CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Some Recent Papers on Earthworms, J. S. KINGSLEY. . .........

The TERR jizen of Structure in Poef pods. (Tllustrated.) ROBERT

Sexual Immobility sa a s of the Development of the Sporophyte.

Y: MACMIEMANS 6 o n o e A a a 22

A aema ferni i ) E. A. Anprews, Po.D., ..... 25

Siege Bercy ae of the Vertebrate Head. H. W. Norris. .... elves 95

Some e Causes and Results of Poya among the Pinnipedia. C.C.

Bieta ie ene, ee a a a ale a A N N eae 103

On the Genesis a the Chromatophores in Fishes. (Jilustrated.) Cart H.

ee er ig ee ee ee ake ae oP Pa ae ee ae 112

An Indian ae in Western New York. A. L.Benepict,M.D...... 119

Are Acquired Variations Inherited? H.F.Osporn.. .....2.... 191

On the Origin of the Galapagos Islands. G. BAUR. ........., 217

The Biological Work of American Experiment Stations.. C. M. Weep. . 230

The Evolution of the Circulatory Organs. (JI/lustrated.) W.C. Cana . 237

A i ids. Mrs. P. re RS le ae ase a E e we 48

Record of American eg A DoD. PAROMLET. o ee eee 252, 343, 548

pty re Customs of the Navajo India hiaten, IOR W Taigis is 303

On Origin of the e Galapagos Isl saro "(Cone neluded.) G. Baur 307

airen of the Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology for the year

1890. CHA g sa ei a Ce ae en ae 327

Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Beak AW we 334

Too Cells in Animal rae rk ary ratla i: 53 ‘Ss. op a cue bU

nt Lava Flow in New Mex De a = = wa 524

The Origin of the Avifauna of the Bake Oa Stars ee 528

On the Genus Chlamydophorus. strated. ) `D. D. oe mee 540

A Review of the Discovery of the Creta s Mammalia. (Jilustrated.)

HENRY Famerp OURORN ee a a a ee 575

Notes on Mesozoic Mammalia. O. C. Manso. ...........-. , 611

T B AVINOR o a ee et ee 17

ere Amateur Ph t to Sci (Illustrated. )

cW OODE: We a ee ee ee 6

On the Relations of ae preted (illustrated.) G. Baur... 631

Ene tatopterns. © (Flustrated.) E. D. Core, . -> <o a a a 685

Te ny = Garden Vegetables. (Continued. ) E. L. Srurtevanr 694, 801

A Reply to Pro rng h’s “ Note on Mesozoic Mammalia” cee sca

ENRY TE On HE EES Be en | ee are 75

Hemlock and Peles. “Ww. T RE oi ee 784

The Problem of the Soaring Birds. Gorau) J. LANCABTER. . .. 787

A Sketch of the Geology of South = GUSTAVE STEINMANN. . .. 835

Notes on the Hearts seh ge eae ale DA R PEER es ys 861

C FREE GUNNER Ce nk ee ew

— er the Prehistoric ensencate of Brittany (Illustrated). ALPHEUS S. to

The Double M Monster Rosa-Josepha Biazek. Bay Keentiguie Se. 1

guage and Max Müller. S. V. CLEV eaa E re ee es 951

iv The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXV.,

The pesar Triassic, oe Jurassic Formations in the East Indian Archi-

pelago [Timor and Rotti]. Avausr Rorarisis ......4.4...

The Hat Creek Bad had (Ilustrated). J.S. Kooi Sa ie eee

On the saara and Dynamics of. et Tissues. J. Lawes WILLIAMS .

The Mand of Mindoro. J.B. Areir: ooo Sr ee.

e Comparative Morphology of tey Fungi. Ri E HUMPHREY. oo oe

ocky Mountain hn Opeds. “BvGean PRMARe ocna eS

Life History o of the Vermilion- Spotted Newt {Digali viridescens Raf.)

N H. Syne Be at el eo gm re ee as Og ee ae ade ng open att

Recent Books AND PAMPHLETS.—39, 132, 356, 474, 561, 644, Sue 810, 896,

993

Re Ronn ie Wie ip’ OAN Suit SVE gs wie WA See SAG ST Aaa ae eee cae Ne ei Sn Gee, eee ine ene eee Wea” Tet Je

Recent LireraturRe.—Hyatt’s Insects, 42—Justus Roth’s Allegemeine

Golpe, 135—Sir Samuel Baker on Wild spp sts parai Their Ways Seri

ated ); Mexi icology, 260—H yatt and A aeei a, 358—

set Upon the United State es Su urvey W of t the ‘ae Ravaraith

Meridian, 476—The Oyster: A Popula Pilot of a Scientific Study,

ee ee of the Fossil oh gti and a (Amphibia) in the.

British Museum, Parts II., IH., and IV.— DREPE Tan

Fis aad Mrs. Bodin ngton on Tasia as a EE P on the Extince

Mammalia of Argentina; Fiirbringer’ s Researches on the ‘giles

and ecioe iis of Birds e s No k ERE Geology and Pal-

nata, and Crocodilia ; er’s Miner ralogical Tablets, erect. sa

Survey of Arkansas, 1880, Zoological Geography; The Ancestors of

geine Chemische Mineralogie; Fewkes

995—Flower and Lydekker’s Mammals; Kunz’s Gems and Preci

Stones Er ee ee

EprrortaL.—Science-Teaching in Common Schools, 36—Recent Progress

the he Study of the Tubercle Bacillus; Brains for Sale; The Geclogial

Survey of Georgia, 122—The “ Complete Unnatural Hist ory; New

Nai tional Parks, 470—Prof. Karl Vogt and the Naturalists; Extra-

American Explorations; New Associates of the National Academy of

Sciences ; Resignations of Philadelphia ee of Committee on I.

Dict 558

ames, omen’s Waists; Marine Biological Labora ; Meet

ing of vas argieeg Geotogea ppa d i. Execution by as, "17

—Meeting of the rican Asso on for the Advancement of

Science; Mesting of To pst rican Societ ead of Geologists; International

Congress o: pazes , 807—Scientific Journals; The Demise of the

in Geologi

Entomo

. Tariff TAABI oh on Scientific bole Major Powell’s Prpa Mepa: :

Recent Progress in the Disco ry of the e Phylogeny of

on ments of Original Scien fe Research; Reception Canisa of

he Washington Meeting A.A. A. B... o noona nunan Au ee

GENERAL NOTES. — Geography and Travel : The Sierra Madre i ae ee

—The Peary Exploring Expeditions for Greenland and the Surv:

Unexplored Regions of the Arctic Circle, 649—A Visit to the Philippine

Islands of Masbate and Marinduque, 731—Dr ur’s Tri

- Galapagos Islands

Geology and Paleontology © A i + the Discovery of the Cretaceous

Mammalia; On a New Species of Paleosyops pralki On Two

New Perissodactyles from the White-River Neocene of Nebraska; The

PAGE.

1084

1116

1112

902

1891.] Contents. Vv

PAGE,

Legge Formations of Western Texas; The Eighth ue of Reports

the Geological Survey of Illinois, '44—Discovery f Fish Remains

Birds from the mase Beds of Oregon ; Flora Se the Great Falls Coal

; t, 479—On

the Crystalline Schistsin the ys rins Alps; The Australian Daan

Fauna; Fossil Fish i

al :

Cretaceous of Kansas; Plistocene Subsidence versus Glacial Dams; On

Some New Fishes — South Dakota, 651—Elevation of America in

pa Cenozoic Periods; Discovery of Coal Near Dover, England; Occur-

nee of Texas Lignite ; The Geological and Natural History Survey of

Min nnesota, 735—Geological Survey of New Jersey, 1890; Elevated

the Years 1887-1888; Fossil Birds from the Equus Beds of Oregon,

815— ai Desert Sandstone of Australia; Structure of the Piedmont

Plateau; The Triassic of es The Relations of erg Pas aps

of the Newar ark System Lin N ew Jersey ; The Iron Ore Distri f East

licotherioidea ; The Fam cave of geen

pothertide On a Skull of the or excelsus Leidy, from the Equus

of Texas; The Glacial Deposits at a England, 907—The

rnia Cay

tralia; More New Mammalia from the hans of Patagonia, 997—

Crystalline Rocks of Te: Sulak Gorge; Olenellus mak in the

Northwestern Highlan f Scotland ; oo of Petroleum; Stego-

cephalian Skull from ie Kilken nny Coal M ausures; A New Te chthyo-

saurus; Skull and Hind Extremity of p pataje tn E ee es 1119

Geological News: General, Archean, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic, 277,

Ob; 200, 570; 608, 798, GI eo eis eer eee ee a’ 1124

ae e and Petrography: Mineral Syntheses; Physical Mineralogy,

2—New Minerals, 138, 374, 659; Petrographical News, 138, 367,

STI, 824, 1002; ‘Mineralogical News, 368, 660, 827, 1006; Misce llan-

eous, 145, rg err eee ig ee mr 830

Botany: Books for Young Collectors; A Study of the ~~ The -

Annual Report of the State Botanist of New York; How o Know

Northern Plants ; An Important Work On the Fungi; Ringing Trees

B ns News, 146; Protoplasmic Physics; Alcoholic Material k

Parry z0

Three Months of eg E sar noe 1010—Trees and Shrubs of the

Basin of the Red River of the North; Bearberry in Central Nebraska 1128

The American Naturalist. [Vol. XXV.,

Zoology: Abnormal Repetition of heir The Embryology of Spiders ;

Insects of Central Africa; Studie on Amphioxus ; — Amphibian

Blastopore; The Position of the Su un Grebes ; “ool i

branchus; The Anatomy of Scutigera; The Balancers o of Diptera ;

;

Nerve to ; nants 279—Re-

production of Urnatella; The Growth of Corals; The Changes of the

Salamander prendre viridescens, 3880—Plathelminthes ; Hermaphro-

ditism in the Crustacea; Observations on a Remarkable Development

in the Mudfish (Ji/ustrated); The Lower Jaw of Sphenodon; On the

ng the Pinnipedi

ders; Parmella sett The Spawning Season of San Diego Fishes;

The Pine al Eye; Migration of Butterflies in Florida,.577—Motion in

Zoologi

tion of Color in Animals of a Collection; The Structure of Paaaag

Metamerism in Hexapods ; Cottus b beldingii: A New igor Tempera-

ture and Number of Vertebræ in Fishes; Note n Gyrinop

maculicaudus Cope

ea en a N a a Ai ORS E E E AE A ah TA GI E

Embryology: A New Text- Book’ on the Embryology of Invertebrates;

Amphioxus; The Life-History of the Red Blood-Cor puscles; Appen-

dages of the First Abdominal Segments of the Gaibess Insects; Are

oetal Me

branes of Testudinata; The Placenta of Rodents ; On Shes Morphology

-5 Bilateral ee Bands of the Echinoderm Larve, 381—The

ent of

r of Amphioxus; Developmen of the

in singe hater of Glires, 406—Development of the Scy-

phostoma of e Se ee Gaon Body-Cavities of Paludina vivipara,

Aegae of Com d Ascidians; Development of the

PAGE.

1181

1891.] Contents. vii

PAGE.

pacer amy 670—Some Notes on the Breeding Habits and Em-

brology of Frogs, 753—Notes on ae Development of ong frome 838

—Studies in an iip pods; The Regeneration of the Tail of Lumbricu-

lus; Neuroblasts in the Arth ropod Embryo; Morphological Notes from

the Biological Laboratory of the Johns Hop kins University, 917—

Enis of the Sea Bass; The Developmen sA of Hydra; Morphology

of the Vertebrate pn Di riple Fertilization in Egg of Domestic

Fowl (Illustrated), 1020—A New Larval Form from Jamaica; Hat-

schek’s Interpretation of the Annelid REOSHOPNONG AE I EEE oes 1135

Entomology: A Review of Some aar Curculio Literature, ae

in Iowa; Indiana Insect Notes; Oviposition of the A Cureulio o

(Illustrated), 168—Dr. Lintner’ s Sixth Report; Sexual Selection in

i i ed); Species of

vi io’ Dectes osus (Il

Hymenoptera; Papers by Miss Murtfeldt; American ogi Hemip-

sith n Polished Harvest Spider (Ilustrated), 298—Recent Publica-

tio Osborn on Pediculi an lop aga ; eneen Tertiary

Insects ; Packard’s Peron Insect 885th bag eed” and

Mexican “ J umping Bean,” 673— The White Wax Habits of Coccinella

convergens ; Tra patceeations of Coleoptars; 761—Entomology at Wash-

ington, 922—*“ Biological Papers Lepidoptera of Buffalo; Kero-

sene Emulsion - Oe cece of Aphididw; a Smith on the Rose-

Chafer ; Heteroptera of Tennesse Tate sof Entomology; Entomo-

logical "Personals ; hanes Bullet ee Os Ga ee eee 439

Physiology: Vasomotor Nerves of the Portal Vein; Relations Betwee

Molecular Weight, Molecular Structure, _ Physiological Action ; Life-

arei of Blood Corpuscles, 290—Note on oe i pa Instinet in Ani-

Instance of the Black Snake “Attacking Man 384

Psychology : Professor Moll on Hypnotism ; Was it Hallucination? The

Origin of the Erect Tailin the Domestic Dog. . . ........ 170

Archeology and Ethnology: The Societe d Anthropologie at Paris,

ciation ; lap o re toric ' Bavar aria, 5—Th e Mexican Tona-

lamath ; ; d Mij

of Spy; Continuation and Close of Proceedings of the American

ciation forthe Advancement of Science. .........-+4.44.. 1084

Microscopy: a. Nerve-Fibres ; pana dood s Methods with thy 6

Fish ki ium, 85—Meth

Me ; Va ification

Weigert’s M ; Upson’s Gold-Staining Method for Axis Cylinders

and Nerve Celle: "Methods of Preparing Rotifers, 846—Methods of

Preserving Human Embryos

as seit aiid annem ti 185, 298, 399, 505, 593, 681, 849,

a Pes A ee i 8 ee 1144

Secunia tae 188, 302, 408, 507, 594, 682, 773, 853, 1039, + - + . . 1145

ae El

NM:

et ise’

43 slog K

ae ke

1891. ]

Index.

INDEX.

Rana catesbiana,

Repetition of Parts,

Acrogens, 152.

Acid Inclusions i in the Volcanic Rocks

of Auvergne, 138.

A er ssa Duplication of Urosome

740.

53.

Acquired Variations, 191.

Additions to the Flora of Staten Island,

ichmophorus occidentalis, 359, 361.

998.

Eluropoda melanoleuca, 9

thusa ospa, 785.

Agamodon compressum, 669

Agave ore 970.

Aguilari

Aleohoti Material for oe ast Work

ystematic Botany, 377.

Ali ideoda lentus, 604.

Alamandine , 663.

emische Mineralogie,

628.

e Extinct Mammalia

rge Settee: 725.

American Association for the Advance-

of Science, 1891, 986, 807,

Geological aeei: 721, 774.

Minerals

inera

Morphol ` Societ ty, 92.

Ornithologists’ Union, 93, 1039

Physiological Socie 1

Society of whi td

roa of Microscopists, 682. |

Hemiptera, kaide pigga |

acces the he Prohist stori onuments of |

_ Brittany, A. 8. Pac kard, $70. |

Ameeba, 1076. |

Amphibian Blastopore, 54, |

Amphioxus, 59, 4 |

Ancestors of Our Animals, 900.

André, Edmond, 853.

Andrews, E. A., ‘A Commensal Annelid,

Annual oe of the State Botanist of

ork, 51.

Anorthite, a

nser albifrons, 820.

Anser condonii, 820.

Ant us quadrigibbus Say, 168, 169.

Sahasa. 829.

ER (a at the Meeting A.A.A.S.,

1891, 929.

at the Paris let 178.

Laboratory of, 77.

cat =t ; the First Abdominal

of Embryo Insects, 60.

Appropriation for the Dabei Bosio.

Aquila chtysaitos,” 821.

onite, 370.

rchean News, 738, 822.

ocks of the Japanese Islands, 368.

Archeology and hnology, 73, 172,

887, 499, 587 "eq, 764, 840, 929,

Arctotherium bonærense Gervais, 997.

simum Cope, 998.

Ardea sath dot 820.

egretta, 820.

patocciad dentalis, 82.

Are spn d Variations Inherited? —

. F. Osborn, 191.

Are the Arthropods Ancestors of the

Vertebrates? 61

ee eed” and ‘“ Mexican Jump-

= 673.

ing Bean

Art and Industry during the goed

in the Caverns,

Artodiscus par Penard, 1076.

Asbestos, 663.

Ascidian, noi ea of, 670.

Ascoidea rubese:

Ashtaroth, Worship of, 592.

Asphalt, 1127. K

ion of American a or

Third Annual Meeting, 92

Assulina minor, 1078.

semilunum, 1079.

Asterias vulgaris, 920.

TEESE ake 364.

x The American Naturalist.

Astragalus mollissimus Torrey, 152.

Astrapotheriidz, 912.

— bicornis, “ 67

A rae scutata, 738.

Atractaspis leucura, 670.

Attus Sap 293.

Auerl e

Anglesi 007.4

San, erk

Australian Cenozoic Fauna, 568.

Anthrobothrium nT. 665.

Axinite, 660.

Azurite, 1009.

agente Tubercle, Progress in the

of: 122.

Bacteria Souring Milk During Thunder |

Sto

, A. S. Treadwell, 1010.

Bayley, W. $ S., "Review of Kunz’s Gems |

nd Pre cious Stones of North

America, 1119.

Bailey, W. W., Hemlock and Parsley,

Baker, Sir Samuel, on Wild Beasts and

Their Ways, 260.

3alancers of Diptera, 281.

3anded Rocks, 826.

he Origin of the Gala-

]

I ts

Basalt of Royat

E ite, 1008

: tau, 889

Baur, G., On t

pagos Is ia 8, 2

On the Relations of Carettochelys

y. 681.

The awan Jaw of. Sphenodon, 489.

Remarks on the ape Generally

all

Called Dinosauria, 434.

Bearberry in Central Raveake, 1130.

Beauxite, 1

Beecherella, 11 ah

Behrens’s rere = 575.

mt, A, L, An Indian Grave in

Now York, 119.

Bergen, J.¥.,A Primer of Darwinism,

Bertrandite, 829.

Bessey, C: i E;, -On the Annual Report

tate Botanist of New or

On McAlpine’s | How to Know

Grasses by Their Leaves, 51.

On eTA Study of the Snow-

Plant,

Biologists, 853.

[Vol. XXV.,

| Biological Society of Washington, D. C.,

88, 8, 298,

- Butterflies, Migration of, 580.

400, 506, 598, 1144.

n Experiment

Stations, C. M. Weed, 230.

Birds, Morphology of, 727.

Bismuthinite, 661.

Black Sn ake ? Attacking Man, 386.

Bluefish,

Bodington, oe On Evoluti n, 647.

Body-Cavities ‘of Paluskans ene, 584.

Bolodon crassidens Owen,

Bon say teh On the Crystalline

Schists and Their Relation to the

Manmnie: Rocks in the Lepontine

Boracite

Borate, 374.

Bos americanus, 269.

Alps

Books for Young Collectors, 50.

; ae.

caffer, 269.

maine ined

Sesion Beaty of Nataral History, 399,

593, 1145.

Botanical Literature, 161.

New

eee 50, 146, 876, 484, 580, 914,

010, 1128.

at the Was iat Mee tings, 914.

Serera s ca fee sine may Puit

ere lia, 8

Bow Skete hae

Brachyophis Isler 669.

rain, Avian, 900.

Brains for Sale, 130.

Branta promi a, 819.

Brassica,

Brassica rapa oblonga, 804.

ipa esculenta DC. 804.

depressa, 805.

Braun, M. Dr. , 858.

Breeding Habits and Embryology of

. Mor

ogs, organ, 7

British Society for the Advancement of

cience, 682.

W. K., 854.

Puckinadios diluvii, phe

Budding in Polyzoa, 666.

Bull. Essex Inst., Vol. XXIII., Nos. 4,

, and 6, 1040.

urgess, Edward, 8

Buteo borealis calurus, 610.

C4ENOPUS occidentalis Leidy, 48.

simplicidens Cope, 48.

Be ERD

Sie ad

1891.]

Cahall, wW: C., The Evolution of the Cir-

ry Organs, 237.

Calvan Skull,

California, Tenth A Annual Report of the

State Mineralogist, 269.

Callicrinus acanthinus, 788.

as got: pellucidas , 882

sus, 832.

Canadian i Rocks, 863.

annon-Bone of arempi 282.

( arboniferous mew

Jarcharodon rondelet er" | a

Jarettochelys inept € 619, 658, 6 68i.

aeaa ie Ca nadian Plants, 1

——. of Fossil Reptilia and aoe

a (Amphibia) in the British

se os Pts. II., III., and IV.,

T PRE rex, 667.

omen News, 276, 366, 658, 739, 828,

Galenterats a and Echinoderms, 695.

Cervus aristotelis, 269.

ec see "369,

Cercaria dichotoma; 1135.

Cerussite, 1007.

— mino

Steet

m friesia

Changes of the Salamander 7 Dienyétybu |

us californ

ope, 60

Chiamydophorus D. D. Slade, 540.

Chlori

ya eks di ifforme, 376.

Chalcopyrite,

Chronology of the Age of Bronze in

urope,

Chronological Relations Between the

ilizations of

Cimoliosaurus from the Niobrara Cre-

taceou m = Kansas, 653.

Fomr ns Ses

reularly Polacising Substances, 144.

Civilization, € C. Morris, 730.

Plistocene Formations

and taxed Forms, 946.

Index. xi

yahe tk vx V., Language and Max

r, 951.

The Com Man, | 617.

apn vera. Lave 738.

Clover-Seed need anat 925.

Shige sagax, 1538.

Coal, Dover, sg gree 736.

Meas of = yeaa 864.

Measures of Montana, 483.

Clictindtia oi Sajo. Food 'Habitsof, 764.

Coccoborus prunicida, 68.

oce vers ap liassicus, 278.

odling Moth, 65.

enterata, 65.

œælenterates and te 995.

olliguaja Saas

oloration of the tar Sed 577.

olumbite, 1009

omatricha longa, 51.

Saeaeqeaeagcs

—

cæspitosa, 51.

Commensal Anneli [illustrated], E. A.

Andrews,

Complete ae History, 470.

Compoun nd a = rustaceans, `

Compsomyia

eee koloreari of Geologists,

808, 942.

Conotrachelus eager 63.

Cooke, E., Life- History of Blood-

’ Corpuscles, 290.

Cope, E. D., A New Species of Frog

from New Jers rsey, 101 ae

The California Cave Bear

The Epiglottis in Colabrise: Snakes,

156.

More New ammalia. from the

ene of Patagonia, 1000.

On Some New Fishes from South

Ege

On a Skull o e Equus excel

nai, fr eg ‘ke Equus Beds of of

xas, 912

ay the ve Non-Actinopterygian Tele-

ostomi, 479.

On Two New Perissodactyles from

the White-River Neocene of Ne-

braska,

Pair 6 of Man » 991.

Presentation of the Hayden Medal

103

aie on =A Extinct Mammalia

of Argentin: 5.

On Bergen’s Sona of Darwinism,

730.

Review Flower and Lydekker’s

Mammals, 1116.

Review Fiirbringer’s Researches on

the Morphology and Systematic

of Birds, 727.

xii The American Naturalist.

Review Lydekker’s Catalogue of

Fossil Reptilia and manoa in

the British Museum, Pts. II.,

UI., snd IV., 644.

Review of Miller’ s North American

Geology and eee 729.

peti on Civilization, 730.

Review of Morris’s Aryan Race,

Renos A. S. Woodward’s Fossil

Fishe es, 646.

Review Mrs. Bodington’s Studies

The appie rmh 685.

n’s

Copiapite, 662.

Copula atory ya of Snakes, 490.

oral Reefs i in Gulf of Mexico, 277

74.

1081.

Crepidula. fornicate 919,

Cretaceou gt Ra in Mexico, 366.

exas, 365.

Crinoid, Stalked, 778.

Crocodilus us vulgaris, P

Crotalaria sagitalis L 152.

Crustacea and Echinoderms of Japan,

Cryolite, 373.

Crystalline Rocks is Missouri, 1120.

Schists and their Relation to the

Mesozoic Rock ks in the Lepon-

tine ape T. C. Bonney, 565.

Style, 666.

Refractometer, 145.

ure, 576.

tus, 277.

Cup gl tas Old Barts Ransom,

Cutting z and | Filling of t Valleys, oo

averns, and These

g upon the Tais “of

Cyprina planata, 739.

[Vol. XXV.,

ALL, W. H., Elevation of America in

Cenozoic Periods, 735

365.

Dapedius,

ra ote elongata, 669.

Dawsonite, 663.

Davies, Witla , 410

Death of Salmon after Spawning, T. H.

an,

ths Leth

Dectes spino s, 294.

Demise of the Entomologia Americana,

Dermestes vulpinus, 925. [896.

