-176. From the autho

Dixon, S. G.—Report of. Braise now Being p e in Bacteriological Lab-

oratory of the Academy. Ext. Proceeds. Phila. Nat. Sciences, March, 1891. From the

author

Biduicatianal Papers of the Illinois Science Teachers, 1889-1890. From. A. Forbes-

E . L.—Some Tales from Bahama Folk-Lore. From the author.

FABRINI, pi Machairodus (meganthereon) del Valdarno Superiore. From the

auth

FLETCHER R.—The New School of Criminal Anhvapelony: Ext. Am. Anthrop.

shoei sonal te the author

—Resection = the Optic Nerve. Reprint Med. and Surg. Rept, may

a “Tom the author.

GAI Y, B. T.—Treatment of Nursery Stock for Leaf Blight ee Powdery Mil-

dew. Circular wi 10, U. S, Dept. Agri., Div. Veg. Pathology. From t pt. :

GOODWIN, E. J.—A Series of Revelations, Physical and Matheinaticet. From the

author.

HARLÉ, E.—Note sur les Mandibules d'un Canidé du p> lenon, avec 4 figures.

ek, Arch = Payee, No. 2, Mars-Avril, 1891. From the author.

HEN t, H.—The Limits of Scientific Inquiry. he fou Jame. Franklin Inst.,

May, Pa Paa the author.

Jorpan, D. S.—List of Fishes Obtained in the Harbor of Bahia, Brazil, and i in

Adjacent Waters. Ext. Proceeds. U. S. Natl. Mus., Vol. XUI, PP. 313-336. Fro mthe |

Smithsonian Institution.

LANGDON, F D Sas ‘Anatomy of the Brain. Reprint Cia. Med. done April,

ose Boll Worm of Cotton. Bull. ‘No. 24, U. S. Dept. Agris Divi-

rom a Ins titution.

e Structure of the Piadina Sonder- Abdruck aus ;

thor. i

James H

“gan. From A. J.C

WAR DEF, ~The Transmission of Culture. Reprint from the Forum. From the —

994 — The American Naturalist. [November,

m.—Sur une Collection de Reptiles du Congo. Extraits Bull. Soc. Philoma-

tique de Paris, 8th Serie, t. 1—Sur un nouvean genre de Bleniidz voisin des Clinus

(Paraclinus) ; o ER NORE 3 sur un nerf Caed naissant = “prngiions mapa

chez la Langonste ; do. 1883, embryons

iensts ; do. 188 ae ur une nouvella espce d’ Elaps, Æ. Petcvochilus: do. 86.—Contri- ; i

buti S d 5

o. 1886.—Sur une collection de Reptiles et de Batraciens des isles Borneo et dn ;

Ext. du Compte-Rendu des Séances du Congrès Intern. de Zool., 1890. Fro

author.

MORENO, F. P.—Esploracion Arqueologica dela Provincia de Catamarca. Estracto

del informe Annual rt ee 1890. From the author

NEHRING, A.—Ueber Tundren und Steppen der Jetzt und Vorzeit, mit besonderer

iiine ihrer Cronk: From the author.

. POUCHET, M. G.—Nouvelles. Ghictattous sur la Sardine océanique. Proceeds.

Paris Acad. Sciences, July, 1889.

RILEY, C. V.—Report of the Entomologist of the U. S. Dept. Agri.

for 1890.—

Destru cine Locusts. U.S. Dept. Agri., Div. Entomol., Bull, 25.—The Insectivorous |

Habits of the English Sparrow. Ext. Bull. No 1, Div. Econ. Ornith. and Mam., U.S

Dept. Agri.—Insects Affecting the Hackberry. Ext. Fifth Rept. U, S. Entomol. Com.—

Rept. of the Entomologist 1889. Ext. Ann. Rept. Dept. Agri., 1889. From the Smith-

sonian Institu

Rep = ie ihe Manchester Museum, Owens College, October rst, 1889, to September

goth, 1

“aoe of the Missouri Botanical Gardens, AE Frem the Board of Trus

Reports of Observations and a rimen the Practical Work of the Dra

Bull. No. roa S. Dept. Agri.,.Div. E

‘rie. ftoi the author”

RYDER, J. Pane ehphionicn Hypothesis of Heredity and Variation, Ext. AM.

NAT., ec pa From author

SHUFELDT, R. W.—Some pained Osteological Note on North American

Kites. te Be April, 1891. From the author.

Thirty-s

econd Annual Report of the Trustees of the Cooper Union for the Adv. of

j Science and Art, May, 1891

A of Kansas E of Science, Vol. XIL, 1889-'90. From B, B.

“Twenty-t Annual Report on ‘the Colonial iise and Laboratory. From Sir

haot Ling of the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture of Michi-

W J. F.—The Fossils of the Devonian Rocks of the Mackenzie River

Canadian

in.—Contributions to Sterne Paleontology, Vol. I., Pt. III. From ‘the

Geol. and Nat. Hist

aikins tol see ee Clepsine plana.—Spermatophores as a Means of )

me mpregnation. Reprint Journ. Morph., Vol. IV., No, 3. "From the

_ WINCHELL, N. Hea Ores of Minnesota. Bull No.6, Geol, anā Nat, Hist,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Doelter’s Allgemeine Chemische Mineralogie’ is a collec-

tion in logical order of all those facts relating to the chemistry of

minerals that are so interesting to the modern mineralogist. After

discussing crystal structure in its relation to the chemical molecule,

and defining isomorphism, isomerism, polymorphism, and isoganism,

and briefly touching upon morphotropism, the authof describes the

ordinary methods of chemical analysis, and then occupies about seventy

pages in a treatment of the subject of mineral synthesis. It is this

latter portion of the volume that is most interesting. The author is

himself such an indefatigable worker in this line of investigation that

his remarks on the manufacture of minerals must be accepted as worthy

of great confidence. Everywhere in these pages he writes himself

master in his chosen study. He distinguishes clearly between terms

that seem to approach each other in meaning, and defines them in

such simple language that they need no longer be misunderstood,

He divides the subject into two parts,—viz., the recrystallization of

mineral substances already prepared, and the production of minerals

and their crystallization. Under each head the methods that have

proven most satisfactory for the purposes desired are given in detail,

and following these is a bricf but sufficiently full account of experi-

ments that have yielded mineral products, with references to the arti-

cles in which they are described. Nearly every synthesis that has

ever been made may be traced by the aid of the book,—a feat that

has heretofore been possible only with the greatest difficulty. The

last three parts of the volume deal with the chemical changes effected

in minerals by change in temperature and by the action of solvents,

the formation of minerals in nature, and the chemical composition and

constitution of minerals.

Though the book is not as complete as is Lehmann’s Molecular

Physik in its treatment of those subjects that both discuss in com-

mon, it serves as a supplement to Lehmann’s wondertul production,

and demands a place beside this in every mineralogist’s library. —

Fewkes’s Ccelenterates and Echinoderms.’—Dr. Fewkes has

presented the New England student of the old group of Radiates a

; a nM pp. 278, illus. 14.

; the Collector of the Coelenterata and Echi nodermata of New a By

cee Walter Foske — —— Institute, Vol. XXIL., Pp. 9: Salem,

of their specimens, and may thus obtain erroneous ideas of relation-

___ Ships. The lapses are too numerous for a man with Dr. Fewkes’s exten-

: sive knowledge of the group. The concluding portion of the paper,

996 The American Naturalist. [November,

handy aid to the identification of the more common littoral and pelagic

species. First comes an account of the methods of collecting (not a

word concerning modern methods of ‘preserving specimens), and then —

the synopsis of the forms enumerated, something after the fashion of —

an analytical key. Numerous original figures will aid the student in —

his identifications. The arrangement of the divisions recognized is

hardly up to date, and in some cases it is open to serious criticism.

Thus, for instance, Dr. Fewkes associates the Ctenophores with the

Hydrozoa as a subdivision (‘‘order’’), equal in rank to the Trachy-

medusze (!) The recent important conclusions as to the position of

fleshy protuberance of folded membrane”; by implication the

Ctenophores (p. 13) would be included in the naked-eyed Meduse;

the Madreporaria (p. 55) are made to include Pennatulacea, Gorgo-

nacea, and Alcyonacea (!), while (p. 57) the Alcyonacea are placed —

under the Gorgonacea, etc. We have been moved to these comments

from the fact that beginners arè likely to use this in the identification

Which consists of a list of times of occurrence of marine larvæ x

sales: is me most valuable co of it.

r891.] Geology and Paleontology.

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Californian Cave Bear.—In the NATURALIST for 1879,

page 791, I described a species of bear, previously unknown, which was

represented in my collection by a nearly complete skull. The speci-

men was found in a cave in Shasta county, California, and was in

excellent preservation at the time of its discovery, but it had suffered

from the ill usage of curious persons. The rami of the lower jaw

had been given away and lost, the zygomata had been chopped off, and

the canine teeth broken away. The remaining cranium is, however, a

fine specimen, and was originally partially covered by stalagmite. A

large part of this has been removed, enough being left to demonstrate

its geological position.

The species was named Arctotherium simum Cope. It possesses

several points of interest. In the first place it is nearly related to the

bear of the Pampean epoch of South America, Arctotherium bonerense

Gervais, which is found in Argentine in association with the remains

of gigantic sloth Toxodonts, Glyptodonts, etc. It differs from its

-Pampean ally in several important respects. The muzzle resembles

that of the latter in its extreme brevity, so that both alike were “ pug-

nosed,’’ in great contrast to the existing bears. The relative propor-

tions of the remainder of the skull are markedly different in the two

species, being more elongate in the 4. simum than in the A. bonerense.

The penultimate premolar, as in the latter, is two-rooted, but it stands

in line with the dental series, and not oblique to it and overlapping

the other premolars, as in A. donerense, a character which results from —

the greater abbreviation of this part of the maxillary region in a

latter species. There isalso a large median third incisive e foramen

the Califurnian species, which is wanting or very small in the rrie

As compared with the species of true bear (genus Ursus) the Cate: 6

fornian cave bear presents many peculiarities apart from the characters

_which distinguish the genus Arctotherium. While the proportions of

_ the posterior part of the skull are much as in the true Ursi, the anterior

= _— is much — and wider. The palate and forehead are half —

again as A U.i horribilis), t

998 The American Naturalist. [ November,

vex anteroposteriorly, as in the U. sfe/eus, but it is regularly convex

transversely, which it is not in that species. The two species of Ursus

named have relatively larger molar teeth than in the other species o

the genus, but in the Californian cave bear they are relatively still

larger, and especially broader, having a swollen area between the

tubercles not recognizable in the m. 1. in those species, and but feebly

in m. 1. The canines are also relatively larger, judging from the size

of their alveoli. Another peculiarity is the presence of three infra-

orbital foramina. Ameghino,! represents two in the 4. dona@rense.

In dimensions this skull equals that of the largest grizzly bears,

and the average of the European cave bears. Some of the latter

exceed it in length, but the form in the 4. simum is more robust

than in either of those species. To judge by the skull alone, the

Californian cave bear was the most powerful carnivorous mammal which

has lived on our continent. Its short nose and full rounded forehead

must have given it a peculiar physiognomy. The living mammal

which approaches nearest in general appearance is probably the rare

` black-and-white bear of Thibet, the Æuropoda melanoleuca of Milne-

Edwards, which connects the Arctotheria with the extinct Hyzenarctos

of the Neocene ages. It was a much larger animal than the 4. me/ano-

leuca. Unfortunately we can form no idea as to the color of its fur.

Like its South American congener, the Californian Arctotherium

was associated with gigantic sloths (Mylodon), and it belongs to a

fauna which has left in other localities in North America Megatheriums

and Glyptodonts. In other words, it is one of the forms which justify

-the statement which I have made elsewhere (Proc. Phila. Acad., 1867,

p. 156; Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., 1871, p. 99), that during the late

Pliocene or early Plistocene an invasion of Mammalia from the south

took place. I have suspected that this invasion originated after the

north had been covered by an ice sheet which prevented immigration

from Asia and permitted it from the south, since no predecessors of

the southern types of Mammalia had been found at that time in older

North American horizons. Since that was written no ancestral forms

of the Megatheriidz and Arctotherium have been found, but ancestors

of several other members of the South American fauna have been dis-

covered, Thus a genus of Glyptodontide (Caryoderma Cope) has

been found in the Upper Miocene (Loup Fork) of Kansas; and a

primitive type of peccaries (Bothrolabis Cope) has been obtained from

the middle Miocene (John Day) of Oregon. Primitive forms of tapirs —

occur in the Upper Miocene (Loup HOR genus ———— eie

l Mamm, Foss. Argentinos, Pi. III, ne: I.

ae |

PLATE AXI,

Arctotherium simum Cope; 4.

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. - 999

It has been assumed that South America received its llamas and horses

from North America on abundant evidence; and it is now probable

that she received the tapirs and peccaries from the same source, since no

early types of these lines have been revealed in South American forma-

tions by recent extensive researches in that continent. Sloths and

Glyptodons are, however, shown by these investigations to have

existed in South America during the Eocene period, so that our

primitive Glyptodont and Caryoderma may have been an early immi-

grant from that continent, while the sloths came later. As regards

bears, it is well known that we have not found their ancestral types in

either of the Americas, but that they are abundantly found in the

Neocenes of Europe and India. Arctotherium is both the earliest and

most primitive form which we possess, and the time of their appear-

ance is the same in both North and South America, They probably

reached this continent at a comparatively late date, but earlier than

the arrival of the true genus Ursus, Between the two genera occurs

the Tremarctos, of which one species exists still in the Andes,

T. ornatus Cuv., and one exists in the fossil state, T. etruscus, in

Europe (Cuvier, Oss. Fossiles, Pl. 189, Fig. 8). This indicates “thie

possible origin of the genus Ursus on the American continent, as well

as on that of Eurasia ; but prior to Arctotherium America has nothing,

while Eurasia has everything. —E. D. Cope.

_ EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Skull of Arctotherium simum less than one-fifth natural size, linear.

Fig. 1, profile; 2, from below; 3, from above.

Foramina: In., incisive ; Pa., palatine; Op., optic ; So., semen

R., rotundum; As., alisphenoid ; Ov., ovale; Pg., oid ; Ca., ;

MA., meatus auditorius externus ; "a ., lacerum posterius ; Có., condylar ;

Ps., postsquamosal ; Op., postparietal.

The Work of White Ants in Australia.—In a recent

paper

on Central Australia, published in the Proceedings of the London

Geographical Society, June, 1891, Mr. Charles Chewings quotes Mr.

Woodward as authority for the statement that extensive alterations in

the surface of the country are due to the industry of the white ants,

Mr. Woodward has traveled over a large part of Australia, and he has

had the especial advantage of examining the so-called desert sandstone

formations, to the disintegration of which we attribute those endless

sandhills that have been so often described as a dessert, but which can-

not be strictly so called, since this sandy land is covered, often

very thickly, with trees and shrubs. He is of the opinion that a

Am, Nat.—November.—4. i a :

1000 The American Naturalist. [November,

‘* great deal of work is done, vastly altering the appearance of the —

country, by what may appear to many people at first sight a perfectly e a

ridiculous agency,—viz., the white ants; but after passing over the ;

plains ór through the thickets, where their hills are so numerous that F

it is difficult to drive through them, the immense amount of their work S

can be better appreciated. The clay, cemented with resinous matter,

with which they build their nests is as hard as brick, and when these

fall to pieces they form clay flats almost impervious to water, and so

hard that they will bear a great deal of traffic without being cut up.

The work of these creatures can be studied in all stages: first in the

thickets where they are commencing work; then in the more open

country, where they have got the upper hand of the timber; next on

the plains, where half the hills will be found deserted ; and lastly on

the clay flats, where they have almost entirely disappeared and the

scrub has begun to grow again. Another remarkable thing about these

nests is the amount of iron they contain, for when a tree has been

burnt in which they have built a nest there will be found at its base a

mass of iron clinker, looking just as if it had come out of a furnace.”

_ More New Mammalia from the Eocene of Patagonia.—

M. F. Ameghino describes in a new extract from the Revista for

August, 1891, the results of the last exploration in Patagonia of M. C.

Ameghino. These consist of no less than 173 species of Mammalia, by

far the greater number of which are new to science.

The most interesting novelty described is a new species of a new

` genus of Quadrumana, which has the dental formula of the Old-World

monkeys, with especial resemblances to that of man, This is seen

especially in the small canine teeth, which are not followed by a dias-

tema. This genus accentuates the proposition which I have advanced,

that the line of the Anthropoid apes and man has been derived directly `

from the Anthropoid lemur Anaptomorphus of the Eocene period.

The Homnuculus patagonicus, as this remarkable form is called by

: Ameghino, certainly has considerable resemblance to the former genus,

—__~ ~but is more like the true monkeys in its quadritubercular lophodont

molars.

The Mammalia described are referable to the on orders :

bea Nie Py page

Eden Sei ee he

lires des wa ee oe et RS

‘Bunotheria (Insectivora) hee A a

ae a a a a

Se po ee 6 6 ea ee

Taxeopoda (Litopterna) . .

mana) ;

soso -ca onn nS

śŚ

Tai

er ee TTE AT ee Se Se ne ee a eS

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 1001

Among the important discoveries are the numerous ? Marsupialia.

Several of these belong to the genera allied to the Plagiaulacide

already described by M. Ameghino. The author has discovered a

fact long since (AMERICAN NATURALIST, 1884) pointed out by myself,—

viz., that the cutting inferior molar of the Plagiaulacide is not homol-

ogous with the cutting tooth of the mandible in the Marsupialia Dipro-

todonta, but is one position posterior to it. I regarded it asthe P. m.

i. (iv.), but Ameghino, following Thomas’s nomenclature, regards it as

the m. i. Garzonia g. n., Epanorthus, and Microbiotherium are made

types of new families with apparent reason. So is Abderites, but no

sufficient ground appears to be given inits case. Three new genera and

seven new species are referred to the existing family Thylacynidz, thus

bringing to light the lost relatives of the Tasmanian wolf-opossum.

An affinity between these animals and the Creodonta of the same age

is insisted on.

In a previous essay Ameghino shows that Propalzehoplophorus has ,

distinct vertebre, and represents therefore a family entirely distinct

from the Glyptodontidz. Cochlops belongs to the same family. He

adds much to our knowledge of Peltephilus, which M. Mercerat

declares to be identical with Cochlops. Family names appear to be

rather carelessly used among the Glires ; there are too many of them.

mong Litopterna, Mesorhinus Amegh. is made the type of a new family,

which has the external nares placed more anteriorly than in the Macrau-

cheniidæ ; he includes in it the genera Mesorhinus, Oxyodontotherium,

Ccelosoma, Theosodon, and the new Pseudoccelosoma. Several impor-

tant points in the structure of Homalodontotherium are added ; among

the rest, that it has an ungrooved astragalar trochlea. A new species is

described, and a new genus (Diorotherium) is added to the family.

Eleven new species are added to the Proterotheriide. Astropother-

iidæ are still referred to the Amblypoda Taligrada, and a new genus

(As tapudan] is added. Many striking novelties are added to the

Toxodontia,

This contribution increases our interest in this wonderful fauna, and

leads to the hope that we shall soon see the illustrations of some of the

forms already promised by M. Ameghino.—E. D. Cope.

1002 The American Naturalist, [November,

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

Petrographical News.—The gabbros of the United States, which,

until a few years since, were scarcely known, have recently been studied

in typical regions. Prof. Chester? has lately communicated the results

of his study of the great belt of these rocks crossing the northern part of

Delaware and running southwesterly until it unites with that investigated

by Williams in the Baltimore area. The rocks of the Delaware region

differ from those of the Maryland area in that the former very fre-

quently contain quartz. The normal rock is a hypersthene-gabbro,

containing brown hornblende and biotite. This graduates into a more

acidic phase by an increase in quartz, and at the same time an equally

noticeable gain in biotite, until it becomes more properly a pyroxene-

granite than a gabbro. On the other hand, by the increase of brown

hornblende, regarded as original, and the assumption of a schistose

structure, the normal gabbro grades into a gabbro-diorite or a horn-

blende-gneiss. Further, uralitization of the pyroxene gives rise to

green schistose rocks, identical in nearly all of their characteristics

with the gabbro-diorites of the Baltimore region. The author describes

in detail each type found by him, and gives analyses of the feldspars

of many of them. ‘The plagioclase of the typical diallage-hypersthene

gabbros is Ab,An,, while that of the more acid biotitic rock is Ab,An.

Gabbro-diorite is the name given to the schistose rock in which brown

hornblende predominates over pyroxene. Since the hornblende is

regarded as original, there would seem to be no sufficient reason for not

calling the rock a diorite-schist, thus reserving gabbro-diorite for those

schistose phases of gabbro in which the hornblende is largely second-

ary. By the loss of nearly all of their pyroxene the gabbro-diorites of

both classes pass into hornblende-gneisses. In the gabbro-granites,

derived from the gabbros by an increase in quartz and biotite, there

are evidences of pressure action in the shattered condition of the quartz

and feldspar. Norites, described by the author, are aggregates of

quartz and feldspar, in which are imbedded phenocsyts of hypersthene.

— Messrs. Campbell and Brown ê add two new varieties to the Triassic

traps of Virginia, differing from those described from more northern

localities in that they contain hypersthene. One is a hypersthene-

1 Edited by Dr. W, S, Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

3 Bull. U. S, Geol. Sur., No, 59.

3 Bull, Geol. Soc, Amer,, Vol, II,, p. 339.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 1003

diabase, and the other an olivine-hypersthene-diabase. The latter has

been found only in one place,—viz., two miles north of Rapidan Station

on the Virginia Midland R. R. The hypersthene-diabase occurs not

only in Various places in Virginia, but it has also been found- north.

It is slightly ophitic, inclining somewhat to the porphyritic. Its feld-

spar is a basic labradorite of the formula Ab,An,. The pyroxenes are

a slightly pleochroic, polysynthetically twinned diallage, and a

strongly pleochroic hypersthene. The former contains numerous

microlitic inclusions, while the latter is free from them. Quartz, apa-

tite, and green hornblende are accessories. In the olivine rock the

olivine is largely idiomorphic, and is in large grains. The other con-

stituents are the same as those of the hypersthene-diabase. The paper

contains an excellent series of analyses of the rocks and their most

important components. Barrois* has given us a masterly discussion of

the diabases and diabase-porphyrites of Silurian age, occurring agdykes

and flows in Menez-Hom, Finistère, France. The diabases he divide

according to structure into granular and ophitic types. Among the

former are olivine-bearing varieties, sometimes containing hypersthene,

and olivine-free kinds, containing orthoclase, quartz, and occasionally

porphyritic augite. The porphyrites are divided into andesitic varie-

ties in which the feldspar-microlites are older than the augite, and into

variolitic kinds with feldspar younger than augite. A large part of the

rocks of the region studied occur in the form of tuffs, in which the

cementing material is shale, limestone, or sandstone, and the fragments

are sometimes large enough to be called bombs. Schalstein is also

common. The contact effects noticed in the eruptives are insignifi-

cant in amount. The schists in contact with the bedded diabases are

spilosites, containing nodules of chlorite. The most interesting con-

tact effects are those noticed in the case of nodules originally consisting

of pyroxene and quartz. Under the influence of sea-water made hot

by submarine ejections, these nodules have become zonal, in which the

two zones differ principally in the size of their constituents, as

both contain pyrite, albite, quartz, sphene, and limonite. In

conclusion, the author makes some general remarks on the study o¢

ancient volcanoes, and gives quite a good résumé of the work done in

this direction. A dyke of basic rock on Stop Island, in Rainy Lake,

Canada, consists of diabase-porphyrite with an almost aphanitic texture

on its contact. It contains occasional rounded masses of augite. Four

feet from the contact it is a diabase, with the ophitic texture, and at

fifteen feet from the contact it is also a diabase. Here, however, a

t Bull. Serv. Carte Geol. d. Fr., No- 7, 1890.

1004 . The American Naturalist. [November,

portion of the augite is in idiomorphic crystals and in polysomatic

grains, while another portion is in allotriomorphic masses between the

feldspars. In the middle of the dyke the texture is gabbroitic, while

hornblende replaces the augite. Quartz is also a prominent constitu-

ent of the center of the dyke, whereas it is only sparingly present at

fifteen feet from the contact, and is entirely absent at the contact. Dr.

Lawson 5 calls attention to these facts, and states that in the single geo-

logical unit represented by the mass of the dyke we must distinguish

between three distinct rock types if we make use of present methods of

nomenclature. He further thinks that the phenomena indicate that

rate of cooling, rather than pressure, is the principal cause determining

the textural condition assured by a solidifying magma. Other dykes

exhibiting similiar pecularities are described from other localities in

the Rainy Lake region. All show larger percentages of SiO, in their

middle portions than are shown near their contacts,—a fact ascribed to

the separation of basic augite, magnetite, etc., in those portions that

cooled rapidly. The larger part of the area of the Dippauer Gebirge

in Northwestern Bohemia is covered by basalts, occurring in flows,

dykes, and bosses, with their tufas and conglomerates. These are cut

by phonolites and andesites, in the former of which are large grains of

perofskite, in some cases showing parallel striations in parallel light.

The basalts occur in all varieties, according to Clements. The cen-

tral portions of the hills are composed principally of leucite and neph-

eline basalts and the closely related rocks, nephelinites, leucitites,

nepheline and leucite tephrites, and leucite-basanites. On the peri-

pheries of the mountains are feldspathic basalts, limburgites, and augites.

Among the most interesting features of the several rocks noticed are

corroded biotite plates, surrounded by rims formed of secondary crys-

tals of the same mineral, in the nepheline basalts; pseudomorphs of

phillipsite after olivine in the leucitites ; augite crystals with second-

ary twinning lamellae produced by pressure in the nephelinites and

feldspathic basalts ; zonal augites in the leucitites, with an extinction

varying gradually from the center to the periphery, and others with the

hour-glass structure and an outer zone containing colorless microlites

with their long axes lying parallel to the bounding walls of the crys-

tals; and sanidine inclusions surrounded by augite crystals in leucite

basalt. Leucite is more abundant in close proximity to an orthoclase

inclusion in the last-mentioned rock than elsewhere in the rock-mass. Of

the feldspathic basalts it was found that the youngest is most acid.——

5 Amer. Geol., VIL., 1891, p. 153.

_ 8 Jahrb. d. Kais-Kön. geol. Reichsanst, 1890, XL., p. 317.

1891] Mineralogy and Petrography. = fis

Dr. Wolff” calls attention to the existence of ottrelite and ilmenite

schists among the Paleozoic crystalline rocks of the Taconic region in

the Green Mountains and in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The

Rhode Island rocks comprise micaceous schists and graywackes. In

the former are grains of quartz, scales of muscovite, and occasional small

patches of chlorite and bands of a mixture of graphite and ilmenite.

Ottrelite crystals are scattered indiscriminately among the other con-

stituents. In the graywacke the ottrelite occurs in irregular plates,

ewhich are fiee from optical deformities, while the other components of

the rock give evidence of having been subjected to intense pressure.

Even the mica, which owes its presence to metamorphic agencies, is

bent and twisted. The absence of optical deformities in the ottrelite

points to a very late origin for this mineral. The author ae briefly

describes a graphite-schist with ilmenite plates from R Island.

All the Rhode Island rocks are known only in boulders, Singaeliaf

‘describes specimens of glassy lava from Vesuvius in the cabinet of the

University of Berlin. Those from the streams of 1753 and 1809 con-

sist largely of glass in which are tiny perfectly formed crystals of leu-

cite and olivine and good crystals of augite and plagioclase. Other

leucites are skeleton crystals, with their edges sharply defined, but their

faces hollow. Two other specimens contain glassy portions between

crystalline portions. Of these, one from the flow of 1822 contains

ornblende, and another, whose age is unknown, has its anorthite and

other crystals surrounded by rims of little rutile needles. ——The

ophiolites of Essex Co., N. Y., and the serpentines from Aque-

duct Shaft No. 26, New York city, and from near Easton, Pa., have

resulted by metasomatic changes from pyroxene, according to Merrill.®

In the first-named rock the larger part of the serpentine, which is light

green in color, is from a colorless pyroxene. Small particles of a

darker-colored serpentine are scattered through the rock, and in these

are enclosed graphite scales. Thin sections of these portions show

them to consist of calcite, dolomite and serpentine. Originally they

were probably composed of the first two minerals only. The serpen-

tine is a subsequent formation, but by what method it was produced

the author has not succeeded in determining. A remarkable example

of a Huronian volcanic tufa, from the nickel region at Sudbury, Can-

ada, is reported by G. H. Williams as composed of a glass breccia

7 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XVI., No. 8, p. 159.

8 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B.B. VIL, p. 417.

€ Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIL, p.595 ; Washington, 1890.

10 Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., Vol. IL., p. 138.

EAE E E Bas oS EEEE a ADE E E E T cea

1006 : The American Naturalist. [November

with its original flowage structure and the shapes of its included frag-

ments well preserved through silicification. Calcite, glassy feldspar,

and chlorite are the only minerals, with the exception of quartz and

chalcedony, that can still be detected in the rock. In a report on the

iron ores of Minnesota," by Messrs. N. H. and H. V. Winchell, Dr.

Hensoldt describes a few of the rocks associated with the ores. Among

them are various green schists, jaspers, chalcedony, etc.

Mineralogical News.—American Minerals. —Within the last few,

months a large number of articles have appeared containing the results

of investigations of American minerals. Prof. Genth” reports some

analyses of interesting minerals from the United States and Mexico.

Bladed crystalline masses of ‘efradymite from Bradshaw City, Yavapai

o., Ariz., consist apparently of orthorhormbic plates, whose composi-

tion corresponds to Bi,(Si,Fes,) [Bi = 62.23; S= 4.50; Fe= 33-25];

so that in all probability the mineral belongs in the stibnite group.

Ziron from Mars Hill, Madison Co., N.C., yielded him: SiO, = 31.83;

ZrO,=63.42 ; Fe,O,=3.23; Loss=r.20. Itsspecific gravity is 4.507-

Small crystals of scapolite associated with garnet at Elizabeth Mine,

French Creek, Pa., gave:

SiO, pre Fé0, MgO CaO NaO KO CO, Los Sp. Gr.

52.30 23.68 .58 .05 12.36 6.29 -77 2.63 1.50 2.675

Both minerals appear to be alteration products of essonite. The

garnet is brownish-gray or ash-gray in color. Its composition is given

opposite (I.). A titaniferous variety, from the Jones Mine, Henderson

Co., N. C., has a composition as opposite (II.):

SiO, Al,O, Fe,O, FeO Mgo CaO MnO TiO, CO, Loss Dens.

(I.) 41.42 18.09 10.81 59 26.19 .88 rjr sr Se

(IL.)35.56 4.43 20.51 1.88 .17 31.90 4.58 55 3-738

Analysis of pyrite from French Creek, Pa., and of ad/anite, are also

given in the same paper. The green substance associated with the

gold at Los Cerillos, N. M., supposed to be turquoise, was found in one

instance to be chromiferous clay, and in another to be cupriferous quarts.

Pseudomorphs of the latter mineral after stibnite are mentioned by

the author as occurring at Durango, Mexico. In another article Prof

Genth ™ gives the result of an examination of /eftsumite from the Cop-

11 Bull. No. 6, Nat. Hist. and Geol. Survey of Minn., p. 429.

12 Amer. Jour. Sci., August, 1890, p. 114.

TE pia se es

SE ge oe a ee

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 1007

per Mountain Mine, near Morenci, Arizona, and from the American

Eagle Mine, Copperopolis, Utah. In the first-mentioned locality, the

substance forms incrustations of small, blue, fibrous tufts in a quartz

gangue. Upon alteration it gives rise to a greenish-yellow, and finally

to a fibrous yellowish-white material, often associated with hydrous

aluminium sulphate. The Copperopolis specimens are velvety coatings

of azure-blue silky fibers on a mixture of clay and lettsumite. The

analyses of the two varieties, which are almost identical in composition,

lead to the formula Cu,Al,(OH),,SO,+2H,O.

SO, Cuo - ALOG -RO BO. Dba =: Sp. Ane

12.49 46.71 16.47 1.34 21.89 44 2.737

Crystallized metacinnabarite (which has heretofore been found

only in amorphous masses) has recently been discovered in the New

Almaden Mine, California. The crystals are implanted on quartz

containing cinnabar crystals, which in turn occurs incrusting a selvage

of clayey material forming an ore seam, whose origin is referred to

solfataric action on the country rock. Spheres of a black organic

substance are imbedded in the metacinnabarite, whose density is

7-118. Its composition follows :

S Hg Fe Co Zn Mn CaCO, Quartz Org. Matter

13:08 Foot Or T yo -i$ 71 4.57 -63

The crystals are rhombohedral and hemimorphic,with an acute pyram-

idal habit, and an axial ratio a : c= 1 : .2372. In rotted galena on

a contact between limestone and mica-schist at Mountain View Lead

Mine, near Union Bridge, Md., Williams has found small but good

crystals of anglesite and cerussite, and a single crystal of sulphur, all of

which are products of the decomposition of the lead ore. The three

principal types of the anglesite are prismatic, parallel to the brachy-

axis, with Pz and Py predodominating, cuboidal, with Py and

œP the principal forms, and prismatic in the direction of the

macro-axis, with }Pz determining the habit. The cerussite presents a —

great variety of habits. One elbow twin is peculiar in that each of the

two individuals is bounded on the inner side by oP3, while the

outer side contains in addition the brachy-domes }P3, Px, and 2Px.

The sulphur crystal is very small, but it contains thirteen forms, of

which eight are in the zone of the ground-pyramid and one $P is new.

——The folycrase reported by Messrs. Hidden and Mackintosh ™ as oc-

1 Melville. Ib., Oct., 1890, p. 291.

15 Johns Hopkins Univ. Circ., No. 87.

18 Amer. Jour. Sci., June, 1890, p. 302.

1008 The American Naturalist. 3 [November,

curring four miles from Marietta, S. C., and in Henderson Co., N. C.

has been examined by these gentlemen, who find it forming tabular

crystals with oPz largely developed, and the new forms oP, 4Pz,

and Pz occurring on it. Several of the crystals are apparently twins,

and those from South Carolina, when doubly terminated, appear to be

both hemihedral and hemimorphic. The material for analysis was

obtained by washing kaolinized coarse granite. This, when corrected

for impurities, yielded :

Cb,O, TiO, Y,O, (etc.) FeO UO, PbO FeO, CaO H a Ins. SiO,

N.C. 19.48 29.31 27.55 2.87 13.77 5.1

S C t037 28.5%: 21.27 2.47- 10:47 46: -18 268 A TALOT

Prof. Rowland, to whom the South Carolina specimens were sub-

mitted for microscopic study, found in them large amounts of scan-

dium. The same investigators” have examined lemon-yellow

auerlite from Price’s Land, Henderson Co., N. C., and a few other

rare minerals. The auerlite has a density of 4.051-4.075, and a

Sealey: P,O, = 8.58 ; SiO, = 6.84; ThO, = 72.16 (diff.) ; Fe,O,

=I. Hoe 64. Sulphohalite they find to be probably tetrahe-

aa Scathedtal The fayalite ® of Cheyenne Mt., Colorado, occurs

sometimes in the granite in masses weighing as much as ten pounds.e

Analysis: SiO,=27.66; FeO=65.79; MnO=4.17; CaO=—.47. Mr.

Hidden ¥ also announces the discovery of bastnaesite and tysonite, near

Manitou, Colorado, in a mass weighing over six kilograms, and gives

four new localities for the occurrence of fergusonite, as follows: Asso-

ciated with allanite, at Amelia Court House, Virginia; accompanying

zircon, in the mines at Storeville, Anderson Co., South Carolina ;

at the Grassy Creek Mica Mine, in Mitchell Co., N. C.; and in the

gold placers near Golden, Rutherford Co., N. C. The orangite of

dbö, Norway, is declared to be uranothorite. Its density is 4.322.

A partial analysis gave 11.97 per cent. H,O ; 18.50 per cent. SiO, ;

52.53 per cent. ThO, ; 9 per cent. UO,, and as quantities of other

substances. Associated with beryl and spodumene in the granite of

the Nickel Plate tin claim, in Pennington Co., South Dakota, are

nodules of a phosphate near friphyllite in composition. It is dark

green in mass, and light yellowish-green in thin splinters. Its hardness

is 5, and density 3.612. Analysis” yielded:

P,O, FeO MnO CaO MgO Na,O K,O Li,O F Ign. Gangue

38.64 25.05 15.54 5.53 t56 746 2.00 28 .69 -73 2-47

_ IIb, May, 1891, p. 438.

_ 8 Cf. Amer. Jour. Sci., March, 1885, p. 25.

Wb, p. 439.

™ Headdon. et Jour. Sci., "o "e p. 416.

1891.] Mineralogy and Fetrography. 1009

Penfield *! has analyzed an aurichalcite, occurring in narrow

seams in an impure limonite from Utah, which yielded an average :

CO; CuO ZnO HO Ca Des,

16.36 19.37 53-09 9.92 61 3-57 = 2RCO,3R(OHR),,

in which R = Zn and Cu, with CuO:Zno = 2:5. Inexhaustible beds

of deauxtte have been discovered near Little Rock, Arkansas, and near

Benton in the same state. According to Branner™ they are geneti-

cally related in some unknown way with eruptive granites. The

material is pisolitic in structure. A partial TESA of one specimen

gave: ALO, = 35-64; SiO, = 10.38: FeO = 1.95'; TiO, == 3.50;

Loss = 27.62. An inikas of ae aah Pitkin Co., Colo-

rado, is given by Bailey as follo

SO, ALO, Fe,O, FeO MgO H,O at 100° H,O at over 100°

33°46 12098 t.60°% F18 -17 33-10 12.94

Farrington™ has carefully examined the Arizona azurifes, on

which he finds the new forms 2P, 4P, 3P3 and 42P$. Four distinct

types of crystals are recognized ; one is pyramidal with 2P predomi-

nant. The others are prismatic, dome-like, and lath-shaped. The

latter came from the Longfellow Mine, and are peculiar for their

ortho-diagonal elongation and the large development of the ortho-

dome Pz. The axial relation calculated from the measurements of

the different types isa: : c=.85676: 1: .88603 ; S=87°36'36” The

very rare mineral pol/ucite has just been reported by Wells?” as asso-

ciated with quartz crystals aud clay, and with psilomelane and a nearly

colorless calcium beryl at Hebron, Maine. The pollucite is in

irregular fragments, perfectly colorless, and as brilliant and transparent

as plate glass. Its index of refraction for sodium light is 1.5247, and

its density — 2.976—2.985. Its analysis gave:

RO SiO, ALO, CaO Cs,O K,O Na,O = Li,O

1.50 43.81") 26.36 22 36.10 -48 1.68 05

corresponding to H,R’,Al,(SiO,),, with which formula all the analyses

of the Elba mineral : may likewise be made to agree.——Columbite™

crystals from the Bob Ingersoll Claim and the Etta Mine in the Black

Hills have a tabular habit with ooP-> predominating. Snow” re-

ports the occurrence of furguotse at several ancient workings near

Silver City, Grant Co., New Mexico.

33 Amer. Jour. Sci., April, 1891, p. 296.

% Tb., p. 300. « pee es

3 Ib., p. 213.

: - % Blake. Ib., Ma lay, wee 403.

FA "1b, June, 1891, p. 5

A E a IRN N EAA AT ERA W, IGN RE EEE R EEEO DA E

IOIO The American Naturalist. [November,

BOTANY.!

The Flora of Chicago.?—In this clearly printed catalogue the

authors have made a valuable addition to the list of local floras of this

country. Very properly the catalogue is prefaced by a brief sketch of

. H. H. Babcock, who did so much to'make known to the world

the peculiarities of the vegetation of Chicago and its vicinity. Then

follows an interesting chapter on the geology of the region covered by

the catalogue. At the close of the chapter the matter is summed up

as follows: ‘Though Cook county, Illinois, and Lake county,

Indiana, have neither mountains nor valleys, no frowning cliffs nor

rocky glens, they have an interesting geological history, the outcome

of which is a very unique botanical area. ‘The rolling prairies, the

river bottoms, the sandy ridges, the lake shore, the drift clay and its

ravines, the sloughs among the ridges at the south end of the lake, the

peat logs which are found in many places, the shallow ponds and

sluggish streams, give a great variety of soil for native plants.”