Descensus testiculorum, 2

Description of a New Species of Catos-

Brunsw

Descriptions of Three New Species of

xican Bats, H. S. Ward,

Des: rt Sandstone of oe 970.

Development of the rican Lobster,

F. H. Herri Ok 672 2.

oe Compound Ascidians, 678.

f Cyanea artica, 287.

of the Fresh Water Sponge, 283.

of Hydra, 1027.

of Bae Male Brg speci 5 Organs in

kes

of une A 162.

in the Mud-fish, 487

cyphostoma of the Sey-

medusae, 583.

paraita. Shale, 1127.

Diabase, 826.

Hh ico 1008.

Siluri 1003.

Diatoms of f North America, 484.

Dickinsonite, 371.

Diemy:

Difflugia PAT Perty, 1071.

rubescens

Dinotherium oa Kaup, 1117.

Dipnoi, 1120.

robustus, à , 604.

Dipriodontidæ, 604

Dip otodon ausiera

Jiplosis pyrivora, 927.

Vissostira l ennis, 925.

Distaplia amarceeum, 6

taisa of matter, 509.

Joelter’s nag Chemische Min-

Dog, NE of Erect Tail of, Han-

cock, 845.

fe ies sa em A My

1897.]

Donacia, 403.

Dorcatherium aquaticum,

Double Monster a amen Blazek,

Drilling i in ge New York, 364.

tere Pet

ARLE C. On

Palaeosyops, 45.

pore ar in nade ore

Earthw

Eco sahiase E Mabini ‘ena

923.

Editorial, 36, Er niie 558, 640, 717,

990, 1

95,

Effect of rear raea upon Indices of |

Refraction, 574.

The Eighth ih o see of the I.

eol,

en C. a

e Chro matophores in Fishes,

[Illustrated] T

Elasmobranch Head, 1018.

in Cenozoic

s, Wm. Dall, 735.

Elevated pea diir on Grand Cayman,

816

Kabeyottgy 56, 162, 282, 381

set 670, 753, 888, 917,

of Gecko, 166.

, 496,

"1020,

Emb: "r ii Methods of Presery-

142.

A Sen po

Eneyrtinal, 92

Endowments for Original Scientific Re-

searc |

AEN kolas ‘on Development of

Entepieondylar ste hl in Man, 161,

Entomologia America

, 68, 168, 293, 585, 673, 761,

gton, 92

t Publication

22.

s, 585. |

ee eais Recent, 1142.

ersonals, 1141.

Pan Fauna, 817.

rM.,

a Rooks sr their Plutonic Facies,

573.

a New Species of

he Genesis of

Index.

xiii

Eozoon, 1126.

TS in oe Snakes, E. D.

lineaticol

E) ardsii, 669.

Errata of Article on Chromatophores,

Eruptive Rocks, 824.

Ethnic Elements Arba et. to the Men

baton Ages of Stone,

e, he Ta , 764.

Ethnographie om

Stateo of a) Primitive Population

of Central or Western Europe,

840.

tah 172, 887, 499, 587, 675.

Eucalyp nus muralis, 738.

at "828,

Eudialite, "a 828.

Eury 278.

ARER alve, a a E

778, 845.

is]

Evolution of the Circulatory Organs,

[Illustra . C. Cahall, 237.

Extra-American n Explo ration, 559.

Eye in Blind Crayfishes, 832,

Eyes in Arcturus, 834.

egg to nc hen 371.

haat 659.

S 1008.

ergusonite,

70.

Fertilization i in the Cetodes, 665.

Fewkes, W , Cælenterates and Echino-

erms, 995.

Field, G. ste On the ee it the

Bilateral Cili: Ba

repeii Larvae

File fish, 1020.

ila & of the Caverns, 390.

Fillowite, 371.

Fishes, Fossil, from S. Dakota, 654.

Dalifornia, 153.

of the te Oilites, 278.

Fish Remains in Ordovician Rocks,

Fish-Fauna, Mesozoic, 652.

uth American, 836.

Fistulina hepatica, 1

Fixation of the "Menthylenblue Stain,

846.

Flexed Strata in Arkansas, 364.

Xiv The American

Flora of Goma t 1010.

Flora of t oer Falls Coal Field,

Mon

Flora of ihe “High AS Plain, 485. |

Floun der, 1020. |

Flower d Lydekker s Mammals, E. D. |

Cope,

Fluorite, see of, 144.

cetal Membranes of gets ati 381.

of the Sea ana |

Forest Insects, A. S. P.

ard, 586.

Fossil Birds from ats aces Beds

Oregon

R. W. Shufeldt, aa

4 ep

Frass, Q., , 509.

Frazer, P., Mineralogical Tables, 814.

Fresh-Water Fauna of Madagascar,

Frogs, Embryology of , 758.

New Species of, from New Jersey,

Ti americana, 361, 820.

20.

Fonction ‘of Gemmiform Pedicellariz

hinoids,

Fungi, ye Important Work on, aang

gaue ok M., Researches the

orphology Mae Bpatematio of

Birde, 727.

pay wits 826, 1002.

Gaertner, AE Vivisection, 864.

ba = E e Changes of the Sala-

a. Pama viridescens,

Life-History of the Vermilion Spot-

ted Newt, 1084.

Garden Vegetables, 674, "807.

Garnet, 663.

Ge aa major: 487.

Gems and | Precious Stones of North

America, G. F. Kunz, 1119.

General Culture s an Object in Teach-

Genito-Intestinal Canal i in Trematodes,

Geography and Travel, 273, 649, 731,

Geological a of Princeton Uni-

1145.

versity,

Expedition i in Wyoming, 1145,

991.

Maps,

News, 277, 363, 483, 570, 659, 738,

822, 1124,

Naturalist [Vol. XXV.,

Nomenclature, 896.

Society of America, 90, 9

Survey of esa Sag 1, "699.

Survey of Geo

and Natural create Survey of

Minnesota, 737.

dpe of hate ro 1890, 815.

Survey of Tex

Survey United | States, 773.

ee. at South America, G. Stein-

n, 855

of W stern Texas, H

and Palson tology, 44, m 275, 359,

479, 565, 651, 735, 815, 907. 997,

Gephyrura coneentrica, 654.

erres cinere

Gesture of the Mouth Among American

Indi , 182.

Gila Seg 668.

ilbert, C. H., 1145.

Glacial Deposits at Herndon, England,

913

Lato 8, 279.

Period, ' Age e of, 277.

—— = Orthoptera, 834.

peni wr + um rea color, 152.

Glyptaster oe 738.

Goss, N. S. Col.,

G 361.

Ae aie, sebastiania, 674.

Grasses, 51.

Gra;

Greenstone Schist Areas of the Me-

and Marquette Regions

of Michigan, 572.

Gray’ s n E of Botany, 485.

raywacke, 140.

Griphite, 659.

Raa of Corals, 380.

Growth Periodicity of the Potato- Tuber,

C. Macmillan, 462.

Guanajuatite, 6 661.

Guano of Navassa, 277.

baphs ilus maniticaudus Cope, 1133.

| gopieniond of ae of Diemyctyleas viri-

descens, 1098.

Pistons aa te 55.

Halodon sculptus, 603.

serr

atus,

Halotrichite, 1009.

alymenites i, 822.

EIE bes J. rE “Note on Imperfect In-

n Animals,

Triple F Pertilizetion in Egg of Do- |

030. !

Eeer

Harv

Spider, 29 95,

1891.]

Hat Creek Bad Lands, J. S. Kingsley, |

Hatschek’s Interpretation of the Anne-

i hophore, 1137.

Haworth, E., Age ate One of th

Cryst ‘dies: Rocks of Missouri,

Hayden Memorial Geological Medal,

1039.

Hay, wie | Note on Gyrinophilus mac-

icaudus Cope, 1133.

dak: p Certain Mammals,

1040.

Hyde.

Heidenhain, M., Dr.,

Hekaterobranchus, 280.

eleopera

ia of Hydra, E. B. Wilson,

418

p R e nena irs 669.

tropidole 59.

Hinto i paenga W. W. Bailey,

Hennegny’s Methods with Pelagic Fish-

, 86.

maphroditism i in ‘a a 487.

a E

= Development of the

can Lobster, 672.

enophthalmus anit |

Heteroptera of ‘Tenn |

Hill, R. T., Notes on the gi of |

Western Texas, |

p enes s eer siekisde 677,

ippod ,

Hip ia converge

Histological Methods in es ISe

Hist of Garden Vegetables (con- |

peera 2 Sturtevant, 694, 801.

Hohmannite,

Holodon, 600.

Homunculus pat agonicus, 1000.

Hopley, C., Observations on a Remark-

able Development in the Mud-

487.

Hop: , 925.

Hornblende, '831.

Horn Fl 4.

Host-Plants of Aphididæ, 1140.

Know Grasses

How to y their Leaves,

5i.

Human Remains of the Quaternary

; 764.

in Spain, 767.

Human Stirpicult

rn w

J. The parative

pd ai of the Font S 1055.

index.

| Infusore, n ‘es

Protoplasmic emt 876.

Humming-Bird’s Tongue, 1020.

js oth e, 871.

Huronian, The Name, 651.

Huas ree nguage, 504.

Siveit a and — on Insecta, 358.

Hyatt’s Insects, 42.

Hybodus delabecki, 278, 365.

Hyde, J. or otes on the Hearts of

gr n Mammals, 861.

Hydra

Hydra faa 1027.

oe ai

8, 1027.

Hyla Dieii, 754.

p ane s aaa

Hyperplatys ye asperus, Say, 168.

Hypnotism, 170, 183.

[CHTHYEREPETUM hibernicum,1128

ichthyosaurus, A New, 1123

fekthyosourue burgundit, 1123.

[chthy ocrinus con

Imenite

ndependence Shales, 1127,

ndex to North American _Mycological

Literature, 151.

oS ee ey

to Recent

Literat ure, 1

Indiana sine my of ees 186, 299.

168.

| Indiana faaie Notes

arewan of Rocks, 824.

Industrial pr am pate} Society of Ala-

l ee

| Influence of pote E on the Trans-

piration of Plants, 152

EER of Central Africa, 54.

owa, 168.

Instinct, in Animals, Imperfect, Han-

ock, 384.

internacional Congress of Archelogy

and Prehistoric Ethnology, 387,

499, 587, 675, _ 840, 1031.

Geological Cong , 1891, 808,

Iron Ore District of East Texas, 910.

es, 831.

Island of Mindoro, J. B. Steere, 1041.

Tsophyllia dipsacea, 380.

Ittnerite, 663.

R. T., The Mechanical

Origin of Structure’ in Keegan

illustrated

Journal of Pemeaeare Neurology, 510.

Jurassic Fish, 278.

JACHOOR, i

xvi

ALI pere 659.

Kallicite, 660.

Kellogg, J. L., ; Wandering Cells in

Animal Bodies, 5

Kerosene Emulsion, iis.

Keyes, C. R., Rev Americ

Paleontology for | this year 1890,

iunis, 5 S., Hyatt’s Insects, 42.

Record of American Zoology, 252, 343,

548, 707, 984.

— Teaching i in Public Schools, 36.

Sere cent Papers on Earthworms, 1.

@ Hat Creek Bad Lands, 963.

iiaei 661

Koken, E., Dr., 509.

Korshelt, E., and K. Heider. A New

Sae t Bo ok ọn the Embryology

Invertebrates, 56.

aiai. 662.

J ABOBRATORY of Anthropology, 77.

Lagoons of Nebraska, 279.

e iaie of the

, 482.

rof., Tndividuality of Boks,

— and Max Muller, 8. V. Clev-

r, 951.

enger

Lankester, E. Ray, 509.

r aa ibe Development of Am-

ee s, 496.

Larus denen ae 820. e

glaucus, 819.

nes

robustus, 819.

Lave: row in New Mexico [Ulustrated]

Iph 8. Tarr, 524.

1005,

dodendron murrayanum, 822.

ide of Buffalo, 1139.

.ettsumite, sy

DEEE

» T. H me Stones Near Old

nsom, N. D., 455.

Lievrite, 371.

Life story of the Red Blood Corpus-

cles, 59,

the Vermilion-spotted Newt.

S.H , 1084.

Lignites, eae

trum m, 762.

Limestone of Vitletangue and Biarritz,

Limulus, 666.

Lingnintie Map of the Indians of N.

oJ. W. Powell, 930.

The American Naturatist.

Marsh, O. C.,

| malia

[Vol. XXV.,

TER Dr., Sixth Report as State En-

mologist of New York, 293.

Tiia, politum, 296.

ipkea es ge 289.

Lirioden 2.

List of State and Local Floras of the

d States and British Amer-

ef 4.

PE e 871.

a Eres e E. - wad ste

obster, Development o

tee Weeds, 152.

Lohest, M., The Prehistoric Man of

Spy, 103

py,

Lovell, aa Mrs. A Few Native Or-

48.

Lower ps ar Sphenodon, G. Baur, 489.

Lye opersicum humboldtii Dun., 801.

pimpinellifolium Dun ., 801.

py rere e Dun 801.

Tamnea paar, 851.

MACMILLAN. C., On the Growth-

Periodicity of the Potato-

Sexual Immobility as a Cause of

the Development of the Sporo-

phyte, 22.

Table showing the Relative sans

bution Southwestward of Certai

Distinctively Boreal Genera of

North American Spermophytes,

Th ree Months in Elementary

Se any, 0138.

Maerodactyla subspinosa, 1140.

EREN e, 140.

Magelona, Distribution of, 666.

NeGee, Be An Ex SS in Hu-

an Stirpiculture,

Mesias areolata, 380.

Mammalia from the Eocene of Pata-

gonia, E. D. Cope, 1000.

Mammals, Develo opment of, 162.

Flower Soap Lydekker, 1116.

Me-ozoic, 611.

Man Durie the Tertiary Period, 84,

Map of Prehistoric Bavaria, 3

Marine Biological tandenions of hosel

507.

Biological Laboratory of the Penn-

sylvania reien 508.

Biological Libra :

the Discovery of the Cretaceous

Mammalia, 44

ae ee Ons Sie ee ne A TEET A S eee Sate Te

Motes < ok Mesouvic Mam-

i AAEE

Pe EES EE E LT SE DEE NEE TENE E E E ere E T EE E

T PE ENGT e ULA R PEI

1891.]

Mastodon angustidens, 823.

Mechanical Origin of Structure in

Pelecypods, R. T. = ckson, 11.

Medullated Nerve-Fibres,

Melanophlogite, 827.

Melitta cucurbitae, 924.

Melursus labiatus, 260.

Menhaden, 1020.

iscoëssus, 602.

conquistus Cope, 598.

Merniscotheriidae and Chalicotherioidea,

Menodus eubiricentic Leidy, 47.

peltoceras, 48.

platyceras, 48.

Men = rT 766.

Meri labradorius, 742.

i REN damonti, 278.

Mesozoic = Fauna in New South

He. s, 652.

Mammalia, “0. C.M

oaa News, 278, ord chs. 738, 822,

Metacinnabarite, 661, 1006

Metam n Hex apods,

Metamorphic ze aeeie mache of

tiie. af Murootisiók Hydroids, ete.,

Methods for rks Preservation of Pelagie

183.

ries of Rendering Shag Nemer-

ean Eggs T nt, 398.

Mex xian Civilization, 9 33.

Mexica: rizona Plants of 1890,

mer, 1013.

Rarer 503.

Microscopy, | 85, 183, 397, 846, 1142.

Mic of calcareous oölites

serie aed

Migrations Faded Prehistoric Peoples,

Mika. Operation, 593.

Miller : Description of a New

‘Jumping Mouse from Nava

Scotia and Labrador, 742.

and Dalowainlney 729.

‘Mindoro, 1041.

Mineralogy, 577.

Mines and Workshops of Flint, 1032.

Mineralogical s, 660, 827, 1006.

Tables, P. Pue 14.

Mineralogy and Petrography, 138, 367,

Mineral Syntheses 142.

Mioplosus

Mixtec and Mije, 504.

Mocquard, M. F. Recent Researches

, 657.

Index.

xvii

in the Herpetology of Africa,

Moll, A. On Hypnotism, 170.

Molluscs, 55

Mollusks, aea of, 1016.

; oea cd

aan eed Larval Form

tt il 1185.

Notes on the Breedin ng

Habits and Embryology of

Frogs,

Wilson’s Embryology of the Sea

ass, 1020.

Morphological Notes from the Labora

tory of Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity,

Morphology of the Avian n Brain, 900.

of the Bilateral Ciliated Bands of

the Echinoderm Larvæ, 382.

of the Fungi, J. E. Humphrey,

of the Siphonophores, 664

and Systematic of Birds, 727.

of the Vertebrate Head, J. B.

tt, F

Morris, C. Civilization, a Historical

Review of its Elements, 730.

The A Race $

Mortuary Custom of the Navajo

Indians, R. v. Nag felit, 303.

Motion. in the 664.

tion, 395.

Murtfeldt, M. E. , Papers by, 295.

Muscle Growth, 185.

Mutual relations of Land Elevation and

sci spss umulation Period, 482.

dur rniran Period, 482.

Mycological Literature, 151.

Myloleucus formosus, 359.

Ne ee ie Academy of Sciences,

1144

National P Parks, 470,

Beni 4 of Analogy, J. Jas-

w, 929.

Natoral i Selente Association of Staten

sland, A

Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 187.

Nebela collaris, Leidy, 1073.

barbata, 1073.

longicollis, 1073.

Nematode Leaf Disease. 925.

Nemopanthes 852.

canadensis,

Neo-Darwinism and POO TANTE,

Neopla giaulax i oine, 600.

Nerves of Tortoise OHM 281.

xviii

Nervous System of Convoluta, 771.

Neuroblasts in the Arthropod Embryo,

New Acquisitions to the Eocene Fauna

from Southern Patagonia, 817.

New Associates of me National Acad-

iences, 560.

New Dent ury Mistieri, 560.

New parr Fishes, 153.

New Minerals, 374

Newt wi. Versii ai 1084.

Perce Count 33.

Nez

Nickel e Copper ‘Deposits i in the Sud-

ury (Canada) District, 488.

Nita eae

Non-Actinopterygian Teleostomi, E. D.

Neotoma torquata, n

ent Dron of the

334.

can oe eee.

Renkin. Limits f the aa 834.

Notes on Som oy Bose of Donacia, 403.

Notes on Tunicates 84.

T SE HA e of the Causes and

sults of, Polygamy Among the

Pinn ipedia, 1

Nyctinomus depressus, Ta.

Mae. astrophora , 1059.

Irei — of anhy y 862.

or of as Lignites, 737.

a tacts the -), 569.

dium ry rg

irae in Golando, 365.

Olenellus Zone in the Northwestern

Hi ighlands of Scotland, 1122.

Oligoplarchus squamipinnis , 656.

Omosaurus armatus Owen, "411.

- Onychodus ar: , 138.

port ogc! of Limulus, 282. .

Oolites, 140.

Ophiolites , 1005.

Optical achat: in Uniaxial Crystals,

Optical Orientation, 577.

Orangite, 1008.

Orbicella annularis, 380.

ids, 2

Ordovician Chart, 364.

Origin of the Anis, Agriculture, and

gh eet of the Bahamas, F. M.

Balama Tsk Isla lands, 3

oe se me G. Baur, 217,

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXV.,

Great Lakes, 276.

Man Pig

Sch

s e, aa.

Orthoptera et 834.

Osborn, H.

Are pene Variations Inherited?

A Reply to Prof. Marsh’s ‘‘ Note

On Mesozoic Mammalia,” 775.

A Review of the Cretaceous Mam-

malian Fauna of North America,

298.

A Review of the “ aeea of the

Cretaceous Mamm 44.

A Review of the “ poai ia of the

yade Mammalia,” [Tllus-

trated], 575.

Osborn, H. L., on Pediculi and Mallo-

h 5.

Osmic Carmine for the Histology of the

us Tam; 772.

1005.

Outlines sad Entomology, 1141.

Overthrust Faults in the Southern Ap-

palachians, 364.

Oviposition of the Apple Curculio, 169.

ectes spinosus, 294.

Oyster, W. K. Brooks, 563.

pee A. S., Among the Prehis-

ric Monuments of Brittany,

Fo rest Insects, 586.

Palaeosyops,

Palaeosyops Ta eee 45.

Paldsotetriz gi i 821."

herium crassum, 46.

ioris ropology, 768.

eenma id of Argentina, 481.

| Paleozo

c News, 277, 368, 658, 738, 822,

117.

Pallene empusa, 397.

Pancreas, Batrachian, Development of,

97.

| Paralichthys en. oe

Aolo Faria T

Parasi

rpa um, 1012.

Parry

- Peace pesk Bone-Beds of Florida, Age

Peary Expl Exped. for one and

e Survey of Unexplored Re-

of the Tan Circle,

of Echinoids, 279.

and Mallophaga, Osborn,

649.

Pedicellariæ

Pediculi

585.

1891.]

Pedioceetes lucasii, 820.

nanus,

ae: a , Rocky Mountain Rhizopods,

Pen e Ran nge, 278.

Periodicity of Glacial Phenomena, 499.

erissodactyles from the White-River

ee E. D. Cope, 47.

Perkinsia, 153.

othonops, 153.

Permanence of Ocean pls 277.

Permian, Triassic, and Jurassic Form

tions in the East India an jpet

pelago age and Rotti), August

Rothpletz, 959

Perowskite, 829

Petrographical News, 867, 571, 824,

1002.

Petroleum, Origin of, 1122.

hagocata, Anatomy of, 1015.

Phenacite, 141, £ 3, 829.

Masbate and

arinduque, 731.

a 831.

Phocen munis, 836.

PASGA copei, 820.

ruber, 820.

Phosphates of Redonda, 277.

Photographers, Amateur can be of As-

sistance to Science, R. W. Shu-

, 626.

Phozichilidium mazillare Smith, 397.

Pineal Eye, 579.

of Ichthyophis and Pro-

topterus, 835.

Pinn nipedia, Some of the Causes and |

Res

ults of Polygamy among,

Pitticite, 371.

Pityophis sayi bellona, 156.

Placenta of Rodents, 381.

Plagi idæ, 601, 504.

esmeg in Crystals, ‘578. :

versus “‘ varieties,”

Plants, Fossils, of New Zealand, 484.

Plasmopara viburni, 51.

la, 5

Index.

Platacodon nanus, 607, 780.

Plathelminthes, 487.

s, 946.

Plistocene Subsidence versus Glacial

Dam

PREAH californicus 861.

is, 861.

]

Pollucite,

Polycrase, 1007.

Poly.

are A Among Pinnipedia, 103,

I iier ism, 575.

Porcellia latidorsata, 188.

oly pterus, Affinities of, 835.

beraa of the Sun Grebes, 54.

tato-Tuber, 46

owelit, 874.

Bri ag áki

rian Rocks of

l Sse wren Civilization of Italy, 5

»re-Cretacic s of Texas, 365.

-re-Glacial Drainage of Pennsylvania,

Prehistoric aoe 396.

Bow:

Ma an of SPD, a Lohest, 1034.

Ornaments, 9

pee ase n the ae

f Southw ments New Mexic

768.

Preoccu cael Names, 640.

hha ee Surface of the Archean

Terr: of Canada, 652.

Pei. of ‘Color i in Animals in a

ie lection, 1131.

Pres pyra zeis 825.

Prismatic Sulphur, 144.

Prizes Offered by ‘Various Members of

the Salita d’ Anthro eee 76.

Proballostomus longulus,

Problem of the Soaring Binds, I. Lan-

caster, 787

Proceedings of Natural Science

Ass. Staten Islan

of Scientific Societies, ‘88, 185,

298, 399, 505, , 681, 849,

44.

of Lectures, 1888-89,

Societe d’ Anthropologie , 82.

gy for the Years 1887,

888, 817

ets ‘of the Geologists’ Associa-

tion, 594.

of a Geologieal and Physical

Geography of Kansas, 594.

Protoplasm, 376.

hie wien 835.

Protopterus annectens, 487.

rotogina o of Mt. Blane, 367.

Pr 664.

Pia hemispherica, 1083.

Psychology, 170.

Psylla pyricola, 927.

Pteranodon sal a 1124.

Ptychodus, 3

Public Parks, 302.

Pyrethrum-Kerosene Emulsion, 924.

Pycnogonids, 397.

Pyrite, 831, 1006.

Q UADRULA symmetrica Schultze,

cena A and Dynamics of Animal Tis-

s, J. L. Williams, 972.

Gudi Bone, 495.

ries, ;

Quetenite, 370.

ANA catesbiana, 740.

R halecina, 155.

sylvatica, 754.

virgatipes, 1017.

Recent Books and Pamphlets, 39, 132,

356, É 561, 642, 722, 810, 897,

993, 1

asseta of Egyptian Remains,

679.

Literature, 42, 185, 260, 358, 476,

563, 644, 725, 899, 995, 1116.

Progress in the -` udy of the Tu-

bercle 22.

Researches in te Herpetology of

ca, 668.

Station ‘Entomological Bulletins,

Studies of the Vertebrate Head, H.

' W. Norris, 95, 334.

Reception Committee Washington A. A.

A. 2.

Record of American Zoology, 252, 548,

7, 984.

Reddingite, 871.

ngtonite, 662.

Red-Tailed Hawk k, 610.

Refractive Index of Quartz.

Regeneration in the

as Influencing t os

-~ of Northern Plants,

Relations between the

Civili

Hallstadt a sods maa a

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXV.,

Stations, and those of Mycenae,

Tirynthe, Hissarlik, and the

Caucasus, 675

ppa i auey [Nlustra-

ted],

Habits of crystals A ‘their mode of

Forma

oe sri a Weight, Mole-

i eer? re, and Physiologi-

oat pi 290.

Relics of ‘Aaa Mexican Civilization,

Reply al Prof Marsh’s hse on Meso-

c Mammalia, . Osborn

775.

Reproduction of the Cogner, 1017.

Reptiles Generally Called Dinosauria,

Resignations of Phila. Members of

Committee on I. C. G. for 1892,

560.

Resin, epee 1126.

Resources of the Black Hills, R. T.

"Hi ill, 363.

EiS = egs med s Extinct Mamma-

a of tina, E. D. Cope,

75.

Baker’s Wild Beasts and their

Ways, E. D. Cope, 260.

Bergen’s Primer of Tavern: E.

Bodington’s Evolution, 647.

Brooks's ‘“‘TheOyster,’ J. A. Ry-

der

Boulenger s Rhynchocephalia, Tes-

tudina ne hag Crocodilia, E. D.

Co ope, ‘813

Discovery of the nepr Mam-

malia, H. rn, 44, 575.

Doelter’s an Chemische

Mineralogie, W. S. Bayley,

Fewkes’s Coelenterates and Echino-

derms.

Frazer's Mineralogical Tables,

W.B- B ayle ey, "

Fürbringer’s- Resea: the

Morphology and Peele of

Birds, E. D. Cope, 727.

Sandry s Ancestors of ourAnimals,

pe,

The Geological Survey of Arkansas

1889, E. D. Cope

Hyatt’ s oaii J. 8. Kingsley,

42,

Lehrbuch der

Entwicklungsgeschichte der Wir-

bellosen-Thiere

Heider, by ; organ,

56.

1891.)

Lydekker’s Catalogue of auen

Reptilia in the British Muse

Parta II., III. and IV., E. "D.

Cope, 644.

Miller's wrer American Geology

and Paleontology, E. D. Cope,

Morris’s Aryan Race, E. D.

pe,

Morris's Civilization, E. D. Cope,

750.

the Progress of American In-

vertebrate ge pwd for the

year . R. Keyes, 827.

Roth’s Allgemeine Geologie, W.

8. Bayley,

Seler’s aisi » 270,

Some tps Cureulio Literature,

eed, 6

C. M.W

Turner’s Morphology of the Avian

Brain, hufeldt,

Trouessart’s Sasloghonl

hy, 899.

Wheeler’s Report Upon the

ited States Survey West of the

One Hundredth M . D,

Cope, 476.

Woodward's Fossil Fishes, E. D.

pe,

Revue e Anthropologie, 76.

Rhinechis elegans,

Rhipidopterygia, 1127.

Rhizopods, Rocky Mountain, Eugene

, 1070.

Rinoceros simus, 268.

cea Cc. Biologien] Papers, 1139.

Rock r gene a

Rodents from Mexico, E Danii of,

Nature of Eruptive Rock, Criti-

cism “s 324.

Rothpletz, A clips i ister Triassic,

and J rmations in the

East Indian peenes (Timor

and Rotti), 959.

Rotifers, Method of ing, 821.

Royal Society of Canada, 408, 681

iana bilocularis, 674.

palmeri, 674.

pringlei, 674.

Index.

XXi

re. 8 _ to Phytograph-

ist

Yalamand: 1084.

alt Marl. of Tndia, “ing.

s, 486.

Sand-draws,

Sanguinite,

Sandstones near H rs F 864.

Saperda candida, 925. eui

Sarcodes sanguinea, 50.

Sardinius blackburuii, 654.

Sarracenia ea, 852.

896.

, 802, 408, 507,

, 778, 858, 1039, 1144.

istose Rock,

Schliemann, Dr., 778.

Ps ae “te Bong GUS + tg ce

sox breviros tris Peters, 156.

School of. ppn its

Scud ages" > Oe Miss Physiognomy of the

erican Tert rtiary Hemiptera,

Scup, 1020.

Scutigera, Anatomy of, 280.

Screw-worm, 927.

Sey phostonia, riag serg of, 588.

pel s Join gi nsects, 586

Seal, Foetal Period of, 836.

Sabastodes gillii, 154

Secular odrana denges of Rocks, 363.

Segregation, 570.

ae of the Vertebrate Head,

Selenacodn brevis, 602, 603.

, 602, 604.

A oy of. the Quaternary Period of

Chancelade e, 767.

Serial Sections, eon

Serpentine,

Serpula, Siructre of, 1131.

Serranus atrarius, 1

Sexual Inomaobilit ity as “a Cause of th

velopment of the reia ee

Basij in n Spiders, 293.

Shasta Grou

Sheelites, 378.

Shufeldt, R. W., Fossil Birds from the

Equus B

anc :

the Equus Beds of

xxii

— Amateur Photographers ca

a a, ance to Science, 626.

sla

Sipuculu a, SBI.

nudus, 832.

Sibon nnulatum, 742.

Psa Madre Expedition, 273.

5 alates 869, 370.

Silicates, 830.

Sillimanite, 142.

Slade, D. = A the Genus Chlamydo-

phorus, 540.

tee Prof.. gh the vai ee 1140.

nakes in Banana Bushes, 742.

Son p

Society of tarkok

Societe TEREE at Paris, 73,

Spawning Season of San Diego Fishes,

Species Among Bacteria, T. Smith, 89.

ipermophilus sonoriensis, 158.

663

Sunde í

-on dentata, 1081.

661.

EE Development of, 283.

Stagodon nitor, 607, 7

Starr, Frederick, THe.

Star-fish Larva, 664.

Stedman,

Steere, J. B, A A Visit to the Philippine

Islands of Masbate and Marin-

d ae

The I: sland of Mindoro, 1041.

Stegocephalian Skull from the Kilken-

Stitlingta sie he

Stirpiculture, 9:

Ston clas from Table Mountain,

Strepsodus brockbankia, 1127.

g 2.

, The yti of Gar-

den Ve egetables, 694, 80

Studies on Amphiox

In Microse MEAE Petro hy, H.

Hensoldt, 594. aar &

Of the Snow-Plant, 50.

Stylemys nebrascensis Leidy, 47.

Submarine Channels of the Pacific

r Coast, 483.

The American Naturalist.

[Vol. XXV.,

sulak Gorge, 1121.

mrana" 1008.

nG 54.

jarfa ce Geology of Alaska, 570.

chnodymite, 660.

ynageli ee ra 293

yu aptidae e, Anatomy of, 664.

Syrnium nebulos sum, 849.

n Tt TR TR TR TR TP

ABLE Showing the Relative Distribu-

hag tober of Certain

baroi Boreal Genera of

North American Spermophytes,

C. Macmillan,

Talbott, S. O., Utility of Physical

Study of Child- life, 934.

n, 1041.

si ovbiaularé, 397.

Tariff Taxation on Scientific Books, 990.

, R. 5., A recent Lava Flow in New

_ Mexico 524.

Teleostomi, non- mean Ped 479.

Arens ‘schley , 742.

T and Number of Vertebrae

Tertiary ] Insects, k H. Scudder, 586.

ation of Western Texas, 49.

Testuda. prac -281

Tetrad < 1006.

Tetraprion. jordani, 1020.

n, S. V. Clevenger, 617.

, 1063.

Thenardite, 831.

Theory of en Mesoderm, 166.

Thesbesian ee

Thryothorus eden us, 851

“ecco carnifex Owes; 1117.

Tiger Salamander, 628

Tin Ore, 830.

Tmet jacera ocellana, 927.

Toad-fish, 1020.

Tomato, 801.

Topaz, mira Ei 745.

Tou

ortalam

ath, 503.

To What Extent do Archeologic or Eth- .

ong Prehistorie Peo-

POOP arn scriptus, 266.

Traps < the 4 aani System in New

rsey, 910.

Tran iterate of Colsepterk, 1 764.

Treadwell, , On the Development

of the ie Copulatory Organs

in Snakes, 490.

Bacteria ‘Gestting Milk During

Thunder Storms, 1010.

1891.]

Trees and Shrubs of the Basin of the

River of the North, W. Up-

Trianea secs itini; 876.

Triassic wA Massachusetts, 910.

m New Mexico, 278.

Triphyllite 1008.

Triple Fertilization in Egg of Domestic

Fowl, 1080.

Tripriodon caperatus, 603.

coelatus, 602, 604.

Triton cristatus, 1098.

Fraasii, 605.

Trochophore Annelid, 1137.

Tub oweri, 861.

(/NDERWOODIA columnaris, 51.

oviensis,

Upson’s Gold-Staining Method for Axis,

Cylinders and Nerve-Cells, 847.

Uraninite.

Uranotherite 1008.

tella, Reproduction of, 380.

Uredele Tail, 668.

Urogenital System of the Crocodile and

Turtle, 287.

Urosalpinx cinerea, 919.

Ursus horribilis, 997.

spelaeus, 997.

Utility of Physical Study of Child-Life,

S. O. Talbott, 984.

VACCINIUM macrocarpum, 852.

cow oe Paleontologie = Ar-

eologic p-

plied to the Plistocene ne Period, 502

_ Vampire

Vasale’s

, 847.

Vasomotor Nerves of the Portal Vein, 290

Vergularia ju

> »

76.

Modification of. ” Weigert’s

Index.

xxiii

Viburnum dentalum, 51.

Vivisection, F. Gaertner, 864.

Volcanic Eruption in the West Indies,

Vogt, C., and the Naturalists, 558.

AGNER, Franz Von, 853.

Waldheimia perforata, 1127.

Wandering Cells in Animal Bodies, J

L. Kell

Rodents

Was it Hallucination?

Water-Marks on Paleozoic Rocks, 482,

Weak-fish, we

Weed, C. M

The Bialogical Work of American

i i 280.

Curculio

Literat

Webster, C. L. Peis Notes on

the Arc rehwology of Rael airh

w Mexico, 7

Weissenberg Gneiss, 574.

White An

Lag Wax Inse

Wer Spe PAR “On the Quantity an

Dynam amics of Animal adron

72.

Williston, S. W., Skull and Hind Ex-

ydra, 413.

Winchell, Alexander, 188,

Wom en’s Waist aists, 71 7.

Ww A. S., Fossil Fishes, 646.

Wood’s Holl, Mass

Worship of Ashtaroth i in Palestine, 593.

XYLEBORUS dispar, 927.

Zeolites, 142.

Zine Sulphide, 373.

Zirco

Zovlogical Ge Geography, 899.

Notes,

Zoology, , 380,

58, 153, 279. 487, 577,

664, 740, 831, 1015, 1131.

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV. JANUARY, 1891. 289.

SOME RECENT PAPERS ON EARTHWORMS.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY,

Ls Oligochztous worms were long neglected, but within

recent years the literature relating to them has extended to

very considerable dimensions. It is the intention to present here

an abstract of some of the work lately done on the group. The

two papers’ by Dr. Wilson on the embryology of these forms

may be considered together. The forms studied are called

Lumbricus terrestris, L. communis, and L. Jætidus.

The segmentation is unequal, but varies in its details in indi-

vidual eggs of the same species. It results in the formation of a

blastula, in which, at intervals, the blastoccel is in communication

with the exterior by a cleavage pore. Some points of difference

are shown between the species studied and that which formed the

basis of Kleinenberg’s classic paper.

Like Kleinenberg, Dr. Wilson finds that the “ primary meso-

blasts” are differentiated before gastrulation as two large cells

lying side by side, at first on the surface but later sinking into

the blastoccel. Before this insinking they begin to bud off the

mesoderm in the shape of two parallel rows of cells. During this

process gastrulation takes place. The egg becomes flattened,

and a differentiation of the cells of the two sides occurs, the upper

1 Wilson, Edmund B. The Germ-Bands of Lumbricus. Journal of Morphology, 1.,

p. 183, I pl., 1887. :

— The Embryology of the Earthworm ; Z. c., III., p. 387, 7 pls., 1889 [1890].

2 The American Naturalist. [January,

(ectodermal) becoming flattened, while the entodermal are larger

and more columnar. Next the sides of this placula-like structure

are bent downwards, the approaching edges forming the slit-like

blastopore, which closes behind, leaving the anterior end open as

the mouth. In this operation the primary mesoblasts lie side by

side at the posterior lip of the blastopore, the bands extending

forward and eventually uniting in front of the mouth. During

this process the ectoderm becomes thickened immediately over

each band, but retains its character of a layer a single cell in

thickness. At the same time, although the blastopore never

closes, the inpushing of a stomodzum occurs.

The next feature of interest is the formation of the middle layer

of the germ-bands, the existence of which was first distinctly

recognized in the Oligochætes by Dr. Wilson. According to his

account, this first appears as a linear arrangement of the ectoderm’

cells, terminating behind in a larger cell. These terminal cells

(which, like the primary mesoblasts, are called teloblasts) sink,

together with the corresponding cell-rows, into a position be-

tween the ectoderm and the germ-band proceeding from the meso-

blast.. There may be either three or four of these rows on either

side. The one towards the median line gives rise to the nervous

system, the next two (nephric rows) to the nephridia and to the |

inner series of setigerous glands, while the outer (not constant)

has a problematical fate. The corresponding teloblasts are called

neuroblast, nephroblast, and lateral teloblast.

With the gradual elongation of the embryo these teloblasts con-

tinue to bud off new cells, which add to the corresponding row, —

which derive nothing from any other source. Behind, the rows a

are but a cell in width, but anteriorly they are wider, the two

nephric rows becoming fused. Later the teloblasts disappear, and

the bands of the opposite sides unite from before backwards.

Certain cells budded from the rows wander between ectoderm and

entoderm and form “ migratory mesoderm,” while the remainder, in a

which the ccelomic cavities appear, is the “ trunk mesoderm.”

former is mesenchymal in character, and gives rise to larval muscles, - )

which are later replaced by true mesothelial muscles. The

* See below for Bergh’s account, which differs considerably.

1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 3

coelomic cavities are schizoccelia, and are formed in the mesodermal

bands behind the point of concrescence; the most anterior pair

lie at the sides of the stomodzum, while a head cavity, which is

always unpaired, occurs in front of the mouth.

The first blood vessel to appear is the subintestinal. It is at

first without proper walls, and is apparently a remnant of the

cleavage cavity. The dorsal vessel is at first double. The two

halves concresce from in front backwards.

Concerning the alimentary canal little need be said in this ab-

stract. The stomodzum pushes inward as far as the sixth seg-

ment, and in one species its lips are at one time armed witha

peculiar structure which may be either sensory or may serve as a

larval digestive organ. As soon as the stomodzum is formed the

larva begins to swallow the albumen with which it is surrounded

and the particles of this are apparently swallowed amceba-like by

the entoderm cells. The cesophagus with its calciferous glands

is entodermal. The proctodzeum is long delayed, and when it

appears it is formed in the region where the primary mesoblasts

break up; but our author was not able to decide whether in front

or behind them, t.e., within or without the limits of the blastopore.

The nervous system arises from the neural rows budded from

the neuroblasts. The two most important statements made are:

that the brain arises from these rows, and that it has a primitively

paired condition and does not arise from a scheitelplatte. Dr.

Wilson was unable to find any mittelstrang in the ventral cord.

With growth the brain is carried backward from an extreme

anterior position to the third somite, while by the same process

the ganglia of the two anterior pest-oral somites are pushed back

upon that of the third to form the infracesophageal ganglion.

The giant fibres are apparently specially modified nerve fibres,—a

view in conflict with Vejdovsky’s account.

The origin of the excretory system as described by Wilson is

quite different from the accounts of Bergh summarized farther on.

First in the history comes the larval excretory organs or “ schluck-

zellen,” which are at first large ectoderm cells forming the anterior

lip of the blastopore, and connected with a delicate system of

3 Thie enonditioan 3} ca ta ae “7. D, =>

+ 4.

Y it 55S Y FCM.

4 The American Naturalist. [January,

ciliated canals lying between ectoderm andentoderm. They soon

disappear. These were not carefully studied, nor were the pro-

nephridia or head-kidneys. The permanent nephridia are regarded

by Wilson as arising partly from the nephric rows, which are, as

we have seen above, ectodermal in origin, and comparable in

every early ontogenetic feature with the neural rows; the funnel

is regarded as derived from the mesoderm proper. According to

the account and figures, the nephric rows send upgrowths into

every somite; these join a large cell on the anterior wall of each

dissepiment. The large cell develops the funnel, while the cells

of the nephric upgrowth becomes perforated to form the tubular

portion of the nephridium. From each nephridial anlage a

process is developed which becomes hollow, and the sete of the

inner row are developed in the cavities thus formed.

The speculations with which Wilson concludes his paper are

of extreme interest, but as they deal with problems of general

morphology they may be omitted here.

R.S. Bergh has also studied the development of the earthworm,

with especial reference to the nervous system and Wilson’s germ-

bands. His account‘ differs in so many particulars that we can-

not consider the fate of the germ-bands as settled.

Bergh paid no attention to the segmentation and gastrulation,

but begins his account with the formation of the germ-bands. As

his account of the fate of the different portions differs from Wil-

son’s interpretation, he has applied different names to different

portions, as is seen by this schedule: :

WILSON. BERGH.

Primary mesoblast = Posterior myoblast.

Neuroblast = Neuroblast.

Nephroblasts |

ae Licking t Anterior myoblasts.

In the earliest stage studied by Bergh there is present on

either side the posterior myoblast, the neuroblast, and a single

* Bergh, R. S. Neue Beiträge zur Embryologie der Anneliden, I. Zur Entwicklung und

des Keimstreifenssvon Lumbricus, Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zoologie, Bd. L., p.

469, 3 pls., 1890. o

1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 5

one of the anterior myoblasts, each budding off its corresponding

row. In next stage observed there were present two anterior

myoblasts. The connection between these was not made out,

but Bergh thinks from certain features that the new one was

budded from the earlier one, and that the first to appear corresponds

to Wilson’s inner nephroblast, the second to his lateral teloblast.

A later stage showed the budding off from the inner myoblast of

the middle myoblast, and still later this was seen to form a row

which becomes insinuated between the other rows. All of these

cells are as yet ectodermal, and the neuroblasts and the neural

rows are the first to become covered by the ectoderm. Appar-

ently the bands are solely derived from the teloblasts, and the

ectoderm contributes nothing further to this growth.

Bergh describes a new element in the nervous system as a plexus

of nerve cells and nerve fibres, which develop along the middle of the

ventral surface between the neural rows. In the ectoderm of this

region, just beneath the ciliated line, are certain uni- and bipolar

cells, the processes of which run lengthwise of the animal, and form

a temporary nervous system before the permanent nervous system

has begun the development of nerve fibres. These cells are re-

garded as arising independently of the neuroblasts from the ecto-

derm, the fact that they extend behind the neuroblasts being strong-

ly confirmative of this view. Later this plexus is included in the

permanent nervous system, while the ciliated cells are resorbed,

and, contrary to Kleinenberg’s view, do not form part of the regu-

lar ectoderm. Bergh suggests that the ventral median multipolar

elements described by Friedlander may originate from this plexus,

Hatschek’s median invagination does not exist in Lumbricus.

The three remaining germ-bands, says Bergh, have nothing to

do with the formation of the nephridia, and at no place do they

project inwards, as described by Wilson, into the inner muscle

plate. They rather spread out between ectoderm and the product

of the hinder myoblast, and give rise to the circular muscles of

the adultworm. These muscles are first formed ventrally, and

later reach the dorsal surface.

The nephridia are, on the other hand, derived wholly from the

inner mesoderm, the first portion to be distinguished being the

6 The American Naturalist. [January,

large funnel cells, which are recognizable before the formation of

the coelomic cavities. With the formation of the ccelom a row of

cells buds off from the hinder surface of each dissepiment, just

behind the funnel cell, to give origin to the tubular portion of the

nephridium. The anterior myoblasts contribute nothing towards

the formation of the nephridia, and these organs from the first have

no structure uniting the successive somites. Bergh thinks that

Wilson has misinterpreted his sections, and has missed some of

the stages. The bristle sacs which Wilson thinks are derived from

the germ-bands are, according to Bergh, formed as ingrowths from

the ectoderm. With such differences of interpretation it, is diffi-

cult to say which is right. The work is in each case apparently

thoroughly done, anda comparison of plates does not serve to

reconcile the two accounts.

Benham’s recent paper on the genera and species of earth-

worms’ will prove of great value to students of the group, and

an abstract is given here in the hope that it may aid American

students of the group. The forms occurring in the United States

are scarcely known. The Oligochztes are divided into:

NAIDOMORPHA.

Small worms of relatively few somites; blood uncolored;

male genital pores in, or in front of, somite vil.; asexual and —

sexual reproduction; eye spots frequently present; embraces the —

families Aphanoneura, Naide, Chetogastride, and the genus

Ctenodrilus,

LuMBRICOMORPHA.

Male genital pores behind somite vir.; reproduction only by

sexual process ; somites behind the peristomium all similar; no

eye spots.

The characters separating the two divisions are not constant, |

except that which refers to the network of blood-vessels on the —

nephridia. ©

é Benham, W. B. An Attempt to Classify Earthworms. (Quarterly Jour. ete Sois

XXXI., p. 201, 1890.

ESETE Sra! Aap Sia OS 5 aa

SS EE E ee ee ee

Vee

1891.) Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 7

MıcropriLI (Water Worms).

No capillary network of blood-vessels on nephridia ; small

size, thin, transparent body wall; setz always in four groups

per somite ; prostomium not separated from peristomium by a

groove. Contains families Discodrilide, Enchytreide, Phre-

oryctidz, and Lumbriculide.

MEGADRILI (Earth Worms).

Large forms from one inch to six feet in length. Body

wall thick and opaque; prostomium (when present) separated

from peristomium by a groove; capillary network of blood-

vessels on the nephridia; clitellum always occupying more

than two somites. These are divided into PLECTONEPHRICA,

with the nephridia in the form of delicate tubules in

each somite, uniting to form a network, with more or less

numerous external apertures; and MEGANEPHRICA, with the ex-

cretory network absent, replaced by a pair (rarely two pairs) of

large nephridia in each somite. The members of each division

are given below, the genera known to occur in the United States

being given in italics .

PLECTONEPHRICA.

Family TYPHÆIDÆ ; genera Typhzus, Megascolides, Crypto-

drilus, Didymogaster, Perissogaster, Dichogaster, Digaster.

Family ACANTHODRILIDZ; genera Acanthodrilus, Trigaster,

Dinodrilus, Neodrilus, Diplocardia.

Family PERICHÆTIDÆ ; genus Pericheta (including Mega-

scolex).

MEGANEPHRICA.

Family MoNILIGASTRIDÆ ; genus Moniligaster.

Family EUDRILIDÆ ; genera Eudrilus, Teleudrilus, Pontodrilus,

Photodrilus, iici Rhododrilus, Plutellus, Stuhlmannia,

Hyperiodrilus.

Family PERIONYCHIDÆ ; genus Perionyx.

Family GEoscoLECIDÆ ; genera Geoscolex, Urochzta, Dia-

Cheta.” > .

8 The American Naturalist. LJanuary, 4

Family RHINODRILIDÆ; genera Rhinodrilus, Microcheta, —

Urobenus, Hormogaster, Brachydrilus.

Family LUMBRICIDÆ ; genera Lumbricus, Allolobophora, Crio-

drilus, Allurus.

Besides the above, Benham includes four genera of uncertain

position, viz., Helodrilus, Echinodrilus, Antæus, and Eisenia.

The genera of Megadrili recognized by Benham may be sepa-

rated by the following key, modified only in method of arrange-

ment from that given by him :

A, Setæ 16 to 80, or more, in a ring.

a, Male pores far apart; small tufts of ne-

phridia ; Pericheta.

aa, Male pores very close together; large

nephridia ; Pertonyx.

AA, Twelve sete on somite; clitellum on somites

14-16; Dinodrilus.

AAA, Eight sete on somite.

a, Sete alternate in consecutive somites

throughout body; male pore on somite

22; Diacheta.

_ aa, Sete alternate only posteriorly; male

pore 20-21;° clitellum on somites 14-22 ; Urocheta.

aaa, Setz in rows, not alternating.

8, Male pores 10-11, or 11-12; Moniligaster. —

PP, Male pores on somite 13; Ailurus. —

888, Male pores on somite 15.

y, Prostomium dovetailed completely

into peristomium ; Lumbricus. —

rr, Dovetailed incompletely ; Allolobophora.