In this area there are catalogued 1,140 species and varieties of native

plants, 182 of which have been introduced. The largest order is

the Composite, with 170 species and 19 varieties. The next in order

are: Cyperacez, 97 species and rọ varieties; Graminex, 85 species

and 5 varieties. The largest genus is Carex, with 55 species and 15

varieties. The Pteridophytes have 31 representatives. No attempt is

made to enumerate the mosses, liverworts, fungi, etc.

The conformation of the nomenclature to modern ideas, and the

uniform *‘decapitalizátion ” of specific names, will commend this

catalogue to the majority of the botanists of the country.—CHARLES

E. BEssEy,

The Action of Bacteria on the Rapid Souring of Milk

During Thunder Storms.—That milk will sour with unusual

rapidity during thunder storms is a theory very commonly held among

dairymen, and probably is to a certain extent true, It has been stated

by various writers that this is due to an oxidation of the milk by the

ozone generated in the air at such times, the oxygen of the air being

converted into ozone by the electrical discharges.

1 Edited by Dr. Charles E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln.

2 The Flora of Cook County, Illinois, and a Part of Lake County, Indiana. By

Wiliam K. Higley and Charles S. Raddin, In the Bulletin of the Chicago Academy of

Sciences, Vol. II., No. 1, Chicago, 1891.

aty

Pie ie itis as

ss ha Seip, ean eae

Shae OR SSS ei

1891.] Botany. IOII

This is the conclusion to which two investigators have recently

arrived as a result of their experiments.’ These two, though differing

T in methods, arrived at practically the same conclusions, —viz.,

- Ozone will attack milk, and produce lactic acid by a process of

irec oxidation; 2. During a thunder storm sufficient ozone is

generated by the electrical discharges to exert this oxidizing action

on milk.

The method of both these experimenters, in brief, was to expose milk

`“ to the action of ozone generated by a spark of electricity passing through

oxygen. This was done in a closed vessel, partly filled with milk, and the

air above the milk displaced by oxygen ; ozone could then be generated

by passing a spark across through the oxygen. According to both

observers, a spark passed in this way from fifteen to twenty minutes

would generate enough ozone to coagulate the milk in less than an

hour. According to Prof. Tolomei, this action is even more rapid if,

instead of a spark, a ‘silent discharge’’ of electricity from the two

poles of the battery be employed. This is due simply to the fact that

a larger amount of ozone can be generated from a given quantity of

oxygen by the ‘silent discharge ” than by a spark.

These results differ considerably from some obtained in this labora-

tory some time ago. Sin`c the publication of Tolomei’s work ours

has been repeated, and gives exactly the same results as were obtained

before,

Our methods were similar to those described above. A Wolff bottle

was taken and filled with milk and oxygen. Wires connected with a

Holtz induction machine were then passed in at the opposite necks of

the bottle, and ozone generated by passing electricity, either as a

spark or in the form of a silent discharge, across through the oxygen.

A second bottle was partly filled with milk and kept as a control.

Although repeated over and over, under various conditions of

temperature, and with milk of various degrees of sweetness, from that

just from the cow to that a day or more old, in no case were we able

to produce any such rapid souring as was described by Iles and

Tolomei. We did, however, get a slight hastening of the time of

souring. If the control coagulated in thirty-six hours, that experi-

mented on would coagulate only an hour or two earlier. Moreover,

we found that free oxygen alone was sufficient to produce this nee

hastening.

3 D. W. iles, Chemical News, Vol. 36, p. 237, 1877. Prof, Tolomei, Biedermann's

Centralblatt für Agriculturchemie, 1890, P. $38. | f

IOI2 The American Naturalist. [ November,

A further experiment showed that if the milk used be stert/ized before

it is treated with oxygen and ozone, and is then proren Son con-

tact with unfiltered air, no coagulation occurs, no matte much

oxygen is introduced. We have subjected sterilized milk to po action

of the electric spark for over an hour, and then kept this milk in our

laboratory two months, without the appearance of the least sign of

coagulation.

From the fact that only a slight hastening of the time of souring

resulted in the case of ordinary milk, and that no coagulation at »

all was produced if the milk were sterilized, we conclude that the

process cannot be one of oxidation, but is due rather to the rapid

growth of the bacteria of the milk under the influence of the free

oxygen, and, possibly, to a certain extent, of the ozone also.

It is possible that during a thunder storm a sufficient amount of

ozone may be generated to stimulate the bacteria and bring on a rapid

souring. It seems very improbable, however, that the small amount

of ozone usually produced at such a time could have any such effect.

The true cause, it seems to us, is'to be found in the warm, sultry

atmosphere which usually precedes and accompanies these storms.

These atmospheric conditions, as is well known, are especially favora-

ble to the growth of bacteria, and this rapid growth brings on a cor-

respondingly rapid souring of the milk.

These are, in brief, the conclusions at which we have arrived from

the results of our experiments. They are, to a certain extent, borne

out by the experience of the proprietor of a neighboring creamery. He

finds that if milk be kept at a uniformly low temperature, no trouble

` results from souring during the thunder-storm season.

It will be seen from the above that ozone, at least in the small

amount (about five per cent.) which can be generated from a given

amount of oxygen by the electric spark, is not destructive to the

bacteria which causes the souring of milk. This fact is of ifiterest, in

view of the common use of ozone as a disinfectant.—AAaRon L.

TREADWELL, Biological Laboratory, Wesleyan University.

The Parry Herbarium.—This important collection of plants

has been carefully arranged and catalogued, and is now offered for sale

by Mrs. E. R. Parry, the widow of Dr. Parry. It is particularly

rich in western and southwestern species. The whole number of

determined specimens is eighteen thousand, representing 6,780 species-

By far the greater portion of the species are North American, but

seven hundred being natives of other parts of the world. Itis tobe

1891.] Botany. 1013

hoped that this herbarium will come into the possession of some insti-

tution which will make it accessible to the|botanistsof the country. -

Palmer’s Mexican and Arizona Plants of 1890.—The re

collected by Dr. Edward Palmer during the year 1890 have been

determined by Mr. J. N. Rose, of the National Herbarium, whose

report has just appeared as one of the ‘‘ Contributions.” A good many

new species are described, one of the most interesting of which is

Echinopepon cirrhopedunculatus, a near relative of our familiar Zchino-

cystis lobata. In the new species the female flowers are borne upon

slender, coiled, tendril-like peduncles, from three to six inches in

length. Apparently we have here a hint as to the morphology of

the tendrils of the Cucurbitacez. This would indicate their cauline

nature.

Three Months of Elementary Botany. dS setting the stu-

dent at work collecting green-slimes, pond-scums, smuts, leaf-spots,

toad-stools, lichens, scouring rushes, together with flowering plants,

many kinds of vegetable forms are presented to him, and their resem-

blances or differences readily impress themselves upon his mind.

This discursive collecting is not so symmetrical or simple as the

ordinary selective method which rejects anything. without a flower at

least half an inch in diameter. It is calculated however, to gi

more just idea of the plant world as a whole. ith „reference to

structure, much more can be seen with the unaided eye than teachers

suppose. For example, a thin slice of squash stem held up to the

light shows clearly enough the subepidermal tissues and the bicol-

lateral structure of the vascular bundles. A vast amount of dissecting

and anatomical work can be done with pins and pocket-knives. If

rightly used, the eye is a eee microscope, but one must use it

with the “fine adjustment.’’ Even things which it is fashionable to

slight may become productive under proper handling. Phyllotaxy—

that much abused and ridiculed section of anatomy and physiology—

presents admirable fields of study in the mechanics of development.

lose examination of the shoot-epidermis opens up almost every divi-

sion of physiology. For the epidermal system is specialized for

defence, nutrition, growth, irritability, attraction—sometimes — of

insects, and, with its color, texture, thickness, extent, perforations,

projections, secretions, is a most convenient and instructive object of

attention in a three-months’ course of botany. In connection with

such work in morphology and physiology, the structure of flowers, the

physiology of Apa the principles of classification may be

1014 The American Naturalist. [November,

studied. The demonstrations—by the developmental chain from the

lower to the highest plants—that the pollen plant is itself an inde-

pendent plant, is instructive.

Let us see what the method of presentation should be in the depart-

ment of plant physiology. In its modern aspect, this is rather the

newest field of botanical investigation. It is commonly supposed to

be quite beyond the resources of an ordinary equipment, and is men-

tally associated with regiments of flasks, brigades of induction-coils,

and whole armies of expensive and delicate pieces of apparatus.

Certainly all the resources of chemistry, physics, and mechanics may

be brought to bear upon the science of botany, and the result is our

present mechanical or physico-chemical theory of plant life. But,

although one may conduct experiments of great delicacy, it is scarcely

imperative, on that account, for the teacher trying to give an evenly

balanced six fortnights of botany to present such experiments. The

truth is, one may do, most of the physiological experiments without

apparatus. Seedlings planted in little boxes which may be set on edge

illustrate geotropic curvatures; others set in the window illustrate the

heliotropic position. To etiolate a plant needs but an empty flower-

pot turned over it. Tissue tensions are illustrated by slicing a radish

or parsnip and soaking awhile in water. Tendrils may be stimulated

to curvature, bladderworts and pitcher-plants may be grown for exami-

nation, leaves may be covered with felt pads to illustrate the transitional

movements of the chorophyl bodies within ; the phenomena of wilt-

ing, artificial culture solutions, Gemenii, temperature changes

in germinated seeds, and a hundred others are demonstrated without

difficulty.

For such a course there is no text-book. The teacher must give it

by brief lectures, or better, by occasional dictations. Some such

compilations as Dr. Goodale’s ‘ Physiological Botany,” or ‘‘ Vine’s

tures on Plant Physiology,” may be used for reference. Pfeffer

and Detmer are the best authors for those who read German, and

Frank’s little books are admirable. By such a course, brief though it

may be, the student will learn that there is not a position of a leaf,

not a coil in the tendril, which has not its sufficient cause. Thus he

will learn in proper fashion what is meant by scientific investigation.

It may be urged, and not without reason, that such courses as have

been briefly outlined are too extended for the time allotted them.

Such is not the case, however, for such courses are practical, as is

shown by their adoption in more than one college and academy in

America. Students should not be persistently underrated. Even

1891.] - Zoology. IOI5

the dull ones will be able to radiate a little light of their own if

opportunity is given them to do something more than repeat the

feeble beams of a text-book. And this is the greatly needed thing ;

this is the essential thing,—that students should think for themselves.

Original thought is the spirit of the present, the genius of the future.

A rational course of study is the alembic which can precipitate such

thought from a solution of confitsed and half-formed notions. Science

itself is to be defined as that mass of facts within experience by which

we criticize our primitive ideas. Therefore, everything should be bent

to bringing forth true thought from the pupil; otherwise he cannot

arrive at intellectual manhood.—Conway MCMILLAN, im Education.

ZOOLOGY.

The Anatomy of Phagocata.—Woodworth’s paper ! on the struc-

ture of this Triclad is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of the

Turbellaria. This worm, described by Leidy forty years ago, has been

neglected until now. Woodworth has investigated the anatomy in a thor-

ough manner, and besides confirming Leidy’s account of the many phar-

ynges—doubted by several helminthologists —has investigated all parts

of the animal. Phagocata possesses a main pharynx which opens at

the junction of the three branches of the alimentary tract, and, besides,

many others which open into the posterior trunks of the intestine.

These are arranged without apparent order, except that the further they

are from the median pharynx the smaller they become. The develop-

ment of the rhabdites is traced. They arise in gland cells lying in the

mesenchyme, and pass up into the hypodermis, where they have an

intercellular position, by means of tubular projections of the mother

cells. Woodworth thinks the function of the rhabdites to be to aid in

the capture of prey, since by their slow solution in water they form a

thick mucus. The body of the animal is usually darkly pigmented,

the pigment being scattered granules intercellular in position. In its

nervous system Phagocata stands intermediate between Gunda and

Rhynchodesmus. There is a superficial and a deeper portion, the two

being indirectly connected by means of a marginal nerve. The vasa

efferentia are products of the testes ; and the growth of the yolk glands

1 Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., XXI., No. 1, 1891.

Am. Nat.—November.—s.

IO16 The American Naturalist. [November,

shows that these and the ovaria are formed by differentiation from a

common anlage. The pseudoccele spaces in the parenchyma are inter-

cellular.

Crustacea and Echinoderms of Japan.—Mr. J. E. Ives has

recently studied? the collections made by Mr. Frederick Stearns in

apan. The novelties described are: Pectinura stearnsti, Cryptodromia

stearnsit, and Ascorhyncleus japonicus.

The Affinities of the Molluscs.—Thiele has done some good

word in the anatomy of the Mollusca, and hence his recent paper? is `

a surprise. Thiele not only considers the phylogenetic relationship of

the molluscs, but of most of the invertebrates as well. Space is avail-

able but for a few samples of his conclusions. The lowest Ctenophores

stand lower than all other Ccelenterates and nearest to the primitive

metazoan. From them with ‘‘ kaiim ein Zweifel,’’ the sponges ‘‘ ohne

Schwierigkeit” are to be derived, the apical pores of the Ctenophore

giving rise to the pores of the sponge! So, too, from them come the

Cnidaria and the bilateral animals. In the group of molluscs, derived

from the Plathelminthes, some peculiar ‘‘ homologies ” are recognized.

Thus the operculum of many Gasteropods is the homologue of the

posterior element of the chiton shell. The Trochophore is homolo-

gized, bit by bit, with the hier wo ore, etc., etc. The whole is supported

by an idea of ‘centralization ’’ which, in its application, is carried to

the same extreme as was a few years ago the principle of ‘‘ cephaliza-

tion ’’ advanced by an American author, and which receives its death-

blow in the same group (the Crustacea) in which it was supposed to

receive its strongest confirmation.

The Head of Elasmobranchs.—Miss Julia B. Platt continues *

her studies of the vertebrate head, to which reference has already been

made in our pages. She shows that in Acanthias the alimentary can

at first extends forward beyond the neural plate to the anterior extrem-

ity of the embryo, and later the anterior portion of the entoderm is

separated from the rest by the downward growth of the infundibulum.

There is evidence which goes to show that the notochord formerly

extended to the anterior end of theentoderm. From the anterior ento-

derm arise the anterior head-cavities, and a second pair of cavities in

front of the mouth are formed by cells proliferated from the dorsal ento-

2 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, 1891, p. 210.

3 Jenaische Zeitschrift, XXV., p. 480, 1891.

4 Anatom. Anzeiger, Vi., p. 251, 1891,

1891.] Zoology. IOI7

derm. These cavities have at early stages a nerve supply in which both

motor and sensory roots occur; one nerve, called the ‘‘thalamicus,’’

being apparently a new discovery, and is probably to be regarded as

the dorsal root of the oculomotorius,

The Reproduction of the Conger.—Mr. T. J. Cunningham

thinks® that the conger eel reproduces but once in a lifetime, and then

dies. He gives many facts, new and collected, to support this view,

although he has never obtained ripe eggs. The female increases in

size towards the period of maturity, and this growth, sometimes so

excessive as to burst the body open, is the result of the enlargement of

the ovaries, During some months before maturity both male and

female congers refuse all food, and all reserves stored up in the body

are transferred to the reproductive organs. This process goes so far

that the teeth are lost, while the bones of the skull lose all osseous

characters and cut like cheese. From various facts Cunningham rea-

sons that the eggs of the conger are pelagic and transparent, and he

attempts to identify certain unknown eggs from Naples with several

Mureenoid fishes

A New Species of Frog from New Jersey.—It is well known

that the coastal plain of New Jersey is both zoologically and botani-

cally very different from the Piedmont regions, and that its species

have a greater or less distribution in the corresponding region of the

states to the southwest of it. Among fishes, the few species of the

Percid genera Acantharchus and Enneacanthus range through the

entire coastal region, with the Ztheostoma barrattii. The Mesogonistius

chetodon covers so far, only New Jersey and the Chesapeake peninsula,

while the Lepomis phenax has not yet been found south of New Jersey.

Among Batrachia a marked instance of this distribution is furnished

by the Ay/a andersonii, which has been found at two localities in New

Jersey and one in South Carolina, I have now to add to this list a

species of Rana found in Southern New Jersey, which has hitherto

escaped detection. It is a most distinct one, and about the size of the

wood frog (Rana silvatica).

RANA VIRGATIPES, sp. nov.—Vomerine tooth patches between the

choane, and extending posteriorly to their posterior border. Hind

legs short, the heel extending from the middle of the tympanum in

some to near the eye in other specimens. Webs rather short, two

phalanges of the fourth toe free. Prahallux small, but quite promi-

5 Jour. Marine Biol. Assn. United Kingdom, II., p. 16, r89t.

1018 The American Naturalist. [November,

nent; no external solar tubercle. Skin of upper surfaces of body and

posterior limb covered with minute tubercles ; no longitudinal dermal

folds. Males with, females without, external vocal vesicles. Inter-

ocular width one-half that of each eyelid. Tympanic disk distinct,

equaling the eye in longest diameter. Head (to posterior border of

tympanic disk) about one-third length of head and body. End of

muzzle oval-acuminate, projecting moderately beyond mouth border.

Nostril opening vertically equidistant between border of orbit and end

of muzzle. First and second fingers subequal and longer than the

ourth.

The color of the upper surfaces is an olive-brown, varying to more

or less yellowish or blackish. Two light-brown longitudinal bands on

each side, one commencing at the orbit and extending above the

tympanum to the sacrum or beyond it; the other commencing at the -

muzzle, involving the upper lip, and extending to the groin. The

dark color of the top of the muzzle contrasts strongly with the lighter

color of the upper lip, at the canthus rostralis. The inferior band is

bounded below from the axilla to the groin by a wide black band,

which is made up of several more or less confluent spots. Inferior

surface of head and body white; the former dusted with blackish in

both sexes, the latter with or without blackish blotches. Fore limbs

rown above, black on anterior and posterior faces, and white, with

blackish blotches, below. Hind limbs brown on upper surfaces, with

two or three black blotches on the femur and tibia. Remainder of

hind limb and foot black, with the following exceptions: A light-yellow

band commences at the groin and extends along the femur, passing

under the knee to and along the external border of the tibia and the

anterior face of the foot. It expands here, and extends on the

anterior surfaces of the first, second, and third digits. A subtriangular

white blotch occupies the middle of the inferior surface of each femur,

meets its fellow, and sometimes connects with the white of the belly on

the middle line. A narrow, horizontal white line, generally broken

into spots, divides the black of the posterior face of the femur. Inner

edge of tibia with some white spots.

Length of head and body, 60 mm. ; width of head at posterior bor-

ders of tympana, 21.5 mm. ; length of fore limb from axilla, 28 mm. ;

length of hind limb from vent, 76 mm.; length of hind foot, 39

mm. ; of tarsus, 15 mm. ; of tibia, 23 mm.

This frog is not nearly related to any species of the genus, It has

some points of resemblance to the 2. temporaria, as the short posterior

_ legs and moderate web; but the interocular space is much narrower,

1891] Zoology. 101g

the vomerine teeth more anteriorly placed, and there are no dermal

folds. In coloration there is no resemblance to any other species.

I obtained five adult and two half-grown individuals, and had two

other adults almost within my grasp, but they escaped me. The

specimens agree nearly in size, the chief differences being observed in

the amount of dark blotching of the belly and the regularity of the

markings on the inferior side of the femur. The specimens were

found in a cut-off of a tributary of the Great Egg Harbor, River in

Atlantic county, New Jersey. The water is stagnant, and is well

grown with Nymphezas, Utricularia, and Sphagnum. The frogs did

not display any considerable powers of leaping or swimming, but con-

cealed themselves with much ease within the aquatic vegetation. I

did not observe any voice. In the same locality I observed the Rane

virescens and clamata. The cut-off is in the woods, and I found no

individuals in similar situations in the open country, nor any along

running water in the woods

The oversight of this conspicuous species is a curious circumstance.

2E. D. Cope.

Zoological Notes.— General. — Dr. A. Voeltzkow has been

giving ê a general résumé of fresh-water fauna of Madagascar. The

present paper gives promise of many interesting facts when the com-

pleted paper appears, both of new forms and of geographical relation-

ships. Frenzel describes,” without naming, an interesting infusore

from a salt-water aquarium in Argentina. It is saccular, pointed at

either end, and depressed so that it may be called bilateral, the ventral

surface being flattened, the back rounded. The lower surface is ciliated,

the dorsal with a few short bristles. In front is a mouth, posteriorly an

anus, the mouth being surrounded by strong cirri. The wall of this

os eign is composed of a single layer of cubical cells, bounding the

‘alimentary canal.’’ Reproduction takes place in two ways: (1) by

transverse fission, and (2) by conjugation and subsequent encystment.

Two individuals oppose the ventral surfaces, and contract into a sphere

which secretes a cyst. The internal processes were not clearly

observed ; it appears that the alimentary lumen is filled by cell division,

so that the whole cyst is filled with similar cells, each of which is to be

regarded as a spore which, after liberation, swims about as a ciliate, and

by cell division develops directly into the adult. No hints are given

as to the relationships of this form.——Mr. F. A. Lucas describes ê

* Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV. 2: 169, 1891

1020 The American Naturalist. (November,

several points in the structure of the humming-bird’s tongue. This

organ is tubular, but asit lacks any pumping apparatus it can take fluids

only by capillary attraction. Lucas thinks it is rather an instrument for

the capture of small insects, a view supported by the size of the salivary

glands. Tetraprion jordani is the name of a new tree toad from

Ecuador described ® by Dr. L. Stejneger and Mr. F. C. Test. It differs

from all other Hylidze in the presence of palatine teeth. A recent

paper by Barton A. Bean ” on the fishes of the Chesapeake is interesting

from its. richness in local names, Thus, the file-fish is locally called

fool-fish ; the flounder (Paralichthys dentatus) is the chicken halibut ;

. the toad-fish, bull-fish ; Stromateus paru, butter-fish; the weakfish as

trout or gray trout ; scup is maiden; the sea-bass is black will or black

nell ; the blue-fish is tailor; the menhaden is old wife, etc.

EMBRYOLOGY.!

Embryology of the Sea Bass.—Dr. H. V. Wilson has published

in the bulletin of the United States Fish Commission for 1889, Vol.

IX., a contribution to the embryolgy of Serranus atrarius in particu-

lar, and teleostean embryology in general. The paper covers sixty-

eight pages of text, and is accompanied by twenty photo-lithographic

plates. Dr. Wilson has given a most excellent account of the develop-

ment of a single fish, from the egg to the time when the young fish

hatches. To those desiring a simple and straightforward account of

fish development, brought up to date, the present contribution will-

meet every want. Asacontribution of original research the different

parts are of different values. For instance, while the sections on

gastrulation, concrescence, and the formation of the lateral line are

valuable, and largely, more especially the last, original contributions

to modern embryology, yet the sections dealing with the central

nervous system, blood vessels, notochord, gill-slits, anterior body- -cavi-

ties, etc., are by no means so fully treated, and little addition is made to

our present knowledge. This, perhaps, is a necessity of the attempt

to cover so large and so well worked a field ; indeed, one of the most

prominent facts brought out in the paper is that the grounds seem so

9 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., XIV., p. 167, 1891.

10 Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV., p. 83, 1891.

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,

1891.] Embryology. 1021

thoroughly to have ‘been covered by previous writers, and the author ;

“attempts to show in the fairest manner possible which of the (always)

several accounts is the more probable from his “observations on the bass,”

We may now pass critically over the different sections of the paper.

The egg of the sea bass is a small pelagic egg, about one mm. in

diameter. Imbedded in the yolk, but near the surface, is a single

large oil globule, which is always uppermost in the floating egg. After

fertilization the protoplasm, which heretofore formed a thin layer over

the egg, begins to flow to the pole opposite to the oil globule (lower),

This patch of protoplasm at the lower pole is at first circular.

before or during the first act of cleavage there arises an inequality in

the axes, so that by the time the first two blastomeres are marked off the

germ is bilateral. In the bass and mackerel the first two blastomeres

are of equal size. ‘‘ This is normally so with the cod as well ; but on

one occasion I observed that in all the eggs got from a single codfish

the first two blastomeres were unequal in size. The inequality was

very marked ; but the eggs were healthy and the average percentage of

fish was hatched out.’’

This observation, which the author does not further follow up, must

have an important bearing on the relationship of the first cleavage

furrow to the plane of the adult body, and hence on the problem of the

quantitative relationships of protoplasm (and nucleus?) in cell divi-

sion. The somewhat hasty generalization, that in the Triploblastica

the first cleavage plane divided the egg into right and left halves with

reference to the adult, is meeting with general and inexplicable excep-

tions ; and it is the exceptions determined by.casual observation as the

above that show clearly that we do not yet understand the relationship

between egg cleavage and adult structures.

‘ The teleostean segmentation [cleavage of the egg] has eet

been derived from a total segmentation essentially like that of Am

bia ; and convinced of this, Rauber, Agassiz and Whitman, and Zieg-

ler have endeavored to homologize the early furrows in the two groups.

In regard to the first two furrows there can no be difference of opinion.

The homology of the third teleostean furrow is by no means so clear.

Ziegler, without entering into a detailed discussion of the matter, regards

the first three furrows in the two groups as homologous. Agassiz and

Whitman, after a critical examination of Rauber’s views, also pronounce

-~ in favor of this homology, deciding that the third teleostean furrow rep-

resents the equatorial furrow of Amphibia. I do not find, however, their

reasons sufficient for discarding the homology offered by Rauber, sup-

_ Ported as it is by variations (atavistic) in the teleostean germ toward

1022 The American Naturalist. [November,

the amphibian segmentation which so exactly imitat@ the teleostean types.

. According to Rauber, the first equatorial furrow of the frog has

bese fost: in the Teleost. Agassiz and Whitman would seem to believe

that the æ riori improbability of such a loss taking place is so great

that, in spite of the variations just described, it is preferable to regard

the first three furrows as homologous in the two groups. I do not see

the inherent improbability of the loss. On the contrary, the disap-

pearance of segmentation in the ventral half of the egg, coupled with

the early contraction of the protoplasm (belonging to this half) towards

the upper pole, make it easy, I think, to understand how the loss was ,

brought about.” The author seems to have come to this conclusion

largely on account of the close resemblance in the arrangement of the

_ eight micromeres in the 16-celled frog’s egg with the eight-celled stage

-in the bass; but inasmuch as there exist the greatest individual differ- _

ences in the arrangement of the micromeres in the frog, and also in the

fish, we have every reason to believe such a general resemblance might

have been independently acquired in each case, and that the eight-celled

stage in the fish corresponds to the 16-celled stage in the frog ; and that

the resemblance between the 16-celled stage (eight micromeres, eight

macromeres) in the frog and the eight-celled in the fish is entirely super-

ficial. Moreover, if, as the author attempts to show, the fish gastrula

may by derived directly from the frog’s gastrula, we have every reason to

believe that so fundamental a process as the cleavage stages must be

similar, making a very strong ‘‘ a priori improbability ’’ that the third

furrow of the frog has dropped out of the fish egg.

As is well known, the eight-celled stage of the frog separates in gen-

eral the micromere cells of the upper (anterior?) pole from the lower

cells containing more yolk. Now if the view taken by Agassiz and

Whitman be true, it would seem probable that in the eight-celled stage

of the fish four (most probably the more central four) cells would be

entirely cut off from the protoplasm covering the yolk, and that the

other four cells would have their protoplasm continuous, in part at

least, with the protoplasm covering the yolk. ‘To some extent the

author’s figures bear out such an interpretation, although he does not

seem to have examined the sections from such a point of view. ;

The origin of the periblast in the bass is the same as is described in

Ctenolabrus by Agassiz and Whitman. ‘These authors proved

beyond a doubt that in Ctenolabrus the nuclei are derived from the __

marginal cells of the blastodisc, which from the earlie:t stages of nt

mentation are connected with the tee or periblastic protoplasm.”

(See above.)

CA rR

1891.] Embryology. 1023

The whole of the periphery of the blastoderm turns in, forming a

layer between the periblast and the superficial ectoderm of the animal

pole. The invaginated layer from the posterior pole gives rise to the

mesoblast and notochord by delamination, and the remaining cells go.

to form the midgut, the periblast taking no part whatever in the latter

structure, but remaining encircling the yolk, and ultimately assisting to

digest it when it begins to disappear by absorption by the liver cells.

The blastodermic cap grows over the yolk. ‘As the blastopore

grows smaller, the extra embryonic part of the germ-ring is pari passu

drawn into the tail end of the embryo, and there is thus built up in

this region a constantly increasing wall of undifferentiated cells. .

In the bass there is no actual concrescence in the middle line; but

the terminal notch observed in some fish, as well as the general

considerations derived from a comparison of Teleost with Amphibia,

warrant us in regarding the closure of the blastopore as a process

of concres¢ence, the result of which is to establish the primitive streak.

The entire mass of undifferentiated cells left at the tail of the embryo

after the blastopore closes serves as a cellular material for the back-

ward growth of the several organs. Thus, while the extra embryonic

germ-ring, as has been insisted upon by Agassiz and Whitman, and

Cunningham, assuredly forms part of the embryo, it does not form

any special part; but, on the contrary, its cells eventually find their

way into ectodermic, mesodermic, and notochordal tissues’’ of the

tail. In other words, the author believes the two halves of the trunk

of the embryo are not formed by concrescence of the blastopore,

mesoderm, or any modification of it, but that all of the mesoderm

turned in around the rim (except at the post-embryonic pole) accu-

mulates at the upper ridge of the blastopore (in the caudal mass) and

at its sides, and this latter differentiates into the mesoderm and its

products in the tail.

‘* The alimentary canal is formed from the simple endoderm lamella

[invaginated endoderm without the parablast] by a process of folding

along the median line. The fold is converted into a tube by the

meeting of its lower edges. There is a solid postanal gut formed as a

thickening of the endoderm lamella, not as a fold. At the end of the

postanal gut is Kupffer’s vesicle, which is formed in essentially the

same way as the permanent alimentary tube. It is scarcely necessary

to say that Kupffer’s vesicle and the entire post-anal gut [subsequently]

atrophy.” ‘The discovery of this vesicle was made by Kupffer in

1024 The American Naturalist. [November,

1868, and since then it has occupied a conspicuous place in the embry-

ology of Teleosts.. .. The alimentary canal is formed by a process

of folding, and Kupffer’s vescicle, as the terminal part of the postanal

gut, follows the same method. After the gut has once been folded off,

the homology of the vesicle with the postanal vesicle of Selachians

is obvious. In each group the vesicle forms the dilated extremity of:

the postanal gut, and receives, or would receive if it existed, the

neurenteric canal... . But if Kupffer’s vesicle in its early stages

indicates that the terminal portion of the archenteron was primitively

dilated, we naturally inquire both for the causes and for a correspond-

ing phenomenon in the ontogeny of those ainmals in which the

archenteron is bodily transformed into the permanent gut. As to the

latter point it would seem very common in the Amphibia for the archen-

teron to be thus dilated. The existence of such a dilatation in the

enteron of the primitive Chordata is further made probable by, and

receives an explanation from, the relation of the neurenteric canal to

the blastopore. It will be seen that in the interpretation of Kupffer’s

vesicle I substantially agree with Cunningham: it is the terminal part

of the archenteron.

The most interesting addition to our knowledge is the author’s dis-.

covery that the ear, branchial sense-organs, and organs of the lateral

line arise from a common structure or embryonic “‘anlage.’’ ‘‘It

been noticed in the trout that the anlage which was supposed to develop

into the ear is remarkably long. Ihave found that this anlage not only

gives rise to the ear, but to a functional branchial sense-organ and to

the organs of the lateral line as well. Before the blastopore closes there

is found behind the eye a long, shallow furrow [the sensory furrow] in.

the nervous layer of the ectoderm. At two points the furrow begins

to deepen, the deepening taking place downwards and inwards. At

these two points the auditory sac and the branchial sense-organs will

respectively be formed. ... A further stage in the development

shows that the deepening of the furrow in the auditory and branchial

sense-organ regions has continued until there are are two well-marked

sacs, the anterior of which is the branchial sense-organ, the posterior

the auditory sac. Between the two sacs persists the connecting ‘portion

of the sensory furrow, and behind the auditory sacs the furrow is con-

tinued for some distance. Zhe posterior portion of the furrow consti-

tutes the anlage of the lateral line.

‘The homology instituted by Eisig between the lateral line organs

of fishes and the ‘seiten organ’ of certain Annelids is well known.

Balfour, in his text-book, declined to accept it; and though Beard

N SERS

1897.] Embryology. 1025

favored the homology in his paper on the teleostean lateral line, after

studying the Selachians he gave it up. Now that the early develop-

ment of the lateral line is approximately known in Teleosts and

Selachians, there seems less than ever to be said for the homology. If

it could be shown that the segmental sense-organs of Annelids, leeches,

etc., arise from an anterior anlage, which grows and, so to speak, dis-

tributes the sense-organs along the trunk, the homology might well be

supported. But as far as I know the invertebrate segmental organs.

arise 7” situ.”

‘ The fact that there is in the bass a common alae for the ear,

branchial sense-organ, and lateral line has certainly no phylogenetic

significance. It can only be regarded as a convenient method of

forming these sense-organs which the embryos of certain animals have

adopted. It, however, serves to emphasize in a striking way the serial

homology between the organs which previous work has already made

so probable.” The interpretation of .this latter quotation is somewhat

obscure and the author’s meaning difficult to read betweeen the lines..

If he means that the ear, branchial sense-organs, and lateral line have

arisen in the adult in the same position found in the adult to-day, and

have subsequently concentrated in the embryo into a single anlage, he

brings no evidente forward to support his position. If he means that

in the adult these three sets of organs arose from a single anterior

organ, and the ontogenetic phases repeat the ancestral process, then

the theory seems in better accord with the facts, but his words seem

to bear out no such interpretation. At any rate, to announce that in

their origin, which he has himself discovered, there is no ‘‘ phylo-

genetic significance’’ seems an extremely hazardous affirmation. In

any case, however, the discovery itself is extremely important, and may

have an important bearing upon the question of metamerization of the

vertebrate as contrasted with that of the Annelid.

The last section deals with ‘‘General Morphological Questions,’’

touching mainly upon concrescence and the interpretation of the

process of gastrulation in the Teleost. <‘‘In the growth of the blasto-

derm around the yolk, the head end of the embryo does not remain a

fixed point, as His supposed. On the contrary, the tail end of the

embryo (posterior pole of the blastoderm) remains a comparatively

fixed point, as Oellacher first showed, while the anterior pole of the

blastoderm travels rapidly around the yolk. The point where the

blastopore closes is thus but a short distance from the original position

occupied by the posterior pole of the blastoderm. Owing to the

constant position of the single oil globule, these facts can easily be

1026 } The American Naturalist. [November,

made out.’ This argument itself is vitiated in the assumption of a

fixed point for the oil globule, as the author gives little reason for

believing that the latter may not change position with the growth of

the embryo. Moreover, and this is much more important, the author’s

conception as to the position of the frog’s gastrula in relation to the

poles of the embryo may not be correct, and must seriously alter his con-

ception of the position of the fish embryo to the egg if he insists on a

strict comparison of the two forms. (See below.)

The author’s conception of gastrulation in the fish may be gathered

from the following quotation: ‘‘ Accepting Ziegler’s homologies, it

will be seen that the whole course of the fish development becomes

easy to understand. Starting with the blastula, and disregarding for

the present the non-embryonic part of the germ-ring, the primitive

hypoblast corresponds to the primitive hypoblast which invaginates

around the dorsal lip of the blastopore in the frog gastrula. The chief

point of difference is the lack of continuity in the fish embryo between

the inner edge of the invaginated layer, and the yolk is easily explained

as an adaptation to the method of forming the alimentary canal from

the invaginated layer exclusively. The archenteron lies between the

primitive hypoblast and the periblast. In consequence of the absence

of continuity between the yolk and the invaginated layer, the archen-

teron at its edge is not separated from the segmentation cavity Zhe

growth of the anterior pole of the blastoderm around the yolk represents

the growth of smail cells around the yolk-cells in amphibian gastrulation.

The closure of the blastopore takes place in the same way as in the

Amphibia ; there is formed a short primitive streak behind the position

of the neurenteric canal (Kupffer’s vesicle in Teleosts) ; at the posterior

endof the primitive streak the final closure takes plac Th

asymmetry which Balfour showed to. be a Ser ka miia

vertebrate gastrulation is present in the highest degree in the Teleost

gastrula. At the posterior pole of the blastoderm (dorsal lip of blasto-

pore) there is an extensive invagination which gives rise to the roof of the

archenteron, The cause of the asymmetry must be looked for in the

peculiarly localized distribution of the yolk in the egg.”

_ The italics above are my own, and emphasize the fact that the

author does not realize that in the gastrulation of the Amphibia, to which

hę so constantly refers, the anterior pole does not grow over the yolk in

an epibolic fashion, but that the anterior (black) extension of the

blastoderm over the yolk takes place by a delamination of ectoderm

cells from the large yolk-containing cells (see Am. Nat., Embryology,

August, 1891). This latter view has been recognized by Kupffer and

1891.] Embryology. 1027

Hertwig. ‘‘ Now the growth of the blastoderm over the yolk does not

take place, according to Kupffer, in a true epibolic fashion, but is

accomplished through the medium of a zone of tissue in which the

yolk-cells become transformed into the cells of the two primary layers.

Hertwig holds the same opinion. If this be really the case in Amniota,

two explanations of the process are possible: First, that it is a modi-

fication of the ancestral, epibolic growth, such as occurs in Teleosts,

which view Kupffer and Hertwig would of course reject, because it is

equivalent to admitting the homology of the blastoderm edge in

Teleosts and Amniotes, and consequently the correctness of the Balfour-

Rauber hypothesis ; secondly, that the process is, to refer it to simple

embryonic forms, one of progressive delamination. It will be seen

that Kupffer’s hypothesis really implies the occurrence of the latter

process, for when he explains the spreading of the blastoderm as the

completion of the blastula stage he really means that the embryo splits.

off ectoderm progressively from a 3 a' towards m (anterior embryonic

portion). Thus, again, to refer the processes to their simplest forms,

over one half of the blastula yd half) delamination occurs ;

but in the other half there is a true invagination (region of prostomia

and primitive streak). . . . However, the analysis I have given is, I

think, a perfectly fair one, and the result is evidently prejudicial to

their theory. For the conclusion is that the Amniotic vertebrates have

a blastula which invaginates over one half and delaminates over the

other, Such an embryonic form is nowhere known to occur, and the

theory which is forced to assume its existence is in so far a weak theory,

and must give place to any other a can explain the facts by

making use only of known processes.” Unfortunately for the author,

the weak theory is probably to be regarded as a real fact, and if so

‘the author’s argument collapses. Whether -or not a readjustment of

the author’s views may show him to be largely in the right, is another

question for the future to settle. Meanwhile any conception of fish

‘(and Amniote) gastrulation must take into account as a starting point

the delamination over the anterior and ventral face of the early stages

of the frog’s development.—T. H. M., September gth, 1891.

The Development of Hydra.2—The ground already covered

by Kleinenberg (’ 72), Kerscher (’89), and Korotneff (83) has again

been worked over by Dr. August Brauer, The following species of

brown (‘not green’’) hydras were studied: Æ. grisea, Eggs and

* Zeit. Wissen. Zool., Bd. 51, Heft. 2, 1891. -

1028 The American Naturalist. [November,

spermatozoa, May, June, and July. Bisexual. The eggs fall off from

the mother as soon as the outer coat of the embryo is formed. The

embryos do not hatch for one or two months. A. fusca. Eggs

mature in October. Bisexual. The eggs do not fall off, but are stuck

to surrounding objects by means of a jelly, and flatten down somewhat

on the support. Probably the eggs are deposited in different places.

The time between egg-laying and hatching is as in the last species.

H. sp. ? Adult resembles closely Æ. fusca. More than half of the indi-

viduals kept in the aquarium developed into males alone, and later

after the disappearance of the testes they did not develop eggs, but

continued to bud. The remaining individuals developed into females.

The eggs remain attached to the mother. When all of the eggs have

developed as far as the two-layered stage the mother contracts strongly

her body down to the base. The eggs come to lie around the base of

` the mother, remaining sticking to her. The mother remains in this

strongly contracted condition for several weeks, and the embryos often

escape from the shell before the parent again extrudes. Three embryos

hatched in one case fourteen days after the contraction had taken

place.