777, Not dovetailed ; Criodrilus. —

ABBR, Male pores 15-16; Hormogaster. —

88888, Male pores on somite 17.

7, Clitellum on somites 14-17,

ð, Sete separate ; Rhododrilus. —

00, Setz in couples.

E€, One pair of sperm sacs; Typhaeus.

1891.] Some Recent Papers on Earthworms. 9

ee, Two pairs of sperm sacs; Digaster.

yy, Clitellum on somites 14-18; sete

in couples ; Eudrilus.

777, Clitellum on somites 13-17 ;

lobed prostates, one pair ; Microscolex.

m7, Clitellum on somites 13-20;

prostates tubular, two pairs; Dichogaster.

PPBBPR, Male pores on somite 18.

y, Two pairs of prostates on somites

17-109. :

ò, Male pores in a deep fossa ; Trigaster.

ð, Male pores notin a fossa; Acanthodrilus.

yy, One pair of prostates on somite 18.

6, Clitellum on somites 13-17.

€, Prostomium dovetailed.

č, Prostate convolu-

ed; Pontodrilus.

fC, Prostate lobate; Cryptodrilus.

ee, Prostomium not dove-

tailed ; * Photodrilus.

60, Clitellum on somites (13)

14—17; prostomium dove-

tailed; setæ separate ; Plutellus.

066, Clitellum on somites 14-18.

e, Setz equidistant ; Didymogaster.

ee, Setæ in couples; Perissogaster.

6000, Clitellum on somites d

13—21 or more ; Megascolides.

rrr, No prostates; clitellum on

somites 16-21 ; Brachydrilus.

PBBRBABB, Male pores 18-19.

y, Prostomium broad ; sete simple;

clitellum 15-23. Geoscolex,

77, Prostomium elongate ; sete or-

namented ; clitellum 15-25 ; Rhinodrilus.

BBBBBBBS, Male pores on somite 19.

y, Clitellum 10-25 ; Microcheta.

10 The American Naturalist. (January,

yy, Clitellum 14-17 ; Teleudrilus,

999999998, Male pores on somite 20;

clitellum 14-25 ; Urobenus.

In explanation of the above key it may be said that the peris-

tomium is regarded as the first segment. The prostomium is

~ sometimes separated from the first somite by a transverse groove;

but frequently grooves start on the prostomium and extend back

into the first somite, so that the prostomium appears “ dovetailed”

with the peristomium. If the grooves stop after traversing the

first somite for a short distance, the prostomium is partially dove-

tailed. The external openings of the sperm ducts are the male

pores. The term sperm sacs is applied to the vesciculz semi-

nales, the testes of the older authors; the prostates are diverticula

of the sperm ducts near their satel opening.

There are several genera which are not included in the abawa

summary. Thus Garman has described’ a genus Diplocardia,

from Illinois, which belongs to the family Acanthodrilide, but

differs from Acanthodrilus in having the dorsal vessel paired

throughout its entire length, and in the absence of a subneural —

blood-vessel. It agrees with Dinodrilus in the double dorsal |

vessel, but differs in having but eight seta. Garman also men-

tions the existence of Pericheta in Champaign, Ill. A species, —

apparently of the same genus, occurs in Lafayette, Indiana, where —

it caused the students no little trouble to make it fit the description |

of Lumbricus given in Brooks’s Zoology.

A paper by Michaelsen ê has not been seen. It describes sev-

eral African forms of the family Eudrilide, among them a

genus Stuhlmannia. Allied to is another African genus lately

described by F. E. Beddard? It is called Hyperiodrilus, and

presents many interesting peculiarities of reproductive organs’

1 Garman, H. On the Anatomy and Histology of a New Earthworm (Diplocardia com-

munis). Bulletin Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, III., pp. 47, 5 plates.

8 Jahrbuch der Hamburg wissinsch. Anstalten, Bd. VII.

* Beddard, F. E. Preliminary Note on a New Earthwo

rm Belonging to the Family

Eudrilidæ. Zool. Anzeiger, XIL., 1890. ie |

1891] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. II

The genus Deodrilus ® proposed by Mr. Beddard has its sole

representative in Ceylon. It seems to combine the character of

several of Benham’s families, and its exact position is uncertain.

Beddard regards it as nearest Typhzeus and the Geoscolicide,

with some affinities with Pontodrilus and many Eudrilide.

Beddard announces a forthcoming classification of the earth-

worms.

In the same paper he describes a connection of the nephridia

with the terminal region of the intestine as occurring in the New

Zealand species Acanthodrilus multiporus. These nephridia are

connected with the general nephridial network found in the Plec-

tonephrica. Whether the portion of the intestine with which

they are connected is proctodeal or entodermic is unsettled. Bed-

dard makes some interesting comparisons with the respiratory

trees of the Gephyrea chetifera, and also with the malpighian

tubes of the Hexapods.

THE MECHANICAL ORIGIN OF STRUCTURE IN

PELECY PODS.

BY ROBERT TRACY JACKSON.

jie is desired in this paper on Pelecypods to call attention to some

cases recently studied in which the structure of the animal

seems to be the direct consequence of the physiological reaction

induced by the mechanical requirements of the environment; or `

to cases of “mechanical genesis,” as they have been termed.’

Several of our examples are cases in which similar forms are built

up on similar lines of development, but in widely separated or

totally distinct groups of animals. They therefore afford evidence

10 Cn the Structure of a New Genus of Oligochzta (Deodrilus); and On the Presence ot

Anal Nephridia in Acanthodrilus. Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci., XXXI., p. 467, 2 pls., 1890.

1 This paper is taken largely from a recently published memoir, to which the reader is

referred for a fuller discussion of many facts presented. See Phylogeny of the Pelecyp-

oda, the Aviculidz and Their Allies; by Robert Tracy Jackson. Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat.

Hist., Vol. IV., No. 8, July, 1890, pp. 277-400, pls. XXIII.-XXX.

12 The American Naturalist. [January,

in favor of definite lines of variation, and in so far support the

view that acquired characters are inherited. r

Mr. Wm. H. Dall, in a recent highly interesting paper on —

Pelecypods, explains the form and progressive development of the —

ligament, cartilage pit, and teeth of that group as the result of the

mechanical strains and stresses to which the parts ar exposed? —

In the development of Pelecypods we find in a late embryonic — |

stage (the phylembryonic) that the shell has a straight hinge line.

This is characteristic of Ostrea (Fig. 1), Cardium, Anodonta, and so —

many widely separated genera that it apparently represents a —

primitive ancestral condition common to the whole class. Em- a

bryolagy shows that the bivalve shell doubtless arose from the —

splitting on the median line of a primitive univalvular ancestor,

If that ancestor had a saddle-shaped* or a cup-shaped ‘ shell, as _ |

is probable, the first result of the introduction of a hinge in the — ,

median line would have been to straighten the shell on the hinge —

line. This isa simple problem in mechanics, for if one tries to —

break by flexion a piece of metal which is saddle-shaped or cup- —

shaped, it will tend to form a straight line on the axis of flexion.

A parallel case is seen in the development of a bivalve shell in 4

ancient crustaceans. The ancient Ostracoda: Leperditia, Aristozoe, —

etc., have a straight hinge line and subcircular valves, which are

united ay by a ligament. The resulting form of the early —

condition of the bivalvular shell in

these two distinct classes is so strik-

ingly similar, it lends weight to our

supposition that the form is induced

by the mechanical conditions of the

case.

I think that the adductor muscles

Wh. which close the valves may also be

Fic. 1.—Ostrea edulis, embryo; demonstrated to be the necessary con-

Sad anterior Zenon — ; sequence of the bivalvular condition. |

hinge of shell; (after Huxley). ' In the phylembryo stage (Fig. 1) the

valves are closed by a single adductor muscle, which is the sim-

a Hinge of iniga Its Development, with an Attempt Toward a Better

bdivision of the Group; by Wm, H. Dall. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIIL, Decu

1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 13

plest condition mechanically possible to effect the desired end.’

This muscle does not seem to be homologous with any muscle in

other classes of molluscs, and is probably developed from the

mantle muscles as a consequence of the conditions of the case.

In support of this view bivalvular crustaceans may again be cited.

They have an analogous adductor muscle, developed of course on

an entirely different line of descent, but under closely similar

mechanical conditions. At the completed prodissoconch stage

in all Pelecypods, as far as known, there are two adductor mus-

cles,a second one having developed in the posterior portion of

the body. In later life the anterior, the posterior, or both ad-

ductors may be retained, reduced, or lost, according as the per-

sistence or changes in correlated anatomical features retain in use

or bring into disuse the muscles in question.

ao —Mya arenaria. FIG a E eare Peata: FIG. 4.—Ostrea eiepinient:

ip ax, antero-posterior eo hinge axis; aad, anterior, and # ad,

posterior WLA muscle ; m, mouth ; %2, Bni a, anus ; g, gills; gd, pedal musc J.

yssus ; #,

Let us look at examples of the retention or loss of the adduc-

tors. In typical dimyarian Pelecypods, as Mya (Fig. 2) or Venus,

the adductors lie toward either end of the longer axis of the shell.

As the hinge occupies a position on the borders of the shell about

midway between the adductors, both muscles are nearly or quite

in a position to be bio functional in closing the valves. As

vane in areata See pp. pre Trans. pA Free Institute, Vol. III., Aug., 1890.

3 Characteristic of young Dentalium.,

* Characteristic of the extreme young of cephalous molluscs,

5 This early adductor appears in the same position in many genera, and is apparently

charact of the class. vialen e TE O a in later stages;

but it may be retained or lost in the adul

14 The American Naturalist. [January,

a result, both muscles are of about the same size. “The condition

described is that existent in the completed prodissoconch stage

in all Pelecypods, as far as known. In Tater life, however, a

revolution of the axes of the soft parts may take place, so that the

antero-posterior axis (represented by a line drawn through the —

mouth and middle of the posterior adductor muscle), instead of ©

being parallel to the hinge axis (the axis of motion of the valves) _

as in dimyarians, may present a greater or less degree of divergence

from the parallel. In progressive series, as in Modiola (Fig. 3), i

Perna, etc., as the anterior adductor is brought nearer and nearer

to the hinge line, where its mechanical action is less and less —

effectual in closing the valves, we find that it is more and more —

reduced until it finally disappears from disuse and atrophy, as in

Ostrea (Fig. 4), and Pecten. Conversely, the posterior adductor in :

the same series in the revolution of the axes is pushed farther and x

farther from the hinge line and nearer to the central plane of the 1

valves, where. its mechanical action is most effectual in closing the 3

valves. With its increase in functional activity the muscle =

increases in size. The revolved position of the axes, and the con- a

sequent reduction or loss of the anterior adductor and increase of —

the posterior adductor, is found in many widely separated genera 4

of Pelecypods, as Ostrea, Mulleria and Tridacna; thus proving

the development of the same features on different lines of descent?

In Aspergillum the two valves have concresced so as to forma ‘

truly univalvular, tubular shell, so that the adductors would —

evidently be functionless if existent. The posterior adductor has —

disappeared and the anterior is reduced to a few disconnected

shreds (Fischer), though evidently existent in the young, as

attested by the form of the shell in the nepionic stage.

The condition of the foot in Pelecypods depends largely upon

its use or disuse. In free-crawling or burrowing forms the foot

is highly developed, and is sometimes of a peculiar form which —

could doubtless be traced to special functional uses. In Pecten, —

in the nepionic period, the foot is highly developed, and actively

ê Dr. B. Sharp and I published almost simultaneously closely similar views on the

a the relative size of the adductors. See Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., :

1988, p. 122, and Proc, Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIII., 1888, p. 538.

paar

1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 15

employed in crawling. In later stages the animal adopts the habit

of byssal fixation, and then of free swimming. The foot becomes

highly reduced, and in the adult is probably a functionless organ.

In shells which are permanently attached by calcareous fixation

the foot is highly reduced or absent, as in Chama, Spondylus,

and Ostrea (Fig. 4). In Ostrea the shell becomes permanently

attached at the close of the free-swimming veliger stage; therefore

the foot is unnecessary before fixation and useless afterwards, and

it has almost entirely disappeared from even embryonic stages of

` growth. In Anomia glabra the foot is active and well developed

in nepionic stages ; but later, as the animal becomes permanently

attached, it is reduced, and in the adult is highly atrophied.

Ordinarily there are two posterior retractor muscles of the

foot in Pelecypods, one situated on either side. In adult Pecten

either the left retractor alone exists, or both retractors are wanting

(the left doubtless always exists in the young). In studies of

young Pecten irradians I found that the animal always crawled

while lying on the right side, with the foot extended through the

notch in the lower valve and pressed against the surface of sup-

port. It is evident that while crawling in this position the left

retractor is in the plane of traction, and it is retained; on the

other hand, the right retractor would not be in the plane of trac-

tion, and it has disappeared through disuse and atrophy.’ A sim-

ilar disappearance of the right retractors of the foot is seen in

Anomia glabra, and is explained on similar bases of argument.

The action of the foot in its effect on the form of the shell in

some Cases presents interesting mechanical features. In dimyarian

Pelecypods which crawl freely the foot protrudes from an area on

the free border of the valves, nearly opposite to and comparatively

far removed from the hinge line. In such cases, by a slight

gaping of the valves, a considerable opening is made, through

which the foot extends without (ordinarily) the aid of any special

notch. On the other hand, in monomyarian Pelecypods, where

the revolved position of the axes brings the foot close up to the

hinge line, a special notch is required for the extrusion of the foot,

as the valves would have to gape very widely to permit of its

T Both tors probably exist in t h stage of Pecten and allies.

16 The American Naturalist. [January, 4

passage at that area. Such a notch we find in Tridacna, Pecten,

and many allies. Young Pecten irradians crawls while lying on

its right valve by extending the foot over the edge of the valve.

The constant extension of the foot would necessarily cause a

local retraction of the right mantle lobe at that area; therefore

shell growth would proceed less rapidly, and a notch would

consequently be formed. By this action no pressure is exerted

on the left mantle lobe, and no notch is formed on that side of

the shell In later life the crawling habit is abandoned, the

foot atrophied, and the notch nearly or quite disappears, as I have ©

observed in several species of Pecten. The presence of a byssus

at such an area may induce a notch, as well as the crawling habit,

as may be observed in Avicula and Meleagrina. Young Hinnites

and Spondylus are pecteniform and have a deep byssal notch, as

I have shown;* but as soon as they become attached by cementa-

tion to a foreign object the use of the foot is of course abandoned,

and the notch is not perpetuated in succeeding shell growth. In

the development of Anomia we find that the right valve surrounds

the byssus completely, enclosing it at an early stage. In later —

growth the byssus and calcareous byssal plug become greatly —

enlarged, the walls of the enclosing foramen receding to give —

space for the enlargement of the organ. This enlargement of

the foramen is apparently to be explained on the physiological

principle that constant pressure causes a resorption of tissue.

In free-crawling or superficially burrowing Pelecypods the foot

is extended from an area nearly opposite the hinge line, that being

the most effectual position for crawling while the valves are in an

upright position. In deep-burrowing forms, as Solen, on the

other hand, the foot is extended at an area nearer the hinge line

and in the plane of the longer axis of the shell. It is evident

that in this position it is more effectual in producing a hole, it is

in a better position to drag the shell after it, and it offers the least |

-resistance to the surrounding medium. In deep burrowers, as

Mya arenaria, and especially Ensatella (Solen) americana, it is to

Eh INE

S EAE eS ee

SE CLASARE EE E n,

gn Soma illustrating this stage see this journal, December number, page 1138 `

® Phylogeny of the Pelecypoda.

1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 17

be observed that the borders of the shell gape at either end. This

is evidently caused by the constant extension of the foot and

siphons, which, pressing on the mantle border, thus keep it back

at those areas and modify the direction of shell deposition.

Another active cause for the gaping of the valves is doubtless

the loss of the habit of withdrawing the organs and closing the

valves as a source of protection. Such forms as we are considering

are protected in a measure by the surrounding sand or other

medium, and in time of danger seek safety by burrowing deeply.

In Mya arenaria we find a highly elongated siphon. In the

young the siphon hardly extends beyond the borders of the

valves, and then the animal lives at or close to the surface. In pro-

gressive growth, as the animal burrows deeper, the siphon elon-

gates, until it attains a length many times the total length of the

valves. The ontogeny of the individual and the paleontology of

the family both show that Mya came from a form with a very

abbreviated siphon, and it seems evident that the long siphon of

this genus was brought about by the effort to reach the surface,

induced by the habit of deep burial.

In the structure of Pecten irradians we find the most complete

adaptation to the mechanical requirements of the act of swim-

ming. Pecten swims by the rapid opening and closing of the

valves, with the resultant violent expulsion of water; but the

details of the method are somewhat intricate. In swimming, as

well as when at rest, the left valve is always uppermost, and the

plane of the edges of the valves is inclined to the surface of the

water at an angle of about 45°. The mantle folds are built up

in perpendicular walls on the periphery, and these walls perform

an important function in swimming. Lying on the bottom, the

Pecten suddenly closes its valves by the quick action of the

adductor muscle. The first water expelled is driven out posteri-

orly in the direction of the arrow a, Fig. 5, and if this were the

only or the main direction in which a current is expelled, the

animal would by impact of water be driven in the opposite direc-

tion, or anteriorly, which is not the case. When the valves have

closed to a slight extent, the borders of the two thick perpendic-

ular mantle walls come in contact, and then no more water is

18 7 The American Naturalist. (January,

driven out posteriorly; but instead, during further closure of

the valves it is ejected from the lower border of one ear, where

the mantle wall is low and thin, in the direction of the arrow å.

The water expelled at this area is the most forcible current, and

is probably of the greatest volume, as by its means the animal is

impelled in the opposite direction, as indicated by

the: arrow c. The valves open quickly and clap }

again. The second time as before the first water is

driven out posteriorly; but when the mantle walls $

come in contact the direction of the excurrent is |

again changed and it is forced out from the lower

border of one ear in the direction of the arrow d.

Being the strongest current, it impels the animal

in the direction of the arrow e. At successive claps

the water is driven out from alternate ears, as shown

in the figure. The resultant action of the sev-

eral currents and successive claps is to drive

the animal in the direction of the free borders of

the valves, or posteriorly. It is due to the alternate expulsion of

water from either ear, as shown in the figure, that the animal pre-

sents a series of zigzag jerks in swimming. The action of the

first current expelled posteriorly, before the mantle walls come

in contact, gives the animal an upward jerk, and it is in virtue of

this jerk, combined with the momentum in a posterior direction, —

that it maintains its position on the surface of the water, and also

the high angle to the surface which it presents in swimming.

This current is so powerful that by its action water may be |

squirted by adults to the height of five inches or more from the —

surface. In the shell a correlated feature of the swimming habit —

is seen in the incomplete closure of the valves at the eared areas. 4

Water may therefore pass out when the free borders of the a

valves are in immediate contact, as they are at each clap, as indi-

cated by the sharp clicking noise made in swimming.

The tendency to equalize the form by growth in a horizontal

plane in relation to the force of gravity acting in a perpendicular

plane, or the geomalic tendency of Professor Hyatt,” is seen mark

10 Trans A4

ations of Planorbis at Steinheim, with Remarks on the Effects of Gravity —

upon the Forms of Shells and Animals. Proc. Am. Ass, Adv. Sci., Vol. XXIX., 1880.

eee

PIET

x891.) Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 19

edly in Pelecypods. In forms which crawl on the free borders of

the valves the right and left growth in relation to the perpendicu-

lar is obvious, and agrees with the right and left sides of the ani-

` mal. In Pecten the animal at rest lies on the right valve, and

swims with the right valve lowermost. Here equalization to the

right and left of the perpendicular line passing through the centre

of gravity is noticeable (especially in the Vola division of the

group); but the induced right and left aspect corresponds to the

dorsal and ventral sides of the animal,—not the right and left

sides, as in the former case. Lima, a near ally of Pecten, appar-

ently swims with the edges of the valves perpendicular. In this

case the geomalic growth corresponds to the right and left sides

of the animal.

The oyster has a deep or spoon-shaped attached valve and a flat

or flatter free valve. This form, or a modification of it, we find to be

characteristic of all Pelecypods which are attached to a foreign

object of support by the cementation of one valve. All are highly

modified, and are strikingly different from the normal form seen

in locomotive types of the group. The oyster may be taken as

the type of the form adopted by attached Pelecypods. The two

valves are unequal, the attached valve being concave, the free

valve flat; but they are not only unequal, they are often very

dissimilar,—as different as if they belonged to distinct species in

what would be considered typical forms. This is remarkable as

a case of inherited or acquired characteristics finding very dif-

ferent expression in the two valves of a group belonging to a

class typically equivalvular. The attached valve is the most

highly modified, and the free valve is least modified, retaining

more fully ancestral characters. Therefore it is to the free young

before fixation takes place, and to the free, least-modified valve,

that we must turn in tracing genetic relations of attached groups.

Another characteristic of attached Pelecypods is camerated struc-

ture, which is most frequent and extensive in the thick attached

valve. The form as above described is characteristic of the Os-

treidz, Hinnites, Spondylus, and Plicatula, Dimya, Pernostrea,

Etheria, and Mulleria, Chama and its near allies. These vari-

ous genera, though ostreiform in the adult, are equivalvular and

20 The American Naturalist. (January,

of totally distinct form in the free young. The several types.

cited are from widely separate families of Pelecypods, yet all

under the same given conditions, adopt a closely similar form,

which “is strong proof that common forces acting on all alike

have induced the resulting form. What the forces are that

have induced this form it is not easy to see from the study of

this form alone; but the ostrean form is the base of a series, from

the summit of which we get a clearer view.

As I stated in an earlier paper," the fullest modification in the

ostrean line of variation is the production of a shell in which the

attached valve is cup-shaped, conical, or subcylindrical, as seen

markedly in species of the Chamide and Rudiste. In this

group as a whole, and in progressive stages of growth of its

extremest members, all steps may be followed between a simple

ostreiform or exogyriform shell and the most highly modified

conical type. The Ostrea form is the first step in this line of

modification, the Exogyra form is the second step, and the

conical form is the last step. What are the mechanical causes

which bring about this resultant form? I suggest as an hypoth-

esis the following: The Rudiste are conical or cup-shaped

Pelecypods, with a superficially marked radial symmetry. So

striking is the radial feature that they have been classed with the

corals or Cirripeds, and the term radial is combined frequently

in generic and specific names of the group. Barretia monolifera,

as described by Woodward, is highly radial, and the infoldings

of its thin walls closely resemble the radial septa of corals. In

other animals which are permanently attached by calcareous fixa-

tion, as corals, some worms and Brachiopods, Cirripeds, and

others, we find closely comparable forms which are subcylindrical

or subconical, with a very marked degree of radial symmetry.

Finding so many similar forms built up on different lines of

descent affords strong evidence that common forces acting on all

alike have induced the resulting form. The equal impact of mov-

ing water on all sides of an attached, growing organism, it seems,

would cause an equal effort of resistance on all sides, and there-

fore induce an equal growth on all sides, thus producing a form

11 Studies of Pelecypoda, AMER. NAT., Dec. 1890, p. 1135.

a AE ES Ey AA E acer CW che oda oe Wis Se <n a

1891.] Mechanical Origin of Structure in Pelecypods. 21

circular in section at any one horizon, and subconical, cup-shaped,

or globose in its entirety, as are the forms which we are here con-

sidering. To strengthen the walls of around organism we might

have solid accumulation, vesicular accumulation, or perpendicular

partitions arranged at right angles to the supported wall. Such

mechanical supports are characteristic of attached Rudiste and

other Pelecypods, Ccelenterates, Cirripeds, and some worms.

As all sides of the periphery of an attached organism are equally

exposed to food supply, danger, etc., the organs, as tentacles,

nerve centres, and eyes would gradually tend to become situated

at all points on the periphery, or radially. It is well known that

the external parts of an animal are more easily modified than the

deeper-seated parts. It is also known that the modification of

deeper-seated parts may be progressively produced from without

inward, or centripetally. If we have an attached animal that is

round, with some organs arranged on the periphery, a common

case, then further modification or development of such organs or

parts would tend to be produced centripetally, or radially, for the

centripetal variation of a round form would, as a mechanical

necessity, be radial variation. In the Hydrozoa there is a strong

proof of the correctness of this view. Passing from Protohydra

to Hydra, to the hydroid stage of Aurelia, then to the free

medusoid stage of Aurelia and other Discophores, we find pro-

gressively a more and more perfect radial symmetry built up

centripetally. A similar comparison may be made in the develop-

ment of corals.

Many permanently attached forms of bilateral classes of animals

assume a considerable degree of radial symmetry; and, conversely,

many free locomotive forms of radiated classes assume a consider-

able degree of bilateral symmetry. As bilaterality is a feature

induced and progressively built up by the conditions of free loco-

motion, it is believed that radiality is induced and progressively

built up by the conditions of permanent fixation, with its attend-

ant influences of environment.” ;

13 Since this paper was in type my attention has been called to the fact that Haeckel, in

as the

his Gastrzeatheorie, considers the sedentary life of ancestral forms of the os

mechanical efficient cause of their radial symmetry.

22 The American Naturalist. (January,

SEXUAL IMMOBILITY AS A CAUSE OF THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPOROPHYTE.

BY CONWAY MACMILLAN,

es the Annals of Botany, August, 1890, are to be found two

very interesting papers on the alternation of generations in

plants. One is by Professor F. O. Bowers, who defends Ala-

kovsky’s distinction between antithetic and homologous alterna-

tion; the other by the late J. Reynolds Vaizey, who shows the

impossibility of establishing homologies between sporophores and

odphores. Each of these papers presents somewhat more clearly

than usual the problems which underlie all attempts at a general

codrdination of vascular plants, mosses, and the lower algz, and

in each of them there is some effort to account for the origin of

the phenomenon of alternation itself. Bowers is inclined to

ascribe entirely different causes to the sporophyte of the Arche-

goniate and the so-called sporophytic plants of Vaucheria, Mucor,

or CEdogonium. These latter he conceives to be modified

odphytes,—or gametophytes, to use his terminology,—while the

former is an interpolated plant, altogether devoid of homologies

with the gametophyte of its own species or that of any other.

To the sporophyte of the Archegoniate he ascribes change of

habit from aqueous to subaérial nutritive media as the producing

cause, and proceeds to adduce morphological and phylogenetical

evidence in support of the position. The purpose of this brief

note is to indicate an opinion of the writer that something quite

different, and not altogether overlooked by Bowers, is possibly

the sufficient cause for the development of sporophytes, not

wads in the Archegoniate, but wherever sporophytes are developed

In the first place, it should not be overlooked that in animals

higher than the Medusz and Flat Worms (with rare exceptions,

e.g., Salpa?)' there is nothing comparable with the alternation of

1 The alternation in plant-lice (Aphidze) is a different matter entirely, and need not be

considered here

1891.] Sexual Immobility. 23

generations—that rhythmic succession of sexual and asexual indi-

viduals—which continues with perfect distinctness even into the

order Compositz,—according to Luerssen, the highest family of

plants. Why, now, there should be such a rhythm in plants

and not in animals is a point to be explained, and very likely

the explanation will throw light upon the origin and perpetu-

ation of alternation in the vegetable kingdom. It is of no

use to say, as Geddes does, quoted by Bowers, that alter-

nation is “a rhythm between relatively anabolic and kata-

bolic preponderance.” For why should such rhythm exist in

plants and not in animals? In fine, there seems to be but one ex-

planation readily entertained, and that is this: Adternation of gen-

erations is a phenomenon conditioned upon individual immobility.

It is readily discovered that in almost every species of animal

free to move where it pleases alternation is not seen, while in many

of the somewhat fixed and immobile alternation is apparent,—for

example, in the Ccelenterates. And in the more mobile plants

alternation is either indistinct (homologous) or scarcely apparent,

while in the more immobile plants alternation becomes exceed-

ingly distinct, and reaches its highest type in in the most immo-

bile plants. Now the sexual act, being conditioned upon the

approach to each other of the gametangia or gametes themselves,

is accomplished with greater and greater difficulty the more com-

plete the immobility of the sexual individual. In animals immo-

bility is at its maximum; in the higher plants—notably most

Angiosperms—it is at its minimum. In other words, the sexual

act is easiest of accomplishment in animals, speaking generally,

and most difficult in the higher plants; consequently the egg,

in animals, is easily produced, but in a plant of the Archegoniate

series an egg is produced with great difficulty. In spite of the

high gonotropic specializations in other plants, probably not a

millionth part of the sexual individuals produced ever accomplish

their end. For this reason the egg of an animal is, on the whole,

a cheap product; the egg of an Archegoniate plant is an expen-

stve product. ;

From the considerations outlined above we have no difficulty in

perceiving the physiological conditions which lead to the appear-

24 The American Naturalist. [January,

ance and to the great development of the sporophyte. In CEdo-

gonium the egg divided into four swarm-spores. For one sexual

act four plants may be obtained. In Chara the number of spores

produced directly from the egg is still greater, and the carpogone

wall becomes thickened and specialized as a covering to protect

the result of the sexual act. In Riccia the egg itself develops

an epidermal layer, besides the spore-mother-cells within. As the

number of these spores becomes greater a columella is required

to strengthen the capsule; it appears inthe Anthocerote. To

scatter the spores better the capsule is elevated on a stalk in the

Jungermanniz. To the same end elaters are developed in the

Hepatic (and later in the Equisetacez). The stalk of the cap-

sule becomes longer and the whole sporophyte more complex in

the Musci. In the ferns, leaves and roots are assumed by the

sporophyte, in order that (having access to more nutriment) it may

produce more spores. Throughout the whole upward series of —

developing, specializing, progressing sporophytes we see one dis-

tinct end in view, viz., the making of an egg, when fertilized, go

` as far as possible.

Now whether there is any difference between the sporophyte —

developed, under these conditions, in an aquatic plant like Chara

or Coleochzte, and the sporophyte developed under exactly simi-

lar conditions in an amphibious plant like Ophioglossum, I can- —

not say. Certainly in either case the meaning of the sporophyte —

remains the same. It is, wherever we meet it, whether in Chara —

or in Juglans, in CEdogonium or Taxus, a device for making the :

most out of that sexual act accomplished with so much difficulty,

and with the chances so tremendously against successful com —

summation.

If the correct explanation of the origin of sporophytes is givet

above, it is difficult to see why a sporophyte should not in every

case be considered an “ interpolation ” between successive gameto- <

phytes. Wherever met, the sporophyte is simply more or less

elaborate subdivision of the fertilized egg. In Œdogonium it is

a direct subdivision; in Helianthus it is an indirect subdivision. —

Properly speaking, the gametophyte is the p/ant ; the sporophyte |

PLATE I.

Fic. 5. Fic. 6,

Polydora commensalis.

1891.] A Commensal Anneltd. 25

is, at its greatest development, nothing more than a highly com-

plicated, self-supporting pod.

The sporophyte, then, may be considered in its widest sense as

a result of vegetative reproduction applied to the fertilized egg.

As the thallus of Marchantia is cut into gemme, so the egg of

Marchantia may be cut into the cells of the sporophyte. The

strict analogy of sporophytes.is, I suppose, not questioned. The

question as to their homology must be studied from the physio-

logical point of view, as well as through the researches of ana-

tomists and embryologists. Without either dissenting from or

endorsing the view of Bowers, the writer has tried only to show

that emphasis may be laid upon conditions surrounding the

sexual act as a help toa clearer comprehension of the phenomena

of alternation.

A COMMENSAL ANNELID.

BY E. A. ANDREWS, PH.D.

ASES in which Annelids are believed to live more or less

directly dependent upon other Annelids, upon Crustacea, Gas-

teropods, Echinoderms, and even upon Ccelenterates, are not un-

‘known, but yet form by far the exception rather than the rule in

the economy of this group. Of the reported cases some must be

regarded as mere temporary refuge of Annelids in cavities offered

by the shells or bodies of other creatures ; some are such mechan-

ical associations as are presented in the complicated assemblage

of various Annelid tubes in sponges or molluscan shells, etc. ;

while yet others—and these are few—are illustrations of true

commensalism, which may pass over into parasitism, as in the

Oliognathus living in Bonellia, the Hzematocleptes living within

another Annelid, or the well-known Alciope living inside

Ctenophores.

In 1885 Dr. Brooks called my attention to a very interesting

case of commensalism involving an Annelid found at Beaufort,

N. C., and which is complicated by the fact that three diverse

26 The American Naturatst. [January

animals—Annelid, Crustacean, and Hydroid—are here concerned,

forming, as it were, a triple alliance, in which each is, moreover,

dependent upon the shell of a fourth, a Gastropod.

Over the immense sand-flats of “ Bird Shoal” the interdepend-

ence of various creatures is especially well illustrated, and this

seems in part due to the fact that the entire absence of stones

and rocks leads to the burdening of the more securely fixed ani- _

mals and plants by those less able to resist the changing tides,

waves, and moving sand. Thus we find the stout tubes of the

Annelid, Diopatra, which project several inches from the sand,

seized upon by Algz, Hydroids, Molluscs, Annelids, and especially

by large Ascidians, as the only available, somewhat stable founda-

tion to build upon. Here also occurs in great abundance the

small hermit crab (Eupagurus longicarpus), inhabiting the empty

shells of various small Molluscs, especially the most accessible

one,—that of the Gasteropod, //yanassa obsoleta. Quite a large

proportion of the shells so inhabited are covered over almost com-

pletely by colonies of the interesting Hydroid, Hydractinia, though

the constant moving about of the crab keeps a small circular area

of the shell free from this growth, owing to the friction of the

shell against the sand as it is dragged along. Undoubtedly the

Hydractinian is benefited by this association, since it may obtain

some of the food not used by the crab, and since it is upon a

surface kept by the crab above the bottom, and protected from

the constant danger of permanent burial in the sand. If, on the

other hand, the crab, as seems probable enough, is protected by

the presence of so well-armed a creature as the Hydroid, we would

have here a cause of “mutualism.” With this combination of —

Hydroid and crab is also associated a commensal,—a small An- —

nelid of the family Spionide and genus Polydora. Of several .

hundred shells examined, fifty per cent. were inhabited by this

Polydora, in addition to the crab. In those without Hydroids the —

Annelid is less abundant, but such shells are often very old or

broken, or else but temporarily used by the crab. Occasionally

an empty shall contains an Annelid; but here we may assume

that a crab has recently occupied it ad only been out for a short :

time, since the majority of available shells are either taken pos-

1891.] A Commensal Annelid. 27

session of by the hermit or else became buried or washed away.

In no case could an Annelid be found in a shell containing the

original proprietor,—the Ilyanassa.

A somewhat similar case of an Annelid occurring in the dwell-

ing of a hermit crab was long ago noticed by Quatrefages, but

there the Annelid, a Nereis, may possibly have taken up only

temporary quarters within the shell. This, however, seems not

to be the case with the Nereis described by Wirén in 1888,

which, it would appear, has been modified by its well-acquired

habit of living inside such shells. The Polydora, however,

does not merely live within the pre-formed cavity of the Gaster-

opod shell, as the Nereis would, but, by boring a tunnel in the

columella, and by partly filling up some of the spiral cavity of the

shell with a calcareous tube of its own manufacture, reconstructs

the shell to fit its own needs.

The general character of the dwelling made by the Annelid

within the Gasteropod shell may be inferred from a view of the

shell cut lengthwise into halves, as in Fig. 1. The external

opening of the tunnel is seen on the inner lip of the mouth of the

shell as a conspicuous rounded hole, which leads by a long passage

inside the columella up to the spiral part of the shell. Here

the tunnel opens out again into the apical chamber of the shell

by the round hole seen in the figure. The inner opening, how-

ever, is continuous with a calcareous tube built into the chamber

of the shell in such a way as to completely block it and prevent

the posterior end of the crab, or any other object, from pressing

up into the smallest terminal spirals. This tube is bent or coiled

in various ways, but may present, as in the figure, a cross-section

suggesting that of a Mammalian cochlea. Made of a calcareous,

cement-like mass, it may be the debris of the bored-out tunnel,

but is more probably a special calcareous secretion of the Annelid

such as some of its relatives are known to make.

This description applies only to certain cases, since many

irregularities are observed both in the calcareous tube and in the

tunnel, and some shells present external openings near the apex

and apparently communicating with the Annelid’s dwelling.

Only one adult Annelid is found in each shell, and this may be

28 The American Naturalist. [January,

seen, in part, even without destroying the shell, since, when the :

crab is not too active, the anterior part of the Polydora may pro-

trude from the external opening in the columella, reach about in —

the water, and presumably find and swallow food in the sand or —

currents of water. Yet it is very easily disturbed, and then to be

found only within the columella, or even in the upper calcareous —

tube, where it may be variously coiled about, since the dwelling A

is everywhere wide enough for the Annelid to bend back and

forth upon itself. The part of the old shell utilized by the An-

nelid is thus intermediate between that the crab occupies and —

that covered over by the Hydroid. The former, in drawing in —

and out of the shell, tends to limit the excursions of the Annelid —

by dragging its claws over the columella and orifice of the 3

Annelid’s tunnel ; the latter extends up to the very edge of the 4

Annelid’s place of exit. Sometimes the Annelid’s tunnel appears —

to have been cut through into the chamber occupied by the her-

mit, but then covered in again by a calcareous layer protecting: :

the Annelid from contact with the crab.

Considering how impossible it would be for the Annelid to —

keep the shell free from sand and prevent its burial, it is obvious —

that this Polydora, if it lives, as it appears to, only in such a com- —

mensal state, is dependent upon the habit of the hermit crab, and _

thus exists in what is a somewhat recently acquired environment. —

As, however, other species of Polydora are known to make tun-

nels into various Gasteropod and Lamellibranch shells, dead or ©

alive, it is evident that this particular species has not departed —

so widely from the habit of its kind.

Before describing the interesting breeding habits of this com-

mensal Annelid, we will give an account of its structure and of ©

certain organs especially illustrated in the figures.

The body (Fig. 2) is about a millimeter wide, about twenty-five ~

long, and rather flat, with little color except the bright red of the

blood in the conspicuous dorsal vessel and in the branchia. 3

These reach half way across the back, and each contains a vascu-

lar loop that passes from the dorsal vessel to the tip of the

branchia, then back again into the body. The limb of this loop —

nearer the middle line or to the dorsal surface may possibly act ;

1891.] A Commensal Annelid. 29

as a heart, since it contains peculiar branching, nucleated proto-

plasmic processes suggesting the cells of an embryonic vertebrate

heart, and to be interpreted as part of a mesenchyme, formed, like

the blood, outside the ccelom. The ventral side of each branchia,

that next the animal’s back, bears along it a band of large ciliated

cells, each with a large tuft of fine cilia. A similar row of such

cells is found extending transversely across the back of each

somite, and corresponding nearly to the lines of attachment of the

internal septa. The branchia begin upon the sixth somite

(Fig. 7), and are present, though very small, at the posterior end

of the body (Fig. 8).

The setz in the dorsal bundles are attenuated, lance-like, and

straight (Fig. 3), while in the ventral bundles they present bifid

tips, provided with a delicate scroll or enveloping hood (Fig. 4),

except anteriorly, where they are entirely replaced by simple,

lance-shaped, bent ones (Fig. 5), each with a delicate flange on

its convex side. The sete of the large fifth somite (Fig. 6) are

especially modified as a set of about six very stout, golden-

colored hooks, each with a prominent flange projecting from its

side near the tip. In the figure some of these hooks are still

young, and growing up into place beside the perfected ones. In

addition to these large spines, there are a few delicate, lance-

shaped ones, as seen in the same figure.

The shape of the animal’s head is not easily made out, as it is

drawn back into the first somite upon the slightest disturbance,

and generally remains there in preserved specimens. In Fig. 7

its general form, as made out from living specimens, is represented

somewhat imperfectly.

The cephalic lobe or head is slightly emarginate anteriorly,

and bears two delicate antennæ that stand just dorsal to the

mouth, as a part of the upper lip, and are richly supplied with

sensory hairs. In the head are also two pairs of black eyes that

on section appear to have only a simple larval structure. Each

consists of a minute mass of large, dark-brown pigment granules,

forming a sort of cup about fifteen microns in diameter, and partly

surrounding a homogeneous spherical mass of equal size, that

stains darkly. All this lies some distance from the surface, and

30 The American Naturalist. [Jan

may be said to be in the dorsal part of the brain, since the brain

is not separated from the epidermis, but lies with its dorsal

ganglion cells intermixed with the epithelial cells, in part at least.

As far as the sections go, the appearance of the eye is-

simple as to suggest that it may be interpreted as merely one

two epidermal cells, with clear, refracting outer ends, and pigment

in the middle part. The inner tips of such cells may be supposed

to connect with the brain. It is to be noted, also, that the same

sort of pigment granules occur here and there in neighboring

epidermal cells in small collections or isolated.

Posterior to the head are the two great tentacles, with a ciliat

groove onthe under side; while below, on each side of the mo

is a very prominent, glandular, lateral projection of considerable

size. The pharynx is ciliated, and may be everted with defi

ridges and grooves between the above two lateral lobes.

At the posterior end of the body (Fig. 8) there is a pecu

series of about fourteen papilla, placed about an elliptical

within which the digestive tract terminates in a longitudinal s

In the internal anatomy of this Annelid there is one fact

considerable interest,—that is the dorsal opening of the excretory

tubes, the nephridia. From the ciliated internal opening of each

nephridium (Fig. 9) a somewhat coiled tube proceeds dorsally to

make its way between the dorsal longitudinal muscle and the ad

cent epidermis, and then, passing towards. the middle of the back,

opens finally by a small ciliated orifice not fat from the median

line and about mid-way from one end of the somite to the oth

This is shown in a very diagrammatic way in the figure as mi

out in several sections of preserved specimens.

This dorsal position of the external nephridial openings is V

unusual among Annelids, but is not confined to this species !

to those closely related to it. Thus, though the statement

Ehlers concerning numerous dorsal openings in Polynoe seem

have been negatived by the observations of Haswell, Bourne,

Kaltenbach, and those described by Cosmovici in Sthenelais í

Hermione may also need investigation, yet other cases 5ê

surely established. Such are the single dorsal’ openings, an

riorly, in certain Hermellida and Serpulacea, the dorsal openit

A =

1891.] A Commensal Anneli. 31

in some of the Capitellidz, as well as those somewhat dorsal ones

in Chzetopterus, according to both older observations and the re-

cent account of Joyeux Laffuie. In the Spionide, finally, we find

dorsal openings recorded by Jacobi in 1883 for two species of

Polydora.

That these openings have secondarily moved up from a ventral

through a more lateral position to the dorsal one seems to be at

present a more probable assumption, considering such lateral

openings as those found in Polyophthalmus and the various

positions present in different somites of Cheetopterus, than that

the dorsal lateral and ventral nephridial openings refer back to

some ancestral condition where numerous nephridial tubes were

present as in certain earthworms.

In the above diagram (Fig. 9) the nerve cord is also shown as

two separate strands, each retaining its primitive position within

the epidermis ; anteriorly, however, the two cords come close to-

gether on the ventral mid-line.

A few facts regarding the breeding habits and development of

this commensal Annelid also came under observation during July

and August, and might be observed, presumably, through a

larger part of the summer.

The eggs are laid in peculiar HEE cases within the part

of the shell occupied by the Annelid, either in the tunnel or in

the manufactured tube, or in both. These cases consist of elon-

gated series of sacs, firmly united into cylindrical masses fastened

to the walls of the tube in which they are built. As shown in

Fig. 10, each sac or chamber of the case contains a very large

number of eggs, of a yellowish color, and often has an irregular

stalk on one side that evidently represents the place of final

closure when the secreted sac was finished. The entire structure

reminds one forcibly of similar egg-cases in certain Molluscs; more-

over, as in those animals, we find here also irregularities at the end

of the series of sacs. Thus the terminal sacs (Fig. 11) are smaller,

contain few eggs, are often quite defective in shape, and may be

so aborted as to contain no eggs at all. The eggs also, full of

yellow yolk and presenting large irregular cleavage cells, add to

this resemblance.

32 The American Naturalist. [ January, A

The cleavage of the eggs is complete but unequal, and results

in a few large cells full of yolk becoming covered over appar-

ently by smaller cells containing less yolk. The resulting —

larve remain for a long time within the egg-sacs, closely —

crowded together. At an early stage these larve are prob-

ably about the same as the pear-shaped larva of Leucodora

figured by Mecaniknow in 1865, and may be regarded as ©

trochospheres much distended by food-yolk. Such a stage is —

represented from a ventral view in Fig. 12, where the large tri- ~

angular mouth lies at the bottom of a ciliated depression of the

small anterior end, while the main rounded mass is filled with food-

yolk showing imperfectly the outlines of a few large entoderm ~

cells. A ventral ciliated band is present, as well as an imperfect a

post-oral ring, or rather two lateral ciliated areas, since, as in some —

other Annelid larvæ, the cilia are absent in the median area, both

dorsally and ventrally. ;

Sections of this larva (Fig. 13) show that there is an outer ec-

todermal layer surrounding the entodermal yolk,—in which latter, —

however, the cell outlines do not appear,—that there is a paired

mesoblast, and that the cesophagus ends blindly in the yolk mass. —

Moreover, sections to one side of the median plane show peculiar, —

large, ciliated cells, about the mouth, of which there is an espe-

cially large pair just posterior tothe mouth. One of these is seen ,

in the figure.

These larva are about .o2 mm. long, and pass gradually into

a stage with three pairs of seta bundles and a length of .35 mm.

These latter have four eye spots, an additional band of cilia an-

terior to the anus, but still a large mass of yolk in the thick

walls of the digestive tract, surrounded by the body-cavity. fi

This stage with three pairs of seta bundles is found for a long

time, though much growth in the size of the body takes place,

and conspicuous pigment areas appear when the late !

form such as shown in Fig. 14 results. The occurrence o

this phase of larval growth, in which three somites are functiona

for some time, has been observed in several Annelid larvæ, andis

Suggestive from its resemblance to the Nauplius condition:

certain Arthropods.

ST pF See Mee = ens Se ees Tn Stik Mee ear eae eee

1891.] A Commensal Annelid. 33

These older larve are, found inside the Annelid’s dwelling,

sometimes in company with younger larva and even eggs, though

it is probable that they escape out into the water about this

stage. In swimming about the provisional sete are brought into

play as organs of defense, apparently, being thrown out at right

angles to the body when the animal is disturbed, and trailed

a ng close to its sides when it swims quietly by means of the

cilia. These setz are noticably barbed, excessively long, and un-

like the adult seta ; forming a good illustration of the provisional

Annelid seta.

This larva is conspicuous from the metamerically placed dorsal

pigment blotches, which, it will be noticed, precede the externa]

appearance of the somites, and are, moreover, represented upon

the heart by a pair of small black areas near the eyes. .

The digestive tract now presents three well-marked divisions

—a mouth and short, ciliated cesophagus leading abruptly into a

capacious intestine, with some yolk in its walls yet, and opening

posteriorly into a short rectum that ends at the anus. Here there

are two papillz with long sensory hairs, such as also occur in a

tuft upon the median part of the head.

In sectioning the adult Polydora, eggs in various stages of

formation are found within the body-cavity. The ovary, in fact,

appears as a mere mass of modified peritoneal cells, attached to

and covering over the vascular loops near the nephridia (Fig. 9).

The youngest ova do not differ perceptibly from the ordinary

peritoneal cells over the blood-vessels, but they soon enlarge

and become more and more filled up by accumulating yolk

globules. In this way there is formed a large botryoidal mass

of large and small cells (ova), projecting freely into the body-

_ cavity, and not covered by any membrane. Thus attached to

blood-vessels, the ova attain a diameter of .06 mm., and then

break loose into and float freely in the body cavity (Fig. 9.) Here

they continue to grow till, when apparently ripe, they have a

r of og mm. In the ovum there is a large nucleus, nearly

.02 mm. thick, and a very conspicuous nucleolus five microns in

diameter. This nucleolus is peculiar in having one or more

rounded elevations or lateral protuberances upon it, which may

be half as thick as the main body of the nucleolus.

34 The American Naturalist.

The striking parts of the nucleoluseare, I presume, described

by Vejdovsky in Sternaspis as “ biickelchen,” but declared by”

Giard, in his remarkable observations upon Spio, to be the result of

fusion of certain extra nuclear “cells” with the proper nucleolus, _ 4

The body of the ovum is full of large yolk-spheres, staining

dark with osmic acid, and having an average diameter of per

2 microns. Presumably the eggs pass from the body-cavity b

the nephridia, but no observations were made upon this point.

Since the eggs, when laid, are concealed within a tortue

passage removed from the external water, and as all the le

Annelids examined are females living solitary, one in each s

there seems a need for some special means of insuring the

ization of these eggs. In fact, some shells contain, besides

large female, a minute individual about 4 mm. long, which it

thought might be a male. The only one preserved and sectior

however, does not suffice to decide this question. In its body

cavity there are, however, numerous cells and cilia that stron

suggest spermatozoa in process of formation; and if this be

case, we would have here an interesting case of dimorphism,

least of great discrepancy in size, between the two sexes. fi

over, these small Annelids may occur in many more cases t

actually observed, no special attention being given to their

tection at that time. If males, living thus in the dwelling

female, they would furnish a ready solution of the above difficu

in regard to the fertilization of the eggs.

. I have not succeeded in finding this commensal Annelid i

shells inhabited by the same hermit crab upon the New En

coast, and believe that it, like many other of our southern

is an undescribed species, and would suggest the name com

asdescriptive of its peculiar habits. Its chief characters wou

‘ asfollows:

Polydora commensaiis, sp. n.

| - Thefemale (Figs. 2-8). Cephalic lobe usually retracted,

ago, the body is wide. Body flatt

ae 100 somites; length, 25 mm.; width, 1 mm.; co’

ee Lo ee intestine dark, blood-vessels const

PLATE H

FIG. 11: FIG. 12. FIG. 13.