The author suggests that the adult species may be identified in the

form of the eggs and the structure of the egg-case :

1. Hydra viridis. Egg falls off. Form spherical, Case smooth.

2. Hydra grisea. Eggs fall off. Form spherical. Case covered with

large and often branched spines.

3. Hydra fusca. Eggs singly stuck to objects. Form below, flat ;

above, convex. Case covered with spines only on the upper surface.

4. Hydra sp.? Eggs (at base of mother) generally all stuck at one

place. Form spherical. Case covered with short spines.

The maturation and fertilization of the egg is described in much-

greater detail than ever before. The egg begins to round up, drawing

in the protoplasmic processes, but still remaining beneath the ecto-

derm. At this stage the zwo polar bodies are extruded. The egg

later breaks through the overlying ectoderm, but remains attached by

a broad base. Fertilization then takes place.

The eccentric position of the segmentation sucleus - causes the first

furrow to begin at the distal pole (away from the mother), and then,

after many changes in the outline of the egg, the yolk follows the

nuclear division, and moreover, in the same way as Bergh? describes in

Gonothyraa,—viz., the nucleus divides a second time, and the second

M Jahrbuch, Val. V., 1879.

1891.] Embryology. ; A 1029

Jurrow is visible while the first furrow has not finished.4 With the pass-

ing of the furrows through the egg the nuclei pass to the middle. If

they have reached this after the end of the second cleavage, then the

segmentation proceeds more rapidly and regularly.

A blastula stage follows, and from it the endoderm is formed at all

points over the surface, by both delamination (Theilung) and migra-

tion (Einwanderung). Later the blastula cavity is filled with solid

endoderm. From the ectoderm the outer chitinous case is secreted,

and later the inner germ-membrane. The ectoderm remains intact,

and ‘goes over into that of the adult. The sequefice of the appearance

of the tentacles does not follow any defined law. The mouth-pole is

in all probability identical with the pole that gave rise to the polar

bodies.

Morphology of the Vertebrate Head.’—In the Anatomischer

Anzeiger (VI. Jahr., ’91) Julia B. Platt publishes a contribution of

the ‘‘ work presented last October for publication in the Journal of

Morphology.’ The present paper deals with the origin of the head

segments and their nerve supply. ‘‘ The anterior limit of the fusion of

the edges of the neural plate is therefore not the neuropore, but the

anlage of the optic stalk.. . . Theoptic nerve which later develops

into the optic stalk is therefore primarily a dorsal structure, and mor-

Phologically the first or most anterior of the cranial nerves. An-

terior to the first gill-cleft, Acanthias has therefore seven pairs of-

somites,—three for the hyoid arch, two for the mandibular, one pre-

mandibular, and one ‘ anterior.’ ”

In the Teleost Batrachus the author says: ‘* My study of the develop-

ment of the mouth in Batrachus but confirms the work published

many years ago by Dohrn on the development and significance of

the teleostean mouth. At an early stage a pair of pockets from the

alimentary canal open to the exterior anterior to the hyomandibular

clefts. Much later in the development of the embryo the mouth

breaks through in the ventral region of these pockets as a bilateral

involution of the ectoderm, fusing with the endoderm, and opening to

each side of a central partition sometimes before the median line is

* The italics above are "y own. The relation between the cleavage of the protoplasm

and the division of th a parallel case to that observed by Mayer in Pagurus

and by E, B. Wilson in Renilla, wad ute most suggestive facts as to the relation cog

between nucleus and cell- body, and e OY P A

take place independently a the nucleus, yet show that th leus d ot dominate all

cytogenic phenom H. M.

5 Anatomischer PEE VI. Jahr., Nos. 9 and 10, 1891.

1030 The American Naturalist. [November,

crossed. The little fish is at this stage so largg that the double

nature of the mouth involution may be seen without aid of a lens,

The author is not committed as to whether the breaking through of

the ventral region represents a pair of gill-clefts,—7.e., as to whether the

Teleost (and vertebrate) mouth arises, as Dohrn supposed, from a ven-

tral fusion of a pair of fused gill-clefts.

‘Triple Fertilization in Egg of Domestic Fowl.—The infre-

quency with which triple fertilization takes place in the same ovum,

in birds or mammals, is in itself reason for presenting to the scientific

student what appears to be a unique specimen illustrating this phe-

nomenon, and upon which may also rest the basis of certain biological

speculations. In view of this I have drawn the specimen (see Plate

XXII.), shown for the first time, representing topographical features

rather than histological detail.

The literature at my disposal and such inquiries as it was possible for

the writer to make from reliable sources failed to recall another

recorded instance of triple fertilization occurring in domestic fowl.

It is in this connection interesting to note that Hertwig, Fol, Pluger,

and other observers of note are unanimous in the conclusion that

‘“ polyspermy,’’ or more than one spermatazoa entering the ovum, is

extremely rare, and, as a matter of fact, generally impossible ; and

where it does occur in rare conditions, it indicates a pathological con-

dition of the egg-cell, giving rise to the production of abnormalities.

Here we have, in all probability, the entrance of three sperms into

the ovum,—a condition indeed so rare as to excite more than ordinary

interest in the mind of the naturalist.

Iam indebted to Dr. J. C. Millman, formerly in the biological

laboratory of the University of Wisconsin, for the generous spirit with

which he brought to my notice and allowed me the pleasure of laying

the specimen before the reader.—Dr. JosepH L. Hancock, Chicago,

September 29th, 1891. i

PLATE. AAI

TRIPLE FERTILIZATION IN EGG OF Domestic FOWL.

(About thirty-eight hours old.)

z i

; $

‘2

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1031

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.!

The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-

historic Archeology of Paris, 1889.—( Continued from page 844.)

—SEANCE LIBRE. eaten ee Question: ‘* The Existence of

Man During the Tertiary Perio

M. Boule presented a photeeraph of the under jaw of the Dryopithe-

cus fontani, found in the Miocene of Saint-Gaudens, Haute Garonne.

M. Delgado, at the head of the Museum of Archeology at Lisbon,

presented a collection of flints gathered at Otta, Portugal ; thirty came

from the Tertiary sandstone and twenty-four came from the surface, and

the discussion turned to the existence of man during the Tertiary epoch.

He contended that those from the deposit at Otta were really and truly

Tertiary, but that the pieces of flint from the surface correspond to

those which had been found at Otta by Ribeiro, and, consequently,

they were not those which came from the Tertiary.

M. Gabriel de Mortillet praised the method of searching which M.

Delgado had pursued. The fact that M. Delgado had once been

unable to find the worked ints in the Tertiary deposit proved nothing

to his mind, for these worked silex were comparatively rare. There

had never been many of them found, and the series such as presented

by M. Delgado of twenty-four were about as much any one had been

able to find. In the richest deposits of the Quaternary period one

can search for days and days and cubic meter after cubic meter of the

gravels without finding a single instrument therein, and yet this work,

if continued long enough and extended over sufficient territory, as is

done in the railroad and canal cuttings at Chelles and at Saint-Acheul,

demonstrated the fact that they are in existence in these deposits by

the hundreds and even by the thousands.

A lengthy discussion ensued over the methods employed by prehis-

toric man in the working of silex, illustrated by drawings by M. A. de

Mortillet, criticised by others, showing the cracking of flint by the

heat of the sun, exposure to the air, by fire, by percussion, and

by pressure. M. Docteur Capitan presented a full series of the

implements used, and gave a practical demonstration of the methods

employed. He had the percuteur or hammer with and without the

intervention of a punch, which might be by stroke, direct or indirect,

as the anvil, the nucleus, the flake. The primary work was done usually

l Edited by Dr, Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

Am. Nat.—November.—6.

(1032 $ The American Naturalist. {November,

by percussion, but some of the small and fine flakes, such as those of

obsidian made by the Mexicans, were possibly made by pressure.

A flake, larger or smaller, once obtained, was subjected to secondary

work by which it was made into the arrow or spear-head, knife or

hatchet, according to the intention of the maker and the possibilities

of the material. This was done by secondary chipping,—that is, chip-

ping the flake, called in French retouching: 1, by percussion ; 2, on

the anvil; 3, by pressure ; 4, by hammering or pecking; 5, by grind-

ing or polishing. For the pressure a bone implement from paleolithic

Grotte de l’ Eglise, evidently much used, belonging to the collection

of Dr. Capitan, was exhibited.

Which and how many of these methods were employed can only be

determined from an inspection of the specimen, the condition in which

it was found, and the objects associated with it. From these elements

were to be resolved the question as to the man who made the imple-

ment and the age or epoch to which he belonged. All but the last

two methods were employed alike during—both the paleolithic and

neolithic periods, while the last two were peculiar to the neolithic.

M. Gabriel de Mortillet, and at the end Belucci and Vilanova, all

sustained the proposition that there were proofs of the existence of

man during the Tertiary epoch. This was combated by M. Cartailhac,

Boule, and Rames. :

Monsieur Macedo put up the question of the discoveries of prehis-

toric human remains at Castenedolo, in Lombardy, Italy, which pro-

voked a discussion by MM. Topinard, de Mortillet, and Cartailhac.

Reports in the Anthropologist, that the largest investigations made by

M. Arturo Issel, of Genoa, adopting the opinion of the geologist,

Stoppani, confirms him in the opinion that neither the ancient nor the

new skeletons or cemetery at Castenedolo belonged to the Tertiary

` man.

Second Question :—‘‘ The Mines and Workshops of Flint.”

M. de Baron de Loé read, on behalf of himself and M. de Munck,

a notice upon the excavations recently made in the neolithic ateser,

or workshop at Spiennes, near Mons, Hainault, Belgium. This

memoir added a number of interesting things to those which had

ready been recorded by MM. Cornet, Briart, and Houzeau de

Lehaye at the meeting of this Congress in 1879 in Brussels. The

result of the investigation of MM. Loé and de Munck into these wells

or shafts of the mines of flint in Spiennes showed that being brought

on the surface the flint was wrought in special workshops in the neigh-

1891. Archeology and Ethnology. 1033

borhood, which were without necessary connection with the mine, and

shown by slight depressions full of broken and incomplete pieces and

chips and flakes, the débris of the shop. Worked objects of deer

horn and bone were found, and the pottery was fine and well modeled.

The workshops may have been huts occupied as habitations, more or

less temporary, by the workmen. They were probably made of some

light material, of which the traces are still found on the surface. The

special characteristics of the objects found in these workshops showed

that there had been a division of labor, and that each workman con-

fined himself largely to the manufacture of asingle implement. These

workshops had furnished prehistoric flint implements to Hainault,

Brabant, and possibly to the North of France.

M. de Munck insisted upon the last point. He had found fifteen _

neolithic stations in direct relation with Spiennes, which were divided

among forty-five communes. The location of these workshops had

given rise to a network of roads of communication that have remained

in usage for a long time after. M. de Munck prophesied that searches

of the same order, if pursued in other places and localities, and wit

other materials which composed the industries of the age of stone,

would give results of much interest and benefit.

Mr. Thomas Wilson continued the discussion by a description of the

quarry at Flint Ridge, near Newark, in Licking County, Ohio. In a

space ten miles long and three miles wide had been found a thick bank

or stratum of silex from four to twelve feet in thickness, which the

aborigines had attacked by means of wells dug through the surface soil

and clay. After piercing this soil or clay they broke down through

the stratum of silex by means of fire, and extracted it in great blocks.

The flint which was thus obtained was broken up in its place, and was

spread around over the surface of the entire plateau, where its remains

were found in many workshops, and the implements thus made were to

be found disseminated throughout the entire state of Ohio.

M. Cartailhac described the exploitations made by himself and M.

Boule in the mines of flint at Mur-de-Barrez, in Aveyron, of which he

had given reproduction which was exhibited at the exposition. He

said that similar wells or shafts had been found by Baron de Baye in the

Department of Marne, and also many years since by Cuvier and Bron-

gniart in the Chalk of Meudon.

Prince Poutjatine, one of the delegates from Russia, presented to

the congress a superb collection gathered from the north of Moscow,

near Bologoje, district of Waldai, province of Novogorod. There were

a number of polished stone hatchets of various dimensions, but

10 34 The American Naturalist. [November,

generally small ; worked flint in the form of points, arrow-heads and

others; worked bones, arms, tools, pendeloques, ornaments, harpoons,

a fish-hook in two pieces worked with a joint. He has many fragments

of pottery, which had been decorated as is common among the Indians

of North America; that is, by pressing upon the soft clay certain

textile fabrics, strings, cords, twine, etc., which made the ornamen-

tation.

The Prince has sent to the U. S. National Museum a series of casts,

as well as several aa pieces of prehistoric pottery, all decorated

as above described. These were exchanged for a series from the

United States, The similarity of these two series so widely distant is

remarkable. The astonishment of the beholder is increased when he is

told that heretofore this mode of decoration was believed to be con-

fined to the United States, and that none except that here described

have ever been reported from Europe. |

The Prehistoric Man of Spy.

exhibits at the recent meeting of the International Geological Congress

at Washington was that of M. Max Lohest, of Liége, Belgium. Although

unfortunately M. Lohest’s paper was crowded out, and consequently

the members had not the advantage of hearing it, yet his photographs

and pamphlet were examined by several: of those who combine arch-

eology with geology.

M. Lohest’s paper read before the Anthropological Congress gives

an account of his investigation in the grotto of Spy, near Namur, on

the property of the Count of Beauffort. In this cavern M. Lohest

found, under a thick bed of rubbish and fallen fragments of limestone,

three distinct ossiferous beds. The uppermost of these was in part

stalagmitic, and contained a few bones of an undetermined deer, a

bear’s tooth, and some pieces of thesbones of the mammoth. Besides

these, and mingled with them, were great numbers of flint implements

of various patterns, some of them resembling the type known as

‘‘Mousterien,’’ from the cavern of that name, and others are like

those found in the well-known Engis cave in Belgium. Some are

notched like saws, and of very thin and delicate workmanship. They

consist of scrapers, points, blades, knives, etc., worked on one face,

some apparently to be set in handles, and others not.

No instruments of bone or of ivory were found in this upper layer,

and the flints are mostly covered with a white or bluish patina, some-

times very thick.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1035

, Under this stalagmitic layer was a second ossiferous bed, usually red

from the presence of iron ore, many fragments of which were found.

Here occurred the following fauna: Rhinoceros tichorhinus, abun-

dan; Eguus cabalius (horse), very common; Cervus elaphus (red

deer); Cervus canadensis? (elk); Cervus megaceros (Irish elk);

Cervus tarandus; Ovis artes (sheep); Bos primigenius (bison) ; Bos

priscus (aurochs); Elephas primigenius (mammoth), very abundant ;

Ursus speleus (cave bear), scarce ; Meles taxus (badger) ; Canis vulpes

(fox); Canis lupus? (wolf), familaris? (dog); Mustela foina

(weasel) ; Hyena spelea (cave hyena), very abundant; Felis spelea

(cave lion), a few teeth; Felis catus (cat) ; Sus scrofa (pig). These

determinations are due to M. Fraipont, professor of paleontology at

the University of Liége. Numerous hearths were also found on this

layer, composed of stones, and containing burnt wood and ashes.

The materials used by the old inhabitants of this grotto were flint,

phthanite, sandstone, chalcedony, opal, ivory, bone, and horn, and

the total number of implements obtained was very large. There are

140 ‘‘ Mousterien’’ points, most of them thick at the base and not

intended for setting in handles, whose average dimensions are four

inches long by three inches wide ; a number of fine flakes and awls,

and arrows or dart-heads, of very fine workmanship, some of them

five inches long, resembling in type the ‘‘solutreén ’’ implements of

the Dordogne, a single small core from which flakes have been taken,

and numerous blocks rejected on account of some defect after a flake

or two had been struck off, and 300 scrapers of various size and types.

Implements, etc., of ivory were more numerous in this layer than in

any other cave in Belgium. Chips were so abundant as to form a

breccia in one place. The objects found were for the most part for

dress or ornament, and the material had often degenerated into a

chalky substance. Many of them were unfinished, or the different

stages of manufacture were revealed. Some of them were marked with

Striations, as was also the case with the implements of horn and of

bone found with the ivory. On a rib of the mammoth or rhinoceros

was found a series of ‘‘ circumflex accents’’ ranged one above another,

of which a figure is given in the pamphlet. One hollow horn was

filled and stained with iron oxide, and is supposed by M. Lohest to

have been a receptacle of this material for coloring the persons or the

implements of the cavern. These with four fragments of pottery,

und by another investigator, complete the list of relics from the

second ossiferous layer.

1036 | The American Naturalist. [November,

The third contains a fauna, so far as it goes, identical with that of

the second bed. Rhinoceros tichorhinus, abundant ; Equus caballus,

very abundant; Cervus elaphus, rare; Cervus tarandus, rare; Bos

primigenius, common ; Elephas primigenius, common ; Ursus speleus,

rare; Meles taxus, rare; Hyena sfelea, abundant. In this be

were found, as in the other, abundance of flint implements, but

somewhat different in form and material from those above mentioned.

The great interest of this layer, and, indeed, of the whole find, is the

discovery not only of the works of man, but of man himself, in the form

of two partial skeletons, one skull of which is nearly complete. This,

of course, forms the central point of M. Lohest’s paper, and he justly

goes into detail concerning it. We will condense his account, written

by Dr. Fraipont :

‘« The human relics belong to the most ancient fossil race, that of

Neanderthal or of Canstadt. The skulls, fairly complete, present all

the ethnic characters of that race, whose remains are known from

France, Italy, Austria, Germany, and Sweden. Hitherto only a single

jaw has been obtained from a cave (Naulette) in Belgium.”’

One of these skulls is apparently that of an old woman ; the other

that of a middle-aged man. They are both very thick, The former is

clearly dolichocephalic (index 70), the other less so. Both have very

prominent eyebrows and large orbits, with low, retreating foreheads,

excessively so in the woman. ‘The lower jaws are heavy ; the oldest

has almost no projecting chin. The teeth are large, and the last molar

is as large as the others. These points are characteristic of an inferior

and the oldest-known race. The bones indicate, like those of Neander-

thal and Naulette, small, square-shouldered individuals. M. Lohest

adds :

‘ The skeletons from Spy ate among the most important discoveries

relating to the oldest-known race of men. The cave shows three

ossiferous layers, and remains of the mammoth occur in all three.

Stone implements chipped only on one face indicate the ‘ Mousterien ’

type of industry.

“The relics of the three layers indicate an advance in the character

of the workmanship.

‘ The second layer, by its association of chipped tools with ornaments

of ivory and bone, shows its close relationship to the ‘ Mousterien’

type, and, at the same time, is free from all mopon of accidental

mixture.

‘ The study of the bones of the lowest level proves beyond doubt

that the earliest race of men as yet known in Belgium had a skull of

Nie st, Sp EA

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 1037

the type ‘ Neanderthal,’ and used instruments of the ‘ Mousterien ’

pottern.

In the above discovery we have at least clear and indisputable traces

of the men whom up to now we have known almost entirely by their

tools. A fewdisjointed bones not free from suspicion are now fortified

by evidences that cannot be gainsaid, and the old Canstadt or Nean-

derthal race stands before us as an extinct but real ancestor.—American

Geologist, Sept., 1891.

M. Max Lohest made several visits to the Department of Prehistoric

Anthropology during the International Geological Congress, and we

had much pleasure in renewing acquaintance formed years ago. I had

visited the Grotte de Spy along with the other Belgian prehistoric

caverns, and was acquainted with his work. He had a full display of

objects from these caverns at the French exposition, and read a paper

before the International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric

Archeology.

Not the least interesting episode of the geologic congress were the

visits of Professor Gaudry and Marcellin Boule to the Department of

Prehistoric Anthropology. They are both, like M. Lohest, much

interested in the antiquity of man, and many things shown them ill

appreciated by the American public were regarded by them with

intense eagerness and interest.

Continuation and Close of Proceedings of American Asso-

ciation for Advancement of Science.—September jzoth.—Satur-

‘day was the last and most attractive day of the meeting. It opened

with a most interesting paper by Mr. Frank H. Cushing upon the out-

lines of Zufii creation and migration myths in their relation to the

Ka-Ka and other dramas or dances. It was carefully written, well

delivered, and was a valuable contribution to the history of these

Indians. The illustrations displayed were elegant, and as the paper will

be published in due course, it is deemed wise not attempt a description.

Mr. James Mooney gave an impromptu and extemporaneous descrip-

tion of the Messiah religion and the ghost dance. Mr. Mooney

spent some months among the Apache and Kiowa Indians, and. had

just returned with his trunk full of Indian relics and his head full of

Indian stories, myths, and traditions. He had witnessed the ghost dance

many times, and had innumerable photographs illustrative thereof. He

did not attempt to read a paper. He talked, acted, anddanced. He

roused his audience to a pitch of enthusiasm rarely seen in a scientific

1038 The American Naturalist. [November,

assemblage. Mr. Mooney stated that the present Messiah excitement is

not the first of its kind among the Indians, and is not even peculiar

to the race. It is only another expression of the universal longing for

a happiness that died when the world was young, and a faith that in a

time yet to come we shall be able to close our eyes upon present mis-

eries and waken again to the realization of the old ideals. The Mes-

siah doctrine is born of the despair of the Indian, who finds himself

helpless and starving before the white man, and sees no hope but in the

direct interference of a redeemer of the red race, who is invoked in

the wild ceremonial of the ghost dance. The present agitation origi-

nated among the Poiites in Nevada, and was carried by native apostles

to nearly every tribe of the plains and mountains from the British

border almost to Mexico. The belief is that the whites are to be dis-

possed, and that the land will be restored to the Indians, together with

the buffalo and other game and all the old-time Indian life. There are

various theories as to how this will be accomplished, the favorite one

being that a new earth, upon which are all the dead Indians, the buf-

falo and other game, will come, preceded by a wall of fire, and slide

over this old world. The believers will be lifted up over the wall of

fire by means of the sacred crow feathers which they wear on their

heads, while the whites will be driven before the fire to the eastern land

across the the water from which they came. In the dance they pray

for the speedy coming of their deliverance, and sing of the old pleas-

ures of the hunt and the camp, and of their present miserable condi-

tion. These songs are all plaintive in tone, and many of them are

really beautiful. The great majority are in the Arapaho language.

Those who become unconscious in the trance—through the intense

nervous strain and the hypnotic action of the priests—catch glimpses

of the glory to come, and on awaking recite these visions in songs

which are taken up at the next dance. As many as a dozen frequently

become unconscious in a single night, and lie for hours perfectly rigid

upon the ground.

The following papers were considered as read by title and passed for

want of time: An Ancient Human Cranium from Southern Mexico,

F. W. Putnam. The Length of a Generation, C. M. Woodward.

Burial Customs of the Hurons, Chas. A. Hirschfelder. Study of a

Dwarf, Frank Baker. Stone Drills and Perforations in Stone from

the Susquehanna River, Atreus Wanner. Evidences of the High Anti-

quity of Man in America, Thos. Wilson. On Bone, Copper, and

Slate Implements Found in Vermont, G. H. Perkins. Some Archeo-

logical Contraventions, Gerard Fowke. On the Distribution of Stone

PEE a en

Ear or

1891.] Scientific News. 1039

Implements in the Tide-Water Province, W. H. Holmes. Aboriginal

Novaculite Quarries in Arkansas, W. H. Holmes. Games of Teton

Dakota Children, James Owen Dorsey. Geographical Arrangement of

Prehistoric Objects in the U. S. National Museum, Thos. Wilson.

Curious Forms of Chipped Stone Implements Found in Italy, Hon-

duras, and the United States, Thos.. Wilson, Inventions of Antiquity,

Thos. Wilson. Study of Automatic Motion, Joseph Jastrow. Race

Survivals and Race Mixture in Great Britain, W. H. Babcock.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Ninth Congress of the American Ornithologists’ Union will

convene in New York city on Tuesday, November 17th, 1891,

at eleven o’clock a.m. The meetings will be held at the American

Museum of Natural History, Central Park (77th Street and Eighth

Avenue).

Philip Herbert Carpenter, M. A., F. R.S., died October 23d.

He was born in London, February 6th, 1852; was educated at Cam-

bridge, and in 1877 was appointed assistant master at Eton College.

In 1868 he was a member of the scientific staff of the deep-sea

exploring expedition of H. M. S. Lightning, and was with H. M. S. .

Porcupine, in the same capacity, in 1869—70. In 1875 he was

appointed assistant naturalist on H. M. S. Valorous, which accom-

panied Sir George Nare’s Arctic expedition to Disco Island. In 1883

the deceased scientist was awarded the Lyell fund by the Geological

Society of London, and in 1885 he was elected a fellow of the Royal

Society. He was the author of a number of valuable works, including

a “ Report Upon the Comatule Dredged by the United States Survey

in the Caribbean Sea,” published last year.

_ At the meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia,

on October 2oth, the committee on the Hayden Memorial Geological

Fund reported that they had decided to award the Hayden medal and

accompanying fund this year to Professor Edward Drinker Cope,

in recognition of his researches in the domain of geology and paleon-

tology. This is the second award of this medal of honor, the first

having been made to Professor James Hall, the veteran geologist of

New York, and pioneer in the field of American paleontology.

Am. Nat.—November.—7,

1040 The American Naturalist. [Nov., 1891.]

The Bulletin of the Essex Institute just issued (Vol. XXIII.,

Nos. 4, 5, and 6) contains the retrospect of the year 1890—91.

From it we learn that the total additions to the library number 19, 102,

of which 2,638 were bound volumes, 6,994 pamphlets, and 9,470

serial. The receipts for the year were $6,708.71, and the income-

earning property, $71,269.10. Nine members have died during the

year.

Dr. Martin Heidenhain is Prosector of Comparative Anatomy

in the University of Wiirzburg.

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Tae ISLAND OF MINDORO [Illustrated], J. B. tae 1041 ‘any.—The Trees and ee of the Basin ye the

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

Vou. XXV., DECEMBER, 1891. 300.

THE ISLAND OF MINDORO.

BY J. B. STEERE.

“T BE island of Mindoro is the Philippine land of myth. Lying

near the route of the native trading boats in their voyages

from north to south, and of the war and piratical expeditions for

which the Philippines have been famous, it has been frequently

coasted along and visited by natives of the other islands, but

appears never to have been permanently occupied by them and

the Spanish until very recently. It is still inhabited almost

entirely by its own wild, independent tribes, many of which have

probably never yet heard of the Spaniard, and know nothing ot

the great sea but what they have seen from their mountain homes.

It is difficult to account for this fertile island lying thus uncul-

tivated and peopled only by a few savages, while surrounded near

at hand by overpeopled and overcultivated islands. Perhaps

the reputation the island bears for malaria and savage inhabitants

may have had its effect; while the fact that it has become the

safe refuge of criminals and outlaws from the other islands about

it has added to its bad reputation. We had everywhere heard

stories of Mindoro and its savage beast, —the źtamarou. One ship

captain we had traveled with had lately lost a brother at the

southern end of the island, where he had gone with his vessel for

a load of timber. He and his company were attacked while at

dinner, and all killed but one. A tribe was said. to exist in the

interior, of people as white as the Spaniards, but so fierce that

they killed all strangers who approached their villages. The

tamarou takes the place, in the stories of the Philippine-islanders,

1042 The American Naturalist. | December,

of the elephant in those of other eastern peoples. Some had

described it to us as a great beast with one sharp horn in the

middle of its forehead; and all stories agree as to its great speed

and fierceness in attacking men and other animals at sight.

We knew that the island had been but little studied in a sci-

entific way ; but our curiosity and our anxiety to visit it was

much increased by the Spanish governor of Mindoro, who is also

governor of Marinduque, and who visited the latter island dur-

ing our stay. I asked him what scientific study of the island had

been made, and he answered: “ Wi dien ni mal” (neither well nor

ill—not at all). He said a Spanish scientific commission had

landed there once since he had been governor, ‘but had gone

away without visiting the interior, for fear of the malaria. It was

then with a great deal of interest that we looked across the strait

to the west to the lofty mountains of the island, which were con-

tinually in our sight, and planned our trip to this unknown land.

The visit of the governor was a fortunate one for us, for we found

that one of the passenger steamers from the south would call on

its way to Manila and take him directly across the strait; other-

wise we should have been compelled to hire a native boat, or to

have gone to Manila and returned from there to Mindoro. The

time of the steamer was not closely fixed, so that for two or three

days we were half packed up, and dared not go far away in

hunting. But finally, one afternoon, the lookout gave notice that

the steamer was in sight ; and half an hour afterwards the goods of

the governor were being hurried down to the beach on buffalo

carts, and our own soon followed in the same manner, and were

piled on the sand just above the tide, where they were taken by

the ship’s boats and carried out to the steamer, which lay at

anchor half a mile away. Just at night we got on board our-

selves, while the anchor was being hauled up, and after a quiet

voyage across were landed, near midnight, at the port and town of

Calapan, again by the ship’s boats, and at a long bridge or wharf

of wood supported by piles and running two or three hundred feet

out into the bay. A part of this was roofed over, and some of us

swung our hammocks here, while the others camped with their

guns among the baggage, which was piled on the beach under

se) The Island of Mindoro. 1043

the open sky, for we had again, for the third time, outrun the

rainy season in its slow advance from the southeast. The next

morning showed us a bay partly sheltered by several small

islands, and the little town of Calapan scattered along a low, nar-

row point of land between the bay and a tidal river behind. At

the landing from the wharf was a little plaza, now surrounded by

posts (for they lately had a bull fight there), and behind this

the stone fort and its high wall, where was quartered a company

of Indian troops. Behind this, a short distance, was a low bridge

across the river. We were soon able to find a house for rent, and

‘moved in and got our breakfast at home. We were fortunate in

securing as cook an old Indian, Juan, who was said to have

cooked for a Spaniard at some time in his life. A stroll down

the street showed me a blacksmith shop, a few doors away, under

an open roof of palm-thatch and bamboo, and between that

and us a continuous line of native houses, palm-thatched and as

dry as tinder. I had with me nearly the entire results of the

ycar’s work in the Philippines, including several dozens of new

and undescribed species. The thought of our personal danger in

being burned up in the tinder-box in which we lived never occurred

to me; but the danger of the collections became such a burden

that I could hardly sleep, and the great trunks of skins and other

collections were so arranged that they could be at a moment’s

warning dragged down to the yard below.

Calapan is the capital of the island, and possesses perhaps a

dozen Spanish officials, a few Chinese, and five or six hundred

Christian Indians, the latter drawn chiefly from Luzon and

and Marinduque opposite.

We were so anxious to see what the island produced that

several of the party went out the same day to the patches of vir-

gin forest on the low hills near the town. The settlement is quite

recent, and stumps and native timber are still abundant. Mateo

was the first to return, with a lot of birds which were at first

sight disappointing. Most of the lot were birds we had already

learned to expect as common inhabitants of all the Philippines ;

among these the common Philippine crow and oriole and barbet

and black night-sin ging cuckoo, Evdynamis. Several genera which

1044 The American Naturalist. [December,

we had learned to expect in local species in each well-marked

division of the islands were wanting entirely, and our trips inland

afterwards failed to discover them. Among these genera con-

spicuous for their absence were two of the three commonly dis-

tributed genera of hornbills, three of the four genera of wood-

peckers, and several genera of kingfishers and cuckoos. Among

the new birds brought in was a little parrot, Loriculus, closely

resembling the Luzon species, but sharply distinct from it; anda

new species of the genus of small black hornbills (Penelopides).

We had found the five species of this genus already collected with

the male always white-headed and the female with the head

black like the body ; but our Mindoro species was white-headed

in both male and female, the only distinction in color between

the sexes being that the male had the bare skin about the face

flesh white, while the female had the same parts livid blue. A

little way back among the hills another crow was found, much

smaller than the common crow and with a shorter tail, and

flight resembling that of the parrots. This little crow had a.

curious flat voice, reminding one of the croaking of frogs and

also of the notes of the katydid. On dissection it proved to be

distinct in food from the common species, being limited to fruit.

We were soon visited by several collectors of land and tree

shells,—the same ones who by sending quantities of their collec-

tions to Manila have made the beautiful Mindoro tree snails well

known in Europe. The Mindoro species are apparently more

peculiar than those of Paraguay, there being several sections of

genera limited to this island.

The ¢amarou were said not to be found within less than two

days’ journey of Calapan; and as the rainy season was coming

on, we hastened our preparations for our visit to the interior.

That we might run the greater chance of getting the object of our

search we decided to divide our party; and Bourns and Wor-

cester set out by native boat a day’s journey down the coast to

the south, and then inland in their search for the lake Naujan,

which was said to be a famous haunt for these animals. They

found the lake to be of considerable size, but shallow and with

great mud-flats, and much of it grown up with water plants and

1891.] The Island of Mindoro. 1045

filled with crocodiles. It is apparently an old arm of the sea, cut

off, and now draining out by the rising of the land. It is sur-

rounded by dense forests, only broken where there are a few cabins

of outlaws and runaway Christian Indians, and a little village of

Mangianes, a native heathen tribe. Signs of the samarou were

abundant, and they immediately set to work to kill some of them.

The Indian plan was to build a stockade and enclose a tame

buffalo, which the ¢amarou would come out to attack at night,

when they might be shot at close quarters. They tried this sev-

eral nights until they were nearly eaten up by mosquitoes, but

no famarou made their appearance, and they then undertook to

hunt them by day. Their guides were too much afraid to lead

them directly to the game, and when they were near would run

away. But they got several shots and wounded one or two badly,

but rain coming on the tracks were washed out and the game

lost ; and so, after two weeks of the hardest work and exposure,

they returned to Calapan without the samarou, but with two wild

boars and a large collection of water birds from lake Naujan.

-A few days after this portion of our party left for the south,

Mr. Moseley took a native vessel across to the coast of Luzon, on

his way to Manila and the United States ; and Mateo and I, with

old Juan, the cook, loaded a canoe with provisions and started up

the coast to the north to the village at the mouth of the Catuiran

river, where we expected to get a guide for the trip. The man

who had been recommended to us was not yet ready, and we

pushed on up the Catuiran. At its mouth it is wide and deep

enough for native vessels of-considerable size to enter. The

country near the sea was low and covered with mangroves, and

uninhabitable ; but as we left this flowed country behind we came

to new settlements of Christian people from Luzonand Marinduque,

and pulling our canoe up the muddy bank below the house of one

of these, who was recognized as an official by the government at

Calapan, we claimed his hospitality and slung our hammocks

under his narrow roof. These people were clearing the new and

rich lands along the river, and raising mountain rice. The next

day of waiting was spent in hunting along the river and through

the deep forests around the clearings ; but little new was found,

1046 The American Naturahst. [December,

and the same paucity of species and lack of expected genera

was noticeable. While we were here, baskets of fruit called cara-

g0 were brought to us, of a kind entirely new to me, but appar-

ently identical with a well-known Bornean fruit. They were

hanging in clusters, and each fruit was of the size of a small

orange, and strawberry red and covered with soft red spines. On

opening the thin shell, which was much after the manner of the

Chinese Zichi, there was found a mass of light-colored, juicy pulp

surrounding a large flattened seed. The fruit was excellent in

quality, and appeared worthy of cultivation, theugh the circum-

stances may have had something to do with our appreciation of it.

Weat the same time heard of another fruit, not yet ripe, but so

abundant and rich that the wild tribes got fat upon it. This was

called w/z, and from the description as well as the name must be

the durian of the farther east. The next day Pedro, our guide,

arrived,—a man of some consequence, and an owner of land

and buffaloes. He came mounted upon a water buffalo, and with

a boarspear as a weapon. The river now narrowed to fifty or

sixty feet of water, and a broad bar of coarse sand or shingly

gravel on one side, and on the other a low bank of ten or fifteen

feet, reaching up to the level forest above. The stream appeared

to approach gradually nearer the mountains, which were. in plain

sight on the right. Little clearings were scattered along the

river for several miles, and our progress was so slow that as we

neared the last of these the afternoon was half spent, and we

stopped for the night. The next morning another Indian, Antonio,

a famous crocodile hunter of the Catuiran, who had heard of our

trip, joined himself to our party in the hope of meat and pay.

We now entered the unbroken wilderness, and Pedro led the way

along the sand-bar on his buffalo, and I followed him on foot with

-my gun, while Mateo and Juan came with the canoe. The

river was now made up of curious reaches of deep and sluggish

water, of half a mile or so in length; and then there would be a

shallow rapid for a few yards, over which the water roared as it

dashed down, and where our men had to take hold of the canoe

and by their force drag it up into the quiet water above. As the

heat of the day came on the sand and gravel became as hot as

1891.] The Island of Mindoro. 1047

if heated in a furnace, and we would follow along under the

shady side of the jungle whenever possible. Life was rare; a

little kingfisher or a small gray heron would now and then take

flight from among the driftwood, or we would see the great

Philippine snake bird flying along the stream or perched on the

driftwood, stretching its long neck at the approach of danger. On

lighting in the water it would frequently sink and walk on the

bottom, its head and neck standing out of the water above.

About noowe stopped at one of the rapids and waited for the

canoe to come up. A snake bird I had shot had fallen in a

lagoon formed in an old bed of the river, and one of the Indian

boys mounted the buffalo and forced him to swim in after it.

Crocodiles were plenty, so that he did not dare to go in alone.

Tracks of tame buffaloes run wild, cémarones, were abundant

and Pedro said that there were on the river somewhere some

twelve or fifteen of his ownrun wild, with their young born in

the jungle, making a herd of thirty or more. Here and ‘there

among these tracks he picked out smaller, rounder ones, which

he said were the tracks of the tamarou. We passed soon after

the mouth of a stream not now running, but with water in pools

along its bed, which was called rio muerto (dead river), and was

said to connect and give canoe passage across to the town of

Calapan in the rainy season. About three in the afternoon two

tamarou started out of the cane-brake within a few feet of us,

and without breaking cover rushed into the forest behind. Pedro

tied his buffalo to a bush, and taking my gun, started after the

game. The canoe coming up soon after, the buffalo took fright

- and dashed away, and was in great danger of becoming a cima-

rone, but the whole party turned out and captured it, and Juan,

the cook, mounting it, we moved on. Suddenly old Juan, who

was ahead, came running back, shouting ¢amarou as loud as he

could yell; and on hurrying around a bend we saw, a hundred

yards away on the other bank of the river, what looked to me

wonderfully like a buffalo calf—and this did not take fright at

Juan, who still kept shouting’and calling down upon us all kinds

of maledictions because we had no gun with us. Before the

canoe came up with the other guns, two Indians (Christians)

1048 The American Naturalist. [December,

appeared near the buffalo, and on crossing we found that they were

gathering rattan, and had the calf’s mother to pull the long stems

out of the jungle to the beach. They had built a low shed on

the beach near the edge of the woods; and as we had crowded

about as far up the river as we could for the driftwood, we

- unloaded our canoe and set to work to add another shelter to the

one existing, so as to cover our party. Some posts were set up

in the ground and tied with rattan to each other and the old

shed, and palm leaves were brought from the forest and tied on

for a roof, and a shelter soon made, though the makers were so

shiftless that I had to set them to do the work over three times

before it would shed rain. Pedro, who had come in unsuccessful

from his hunt after the ¢amarou, borrowed my gun again and set

out up the river, and returned before night with a small wild boar,

which was quickly fitted for the pot. He reported having seen

two famarou crossing the river. By dark it was raining, and

hanging our hammocks with their mosquito nets from the posts

of our shed, we went to sleep in our own new house. The

Indians kept a great smoke all night to drive off the mosquitoes.

The next morning Mateo was out with the Winchester rifle

soon after daylight, and just as we had got breakfast I heard the

heavy boom of the gun, apparently half a mile away up the river

and soon after there was another report, and then another and

another was echoing back and forth in the thick, misty air from

one side of the river to the other, until I had counted seven shots.

Mateo was alone, and I had heard such stories of the ferocity of

the zamarou that I was alarmed; but half an hour afterwards he

appeared on the other bank below us, shouting: “I’ve got him,

I've got him,” and on my inquirigg what, he answered: “ An

old bull ¢amarou.” As he waded the river up to his middle,

with the rifle above his head, I could see that his face was bleed-

ing and his shirt torn off of one shoulder; but this was from the

thorny jungle he had forced his way through, and from the sharp,

cutting edges of the leaves of the wild canes. He had found a

fresh track crossing the river, and followed it through the rich,

soft bottom land almost as well as if in snow, until he saw the

tamarou in the bed of a stream, drinking. After he had found a

IMS ‘g ‘F

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a89r.] The Island of Mindoro. 1049

_ tree that he could climb in case of trouble, he fired at its shoulder,

and it fell, but got up immediately and came on toward the smoke,

when Mateo fired again, and again knocked him ddwn; and he

repeated this until the animal was within thirty yards, when a

bullet through his brain finished him, and, charging up the bank,

he fell back into the little brook dead. A rude sledge of poles

was built and the tame buffalo harnessed to this, and we set out

up the river and along the beach until nearly opposite the game,

when half an hour’s hacking at cane-brake and bushes opened the

way to our prize. We then rolled him upon our sledge, and,

tying him fast by the horns, dragged him to our camp. To have

actually been the first of civilized men to see and describe a

mammal of this size and importance is a rare experience, and one

that is fast growing rarer, as all parts of the earth are becoming

known. There was no doubt of the relationship of the beast at

first sight. It was a water buffalo, but so differing in size and

color and shape of head and direction of horns from the ordinary

species of the Philippines as to make it not only a distinct

Species, but also to probably place it in another genus. Our

Specimen was an old male, the size of a small Jersey cow, but

lower and heavier, the body and limbs being almost perfectly

round, and looking as if swollen with fat. It was lead-black in

color, with lighter markings on head, legs, and under parts, with

thin, short hair, a little switch-tail like a swine, and nearly

straight, sharp, black horns, which ran upward and backward,

Spreading but little more than the width of the head, and being in

line at the tips with the nose and eye. This narrowness and back-

ward set of the horns gave the animal a peculiar look, but must be

especially fitted for crowding its way through the wild vines and

cane-brakes where it passes its life, the nose being thrust forward

as with the water buffalo, and the horns thrown back on the

neck. The skin was of immense thickness, and was entirely cov-

ered with gore marks of many battles. One rib had been broken

and mended, and the old fellow was just recovering from a horn-

thrust clean through one of his fore legs. Whether these were

marks of battles among the ¢amarou themselves, or with the

~ imarones (buffaloes ai) oe but the

1050 The American Naturalist. [December;.

Indians with us said that they were from battles with buffaloes,

and that the samarou, though only one-half or one-third the size

of these huge animals, would attack them at sight, and that on

account of their great speed and their sharper, straighter horns,

they usually conquered. A- measurement of our specimen

showed it to be eight feet one inch in length from tip of nose to

end of tail; tail, seventeen inches to tip; tuft of hair at tip of tail,

two and one-half inches; height at shoulders, three feet four

inches; height at hip, three feet six inches; fore leg to brisket,

` one foot seven inches ; horns, seventeen and three-fourths inches.

in length; circumference at base, thirteen inches, somewhat tri-

angular and heavily ridged; distance between bases of horns, one

and one-half inches; width of horns, eleven inches apart. After

measurements of another bull and a cow proved to agree almost

exactly with this, the cow being eight feet in length to tip of tail.

The horns were not so large at their bases, and were farther apart, _

and the neck was not so thick; otherwise the size and shape

were practically identical. A calf perhaps three or four months:

old differed greatly from the adult in color, being chestnut, with a

black line along the back and black markings upon the legs. On

skinning our ¢amarou, the roundness was found to be due to

the thickness of the skin and the immense development of the

muscles. . We found that two Winchester balls had passed through

the heart, and that after this the animal had been able to get up

and charge, showing as much vitality as a grizzly bear. I set our

Indians at work cleaning the bones for a skeleton, while I under-

took to preserve the skin, which, from its great thickness and the

moist weather, was a difficult matter. Our fire was now sur-

rounded by pieces of the meat, roasting; the kettle was full of

meat, boiling ; and old Juan set at it to make tapa (jerked beef)

of the balance; while Antonio, who regularly borrowed one of our

guns and went out to hunt famarou, and as regularly returned

without finding game, took the refuse and staked it down across

the river, and said that now he would catch a crocodile. The

night following we had rain again, which was favorable by wash-

ing out all old tracks, and the next morning Mateo was again

successful, this time killing a cow, which we got to camp in the

1891.] The Island of Mindoro. 1051

same way as before. Under the hot sun and the frequent rains

our camp began to take on a decidedly strong odor, and meat

was plenty. Word somehow got down the river to the settle-

ment, and several Indians came up with their buffaloes, and

loaded up with meat. Then for three days the weather was too

rainy for Mateo to get ¢amarou. I was busy in hurrying my

skins out into the air to dry, and then hurriedly folding them,

and dragging them under shelter, when the showers came on;

while old Juan was nearly distracted over his jerked beef, which

was too high to be kept longer in our hut, and showed signs of

running away of itself. A patch of open woodland lay back of

our camp, and between showers I would get into this and kill a

few of the great fruit pigeons to keep us in meat, while Mateo

would get out whenever possible after tamarou. One evening he

and Antonio had taken the buffalo and had gone up the river to

tie the buffalo fast on the beach, in hope the ¢amarou would come

out to attack it. I had already gone to bed in my hammock,

which hung, covered by its mosquito net, under an open roof,

and swung only a few inches above the sand. Before I got to

sleep I heard a great splashing across the river, where Antonio

had set a rattan lasso by the zamarou meat, and the Indians in

camp took a torch, and crossing in the canoe, spent some time in

tying the captured crocodile with rattans. I knew well how this

was done. The hind and fore legs were tied over the back,

and the jaws tied together, and then I was dimly conscious of

their dragging the helpless fellow to the camp and tying him fast

to one of the poles of our hut. In the night some time I was

suddenly awakened by the sharp noise of the crocodile’s jaws

coming together, and by the pulling at the mosquito net and

hammock curtain near one of my feet. Divining the cause, I

roused the whole Indian camp by my shouts, when they pried

the fellow’s jaws loose, and again tying him fast, dragged him

down near the river and tied him to a stake. They had tied him

fast to the same post my hammock hung upon; he had worked

his jaws loose, and seeing my foot move, had struck at it. The

next morning a rattan rope was fastened about the crocodile’s

body just before the hind legs, and he was tied with some twenty

1052 The American Naturalist. [December,

feet of slack to a sawyer in the river, just in front of our camp,

and I had a good opportunity to watch him. He was terribly

vicious, and would spring at anything that approached, making a

hoarse, barking noise, which could be heard to some distance,

and is a genuine voice. The next day we were visited by two

savages of the Mangianes, as they were called by the Spanish and

Christian Indians. They were much the same in color and gen-

eral appearance as the Christianized races, but were smaller and

dirtier. The man had a handkerchief tied about him for an

apron; but the woman, who was entirely naked to her waist, wore

a curious petticoat, made up of a long, narrow ribbon of braided

rattan, which was wound round and round her hips, until it took

the form of a petticoat, and was held in place by a band of bark

cloth, passing between the legs and fastened to the waist. They

were both barefooted, and the woman was armed with a wood

knife and the man with rude bow and arrows. We had just

killed the crocodile, and were taking the flesh from the bones to

make a skeleton, and they carefully gathered the meat from the

sand and stored it away, as also such pieces of old Juan’s jerked

beef as he considered past hope. This they threw on the fire for

a few moments, and then went' about chewing it with evident

enjoyment. They have the reputation of eating snakes among

the other Indians. They begged tobacco and salt of us, and

promised to bring us wild fruit and honey. Their village was too

far away for us to visit. The day after they came again, bring-

ing a basket of the red fruit before mentioned, and a great piece

of honey-comb filled with „honey. It was made by the big

bees (Apis striata), which suspend their combs under horizontal

limbs. On the seventh day of our stay Mateo killed a young

bull ¢amarou; and after skinning it and cleaning the bones for

another skeleton, as it continued to rain and the river was rap-

idly rising, we concluded to return. The next morning our

canoe was loaded with the heavy skins and skeletons and the

rest of our baggage, and when we got in with our guns the

edge of the boat was within less than an inch of the water, A

box containing most of Juan’s ‘apa was taken out to lighten us a

little, and we started in the rain, and, without stopping, we hur-

PLATE XXIV.

Bos mindorensis Steere.

1891. | The Island of Mindoro. 1053

ried down the river, and after many narrow escapes in the rapids,.

we reached the village at the mouth of the Catuiran just before

dark, To make the canoe load lighter I set out, with three of

the guns, on foot to Calapan, while the rest came up the coast,

and about midnight we had everything under shelter in our

house. Our skins and skeletons were great curiosities to the

people of the town, and a great many of them visited us‘to see

them. From the stories and remarks of the old settlers in.

Mindoro we learned much that was semi-authentic in regard to.

the ¢amarou. It is said to be very abundant on the opposite,

uninhabited side of the island, and to there come down to the

sea coast. Some said the cows had a habit, when the calves

were young, of taking them in time of danger on the neck andi

holding them with the horns, and running with them in this.

way. Our host, who had been on the island many years, said.

that there was another ¢amarou of the mountains, much smaller.

This story, from what we afterwards learned, probably refers to a

mountain goat. As we found the ¢amarou and observed their-

habits, we found them chiefly living in cane-brakes, upon the:

young shoots of which they were feeding. At night they would.

gather in some numbers along the open beaches of the river.

During the morning they would feed solitarily, or lie in the mud’

and water of the small streams, and later in the day would take

refuge under certain trees, whose branches drooped to the ground,

forming an almost impenetrable shelter. The tracks and wallows.

under these trees showed that much of the time the samarou:

must occupy them. 7

The rainy season was now fairly begun, but Mateo offered to

return to the Catuiran for more ¢amarou if I wished, while I

should go on to Manila. Having fitted him and old Juan out.

for another expedition, I took the steamer, which came along

near the end of June, and after a day’s voyage was back in.

Manila, and settled in the same hotel we had occupied nearly a.

year before, on our arrival in the islands. On the way across I

had felt premonitions of fever, and after I had got my collections

all housed and in safety, and my baggage carried to my room, I.

_ Was taken with a severe attack. As soon as I had recovered suf-.

1054 The American Naturalist. [ December,

ficiently, I wrote a description of the zamarou and forwarded it

to Professor Sclater, secretary of the Zoological Society of Lon-

don. He published a part of the description in Mature, of

August, 1888, and the full description in the “ Proceedings of

the Zoological Society of 1889.” I then made a trip to the La

Laguna de Bay, a great, shallow lake, some fifteen miles in length,

and lying twenty miles east of Manila, toward the mountains, where

there was some timber. I collected a few days, and, with the aid

of native hunters, got a fair representation of Luzon birds, in spite

of continual rain, which rendered the roads of the country impas-

sible for horses. I then returned to Manila, and as soon as pos-

sible to Hong Kong, and from there home, by way of Japan and

San Francisco. .

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1055

“hy,

THE COMPARATIVE MORPHOLOGY OF THE FUNGI

BY, JAMES ELLIS HUMPHREY.

NTIL a very recent date the whole history of the truly

morphological study of the fungi might have been epit-

omized in the mention of two names,—Tulasne and DeBary.

Beginning with the earlier publications of the brothers Tulasne,

which culminated in their monumental “ Selecta Fungorum Car-

pologia,” and continued in the “ Beitrage zur Morphologie der

Pilze” and other works of DeBary and his students, the contribu-

tions to our knowledge of the structure of the fungi, their poly-

morphic fruit forms and their genetic relationships, have increased

in number and importance. But the time has come when to the

names mentioned must be added a third,—that of a pupil of De-

Bary, though for a long time not of his “school.” It is now nearly

twenty years since there appeared the first of a series of quarto

memoirs, of which the tenth has just been issued, which give

their author his conspicuous rank among myco-morphologists.

The first six of the series may be regarded as preliminary studies,

which. contain the early views of their author, and record the

‘dawnings of the broad morphological ideas which are developed

in their completeness in the last four numbers. Itis the primary

purpose of this paper to present in outline to American readers the

results and conclusions contained in these last four parts of the

“Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie” ' of

Prof. Brefeld, of the German Academy at Minster, in Westphalia.

The parts named comprise 884 pages of text, with 37 litho-

graphed plates, and their very bulk is perhaps a sufficient

excuse for the present abstract; while the importance of their

contents and the light which they throw on many heretofore

doubtful forms and problems render at least a general knowledge

-of them of the greatest importance to any one who would keep him-

1 Untersuchungen aus dem Gesammtgebiete der Mykologie. Von Dr. Oscar Brefeld,

Ord. Professor der Botanik, etc. VII. and VIII. Hefte, Basidiomyceten. Leipzig,

-1888-'89, IX, and X. Hefte, Die Hemiasci und die Ascomyceten. Münster, 1891.

I0 56 The American Naturalist, [December,,

self in line with botanical progress. And it may safely be pre--

dicted that their influence on the future study of the fungi will be

of a most positive and fruitful character.

Assuming, with all writers on the subject, that the simplest and.

most primitive fungi, which retain undoubted sexual characters,

the Zygomycetes and the Oomycetes, have been derived from the

lower Algz, we find them developing, in common with some of the-

latter, two types of reproductive organs: sexual organs, which

usually produce resting-spores, and non-sexual organs. Of the

latter, the sporangium of Mucor may be regarded as the most primi-.

tive type. In this we finda roughly globular sac of very variable

size, raised upon a stalk, from whose contents (originally undif-

ferentiated protoplasm) have been formed, at maturity, a large

number of rounded spores, varying considerably in size and deter-

mined, as to their number, by their own size and that of the

sporangium in which they were formed. The closely related genus.

Thamnidium? bears similar sporangia at the apices of erect.

hyphæ, and others of a second sort on lateral branches. These

latter, known as sporangiola, are essentially only miniature

sporangia, in which the number of spores has become reduced to-

four, or even two. In one species of Thamnidium the terminal

sporangium is often aborted, leaving only the the sporangiolia ;

and the relative abundance of the two forms can be largely con-

trolled by varying the conditions of the culture. From this con-

dition of things it is an easy step to that in which the terminal

sporangium is habitually suppressed, and the contents of the

sporangiole have been reduced toa single spore. This condition

is realized in Chztocladium, whose reproductive organs are no

wo sporangiola vud set free their spores by rupturing, but..

“ closed sporangia ” or conidia. A comparison of the two

species of Chzetocladium shows the last stage in the reduction..

In C. fresenianum the conidium begins its germination by

throwing off its outer coat, a process morphologically equivalent.

to the rupture of the sporangium-wall ; but no such preliminary

? The forms referred to in the following pages will nearly all be found described, and ~

red, in the English Le oa of DeBary’s “Comparative Morphology of the:

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1057

process occurs in C. jonesii, in which is thus reached the full

character of the conidium.

Brefeld here adopts the familiar name previously applied to

certain non-sexual spores, and extends to some extent, while in

other directions limiting, its application, and gives it a definite

morphological value. The conidium, then, may be defined as a

reproductive organ, morphologically equivalent to the sporangium,

and derived from it by reduction; or as a one-spored, closed

sporangium. As the author well says, we have here a theoretically

ideal series of stages, complete at every point. A similar set of

steps leading from the sporangium to the conidium can be traced

among the Oomycetous forms, although less aa and less

convincing,

Not only does the development of the andaba threads

or conidiophores vary widely in different species, but within the

limits of species it may be greatly modified by external condi-

tions. The study of the structure and development of a very large

series of forms of Basidiomycetes has shown that in some instances

the true basidia characteristic of these fungi are accompanied or

preceded by conidiophores which under certain conditions assume

a form practically indistinguishable from the basidia; and the

facts brought out lead irresistibly to the conclusion that the

basidium, with its sterigmata and spores, must be regarded as a

definite and unvarying conidiophore. Two species which show

this relation very clearly are Pilacre petersii, which, formerly of

doubtful relationship, is here shown to represent a special type

of primitive Basidiomycete, and that which the author calls

Heterobasidion annosum (= Polyporus annosus Fr. Trametes

radiciperda Hartig).

The basidia of the various Basidiomycetes are not of a single

type, and cannot be referred to a common origin. Those of the

simplest of the group are divided by cell-walls into several

(usually four) parts, each of which gives rise to a sterigma and

spore. And here we find two forms: basidia of elongated form,

with transverse divisions, characteristic of Pilacre and Auricularia

and of the Uredinez ; and basidia of rounded form, divided by

walls parallel to their longer axes, occurring in the Tremellinee,

Am. December.—2.

a AETAT e fig. abi DE Be Shas ar Tg Ee Nt ere Re ae d ELSE e aE

1058 The American Naturalist. [December,

which group is considerably reduced in size by this new limita-

tion. The fungi comprised under the groups above mentioned

constitute Brefeld’s Protobasidiomycetes, in distinction to his

Autobasidiomycetes, which form the main bulk of the order, and

have undivided basidia. Nearly all of these latter have basidia

of the familiar short form, with terminal sterigmata and spores;

but in the genus Tulostoma the spores are borne laterally, and the

basidia resemble those of Auricularia, without their divisions.

The important point to be noted here is that the basidium fur-

nishes the essential character of the Basidiomycetes, as was long

ago recognized by DeBary in the very appropriafe name of the

group, although on much less substantial morphological grounds ;

that the basidium is more fundamental than any form of fruit

body, and that the very various fruit forms have grown up within

the group after differentiation of the types of basidia from their

ancestral conidial forms. This subsequent development of the

fruit body has produced results so striking and has followed such

similar lines in the two great groups of fungi—the Basidiomycetes

and the Ascomycetes—that the tendency has been to emphasize

the differences thus brought about, with the result that we have

lost sight of the primitive character of the basidium and the ascus.

Among the Protobasidiomycetes we find in Pilacre a fruit form

of angiocarpous structure, while the other forms are strictly

gymnocarpous. Of the Autobasidiomycetes, the simplest gymno-

carpous forms comprise the gelatinous Dacryomycetee, ‘formerly

included in the Tremellineæ ; the Tomentellez, separated from

the Thelephorez ; and the Clavariee. The basidium of the first-

named family is somewhat pitchfork-shaped, with two large

sterigmata; but in the others we meet with the typical club-

shaped basidium, with small, spine-like sterigmata. In the

Tomentellez we have clearly the primitive Autobasidiomycetes,

consisting of very loose wefts of hyphz, upon which are borne,

irregularly and indiscriminately, the basidia, which arise precisely

as do the conidiophores of many other fungi. These pass into

the definite fruit bodies with more or less restricted hymenial

surface of the Clavariee and of the hemiangiocarpous families,

he Thelephorez, Hydnez, Polyporez, and Agaricinez. Follow-

wat eae

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1059

ing these must be placed the angiocarpous forms, usually known

under the name of Gasteromycetes. The author suggests that

these last may have been derived either from the gymnocarpous

forms through the hemiangiocarpous ones, or from the Proto-

basidiomycetes through forms like Tulostoma. It is „worthy of

note that development along parallel lines in the two great groups

of fungi, in consequence of tke acquirement of a subterranean

mode of life, should have brought about such striking similarity

as is presented in the fruit bodies of the Tuberaceze and the

Hymenogastree.

The culture of a large number of Basidiomycetes has brought

to light much that is new concerning their life-histories, and em-

phasizes the fact that polymorphism is by no means a charac-

teristic of the Ascomycetes alone, or even chiefly of that group,

as has been thought since the Tulasnes’ classic researches. Bre-

feld shows that in this respect there is little to choose between the

two groups. Since the basidium is merely a modified conidio-

phore, it might be expected that the Basidiomycetes would pro-

duce, as accessory fruit forms, unmodified and still indefinite coni-

diophores. And such is found to be the case witha number of

forms, some of which have been already mentioned. In some

Tremellineze, Polyporez, and other fornis, conidia have been for

some time known. Another accessory fruit form which is

always morphologically of strictly secondary value, although it

often becomes of primary importance histologically, is the

chlamydospore. These occur very frequently-in cultures of Basi-

diomycetes, and in their simplest and commonest form are short

joints cut off from the fungus threads, occurring in chains and

constituting members of the old form-genus Oidium. They

may often reproduce themselves indefinitely under suitable con-

ditions without a hint of their true relationships; as in the case

with the form known as Oidium lactis. Much less common are

the more highly differentiated chlamydospores formed, like the

Oidia, from joints of the mycelium, which occur in Nyctalis,

Oligoporus, Fistulina, etc. These forms may be restricted to

special parts of the fruit body, as to the hymenium in Nyctalis

parasitica, or to the top of the pileus in N. astrophora. The

1060 The American Naturalist. [December,

species of Brefeld’s new genus, Oligoporus, have special chlamy-

dosporic fruits distinct from their hymenial fruit body, which have

been long ‘known under the generic name Ptychogaster or Cerio-

myces. In cultures of some species, notably inthe case of Fistu/ina

hepatica, branching aérial hyphz produce clusters of chlamydo-

spores almost indistinguishable from conidiophores with conidia.

And in nature it becomes sometimes practically impossible to say

whether a given accessory fruit form is morphologically conidial

or chlamydosporic. In Mucor racemosus and allied forms, in

which this secondary fruit form is typically present, and which

Brefeld proposes to separate under the generic name Chlamydo-

mucor, it may readily be seen that Oidia and true chlamydospores

represent modifications of the same form. The chlamydospore,

then, is morphologically independent of and secondary to other

fruit forms, although it frequently becomes the physiological equi-

valent of any, and may largely suppress and replace others by

being introduced into the primary cycle at any stage in the de-

velopment of the fungus.

The Uredinez have been mentioned above among the families of

Protobasidiomycetes which have transversely divided basidia and

lateral spores. This view of the so-called “ promycelium ” and

“ sporidia” which are developed at the germination of the “ teleu-

tospores ” is an old one, which has been gaining ground in recent

years, and is now emphasized by Brefeld as the most tenable and

philosophical one. The three spore forms, ecidiospores, uredo-

spores, and teleutospores, are regarded as different forms of chlamy-

dospores, which reach their highest development in this group,

and, in the teleutosporic stages of Gymnosporangium and Cron-

artium, look toward the differentiation of a fruit body and connect

with the Auriculariez. It is pointed out that various Autobasi-

diomycetes produce both Oidia and true chlamydospores, and that

the intermediate sterile cells found between the latter occur also

in the spore-chains of Cæoma. While the germination of the

other forms is purely vegetative, the teleutospore gives rise to a

basidium which is typically four-spored, the one-spored condition

in Coleosporium being paralleled by that in Kneiffia of the Hyd-

nee. Our author believes that in this fructificative germination

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1061

_ lies the true character of the chlamydospore, which has been lost

in other groups, leaving it as the essential feature of the Uredi-

nez and the related Ustilagineee. No species which has teleu-

tospores can be considered “ incomplete,” the only such species

being those whose teleutospores, and therefore whose basidia, are

unknown. A single other fruit form is common among the

Uredinez, the so-called “ spermogonium,” but its relations may

better be discussed in connection with those of the similar struc-

tures which occur abundantly among the Ascomycetes.

The Ustilagineze have been a source of much perplexity as to

their relationships, although the similarity of the spore-germina-

tion in many forms to that of the Uredinee has indicated the

propriety of placing these groups near together in the system.

In their formation the spores of this group closely resemble those

of Ptychogaster and other chlamydospores. In germination many

of them produce structures which strikingly recall the basidia and

spores of the Uredinez, and a few produce merely vegetative

filaments, perhaps by degeneration from the former type; while

those of a large group of forms give rise to undivided filaments,

each with a whorl of conidia at its apex, representing clearly the

basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes. In the great majority of these

fungi the chlamydospores are the only fruit form developed, but

some of them produce also conidiophores with typical. conidia.

The basidia of the Ustilaginee are distinctly more primitive

than those of any of the true Basidiomycetes, in that they are

much more variable in form, size, and number of spores, in all

those particulars,—that is, whose definiteness constitutes the true

basidium. Brefeld therefore places the group, under the name of

Hemibasidii, between the Phycomycetes and the true Basidiomy-

cetes, as a connecting link; and divides it on the basis of the two

types of basidia already described, into Protohemibasidii and

Autohemibasidii, corresponding to the two groups of Basidiomy-

cetes. These two groups coincide with the two families into

which the smuts have been divided by Schroeter on the basis of

Spore-germination, the Ustilaginei and Tilletiacei.

Passing now to the other great group of fungi, we find it also

€specially characterized by a particular form of reproductive

1062 The American Naturalist. [December,

organ, the ascus, which has given to the order its name, Asco---

mycetes. This name has, however, been used in a rather more

restricted sense than that of Brefeld. This is due to the fact that

the characteristic of the group has been considered to be the

ascus fruit, and not the ascus itself. But here, as in the Basidio-

mycetes, the fruit body is a secondary development within the

group, subsequent to, or at most contemporary with, the differen-

tiation of the ascus. Mosphologically, the ascus is to be regarded

as a reduced and definite sporangium whose form is constant, at

least within the limits of the species, and whose spores, typically

eight, are in most cases definite and constant in number. Inter-

mediate conditions between the indefinite and definite extremes

are distinctly to be recognized. The numerous and striking sub-

divisions which occur in the spores of the Ascomycetes, so useful

systematically that they form the basis of Saccardo’s carpologic

system, are regarded by our author as germination phenomena,

analogous to those seen in Dacryomyces and the Tremellinee,

which have become pushed forward into the earlier stages of

spore development.

From the great body of the Ascomycetes which have a well-

developed fruit body, and are called by him Carpoasci (constitut-

ing the whole of the order, according to the limitations of

DeBary), Brefeld separates the forms included under Endo-

myces, Taphrina and Exoascus, and Ascocorticium nov. gen.,

as Exoasci. The members of this group, corresponding to the

Tomentelleze among the Basidiomycetes, have their asci produced,

free and naked, directly from the mycelium. The Carpoasci

include angiocarpous forms, the Gymnoasci, Perisporiacee

(including Tuberacez), and the Pyrenomycetes ; and hemiangio-

carpous forms, grouped under the Hysteriaceæ and the Disco-

mycetes. One family of the latter, the Helvellacee, may yet

prove to deserve separation from that group. The early stages

of its members are unknown, but they may be found to be truly

gymnocarpous.

If we go back once more to the sporangium of Mucor, we

may trace a very instructive series up to the ascus fruit of the

Carpoasci. In Rhizopus we have a plant which differs from

Mucor essentially in producing from a given* region several

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1063

threads, some of which bear sporangia like those of Mucor

l (fertile threads), while others become rhizoidal (sterile threads).

! In Mortierella these sterile threads become woven together to

f form a dense capsule about the base of the fertile ones, which

are long and stout. Itis easy now to suppose the fertile threads

reduced in length until the sporangia at. their ends are withdrawn

within the capsule, and just this condition is found in Theleġolus

Stercoreus, whose fruit body contains a single many-spored

sporangium. From this condition a further step leads to that so

familiar in the genera Spherotheca and Podosphzra, in which

the indefinite sporangium of Thelebolus has become a well-

defined ascus, while the capsule is essentially unchanged. The

simplest of the Carpoasci are the Gymnoasci, which have a well-

marked ascus, but whose capsule consists of very loosely entan-

gled hyphz. Another line may be traced from some Choane-

phora-like form, with sporangia and conidia, through the new

plant described as Ascoidea rubescens, which produces ascus-like

sporangia and conidia, to the numerous conidia-bearing Ascomy-

cetes,

Having seen how all of the primary fruit forms of the higher

fungi, the ascus, the conidium, and the basidium, are derivable

from the simple sporangium of thé Phycomycetes, we may sum-

marize the whole graphically as follows:

Sporangium.

(Mucor.)

Sporangium. Sporangiolum.

(Thamnidium.) — s

Sporangium: Closed Spor'm.=Conidium.

(Rhizopus. \ peo erring

(Mortierella. )

; Ascus-like Spor'm, A.scus-like Spor'm. Basidď’ -like Conidiophore.

(Thelebolus.) and Conidium. (Ustilagineæ.)

(Ascoidea.)

Ascus. . ` Ascus and Conidium Basidium.

(Ascomycetes.) (Ascomye with conid ) (Basidiomycetes.)

1064 The American Naturalist. [December,

In the study of more than 400 Ascomycetes there has been

found the greatest diversity in the time of the appearance of the

ascus in the fruit body, and in its relations to the tissue of threads

composing that body. In some cases the asci and the inter-

mingled sterile threads, or paraphyses, arise as branches of the

same hyphæ; or, again, the two may rise from separate hyphal

systems which are differentiated early and remain structurally

distinct. This distinction is never seen in the Basidiomycetes

and is not to be expected, since none of their ancestral Phycomy-

cetous forms show any such differentiation as has been described in

Rhizopus and Mortierella, which are believed to represent ancestral

forms of the Ascomycetes. Brefeld points out that it is this dif-

ferentiation of fertile and sterile threads which has given rise to

the doctrine of the sexuality of the Ascomycetes of which DeBary

has been the especial champion. He contends elaborately and with

the strongest emphasis that there exists no proof whatever that the

so-called “ ascogonium” and “ pollinodium ” observed in certain’

Carpoasci are of any sexual significance. This view, he main-

tains, has been reached deductively, and not inductively ; by infer-

ence, and not by proof. The analogy of the sexual organs of the

Florideze has exerted a strong influence on the interpretation of

the significance of the structures in question and of the so-called

“spermatia,” to be discussed later; yet the Florideæ and the

Ascomycetes are as little related as any two groups of Thallo-

phytes. The fusion of the initial fertile filament with one or more of

_ the surrounding sterile filaments has no more significanc than any

of the hyphal fusions, so common among fungi. It is quite as

reasonable to suppose that, in the great number of forms in which

this early differentiation is not observed, it has become obscured

or lost in the bewildering tangle of hyphæ, as that typically

. sexual fungi have lost their sexual organs by abortion.

Two fungi, Thelebolus and Ascoidea, have been mentioned as

having ascus-like sporangia, and as holding an intermediate place

between the Phycomycetes and the true Ascomycetes. With

these should be mentioned a third genus, Protomyces. This

genus has been recognized as related to the Ustilaginez, since its

spores are developed from the hyphz in much the same manner

ee E E E OES S o

1891.] _ Ihe Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1065

as those of the latter group, although they germinate differently.

Like those of the Ustilaginez, its spores, as ordinarily observed,

must be regarded as chlamydospores, and, like most of those,

their germination is fructificative; but the product of germination

is a sporangium which shows a tendency towards the more defi-

nite form of the ascus. In this view Brefeld adopts the early

explanation of DeBary, the first student of the genus, which was

afterwards reconsidered by him. These three intermediate forms

hold the same relations to the Ascomycetes as do the Ustilagi-

nez to the Basidiomycetes, and similarly they are grouped

together under the name Hemiasci; Ascoidea and Protomyces,

with naked sporangia, constitute the Exohemiasci; and Thele-

bolus, with its well-developed fruit body, is the type of the Car-

pohemiasci. ‘Fhese two intermediate groups, the Hemiasci and

the Hemibasidii, are made to constitute, under the name Meso-

mycetes, one of the three great divisions of the fungi, coordinate -

with the Phycomycetes and the Mycomycetes. This last group

includes the true Basidiomycetes and Ascomycetes, the “ higher

ungi,”

Of the accessory fruit forms, chlamydospores are not common

among the Ascomycetes, though both Oidia and the typical form

may occur. Unquestionable specimens of the latter are known in

the Sepedonium and Mycogone stages of those parasites of “ toad-

stools ” and similar fungi which belong to the genus Hypomyces.

While, theoretically, there is no reason why unmodified sporangia

or conidiophores modified into basidia should not occur as acces-

sory forms in the Ascomycetes, they have, in fact, never been

observed; but the ordinary conidiophores are very abundant,—

much more so than in the Basidiomycetes. These may arise from

retrograde development of sporangia still left after the differentia-

tion of the asci; or they may represent the conidia of

Choanephora-like forms whose sporangia have become asci.

They are formed either by budding from the ascospores at ger-

mination, after or even before their escape from the ascus; by

abstriction from the germ-tube directly; or on distinct conidio-

phores. The budding of conidia from the ascospore recalls the

similar cases among the lower Basidiomycetes; but it may be

(TES Go, STMT a a EE i aea ie Ea aeS

1066 The American Naturaltst. [ December..

forced a step farther back and take place within the ascus, giving

to it an indefinitely polysporic appearance. Conidia of this type

usually increase freely by yeast-like budding, like those of the

Ustilaginez ; and, excepting those of the Taphrinz, they usually

develop readily, under suitable conditions, into filaments. The

less specialized conidiophores have their conidia scattered over

their entire length, and a gradual advance may be traced from

this form to those whose conidia are wholly restricted to their tips.

Besides occurring separately, conidiophores are found grouped

into dense clusters, such as have been described under the name

Coremium, or into more extensive, compact “stromata.” In sim-

pler cases the surfaces of these stromata are flat; but they may

be ridged or folded, and a fold may increase in depth until its

edges meet, and a closed cavity is the result. Such a series may

be traced in Nectria and its allied genera of the Hypocreacee.

Closed conidial fruits which may be supposed to have originated in

this way are very common among the Ascomycetes, and have long

been known under the name pycnidia. They are known among

the Basidiomycetes only in the Uredineze and the new Tremella-

ceous genus Craterocella. In their development pycnidia present

two types. They originate by the interweaving of previously

formed threads (symphyogenic), or by the fusion of newly formed

threads into a parenchymatous mass (meristogenic). Within the

cavity of the pycnidium spores may be formed from all the cells

or only from the terminal cells of the spore threads, just as in the case

of free conidiophores. Two distinct forms of conidia may be

borne on the same conidiophore or within the same pycnidium; or

they may be separated, and so lead to distinct conidial or pycni-

dial forms on the same plant.

A fruit form very common among the Ascomycetes and the

Uredinez is that which has been known as the spermogonium,

on account of its supposed sexual nature. This organ is structur-

ally like the pycnidium; but the spore-like bodies developed in

its cavity have been supposed, chiefly from the analogy of the

spermatia of the Floridez, on account of their minute size and

the fact that they had never been seen to germinate, to be male

sexual elements. But Brefeld and his pupil, Möller, have suc-

et et RTT et ARERO a EED RET i

1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1067

ceeded not only in observing the germination of these bodies, but

in raising from them fertile mycelia, thus clearly proving them to

be a form of pycnidial conidia with’ somewhat weakened or

reduced germinative power. Thus falls another supposed support

of the sexual theory of the Ascomycetes.

The conditions governing the development of the Ascomycetes

are very little known. The ascus usually closes the cycle of

development as the most perfect and- most highly differentiated

fruit form. In artificial cultures of fungi of this order it is

usually found that conidial and pycnidial spores yield the fruit

form which produced them, and rarely give rise to the ascus-fruit,

From what has been said. above, it will be seen that all the

more specialized fungi are considered to be descendants of forms

identical with, or similar to, living Phycomycetous species, and

to have retained none of their sexual characters, since all their

primary fruit forms have been derived from, and are referable back

to, the Zygomycetous sporangium. We may summarize the

points brought out and the relationships indicated by means of

the following tabular view :

[December

7 Naturalist.

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1891.] The Comparative Morphology of the Fungi. 1069

Such in outline are the results to which Prof. Brefeld has been

- led by the long and careful study of a remarkably large number

of fungi of all groups and in all stages, with the assistance of the

most elaborate and precise culture methods yet devised. In all

his work he has had the help of trained assistants, and in that

on Ascomycetes has had also the collaboration of Dr. Franz von

Tavel, of Berne, whose previous researches on the development

of the Pyrenomycetes are well known. One need not accept these

conclusions in all their details in order to recognize the fact that

they are the result of the application of a keen morphological

insight to a much wider and fuller series of observations than has

been at the command of any previous writer. We may regret

that the author finds it necessary to introduce so much of a per-

sonal and polemic nature into some of his discussions, especially

that concerning the sexuality of the Ascomycetes, or to treat so

unceremoniously his former master, DeBary, and others of that

school who have antagonized and criticised his views; yet it must

be remembered that the provocation has sometimes been very

great. `

But, after all is said, we have in this characteristic work of a

remarkable man a series of memoirs which must always remain

classic and a prime authority for the student of the morphology

of the fungi, both as the record of a great number of new facts,

and as the first statement of a new and consistent comparative

morphology.

Amherst, Mass.

1070 The American Naturalist. [December,

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RHIZOPODS.

BY EUGENE PENARD, SC.DR.

TIONN a stay which I made this year in the mountains of

the state of Colorado I gave some of my time to the study

of the fresh-water Rhizopods, comparing them with those I had

observed in various regions ‘cf Europe. I should like to give

here the results of my comparisons.

All the organisms which are treated of in this paper have been

found in the neighborhood of Caribou, a small mining town north

of Boulder, and about 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. At

this altitude Rhizopods are still numerous, as Leidy has shown

in his remarkable work on the fresh-water Rhizopods of North

America. He found them abundant in the Uinta Mountains,

Wyoming, at 10,000 feet—the highest altitude, I believe, at

which these organisms have & yet been found. However, as

will be seen later, my gatherings at 12,000 feet have been very

productive, which is after all not to be wondered at, knowing the

very great capacity of these organisms for resisting either cold or

heat, or any other disturbing element. In fact, they can be

expected to be found everywhere, provided there are mosses and

humidity, and if I have not found them higher (except one

species, Difflugia constricta, at 12,500 feet), it is only because

the ground was unfavorable to the presence of quiet water, and

that my investigations at these higher altitudes have been very few.

I have no intention to speak about the organization and phy-

siology of these organisms. Leidy, in his beautiful work, has

treated the subject at length. I would simply like to give a list

of the species I have found in the Rocky Mountains, adding

some remarks about a few of them, and finishing with some

observations on the structure of the shell in these animals.

This structure is not very well known in most of the species ;

and as I have in these latter years accumulated a good

many observations in this connection, I venture to detail them

here, in the hope that they will prove of some interest.

ie bi AEA k 3

x891.] : Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1071

I give now the list of the species I collected in various bogs or

swampy grounds in the neighborhood of Caribou, and at a height

varying from 10,000 to 10,500 feet. The animals were mostly

found among mosses and sphagnum, whose presence at that

altitude is itself remarkable.

Ameba limax Dujardin, Amæba verrucosa Ehrenberg-Leidy,

Diflugia pyriformis Perty, Difflugia arcula Leidy, Difflugia

lucida Penard, Diflugia fallax Penard, Diflugia bacillifera Penard,

Diflugia constricta Ehrenberg, Centropyxis aculeata Stein, Arcella

vulgaris Ehrenberg, Arcella vulgaris var. angulosa Leidy, Arcella

discoides Ehrenberg, Arcella microstoma Penard, Quadrula sym-

metrica Schulze, Lecquereusia jurassica Schlumberger, Nedela

collaris Leigy, Nedela longicollis Penard, Nebela tubulosa Penard,

Nedela dentistoma Penard, Heleopera rosea Penard, Assulina minor

Penard, Pseudochlamys patella Claparède and Lachmann, Crypto-

diffugia oviformis Penard, Cyphoderia margaritacea Schlumber-

ger, Euglypha alveolata Dujardin, Euglypha ciliata Leidy, Eugly-

pha cristata Leidy, Euglypha compressa Carter, Euglypha levis

Perty, Sphenoderta dentata Penard, Trinema lineare Penard;

Trinema enchelys Leidy, Trinema enchelys var. galeatum Penard,

Trinema complanatum Penard, Corythion dubium Taranck, Cory-

thion pulchellum Penard.

All these species, which did not differ in any particular from

those which have been described from Europe, India, Australia,

or from various parts of the United States, were generally found

represented by very numerous individuals. Yet sometimes a

very few were present in a given locality, or again some given

species, entirely absent. from one place, was abundant in another

and very near one.

But there are a few of diese species on which I should like to

write at some length:

Difflugia pyrifermis Perty—This species is extremely variable ;

or rather, if I may be allowed to express a personal opinion,

should be and will be one day decomposed into a large number

of distinct specific forms, some of which again will show an unde-

niable tendency towards a great variability. In fact, my obser-

vations, which have been protracted for several years and made on

1072 The American Naturalist. [December

more than 200 gatherings in various localities of Europe, have

brought me to the conclusion that many autonomous species of

Rhizopods have acquired in their evolution and in independent

ways the form pyriformis. Indeed, this simple and efficient

shell is exactly the kind one would expect to be formed by an

organism in its first stages of evolution from the amceba condi-

tion to that of a testacean Rhizopod.'

However it may be, if the following conditions are considered

sufficient to determine a species :

1. The general characters of the shell (form, size, structure,

composition) are sharp and constant in a form A, though not far

distant from those of other forms B, C, etc.