FIG. 14.

Polydora commensalis. :

ror} A Commensal Annelid. 35

Branchiz begin on the sixth somite, increase rapidly to equal half

width of body, and diminish rapidly near posterior end of body ;

each has a line of large ciliated cells, as also does the dorsal sur-

face of each somite. Anus surrounded by about 14 papillz on

each side,—a short posterior one, a much longer one, four shorter

anterior, and then one still shorter. Dorsal sete long, acumi-

nate (Fig. 3); ventral setae curved and with a flange (Fig. 5) till

the twelfth somite is reached, then gradually replaced by an

increasing number of forked sete (Fig. 4); setz of fifth somite six

yellow hooks, each with a sharp flange on side near tip, and also a

cluster of delicate hair-setæ. Found at Beaufort, N. C., living as a

commensal in holes excavated in Gasteropod shells inhabited by

Eupagurus pollicaris and overgrown by Hydractinia. Eggs laid in

series of cases inside these dwellings; larve as in Figs. 12-14.

Male thought to be much smaller than the above female form,

and to live in the same shell.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Fig. 1.—Shell of Ilyanassa, cut open to show the openings into the

columella and the built-up passage in the cavity of the shell on the left, all

made by Polydora. x eight diameters.

IG. 2.—General appearance of P. commensalis, dorsal view, preserved

specimens. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 A).

Fig. 3.—Ends of dorsal sete. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 F.)

Fig. 4.—Forked ventral sete, with flange. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 F.)

FIG. 5.—Pointed, anterior, ventral sete. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 F.)

Fic. 6.—Setz of left side in fourth segment. (Camera, Zeiss. 2 D.)

FIG. 7.—Anterior region of the body. (Camera, Zeiss. 2 A.)

Fic. 8.—Posterior end of body. Paes, Zeiss. 2 A.)

FIG. 9.—Diagram of cross-sections of body, showing dorsal openings ot

nephridia, separate nerve-cords, ovary and free ova, digestive tract and

blood-vessels, parapodia, muscles, and branchia. (Camera, Zeiss. 2 A.)

FIG. 10.—Part of an egg-case, showing eggs in several chambers. (Cam.

era, Zeiss. 2 A.)

FIG. 11.—End of such a case, showing aborted chambers and cleaving

eggs. (Camera, Zeiss. 2 D.)

Fic. 12.Larva, ventral view. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 G.)

_ Fig. 13.—Vertical, longitudinal, but not median section of Fig. 12.

yeg Zeiss. 2 F.

G. 14.—Advanced larva, showing provisional setæ and metamerically

aes pigment blotches. (Camera, Zeiss. 4 G.)

36 The American Naturalist. [January,

EDITORIAL.

p YER attempt of our common-school teachers to better —

their intellectual condition is to be cammended, and every a

step honestly and advisedly taken with that end in view should l

be encouraged by all. So, in the abstract, we have the greatest

interest in the formation of “ reading circles” and compulsory

teachers’ institutes among the teachers of Indiana, for the object

here. To explain: Every teacher is compelled, under certain in-

ducements and penalties, to attend one institute each month, and

is obliged to come prepared to discuss and answer questions upon

reading circles, it is readily seen that the getting of a book on the

list means no little profit.

It would be thought that in a matter of so much importance

the opinions of experts would be called in to aid in selection, but

this was apparently not the case. Both zoology and botany have.

several good students in Indiana; but so far as heard from not

one was consulted in the matter, as can readily be imagined when

one learns that the books selected were Steele’s “ Zoology ” an

Wood's “ How to Study Plants.” Certainly no two books coul i

have been selected which were further removed from what

books should be,—books without a single redeeming feature

books which are conspicuous examples of how not to do it. T

render them more useless (if that be possible), some ignoramus

tions for the same. Were the results not so lamentable they

would be laughable, and even as it is we hope that readers o

x891.] Editorial. 37

gain a grain of amusement from some of the examples that appear

below. Still, it must be borne in mind that many thousand

teachers have been imposed upon by the cupidity or stupidity of

some one in authority.

This year the study is botany, and the work is laid out for each

month, but with the least possible expenditure of brain energy on

the part of him who evolved the synopsis. He has taken from some

other scheme a list of plants and months, and has shifted them about

soas to meet the needs of the institutes, but without any regard to

seasons. Thus in November the poor teachers are expected to

study the dog-tooth violet! while in January the flower and

fruit of the strawberry are the subjects of discussion. In Decem-

ber the teachers will be searching their gardens for flowering

tulips, and scanning the orchards for the beautiful blossoms of the

apple and peach. Could any arrangement be more absurd ?

Then the same wise head has thought that technical terms are

too strong food for the poor school teacher, and he has therefore

tried to translate them into the vernacular. The result can be

imagined. In speaking of the mode of branching of the apple

tree the term deliquescent is used, but this was too big, too

abstruse; so the dictionary has been invoked and a synonym

sought, and the poor teacher is requested to notice the “ solvent

trunk” of the apple tree.

Zoology was studied in the year 1889-90, and so the mischief

is done. Still, we cannot refrain from calling attention to a few

points. We miss, it is true, the incongruity between subject and

season so prominent on the botanical side, but we find ample

compensation in the nonsensical character of the questions. We

can imagine some poor teacher turning over the pages of the

zoology trying to find the meaning of the term “domologom” * (sic)

which he or she is expected to define. Imagine the intellectual

drill and the knowledge of zoology which one will get in learning

the answers to the following questions selected from a hundred

and fifty of similar character: Describe the classification of any

branch of the animal ae In what animals do we first find

1A friend thful of hot pudding. We are inclined to think it

a misprint for homologous.

38 The American Naturalist.

the sensation of sound produced? What makes the hamm

oyster of peculiar interest? Show how the dragon-fly comes

into existence. What insects are called the quakers? What is

the Sly Silurus? why so called? What superstition was held

by sailors in regard to the petrel? What bird has at times been ~

converted by the natives into a lamp? Describe the song of

bobolink. Describe the unicorn: To what use did the Indians

the enamel of beavers’ teeth? How does the whale manage to

live in the water? Give the significance of the term “ snake

charmer.” What does the author think should be required o

text-book:

“ The following is taken from Baird, Brewer, and Ridgway,

Turdus migratorius, Robin, American Redbreast. Tail slig

rounded ; above olive-gray, top and sides of head black, chin a

throat Ton ”; and so on through a technical description which

no thorough teacher would ever dream of demanding from a

pupil.

The incoming superintendent of public instruction in In

is said to be a man of ideas. Certainly one of the first things

should do is to use his position and his influence to put an end

this state of affairs, and to see that in future specialists are

ployed to select books,—specialists who are proof against the

dulcet tones and the frequently more solid arguments of the

lishing house.

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 39

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

, C.—Local ar of Spaces teaei in St. Helena. Bull. No. 13, U. S. Scien-

tific Eae to W. A

Annual nen i renaras sas State Reservation at Niagara for fiscal year, Oct.,

1888, to Sept., 1889.

Annual Report Geological and e History Survey of Canada, Vol. LII., Parts

I. ànd II. From Alford Selwyn, direc

ASHMEAD, W. H.—Descriptions a ‘Ne Ichneumonidz in the Collection of the U.

S. Museum. Sania Proc, U. S. Nat. Museum, Vol. XIL., pp. 387-451. From the Smith-

sonian Institution.

Baur, G.—On the Morphology of Ribs, and the Fate of the Actinosts ofthe Median

Fins in Fi shes, —On the Morphology of the Vertebrate Skull. Reprints from the Journa?

of geile Vol. III., No. 3. From the author

LL, R.—On Glacial Phenomena in Canadas Extract Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol.

ERGEN, J. Y., and BERGEN, F. D.—Primer of Darwinism. From the authors

BERGH, R.—Report on the Nudibranchs. Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol.

, F. S—Are the G Sch Seuch d the “ saprot t of the

United nk Identical Distasen? Extract from AM. NAT., Oct., 1 From the

author.

spastic W. T.—Address SR at the Anniversary Meeting, London Geol.

Feb. 21, 1890. From the au

‘Buletin Hs 4, Agricultural <n Station of the Rhode Island State Agricul-

ural Scho

Bulletin ‘No. 9, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. From the director.

Bulletin No. 8, Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station. From the officers of the

station.

Bulletin No. 1, Geological Survey of Missouri. From A. Winslow

CAPPELLINI, G.—Di un Ittiosauro e di altri importanti fosili RR, nelle argille

scagliose dell’ Emil yoik Pap dal Vol. VI°, 1° Sem. From the author.

CLARK, W. B.—Third Annual Geol. PSS Maryland and Virginia.

Bull. Washburn College Laboratory of Nat. Hist. From the author

Crozier, A. A.—On the Effects of Certain Fungicides upon the n of Seeds.

t Journ. Mycology, Vol. VI., -e 1. From U. S. Dept.

er tae ment of Plant Diseases. tract Journal of Mycology, ger VL, No. 1.

From the Department of Agriculture.

DARAPSKY, L.—Las Aquas Minerales de Chili. From the author.

Davis, W. M.—Structure and Origin of Glacial Sand Plains. Extract Bull. Geol.

of the

—Sur le Dolichopithecus ruscinensis, Nouveau Singe Fossile du Pliocéne du

Roussillon.—Sur la Découv erte d'une Tortue de terre Géante au Mont Léberon. From

the a

author.

DERBY, A.—Retrospecto Historico des Trabalhos Geographicos e Geologicos

Effectuados na Provincia de S. Paulo.

=p siege

40 The American Naturalist. [Jamuary,

os Altos do Brazil. Extrahido do Boletina de Sociedade de Geograpia

do Rio de haa. toe V., de 1889. From the author.

ELLS, R. W.—The Stratigraphy of the “ Quebec Group.” Bull. of the Geol. Soc. of

America, is I., pp. 453-468. From the author.

EMMONS, S. F.—Orographic Movements of the Rocky Mountains. Extract Bull.

Geol. Soc. ae America, Vol. I., pp. 245-286. From the author.

FAXON, W.—Notes on North American S Family Astacidæ.

Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., pp. 619-634. From the Smithsonian Institution.

FERREE, B.—Primitive Architecture. Extract AM. pin January, 1889. From the :

io S. A.—History and Status of Public School Science Work. From the

author.

Fox, W. S.—A i of Spectacles. Extract Medical and Surgical Reporter, May

3, 1890. From the aut

FULLERTON, G. S—on Sameness and Identity: A Psychological sem Publica-

tions of the Pennsylvania University, No. 1, April, 1890. From the edito

Gaupry, A.—Sur la Découverte d’ un Singe Fossile par M. le Dr. Dirai From

the author.

GILBERT, G. K.—The Strength of the Earth's Crust. Extract Bull. Geol. Soc. of

America, Vol. I., 1889. From the autho :

GORDON, C. H.—Notes on a Fossil ‘Wood from the Keokuk Limestone, Keokuk, .

lowa.—On sprak and Their Contained Fossils.—Observations on the Keokuk Species

of Agaricocrinus. Extracts Proc. I. A. S., 188 a From the author.

fthe

Vol. XII., pp. 601-617. From the Smithsonian Institution.

LAMB, D. S.—The Olecranon Perforation. Extract dhaslian Anthropologist, Aptil,

1890. From the author.

LEWIS, T. H.—Effigy Mound in the — the Big Sioux River, Iowa. Extract

from Science, May 2, 1890. From the autho:

LOEFGREN, A.—Dados Climatologicos das Annos 1887 e 1888. Boletin da Comitia

Geographical Geologica. From the author

MARX, G.—Catalogue of the Desctibed Aranez of — North America.

Bok oe ees of ee Cotton Plant. Bull. i“ 13, Agri. Sta-

tion of Albani & i. College. '

MERRILL, G. P.—Notes on the Serpentinous Rocks of Essex County, Ne New York: |

from Aqueduct Shaft 26, New York City; and from near Easton, Pa. .

Mus., Vol. XII., pp. 595-600. From the Smithsonian Institution.

MINOT, C.-S,—Die Placenta des Kaninchens. Sonderabdruck aus dem Biologis-

Centralblatt,

hen latt, Band X., No. 4, Ausgegeben am 1 April, 1 From the author.

MOORE, J.— ofa Species of Gigantic Beaver-Like Rodent. Extract

the Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., April, 1890, From the o

ORRIS, C.—The Aryan Race. From the pares

N „H. A., AND LYDEKKER Paleontology, wits a Ger

DE ,R.—, of

eral Introduction on the Principles of Paleontology Vols. I. and II. From the

1891.) Recent Books and Pamphlets. 41

OLIVEIRA, PAUL A DE.—Reconhecimento Geologico do Valle do Rio Paranapanema,

From the author.

UIN, P.—Texas Fever. Bull. No, 11, Missouri Agricultural College Experiment

Station. From the author

PARKER, W. K.—Osteology s Steatornis caripensis. Extract Proc. London Zool.

Soc., April, 1889. From the auth

PAYNE, F. F.—A Few Notes ‘Upon the Eskimo of Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson's

Strait. Extract Proc. A. A. A. S., 1889. From the seai

PERACCA, M. G.—Descrizione di una nuova specie d n. Diploglossus. Bollettino

dei Musei di Zoologia ed Anatomia Comparata della ncleest iv di Torino, Vol. V. From

the author.

PILSBRY, H. A.—On the Anatomy of Ærope cafira Fer.—Note on a Southern Pupa,

Proc. Phila, Acad. Nat. Sciences, 1890. From the author.

RAMSAY, E. P.—Records of the Australian a 1890, From the author.

nagai New York State Museum of Nat. Hist.,

AY, R-—Birds Eola on the PAPES s Islands in 1888. Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mas, dx XII., pp. ror-128. From the Smithsonian Institution.

OLF, C. W.—Character and Distribution of the Genera of Brachiopoda. From

or.

RUFFIN, F. G.—-The Negro as a Political and Social Factor. From the author.

RUSSELL, I. C.—Notes on the|Surface Geology of Alaska. Extract Bull. Geol. Soc.

of America, Vol. I. From the author

SCUDDER, SAMUEL H.—The Fossil Butterflies of Florissant. Extract from the

SMITH, J. B.—Contributions Toward a Monograph of the Noctuidae of Temperate

North America. Revision of Some Tzniocampid Genera. Extracts Proc. U. S. Nat.

useum, Vol. XII., pp. 455-496. From the Smithsonian Institution.

STEVENSON, J. J.—Proceedings of the Annual gat held at New York, Decem-

ber 26, 27, 28, 1889. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. of Ameri From the author.

TES

SMi. Extrait de L' Annuaire "Géologique Universel, Tome V., 1888.

pa he author,

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of Hie Family Delphinide. Bull. U. S. Nat. Mus., No. 36. From the Smithsonian In-

tituti

UHLIG, V.—Melchoir Neumayo. Sein Lehen und Wirken. Jahrbuch der k. k.

geol. Reichsanstalt, 1890. From the author.

ULRICH, E. O.—Contributions to the Micro-Paleontology of the Cambro-Silurian

Rocks of Canada. Extract Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Canada, 1

WINCHELL, A.—Some Results of Archean Studies. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I.,

357-394. From the author.

WINCHELL, N. H.—The History of Geol. Surveys in Minn, Bull. No. 1, Geol. and

Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn

——Natural Ges i in Minnesota. Bull. No. 5, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Sur. Minn. From

the author.

WOLFF, J. E—On Some Occurrences of Ottrelite and Ilmenite Schist in New Eng-

Bull. Harvard Mus. Comp. Zool., Vol. XVI. gassiz. :

Woop, H. C.—The Medical Profession. The Medical Sects. The Law. Reprint

of the aor Heroic Couplet in England. Reprint from Am-

. Philology.

WOODWARD, ea of ee Cretaceous Foraminifera of New Jersey. Extract

Proc. New York Microscopical Soc. From the author.

42 The American Naturalist. [Janos A

RECENT LITERATURE.

Hyatt’s Insects.!—The small volume before us is the eighth in —

the series of Guides for Science-Teaching issued under the auspices of

the Boston Society of Natural History. ‘The series has been rather

unequal ; some of the numbers, noticeably that dealing with the Crus

tacea and spiders, have fallen below what such guides should be; but

able introduction to the study of entomology. With this and the still.

unfinished work of Professor Comstock, already noticed in these

pages, the beginning students of insects can enter upon their work and

fit themselves to take up the more technical papers.

The treatment of the subject is after the following outline: The

grasshopper is made the type of the group of Hexapods, and outlines

are given to aid the student in working out for himself the external

and internal anatomy. Next follows a chapter upon the principles

underlying classification, and then come the characteristics of the

ourteen orders which, following Brauer, the authors have recognized,

There are many things in this arrangement which please us, but

cannot agree to it in all particulars, Larval stages are an introduced

feature in the Hexapod phylum, and those who rely wholly upon

them as guides to the affinities and relationships are apt to go astra

doptera, Hymenoptera, and Diptera, with the Hymenoptera senna

a position intermediate between the other two; nor can we m

themselves more of the admirable summary of Hexapod anatomy g

in Lang’s “ Vergleichende Anatomie.” On page 12 Professor Hya

says that he is ‘ disposed to uphold a modified form of the Cuvie

classification, The old names, Radiata, Mollusca, and Articulata,

the name Vertebrata, represent obvious relations and a legiti

grouping of forms.’’ We had thought that the heterogeneous chi

ter of the old group Radiata had long ago been demonstrated ;

if Professor Hyatt wishes to include metameric forms under the 2

` | Guides for Science-Teaching, No. Tt. , B tt and J.M.

Arms. 16mo, pp. xxiii. + 300. mae oe ee oa, er er $

1891.] Recent Literature. 43

Articulata, he will be obliged to throw out the Plathelminthes and

Nematoid forms, while, on the other hand, his group of Vertebrates

will disappear, along with ‘‘ Vermes ’’ (= Annelids) and Arthropods,

in the group for which others have adopted the term Metamerata.

These are, however, but minor points. The good features of the

book are many, and Professor Hyatt is to be congratulated in the able

coadjutor (or coadjutrix) he has found in Miss Arms. Many of the

223 illustrations are fresh, but there are also some of the old acquaini-

ances. We think the book the best of its kind yet issued, but we can-

not help wishing that we had some really first-class text-book of ento-

mology which would attack the subject from every side. For points

of structure the student has still to be referred to Newport’s article

‘« Insecta” in Todd’s ‘‘ Encyclopedia of Anatomy and Physiology,”

while for the systematic aspect there is as yet nothing to replace Ger-

stacker’s account in Carus and Gerstiacker’s ‘‘ Handbuch der Zoologie,”’

or that given in Ludwig’s edition of Leunis’s ‘‘ Synopsis.’’—J. S. K.

44 The American Naturatst. [January,

eneral Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

A Review of the Discovery of the Cretaceous Mammalia.’

The following is an abstract of a review of “ The Discovery of

of the Cretaceous Mammalia,” presented to the Society of

Morphologists, December 30th, 1890. The review is mainly an

analysis of the types upon which the author bases his systematic

classification of the collection of mammalian teeth and other

parts from the Laramie beds. These mammals are provisionally —

referred by the author to four mammalian orders and eight

families, five of which are new to science. Sixteen new genera

and twenty-seven new species are also proposed. e

It appears that before accepting this system we must eliminate :

1. The terms preoccupied by other authors. 2. The terms

founded upon different parts of the same animal, and thus largely

preoccupied by the author. 3. The terms founded upon i 0°

fect or indefinite types. 4. The terms founded upon reptilian

or icthyopsidan teeth. This may be expressed as follows:

A. ALLOTHERIA. Sy en OS ae MULTITUBERCULATA, Cope.

1. Cimolomide.

Cimolomys gracilis.

Cimolomys bellus.

Cimolomys digona

2. Cimolodontide. ; 2

Cimolodon nitidus. eae se ie eames 7 sp

Nanomys minutus.

3- Plagiaulacide.

Halodon sculptus.

Halodon serratus.

Halodon formosus.

! The Discovery of the Cretaceous Mammalia, O. C. Marsh, American Jo

Science and Arts, Parts I. and IL., July and August, 1889.

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 45

4. Dipriodontide.

Dipriodon robustus.

Dipriodon lunatus.

. Lripriodontide. Stereognathide.

Tripriodon ccelatus, " " * * * " Meniscoéssus, Cope, 2 species.

Tripriodon caperatus,

Selenacodon fragilis.

Selenacodon brevis.

. Allodontide.

Allacodon lentus. . . . . . Probably preoccupied above.

Allacodon pumilus.

Camptomus amplus . « . + « « Probably preoccupied above.

Gracoden ence. -o a ee Indefinite type,or preoccupied.

?B. PANTOTHERIA. So oo e a T NOL Oe.

te ee A - Determination uncertain.

?Dryolestes tenax.

<< Mapsupiitias.... a oa . Order indeterminable.

Didelphops vorax.

Didelphops ferus. P roe s Didelphops. Not definable.

Didelphops comptus.

Cimolestes. Not definable.

Cimolestes curtus.

D. INSECTIVORA.

Cimolestes incisus. }

} Order indeterminable. Genus

Pediomys wie e a a not defined.

E. Incert# SEDIS, ;

8. Stagodontide. Reptilian or icthyopsidan

aroda Wit o e types.

Platacodon nanus.

The full analysis upon which these conclusions are based will

be published subsequently. Hoar F Oaou.

January 26, 1891.

On a New Species of Palæosyops.—Paleosyops megarhi-

nus, sp. nov.—This new species of Palæosyops is established upon a

fine skull (No. 10,008) in the Princeton collection from the Washakie

Eocene of Wyoming ; there is also another portion of a skull (No.

10,041), probably belonging to this species, with the occiput well pre-

d, from the Bridger proper.

_ Cranium.—The characters of this skull are quite unique, and depart

widely from any of the species of the family that I have examined.

46 The American Naturalist. [January,

The general form of the skull is broad and depressed. Its dorsal con-

tour is very like that of Paleotherium crassum,—namely, there is no

frontal depression, which is so characteristic of Paleosyops paludosus,

and the occipital region is only slightly higher than the frontal.

temporal fossæ are not deeply excavated, and the occipital crests are

weakly developed when compared to this region of the skull in

Limnohyops. The occiput itself ishigh and rather narrow. The fora-

men magnum is wide, bordered by very large condyles. The auditory

processes are widely separated. The post-tympanics are broad and

heavy. The post-glenoid is peculiar in form; it is very short and

Pate@osyops megarhinus, sp. nov.; anterior and lateral view of skull; from the

Washakie Eocene of Wyoming.

thick ; its form is very different from other species in the collection.

An internal glenoid process is present in this species, The mastoid was

i obably exposed. The form of the zygomatic arch is striking ; it 5

is very light, nearly straight,

thin, and shelf-like. The infra-orbital foramen is not exposed. The form

of the malar in this species is totally different from all other allied forms

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 47

that I have examined. The orbit is very small, terminates anteriorly

above the anterior border of the second superior molar ; the post-orbital

processes are well marked. The facial region of the skull is very short,

compared to the total length of thecranium. The nasals are very long

and heavy; their distal portion is expanded and broader than the

middle part. The nasal notches are very deep and high. The pre-

maxillaries are triangular in outline; their symphysis is short and nar-

row, with a prominent anterior keel. The canine alveolus is very

prominent. The palate is long and narrow, the roof of the same being

strongly arched. The posterior termination of the palate is at the

second superior molar. The incisive foramina are not divided.

Teeth.—The crowns of the teeth in this skull are badly damaged,

but enough remains to give the total measurements and the characters

of the last molar. The superior molars in this species form a

continuous series, being not interrupted by a diastema. The sections

of the incisors are very small. The canines are also very small, and di-

verge widely. Only the second and third molar of each side are par-

tially preserved. They have a square form with low crowns; externally

they are totally without a cingulum. The external V’s are rather wide

and angular, in this respect approaching that of Telmatotherium.

The last molar is without any intermediate conules.

Measurements.—1. Length of skull, from premaxillary symphysis

mere: post elend e as a iS ke A Ae

2. Length from orbit to premaxillary symphysis. . . . . .125

$- Length: fam.orbit to post-glenoid i: o iis S e a EA .160

e SCI GE a notch s has ee i .084

pene ot pab ta ee Bate oven . 100

0 BuGre molar Sreo se NE ee -148

7- Last super. molar P RE ee E E a 037

a Se a ee PT re eat - +039

E. M. Museum, Princeton College. CHARLES PARLE.

On Two New KERES from the White-River

Neocene of Nebraska.—Dr. art Hare, of the University of

Pennsylvania, recently presented to es Museum of the University a

collection of fossils from the White-River Neocene beds of Northern

Nebraska. This includes parts of skeletons of Stylemys nebrascensis

Leidy, and Menodus americanus Leidy, with some others, among which

are two species evidently new to science. One of these is a rhinoceros

of the genus Ccenopus Cope, of larger size than any of those hitherto

: _ known, and the other is a remarkable species of Menodus, which is

48 The American Naturalist. [January,

characterized by a development of the horn-cores so far unique in the

genus. I characterize it under the name of

MENODUS PELTOCERAS sp. nov.—Represented by the nasal region

and the horn-cores; the apex of one of the latter being broken away.