2. In the state of copulation (conjugation) A is always seen

together with A, and never with B or C, etc.

3. In certain localities A is to be found alone, whilst B or C

are not present. ĝ

4. Intermediate forms between A and B, or C, etc., do not

exist, or at least are very exceptional cases.

If, I repeat, these characters, accumulating in one and the same

form, are considered sufficient to make of that form a distinct

species, then it would be easy to separate the Diffugia pyriformis

Perty in a dozen at least of such autonomous species.

Now I have observed at Caribou several different forms of Diff.

pyriformis, and especially one that I found very abundant in

several localities deserves a particular mention. With the typical

form of the species, and built of angular grains of quartz, some-

times with admixture of a few diatoms, its shell was remarkable by

virtue of a large amount of brownish matter (oxide of iron),

dissolved in a chitinoid magma, which generally formed a brown-

ish substratum or inside lining to the shell. Now we must

observe that in those species of Difflugia whose shells are nor-

mally and essentially formed of sand particles, the proportion of

1 At the same time, and whilst this explanation may be good in a general way, I am

inclined to think that some of the forms or species so formed would still be in an unfixed

state, and might be compared to such forms of vegetable life as Rosa, Rubus, Hieracium,

which with their many varieties constitute the bliss of some, but the despair of most,

collecting botanists.

a = ae

A sad alta Wwe aaa iy S N

1891.] Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1073

chitinoid matter is normally very slight, and this particular

Difflugia is an interesting exception.

Quadrula symmetrica Schulze.—I have found this beautiful

species abundantly in most of my gatherings, but mostly repre-

sented by very small-sized individuals (length 0.040-0.060 mm.).

On the contrary, in one single locality the species was to be

found under what might be called a giant form (length 0.100-

0.150 mm.), which presented this other peculiarity, that the square

plates composing the shell, instead of being disposed, as in the

typical form, in a high degree of symmetry, showed great dis-

order in their arrangement, and very often overlapped each other.

The sides of the shell, instead of looking like a tolerably con-

tinuous curve, appeared like a series of broken short lines.

These two varieties, if they must be considered as such (in my

opinion, they are more than varieties), were very sharply distinct,

and I have not seen any transitional forms.

Nebela collaris Leidy.—This species also was represented at

Caribou by two very distinct forms: first the typical one (forma

genuina Taranck), not very abundant asa rule, and totally absent

in some places; then another form, or dwarf variety, extremely

abundant, and often to be found quite alone in some localities.

This latter form agrees perfectly with a variety which Leidy has

figured in his great treatise (Pl. xxu., Figs. 11, 12, 16). 3

Nebela longicollis Penard—Rather abundant in nearly all my

gatherings. The speciesis very different from the preceding ; yet

the form I found at Caribou could hardly be referred to the

Nedela longice ollis such as I described it in 1890* (which appears

to be the same as Wed. barbata—Leidy, Pl. xxiv., Figs. 14-17).

It agrees, on the contrary, very well with two shells figured by

Leidy (Pl. xxiv., Figs. 18, 19) as “ intermediate in character to

Neb, barbata and Neb. collaris,’ and at the same time shows rela-

tions to the form that I called /ageniformis. I mention here the

` Caribou form under the name dongicollis, being of opinion that

Neb. barbata and the two Figs. 18 and 19 of Leidy refer to one

2 Etudes sur les Rhizopodes d'eau douce. Mémoires de la Société de Physique et

d'Histoire naturelle de Genéve, 1890. All the species mentioned in this paper, and

which bear my name, have been described in the same w

Am. Nat,—December.—3.,

1074 The American Naturalist. [December,

and the same species; and at the same time I avoid the use of the

name darbata because it appears to me to be the result of a con-

fusion of the author, who took foreign and parasitic elements for

normal covering setæ.

As already stated, those species found at 10,000 feet did not as

rule show any difference from those described from the plains or

in other continents, and showed the same relative abundance of

individuals. Yet it will not be without interest to refer here to

the utter absence of several forms of Rhizopods which one would

have expected to find, and among which I shall only cite Hyado-

sphenia “papilio Leidy, Nedela flabellulum Leidy, and Assulina

semilunum Leidy. Hyalosphenia papilio is a very constant

inhabitant of sphagnum-mosses; I do not think I ever found in

- Europe a single bunch of sphagnum that was not replete with it.

Nebela flabellulum, according to my experience, mostly affects the

mosses in the woods, yet it is very frequently found in sphagnum.

As for Assulina semilunum, its place was taken at Caribou by the

species I have called Assulina minor. This latter form might be

considered a dwarf variety of the former, and in fact must have

been so regarded by Leidy, who has figured two shells belonging

apparently to it (Pl. xxxvii., Figs. 15 and 26). But besides the

considerable and absolutely constant difference in size, there are

others characters which decided me to make of it a distinct

species, and the fact that at Caribou this form was absolutely the

only one to be met with would constitute, if necessary, further

proof of the correctness of my decision.

I come now to the list of the species that I found in the mosses

of a swampy pasture-ground, under the summit of the hill called

Bald Mountain, and about 12,000 feet above the level of the sea.

Sphagnum does not grow at so high an altitude, and consequently

was not represented among these mosses: Amoeba , Sp.

nov.? Diffugia pyriformis Perty (small variety), Diffugia con-

stricta Ehrenberg, Diffugia rubescens, sp. nov., Nebela collaris

Leidy (and small variety), Nedela longicollis Penard, Nebela den-

tistoma Penard, Arcella microstoma Penard, Pseudochlamys patella

Clap.and Lachmann, He/eopera rosea Penard.

1891.] Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. , 1075

All these species were to be found in very numerous individu-

als; in fact, as numerous as 2,000 feet lower down. Yet to that

dist ought to be added: Euglypha ciliata Leidy, one specimen ,

Trinema lineare Penard, one specimen; Assudina minor Penard, a

very few specimens.

An interesting fact seems to me to be that, with the exception

of the very few individuals belonging to the three latter species,

which I found after much exertion among hundreds and hundréds

of other rhizopods, all the species mentioned in the list belong to

the section of the Rhizopoda known as “ Lobosa,” —ż. e., with

broad and blunt pseudopodia. The section “ Filosa,” * including

those Rhizopods with filiform pseudopodia (Euglypha, Trinema,

Sphenoderia, etc.), so rich in species, and yet more so in

individuals, which generally swarm everywhere and outnumber

the Lobosa, have been found to be practically absent at a height

of 12,000 feet. My observations, which concern only a single

locality, are not sufficient to enable me to draw from that absence

any certain conclusions; yet, at any rate, they seem to show a

remarkable difference in the vital resistance between those two

great divisions of fresh-water Rhizopods.

Among the species mentioned in the list I find two of them

which must be dealt with at some length:

Difflugia rubescens, sp. nov.—Very likely this form has been

seen by Leidy; indeed, he figures two shells which I think |

must be referred to this organism (Pl. x., Figs. 24, 25) as belong-

ing to Difflugia pyriformis, and with the statement “ with brown

endosarc.” But we have most certainly here a distinct species,

which I shall call Diffugia rubescens. It was very abundant. I

have examined several hundreds of specimens, which have all

proved to be remarkably constant in form, size, and structure.

The shell, pyriform, not compressed, not quite twice as long as

broad (length, 0.030—0.035 mm.), consists first of a pellicle of

clear chitinoid material, always covered with diatoms. These

3 Leidy separates the fresh-water Rhizopods into two great divisions, Lobosa and

Filosa. This corresponds, in fact, to two very natural groups; yet I must mention that

a few Rhizopods (Cyphoderia, Cryptodifflugia, some Pseudodifflugia, and some Ameebe)

show intermediate characters in their pseudopodia, which are capable of passing from

one form to anotherin a comparatively very short time.

10764 The American Naturalist. [December,

diatoms, though belonging always to small species, occupy, each

of them, a relatively large place on the shell, and give rise to a

very general deformation of its otherwise regular contours (as

‘indicated by the chitinoid substratum), Sometimes among the

diatoms are to be found one or two quartzose grains. In the main

the structure of the shell is the same as that of Diff. bacillifera

Penard, but the form and size are different. Besides,—and this

is the most important character of the species,—the plasma has

normally and constantly a beautiful brick-red color, resembling

that, for instance, of Vampirella lateritia Fresenius. It would have

been interesting to investigate if in this species the pseudopodia

present in their outstretched state the general colorization of the

plasma. Unhappily all the animals were at the time of examina-

tion retracted in their shell and in course of encystment; and in

spite of observations extending over a space of more than two

weeks, I have never noticed an extended pseudopod. Yet from

analogy with what I have seen in Vampirella lateritia, and in an

Heliozoon (Artodiscus saltus Penard), I am inclined to think that

the pseudopodia, or at least their terminal parts, must be deprived

of colored matter. It is perhaps not useless to add that the red

color had certainly nothing to do with foreign matter, alge or

digested products. The nucleus, generally invisible, was never-

theless sometimes quite distinct; acetic acid brought it easily to

view. It did not differ in any respect from ‘the nuclei of other

Rhizopods. No contractile vesicle was present, owing very likely

to the encysted state of the plasma.

Ameba ———, sp. nov.?—This amceba was rather abundant,

and very constant in its form and organization; yet I have

not followed it long enough to describe it as a new species. It

was very small (diam., 0.010 mm., without the pseudopodia), and

consisted of a spherical, clear body, normally covered by a layer

of greenish, but not shining, transparent globules, finely punctulate,

about 0.002 mm. in size, and forming a continuous envelope.

These globules were apparently of protoplasmic nature, and a

product of secretion of the animal itself. They were mostly asso-

ciated with a small number of shining, irregular particles of what

appeared to be amorphous siliceous matter. Sometimes, how-

Sahani

ao ae

1891.] _ Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1077

. ever, these particles were present in such abundance that they

built up the greater part of the envelope and took the place of

the protoplasmic globules, which were then only few in number.

The pseudopodia were mostly much elongated,—four or five times

as long as the diameter of the animal, or more,—very slender, and

gradually tapering from the base to the summit, which was fili-

form. They were straight, rigid, few in number (about half a

dozen), and were capable of radiating in every direction, while the

animal walked on their points. At other times the animal would

crawl along the grounds, slightly compressed at its point of con-

tact, and then the pseudopodia would be shorter, less rigid, and

flattened.

The nucleus and the éontfactile vacuole could not be seen,

being hidden behind the envelope of globules. In short, this spe-

cies recalled very much the Am@ba radiosa, from which it was

distinguished by its constant protective envelope, as well as by its

very much smaller size.

Having in the preceding pages given a description of the

Rhizopods I found in the Rocky Mountains, I should like to

present a few general remarks on the structure of the shell in these

animals.

These organisms have sometimes been divided into “ Nuda”

and “ Testacea.” There exist some transitional species, whose

plasma is simply hardened on most of its surface, or covered with

protective granules, or is even differentiated into a genuine ~

double-contoured, supplg, and membranous covering. But in

what follows I shall only treat of the true “ Testacea,” with a solid

and rigid shell. The Testacea constitute by far the greater part

of fresh-water Rhizopods. :

The nature of the shell in these beings is as yet little known.

Generally speaking, and after consulting most of the works that

have been written on these animals, one arrives at the following

conclusion: The shell of the fresh-water Rhizopods is chitinoid,

- often with an admixture, in various proportions, of siliceous ele-

ments (sand grains, diatoms, scales).

My observations, which have been made on nearly all the

known species, allow me to modify the preceding opinion, and to

1078 The American Naturalist. [December,

present the following statement, which holds good for all hard-_

shelled Rhizopods :

The shell of fresh-water Rhizopods is composed of two elements :

(a) Silica, always in the form of detached pieces, and forming

most of the mass of the shell; (4) chitinoid, or chitino-siliceous

matter, serving as a substratum or soldering magma.

(a) SILICA.

Silica is first found represented by fine particles of sand. In

this state it generally constitutes nearly the whole of the shell in

the genus Difflugia, especially in the species of this genus which

frequent the bottoms of rivers or clear-water ponds. In these lat-

ter species the amount of chitinoid matter is so small as to be

scarcely discernible, and the shells, when compressed, show

hardly any elasticity, their various elements or sand particles being

easily disaggregated.

Besides being found in Difflugias sensu stricto (iooi thereby

those species of the genus whose shells are normally built of

quartz grains), silica in the state of sand particles can be found

in many Rhizopods (Difflugia in part, Centropyxis, Heleopera,

etc.), but in these cases generally forms a part only, and not an

important one, in the constitution of the shell.

I must mention here a very curious fact, to which I called

attention in 1880, and which the observations I have since made

at Geneva on a new interesting species have shown me to be of

more frequent occurrence than I at thatstime thought; namely,

that in certain species (Diff. lucida, Diff. fallax) the shell, very

much like that of one built up of true sand particles, is in reality

covered on its entire surface with amorphous siliceous elements,

transparent, colorless, often rather flattened, less angular than real

stones, a product of the animal itself, and constituting in these

species a remarkable case of mimicry.

Very often, and in numerous species, silica is to be found as

amorphous plates or scales, seldom alone (Heleopera rosea), more

often mixed up with sand grains or othér elements (diatoms).

Diatoms are very frequent in a great number of species (Difflugia —

i.p., Pseudodifflugia, Centropyxis, Lecquereusia, Nebela, etc.). It

1891.] Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1079

is very seldom that they constitute normally the total covering of

the shell (Diff. bacillifera, Diff. rubescens); yet, even in species

where as a rule these algæ only make up a part of the envelope,

one may always expect to find isolated specimens where they

constitute the total covering.

All the siliceous elements which I have until now mentioned

are irregular, either in their form or in their relative sizes on the

shell ; but there exist a whole series of genera where these elements

are conspicuous by their geometrically regular form. However,

before speaking of these I shall mention some forms which

occupy a somewhat intermediate position. They belong to the

family of Nebelidz. In this family the siliceous elements are

represented by regular circular or oval discs, contiguous with each

other and covering the whole shell. Sometimes all these discs

are very nearly of the same size all over the shell, at other times

large ones are mixed up with very much smaller ones. These

discs are generally very ,but in the genus Hyalosphenia

and in some Nebela they cannot be seen, and the shell looks as

if it were composed of a continuous chitinoid membrane. Yet

in these species it is most probable that the discs really exist, but

are very thin, and hidden in the abundant chitino-siliceous matter

of the envelope.

We now come to those genera in which the siliceous scales

have regular forms and are symmetrically disposed. The genus

Quadrula is remarkable for its square, colorless scales, touching

each other with their borders and arranged in regular series. In

the numerous species of Euglypha the plates are oval, sometimes

circular, seldom cordiform, but always perfect in their shape,

disposed in diagonal series over the whole shell, and slightly

Overlapping each other. The circular or oval plates of Spheno-

deria, Trinema, Placocysta, are also perfect; but in some species,

owing to the form of the shell, they may vary very much in

size in different regions of the shell. In the Assudina semilunum

the plates are elongated, very thick, and often incline to a slight

asymmetry. In Corythium dubium they are still all alike, but

have more the shape of an elongated rectangle.

1080 The American Naturalist. [ December,

(4) CEMENTING MATTER.

In all testaceous Rhizopods the siliceous elements are cemented

by or sometimes lie on a substance which may be called chitinoid,

or rather chitino-siliceous. This matter, often quite transparent

and colorless, but sometimes colored,—yellow, dark purple in some

Arcellas, pink in Heleopera rosea, chocolate-brown in Assulina,—

is more or less abundant according to the species. Nearly absent

in the Difflugias sensu stricto, and in very small quantity in

Euglypha, Quadrula, etc., it varies considerably in thickness in

the series of species, generally making an internal varnish to the

inner side of the shells, thence penetrating between the plates or

other siliceous elements, sometimes overlapping them at the out-

side, and forming as it were relief veins or exudation droplets.

But it never makes up the entire mass of the shell, and it is only

very seldom (Hyalosphenia) that it constitutes the principal mass

of the same.

` I have called this matter chitino-siliceous, because, in fact, I am

inclined to consider it as consisting of a mixture of chitinoid mat-

ter and of an infinity of extremely small siliceous’ particles im-

bedded in the magma. This is but a supposition, yet it may

perhaps give an explanation of the following facts: This matter,

in the pure state and without admixture of foreign elements, as it |

occurs for instance in the genus Centropyxis, resists the action of

red heat (blow-pipe) or of cold, concentrated sulphuric acid, but

disappears completely in boiling sulphuric acid. This I would

explain by saying that in both cases the chitinoid matter is dis-

solved, but that whilst by mere heating the siliceous particles

becomes soldered to each other during the process, the convection

currents in the boiling sulphuric acid disperse them. The follow-

ing experiment explaining the relations between the plates of the

shell on the one hand and the connecting matter on the other,

may at any rate give some probability to the explanation just

given concerning the chitinoid matrix: I have found that the

shells of all the testaceous Rhizopods resist both red heat

(blow-pipe) and cold, concentrated sulphuric acid, but that this

acid when boiling, after separating the plates from each other,

1891.] Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1081

disperses them so widely in every direction that it is generally

impossible to find them again. Yet, if one takes the precaution

to isolate a shell (say Euglypha) in a very small drop of acid,

one finds after the action of the boiling acid all the plates again;

but they are dissociated from each other, and in a little heap. In

this case the chitinoid matter is gone, and has left only the pure

siliceous plates.

At the same time, it must be added that in some species the

cementing ‘matter seems to be purely chitinoid in some regions

of the shell ; for instance, about the mouth in Sphenoderia dentata;

Corythium pulchellum, and others.

There are two genera of which I have not yet spoken, and

concerning which I should like to say a few words,—namely,

Cyphoderia and Arcella.

The shell of Cyphoderia, with its elegant covering of small,

regular, hexagonal alveoli, is very currently considered to be made

up, first, of an internal, brownish, chitinous pellicle, and then of

an external envelope, itself consisting of hexagonal, chitinous

prisms. The experiments I made at Geneva on this species have

shown me that it is not so. In reality, the internal chitinoid pel-

licle is covered over its whole surface with small discs, or rather

cylinders, consisting of pure silica. These I was able to isolate

and examine on all their faces. They are circular in section,

about one-third larger in diameter than in height, flat, or very

little excavated on their upper and lower faces, and have altogether

the form of fish vertebrae. Their diameter is in the bigger shells

(var. major) about 0.002 mm. ; their size is uniform over the whole

shell. They are disposed with a wonderful regularity, touching

each other by the borders, and cemented together by the chitinoid

matter which penetrates into the interstices and often flows out to

the outside. The appearance of hexagonal alveoli is a result of

the juxtaposition of all these small cylinders and of the mepo

tion of the cementing matter.

As for the shell in Arcella, I feel confident that it is analogous

to that of Cyphoderia ; but the siliceous elements are very much

smaller, and the experiments I have made have not been decisive.

Yet I have seen on broken shells that the lines of fracture were

1082 The American Naturalist. [December,

covered with denticulations of uniform size, as they are seen on

broken shells of Cyphoderia, each tooth representing a siliceous.

disc. I ascertained also that these shells resist very well a red

heat, but after the action of boiling sulphuric acid I was not able

to find the discs with certainty.

As for the origin of all these regular siliceous elements in

Rhizopods, it is well known now that it must be looked for in the

plasma itself. The animal has the power of secreting these sili-

ceous plates in the very inside of its body, and in many species

(Quadrula, Euglypha, etc., etc.) these plates can be seen very

frequently in the plasma, either lying there without any order,

or, on the contrary, disposed in regular layers. I will mention

here that the species Cyphoderia has always been described as

very generally containing, especially at the posterior part of its

- plasma, a considerable number of shining, very refractive grains,

that were supposed to be starch or excretion granules. Now I

have been able to isolate these granules, and to satisfy myself that

they resist both red heat and boiling sulphuric acid,—a fact which

proves them to be siliceous, and to represent nothing but plates

in course of formation, destined ultimately to build up another

shell. It is well known, indeed, that these reserve plates (Reserve-

plattchen), as they have been called, will not be of any use to the

animal that formed them, but serve to make up a shell for a new

animal. An individual A, for instance, full of reserve plates,

expels these plates through its mouth, together with some of its

own plasma. The whole plasma becomes highly vacuolated, and

thus augments in volume; the expelled portion, still attached to

the mouth of the parent, takes the form of the species, and the

plates are disposed as an outer covering, and in the most beautiful

order. ;

These reserve plates are certainly a product of the animal itself,

which has thus the power of secreting silica. Besides, from very

numerous observations on shells (especially Nebela) on which all

transitions are to be seen from perfect diatom cases to very simple

rods that have lost all precise form, it appears certain to me that,

as Wallace suggested, the plasma of Rhizopods has the power of

home and partly dissolving the shells of diatoms.

1891. ] Rocky Mountain Rhizopods. 1083

Sometimes, however, some of the investing elements can be

seen which must have been directiy deposited on the shell from

the outside,—inorganic particles and diatoms which are much too

large ever to have gone through the mouth of an individual

belonging to the species.‘ At other times, again, the whole shell

seems to have been formed by external apposition, as in many

specimens of Pseudodifflugia hemispherica which I have exam-

_ ined, in which nearly the whole of the shell was made of dia-

toms, still containing their plasma and their yellowish or brown

chromatophores.

Before concluding, I would emphasize the constant dislike of

Rhizopods for limestone. Not only are limestone countries

always poor in Rhizopods, as Leidy showed in 1879, but even

species that easily endure the presence of lime will never use any

particle of it for the building of their shells. In the spring of this

year I examined numerous species of Difflugia which inhabited

the muddy bottom of Geneva. This mud, under the microscope,

is seen to be composed of a mixture in nearly equal proportions

of very fine particles of quartz and transparent limestone. A

little chip of limestone, two- or three-thousandths of a millimeter

in diameter, often very closely resembles another such chip of

quartz. Without a careful examination a professional observer

might easily be deceived ; but a Difflugia is not, and will always

choose quartz“ particles for the building materials of its shell.’

t Indeed, in some forms ee eroi ifera, Dif. rubescens) this seems to be the

only way in which the shell can be b

5 Besides these Rhizopods, I have found, of course, mixed with them, many other

organisms, ae soria, Flagellata, Rotifers, Nematodes, etc. Of these I will cite only

Jenodinium cinctum and Peridinium tabulatum, and three Heliozoa,

Actinophrys sol, Hiter ophrys ——? Acanthocystis myriospina Penard? (Acant

ith simple spines, Leidy) ; fine specimens of this latter were abundant at 12,coo feet

1084 The American Naturalist. [December,

LIFE-HISTORY OF THE VERMILION-SPOTTED

NEWT (Diemyctylus viridescens Raf.) ?

BY SIMON HENRY GAGE.

HE working out of the complete life-history of this newt hsa

extended from 1819—1820, when Say and Rafinesque first

considered it, until the present year (1891). During this period

of seventy-two years it has been the subject of numerous inves-

tigations ; but from the striking changes in coloration, habit, and

structure passed through in its various stages of development it

has proved unusually puzzling to the naturalist and physiologist.

The phases in its life-history are briefly as follows :

1. The ova are laid in water, and give rise to larve with well-

developed gills. In course of development these larve assume

the vermilion spots and general viridescent coloration of the adult.

2. The gills are absorbed, the viridescent coloration changes to

a yellowish-red of varying brightness, the vermilion spots remain,

the oral epithelium changes from a stratified non-ciliated to a

ciliated epithelium, and the respiration and life become wholly

terrestrial. |

3. In from two to three years the newt changes its red for a

viridescent coloration, returns to the water, loses its ciliated and

regains a stratified non-ciliated oral epithelium, and reassumes a

partial aquatic respiration, and during the remainder of its life is

properly an aquatic form.

Historical —In Vol. I. of the American Journal of Science, Say

(719, p. 264) under the name of Salamandra punctata Gml. gives

1 Synonymy, modified from Cope ('87 207): Triturus (Diemyctylus) Sung

Raf. ‘a Gml.

» P-

('20), Triturus (Notophthalmus) adultes Raf. ('20), Salamandra punc

Say ('19, p. 264), Salamandra dorsalis Harlan ('27, Vol. VI., p. tor), pesa sym-

DeKay ('42, p. 81), Triton dorsalis Holbr, ('42, Vol. V., p. 77), Triton millepunctatus

- DeKay ('42, p. 84), Notophthalmus kiese Baird ('50, p. 264), Notophthalmus minia-

tus Baird ('50, p . 284), Triton n punc nctatissimus Dum. Bibr. (41, p. 154), Triton symmetri-

cus Dum. Bibr. ('41, p. 154), Diem seas miniatus Hallowell (’ <6, pp. 6-11), Kelley (’78,

P- 399), Triton viridescens Strauch ('70, p. 50), Molge viridescens Boulanger (’82, p. 21).

lil a i cl

alae

1891.] The Vermition-Spotted Newt. 1085

a very good description of the viridescent form, and near the end

adds: “ The younger specimens vary considerably in being on

many parts of the body destitute of black punctures, and in

having the dorsal and ventral color of the same pale orange. It

is decidedly aquatic.” As the last sentence follows without

explanation, it apparently applies to both the young and the old,

and is rather confusing.

The year following Rafinesque, in placing several Urodeles in

his new genus Triturus, remarks with reference to the adult

Diemyctylus: “It must form a peculiar subgenus Diemyctylus”;

and with reference to the red form he says: “It has almost the

characters of the subgenus Diemyctylus, but differs from it by

having the toes of the fore feet free ‘and unequal, the lateral ones

much shorter, whence it may form another subgenus, Notophthal-

mus.” That is, the adult viridescent and the immature red form

were by Rafinesque placed in different genera.

This was continued by some authors, as DeKay; by others

the two were placed in the same genus, although considered

specifically distinct. It thus continued until 1850—51, when

Baird put both in the same genus, and remarks concerning them:

“The salamanders were formerly divided into two great genera,

Salamandra and Triton, the former with rounded tail and

terrestrial habits, the latter with compressed tail and aquatic.

The necessity of further division has, however, become apparent,

and the old distinction into land and water salamanders is no

longer tenable as parallel to any anatomical features. Thus, of

the highly natural genus Notophthalmus (Diemyctylus) one

species (Diemyctylus viridescens) is the most aquatic of all Ameri-

can forms, the other (D. miniatus) the most terrestrial; yet the

on Names.—x. Of the adult aquatic form: Spotted salamander, aquatic sala-

mander, many-spotted salamander, common triton, spotted triton, crimson-spotted triton,

spotted newt, water newt, eastern water newt, common newt, spotted eft or evet, 2. Of

the red form: Scarlet salamander, yellow-bellied salamander, ph bgt as salamander,

red lizard, little red lizard, rain lizard, red salamander, red newt, red eft or evet.

Di. jon.—Representatives of the genus Diemyctylus are aiy in Europe, Asia,

and North America. In North America are two well-marked species, —the D. torosus

of the Pacific slope, and D. viridescens, the subject of this paper, throughout a large

part of the eastern region. ess '87, p. 202.)

2 The numbers in p I he bibliography at the end of the paper,

1086 The American Naturalist. [December,

two are so much alike in shape as to render it a matter of some

difficulty to distinguish them.”

Five years later this close similarity of the red and aquatic

forms so clearly enunciated by Baird lead Dr. Hallowell (’56) to

express the opinion that “Dzemyctylus viridescens and D. miniatus

are probably the same, the orange color and roughness being

appearances which, the female more especially, presents after a

long sojourn on land. At least this may be inferred from the

known habits of the European Tritons.”

Again, three years later Cope (’59) says : “ We include in the

above synonyms (of Diemyctylus viridescens) those of the nominal

species D. miniatus, which we think with Dr. Hallowell ('56) is a

state of D. wiridescens. We have caught specimens. . . of

every shade of color between vermilion and brownish-green.

The color or character of the skin seems to be dependent upon

the amount of moisture in the situations in which they are found.

Those from high and dry spots are redder and rougher than those

from marshy situations. Thus it is probable that this species

undergoes changes similar to those of the European Tritons.”

During the next twenty years opinions pro and con were

expressed by various systematists, but the final and satisfactory

proof of the identity of Diemyctylus viridescens and D. miniatus

was given by Dr. Howard Kelly (78), who “brought home a

number of Diemyctylus miniatus Raf., or little red lizard or red

eft, and after keeping them in a dark box filled with saturated

moss, they changed their color from a bright vermilion to the

olive state characteristic of the D. viridescens?” The change took

place in the autumn, and without entering the water, although

they willingly remained in and under the water when placed

there. He says further: “ The conclusion, then, is that instead of

two well-marked species or a species and a variety, we have but a.

single species, Diemyctylus miniatus.”

Sarah P. Monks (’80), in discussing the differences in opinion

concerning these two forms, adds: “I have also observed this

change several times,’—7.¢., the change from the red to the

viridescent form. “I have kept them (the larve) till they became

terrestrial, and had yellow spots along their olive-green sides ; but

7 FS

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1087

they would not eat, and died in about a week. I am very sorry

not to have been able to keep any till they reached the red eft

stage. Their dying so young makes a break in the chain of

observed facts that prove the red eft to be a young form of the

spotted salamander. I believe, but am not able to prove at pres-

ent, that the young Dzemyctylus viridescens attains its red garb

the summer it is hatched, remains that color about.a year, then

gradually becomes duller as it attains full size.”

In 1886 Col. Nicolas Pike (’86) verified the observation that

the red ones transform into the viridescent form under certain

circumstances, and seems inclined to the belief of Hallowell (56)

and Cope (’59) that changed conditions produce the change in

coloration: “I have gradually come‘to the conclusion that the

two are identical. Some years ago I captured quite a number of

red ones in the Catskill Mountains, brought them home and kept

them in a box with other salamanders where they could resort to

water if they chose. For some days they remained hiding under

wet moss and stones, but finally crept out at night and went into

the water. . . . In about three months they lost their bright red,

and in less than a year they were ofthe usual olive of the vrides-

cens. Another fact, still more decidedly bearing on the lase, is

that some two-year-old viridescens taken from the ponds and put

in earth and dead wet leaves in a tub in my garden, without

water, in a month or so began to lose their green tint and assume

a dingy brownish hue. . . . When the young leave the water

the food changes to spiders, insects, earthworms, etc., so

totally different from the prey of the ponds, and it is most prob-

able that this is the first cause in the change of color in the little

Diemyctylus.”

In 1890 Gage and Norris (’90) kept a bright red oia,

found in the woods, over the winter in a box of leaves and rotten

wood with other salamanders. It was of the usual red color in

the spring; but when opportunity was offered, it entered the

water, and within twọ weeks had assumed all the characteristics

of the viridescent form.

Finally, in the “ Batrachia of North America ” Prof. Cope thus

summarizes the state of knowledge, as it then existed, with refer-

1088 The American Naturalist. [December,

ence to these two forms: “ There are two forms of this subspe-

cies, which have received the names of viridescens and miniatus

respectively. These have been shown to be stages of one and the

same animal; they are not distinguished otherwise than as sea-

sonal forms, which may be by reason of the environment rendered

permanent for a longer or shorter time” (p. 207).

As seen by the above quotations, Say apparently made but a

single species of the red and viridescent forms; but some later

authors even placed them in different genera. Their great similarity

= was, however, remarked upon by Storer and others. Finally,

since the work of Baird in 1850 they have remained in the same

genus, but have been by many considered as distinct species. A

further study and more careful observation of living specimens,

have, since 1850, indicated the probability, and finally showed the

certainty, that the two forms were states of the same species

(56—90). Furthermore, these observations not only showed that

the red, terrestrial form changes to the viridescent, aquatic form,

but, where the matter is discussed, it is assumed that the reverse

may occur, the difference of coloration, roughness, etc., being

dependent upon season, food, and environment (Hallowell, 56;

Cope," 9, 87; Pike, ’86).

While Say (’19) says the young is of a uniform orange color, the

sentence immediately following that statement, “It is decidedly

aquatic,” leaves one in doubt concerning his actual knowledge

concerning the two forms. There is one author, however (Monks,

’80), who distinctly intimates, although unable to prove, that the

red form is a stage in the development of the Diemyctylus. Both

Say and Monks are silent concerning the possibility of a return of

the viridescent to the red coloration.

In order to complete the chain in the life-history of the Diemy-

ctylus, and to determine so far as possible its habits, structure,

physiology, and transformations during the varying phases of

aquatic and terrestrial existence, the writer has availed himself of

every opportunity for investigating it during the last six years.

The results of this study may, perhaps, best be given by com-

mencing with the egg :

7891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1089

fertilization and Ovulation—lIt has been assumed by most

observers that, in analogy with the European tritons, the eggs of

Diemyctylus are internally fertilized (Baird, ’51; Whitman, ’85),

It is said to be external by Col. Pike (’86), who supposed that the

eggs were laid in masses. So far as I have been able to ascer-

tain, no one has previously undertaken experiments to definitely

settle this point. The mode of copulation, if it may be so called,

is so different from that described for the European tritons in

which internal fertilization has been demonstrated that from it

alone one would not expect internal fertilization. The hind legs

of the male are exceedingly strong, and have developed on the

ends of the toes dark, horny masses, also horny ridges along the

inner or opposed surfaces of the legs (Pl. XXIII., Fig. 9). These

are mostly absent in the summer. As the animals slowly

move about in the water, when the male comes sufficiently

near a gravid female, there is a rapid movement of the body to

get above her, then the two powerful legs come together like the

jaws of a steel trap, grasping the female either just in front or

just behind her front legs. The ventral side of the male is thus

applied to the dorsal side of the female in the thoracic region, and

consequently the cloacal openings are very widely separated. The

male keeps his position for an hour or longer, and during part of

this time, as Baird (’51) remarks, “jerks the female round in the

water most unmercifully.” The cloaca of the male is very widely

open and pressed against the back of the female, and when not

swimming around the tail is waved from side to side. The

cloacal papilla or villi are brought into view by the eversion of

the cloaca. They remind one of the cloacal villi or of the gill

filaments of a male Necturus. In case the female shakes the

male off, as sometimes happens, the cloaca of the male may

remain everted, and the tail is waved from side to side while rest-

ing on the bottom or on a branch of vegetation. This also

occurs when he voluntarily leaves her for the purpose of deposit-

ing spermatophores (Zeller, ’90; Jordan, ’91).

As the egg-laying never takes place during the mating, the eggs

must be fertilized after laying by the zoosperms diffused in the

water, or the zoosperms must in some way get into the cloaca or

Am. —Dec.—4. oy

1090 The American Naturalist. [December,

oviduct and fertilize the eggs before they are laid. To determine

which of these alternatives was correct a clean jar, holding about

two liters of water, was taken, and in the water was placed a pair

of Diemyctylus. ` About half an hour after the mating had

ceased the water was filtered through absorbent cotton. Adher-

ing to the upper part of the filter were multitudes of zoosperms.

This showed that the zoosperms were emitted into the water.

Another clean jar was then taken and partly filled with water

from the university water supply, and into it were placed some

Anacharis and Ceratophyllum that had been in the laboratory all

winter, and not in contact with Diemyctylus. The female was

then carefully rinsed in several waters, and finally under the tap,

to ensure the removal of zoosperms from the surface. She was

then put into the clean jar with the water plants. It was believed

that in this way external fertilization would be precluded, and

that if eggs were laid and developed it would prove internal fer-

tilization. Commencing the day after isolation, this female laid

eight eggs in four days (from the oth to the 13th of April).

In laying the eggs the female would select a place, usually a

well-leaved part of the Anacharis or Ceratophyllum. This was

then clasped by the hind legs, and held close to the cloacal

prominence. The body showed several writhing or serpentine

movements, the legs were pressed somewhat more closely to-

gether, and then the female would move away without looking

around to see whether or not the egg was securely protected.

When first laid the albumen is quite cloudy, but soon clears up ;

it is also very adhesive, so that when forced in between the leaves

it sticks to them and holds them together. It usually took from

five to ten minutes to lay an egg. Those observed were laid in

the daytime.

In case no green vegetation is present, the eggs are laid on bare

stems (P1. XXIII., Fig. 1) or on stones. The eggs must be laid

on stones in nature when no vegetation is present, as occurs in

some parts of Cayuga Lake, where they were found mating.

After a few days all but two of the eggs showed signs of devel-

opment, and embryos in various stages were secured and sec-

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 10gI

tioned. Some were allowed to go on till hatched. This occurred

in thirty-three days after the eggs were laid.

After laying the eight eggs no more were laid for over a week.

She was then placed -with a male for two or three days, when

mating again occurred. After mating, she was again isolated as

before to see if the ovulation would recommence, and if the eggs

would be fertile. Seven days after isolation she commenced to

lay eggs, and continued to do so until six or seven were laid.

These proved fertile, and several stages of development obtained.

This experiment indicates that for a single mating about six eggs

may be internally fertilized, about the number found in the two

Oviducts at one time. It indicates, further,that in nature more

than one mating probably occurs (see below); and finally, almost

certain proof is given that the eggs are not externally fertilized,

as in the last experiment none were laid until seven days after

isolation. Three other females were isolated as described above,

and the eggs proved fertile.

From these experiments it appears almost certain that the ova

are internally fertilized, and as to the way in which the zoosperms

reach the eggs, as there is no approach to a true copulation, the

explanation of Professor Baird ('51) must be the correct one:

“ The seminal matter becomes diffused in the water, and fecun-

dates the ova while still in the lower part of the oviduct.” Or

more probably the spermatophores recently described by Zeller

(90) and Jordan (91) in some way aid the entrance of the zoo-

sperms more surely than would simple diffusion in the water.

The time of ovulation was found to begin the first week in

April in specimens obtained from a spring-fed pond, and to con-

tinue in different specimens from this pond till after the first of

May. In specimens from Cayuga Lake, June 13th, eggs were

obtained until June 18th. Probably in specimens obtained later

eggs might have been obtained also. It would appear from this

that the ovulating season is much earlier in the inland ponds than

in the lake.

Autumnal Mating.—lIf adult specimens are obtained from their

natural habitat in the autumn, the males will be found to possess

the dark horny toe-tips and the ridges on the thighs as shown in

1092 The American Naturalist. [December,

Pl. XXIII., Fig. 9; and the tail-fin will be found as fully devel-

oped as in April. It has also the wavy appearance as if it were

too long for the tail. If the two sexes are placed together a

typical mating will occur, and the emission of spermatophores

will occur exactly as described for the spring, or proper breeding

season (Jordan, ’91). Observing the act of emitting the sperma-

tophore and its subsequent examination is greatly facilitated by

using a clean glass jar containing very little vegetation. The

spermatophore is anchored on the bottom of the glass jar, and

has the general appearance of a drinking-goblet,—that is, the

attached part is like the broad base of the goblet,—and this is

continued into a narrow part, upon the summit of which the

oblong sperm-mass or sperm-ball (about 2x4 mm.) is attached,

thus occupying the position of the cup part of the goblet, to con-

tinue the comparison. At first the sperm-mass is detached from

the spermatophore with some difficulty, but later much more

easily. If it is transferred to a watch-glass or a slide and exam-

ined in water, using preferably dark-ground illumination, the

sperm-mass will appear like a mass of white ringlets, there being

hundreds of zoosperms in each ringlet. The motion of the zoo-

sperm as a whole, and the active waving of the lateral membrane

or frill, is very vigorous. It was found also that isolated males

would emit spermatophores, thus making them comparable with

the European Triton (Gascoe, ’80).

It is not easy to understand the purpose of this autumnal mat-

ing, as no eggs were ever found in the oviducts in the autumn,

and it is not known that ovulution takes place at other times than

in the spring, or breeding season proper. Judging from what has

been found concerning European forms, where the eggs laid

proved fertile although wintered in the aquarium, and not in con-

tact with the male since its capture, also from the several broods

of young from the Sa/amanda atra with but a single fertilization,

it appears probable that the zoosperms are stored in some way by

the female until the time of ovulation. (See Gascoe, ’80; Fatio,

’72; Jordan, ’91; Czermak, ’43; V. Siebold, ’58; Zeller, ’90.)

So far as I know, the presence of the horny toe-tips and thigh

Tige and the prominent tail-fin have been uniformly described

1891.] The Vermilton-Spotted Newt, 1093

as characteristic of the spring,—that is, the breeding season

proper. So also the autumnal mating is, so far as I know, an

entirely new observation. It was observed many times by myself,

and at two different times independently by Mr. F. B. Maxwell,

fellow in zoology and botany in Cornell University.

Habits of the Larve and Duration of the Larval Period —

The eggs of the Diemyctylus hatch in from twenty to thirty-five

days, depending upon the temperature. From the first the colora-

tion approaches that of the viridescent form; it has also the slim

appearance and delicate outlines of the more mature ones. The

gills are very prominent at a very early age, and project

obliquely over the back. The larva are very timid and exceed-

ingly active when they move. Frequently they remain for a

considerable time in the clear water of the aquarium, with the

beautiful red gills outspread and the body straight as an arrow.

If disturbed in any way they dart into the vegetation like a flash.

The body is narrow and the head pointed, thus forming a very

marked contrast with the broad-headed Amblystoma larve.

Indeed, they so strikingly resemble the adult viridescent form that

it is not difficult to recognize them.

When several different kinds of larve are in the same aqua-

rium, they differ from the adult aquatic form, however, in that the

tail-fin extends almost to the head as a dorsal crest, something as

in Triton cristatus.

The food appears to be entirely of an animal nature. Speci-

mens from the ponds where the conditions are entirely normal

contained minute Crustacea, larval insects and snails, and in some,

aquatic worms were found. The larvæ in the aquarium were kept

in food by an occasional addition of water and vegetation from

their natural habitat. Early in August, while the gills are still

prominent, the characteristic vermilion spots commence to appear,

thus giving the larvæ a still more striking resemblance to the adult

(Pl. XXIII., Fig. 3). Water is frequently taken into the mouth and

passed through the gill openings for respiratory purposes, and

the oral epithelium is stratified and non-ciliated, as in Necturus,

- The cesophagus is lined with ciliated epithelium, but none 1s

~ present at any time in the stomach, thus further agreeing with

1094 The American Naturalist. {December,

Necturus and differing from the larve or tadpoles of the mE

(Rana catesbiana) (Gage, ’85, Gage, S. H. and S. P., ’go).

During the last half of August the gills begin to be absorbed

and also the tail fin, and the larva more frequently goes to the

surface for air. Finally, during the last of August and the first

of September, the gills and tail fin being nearly absorbed, the larva

keeps its head out of the water an hour at a time, and finally

crawls out of the water entirely.

The larvæ do not, apparently, all transform during the first sum-

mer, for specimens with gills have been taken from upland ponds

in November. The size attained by the larvæ before transform-

ing is quite various. Those observed by me were usually about

the size shown in the plate (3 to 4 centimeters long); but they

may become much larger. Indeed, they may remain in the

branchiate condition till they are as long as some of the adult

aquatic ones, and two or three times the length of some of the

red ones found in nature. Large branchiate larve were obtained

for me by Instructor Pierre A. Fish from a fresh-water pond at

Wood's Holl, Mass. The tail-fin is small in these large larve,

and there is no crest extending to the head as in the smaller

larve. Other unusually large-gilled larve wiil be described by

Prof. O. P. Hay in the forthcoming report on “The Batrachians

and Reptiles of Indiana,” soon to appear in the report of the

Geological Survey of Indiana.

Terrestrial Life-—In order to keep the young newts alive and

in health, a large giass dish was taken and a considerable amount

of moist leaves and rotten wood put into it. This was an attempt

to imitate nature as nearly as possible. The young newts did

well, and gradually began to assume a reddish brown color on

the back instead of the viridescent color (Pl. XXIII., Fig. 4). The

belly became orange. In fact, it was passing through an almost.

exact reversal of the transformation of a red into a viridescent

form. Late in September and during the first half of October the

appearance was that of a rather dark “red newt..” Specimens of

the same size found in nature at about the same date showed the

transformation of the coloration even more strikingly, as it was

of a lighter red over the whole body.

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1095

During the transformation from the gilled aquatic to the gill-less

terrestrial state the gill slits grow up, and the stratified, non-

ciliated, oral epithelium of the aquatic larva is changed for a

ciliated epithelium. The vermilion spots have one or more black

pigment blotches bordering them, but there is rarely, if ever, a

complete black ring around them as in the larger specimens

(Pl. XXIII., Fig. 5). The spots differ in size, shape, and some-

what in arrangement in different specimens; in some the number

on the two sidesis different (Pl. XXIII., Figs. 4, 8). The gen-

eral coloration of the body is almost always lighter on the

ventral than on the dorsal portion, and differs greatly in different

specimens. In some specimens it is a bright color in which the

yellow is very prominent, in others the shade is more red, and

in still others it is a dingy reddish brown. As shown in Fig. 7,

the area of deeper dorsal red corresponds closely with the area

that becomes viridescent in the adult form. As to the seat of the

coloration, it is mostly due to the network of branched cells under

the epidermis. The cells of the epidermis at the opening of the

cutaneous glands—~z. e., at the summits of the papillze or tubercles

—sometimes become brownish, and in specimens that have not

moulted for some time give a dingy look.

It is a curious fact that in these red forms and in the adult

green ones the so-called fat-body is almost invariably of the color

of the skin on the ventral portion of the body, and under the

microscope shows reddish bodies almost exactly the color of the

coloring matter in the chromatophores under the epidermis. The

vermilion spots are produced by a deeper or redder coloration of

the chromatophores. With the micro-spectroscope no distinctive

absorption bands were found.

The food during the terrestrial life consisted of spiders, insects

and insect larvae, and earthworms. The larger red specimens in

captivity take earthworms with great readiness. In nature the

red ones live in situations, mostly at a considerable distance from

water, and as well remarked by Baird (’51), is the most terrestrial

of all the American salamanders. It is found under sticks and

stones, and especially under rotten logs and in moist woods. It is

1096 The American Naturalist. [December,

very rarely seen wandering around except after a rain, hence it is

quite generally believed by non-naturalists to rain down.

Their movements are quite rapid, and very quickly disappear

if placed where they can crawl into the grass or among leaves.

They will overcome quite prominent obstacles, and in getting

down from a considerable height they use the tail as a fifth hand,

like a monkey, and can practically support themselves nearly their

whole length. The aquatic form also frequently makes use of the

tail as a kind of hand in making its way around in the submerged

plants. Sometimes they give out a kind of shrill squeak or

cry, but this is not very frequent. The adult aquatic ones

occasionally emit a similar cry also.

Although I have been unable to keep them in confinement

from the egg until their final transformation into the adult viri-

descent form, I have been able to obtain from a locality where

they were especially abundant suck a complete series that it is

believed that the terrestrial life continues until the autumn of the

third or the spring of the fourth year after hatching,—that is, when

they are two-and-a-half or three years old.

Transformation into the Adult—As previously stated, this

transformation may take place either in the autumn or the springy

and in either of these times the transformation may take place:

(1) while still on dry land; (2) after entering the water.

1. As the red Diemyctylus attains maturity (judging from

the generative organs) it gradually assumes a brownish tint,

which merges slowly into a viridescent coloration of greater or

less intensity in different specimens. This may occur in the

autumn without entering the water, but if placed in the water

it willingly remains (Kelly, ’78). In two specimens under my

own observation, kept in a jar containing moist rotten wood,

leaves, etc., the change came about the middle ot September.

One was of an especially brilliant red, but within two weeks

1 The favorable place mentioned above is Worcester, Otsego Co., N. Y., along one of

the headwaters of the Susquehanna River. ‘The specimens were obtained for me by

my nephew, Albert Gage. About 12 miles from Ithaca the red form is also exceedingly

abundant in and near an upland forest. This forest is not far from marshy places which

are sources of small tributaries to the Seca get River on the south and Cayuga

Lake on the north.

en ee N

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1097

it, as well as its less brilliant companion, had assumed the char-

acteristic coloration of the viridescent form. These two speci-

mens were fed earthworms occasionally and kept in the jar until

the following July. There was not the slightest indication during

this period of nearly a year of a return to the red coloration, and

the epithelium of the mouth remained ciliated. In the middle of

July they were placed where they could enter the water, which

they did with great readiness, and remained under for a considera-

ble time at first. The time under water increased in length until

within two or three days the pharyngeal respiration under water

was fully established; and if put with specimens from pond or

lake they could not be distinguished either by appearance or

behavior. Furthermore, viridescent specimens from the water

have been kept in the air for several months, but there was never

any indication of a return to the red garb of the immature form.

It was found, as shown in the accompanying plate, that some

specimens from the water inclined to a brownish green, hence it

was found desirable to note carefully the appearance at the begin-

ning of the experiments. These experiments and observations

seem to the writer to entirely preclude the notion that the red

form owes its coloration to either food, season, or situation; but

that it is normal for a given stage of its growth and development.

It is believed also that this change of the red to the viridescent

form without entering the water accounts for the belief among

some naturalists that the adult aquatic forms voluntarily leave the

water and become terrestrial.

2. In the observations of Col. Pike ('86) the transformation

from the red to the viridescent form took place after entering the

water, and apparently took place in the summer or autumn,

although he does not state distinctly. In the cases observed by

me one specimen was kept over winterin wood humus, and in the

spring given opportunity to enter the water. It did so in a short

time, and within two weeks had completely transformed. | Two

other specimens were found in the woods in the early spring ;

they likewise entered the water after a few days and gradually

changed their red for the iridescent coloration, and assumed an

aquatic life with the accompanying pharyngeal respiration and

1098 The American Naturalist. [December,

non-ciliated oral epithelium. Observations have not yet been

sufficiently numerous or under sufficiently normal conditions to

determine how soon after becoming viridescent and entering the

water eggs are laid.

Adult—By the adult is here meant the olive-green or virides-

cent form (Pl. XXIII, Figs. 8-11). The normal habitat of the adult

Diemyctylus is the water. In Ithaca, N. Y., Cayuga Lake,

permanent pools in marshes and permanent spring-fed ponds in

the higher or upland are favorite homes. The streams running

into the lake are liable to sudden freshets, and Diemyctylus is

rarely found in them, at least not within a mile or two of the lake

valley. Specimens have been taken from the spring-fed ponds at

all times of year except the depth of winter. For catching

Diemyctylus in situations where the vegetation is abundant

the best method has been found to take a strong net with a long

handle and make blind sweeps with it in the water. Frequently

where there is no sign of animal life, Diemyctylus and other batra-

chians may be taken in considerable numbers in this way. Accord-

ing to Storer and Holbrook, they may be seen occasionally in

winter, swimming with great vigor under ice an inch thick. It is

believed from the preceding that after once assuming an aquatic

life the adult never leaves the water except on the drying of the

ponds or a special scarcity of food. It is further believed from

the facts stated above that although the aquatic forms may be

kept in moist places out of the water for months, they never

revert to a red coloration, and also that the viridescent forms

found on land are in the great majority of cases transformed red

ones that have not yet entered the water.

The food consists of insect larvz, like caddis worms, adult

insects, various aquatic worms, earthworms, small Crustacea,

bivalve, and univalve mollusks. In captivity they learn to take

bits of meat from a stick, to catch flies thrown on the water, and

to catch tadpoles. It is quite possible that they indulge in this

last mark of affection to their relatives in nature also. When

catching tadpoles or other living prey the process is something

as follows: The Diemyctylus moves slowly within reach of the

prey, and remains perfectly quiet until the prey moves, when it is

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1099

snapped up quick as a wink, and it is rare that a failure is made.

A tadpole is also liable to be caught if it attempts to swim by the

Diemyctylus. In taking earthworms on land there is an attitude

of the body and curve of the neck strikingly like the restorations

of some of the ancient saurians seen in works on paleontology.

Moulting —Both the red and the viridescent forms shed the

skin at various times throughout the year. There seems to be

no regular time, as in June, mentioned by some authors. In the

terrestrial form the exuvium is liable to be much torn, but fre-

quently I have seen in Cayuga Lake perfect specimens floating in

the water, and appearing, as one might imagine, like the ghosts

of their former owners. I have never seen the cast skin rolled

up and swallowed by the aquatic form; but the terrestrial ones

pull the exuvium off the tail with the mouth and afterwards swal-

low it.

Respiration and Relations to Oral Epithelium—In the begin-

ning of larval life the respiration is wholly aquatic ; then, as the

lungs become developed, it gradually changes to a mixed or

combined respiration—.¢., to a respiration partly aérial and

partly aquatic. Later, when the larva leaves the water and be-

comes terrestrial, the respiration becomes wholly aérial. Upon

transforming to the viridescent form, and reéntering the water,

the respiration again becomes mixed.

If one observes a terrestrial Diemyctylus carefully the floor o

the mouth and pharynx will be seen to sink and rise alternately, and

many times per minute. The appearance in pharyngeal inspiration

may be seen in Fig. 10; in expiration, in Figs. 7 and 11. The

same pharyngeal movements may be seen in a frog or turtle

On entering the water the Diemyctylus remains under for a con-

siderable time, and during its submergence the same rhythmical

s occur, and water instead of air is alter-

pharyngeal movement

nately taken into the mouth and expelled, as in the soft-shelled

turtles; and, as in the soft-shelled turtles, it is believed that it is

for respiratory purposes (Gage, S Hand SP, 85). It is fur-

ther believed, from chemical analyses, and from experiments made

with the respiration of tadpoles and with Ganoid fishes, that

whenever respiration is thus mixed or combined “the aérial part

1100 The American Naturalist. [December,

is principally to furnish oxygen and the aquatic part to’ eliminate

carbon dioxide” (Wilder, ’77; Gage, S. H. and S. P., ’85, ’86,.

88; Mark, ’90).

It has been found in every one of a great many cases that

whenever the respiration is wholly aérial, the entire mouth cavity

is lined with ciliated epithelium which is directly continuous with

the ciliated epithelium of the cesophagus. This is found not

_ only in the red forms and the viridescent forms that had not yet

entered the water, but when an aquatic form was kept in the air

for ten days or two weeks the epithelium of the mouth was like-

wise found: to be ciliated like that of the proper aérial forms.

This was verified on several specimens and direct comparisons

made with specimens from the same aquarium.

The branchiate larvæ and the adult aquatic forms have an oral

epithelium of non-ciliated cells, as in Necturus and Crypto-

branchus. It is astonishing to see how quickly a Diemyctylus

with purely aérial respiration and ciliated oral epithelium will

assume a partially aquatic or mixed respiration and the ciliated

epithelium of the mouth become non-ciliated. The change has

something of the character and certainty of a simple chemical

reaction, and appears to show the direct relation of the mode of

respiration to the character of the oral epithelium.

2 To determine whether or not the mouth has a lining of ciliated epithelium, the

nd the

ciliated epithelium, for the ciliary currents quickly sw t clots toward and

finally into the stomach. It - asa an excellent method for discovering small ciliated

areas. In addition to this yade of the epithelium

arious parts of the mouth. This, of course, hat to to be. the method employed in

fro!

determining the character of the oral epithelium at the beginning of an experiment with

iving specimens, In the scrapings from the mouth of an aquatic Diemyctylus a few

ciliated cells may be found under the microscope, but in such specimens penn

no demonstrable ciliary currents. The source of the few cells is thought to

the opening of the glottis or from the ciliated lining of the mouths of the buccal phar

ohh a a PR SER CHR irae

1891. The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. IIOI

Conclusions.—So far as I have yet been able to learn from the

opinions of others or my own observations, no explanation has

offered itself for the bright color of the terrestrial, red form. The

color renders it exceedingly conspicuous, and there is no counter-

balancing compensation in sexual selection, for the red form is

sexually immature. The olive-green or viridescent color of the

adult does render it inconspicuous in green terrestrial or aquatic

vegetation; they are sometimes found in large numbers in water

nearly devoid of vegetation, however.

With reference to the change from the aquatic to the terres-

trial life, and later the return to an aquatic life, there is perhaps

a more satisfactory explanation or hint. Diemyctylus conforms

in habits with the vast majority of batrachians in going to the

water to lay its eggs. Still conforming to the habits of the

group, the larvæ, on reaching a certain stage of development,

absorb their gills, leave the water, and become air-breathers. It

is not the purpose of this paper to attempt a discussion of the

causes which led, in the course of evolution, to the assumption of

an aërial for an aquatic existence by the Diemyctylus and many

other Batrachia. It must be assumed that the reasons were

sufficiently potent. Two will occur to every one conversant with

the breeding places of the batrachians,—the danger of the drying

of the water, and the limited amount of food.

With but few exceptions, the preparation for reproduction

requires the terrestrial forms to again enter the water, and the

life becomes for a greater or less time once more partially aquatic,

A partial return to an aquatic mode of respiration, and the taking

in of water by the pharyngeal movements described above, is by

no means restricted to Diemyctylus, but it may be seen in such

highly terrestrial forms as the little brown tree-toad (Hyla

pickeringii) and the yellow-spotted salamander (Amdlystoma

punctatum). It appears as if the surroundings of larval life, and

the necessity for respiration brought about by the prolonged stay

under water required for fertilization and ovulation recalled by a

kind of organic memory the mode by which respiration was

accomplished in larval life.

1102 The American Naturalist. [December,

In Diemyctylus this mixed respiration and the food supply

apparantly proved so satisfactory that the aquatic life again

became fixed, and, acting through numberless generations, the

tendency to revert to aquatic life became so great that maturing

forms sometimes enter the water at least six months before the

breeding season (Kelly, ’78). It does not, however, revert so

completely to an aquatic life that it cannot, in case of necessity,

again become terrestrial for a considerable time.

This permanent reversion to a primitive mode of life by

Diemyctylus does not stand alone among the Batrachia. It is

paralleled and even exceeded by Siren, which after passing

through the ordinary larval metamorphosis, has its gills so far

absorbed as to be mere stubs. It then not only returns to the

water, but actually reacquires its gills (Cope, 85). These two

cases seem to point to the conclusion that in the course of evolu-

tion: the dangers and hardships of the land became equal or

greater than those of the water for these forms, and they, by read-

justing themselves to an aquatic life, rendered the struggle for

existence less severe. Certainly there is no reason, in the funda-

mental idea of evolution, why an animal may not revert to an

earlier condition, provided it becomes as markedly to its advan-

tage as was the original departure from that condition.

Summary—t. The red and the viridescent forms of Diemy-

ctylus belong to the same species, the red form being an immature

condition,

2. The ova of Diemyctylus are internally fertilized, and are laid

singly on a submerged leaf, or between submerged leaves, and

partly concealed by folding the leaves closely together. If no

leaves are available, the eggs are laid on stones or bare stems.

The eggs hatch in about thirty days.

3. In from three to four months after hatching, vermilion spots

appear, and are symmetrically arranged along the dorsal aspect

next the head. The general appearance is then strikingly like

that of the adult male in the breeding season, except that the

tail crest, instead of ending opposite the pelvis, extends nearly or

quite to the head, as in the crested Triton. Later, gills and tail-

fin atrophy, and the respiration becomes more and more aérial.

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1103

4. After the gills are absorbed the animal leaves the water, and

the color gradually changes from an olive-green to brownish-red,

and finally, during the same season, assumes a bright yellowish-

red, the vermilion spots remaining and becoming partly surrounded

by black pigment.

5. As the terrestrial life is assumed the stratified, non-ciliated

oral epithelium of the aquatic larva gradually changes to a ciliated

epithelium continuous with that of the cesophagus.

6. In the autumn of the third or the spring of the fourth year

after hatching (when two and one-half or three years old), the

red changes for a viridescent coloration. This may occur with

or without entering the water. If the water is entered the animal

changes to an aquatic mode of life.

7. On reassuming an aquatic life the ciliated, oral epithelium

becomes again stratified and non-ciliated, as in the aquatic larva,

and as in Necturus and Cryptobranchus.

8. After becoming adult and transforming to the viridescent

coloration, the Diemyctylus always remains of that general

color, and never again becomes red, even when kept out of water

a whole year, thus showing that the coloration is dependent

neither on food, season, nor environment, but is normal for a

given period of life only.

9. The adult viridescent forms are purely aquatic under favor-

able conditions, and after once entering the water do not leave it,

although they are able to live for several months, and perhaps

indefinitely in moist places, wholly out of water. Rhythmical

pharyngeal respiration isjverymarked both in air and under water.

10. The character of the oral epithelium seems directly depen-

dent on the mode of respiration, being stratified and non-ciliated

with a purely aquatic or a mixed respiration, and ciliated with a

purely aérial respiration.

1104 The American Naturalist. [December,

ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY.

BAIRD, SPENCER F.—’50. Revision of the North American Tailed Ba-

trachia, with Descriptions of New Genera and Species. Jour. Acad. Nat.

Sci., 2d ser., Vol. I. (1850), p. 284. The red and the viridescent form are

put in the same genus.

"51. Iconographic Encyclopedia of Science, Literature, and Art. Syste-

matically arranged by J. G. Heck. Translated from the German with

additions and edited by Spencer F. Baird. Vol. II., Botany and Zoology,

etc. New York, 1851. Distinguishes from European Tritons, and puts

toth red and viridescent form in the same genus, remarking that while one

is the most terrestrial and the other the most aquatic of all American Newts,

they are so much alike that it difficult to distinguish them. Describes mat-

ing and ovulation, the horny ridges on the hind legs of male.

Batrour, F. M.—’81. A Treatise on Comparative Embryology, Vol. II.

London, 1881. On pp. 99, 100, are notes on fertilization and ovulation.

BATEMAN, Rev. G. C.—’go. Fresh-Water Aquaria : Construction, Arrange-

ment, and Management. London, 1890. Pp. 98-100 describe habits,

ovulation, etc., of English Tritons.

BEDRIAGA, J. v.—'81. Professor Nauck’s Mittheilung über die Fortpflan-

zung der Tritonen. Zool. Anz., Bd. IV., pp. 157-159. Describes copula-

tion as an actual contact of the cloacæ.

BLANCHARD, R.—’81. Sur les glandes cloacale et pelvienne et sur la

papille cloacale des Batraciens urodeles. Zool. Anz.,Bd. IV. (1881) pp. 9,

34. Believes that the cloacle glands of the male and female are homo-

logous, and that it was the cloacle gland that v. Siebold described as a

receptaculum seminis. See Jordan, ‘gt, p

BOULANGER, G. A.—'82. Catalogue of the Batrachia Gradientia s. Cau-

data, and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the British Museum. Second

edition, London, 1882. Red and viridescent forms not distinguished as

different species.

Braun, Dr. M.—’78. Ueber äussere Hiilfsorgane bei der Begattung von

Triton (Diemyctylus) viridescens. Zool. Anz., Bd. L., 1878, pp. 124-126.

Describes the so often and previously described horny ridges on the oppos-

ing surfaces of the hind legs of the male in the breeding season. See Baird,

"51 ; Cope, "66, '87.

Cope, E. D.—’s9. On the Primary Divisions of the Salamandridz, with

Descriptions of Two New Species. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philada., Vol. II.

(1859), pp. 122-128. Expresses the belief that the red and viridescent

forms are states of the same species.

Cope, E. D.—’66. On the structure and distribution of the genera of the

Acilia Anura. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci. Jour., Vol. VI. (1866-1869), pp. 65-

II2

: ‘Bs, The Retrograde M E of Siren. AMERICAN NATURA-

LIST, Vol. XIX. (1885), pp. 1226, 1227, also p. 245. Describes atrophy a

external gills in the young and their subsequent oT

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1105

87. The Batrachia of North America, Bulletin of the U. S. National

Museum, No. 34. Letter of transmittal, February, 1887, published 1889.

There is given the life-history so far as was known, as well as the zoologi-

cal position of the different American forms.

CLaus, C.—’82. Grundzüge der Zoologie. Marburg, 1882. In Vol. IL,

pp. 256, 257 are given notes on breeding habits of European Tritons.

Claus, C., and SEDGWICK, A.— 84. Elementary Text-Book of Zoology.

London, 1884. In Vol. II. are given notes on the breeding habits of Euro-

ean salamanders.

CZERMAK, J. J.——'43. Beitrage zur Anat. und Physiol. des schwar zen Sal-

amanders, in den med. Jahrb. des österr. Staates. Bd. XLV., 1843, p. 8.

Siebold and Zer ('58, p. 472) and Czermak show that Se/amandra atra may

bring forth more than one brood for a single fertilization.

De Kay, J. E.—’42. Natural History of New York. Zoology; Part III.,

Reptiles and Amphibia. Albany, 1842. Describes red form as two

species (Salamandra coccinea, p. 81, and as S. symmetrica, p. 73), and puts

the viridescent form in a different genus (77tfon cries See

synonym

DUMERIL et BIBRON.—'41. Erpétologie Générele Complète des Reptiles.

Tome VIII., Paris, 1841. See synonymy.

Fatio, V.—’72. Faune des vertebres de la Suisse. Vol. II., p. 454 Geneve

et Bale, 1872. States that Triton of Europe may give off spermatophores

when isolated.

GAGE, S. H.—’85. The Epithelium in the Mouth of Necturus and Meno-

poma A Proc. Amer. Soc. Microscopists, 1885, pp. 126,

127; the Microscope, Vol. V. (1885), pp. 210, 211. It is shown that the

Spanien | in the mouth of these two animals is stratified and non-ciliated.

o. Combined Aërial and Aquatic Respiration in Amphibia, and the

Function of the External Gill ders Hatched on Land. Proc. Amer.

Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. XX XIX. (1890), p. 337. See Gaan | in "86, '88.

Gace, S. H. and GAGE, SUSANNA P.—’85. A Contribution to the Physi-

ology of Respiration in Vertebrates. Proc. Amer. Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol.

XXXIV. (1885), pp. 316-318; AMERICAN NATURALIST (1886), pp. 233-236;

Science, Vol. VI. (1885), p. 225 ; Scientific American supplement, Nov. 14th,

(1885), p. 8230; Biologisches straan. Bd. IV. (1886-'87), pp. 213, 214.

It is shown in this paper that the soft-shelled turtles (Amyda and Aspino-

dectes) have a mixed or combined Aérial and Aquatic respiration, and that

the carbon dioxide is largely given off to the water, while the oxygen is

largely derived from the air.

’86. Pharyngeal Respiratory Movements of Adult Amphibia Under

Water. Science, Vol. VII. (1886), p. 395- Report of the discovery that in

Diemyctylus there is a rythmical filling and emptying of the pharynx while

under water as in soft-shelled turtles.

Am. Nat.—December.—s. 5

1106 The American Naturalist. [December,

’86 and '88. Combined Aérial and Aquatic Respiration. Science, Vol.

VII. (1886), p. 394; and in the Reference Hand-Book of the Medical

Sciences, Vol. VI. (1888), p. 197. The generalization is made that in case

of combined aérial and aquatic respiration “the aérial part is mainly to

supply oxygen, and the aquatic part to get rid of carbon dioxide.” See also

Wilder, ’76, and Mark, ’go.

"go. Changes in the Ciliated Areas of the Alimentary Canal of the

Amphibia during Development, and the Relation to the Mode of Respira-

tion. Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. XXXIX., pp. 337, 338. It is

shown that while the respiration is mostly aquatic in tadpoles, the oral

epithelium is non-ciliated, but gradually becomes ciliated as aérial respira-

tion is acquired.

GAGE, S. H., and Norris, H. W.—’go. Notes on the Amphibia of Ithaca.

Proc. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Vol. XX XIX. (1890), pp. 338, 339- A red

Diemyctylus was kept through the winter in moist wood humus; in the

spring it entered the water and soon changed to the viridescent form.

Gasco, F.—’80, and’81. Les Amours des Axolotles, Zool. Anz., 1V. (1881),

Pp. 313, 334; Bull. Soc. Zool. Fr. (1881), pp. 151-162. Describes fertiliza-

tion and ovulation of Axolotles. See also Gli amori del tritone alpestre,

Geneva, 1880.

HALLOWELL, Epwarp.—’56. Description of Several Species of Urodeal,

with Remarks on the Distribution of the Caducibranchiate Division of these

Animals and their Classification. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, Vol,

VIII. (1856), pp. 6-11. In a note to page 11 expresses the belief that the

red form is the same as the viridescent Diemyctylus; the difference in

appearance being due to the difference in situation, in analogy with the

change in appearance of the European Tritons when they pass from an

aquatic to an aerial life.

HARLAN, R.—’25. Description of the Coluber fulvus Linn., a New Species

of Scincus and Two New Species of Salamandra. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

oe Vol. V. (1825), pp. 154-158. See synonymy.

a tion of a New Species of Salamandra. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci.,

Philadelphia, ve VI. (1827), p. 101. See synonymy.

X —'89. Notes on the Habits of Some Amblystomas. AMERICAN

NATURALI, Vol. XXIII. (1889, pp. 602-612. Gives notes on ovulation,

food, respiration, etc. See also his paper on the “ Batrachians and Reptiles of

Indiana” in the forthcoming report of the geological survey of the state.

HOFFMAN, C. K.—’73-’78. Klassen und Ordnungen der Amphibien. VI.

Bd., II. Abtheilung, in Dr. H. G. Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des

Thierreichs. Leipzig und Heidelberg, 1873-1878. Gives anatomy, classifica-

tion, and mirga Good bibli y

HOLBROOK, J. E.—’42. North American Herpetology, Vol. V. Philadel-

phia, 1842. First ie. 1838. Figures and describes Diemyctylus viri-

Sere a

EEE P AA Ay p ESNE

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1107

descens, and expresses the belief that it never voluntarily leaves the water ;

frequently observed it swimming with great vivacity under ice an inch thick.

IwaKAwa, T.--'82. The Genesis of the Egg in Triton. Quart. Jour.

Micr. Sci.,.Vol. XX. (1882), pp. 260-277. Believes fertilization of this Jap-

anese Triton to be internal as zoosperms found in the oviduct. Female

turns upside down in ovulating.

JORDAN, D. S.—’80. Manual ot the Vertebrates of the Northern United

States, Exclusive of Marine Species. Third revised edition, Chicago, 1880.

Makes two species of the two forms, but states that they have the same

range and the red form may be a variety or a state of the viridescens.

JORDAN, E. O.—’g1.° The Spermatophores of Diemyctylus. Journal of

Morphology, Vol. V., pp. 263-270. Gives an excellent account of the mating

and the spermatophores as seen in the spring. Found zoosperms in the

ducts of the cloacle glands of the female.

KELLEY, H. A.—’78. Identity of Diemyctylus miniatus with D. virides-

cens. AMER. NATURALIST, Vol. XII. (1878), p. 399. Red Diemyctylus

obtained in the summer changed gradually to the viridescent form in the

autumn without entering the water, but willingly remained in the water

when there placed.

KNAUER, FR. K.—'78. Naturgeschichte der Lurche (Amphibiologice).

Wien, 1878.

LATASTE, F.-—'78, '81. L’accouplement chez les Batrachian Urodéles.

Revue Internatl. d’Science, 1878, pp. 209-214, 488-499; 1881, pp. 154-

164. As the title indicates, the fertilization of the eggs in Urodeles is

discussed.

Mark, E. L.--’90. Studies on Lepidosteus. Part I. Bulletin of the

Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Vol. XIX.,.No. 1

(1890). Arrives at the same general conclusion regarding combined aérial

and aquatic respiration as that given by S. H. and S. P. Gage (’85, "86, °88).

MILNE-Epwarps, H,—’63. Leçons sur la Physiologie et l'Anatomie

Comparée de l'Homme et des Animaux. Tome 8, Paris, 1863. Describes

structure, fertilization, and ovulation in Urodeles living in Europé.

Monks, SARAH P.—’80. The Spotted Salamander. AMER. NATURALIST,

Vol. XIV. (1880), pp. 371-374. Excellent account of the habits, etc., of

Diemyctylus. Observed the change from the red to the viridescent form ;

believed, but unable to prove, that the red form was a young stage of the

viridescent.

Owen, RICHARD.—’66. On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Vol. I., Fishes

and Reptiles. `

PFITZNER, W.—'80. Die Epidermis der Amphibien. I., Untersuchungen

tber Bau und Entwicklung der Epidermis des geflecten Salamanders.

Morph. Jahrb., Bd. VI., (1880), pp. 469-526. Discusses the seat of color in

the skin of salamanders and the breeding habits of the Salamandra,

1108 The American Naturalist. [December,

PIKE, CoL. NicoLas.—'86. Some Notes on the Life-History of the Com-

mon Newt (Diemyctylus miniatus viridescens), AMER. NATURALIST, Vol.

XX. (1886), pp. 17-25. Observed change of red to viridescent form ; be-

lieves that the adults leave the water after the breeding season is over, that

the eggs are in masses and are externally fertilized. Many excellent notes

on food, habits, etc.

RAFINESQUE, C. S.—'20. In Annals of Nature, or Annual Synopsis of

New Genera of Plants, Animals, etc., Discovered in North America, by

C. S. Rafinesque, Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky. 1820.

Nos. 22 and 24. See synonymy and quotations,

Rosin, CH.—'74. Observationes sur la Fécondation des Urodéles. Journal

de l’Anatomie et de la Physiologie Normale et Pathologique de l'Homme et

des Animaux. Tome X. (1874), pp. 376-390. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. XIV. (1874), p.96. Excellent general discussion with specific example.

Rusconi.—'21 and 54. Amours des Salamandres Aquatiques. Milano,

1821. And Histoire Naturelle, Développment et Métamorphose de la Sala-

mandre Terrestre. Paris, 1854.

Say, THOMAS.—'Ig. Notes on Herpetology. American Journal of Sci-

ence, Vol. I., pp. 256-265. Diemyctylus on pp. 264-265. He apparently

put both forms in the same species. See quotation in text above

SIEBOLD, v.—’58. Ueber das Receptaculum Seminis der Weiblichen Uro-

delen. Zeitschr. fiir wiss. Zool., Bd. IX (1858), p. 463.

SPALLANZANI, L.—1785. Expériences pour servir à i’histoire de la génér-

ation des animaux et des plantes; avec une ébauche de l'histoire des êtres

organisés avant leur fécondation. Par J. Senebier. Genève, 1785,pp. 53, 97,

141. Spallanzani showed that in several European aquatic salamanders

the eggs are internally fertilized; and as there was no direct contact of the

cloace in the sexes he supposed the zoosperms became diffuse in the

water and ultimately found their way into the cloaca and oviducts of the

female.

STORER, D. H.—’38,'39. Report on the Reptiles of Mass. Boston Jour-

nal of Nat. Hist. Vol. III. (1838), Batrachia, 40-64; Mass. Reports on

the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds. Boston, 1839. Makes different species of

two forms, but remarks on their great likeness. Good account of habits.

Mémoires de l’Academie Imp. des Sciences A St. Pétersb., t. XVI., No. 4.

See synonymy.

VERRILL, A. E.—'63. Catalogue of the Reptiles and Batrachians Found

jn the Vicinity of Norway, Oxford County, Me. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. IX., 1862-63, pp. 195-199. Gives red and viridescent forms as dis-

tinct species without remark.

| Wats St a E Age eae chee! sate AAE BNE se EA tanks Lee ee

1891.] The Vermilion-Spotted Newt. 1109

‘78. Breeding Habits of Salamanders and Frogs. AMER. NATURALIST,

Vol. XII. (1878), pp. 399, 400. Says the eggs of Diemyctylus are in

bunches.

WuirtMaN, C. O.—’85. Methods of Research in Microscopical Anatomy

and Embryology. Boston, 1885. Describes ovulation of Diemyctylus, and

expresses the belief that the fertilization is internal (p. 156).

WILDER, Burt G.—’76. On the Respiration of Amia. Proc. Amer.

Asso. Adv. Sci., Vol. XXVI. (1876), pp. 306-313. “The normal breath

contains rather more than one per cent. of carbonic acid ; but much more

of the oxygen has disappeared than can be accounted for by that amount

of acid. We may infer that with Amia the (carbonic acid) gas is partly

excreted by the gills.” See Mark (’90), and Gage, S. H. and S. P. (’8s,

"86, *88)

ZELLER, E.—'go and ‘91. Ueber die Befruchtung bei den Urodelen.

Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, Bd. 49, 1890. Gives an excellent

account of the history of knowledge concerning the fertilization of European

salamanders, and describes anew and more fully that of several. The

spring spermatophores of Diemyctylus are also described, and apparently

for the first time. In Bd. 51 (1891), p. 735, some corrections are made of the

first paper and he concludes that the zoosperms pass from spermatophore by

their own activity into the cloaca of the female, and are not taken into the

cloaca in any active way by her.

Besides the above, general and specific information may be obtained

concerning batrachians in the American Cyclopedia; the Encyclopedia

Britannica; the Dictionnaire Universel d'Histoire Naturelle, by Ch. —

D’Orbigny ; in Wood's Natural History, and in the Standard Natural

History by Kingsley ; in Brehm’s Thierleben, second edition.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE. (FRONTISPIECE.)

Transformation of Diemyctylus viridescens. Drawn from photographs and

colored from nature by Mrs. Gage. All are natural size, except Fig. 2 and

the vermilion spot, Fig. 5.

Fic. 1.—Branch a Ceratophyllum with Diemyctylus eggs between the

needle-like divisions of the leaves; also nearly bare stem of Anacharis with

egg attached

Fic. 2.—Diemyctylus egg, in the yolk-plug stage of development,

attached to an Anacharis leaf. It was from an isolated female, and the

parchment-like envelope is ovoid. Outlined with an Abbé camera lucida,

and magnified about seven diameters.

Fig. 3.—Dorsal, ventral, and lateral views of a larval Diemyctylus in

August and September. The gills are considerably atrophied, and the

coloration and vermilion spots resemble the adult.

IIIO . The American Naturalist. [December,

Fic. 4.—Dorsal and ventral view of a larval Diemyctylus the last of

September and first of October, after it has become entirely terrestrial and

was gradually assuming a bright red color.

1G. 5.—Enlarged vermilion spot with complete black ring.

Fic. 6.—Ventral view of a red Diemyctylus taken in the spring, and

either two or three years old. This light yellowish-red color is very common.

The enlarged vérmilion spot (Fig. 5) is to show that in animals of this size

and in the adult the vermilion spots are usually entirely surrounded by

a black pigment ring.

IG. 7.—Lateral view of a red Diemyctylus, to show the difference in,

coloration of the dorsal and ventral portions of the body. By comparing

with the viridescent forms it will be seen that the deeper coloration corre-

sponds in situation in the two. The darker red shown in this figure is perhaps

more common than the color in Fig. 6.

FIGs. 8, 9, and 10.—-Views of an adult male Diemyctylus in October.

It was in this specimen that pharyngeal respiration under water was

first noticed, in 1886. The color varies considerably, some being darker and

some lighter than here shown.

Fig. 8.—Dorsal view. The number of vermilion spots is seen to be few

and to differ on the two sides. As shown by the different figures on this

plate, the number of vermilion spots varies considera

Fic. 9.—Ventral view, showing the dark, horny rair on the tips

of the toes, and the ridges (commonly six) on the inner or opposing surfaces

of the legs. These horny developments mostly disappear during the sum-

mer, immediately after the breeding season, and reappear in the autumn.

IG. 10.—Lateral view, showing the tail-crest or fin, extending on the

dorsal side to about opposite the pelvis, —not to the head, asin the European

Tritons. This fin is less marked in the female (see Fig. 12), and partly

disappears after the breeding season. The cloaca is partly everted, and

shows some of the lining fringes or villi. The floor of the mouth and

pharynx are depressed as when filled with water or air in pharyngeal

respiration. Compare Fi i

Fic. 11.—Lateral aspect of a gravid female. This coloration is frequent

in adult forms found in water. The hind legs and the tail fin are smaller

than in the male. The pharynx and floor of the mouth are raised as in

expiration,—z. e., when the air or water is entirely expelled.

E i

1891.] Editorial. H

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

-NDOWMENTS for the support of original scientific research

are becoming more frequent in this country. Mr. Thomas

Hodgkin, of Long Island, has presented the Smithsonian Institu-

tion the sum of $200,000, a part of which is to be devoted to

investigations on the characteristics of the earth’s atmosphere.

He “ reserves the right” to add $100,000 to the original amount.

The new Rockefeller University of Chicago is to have a large

endowment from Mr. Rockefeller for original research. A bequest

was made by the late William B. Ogden, of New York, for the

purpose of endowing a school of scientific research. The sum,

which is between three and five hundred thousand dollars, has

been offered by the executors to the same Chicago University, and

has been accepted by them. The Philadelphia Academy of

Natural Sciences has been the recipient of several bequests within

a few years whose aggregate is considerable.

These accessions of strength for scientific research are gratify-

ing, and the manner in which the moneys are expended will be

watched with solicitude. The administrators of money are fre-

quently not acquainted with the actual needs of practical research,

and their first impulse usually is to erect expensive buildings.