The peculiarity of the species consists in the immense transverse extent

of the horn-cores, and their complete fusion into an osseous wall which

extends across the muzzle, forming a huge plate or shield.. The supe-

rior border of this shield is moderately concave, a protuberant angle

on each side representing the apex of each horn-core. The nasal

bones form a flattened protuberance much wider than long, which

overhangs the nares. Their superior wall slopes directly upwards from

the obtuse apex to the crest of the horn-core-plate. The expanse of

the base of each horn-core outside of the nares is as wide as the nasal

meatus, is flattened from before backwards, and has a narrow external

margin. The horn-core-plate is vertical behind at the slightly angu-

lated middle line, and is moderately concave on each side, the apex

being slightly recurved. Measurements: Elevation of horn-core-plate

at middle line behind, 180 mm. ; do. at lateral apex, 190 mm. ; total

width of do. at middle, 300 mm. Projection of nasal bones beyond

lateral base of horn-core-plate, 20 mm. ; width of nasal meatus at base

of nasal bones, 65 mm. ; width of base of horn-core-plate outside of

nasal meatus, 901 mm Anteroposterior diameter of base of horn-core

above side of and parallel to nasal meatus, 85 mm. ‘This species is

nearest the M. platyceras S. & O., which has transverse comp

horn-cores. They are, however, distinct from each other, and not

nearly so expanded transversely as in the present form. The M. pelto-

ceras, in fact, carried a transverse shield on the end of its nose, which

must have given it an extraordinary appearance.

CNOPUS SIMPLICIDENS sp. nov.—Represented by the last two —

superior molars of the left side, with a probable humerus and femur. —

The molar teeth are one-third larger in linear dimensions than those of

the C. occidentalis Leidy, and lack the external basal cingulum which

1s present in the corresponding teeth of that species. Internal cingu- —

lum wanting, but the anterior and posterior cingula present. The —

posterior limb of the metacone is represented in the posterior molar by

a tubercle at the base of the crown, which rises into a a low ridge —

which soon disappears. It bounds a fossa with the posterior cingulum

just behind it. Transverse crests simple, with a convexity representing -

the anti-crochet. Paracone distinct, separated by an open groove from

the anterior angular cone. Both limbs of the metacone of the penulti- a

mate molar are well developed. Measurements: Transverse diameter -

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 49

of M. ii. at anterior cross-crest, 48 mm.; do. at posterior cross-crest, 38

mm. ; do. of M. iii. at anterior cross-crest, 45 mm. ; anteroposterior

diameter of do. at inner base of crown, 42 mm.—E. D. Cope.

The Tertiary Formations of Western Texas.—Mr. Robert

T. Hill has made brief mention in three short papers! of a very inter-

esting fact concerning the age of the Staked Plains, and the extent ot

the fresh-water Tertiary formations of the West eastward into the Texas

region. The whole of the great mesa known as the Llano Estocado

and some of the basins of the Trans-Pecos region, near El Paso, are

composed of the sandy loams, grits, and pebbles of this formation.

This area in Western Texas and Eastern New Mexico extends in places

eastward to the one hundredth meridian, and is a direct continuation

southward of the same formation in Kansas and Nebraska, Its south-

ern limit on the Rio Grande is near Del Rio, and the whole area, which

is as large as New England, has hitherto been colored Cretaceous and

Jurassic upon previous maps. The formation has afforded fossil bones

in various places; but these as yet have been unstudied. It rests un-

conformably upon the Comanche series, the Jura Trias, and the various

rocks in the mountain ridges. Everywhere at its base it affords an

abundant supply of well water, which has proved of great value to the

settlers who are now rapidly locating on the Staked Plains. The Fort

Worth and Denver road traverses the formation from Clarendon to

Tascosa, and the Texas Pacific from Sweetwater to the Colorado valley,

and from thence westward. ‘This additional knowledge upon the

former extent of the great inland lakes of Tertiary times is important

in that it nearly doubles the areal extent hitherto acknowledged, and

enables us to locate the narrow continental divide between the Gulf

of Mexico and the Tertiary lakes with greater accuracy. Dr. Otto

Lerch has corroborated the extent of these beds in a recent article on

the Concho country, in the American Geologist for 1890. The great

development of this terrane in Southern New Mexico, was pointed out

by Prof. Cope, in the Proceedings of the Amer. Philos. Society, 1883,

p. 308.

The Eighth Volume of Reports of the Geological Survey

of Illinois left the press in July last. The general distribution of the

edition—s5,000 copies—must, however, be postponed until the Legis-

lature of the State will have provided for its binding. Only fifty

-= Copies have been bound in advance, and we have received one of them.

We will give a full notice in future number of the NATURALIST.

‘Notes on the Geology of Western Texas. Bulletin Texas State Geological Soc.,

, 1888. Pro. Am. Ass, Adv. of Science, Toronto, i. 168) Torger and

Geology of T Texas Region. Am. Geologist, Jan., 1890.

Am. Nat.—January.—4.

Mo. Bot. Garden,

1895.

50 The American Naturalist. [January,

TJA BEL a Mate S pee ae

SOI, SOE eee aa Pee a es? ag em oe

BOTANY.

Books for Young Collectors.—It is probable that the profes-

sional botantist too generally underrates the value of the books de-

signed to aid the young collector. The untechnical and popular style

rarely pleases the learned botanist, who long since passed beyond the

need of such simple pabulum. But many a young man who isnot |

able to go to college eagerly longs to make a beginning in the work of

studying the plants about him, needing only some suggestions as to

yee and means. For such a student the “‘ books for young collec- —

tors’’ are most useful.

A recent book by T. S. Smithson, entitled ‘‘ Pond-Life: Algz and

Allied Forms,’’ is a good illustration of what such a work should be.

In the introductory chapter some suggestions are given as to the appa-

ratus required, with instructions as to collecting, etc. This is follow

by a popular description of the more common fresh-water alge, with

suggestions as to their treatment. The earnest student can get cil

help from the book.

A Study of the Snow-Plant.—Professor Oliver, of London,

has studied the “snow-plant” (Sarcodes sanguinea) of the P:

coast, and published his results in the Annals of Botany for August.

After a general description of the plant, the various parts are taken |

in detail. The roots are very interesting, being « coralline ” ina

pearance, and covered with a close-fitting sheath of fungal mycelium,

constituting a well-marked case of ‘‘mycorhiza.’’ The structure |

this fungal layer is carefully worked out, and comparisons are mā

with the similar structure in Monotropa. It appears from these inve

tigations that Sarcodes is not parasitic upon the. roots of surrou

plants, but that it is a saprophyte, living upon decaying matter

soil, in which it is aided by the layer of fungal mycelium.

The stem and leaves show the usual “reduced ” condition

r891.] Botany. 51

the epidermis. At an early period the terminal cell of the hypoder-

mal tissue of the young ovule is seen to be much larger than its neigh-

bors, and is the ‘‘ archesporium’’ from which by subsequent develop-

ment the embryo-sac is to be formed. There is first cut off from the

archesporium a single apical cell, and this is followed by another

division, thus making a row of three cells, the lowermost of which is

the embryo-sac. The latter enlarges and elongates, crowding the cap-

cells until they are mere plates.

n the embryo-sac the nucleus divides, each part moving to an

opposite extremity, where it divides again, and still again. At this

Stage there are four nuclei at each end of the embryo-sac. One of

these at the micropylar end becomes the germ-cell (egg-cell, odsphere),

two become the synergidz, while the fourth moves downward, and,

fusing with an ascending one from the opposite end, forms the nucleus

of the first cell of the endosperm, After fertilization the germ-cell

and endosperm-cell divide, forming embryo and endosperm.—CHARLES

E. BEssEy.

The Annual Report of the State Botanist of New York.

—This report from C. H. Peck, bearing date of December, 1889,

contains much of interest to the technical botanist. Many new species

of fungi are described and figured. Of these the majority are Agari-

cini, there being no less than eleven new species, belonging to seven

different genera. Two new Myxomycetes are figured and described,

viz., Comatricha longa and C. subcespitosa. An interesting Plasmo-

para (P. viburnt) is described as occurring on Viburnum dentatum.

The author says that it is evidently very near to P. viticola, “ of which

it may prove to be only a variety.’’ A curious new genus allied to

Helvella is characterized under the name of Underwoodia, in honor

of Professor L. M. Underwood, who communicated the specimens.

The single species (U. columnaris) is a columnar, horn-shaped “ recep-

tacle,’’ from four to six inches in height.

Among the “remarks and observations’’ the author says of the

entire-leaved variety of Rhus toxicodendron, that ‘‘ it has been reported

to me as comparatively harmless so far as poisonous quality is con-

cerned, and my experience in handling it was entirely, without harm.”’

—Cuar.es E. BEssEy.

How to Know Grasses by Their Leaves. — Professor

McAlpine, of Edinburgh, has written a useful little book of ninety-

two pages upon the topic given above, intending it to be a simple

guide to the identification of the common grasses by their leaves

52 The American Naturalist. (January,

alone. For the practical man who wishes to know what grass is

growing in his meadows and pastures this book will prove of great

value; and even to the botanist it will often be quite useful. The

author says in his introduction: ‘‘If farmers, clergymen, school-

masters, and botanists use this method of identification a flood of light

will be thrown upon many questions at present involved in obscurity,

and the agricultural community will assuredly be greatly benefited.

In the treatment of the subject fourteen ‘‘ groups’’ of grasses are

defined as follows :

I. Characteristically colored grasses.

IJ. Variegated grasses,

III. Bulbous grasses,

V. Cord-rooted grasses.

V. Acute-sheathed grasses.

VI. Net-sheathed grasses.

VII. Bitter-tasted grasses.

VIII. Bristle-bladed grasses.

IX. Hard-bladed grasses.

X. Hairy grasses,

XI. Eared grasses.

XII. Ribless-bladed grasses, with median lines.

XIII. Hairless grasses, with very low and flat ribs.

XIV. Ribs high and prominent, rounded, or acute.

Many good figures are given, thus greatly aiding the student. m

admirable feature of the figures is the frequency with which per

tions of leaves are given. Ligules and leaf-tips are also freely sed

‘Fhe work, although written for England, will be useful in this coun

try.—Cuar.es E. Bessey

1891.] Zoology. 53

ZOOLOGY.

Abnormal Repetition of Parts.—Bateson has figured’ some

interesting cases of monstrosities of this sort. In Cancer pagurus he

nds an external maxilliped which has been converted into a pincer

like that of the large claw. In other specimens of the same species he

finds three specimens in which the pincer has a tendency to duplicate

itself, as is well known to those who have studied these malfor-

mations. Another instance is a specimen of Chrysomela banksii, with

three tarse on the right posterior leg. In aspecimen of Antedon rosacea

a pair of the arms show a branching into four at some distance from the

body. The last case isa pilchard with an abnormal number of scales,

No discussion is given of these instances, but Mr. Bateson has in pro-

gress an essay on the variation of multiple parts.

The Embryology of Spiders.—K. Kishinouye has been study-

ing the development of some Japanese spiders. His descriptions of

the early stages? are to be regarded as confirmative rather than making

an important advance. At one stage he finds the yolk free from

nuclei, the germ-layers arising later from the primitive cumulus and

the posterior cloud of Claparéde. He differs, however, in some points

from Claparéde and others in the interpretations of the early surface

views. Among the interesting points brought out are the following :

The first abdominal segment has no appendage at any stage. The

lung books are developed in the base of the appendages of the second

abdominal segment, in exactly the way necessary to support the view

of their homology with the gill books of Limulus. An abortive trachea

develops in the same way from next appendage. The coxal glands are

own to consist of a ccelomic pouch and an ectodermal duct,—a fact

which goes far to support their homology with nephridia, and to lessen

the weight of Eisig’s argument. The author is convinced that the

malpighian tubes are not ectodermal; he thinks them mesodermal,

but apparently is not familiar with the results of those authors who

assign them to the entodermal structures. Some facts additional to

those of Locy are given regarding the development of the eyes.

stecoral pocket is regarded as developing from an unpaired posterior

ccelomic pouch.

1 Proc. Zool. Socy. London, 1890, p. 579-

* Journal of the College of Science, Imperial University, Japan, Vol. IV., 1890.

; i

54 The American Naturalist. {January,

Insects of Central Africa.—H. Grose Smith catalogues’ 111 :

species of Lepidoptera; W. L. Distant, 48 Rhynchota; and H. W. q

Bates, 73 Coleoptera, collected by William Bonney in the Great For- ;

est of Central Africa while on the Emin Pasha relief expedition. The

number of novelties is comparatively small, and the insect fauna shows

very marked resemblances to that of the western coast of Africa.

Studies on Amphioxus.—F. E. Weiss has had the opportunity

to study at Naples some points in the anatomy and physiology of Am-

phioxus which needed elucidation. The basis of his work was the

paper by Professor Lankester,‘ in which many unsolved questions were

pointed out. Weiss now settles some of these. Feeding with car-

mine seems to show that there is not that intimate connection of :

ccelom with the vascular system that had been supposed. Manyot

the connections and relations of the circulatory tubes have been made

out, while the most interesting discovery is that of excretory tubules,

paired and branchiomeric, occurring at the upper part of the branchial

apparatus, in connection with the secondary or tongue-bars. Each

these tubules is supplied with a comparatively large blood-vessel. It is

bent in the shape of the letter S, and empties into the atrial cavity.

Weiss was not certain whether it communicates with the ccelom or

not, his sections failing to settle this point. These tubules are re-

garded as nephridial, but the author does not regard them as homolo-

gous with the pair of tubes described by Lankester. Another point of

-interest is that many points on the surface have also excretory functions.

_ The Amphibian Blastopore.—R. V. Erlanger has attacked this -

oft-studied problem, and concludes® that the anus is formed from the

ventral, and the neurenteric canal and neuropore from the dorsal,

margin of the blastopore. In the Anura the blastopore closes, and

the anus later breaks through within its limits, while in the Urodeles

there is no closing.

The Position of the Sun Grebes.—The systematic position of

the Heliornithidz has been very uncertain. Recently F. E. Beaga —

has had an opportunity of studying the anatomy of Podica senegalensis

and concludes? that if the muscles alone were concerned the sun grebe

2 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1890. *

$ Vide AMERICAN NATURALIST, XXIII., p. 639, 1889.

$ Quart. Jour. Mic. Sci, XXXI., p. 489, 1890.

8 Zool. Jarbuch, Abth. Anat. und Ontogenie, IV., p. 239, 1890.

* Proc. Zool. Socy. London, 1890.

r891.] Zoology. 55

would be placed with the Pygopodes, but that osteology alone would

refer them to the vicinity of the rails, though it differs from the latter

in the sternum. The characters peculiar to the Heliornithidæ are the

absence ofan aftershaft, the form of the sternum, the shape and rela-

tions of the interclavicular, in the fusion of the pubes with the ischia,

and the absence of post-acetabular ridges, in the arrangement of the

intestinal coil, and in the form of the biceps crusis. On the whole,

Beddard thinks it a distinct family, which has traversed for a certain

distance the branch leading from the rails to the Colymbidz, and has

then diverged rather widely in a direction of its own.

Zoological Notes.—Ccelenterata.—The habits of the sea pens

(Vergularia, etc.) have not been certainly known. Edgar Thurston

says that near Madras V. juncea sticks straight up in the sand, an

that as soon as touched they go down deeper and deeper, so that fre-

quently a spade is necessary to secure them.

G. C. Bonme® gives a catalogue of 55 Hydroids growing at Ply-

mouth, England. The only novelty is Haloikema (n.g.) dankesterti, a

Halecium-like form with non-retractile polyps.

Molluscs.—The Opisthobranch molluscs of Plymouth, England,

are catalogued? by Walter Garstang. Fifty-two species are enumer-

ated, while very full notes are given of many species. The student of

Nudibranchs on the New England coast cannot neglect this paper.

Vertebrates.—Some five years ago the discovery in Mauritius of a

cave containing the body of the dodo was announced. It appears

that this was probably a mistake, two recent letters » showing that the

person making the announcement had been imposed upon. The

caves of Mauritius are not such as to contain such remains, swept as

they are by frequent floods.

Boulenger gives" a synopsis of the genus Arges, describing six

species, two of which are new. They come from the Andes of Equa-

dor and Peru.

Howes believes that the proatlas is a normal feature in Hatteria,

and regards it as a vestigial vertebra. He has found several specimens

8 Jour. Marine Biol. Ass. United Kingdom, No. 4, p. 391, 1890.

9 Jour. Marine Biol. Ass. United Kingdom, No. 4, p- 399, 1890.

10 Proc. Zool. Socy. London, 1890, p. 402.

1 Proc, Zool. Socy., 1890, p. 450-

56 The American Naturalist. (January,

of this form with the vomerine teeth, discovered by Baur, and refers to

their relationship to similar teeth in Paleohatteria.

Dr. Emil Schoebel contributes” an account of the post-embryonic

development of the eye of the Amphibia. The eye has almost all of

its essential features at the beginning of larval life, and, contrary to

the title of the paper, the author describes the features before as well

as after hatching.

`. EMBRYOLOGY .!

A New Text-Book on the Embryology of Invertebrates.

—Dr. E. Korshelt and Dr. K. Heider have recently published the first

volume of a ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichte

der Wirbellosen-Thiere’’ (Jena, 1890, Gustav Fishcher). Since the

publication of Balfour’s ‘‘ Treatise on Comparative Embryology,”

written more than ten years ago, there have been published an in

mense number of papers dealing with the embryology of animals; and

the authors believe there is a pressing need of bringing these together,

and making a new inventory of the accumulated material. The pres-

ent book is confined to the results on invertebrates, inasmuch as the

papers on vertebrate embryology have been brought together, within

the last few years, in well-known treatises on the subject. The first

volume treats of the Sponges, Cnidaria, Ctenophora, Platyhelminthes,

Nemertines, Nemathelminthes, Annelids, Echinoderms, and a iew

smaller groups. In the second volume the authors promise to treat of

the Arthropods, Molluscs, Molluscoids, Tunicates, and Amphioxus;

and the book will close with a general part.

The substance of the first volume is largely made up of reviews of

the most important papers published since Balfour’s time, and, so far as

we can judge, these are admirably presented, and are noticeable for

clearness as well as conciseness of statement. The authors believe —

fully in the evidence of embryology to solve most of the problems of

Phylogeny. They hold fast to the gastrula ancestry of the Metaz0@ —

and each larval form is marshaled up to tell its tale of how the groupè —

arose. This diagrammatic conception certainly admits of clearness ©” [

treatment ; but whether it represents the high-water mark of morpho- 2

logical speculation may be open to doubt.

12 Zool. Jahrbuch, Abth. Anat. Ont., IV., p. 297, 1890.

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md, to whom n

boo! ks review sh e sent. .

1891.] Embryology. 57

Each of the sections ends with a general part, in which the authors

bring together the essential points of the papers on the subject, and

give their interpretation of the meaning of the facts.

The first section, on the Sponges, is admirable, and a much better-

balanced presentation than that given by Balfour, who has unduly

emphasized the amphiblastula larva. They believe the Sponge is a dis-

tinct phylum, only connected with the other Metazoa in its earliest

history,—‘‘ nur an seiner Wurzel.’’ The group has a true blastula and

gastrula stage, but believing the polyp to represent the ancestral

Ccelenterate, they do not think the Sponges have any affinity with the

latter group. For the Ccelenterates they adhere to the old views that the

fixed Hydroid represents the ancestral form, and the Medusæ a higher,

more specialized, and later form; and they reject the free-swimming

jelly-fish as an ancestral form, as held by Claus, Brooks, and Vogt. The

authors are inclined to believe in the gastrula as the ancestral form of

the Cnidaria, and think asecondary change has come into the ontogeny

“ because the typical larval form of the Cnidaria is the planula. It

is probable that the transition of the free-swimming, gastrula-like

ancestor was changed into the fixed polyp form through a creeping

stage, which the creeping planule of many forms now repeat in their

ontogeny.”’ :

The Ctenophors have many general points of agreement with other

Ccelenterates, but recent work (Hertwig, Lang, Hatschek) goes to show

that the Ctenophors have had an independent origin. They show no

evidence of a polyp ancestry in the ontogeny, and the formation of

organs shows they have no close relationship to the Meduse. To sum

it all up, the Ctenophors represent an independent phylum of the animal

kingdom, and only at the base unite with the Cnidaria.

The Turbellarians show many common characteristics in segmenta-

tion and gastrulation with the Ctenophors, but if these two groups

came from the same root, each has become so changed that only general

resemblances are possible.

The Trematodes go back to Turbellarian-like flatworms which

have assumed a parasitic life. The Nemertines, although more highly

developed, are probably related to the flatworms, and it is not possible

to separate Nemertines from the Turbellarians in order to place them

among the segmented worms. Hubrecht’s hypothesis as to the rela-

tionship between Vertebrates and Nemertines can have only an entirely

speculative value. The embryology of the Nemathelminthes throws

no light upon their ancestry, and we cannot determine whether they

are related to the Nemertines on the one hand, or to the Annelids on

58 The American Naturalist. [January,

the other. The Rotifers go back to the Trochophora, and Semper’s

Trochosphera shows this relationship.

The Annelids include Chetopods, Echiuriden, Dinophilus, Myzos-

toma, Hirudinea, Branchiobdella.

The treatment of the group is interesting, and brings out clearly

the tendency of the authors to overestimate, as I believe, the value

of embryology as affording a solution to phylogeny. The Trochophore

larva is the typical larval form of the Annelids. It is exceedingly

probable that the Trochophore of Annelids is a recapitulated stage of

an ancestral form of the group which was common to the Annelids,

Mollusca, and Molluscoida, and from which these groups diverged.

It is difficult to determine from what ancestors the Trochophore itself

arose. The authors give their reasons for rejecting the Medusz as the

ancestors of the Trochophore. They conclude that the facts indicate —

that the Trochophore developed directly out of a ciliated gastrula-like

forefather, and by a change in the method of progression. The tran-

sition of the Trochophore-like ancestor into the typical Annelid

(Archiannelid) took place by an increase in the length of the body —

and a diminution of the head. At the same time a change froma free-

swimming to a crawling animal took place, and this process is repeated

in the ontogeny of living Annelids. The Sipunculids show resem —

blances to the Annelids, but cannot certainly be referred to that group;

and their resemblance to Phoronis and Molluscoids is not sufficiently —

established. The Chzetognatha are perhaps most nearly related to the

Annelids. a

The Tornaria of Balanoglossus shows certain resemblances to Echino- :

derm larve, but it appears to be only in external and non-essential

characters, and the Tornaria comes nearer to the Trochophore. There

is some uncertainty as to the relationship of Balanoglossus to thë —

rdata. o

The radial structure of the Echinoderms is due to the ancestral form a

having been fixed and subsequently become a free-living animal. To :

what group of the Bilateralia these go back to is ‘‘in der Luft.” a

cannot believe the authors have fairly treated the apparent relationship, —

as Metchnikoff has pointed out, between the Echinoderms and ee

glossus, through perhaps a Holothurian form.) The larva of the

Echinoderms, they think, comes nearest to the T rochophore. )

Whether or not we agree with these more speculative parts oF ©

volume, the general verdict seems to be that the authors have p Be.

a useful book. An English translation would probably appeal ys

larger audience and excite a wider interest in embryology.

1891.] Embryology. 59

Amphioxus.—Prof. E. Ray Lankester and Mr. Arthur Willey

have a paper on ‘‘ The Development of the Atrial Chamber of Amphi-

oxus,’’ in the Quar. Jour. for Aug., 1890. Mr. Willey made some

observations in Sicily on the life of the adult and the embryo which

are of interest. The adults will spawn in glasses, and this takes place

about an hour after sundown. The eggs must be distributed into

glasses containing clean, unfiltered water from the pantano in which

the adults live. ‘‘If the water is filtered, or if sea-water [outside of

the pantano] is employed,” the eggs ‘‘ will either die or develop

abnormally.” Most, if not all, of the ova were discharged through

the atriopore, which contradicts the statement of NENON, who says

they issue from the mouth.

The young larva rests habitually on one side, ug does not bury

itself in the sand. The larva shows for a time the most marked

asymmetry, with the mouth on one side and a single row of gill-slits

on the other.

The young Amphioxus, after regaining its symmetry, does not lie on

its side, ‘‘but buries itself upright, tail downwards, with the oral hood ,

alone projecting from the sand.’’ The spawning occurs from April to

September, inclusive.

The greater part of the paper is taken up with a description of the

formation of the atrium and of the organs in the head region.

The Life-History of the Red Blood-Corpuscles.— Prof. W.