The amount of money thus expended frequently cripples the

working power of the institution. An undue proportion is some-

times spenton media of publication, of which already many exist in

_ this and other countries. The real need of original research is the

endowment of tenable positions for men. This proposition is self-

evident, but it has been, nevertheless, too much neglected. But

should this liberal course be adopted by such institutions, the

question of the appointments to be made at once presents itself.

Boards of trustees, being rarely occupied with scientific research,

are not generally well informed as to the merits of investigators.

Itis sometimes difficult to obtain unbiased information even from

investigators themselves, who are frequently more or less influ-

gF The American Naturalist. [ December

enced by personal considerations, rather than by absolute merit.

One criterion may, however, be safely trusted as a guide in this

difficult question. Let appointees always be selected on account

of work actually done. In this way, and in this way only, can

the actual merits of a candidate be ascertained. Moreover, let

this work have been extended over several years, and not be

measured by a graduating thesis or an essay or two. It is never

safe to appoint men on the strength of what they are going to do.

When rewards are conferred before services are rendered, the

services are sometimes never performed. Especially should

trustees be careful to distinguish between original investigators

and the various kinds of middle men that are so useful in other

capacities. Such are teachers, popular lecturers, and compilers

of general or popular books; very valuable persons, but not the

proper recipients of any part of moneys left for the endowment of

original research.

From the same point of view the administration of the

affairs of our academies of science, which are media of original

research, becomes important. The custom, very general in this

country, of electing to membership any person who is willing to

pay the entrance fee, must necessarily have bad practical results,

in the directions above referred to as incidental to a board of

non-scientific trustees. Special scientific knowledge is required

for the administration of museums, publications, etc., and these

have too often fallen into the hands of totally incompetent

persons. It is to be hoped that with the increase in the endow-

ments of our academies of science the necessity of elect-

ing members for financial reasons will disappear, and that the

membership will eventually be more appropriate to the objects

for which such institutions are created.

—WE learn that the committee of entertainment of the Wash-

ington meeting of the American Association for the Advancement

of Science had a surplus over expenses of about one thousand

‘dollars. We have already referred (NATURALIST, 1891, p. 939)

to some economical features of the management by this com-

mittee, and we are now presented with another illustration of

PA ENERE P

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 1113

their thriftiness. In a circular recently issued the committee

recommends that the surplus be presented to the Cosmos Club

of Washington, for the purpose of endowing a library. We shall

be surprised if the Cosmos Club adopts this suggestion, although

the same gentlemen are members of both. As the money was

subscribed for the American Association for the Advancement of

Science, and as the surplus was obtained by requiring the mem-

bers to pay their own expenses on the excursions, it would seem

that the association is the proper recipient of the money. It

would no doubt be very welcome for any one of several objects.

—TueE dates of issue of the numbers of the NATURALIST for

1891 are as follows: January, February 21st; February, April

2d; March, April 25th; April, May 23d; May, May 28th;

June. June 27th; July, July 31st; August, September 11th;

September, October 6th; October, October 23d; November,

November 17th; December, December 22d.

RECENT BOOK AND PAMPHLETS.

AMEGHINO, F.—Monte Hermoso, Articulo publicado en La Nacion del 10 de Marzo

de 1887.

—Contribucion al Conocimiento de los Mamiferos fossiles de la Republica Biei

tina, with Atlas. Actas de la Acad. Nac. de Ciencias de la Rep. Argentina en Cordoba.

uenos Aires, 1889.

MMON, L. VON.—Die permischen Amphibien der Rheinpfalz. From the author.

pti on of American Anatomists. History, Constitution, Membership, and the

Titles and Abstracts of Papers, for the years 1888, 1889, 1890.

velopment of Some Silurian Brachio-

ta Vol. I., No. I., 1889. From C. E. Beecher.

BODINGTON, A.—Studies in ivcluton <a Biology. London: Elliot Stock. From

the author.

CADY, A. C.—The American Continent and Its Inhabitants before Columbus.

the publishers, Gebbie & Co., Philadelphia.

CALDERON, S.—Sur les Modifications des roc

From the anthoe

CAPELLINI, G. ak Coccodrilliano Garialoide. Reale Accademia dei Lincei, =

—Sulla Balena etrusca. Estratta delle Memoire dell’ Accademia delle Scien:

dell’ Instituto di Bol tues HI., Sete IIl.—Del Tursiops cortesiie del delfino ses

sile di Mombercelli nell’ Astigiano. , Serie IV.—Delfinorinco fossile dei Dintorni di

Sassari. Do., Tomo VIII., Serie IV. ee Fossili di Dioplodon e Mesoplodon. Do.,

From

hes de Moron (province de Séville).

III4 The American Naturalist. [December,

0 VI.,: Serie. IV. ee re eee ee e Tronchi di Cicadee nelle Argille

ented dell’ Emilia. Do., Tomo X., Serie 1V.—Sopra Resti di un Sirenio PA

KEROT Zovisati Cap. pa raccolti a i Fiocca presso Sassari in Sarde

Tomo VII., e IV; Del Zifioide fossile (Choneziphius EENS sree nelle

sabbie ei di Fangonero presso Siena. Serie sinc e della Classe

scienze fisiche, matematiche e naturali, Vol. I. From the author

Census Bulletin, 1890. From the Dept. of Inte ;

CHAMBERLAIN, ToN: Bee of Pea-Vine Mareas for Wheat. Bull. No. 77, North

Carolina Experiment Statio

CoPE, E. D.—On Vaa from the Tertiary and Cretaceous Rocks of the North-

west Territory. Contributions to Canadian Paleontology, Vol. III. From the Cana-

dian Geol. Survey.

DALL, y ARTA te to the Y Fauna of Florida. Trans. Wagner Free

Inst. wees Vol. oo sg PREES ais Institu

arosaurus a onini Abdruck aus der Zeitschrift der Deut-

Sog aR Gesellschaft, Tag “ae From the author.

of Coal near Dover. Reprint from Zhe Contem-

porary Review, 1890. From iy au cee

DOLLO, L.—Premiére Note sur les Siréniens de Borne. a Bull. Soc. Belge de

Geol. de Paleon. et de Hydrol. Tome III., 1889. From thea

DuMERIL, A., et F. BocourT.~-Etudes sur les Reptiles et 7a oleae Recherches

Zoologique, Mission Scientifique au Mexique et dans l'Amérique Centrale, Troisième

Partie. From u

EASTMAN, J. R.—The Progress of Meteoric Astronomy in America. Ext. Phil. Soc.

Wash., Vol. XI., pp. 275-358. From the author.

EIMER, C. H. T.—Der Deutschen Litteratur-zeitung, ega Juli, 1890.

FELIX, nd und H. LENK —Beitraege zur Geologie un Seer ok der tags

Mexico. Separat-Abdruck aus Paleontographica. Band XXXVII From Dr.

J. Felix.

FERNOW, B. E.—Tractson Tree Topics. From the :

n J. W.—A Journal of Ethnology and PEPESE Vol. I. From the

edito

Faar ANT.—Fauna der Gaskohle und der Kalksteine der Permformation Böh-

mens. Band II., Heft 4, Selachii See und Band III., Heft. I., Selachii

Keenan, BASE From the author.

GAN , W. F.—South ao ioken on the Shores of Acadia. Ext. Trans. Roy.

Soc. Canada, Sect. IV., ge From the author.

GAR , H.—An Undescribed Larva from Mammoth Cave. Ext. Bull. Essex

Inst., Vol. XXIII., 1891. From the author.

GEINITZ, H. B.—Ueber einige Lyopodiacen aus der Steinkohlenformation.—Die

Graptolithen des K. Mineralogischen Museums in Dresden. Mittheilungen aus dem

Koeniglichen Min.-Geol. und Prae- Hist: M us. Dresden, 1890. From the author.

DE, G. B.—The Origin of the Nailbieal Scientific and rea Papeete of

the United States. Reprint Papers of the Am. Hist. Ass. From the a

HARRIS, W. C.—The Fishes of North America. From the oko

JAcKSON, R. T.—Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda, the Aviculide, and Their Allies.

With Pate XXIII-XXX. Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV., No. 8. From

the author.

LOCKHART, J. G.—Notes on the Habits of the sraa in the Far Seis of British

America in 1865. Ext. Proceeds. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII., 827. Fro author.

MACKAY, A. H.—Fresh-Water Sponges of Canada and peha as ‘Ext Trans.

Roy. Soc. Canada, Sect. 4, 1889. From the author.

EEN TEE re

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. TIIS

MACOUN, J. a of Canadian Plants. Part V., Acrogens. From the Geol

and Nat. Hist. Surv. Canada, 1890.

rA: wei o eei Reste aus Java. Separat-Abdruck aus Verhan-

MARTIN, K.

delingen d Kon. . d, Wetenschaffen. Afdeeling Natuurkimde, Deel XXVIII.

From beg e author.

MEEK, A.—Note on oithian dorsatus. asr Mus. Zool. Univ. Coll. Dundee,

Vol. a os 12. From Prof, D'A mp:

MELVILLE, W. H.—The Chini of the Mount Diablo Rocks. Ext. Bull. Geol.

Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp 403-414. From the Soc

MOCQUARD, M. F.—Recherches surla Saane AEEA E des Iles de Borneo et-

de Palawan. From the author

MORGAN, T. H.—A Co niribution to the Embryology and Aegis, tl z the T

nids. Studies from the Biological Lab. Johns Hopkins Univer., Vol. V.,

the autho

MORRIS, C.—Civilization: An Historical Review of Its Elements. From S. C.

ish

PACKARD, A. S.—Foresi Insects. Fifth Report U. S. Entomol. Com, From J. M.

gri.

PARKER, T. Z—Elementary Biology. Macmillan & Co., London and New York.

From ia pE ER

ink as W.H satis of Canadian Hepaticæ. From the age and Nat. Hist. Surv.

Canada, 1

Proceedings Am. Ass. Ady. Science. ‘Thirty-eighth meeting, held at Toronto, Ont.,

gust, 1 :

Reports on ihe Iron Ore District of East Texas. Ext. from the Second Annual Report

Geol. Surv. Texas. From the Surv

Report of the Trustees of the Australian Museum, 1889. Fr

SARASIN, P., und F. SARASIN.— Ergebnisse Siaina bafio Forschungen auf

eit in den Jarhen 1884-'86. Embryologie von Epicrium glutinosum. From the

authors

Scu . H.—New Types of Cockroaches from the Carboniferous Deposits of the

Paier PA Res Carboniferous Myriapoda from Illinois.—[Illustrations of the Car

boniferous Arachnida of North America of the Orders Anthracomarti and Pedipalpi.—

The Insects of the Triassic Beds at oe pre Colorado. pa Plates XXXI.-XLIII.

Memoirs Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV., No. 9. From the au

SHARP, B.—Remarks on the Phylogeny He the Laelia, Ext. Proceeds.

Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1888, p. 121. From theauth

SMITH, J. B.—Contributions Toward a haa of the oe of epr

North America.—Revision of Homohadena, Grote. Ext. Proceeds. U. Natl. Mus.,

Vol. XIII., pp. 397-405. From the Museum.

THOMPSON, D'Arcy W.—On the Systematic Positon of Hesperornis. jap Mus.

Zool. Univ, Coll. Dundee, Vol. I., No. to.—On the Cetacean Larynx. , No. 11.

From the author.

TRUE, F. W.—Description of a New Species of Mouse, Phenacomys longicaudus, from

Oregon, Ext. Proceeds. Natl. Mus., Vol. XIII., p. 303. From the author.

P enm H. W.—The Geology of Mount Diablo, California. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc.

Am., Vol. II., pp. 383-412. From the Society

idea and Twenty-fourth Annual Reports of the Trustees of the Peabody

useum thnology. From the trustees.

VERNEAU, R.—Les Races Humaines. From the author. |

a a pen

WEI EITHOFER, K. A.—Die ira elah Separat-

Soy aus Beitrage zur Pal. Osterrungarns und des Orients, Bd. VII. From the

I116 The American Naturalist. [ December,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Flower and Lydekker’s Mammals.'—In this work we have

the result of the combined knowledge of two of the most competent

specialists in the field of mammalogy of the present time; and as is to

be expected, it is a book of the greatest utility to the student. It is

based on the article written by Prof. Flower for the ‘‘ Encyclopedia

Britannica,” and has been brought up to date, with the addition of

references to the paleontology, by Dr. Lydekker. The former part of

the subject is more fully treated than the latter, which is simply

Fic. 1. ae australis Owen. Extinct marsupial of Australia; one-tenth

natural size. From

introduced to the reader. The illustrations number 357, and are of

excellent quality. A majority of them represent the external appear-

ance of the species; but many exhibit the osteology and dentition and

a few, parts of the soft anatomy. The order of treatment is from the

Monotremata to man, the unguiculate orders being intercalated between

the ungulate forms and the Quadrumana. As the Quadrumana are

more nearly related to the ungulate than the unguiculate orders, we

would have reversed this arrangement. The orders which are treated

with the greatest fullness of detail are the Marsupialia, the Diplarthra,

and the Quadrumana. The systematic treatment inclines to conserva-

1 An Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living and Extinct. By William Henry

Flower and Richard Lydekker. London: Adam & Charles, 1891, 8vo., pp. 763-

hs aOR Bene

siria nL weenie

a ie AOS Done ee

1891.] Recent Literature. IIIJ

tism, a quality which is

of great value in restrain-

ing the tendency to

excessive subdivision

usual among tyros in

| zoology. In some cases,

however, we incline to

think it carried too far :

as, for instance, when

the African rhinoceroses

are retained in the same

genus with the“ Indian

species ; and where all

ungulate Mammalia are

included in a single

order. A little more con-

N l servatism would have

rol, Tilecelencarnfes Owen, Extinct earte been consistently shown

natural size in the treatment of the

Artiodactyla, where the two untenable families Giraffidee and Anti-

locapride are admitted, and the long list of genera of antelopes is

adopted. In the matter

of the genera of ante-

lopes, European authors

have been apparently un-

consciously influenced

y the number of species

at their disposal, rather

than by an observance

of the rules they have

followed in other divi-

sions.

A few points where

the authors have fallen

into error in the matter

of American forms may

be noticed for the bene-

fit of future editions of

the book. Tillodontia

are placed under Un-

gulata, but they are dis-

tinctly unguiculate ; so

also are Chalicotheriidz

FIG. 3.—Dinotherium giganteum Kaup. Extinct probo-

which are placed in the sidian from Germany ; one-tenth natural size, From Kaup.

I118 The American Naturalist. [December,

Perissodactyla. The Coryphodon elephantopus Cope is figured as

C. hamatus Marsh, If the figures of the latter given by Marsh are

correct, it belongs to both a species and genus distinct from the

former. The name of the creodont genus Oxyzena should not be

spelled Oxhyzena, as the first syllable of the word hyzna does not

enter into its composition, (Dr. Lydekker would also spell the saurian

genus Platecarpus ‘‘ Platycarpus,’’ although its etymology was stated to

be from zAary, an oar, and not from zdatug, flat.) The cameloid genus

Eschatius includes only the species Æ. conidens, and not the Holomen-

iscus vitakerianus. ‘These slight blemishes can be easily removed ;

and we will hope that a further consideration of the subject will lead

tosome modification of the systematic arrangement of the orders in a

FIG. 4.—Dorcatherium aquaticum; West Africa. From Flower and Lydekker.

future edition. Paleontological research has shown that the unguiculate

and ungulate series are distinct from the phylogenetic standpoint, the

former remaining tritubercular in molar dentition, while the latter

became early quaditubercular and lophodont, and mainly continued so.

The natural character of the order Edentata has been demonstrated

by paleontology, and it is treated accordingly in the work before us.

An especially valuable section is that devoted to man, which constitutes

the most valuable popular review of the subject of physical anthro-

pology that we have.

This book is the only comprehensive one on the Mammalia in the

English language, and we know of no better one in any language—

E. D. Corr. _

STR ts ae D a AA paa ea La Ge ne nee a a a a ee ar

1891.] Recent Literature. IIIQ

Gems and Precious Stones of North America,’ by G. F

Kunz, has for its object, to quote from the author’s introduction, the

presentation of ‘“‘as many of the facts as possible regarding the pre-

cious stones peculiar to the United States, Canada, and Mexico, so

that they may be available, not only to the mineralogist, the miner,

the mineral and gem collector, the archeologist, and the jeweler, but

also to the public ; the conditions under which they occur, the methods

by which the mining and search for them are conducted, the value and

production of different stones, and also an account of the collections

in these countries.”

Although not pretending to be a complete treatise on gems, the vol-

ume certainly approaches nearer to this ideal than any other book pub-

lished, either in this country or abroad. Not only are the true gem

materials carefully described, but other substances more or less fre-

quently used as ornamental stones are ably discussed. Eleven chapters

deal with the properties of valuable stones, the history of their occur-

rence in North America, statements of authenticated finds, descriptions

of the most noted gems in the possession of Americans, and many

interesting facts concerning their present as well as their prehistoric

use. A twelfth chapter treats of pearls in the same detailed manner.

Chapters thirteenth and fourteenth give accounts of Canadian, Mexi-

can, and Central American gem localities, and the fifteenth chapter

portrays the aboriginal North American lapidarian at work. The six-

teenth and last chapter is devoted to definitions to the value of impor-

tations of gem material, the methods of preparing it for sale, and to

the descriptions of famous American collections.

If space permitted, an abstract of Mr. Kunz’s book would be well

worth giving ; but since no abstract that would be at all worthy of

presentation as representative of the great wealth of interesting

material found in the volume could be made that would fall within

the limits of a review article, it seems best not to insult the artistic

tastes of gem connoisseurs by an attempt ata brief outline of this

excellent treatise and piece of art,—for the volume is not merely a

work on art; it is itself a piece of art. The colored plates of precious

stones show these objects in all their beauty; more especially are the

plates illustrating the garnets and the tourmalines to be mentioned.

In the former we can actually see the sparkle of those magnificent

blood-red gems as they lie in a brilliant beam of light, while a glance at

the latter must make the heart of any true son of Maine beat fast at the

thought of such beauty coming from the rugged hills of his mother state,

3A popular description of their occurrence, value, history, archeology, ome New

York : Scientific Pub. Co., 1890, p. 336, Vi. ; 8 lith. plates and numerous illus

SE TAN One ae ae OET cet PTS ne See Pe Dear een er ee METRE

1120 The American Naturalist. [December,

To the gem dealer the book is invaluable, as it gives him at once

all that he needs in his business ; to the lover of art it will afford many

an hour of pleasure ; to the gem collector it gives numerous points of

interest concerning the rare stones; and to the mineralogist it will

prove a veritable mine of information, even in those subjects with

which he thinks himself already conversant. Nor will the general

reader, if well informed, be disappointed in his perusal of its pages,

for he will find everywhere items of news that will add to his stock of

useful knowledge, and suggestions that will help to develop his appre-

ciation of the beautiful.

The setting in which the ‘‘Gems and Precious Stones of North

America” appears is well worthy of such lovely products of nature.

The publishers have spared no efforts to enhance their beauty by an

appropriate mounting. The plates and illustrations in the volume are

excellent, the letter-press is marred by few errors, the paper is heavy,

soft, and well tinted, and the binding is very tasty, We expect to

hear of the books meeting a ready sale during the coming holiday

season, for surely no more acceptable gift could be imagined

than a handsome volume on a topic of such interest as the production

of exquisite gems in prosaic North America.—W.

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

The Age and Origin of the Crystalline Rocks of Mis-

souri.'—The Geological Survey of Missouri is indebted to Mr.

Haworth for a valuable paper on the age and origin of the crystalline

rocks of that state. Mr. Haworth’s study of these rocks began in the

summer of 1886, and he has ever since pursued the subject with

enthusiasm and zeal. His paper embodies the more important results

obtained from a somewhat extended examination of the crystalline

rocks in the vicinity of Pilot Knob. Field work has been supplemented

with laboratory examination, and his conclusions are as follows:

I. As to age, he agrees with other — in referring them to

Archean time.

1The Age and Origin of the reser Rocks of Missouri. By Erasmus Haworth.

Bull. No. 6, Geol. Surv. of Misso

r891.] Geology and Paleontology. 1121

II. As to origin, he is at variance with others who have worked in the

same field, in that he holds the porphyries as well as the granites to be

ancient eruptives rather than metamorphosed sediments.

The Archean age of these rocks had been fully established, but Mr.

Haworth’s observations gave him newevidence, confirming the accepted

view, which he groups under two heads:

1. Absence of contact metamorphism in the surrounding Paleozoic

rocks, ;

2. Inclusion of numerous fragments of crystalline rocks almost every-

where, in both sandstone and limestone.

In proof of his eruptive theory of the origin of the rocks, Mr.

Haworth presents the following evidence in detail :

A. Field evidence of the eruptive origin. 1. Absence of true bed-

ding. 2. Flow structure, banded structure, and lithophyse. 3. Brec-

cia. 4, Scoria and amygdaloids. 5. Tuff. 6. Absence of gradations

of crystalline into non-crystalline rocks.

B. Petrographic evidence of the eruptive origin. 2. Texture of the

ground-mass in the porphyries and breccias. 2. Flow structure in the

porphyries and breccias. 3. Broken crystals due to the flowage of lava

after the crystals were formed. 4. Magmatic corrosion of porphyritic

crystals, and of fragments in the breccia. 5. Amygdaloids. 6, Ab-

sence of metamorphic mineral

The paper is well illustrated with plates and sketch maps, which

add materially to its value.

The Sulak Gorge.—In a paper on the Transverse valleys in the

Eastern Caucasus, Professor Sjögren gives the following description of

the Sulak Gorge, below Gimri, in Daghestan : ‘‘ Among the many val-

leys of Daghestan that are interesting to the geologist, there are none

more remarkable than the channel by which the river Sulak passes

through the chain of Cretaceous and Jurassic mountains which borders

Inner Daghestan. Just above the entrance to this defile the four

rivers Koissu unite in one stream, which, in series of cataracts, tears

through a tremendous chasm some fifteen miles in length, cutting the

huge ridge almost at right angles to its axis.

“ The gorge traverses the main ridge in the direction north, forty

degrees east, then changes its line to northwest, which it still follows

at the widening of the valley below Tjirkei, and finally comes back to

due north, as it passes through the Tertiary hills below Subut. . . .

The huge cutting has a vertical depth of from 5,000 to Saas feet,

while its breadth is so small that the river leaves no room, sig a proper

Am, Nat.—Dec.—6.

1122 The American Naturalist. [ December

road, and scarcely enough for a narrow horse-path,. which is itself

impassible at certain seasons of the year. The walls of the defile,

which mainly consist of a compact dolomite limestone, and show the

lines of stratification with unusual distinctness, rise almost perpen-

dicularly into the air, and are altogether unscalable.’’ (Geol. Mag.,

Sept., 1891.)

An Olenellus Zone in the Northwestern Highlands of

Scotland.—At the last meeting of the British Association for the

Advancement of Science, Sir Archibald Geikie read an important

paper on the results of the geological survey work in Scotland. After

referring to the various sedimentary formations which overlie the

Lewisian gneiss, and the unsatisfactory evidence of the fossil remains

in them as to their stratigraphical correlation, he described the dis-

covery of a peculiar zone of blue or black shales which from their

unaltered character promised to be fossil-bearing. This zone lies in

what is known as the ‘‘ Fucoid beds’’ a few feet below the persistent

band of ‘‘Serpulite grit.’ A search was at once begun, and resulted

in the finding of undoubted fragments of Olenellus, More recently

additional pieces of Olenellus, including a fine head-shield with eyes

complete, have been found in another thin seam of black shale inter-

leaved in the ‘‘Serpulite grit.’’ The finding of this fossil among the

rocks of the Northwest Highlands, and its association with the ‘‘ Ser-

pulite grit,” afford valuable materials for comparison with the oldest

Paleozoic rocks of other regions. The ‘‘ Fucoid beds” and ‘‘ Ser-

pulite grit,” which intervene between the quartzite below and the

Durness limestone above, belong to the lowest part of the Cambrian

system. The quartzites form the arenaceous base of that system, while

the Durness may be Middle or Upper Cambrian. The marked uncon-

formability which intervenes between the Torridon sandstone and the

overlying quartzite points to a long interval having elapsed between

the deposition of the two discordant formations.. The Torridon

sandstone must therefore be pre-Cambrian. (Wature, Sept. 17th, 1891.)

Origin of Petroleum.—lIn a recent paper Mr. Ross has endeav-

ored to prove that petroleum is mainly generated by the action of

solfataric volcanic energy upon beds of limestone, and gives equations

to show that the action of sulphur dioxide and sulphurettcd hydrogen

on carbonate of lime, with or without water and peroxide of hydrogen,

is capable of producing the ethylene and marsh gas derivatives.

(Nature, Sept. 17th, 1891.)

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 1123

A Stegocephalian Skull from the Kilkenny Coal Measures.

—Dr. Lydekker has described and figured a Labyrinthodont to which

he gives the name Jchthyerpetum hibernicum. The interest of the

specimen lies in the relationships of the genus to which it belongs.

Mr. Lydekker believes it to be a member of the group containing

Brachyops, Bothriceps, and Micropholis, all of which are characterized

by their more or less parabolic skulls and forwardly placed orbits.

Also, certain lines of evidence point to the conclusion that Ichthyer-

petum and Pholidogaster are identical. In that case, the type of

Stegocephali common throughout the European Carboniferous was

represented in the Lower Gondwanas by the genus Brachyops,

while we find it surviving in the Hawkesbury beds of Australia, where

it is represented by Bothriceps ; a member of the latter genus, together

with Micropholis, also occurring in the great Karoo system of South

Africa. This seems to be another instance of the persistence of types

in the Indian, Australian, and Ethiopian regions during long ages

after their total disappearance from the paleearctic area. (Quart. Journ.

Geol, Soc., Vol. XLVII., Pt. 3, 1391.)

A New Ichthyosaurus.—Dr. Albert Gaudry calls attention to a

gigantic Ichthyosaurus, which, after having figured in the exposition of

1889, has been generously donated to the Natural History Museum of

Paris by MM. Millot, the owners of the quarries where it was discov-

ered. This fossil was found in the chalk of the Upper Lias of Sainte-

Colombe, near 1’Isle-sur-Serein, about 12 kilometers from Vassy

(Yonne). It is the largest Icthyosaurus ever found in France, measur-

ing 8 metres in length. The head is rm, 57 long; the anterior

extremity is broken, but its length is judged to be about rm, 80,—that

is to say, 24 centimeters more than /chthyosaurus platyodon of Eng-

land ; the eye, ornamented with sclerotic plates, has a diameter of

cm. 24; the snout is very much prolonged, and there are about 24 teeth

on one side, counting those of both upper and lower jaws ; twenty-four

vertebrze, altogether 4m, .40 in length, are preserved. The anterior

and posterior limbs are joined to the skeleton, but many of their

bones are lost, and the remaining ones are scattered.

After having compared this magnificent reptile of Burgogne with

other known Ichthyosaurs, M.Gaudry considers it intermediate between

the two principal groups, those of Longipinnes and Latipinnes, and pro-

poses to name it, provisionally, Ichthyosaurus burgundia, (Revue

Scientifique, Aug., 1891.) :

1124 The American Naturalist. [December,

The Skull and Hind Extremity of Pteranodon.—Early in

the season of 1876 the writer collected from the Cretaceous of Kan-

sas the first approximately complete skull known of an American

Pterodactyl. Upon this specimen Professor Marsh, in the June num-

ber of the American Journal of Science for that year, founded the

‘‘order’’ Pteranodontia, expressly stating of the specimen that it

might be ‘‘regarded as the type of the genus Pteranodon.” Eight

years later, in the May number of the same journal, he gave a

fuller description of this same specimen, figuring it under the name

Pteranodon longiceps.

The specimen consists of the skull alone, and was discovered partly

exposed on a gently sloping surface, in the vicinity of Monument

Rocks. Aside from an unfortunate stroke of the pick that chipped

off the tip of the bill, the specimen was otherwise incomplete, in that

the distal part of the occipital crest was lost. In his plate Professor

Marsh restored this crest from the indications presented by the basal

portion, but without indicating in his paper that such a conjectural

restoration had been made. The result is unfortunate.

e writer the present season has been fortunate in securing for

the University of Kansas a yet more complete skull of apparently the

same species, discovered by his assistant, Mr. E. G. Case, in the

immediate vicinity of the place where Professor Marsh’s specimen was

found. The specimen, while agreeing essentially with the type speci-

men, has a crest not more than half as long as that figured by Marsh,

and with a very different outline, in that the posterior inferior border

is angulated and concave. The crest is much thinner than is figured

by the artist. The animal did not have nearly so remarkable a skull

as the figures would indicate.

‘¢ There was apparently no ring of bony sclerotic plates, since in

the best preserved specimens no traces of this has been found.” ?

Nevertheless, well ossified sclerotic plates do exist in Pteranodon, as

our specimen shows. They are from six to eight millimeters in diameter,

and similar in texture and shape to, though without the imbrications

of, those of the Mosasaurs (the so-called dermal scutes of Marsh).

Several unusually perfect specimens in the Museum of Kansas Uni-

versity enable me to give the chief characters of the pelvis and legs of

Pteranodon, parts hitherto but little known, and which will be

supplemented, as also those of the skull, by figures given later.

In no especial respect do those parts present unusual features among

3 Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci., XXVII., p. 425.

3 See Marsh, Amer. Journ. Sci., Dec., 1876.

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 1125

the Pterodactyls. The ilium has a long: anterior projection, with an

expansion at or near the front end. Posteriorly it extends more

stoutly upward and backward from the acetabulum, to form a close

union with the three posterior sacral vertebra, terminating in a stout,

styliform tuberosity on either side of the base of the tail. The pubis

and ischium are thoroughly coéssified throughout (there may be a slit-

like indication of an obturator foramen below), forming a broad,

anteroposterior plate, which is narrowed to form a symphysis of about

one inch in length, in the medium-sized species. Projecting down-

wards and forwards, about midway between the acetabulum and sym-

physis, there is a moderately thickened, angular projection, evidently

tipped with cartilage in life. It corresponds to the pectineal process,

and may have been_for the attachment of pectineal or rectus muscles,

or for the so-called prepupic bone, a bone I have never seen in the

hundreds of specimens which I have examined. A little below the

acetabulum, and a little before the middle of the conjoined plate, there

is a moderate sized, oval, anteroposterior, pubic foramen. On the

border of the ischium behind, a little above the symphysis, is another

tuberosity, larger and stouter than the pubic one. Between this

tuberosity and the iliac tuberosity directly above, there is a large, deep

sciatic notch. These two tuberosities seem to indicate that the animal

in life was in the habit of resting upon these parts, a supposition fur-

ther helped by the weakness of the legs and by the structure of the

femur. There are indications of seven: sacral vertebrae in the speci-

men described. Marsh has given five as the number in one species.

With the specimen were two apparantly basal caudal vertebre of small

size. The femur is a moderately stout bone, considerably shorter than

the tibia, considerably curved, with a slender neck, set at only a slight

angle with the shaft, nearly spherical head, and small trochanter,—all

of which, together with the rather shallow imperforate acetabulum,

would indicate great freedom of movement in the legs. The tibia is

a slender bone, without marked cranial crest, and with a well-developed

trochlear surface below. I know of no indications of a separate fibula.

The foot is elongate and slender, the metatarsals articulating closely

together above, the claws much smaller than those of the manus, and

only slightly curved. There are three tarsal bones, two of them cuboid

or angular, the third larger, and with a downward directed, pointed,

hook-like process. It evidently indicates a rudimentary digit. There

are four functional toes, the four elongate metatarsals in length indicated

by the numbers 2, 1, 3, 4, of which the second is the largest. The

phalanges may be represented by the formula I-2, II-3, III-4, IV-5 ;

1126 The American Naturalist. [December,

thus, as in the European Pterodactyls, corroborating the evidence that

the fifth toe is the one that is rudimentary. All these phalanges are

slender, excepting the second ones in the third and fourth toes, where

they are scarcely longer than wide.

From evidence obtained in the field and i in the laboratory, I think I

can safely say the following in general of the American Cretaceous

Pterodactyls, About five or six species are known, varying in size,

when alive, of from about four feet to not over twenty feet in expanse of

wing.! The head (in all the larger species, at least) was elongate and

slender, with a well-developed occipital crest, and without teeth. The

jaws may have been encased in horn, but I have never seen any evi-

dence whatever that such was the case. The neck was moderately

elongate and slender; the thoracic girdle very stout and rigid, sup-

thoracic vertebrz, below by the stout anterior projection of the large,

rounded, thin sternum. The arms and wrists were very powerful; the

second, third, and fourth fingers, as Marsh has shown, small and short,

but terminating in strong, recurved claws ; the fifth, or extraordinarily

developed wing-finger, having very great freedom of backward move-

ment at the extremity of the elongate metacarpal, and with only lim-

ited motion between the four phalanges. The body was short, the

pelvis of moderate size, the hind legs comparatively small, with great

freedom of movement, the tail short, and the feet without much, if

any, prehensile power. Their food probably consisted of fishes.® .

All the bones throughout the skeleton are very thin-walled and

pneumatic. The’ haversian canals and lacune are small.—S.

WILLISTON. :

Geological News.

of mineral resin resembling amber along the ridge of a beach on the

west shore of Cedar Lake, North Saskatchewan, Canada. It has evi-

dently been washed up on shore by the waves, but its exact age has

not been determined. (Am. Journ. Sci., October, 1891.)

Archean.—Mr. J. W. Gregory is convinced that the Tudor speci-

men of Eozoon is not of organic but of mineral origin. (Quart. Journ.

Geol. Soc., August, 1891.)

* This expanse has often been given much greater than this, but I have actually meas-

ured the largest species (P. umérosus Cope), and know that the size cannot exceed that

given above.

5 Several coprolites found within the above-described pelvis, ellisoidal in shape, and

about the size of an almon = Ee bones so finely comminuted that their precise char-

acter could not be made

1891.] Geology and Faleontology. 1127

Paleozoic.—Recent observations by S. Calvin render it certain

that the Independence shales do not constitute the lowest number of

the series of Devonian rocks of Buchanan county, Iowa, but that they

were preceded by brecciated limestone of Devonian age. (Am. Geol.,

September, 1891.) Mr. Middlemiss suggests that the sub-Cambrian

salt marl of India has no ordinary stratigraphic relations with the

rest of the series, but is of plutonic, igneous, or deep-seated origin,

introduced in Tertiary times, accompanied by lateral and vertical dis-

turbance, thrusting, and shearing. (Geol. Surv. India Records, Vol.

XXIV., Pt. I., 1890) Dr. Traquair has catalogued fifty species of

fossil Dipnoi and Rhipidopterygia of Fife and the Lothians. The

geological interest of these fish beds is the abundance of fish remains

in estuarine strata below the horizon of the Millstone grit. (Proceeds,

Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, Vol. XVII., p. 385.) Mr. Davis has

described a new fossil fish, Strepsodus brockbankit, found in the Lime-

stone of the Upper Coal Measures near Manchester, England. (Geol.

Mag., October, 1891.) A collection of Lower Helderberg fossils

from Albany, N. Y., has yielded a new genus of Ostracoda, described

by E. O. Ulrich under the name Beecherella. Seven species of this new

genus are figured in the October number of the American Geologist.

Mesozoic.—Mr. Wilson calls attention to the color-markings on a

species of Brachiopoda, Wadldheimia perforata, from the Lower Lias of

Gloucestershire, England. The color indications are in the form of

clearly defined concentric bands of black and white, of varying

breadth, These bands are bilaterally symmetrical, and correspond in

the two valves. (Geol. Mag., October, 1891.)

Cenozoic.—According to G. H. Stone, the following-named

classes of deposit are represented in the asphalt fields of Western Col-

orado and Northeastern Utah: (1) Asphaltic sand-rock, (2) bitumin-

ous shales or marls, (3) bituminous limestones, (4) outflow or over-

flow asphalt. These are lacustrine deposits, and will therefore present

conditions somewhat different from those of marine beds. (Am. Journ.

Sci., August, 1891.) Mr. Gilbert attributes the small anticlinal dis-

turbance of a cliff of Devonian shale in Western New York, near Lake

Erie, to the post-Glacial rise of temperature and consequent expansion .

of the rocks. Like other small ridges of Devonian shale in North-

western Ohio and of Trenton limestone in Northern New York, they

are shown to have been formed after the departure of the last ice-sheet.

(Am. Geol., October, 1891. )

1128 The American Naturalist. [December,

BOTANY,

The Trees and Shrubs of the Basin of the Red River

of the North.—In a recent paper on the ‘‘ Geographic Limits of

Species of Plants in the Basin of the Red River of the North’?! Mr.

Warren Upham discusses a number of interesting problems in geo-

graphical botany. This basin lies between 45° and 52° north lati-

tude, and 95° and 106° west longitude. At its lowest point at Lake

Winnipeg its elevation above sea-level is 710 feet, and from this it

rises to 2,700 feet’ in Northwestern Manitoba and Eastern Dakota.

The temperature of this valley ranges from go° Fahrenheit to —30°, or

even —40°, e annual rainfall is from 20 to 30 inches.

The boundary between forest and prairie is traced as follows:

Beginning near the junction of the north and south forks of the

Saskatchewan River (about lat. 53° north, long. 105° west), and run-

ning southeasterly to Duck Mountain, the south end of Lake Mani-

toba and Lake Winnipeg, thence southerly from fifteen to fifty miles

“east of the Red River to Central Minnesota, where it bears eastward,

passing out of the Red River basin. West of this line the region is

chiefly grassland, while east of it the surface is almost wholly tim-

‘ Groves of a few acres, or sometimes a hundred acres or

more, occur here and there upon the prairie region beside lakes, and a

narrow line of timber usually borders the streams, as the Red River

and its principal tributaries; but many lakes and creeks, and even

portions of the course of large streams, have neither bush nor tree in

sight, and occasionally none is visible in a view which ranges from five

to ten miles in all directions.’’

Mr. Upham discusses the trees and shrubs of the region as follows:

‘‘ Many species of trees, which together constitute a large part of the

eastern forests, extend to the Red River basin, reaching there the

western or northwestern boundary of their range. Among these are

the basswood, sugar maple, river maple, and red maple, the three

species of white, red, and black ash, the red or slippery elm, and the

rock or cork elm, the butternut, the white, bur, and black oaks, iron-

wood (Ostrya virginica Willd.), the American hornbeam (Carpinus

caroliniana Walt.), the yellow birch, the large-toothed poplar, white

and red pine, arbor vite, and the red cedar or savin. A few species

of far northern range find in this district their southern or south

1 Proc. Boston Society of Natural History, Vol. XXV., p. 140.

1891.] Botany. 1129

western limit,—namely, our two species of mountain ash, the balsam

poplar, banksian or jack pine, the black and the white spruce, balsam

fir, and tamarack.

‘t Some of the eastern shrubs, which make the undergrowth of our

forests, also attain here their western limits; but a larger proportion ot

these than of the forest trees continues west along the stream-courses to

the Saskatchewan region, the upper Missouri, and the Black Hills.

Among the shrubs that reach to the borders of the Red River basin,

but not farther westward, or at least southwestward, are the black alder

or winterberry, and the mountain holly, staghorn sumach, the hard-

hack, the huckleberry, the dwarf blueberry, and the tall or swamp blue-

berry (Vaccinium pennsylvanicum Lam., and V. corymbosum L.), leath-

erwood (Dirca palustris L.), and sweet fern. Shrubs and woody

climbers, that have their northern or northwestern boundary in this

basin, include the prickly ash, staff-tree, or shrubby bitter-sweet, frost

grape, Virginian creeper, and the four species of round-leaved, silky,

panicled, and alternate-leaved cornel (Cornus circinata L'Her., C.

sericea L., C. candidissima Marsh [C. paniculata L’ Her.], and C. alter

nifolia L. f.) On the other hand, shrubs of the north which reach

their southern or southwestern limits in the Red River basin, include

the mountain maple, the few-flowered viburnum and witherod, several

species of honeysuckle (Zonicera ciliata Muhl., L. cerulea L., L.

oblongifolia Hook., L. involucrata Banks, Z. hirsuta Eaton), the

Canada blueberry, the cowberry, Andromeda polifolia L., Kalmia

glauca Ait., Labrador tea (Zedum latifolium Ait.), the Canadian

shepherdia, sweet gale, the dwarf birch, green or mountain alder,

beaked hazel-nut, Sa/ix balsamifera Barratt, and S. myrtilloides L., var

pedicellaris Anders., black crowberry, creeping savin, and the American

yew or ground hemlock.

“ No tree of exclusively western range extends east to the Red River

basin, and it has only a few western species of shrubs, of which the

most noteworthy are the alder-leaved June-berry or service berry (in

Manitoba commonly called ‘ saskatoon’), the silver-berry (Z/eagnus

argentea Pursh), and the buffalo-berry (Shepherdia argentea Nutt.).

To these are also to be added the shrubby Œnothera albicaulis Nutt.,

which occurs chiefly as an immigrant weed, and the small-leaved false

indigo (Amorpha microphylla Pursh), which abounds on moist portions

of the prairie. The silver-berry (usually called ‘ wolf willow’ in the

Red River valley) is common or abundant from Clifford, North

Dakota, and from Ada, Minnesota, northwood, forming patches ten to

twenty rods long on the prairie, growing only about two feet high and

1130 The American Naturalist. [ December

fruiting plentifully, but in thickets becoming five to ten feet high.

Its silvery whitish foliage and fruit make this shrub a very conspicuous

and characteristic element of the Red River flora.

‘« The single species of true sage-brush belonging to this basin (47¢e-

mista cana Pursh) extends east in North Dakota to the Heart Mound,

six miles northwest of Walhalla, or thirty-five miles west of the Red

River at Pembina, and to a hill close west of the Cheyenne River

about eight miles south of Valley City, growing in both places on out-

crops of the Fort Pierre shale. It attains a height of one to three feet,

and the tough wood of its base is one to one and a half inches in

diameter. Artemisia frigida Willd., called ‘ pasture sage-brush’ by

Macoun, is abundant throughout a wide area westward, extending east

locally to ‘the ridge’ east of Emerson, Manitoba, the Falls of St.

Anthony, and Lake Pepin.”

The Bearberry in Central Nebraska.—Another of the puzzles

in the geographical botany of the plains has recently turned up in the

discovery of the bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng.) in a cañon

in Custer county, in the center of the state. When it is remembered

that this station is midway between the Missouri River and the foot-

hills of the Rocky Mountains, and that the plains extend for hundreds

of miles in every direction, and further, that it is in what is known as

the ‘‘sand-hill belt,’’ it puzzles one to account for the presence of this

unlooked-for shrub.

Bearberry occurs in the Black Hills and in the Rocky Mountains.

Northeastward its nearest station is near Lake Pepin in Minnesota. It

does not occur in Iowa. In Missouri it occurs in the southeastern

Kansas plants.

The Nebraska station is in the basin of the Loup River, a stream

whose numerous branches are wholly confined to the central part of the

state, all having their sources in the numberless springs of the ‘‘ sand-

hills.” How did the Nebraska bearberry find its way to this out-of-

the-way spot ?— CHARLES E. Brssry.

1891.] Zoology. 1131

ZOOLOGY.

Preservation of Color in Animals in a Collection.—M.

Richard Thorna, of Dorpat, Russia, believes that he has discovered a

liquid that will preserve the natural color of zoological specimens.

After washing, the animal is to be preserved in the following solution :

Sulpnate OF S608 -o a a tas ce AO Cree,

Chloride of sodium. Peat a eR wees fo

Chlorate of potak o og pay, ae rooe

Dittate gf potash soar vo oe io Sod

OE RISE SE OREO E PO E RE 1 litre.

The specimen must remain in the liquid from eighteen to twenty-

four hours, after which it is*to be put in alchohol, which must be

changed once or twice. Animals so treated will keep their color, the

tints of which will be slightly deepened. (Revue Scientifique, 27

June, 1891.)

The Structure of Serpula.—Mr. A. L. Treadwell describes!

some points in the structure of the New England Serpula dianthus. He

first points out that Professor Verrill in his original description has

confounded dorsal and ventral surfaces in this worm, and then pro-

ceeds to describe the general structure of hypodermis, nervous system,

tubiparous glands, and sex products. The digestive, muscular, and

circulatory apparatus, etc., are much like those in Spirographis, de-

scribed by Claparéde, and hence are omitted. Most noticeable is the

nervous system, in which the cesophageal commissures are double, the

upper commissure on each side being almost entirely composed of

nerve-cells. The much convoluted tubiparous glands lie in the firs

body segment, and extend backwards to about the middle of the

second segment.

Metamerism in Hexapods.—As a ak of studies on the

embryology of the cockroach, Professor Aug. Lameere, has arrived at

the following conclusions : 2 The order of succession of the mouth parts

as given by Savigny is accepted. In the head four pairs of ccelomic

cavities are recognized, plus a median unpaired cavity, corresponding

to the labrum which the author would homologize with the cavity of

the anterior directions of the Actinozoa. The antennule of the Crus-

1 Zool. Anz., XIV., 200, 1891.

2 Bull. Soc. Micros., Belg., XVII, 1891.

1132 The American Naturaist. [December,

tacea and the cheliceres of the Arachnids are homologous with the

antennz of the Hexapods. The editor of the NATURALIST has reasons

for believing that as soon as we know anything about the embry-

ology of the Thysanures, many points in Hexapod morphology and

in the relationships of the various Arthropod groups will receive a

flood of light.

_Cottus beldingii, sp. nov.2—In October, 1889, Mr. L. Belding

obtained three specimens of a species of Cottus in Lake Tahoe, Cali-

fornia. During June, 1890, we obtained a much larger number at

the same place. A series of these was sent to the British Museum.

The rest are in the collections of the California Academy of Sciences,

No. 504. Mr. Belding’s specimens are also in the collections of the

Academy, No. 702. We also obtained a number from Donner Lake,

California, No. 505, California Academy of Sciences.

ese specimens represent a variety or species distinct from the

Alaskan Cottus minutus,* with which it is most closely related.

Head 234-4; depth 4-5; D. VI—VIII. 1514-18; A.11-13; V.1.4.

Head rather short and broad, the profile convex, more steep from

eye forward ; eye large, orbit 4-5 in head; interorbital concave, 2

in orbit; mouth large; maxillary reaching at least to below the pupil,

about 2 in the head, Preopercle with a simple, backward-directed

spine, very slightly curved upwards. Teeth on jaws and vomer, none

on palatines. Skin smooth, Pectorals reaching vent, or further in

young; ventrals 1%4-2 in head. Distance of anal from caudal 1% in

its distance from snout. Anus nearer insertion of caudal than to end

of snout. Mottled with black and white. About six blackish cross-

bars on back ; the first across head just behind eyes, next at origin of

dorsal. First dorsal tinged with rust, the second less so, All the fins

except the ventrals spotted with dark. The ground color varies

greatly with the bottom over which these fishes live.

The other species found at Lake Tahoe were Phoxinus montanus

Cope, Agosia oscula Girard, Algansea obesa Girard, Coregonus william-

soni Girard, Catostomus tahoensis Gill and Jordan; Sa/mo mykiss

henshawi Gill and Jordan. Besides these we obtained A/gansea olivacea

Cope, from Donner Lake.—C. H. anp R. S. EIGENMANN.

3 We have lately examined series of specimens belonging to the Academy of Sciences

which makes it quite certain that Cottus gulosus Girard is identical with Cottus asper

Richardson.

t Dr. Jordan tells us the name Co¢tus minutus is preoccupied, and not available for

the Alaskan species.

Pegi Pe cha Ne ee kn ET Sorte Re a EY. ee ONO

1891.] Zoology. 1133

A New Diodont.—The fishermen at San Pedro during the past

summer took a species of Chilomycterus which is the first that has

been recorded from the Pacific coast of America. On account of the

unreasonable price asked for it I did not obtain it, but took the fol-

lowing notes, which may serve to identify another specimen :

CHILOMYCTERUS CALIFORNIENSIS, sp. nov.—One specimen, 9% in.,

San Pedro, California, July, 1891. No tentacles anywhere. Spines of

back all low, those of front especially so, increasing in size towards

belly, where they become much larger than those of the back. No

spine on middle of forehead. A spine at upper anterior angle of orbit; -

one above, somewhat behind its middle; oneslightly behind and above

its upper posterior angle; another halfway between the last and the

upper angle of pectoral; and another before and a little above the

upper margin of the pectoral. Blue above, white below. Forehead

and bases of all the fins with small (ṣẹ in.) dark spots, fewer on anal.

Back densely covered with short streaks or bars, which become larger

spots on sides. A few round, dark spots (1% in. in diameter) on belly.

Spots below eye larger than those on forehead, similar in size to those

of caudal peduncle.—C. H. EIGENMANN, Bloomington, Jnd., Oct. &th,

891.

Temperature and the Number of Vertebre in Fishes.—

Dr. Jordan’s recent paper® on this subject possesses considerable inter-

est. He shows by a review of the known facts that in those groups of

fishes which have representatives in the tropics and in colder waters

as a rule those species which come from the warmer waters the

number of vertebræ is less than in the colder water relatives, a law

which was first brought out by Dr. Gill. Dr. Jordan has collated a

large number of facts, all bearing on this subject. It may be suggested

that the same influences which cause this diversity have possibly given

rise to the change of shape in the same species of mollusc as brought

out by Prof. E. S. Morse.

Note on Gyrinophilus maculicaudus Cope.—JIn the year

1889 Mr. A. W. Butler, of Brookville, Indiana, presented to Prof.

E. D. Cope some specimens of a tailed batrachian that had been taken

near the town named, in Southeastern Indiana. They had been col-

lected, I believe, by Mr. E. W. Quick, and had been suspected by both

Mr. Butler and Mr. Quick to be an undescribed species related to

Spelerpes longicaudus, which they greatly resembled. Prof. Cope’s prac-

ticed eye immediately perceived that they were not members of the

5 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XIV., p. 107, t891.

1134 The American Naturalist. [December,

species named, and the results of his examination of the specimens

were published in the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol, XXIV., page 967.

Prof. Cope named the species Gyrinophilus maculicaudus, assigning it

to this genus because he found the premaxillaries distinct, instead of

being anchylosed, as they are in Spelerpes. The species is otherwise

distinguished from Spelerpes longicaudus by having a broader, flatter

head ; differently disposed vomerine teeth ; by a ground color of ver-

milion; and by a different arrangement of the black spots. The

limbs are also longer than those of S. dongicaudus.

I have had opportunities to examine several specimens, both living

and alcoholic, of this beautiful species. Some of these have come to

me from Brookville through the kindness of Messrs. Butler and Quick.

Two others had been taken in the vicinity of Bloomington, Indiana, by

Prof. B. W. Evermann, of the State Normal School. After making a

careful examination of the premaxillaries of several specimens of maculi-

caudus and comparing them with those of /ongicaudus, I am compelled

to differ from Prof. Cope as to the generic position of this animal.

In the case of all the specimens that I have dissected, except one, I

find the premaxillaries to be consolidated. I have taken the premax-

illaries out, dried them, and examined them with a sufficiently high

power of the compound microscope, without perceiving any evidences

of a suture between them. I can see but slight differences between the

premaxillaries of it and S. dongicaudus. In Gyrinophilus the premax-

illaries are easily separated. In the case of the exceptional specimen

mentioned above, the premaxillaries had been broken by accident just

a little to one side of the middle line. Had the fracture been exactly

in the middle line, I should have concluded that in this specimen the

two bones had not united. This suggests that possibly an accident

had happened to the specimen examined by Prof. Cope. If, however,

Prof. Cope’s specimen really had the premaxillaries distinct, while in

mine they are anchylosed, the genus Gyrinophilus cannot stand. In

any case, the species will, according to my view, have to bear the

name Sfelerpes maculicaudus.

This animal is regarded by those who have observed it in its native

haunts to be more aquatic in its habits than is S. dongtcaudus. The

ones that I kept for some time in a small aquarium showed a disposi-

tion to remain out of the water. They would often climb up on the

perpendicular glass wall of the aquarium above the water, and rest there

for a long time. If, when thus adhering to the glass, this was turned

in a horizontal position, they would continue to stick to the under side

1891.] Zoology. > 1135

of it. I was not successful in my endeavors to get them to eat while

in confinement. They appear to endure imprisonment well.

During the summer of the present year my son, W. P. Hay, secured

two additional specimens of this cave salamander in the region about

Bloomington. One of these was taken in May’s Cave, about five miles

south of Bloomington and a mile west of Clear Creek Station. It was

found sticking to the wall of the cave, about four feet above the water

and about one hundred yards from the cave’s mouth. The other was

captured in Kern’s Cave, one mile southwest of Bedford, in Lawrence

county. This locality is twenty miles south of May’s Cave, and both

are about a hundred miles west of Brookville, the original place of the

discovery of the species. This shows that the animal is pretty well

distributed throughout the southern portion of Indiana, and will prob-

ably occur also in the caverns of Kentucky. The specimen taken in

Kern’s Cave was also found clinging to the wall above the water, and

at a distance of about a quarter of a mile from the entrance. Neither

of the specimens made any effort to escape capture. Attention was

attracted to both by the gleaming of their eyes in the candle-light.

—O. P. Hay

Color Patterns in Cnemidophorus.—At the last meeting of

the American Association for the Advancement of Science I read a

paper on the color variations in two species of the above-named

genus of lizards, the C. gularis B. & G. and C. tessellatus Say. In the

young of both species the color consists of longitudinal stripes, six in

the former and four in the latter, which has a lateral series of spots in

place of the external stripes. This coloration is permanent in some

of the C. gularis and in the C. £. gracilis. In both species can

be traced an identical series of color varieties, which have especial

geographical ranges, and which have mostly received names as species.

The first modification is seen in the appearance of pale spots in the

interval between the stripes, a character which partly defines the

C. gularis B.& G. These spots are greatly enlarged in the C. gularis

scalaris Cope, joining the stripes and breaking up the ground color

into spots. On the other hand, the stripes may also be broken up

into spots, producing a light-spotted form, the C. g. communis Cope.

Returning to C. g scalaris, the dark spots may be confluent transversely.

forming a transversely banded form. ‘This transverse banding com-

mences at the posterior extremity of the body. When it is restricted

to this region and the anterior color pattern disappears, we have the

1136 The American Naturalist. [December

C. g. costatus Cope. When the color pattern consists of rows of

oblong black spots on a dark ground the form C. g. semifasciatus Cope

is produced.

We have the following results: 1. A longitudinally striped pattern

passes into a transversely banded form, etc. 2. This series of changes

is common to both species, C. gularis and C. tessellatus. 3. This

series and some of the other variations are found in the Lacerta

muralis of Southern Europe, as described by Eimer. 4. This kind of

variation is not promiscuous or multifarious, but in series. —E. D. Cope.

A Rorqual on the New Jersey Coast.—A young specimen

of Balænoptera came ashore at Ocean City, Cape May county, N. J.,

recently, and was secured for the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia by the efforts of Prof. A. Heilprin, Dr. S. G. Dixon,

and Mr. J. I. Ives. It had been dead for a considerable time, and

had lost its whalebone, Its long maceration rendered it possible to

procure the skeleton in very good condition. It measured in the flesh

66 feet 11 inches in length ; head to angle of mouth on curve, 16 feet

ro inches. The entire surface was of a purplish slate color, mottled

with large blotches of a lighter tint ; under surface of flippers, white.

The characters of the skeleton are those of the B, musculus, with certain

important exceptions, in which it resembles the Z. sibbaldii. ‘These —

are the enclosure of the vertebrarterial canal in the axis vertebra

only; the large size, and the color. A full description of it will be pub-

lished in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy.—E. D. Cope.

New Mammals.—In North American Fauna, No. 5, Dr. C.

Hart Merriam describes the vertebrate fauna of Southern Idaho.

First is a general review of the region and its faunal provinces, and

then follow annotated lists of species. Of mammals sixty-seven species

are recognized, the following being new: Sorex idahoénsis, S. dobsoni,

S. vagrans similis, Onchomys leucogaster brevicaudus, Hesperomys crini-

tus, Arvicola macropus, A. mordax, A. nanus, Phenacomys orophilus,

Lvotomys idahoénsis, Thomomys clusius fuscus, Lepus idahoénsis. The

only new bird found was Megascops flammeolus idahoénsis, which is

given a colored plate. The reptiles and Batrachia are catalogued by

Dr, L. Stejneger, but embrace no novelties. In the same number Dr.

Merriam also describes Microdipodopus [n. g.] megacephalus from

Nevada, and Evotomys gapperi brevicaudus from the Black Hills.

PEE EE EAEE E EE N A

1891.] Embryology. ` 1137

Zoological News.—M. Aug. Lameere, professor in the Univer-

sity of Brussells, has published ê a very readable paper on the ‘Origin

of the Vertebrates.’ He defends and amplifies Sedgwick’s well-known

hypothesis, and like him derives the vertebrates, and by implication

metamerism, from the Actinozoa.

C. Dwight Marsh publishes’ a list of the deeper water Crustacea in

Green Lake, Wis. He enumerates fourteen species, of which a Bos-

mina is new and Diaptomus minutus was before known only from New-

foundland.

EMBRYOLOGY.!

A New Larval Form from Jamaica.—The Marine Labora-

tory of the Johns Hopkins University was situated during the summer

of 1891 on the Island of Jamaica, at a point on Kingston Harbor

called Port Henderson. While a member of the party I obtained the

larva described below. On the morning of June 24th, while examin-

ing the tow-stuff from the surface net, Mr. Charles Taylor, of Kings-

ton, discovered the larva. He made a careful sketch of it from the

living animal, and it is from this largely that the accompanying figure

was subsequently made, The larva was turned over to me, but

unfortunately on account of its’ minute size it was lost during the

hardening process, so that all opportunity of a later and fuller exami-

nation is gone. Nevertheless, as I am quite sure the figure is accurate

as far as it goes, and as the chance of finding another larva is not very

good, I have decided to figure it, with a brief account of its capture.

Although there is no record as to the time in the morning when the

tow was made, yet in all probability it was between the hours of six and

nine A.M. About six or seven o’clock the land breeze that had been

blowing during the night ceased, and there was generally a calm inter-

val of an hour or two before the sea breeze (the trade) forced it way

6 Bulletin Société Belge de Microscopie, XVII., 1891.

7 Zool. Anzeiger, XIV., 275, 1891.

; Lee Dr. T. H. Morgan, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, zie

-o Ak TERATE

1138 The American Naturalist. [December,

inland again. During these calm hours in the morning all the more

important.collecting was done.

The larva is undoubtedly a free-swimming stage of one of the marine

Trematodes. Such pelagic larve—Cercaria—are not unknown,

but have been now and then recorded by naturalists. ‘The adult

worms generally live, believe, in marine molluscs, and the

Cercaria is a larval form seeking a new host. The larva belougs

to that. division of marine larval Cercaria having bifid tails. Villot

says that these Cercaria having split tails form a small very

natural group, and are mostly

_ found parisitic in fresh-water

Mollusca; but a few are marine.

One of these has been recorded

by J. Miiller as having been

found near Nice, and has been

figured in the inaugural thesis of

Lavalette Saint-George, under

the name of Cercaria dichotoma.

I have not seen this figure, but

judging from the account of the

same larva given later by Cla-

parede it is entirely different

from the Jamaica larva.

Claparede, in 1863, figured a

bifid-tailed Cercaria found in the

sea. This is also quite different

from the Jamaica Cercaria. The

larva figured by Claparede is called Bucephalus haimeanus, and is very

close, the author says, to B. polymorphus, described by Von Baer, and

is the same as that described by Lacaze Duthier which lives in the

mollusc Cardium. Both of these larva then figured by Von Baer and

Lacaze Duthier must be different from the present form

McCrady, in 1873, described a bifid-tailed Cetus A

cuculus—living in the American oyster. His figures show at once that

the form he described is very different from the Cercaria from Jamaica.

Other descriptions than these I do not know of, and feel reasonably

assured that the larva has not been figured before.

The Jamaica larva was a small, jelly-like, transparent body, being, at

a guess, about a half a millimeter in length. It moved about quite

actively by means of its tail. The latter structure is situated in a groove

TREMATODE LARVA.

‘on one side of the body, as shown in the figure. At about its middle

the tail splits into lamella-like paddles, and it is this divided tail

=. that forms the most interesting feature of the larva, On each side-of

; the anterior end of the larva is a mass of dark granular mass. The

other bodies found in the interior of the larva are shown in the accom-

panying figure.

We never succeeded in getting more of these Cercaria, although I

looked for them on several occasions.—T. H. MORGAN.

| | 1891.] Embryology. | 1139

Hatschek’s Interpretation of the Annelid Trochophore.—

Zoologists and embryologists have looked forward with a good deal of

interest to the publication of the third part of Dr. Berthold Hatschek’s

“ Lehrbuch der Zoologie,” in which he gives what may be considered

the most recent and certainly the most novel treatment of that very

heterogeneous group, Vermes (Zygoneura Hatschek).

More especially interesting is the treatment of the larval form of*

the Annelids,—the Trochophore. This is ground that Hatschek has

es himself covered very thoroughly, and his words must carry a great

|: deal of weight along with them, whether his particular view be accepted

e or not.

i ‘‘The Trochophore is the characteristic larval form of the Zygo-

neura. In structure, the Rotifers stand very near to the Trochophore,

and the Turbellarians which only reach the stage of the Protrochula

are very closely related to this last form. In many cases the charac-

teristics of the Trochophore are more or less modified, or even entirely

| suppressed, as happens in direct development. The primitive type of

> the Trochophore may be determined by a comparison of those struc-

tures that are repeated in very widely separated groups of animals. A

complete union of all the typical properties in a single larval form is

perhaps never reached, still many Annelid larvæ approach very near

to this.” A very clear and full description is given of a typical Tro-

chophore. This is illustrated by four new diagrams, that show the

structure of the larve most excellently.

With respect to the phylogenetic interpretation of the Trochophore

the author says: “‘ If we assume as true that the Trochophora is the

characteristic form of the Scolecida, Articulata, Tentaculata, and

Mollusca, we have recognized a common body for all these groups.

We may also assume a common descent, and state the law that the

_ Zygoneura are derived from a common ancestral form, that has tl e

' Trochophora as a stage in the development. Further, we may ask

the question whether the Trochophore is itself the repetition of a1

} “ 3 BUN ae $ `

1140 The American Naturalist. [December,

ancestral form, and conclude that it is in the highest degree probable,

inasmuch as we know several forms of animals which in their mature

` condition come very near to the Trochophore. Particularly is this

true for the Rotifers. The little spherical Rotifer discovered by Sem-

per in the Philippine Islands illustrates most fully this law ; and it is to

be marked that this is a typical Rotifer, and that at the same time many

other Rotifers in spite of their changed outer form possess many true

Trochophore characters. On the other hand, it has been affirmed that

the Rotifers are sexually mature larve of higher forms, and this is not

entirely impossible, but it must be remembered that there is no definite

evidence for this hypothesis. It is further to be noted that the Tur-

bellarians in their adult condition approach very near to the Protro-

chula, except that in the adult form ciliated bands are wanting. The

view that the inner organization of the Protrochula and Trochophora i

repeat ancestral characters is made probable by the very similar rela-

tions of the organs of the Platodes to the Rotifers. But even the

outer arrangement of cilia of the Trochophore may in all probability

be considered as an ancestral character, since it is found to someextent

not only in the Rotifers but in other groups as well,—viz., in the

Entoprocta and the Tentaculata as definite structures in the adult o

organization.

‘« We may thus formulate the following law: The Protrochula isa 4

repetition of the Protrochozoon,—7.e., the common ancestral form of 4

all Zygoneura. The Trochophora is the repetition of the Trochozoon,

—i.e., the common ancestor of all the Zygoneura standing above the

Platodes. ‘The organization of the Scolecida is referred directly back

to the organs of the Protrochula and Trochophora. This applies to

the nervous system, digestive tract, muscles, and the proto-nephridia,

but not to the gonads, which appear primitively paired in the Scoleci-

da, and have the structure of sac-gonads with peculiar excretory tubes.

Concerning the development of these thege are few observations, but

it is probable that the sac-gonads and ' gonad ducts (viz., egg- i

tubes and sperm-tubes) are of mesodermal ı origin, and represent ccelo- 3

matous formations

‘« Kleinenberg had attempted to derivd the Trochophore fromthe *

Medusa form, comparing the preoral ring-nerve of the Annelid larva

with the ring-nerve of the Hydromeduse. This hypothesis is scarcely

in accord with the rest of the organization. There is much better

grounds for the belief that the Ctenophores stand very near to the

Zygoneura. The sense-organ plate at the apical pole, the mesen-

chymatous musculature and the ectodermal cesophagus appear to be

1891.] Entomology. 1141

related structures, also the ciliated apparatus of the Ctenophore may

be compared with the preoral ciliated band of the Trochophora.

We would assume that the ccelom sacs and nephridial canals of the

Zygoneura (sac-gonads of the Scolecida) are derived from the gastric

canals of the Ctenophores, and therefore that the mid-gut of all

Zygoneura may be compared morphologically only with the central

stomach of the Ccelenterates in general and the Ctenophores in particu-

lar, and not with the whole primitive digestive system of ccelenteric

apparatus, as Lang has done.”

ENTOMOLOGY.!

«“ Biological Papers.’’—With this general title Prof. Charles

Robertson, of Carlinville, Illinois, has recently distributed, under one

cover, a series of admirable papers on flowers and insects, and

descriptions of North America Hymenoptera. In his studies of the

former subject the author has followed closely along the lines laid down

by Müller in his ‘‘ Fertilization of Flowers,’’ describing the structural

peculiarities of the blossom of each plant considered, and the relative

time of development of each part, and cataloguing both the species

of insect visitors and the object of their visit. The length of these

catalogues indicates an amount of careful field work which will be best

appreciated by those who have tried it.

Lepidoptera of Buffalo.—The last number of the Bulletin of

the Buffalo Society of Natural History contains an excellent ‘ List of

Macro-Lepidoptera of Buffalo and Vicinity” by Edward P. Van

ara tion . the author has been assisted by Dr. D. S.

lman, Mr. Philip Fisher, and other members

st -jticludes the Geometridz and Pyralidz, but

omits the Tortricidyy and Tineide. The total number of species is

777, of which 361 Wre Noctuide. The same issue of the Bulletin

contains an account’ of ‘‘ Mill’s Collection of Fresh-Water Sponges,”

by Dr. Kellicott. é

Kerosene Emulsion.—In Bulletin No. 16 of the Michigan

Experiment Station Prof. A. J. Cook discusses “‘ Kerosene Emulsion

and Its Uses.” The article is evidently the result of a large amoun:

of careful experimentation of the poa practical value, in which the

+ Batted by Prof. C. M. Weed, Hanover, N. H:

Lae |

is)

sey a T ME I E ARE ia EN NAERIS AEE E N Mins ah Nyt ciel A

1142 The American Naturalist. [December,

author has been assisted by Mr. G. C. Davis. Prof. Cook describes

under separate headings three formule for preparing the emulsion : the

first is his own metliod of making an emulsion of soft soap and kero-

sene ; the second, his method of making an emulsion of hard soap

and kerosene ; and the third is the well-known Riley-Hubbard formula.

For success with the latter the experiments here reported indicate that

soft water must be used. Th authors believe the pyrethro-kerosene

to be avaluable insecticide, and report experiments in which kerosene

emulsion has been successfully used against vermin on domestic

animals, rose chafers, hollyhock bugs (Orthotylus delicatus Uhle.),

yellow-lined currant bugs (Pecilocapsus lineatus Fab.), immature

‘squash bugs, aphides, pear slugs, and pea weevils. The Bulletin is

illustrated by eight original figures, and altogether is one of the most

useful and interesting of recent station publications.

Host-Plants of Aphididez.—Mr. T. A. Williams nas lately pub-

lished as Bulletin No. 1 from the Department of Entomology of the

University of Nebraska a ‘‘Host-Plant Index: of North American

Aphidide.’’ There isa short introductory discussion of plant lice by

rof. Lawrence Bruner, after which follows a list of North American

plants and the species of Aphides which attack them.

Prof. Smith on the Rose-Chafer.—Bulletin No. 82 of the New

Jersey Experiment Station consists of an extended discussion of the

rose-chafer or ‘‘rosebug’’ (Macrodactylus subspinosus) by Prof. J. B.

Smith, who states that ‘this insect has done more injury during the

few years last past than any one other species in the state of New Jersey,

excepting, perhaps, the codling moth and plum curculio.’’ The

author gives under successive headings an account of its history in

New Jersey, food habits, mouth parts, habits of the beetle and larva,

breeding grounds, life history, and remedi Under the latter head-

ing he reports experiments showing that a practical purposes in a

region where the insect is so abundant the following substances have

little or no, remedial value: the arsenites, coppér mixtures, pyrethrum,

kerosene, lime, tobacco, acetic acid, quassia, digitalis, corrosive subli-

mate, muriate of ammonia, cyanide of potassium, ‘¢ odorless insecti-.

cide,’’ sludgite, kainit, alum, and hot water. The latter substance,

which has lately been recommended by the Rural New Yorker as a

rosebug remedy, was found to kill the beetles at a temperature of

125°, but the difficulty of applying it successfully was so great, \on

account of the cooling caused by evaporation, that it proved a failure

as ee ee

1891. | Entomology. 1143

in the field. Professor Smith has found mechanical devices for collect-

ing the bettles the best way of fighting them, and expresses the belief

that they can be successfully subdued in this way.

Heteroptera of Tennessee.—Professor Summers? has gotten

together a very useful synopsis of the Heteroptera of Tennessee. It

follows the general lines laid down in Comstock’s discussion of this

group in his ‘‘ Introduction to Entomology ”’ (a discussion, however, in

which Professor Summers’s aid is frequently acknowledged by the

latter author), and is illustrated by 14 figures and one plate. Two

pages are devoted to a general discussion of remedies.

Entomological Personals.—During the last few months a num-

ber of American entomologists have changed locations. Dr. J. C. Neal,

of the Florida station, has resigned to take the directorship of the new

Oklahoma Station at Stillwater. Mr. C. W. Woodworth has gone

from Arkansas to California, where he is located at the experiment

station at Berkeley.. Mr. F. J. Niswander, assistant to Professor Cook.

at the Michigan Agricultural College, has gone to the University of

Wyoming at Laramie. Mr. C. P. Gillette, of the Iowa station, has

accepted the professorship of zoology and entomology at the Colorado

Agricultural College, and Prof. Herbert Osborn has taken charge of

the Iowa station work. Mr. A. B. Cordley has left the University of

Vermont to become an assistant of the U. S. Division of Entomology.

An appointment of peculiar fitness is that of Mr, Frank Benton to the

apiarian work of the same division. Mr. Benton is a graduate of the-

_ Michigan Agricultural College, and has spent the last ten years in

Cyprus and other eastern countries studying and experimenting with

bees. Dr. Riley has also arranged for other apicultural work by

appointing Professor A. J. Cook and Mr. W. R. Larrabee field agents

of the division. Mr. C. H. Tyler Townsend has left Washington to

accept a chair at the (New Mexico Agricultural College. Mr. F. M.

Webster has gone from Indiana to the Ohio station at Columbus,

where he is consulting entomologist, taking the place vacated by the

editor of this department when he went to the New Hampshire State

College. A foreign change that is worthy of notice is that of Professor

T. Thorell, the veteran arachnologist, from Sori, Italy, to Montpelier,

France.

Outlines of Entomology. —RMiss Murtfeldt is to w congratula-

ted on the admirable way in which she has oe together an intro-

2 The True Bugs, or Heteroptera, of Tennessee. By H. E. Summers, Consulting

_ Entomologist. Bull. Tenn. Exp. Station, Vol. Iy: "No.3 July 1891, pp. 31.

1144 The American Naturalist. [ December,

ductory discussion of insect classification. She has divided her work

into thirty-one chapters, the first five of which deal with the external

structures of insects and their transformations. Then the orders and

suborders are taken up in regular sequence, and their characters

clearly and concisely defined. We are glad to learn that the author

intends to have these ‘‘ Outlines’’ published in book form for school

purposes.

Recent Bulletins.—Mr. F. M. Webster begins his work at the

Ohio station by a timely discussion of the Wheat, Midge, Diplosis

tritict (Bulletin, Vol. IV., No. 5, September, 1891). This pest has

appeared in Central Ohio in considerable numbers. Professor

F. J. Niswander discusses plant lice in a five-page Bulletin (No.2)

issued by the Wyoming station in August. In Bulletin No 3 of the

New Mexico station Professor C. H. Tyler Townsend discusses a num-

ber of fruit insects. In the report of the Maine station for 1890

Professor F. L. Harvey gives a popular account of a number of injuri-

ous insects which have attracted attention during the year.

Professor J. B. Smith’s account of his year’s work in the 1890 report

the New Jersey station contains many results of great practical value.

MICROSCOPY.!

Methods of Preserving Human Embryos.—It frequently

happens that human embryos which come into my possession are almost

ruined by the physician’s carelessness in preserving the material. For

instance, I have obtained specimens simply placed in water, a solution

of policylic acid, strong alcohol, or simply packed in cotton or even

forced into a small bottle. Any of these methods almost totally spoil

the specimen for careful study.

An abundance of material comes into the hands of the physician,

and through his kindness it becomes possible to throw as much light on

human embryology as on that of any of the other mammals. During

the last few years several embryologists, especially Prof. His, have not

only added a great deal to our knowledge of human embryology, but

3 Outlines of Entomology. Prepared for the use of farmers and horticulturists. By

Mary E. Murtfeldt. Report of the Missouri State Horticultural Society for 1890. Also

‘issued separately, pp. 130, Figs. 48.

1 Edited by C. O. Whitman, Clark University.

ENEA E N

CUCM oe eh Sek E S E ett ny ENN O zs

; er 5 RES See oe

189 .] Microscopy. 1145

to vertebrate embryology in general, by the careful study of a few

human embryos. Only a glance at the new edition of Quain’s

“Anatomy” will convince any one of this fact.

Of a dozen human embryos, less than: six months old, which have

come into my possession during the last few years, only one has been

found well preserved and suited for careful study. For this reason I

address this note especially to those who in the fature will be kind

enough to send me material,

In cases of early abortion the physician that attends pays no atten-

tion whatever to the embryo, or only preserves it carelessly in alcohol.

Often it is impossible to find the embryo within the blood and particles

which are extruded. If in all these cases the suspected material were,

without previous examination, placed simply in seventy per cent.

alcohol, most valuable specimens would often be obtained. When the

ovum comes away unruptured, it nearly always ruins the specimen to

examine it. It should be placed at once ina large quantity of Miiller’s

fluid, or in alcohol. If these are not at hand the ovum should be kept

temporarily in a large open-mouthed bottle until the hardening fluid

can be obtained. The specimen, even if not opened, can be injured

very easily by handling or by wrapping it with cotton or cloth. In

all these cases it is not advisable to throw injured specimens away, for

poor material is of value for dissection, and certainly is better than

none at all.

Gynecologists, who are more especially interested in this subject,

frequently have beautiful collections of specimens, and are by no

means inclined to part with them. Yet the advancement. of embry-

ology has shown that it is necessary to destroy, or rather to lay into

sections, the embryos before they can be studied properly. After a ,

good specimen is once sectioned, the whole embryo or any part of it

can be modeled quite easily on a large scale. This is necessary before

the parts can be studied properly, and it requires a great deal of time

and a considerable amount of costly apparatus, For this reason the |

embryologist feels justified in asking the gynecologist to part with his

highly prized material.

Those physicians who have small laboratories, and are acquainted

with the ordinary technique of hardening, should by all means harden

specimens in Perenyi’s chromonitric acid, in Kleinenberg’s alcoholic

picrosulphuric acid, in ten per cent. nitric acid, orin saturated solution

of corrosive sublimate. Others who are not familiar with the above

technique should use Miiller’s fluid or seventy per cent. alcohol.

The latter i is in general the best, and an Amount of the alcohol equal

1146 The American Naturaitst. [| December,

to at least five times the volume of the specimen should be used.

When a specimen is to be transported by mail or express it should be

transferred to a smaller bottle of alcohol of the same strength, and a

very small /sose cotton plug placed both above and below it.—F. MALL,

Clark University.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The National Academy of Sciences met in New York at

Coah College from November roth to 12th, inclusive. The follow

ing papers were read: Some Aspects of Australian Vegetation; G. E:

Goodale. The Nomenclature of Vegetable Histology ; G. L. Goodale.

On Certain New Methods and Results in Optics; Charles S. Hastings.

An Exhibition of the New Pendulum Apparatus of the U. S. Coast and

Geodetic Survey, with Some Results of Its Use; T. C. Mendenhall.

On the Use of a Free Pendulum as a Time Standard ; T. C. Menden-

hall. On Degenerate Types of Scapula, and Pelvic Arches in the

Lacertilla; E. D. Cope. The Proteids or Albuminoids of the Oat-

Kernel (second paper); Thomas B. Osborne. -Astronomical Methods

of Determining the Curvature of Space; C. S. Peirce. On Geograph-

ical Variation Among North American Birds, Considered in Relation

to the Peculiar Intergradation of Colaptes auratus and C. cafer; J. A.

Allen. On the Variation of Latitude ; S. C. Chandler. The Tertiary

Rhynchitide of the United States; Samuel H. Scudder. On a Color

System; O. N. Rood. Preliminary Notice of the Reduction of Ruth-

erfurd’s Photographs ; J. K. Rees. On the Application of Spectrum

Analysis to the Analysis of the Rare Earths, and a New Method for

the Preparation of Pure Yttrium; H. A. Rowland. A Nomenclator

of the Families of Fishes ; Theodore Gill. Measurement of Jupiter’s

Satellites by Interference; A. A. Michelson. The Follicle Cells of

Salpa; W. K. Brooks. The academy was entertained on the evening

of the roth by President Low, of Columbia College ; and on that of

‘the 11th by Mrs. Henry Draper. A part of the latter entertainment

consisted of an illustrated lecture by Prof. E. C. Pickering on the work

of the Draper memorial fund in astronomical research in South

America.

Biological Society of Washington.— October r7th.—The fol-

lowing communications were made : -Food Plants of the Indians of the

Death Valley Region ; Frederick V. Coville. Notes on Paleopathol- : |

Seen

Been

Te NP eee Wr a ennai

2 z Skee pees head

1891.] Scientific News. 1147

ogy, R. W. Shufeldt. The Fate of the Fur Seal in American Waters

(with lantern illustrations) ; William Palmer.

October 31s¢t—The Classification of the Tetrodontoidea ; Theodore

Gill. Some Fishes New to New England Waters; T. H. Bean,

Cuckoo Stomachs and Their Contents; Walter B. Barrows. The Tem-

perature of Trees; N. H. Egleston. Notes on Parasites: Develop-

ment of Echinorhynchus gigas; C.W.S tiles.

_ November r4th—Winter Aspects of the Mojave Deseet Region ;

. Palmer. A Case of Echinococcus in Swine; V. A. Moore.

Nore on Parasites: Coccidium bigeminum Stiles; C. W. Stiles.

Haeckel’s Radiolaria of the Challenger Expedition; L. F. Ward.

Three Days in the Tropics; L. F. Ward.—FREDERICK A. Lucas,

Secretary.

Boston Society of Natural History.—November gth.—The

following pap:rs were read : The Natural History Museums of Austra-

lasia; G. L. Goodale. Recent Fossils of the Harbor and Back Bay,

Boston ; Warren Upham.—SAMUEL HENSHAW, Secretary.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Princeton University Geological Expedition under Prof, W. B.

Scott has returned with much valuable booty. They explored the

valley of Deep River, Montana, where the Ticholeptus beds are seen,

and obtained a good series of the vertebrate species described from

those beds by Cope, together with some additional ones. Prof.

Scott finds three horizons of fossils in the valley, one of which at

least is Loup Fork, while the lowest one is nearly allied to the John

Day bed. :

The expedition on behalf of the American Museum of Natural

History, of New York, under direction of Dr. J. L. Wortman, explored

the Wind River and Big Horn Eocene regions in Wyoming, the

past.summer. Dr, Wortman was very successful, and we shall have

considerable new information respecting the interesting faunz which

these beds contain in the forthcoming report on them x Prof. Osborn

and Dr. Wortman. \

‘Prof. H. F. Osborn has accepted the position of Professor of Biology

in Columbia =. New York.

1148 The American Naturalist. [December, 1891.]

Prof. Frederick Starr has accepted the chair of ethnology and arche-

ology i in the Rockefeller University of Chicago.

Prof. C. H. Gilbert is Professor of Vertebrate Biology in the

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