H. Howell, of the University of Michigan, has a most important and

interesting paper on the origin of the corpuscles of the blood.

rather full abstract of this paper is given below, as the subject is one of

great interest to all students and teachers of physiology, and is either

treated in a most meagre way, or, worse still, false statements are not

infrequent in many of our text-books of physiology. Those who care

for a fuller account will find Dr. Howell’s paper instructive (Zhe

Journal of Morphology, Vol. IV., No. 1):

“Before 1869 it was quite generally believed that the red corpuscles

are formed from the white corpuscles, most. probably while in the cir-

culation,” but “the evidence is overwhelming against this view.

In the very young embryo two forms of red corpuscles are found,—

one large, oval, and always nucleated, resembling the corpuscles of

the lower vertebrates ; and one small, biconcave, circular in outline,

and found both nucleated and non-nucleated. The latter are the true

mammalian corpuscles; the former represent possibly ancestral cor-

Puscles. The true mammalian corpuscles lose their nuclei by extrusion.

60 The American Naturalist. [January,

The nuclei of the nucleated red corpuscles of the young embryo

(except of the larger variety) are lost while in the circulation. . . .

As the embryo grows larger, and the production of new corpuscles be-

comes localized in different organs,—liver, spleen, marrow,—more and

more of the early history of the corpuscles is passed over while still in

the blood-forming organ, and more and more of the red corpuscles are

sent into the blood in the non-nucleated stage. In the first part of

embryonic life new red corpuscles are produced in the liver from

groups of mesoblastic cells, outlining the position of future blood-

vessels (veins). It is probable that new red corpuscles are formed

in all parts of the body where blood-vessels are being developed.”

This view of the origin is essentially different from that of Klein and

Balfour, as given in the “ Embryology of the Chick,” where it is

asserted that the red corpuscles are endogenously within large meso-

blastic cells. ‘In the second half of embryonic life red corpuscles

are formed in the liver, the spleen, and the marrow of the bones, the

function being most active first in the liver, then in the spleen, and,

finally, in the red marrow of the bones, where it continues during

adult life. it

“ The white corpuscles and blood-plates do not occur in the cire 7

lating blood of young embryos, but make their appearance in later

embryonic life.” Certain nucleated cells of the red marrow of the

bones multiply by division, later loose their nuclei by extrusion, and

getting into the blood become the red corpuscles, and the biconcavity —

of these corpuscles may be due to the extrusion of the nucleus.

The white blood corpuscles are derived from the lymph leuco-

cytes. These enter the circulation, and are at first not amceboid. The

nucleus increases in size as the leucocyte grows older ; finally it frag-

ments, and probably this is followed by disintegration of the whole

cell. The fragments of the nuclei persist for a time as the blood-

plates. See Minot in NaTuRaLIST, November, 1890.

Appendages of the First Abdominal Segments of Embryo-

Insects.—Mr. Wheeler has made a comparative study of the larval

appendages of the first abdominal segment of insects (Trans. Wisconsit

Acad. Science, etc.) He concludes that the appendage—the pleuro-

podia—of this segment were at one time organs of considerable fang

tional importance in the primitive Hexapods, but are not equally well,

represented in the larva of all existing groups. They are 5¢

homologous with the appendages of the thorax and

and in the embryos of existing insects these rudimentary structures

1891.]" Embryology. 61

are found as evaginations or invaginations of thickened ectoderm.

Rathke, Ayers, and Graber believe these rudimentary appendages

represent embryonic gills, Wheeler objects to this interpretation, as

the cells of the pleuropodia are large, swollen, vacuolated structures,

and would prevent any great interchange of gases between the blood

and the air. Nor could these pleuropodia be sense organs, as Patten

and Cholodkovsky believed, for no one has discovered even the trace

of a nervous system running into them. The author is led to the

belief that the organs must be large ductless glands, which were func-

tional in ancestral insects. It seems probable that the pleuropodia rep-

resent appendages homologous with the ‘thoracic legs, and may

have been, at a remote time, ambulatory appendages, and subsequently

converted into functional glands in the ancestors immediately pre-

ceding living insects.

Are the Arthropods the Ancestors of the Vertebrates ?—

Two papers of a speculative nature have appeared side by side in a recent

number (Aug., 1890) of the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science.

The contrast between these cannot be without its value. Dr. William

Patten, of the University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, U. S. A.,

makes the first attempt to establish “the origin of vertebrates from

Arachnids.” The other production comes from Cambridge, England,

and is advanced by W. H. Gaskell, M.D., F.R.S., to establish “‘ the

origin of vertebrates from a Crustacean-like ancestor.” It is difficult

to bring one’s self into the proper mental condition to treat these

" Matters seriously ; but that the authors, especially Gaskell, are in dead

earnest there can be no doubt.

Patten seems to have been led to his hypothesis in studying the

anatomy and embryology of Scorpions and Limulus; while Gaskell,

if we remember aright, was started towards his present goal by the

resemblance between fumors in the spinal cord and in the digestive

tract.

A detailed review of these papers is impossible here, and the barest

Outline must suffice. Briefly, then, Patten inverts a Limulus, or a

Scorpion, or anything similar, and proceeds to compare the principal

organs of his up-side-down beast with a vertebrate right-side-up, prov-

ing the identity of the structures! The most important comparison

is between the nervous systems of the two groups. The three brain

vesicles of the vertebrate find their homologue in the supracesophageal

and fused thoracic ganglia of the scorpion. The cranial nerves of the

vertebrate are the results of the first hirteen neuromeres of the Arach-

62 The American Naturakst. (January,

nid. (The fatal number żŘkirteen seems unfortunate just at present—see

Dohrn!) Then follows a lengthy comparison between the vagus of the

vertebrate and a series of nerves from the posterior part of the thoracic

cord, and a comparison between the eyes of the two groups. The

cranial flexure of vertebrates is entirely explained in the relationship

of the supracesophageal ganglion (fore- and mid-brain) of the

scorpion to the thoracic ganglia. ‘The notochord finds its homologue

in the ‘‘median furrow’’ of Arthropods, which comes from the

ectoderm, and the support of this homology is found forthwith in our

ignorance of the origin of the vertebrate cord! ‘‘ Only a strong faith

in enteric diverticula, and in the red, white and blue gastrules of

embryological treatises, can lead one to the belief in the entodermic

origin of the notochord. On the other hand, its growth at both ends

from superficial cells, and the manner in which it is frequently wedged

in between the nerve cords, indicate its ectodermic origin.’ This is

an excellent example of the author’s scientific state of mind in treating

so important a question as the origin of the vertebrates !

The gill-slits come from the rudimentary nephridia of the thorax,

and somehow—it doesn’t matter much, since they must—connect

secondarily with the digestive tract.

The fossil fish Pterichthys probably shows the transitional form be-

tween Limulus and the vertebrates. The mouth of the latter group

is a new affair, coming from a dorsal sucking organ of our ancestors,

and our other Limulus-mouth has long since disappeared.

Our views of gastrula and blastopore must be rejected, and newer

ideas received, which will show a wonderful similarity between Arach-

nids and vertebrates.

Gaskell, in a former paper, demonstrated how the nervous system is

composed of nervous material grouped around a central tube, which

tube was originally the alimentary Sana „= an glad ate aie present

paper shows, he thinks, that the lowest vertebrate nervous s Ammo-

ceetes) confirms his theory. The old invertebrate pate tract is

now the central canal of the nerve cord. Of course the vertebrate now

turns over, and a new digestive tract arose from the gill region of the

Crustacean (how the author includes Limulus in this process is not yet

clear to us, for Limulus he includes in his Crustacea). Nor does the

author, yet a while, explain how a new'mouth arose ; perhaps he has not

finally settled on a convenient Arthropod organ. The ventricles of

the vertebrate brain and the canalis centralis of the cord is the in-

vertebrate ancestor’s digestive tract, and the infundibulum of Ammo-

cœtes is the old cesophagus and mouth.

18091. | _ Entomology. 63

The pineal eye of the vertebrate may be reduced back to the three-

layered Arthropod type. There is another more rudimentary pineal

eye which belongs to the left side, while the previous one connects

with the right ganglion habenule. The brain of Ammoccetes almost

compels us to recognize the supracesphageal ganglion of the Crus-

tacean, etc.

If any one hopes to find a grain of truth in either of these two

contradictory theories, which exhibit wonderful displays of mental gym-

nastics, starting from the Arthropods as from a spring-board, thence

to take their aérial flight, let such a person read them side by side.

ENTOMOLOGY.!

A Review of Some Plum Curculio Literature.—A few

years hence, when it is finally and definitely settled whether the Plum

Curculio ( Conotrachelus nenuphar) can be successfully fought on a com-

mercial scale by spraying with the arsenites, there will be an oppor-

tunity to write a most curious and instructive chapter in the annals of

economic entomology. This question has been under discussion by

entomologists for more than twenty years, and to judge from the latest

publications concerning it, the end is yet in the distant future. Nearly

all our economic entomologists have taken part in the discussion, and

the final record will show a curious mixture of assent and dissent on

the part of those concerned.

Before attempting a brief analysis of this record, I desire to quote

from a letter recently published in Agricultural Science (Vol. IV., p.

97), in which I made the following statements concerning the philoso-

phy of spraying with the arsenites, and the conditions necessary

for a fair test: “ The remedy undoubtedly acts mainly by destroying

the adult beetles that feed upon the poisoned surface of the fruit and

foliage, thus preventing, to a greater or less extent, the deposition of

eggs. It need not necessarily act at all upon the beetles when

engaged in oviposition, nor upon the larve after hatching. Con-

sequently a fair test cannot be carried on with a half dozen trees close

together, three of which are sprayed and the others not. Beetles from

the unsprayed trees may Oviposit in the fruit of those sprayed, and the

beetles killed on the sprayed trees will lessen the injury to their checks.

For the same reason a fair test cannot be carried on in an orchard in

! Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, Experiment Station, Columbus, Ohio.

64 The American Naturalist. [January,

which every alternate tree is sprayed. A conclusive experiment

necessitates an orchard of considerable size,—one half to be sprayed

and the other half either to be jarred or left untreated,—or else two

orchards near together, with a similar difference in treatment. Of

course, by the every-other-tree method, results of some value may be

obtained, but the conditions of the commercial orchard, where all the

trees are sprayed, are far from being reached.”’ i

So far as entomologists are concerned, the discussion of this subject

appears to have begun in 1870, when Dr. C. V. Riley wrote the follow-

ing paragraph upon it :?

Mr. G. M. Smith, of Berlin, Wisconsin, . . . recommends Paris

green for the Plum Curculio. Even if the uniform application of

such a poisonous drug on large trees were practicable, it would never

succeed in killing one Curculio in a hundred. Paris green kills the

leaf-eating beetles by being taken internally with the leaves; but the

Curculio, with its snout, prefers to gouge under the skin of the fruit,

and only exceptionally devours the leaves. Yet, notwithstanding the

palpable absurdity of the remedy, it has very generally passed from

one journal to another without comment.”’

Fifteen years later Dr. Riley delivered an address before the Missis-

sippi Valley Horticultural Society, in which, ‘‘in giving his experience

as to the feeding habits of the beetles, he urged experimentation with

the arsenites in this direction as promising fair results, though in the

very nature of the case not as satisfactory as in the case of the Codling

Moth.” s ee

In November, 1888, Dr. Riley, in reviewing a bulletin by Professor @

A. J. Cook, in which the latter reports successful results with the

arsenites as Curculio destroyers, wrote : ee

‘‘ We have long felt that they [the arsenites] might be used with : |

benefit for this purpose, but from the nature of the case we have ae

ticipated less good than in the case of the apple worm, and Professor

Forbes’s experiments, and some unpublished experiments which wê

have had made by Mr. Alwood, confirm this view.” .

Shortly after this Dr. Riley read an elaborate paper concerning the

Plum Curculio before the American Pomological Society, at its meet-

ing in February, 1889, in which the use of arsenical sprays was especially _

discussed. is article, in substantially the same form, was also m-

corporated in the memoir upon the Plum Curculio published by Riley

* Third Report State Entomologist Missouri, p. 18. i

* Riley. Rept. Am. Pom, Soc., 1889, p. 31.

* Insect Life, November, 1888, Vol, I., p. 123.

1891.] Entomology. 65

and Howard in the Report of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for

1888. In this article the author summarized the experiments of Al-

wood, Cook, Osborn, Forbes, and Weed, and made the following con-

cluding statement: 5

‘© On the whole, the remedy is one which is a desirable addition to

our list, although it will never become so great a success as the applica-

tion of these poisons for the Codling Moth, and for two reasons: (1)

The egg is deposited, and the beetle gnaws, preferably upon the smooth

cheek of the fruit, where the poison does not so readily adhere, and

from which it is more easily washed off ; (2) the larva, eating directly

from the flap, does not come in contact with the poison, as does the

larva of the Codling Moth.”’ 3

In the Department Report article already referred to Riley and

Howard state that ‘‘ there can be no doubt but [that] practical use has

demonstrated that the jarring method is the most effective way yet

proposed for destroying these insects.”’ ®

I have already called attention? to the fallacy of the arguments con-

tained in the next to the last of these paragraphs ; but as the periodical

in which my letter was published seems not to be generally circulated

among entomologists, and as there was also a printer’s blunder which

misrepresented my remarks, they may be quoted in this connection.

Referring to the reasons given for the assertion that spraying for the

Curculio ‘‘ will never become as great a success’’ as in the case of the

Codling Moth, I said: ‘The fallacy of these arguments lies in the

assumption that the modus operandi of the method is the same for both

insects,—an assumption that obviously is not justified by facts. In the

case of the Codling Moth, the remedy acts by destroying the larva after

it has hatched from the egg, while with the Curculio it acts by destroy-

ing the beetle before the eggs are laid. This throws the arguments con-

cerning the place of oviposition and the food habits of the larva entirely

out of court, leaving only that expressed in the phrase, ‘The beetle

gnaws preferably upon the smooth skin of the fruit, where the poison

does not so readily adhere [as in the calyx, of the apple?], and from

which it is more easily washed off.’ To what extent this is true, and

what importance should be attached to it under the circumstances, are

openquestions. The green fruit of many, at least of the so-called

foreign plums, is covered with a fine pubescence, in which particles of

London purple or Paris green readily lodge, and are not easily blown

or washed away.

Š Rept. Am. Pom. Soc., 1889, p. 34-

ê Report U. S. Department Agriculture, 1888, p. 68.

7 Agricultural Science, Vol. IV., p. 98-

Am. Nat.—January.—5.

66 The American Naturalist. [ January,

“Clearly, if the question of comparative efficiency raised in the

paragraph quoted above is to rest on a rational basis, it must be put in

something like the following form: Is the deposition of Curculio eggs

prevented (through the destruction of the parent beetles) by the appli

cation of arsenites to plum trees in as great a proportion as Codling

Moth larvz are destroyed by the same applications to apple trees? It

is probable that each female Codling Moth and Plum Curculio deposits

on an average about fifty eggs, so that, reduced to figures, this question

resolves itself into the following: Is the application of the arsenites as

likely to kill one adult female Curculio, feeding indiscriminately over

a large amount of poisoned surface, before it has deposited eggs, as it

is to kill fifty Codling Moth larvæ before they enter the apples.

“In order to get at field conditions, suppose that in an orchard of

1,000 apple trees there was a female Codling Moth to each tree, and

that in an orchard of 1,000 plum trees there was a female Curculio to each

tree. It is usually estimated that seventy-five per cent. of the fruit liable

to injury by the Codling Moth is saved by spraying ; so it becomes a ques-

tion of whether spraying will be as likely to destroy the equivalent of

750 female Curculios before their eggs are laid, as it will to destroy 3,759 ©

Codling Moth larve after they hatch. The answer to this question

will be found along the experimental rather than the a priori road.”

It will readily be granted, from the explanation already given, that

if the case be restricted to a single tree, or a few trees in the midst do

other trees liable to injury by the Curculio, the odds would be in favor a

the Codling Moth, at least for the first brood, but on a commercial

scale the above reasoning must apply. Raa

The writings of Professor A. J. Cook form an important part of w

discussion upon this subject, During the first six or seven years of bn -

last decade he frequently expressed the opinion that the Curculio could ie |

not be destroyed by the arsenites. For instance, in 1886 he is on ou

record as saying : |

“Paris green, kerosene emulsion, and other poisons are of no avail

against the Curculio. He will not eat them.” ° :

In 1887 Professor Cook took up the subject in an experimental ee

The only record of the season’s work is the following paragraph : t

“ Paris green, in the proportion of one tablespoonful to six gallons

of water, was very thoroughly sprayed upon four plum trees, May 10°"

The petals had all fallen, but the dried calyces still clung to the ge

On August zoth the trees were visited, when it was found that the t"?

8 Report Mich. Board of Agriculture, 1886, p. 141.

® Report Mich. State Board of Agriculture, 1887, p. 40.

1891.] Entomology. 67

treated trees of the Wild Goose variety had dropped all their fruit, as

had the untreated trees of the same kind. Another treated tree of a

yellow variety was loaded with plums, of which only fifteen per cent.

were stung, and those not badly. The fourth tree treated was a purple

variety, and had not less than seventy-five per cent. of its fruit badly

stung.”

Professor Cook wisely refrains from drawing any conclusions from

an experiment of such doubtful value. It is extremely probable that

the Curculio had nothing to do with the dropping of the fruit on the

Wild Goose trees, as this variety nearly always drops its fruit just after

it sets, on account of the lack of fertilization of the ovule. The two re-

maining trees about offset each other, one having seventy-five per cent. of

wormy fruit, and the other eighty-five per cent. ofsound plums. The trees

were sprayed but once, and a period of more than three months ap-

parently elapsed during which no observations were made upon them. |

In 1888 Professor Cook repeated the experiment, apparently on a

slightly larger scale. An unrecorded number of cherry trees and three

plum trees were sprayed with London purple, one pound to roo gallons

of water, June 6th, 12th, and zoth. The sprayed fruit of both kinds

matured with little or no Curculio injury, while ‘‘ cherry and apple

trees near by not sprayed suffered seriously.’’ The author gives the

following conclusions : 1

“From these experiments, and those of former years, I conclude

that while one application will not save our plums and cherries, and

prevent apples from being stung, two or three applications may be of

. Signal advantage.”

The experiments were repeated in 1889 ‘‘ with no success. All the

trees were severely attacked and all the plums lost.” Nothing is said

Concerning cherries. Professor Cook thinks he is ‘‘ warranted in the

following conclusions ; ” 11

“‘ The arsenites will protect against the Plum Curculio if they can be

kept on the tree or fruit. But in case of frequent rains the jarring

method will not only be cheaper but much more effective.”’

Finally, in 1890 Professor Cook issued as Bulletin No. 66 of the

_ Michigan Agricultural College, an article entitled ‘‘ Fighting the

Plum Curculio,” in which spraying is entirely repudiated, and “‘ the

old reliable method ” of jarring is fallen back upon as “ the surest,

Cheapest, and best method to banish the Curculio and save our plums.”

As before, no details of experiments justifying such an entomological

" Bull. No. 39, Mich. Agr. College, p. 9.

11 Proc. Tenth Meeting Soc. Prom. Agr. Science, 1889, p. 28.

68 The American Naturalist, [January,

stepping backward are vouchsafed, the entire record being embraced

in the following paragraph :

‘ Trees were very thoroughly sprayed, at intervals of ten days, as

many as five times, and after each rain, and yet in several cases every

plum was stung and fell off. Some small trees, heavily loaded, were

sprayed, and though no rain came to remove the poison, yet in

less than a week all the plums were stung by the Curculio., Both last

year and this, with the exception of one tree, nearly all the plums

were stung. These fell from the tree, were all gatherd up and cut ;

open, that we might be sure that the grubs were present.”

ment. We do not know the number, size, position or variety of t

trees sprayed ; nor whether they were surrounded by unsprayed trees;

nor the dates of spraying ; nor the amount of rainfall; nor the poison

used ; nor the proportion of poison and water; nor the method o

spraying ; nor whether the work was done under the author's personal

supervision, or by untrained and inexperienced assistants. The present

writer has learned from conversation with Professor Cook that tet

trees only were included in the test.

These Michigan experiments for several years past, which are being

quoted far and wide, are all open to the following objections: a

(1) They have not been carried on with a proper understand

the theory upon which the remedy rests. As a consequence, the every:

other-tree method, or the method of a few trees treated among M4

untreated, has been employed,—methods by which no results of v4

to the commercial grower can be obtained.

(2) They have been conducted, so far at least as the record -

cates, on too small a scale. | ee

(3) The records of the experiments are incomplete and unsatis E

Nearly all of the details essential to a full knowledge of the force

the experiments are omitted.

Professor Herbert Osborn, in 1888, made some experiments ¢

grounds of the Iowa Agricultural College, which have been q

Riley and Howard in the Plum Curculio article already referred

A few trees of native varieties were sprayed twice, among others

sprayed. Only a small proportion of the plums were injured in @

case, and the experiment showed a small percentage in Nise:

sprayed trees. But there were two insects engaged in the work,

Curculio and the Plum Gouger ( Coccotorus prunicida),—and t

juries of each were not separated. Careful observations made ™

1891.] Entomology. 69

same region, and presumably in the same orchard, the next year, by

Mr. C. P, Gillette, showed that ten times as much injury was done by

the Gouger as by the Curculio. Consequently, so far as the Curculio is

concerned, this experiment might well have been left out of the record.

In 1889 Mr. C. P. Gillette made some careful experiments on native

varieties of plums at the Iowa Experiment Station, apparently on the

same orchard that Professor Osborn had worked in the year before.

Mr. Gillette recognized the dangers of the every-other-tree method,

making a distinct statement of the principles involved, in the Bulletin

of the Iowa Expériment Station for May, 1890 (pp. 383-384), shortly

after the publication of my letter in Agricultural Science, which, how-

ever, he had probably not seen when his article was written. The

percentage of Curculio injury on both sprayed and unsprayed trees

was extremely small, though ‘“‘ the indicated saving of fruit that would

have been injured in the absence of treatment was forty-four per cent.”

In this experiment only two sprayings were made, and, as the author

States, both were too-early to take most effect upon the Curculio.

The conclusions concerning the Curculio reached by Professor

Forbes, in his admirable experiments in spraying apples for the Cod-

ling Moth, have frequently been quoted to show that the benefit to be

derived from spraying for the insect is much less than in the case of

the Codling Moth. But, aside from the fact that in these experiments

the injuries of the Apple Curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus) and the

Plum Curculio are not separated,—which alone would vitiate the con-

clusions so far as they relate to the latter insect,—a few trees were

Sprayed in the midst of others untreated, so that, from the principle

already stated, results of little value, so far as the Plum Curculio is

concerned, could be expected.

In 1887 Mr. W. B. Alwood made some experiments on the grounds

of the Ohio Experiment Station, on the strength of which he has fre-

quently claimed priority in demonstrating the usefulness of the arsen-

ites as Curculio destroyers. No record of them was published until

1889, when they were incorporated in Dr. Riley’s American Pomo-

gical Society article, and also in the Riley-Howard memoir in the

Department of Agriculture Report for 1888 (pp. 70-71). Three plum

trees of the Green Gage variety were treated in the midst of about

twenty-five untreated trees of four other varieties. One Green Gage

was left as a check. Paris green, at the rate of one pound to fifty gal-

lons of water, was applied May 13th and 17th. Of course two such

Strong applications, only four days apart, greatly injured the foliage,

So that “ fully fifty per cent. fell off.” Mr. Alwood continues:

for Curculio injuries. The percentage of injury on the un

70 The American Naturalist.

‘ The trees were set very full of fruit, and much of this withered

and fell. However, fully one-half of a crop was matured. There

was one other tree in the orchard of this variety, and it matured more

fruit than the other varieties, but not one-half as much as those which

had been so thoroughly treated with the poison. This tree was set in

spring as full asthey were. It seems possible from this note that the

However, this is not at all certain.”

It is needless to state that this part of Mr. Alwood’s experiment

proved nothing. He also sprayed some cherry trees, treating one

with Paris green once, and another with kerosene emulsion once.

This experiment was even more fruitless than that on the plum, al

was abandoned before final results were obtained. Some experiments

of decided value, however, were made by Mr. Alwood upon feedin

poisoned fruit and tines to Curculios in confinement, which will b

referred to later.

My own experiments upon this subject began in 1888, when sevent

five Early Richmond cherry trees, occupying a half-acre block, were

chosen for this work. The west half of the orchard was spraye

the east half left as a check. London purple was applied three times,

in the proportion of eight ounces to fifty gallons of water. At time ¢

ripening, eight sprayed trees and seven check trees were selected, :

1,000 cherries from each were critically examined for Curculio i

It was found that 14.5 per cent. of the unsprayed fruit gave

of Curculio attack, while 3.5 percent. of the sprayed fruit was

There was consequently a percentage of benefit of 75-8. The

year similar experiments were made upon plums and pears, but

in the record” the opportunities for a satisfactory test were not s0

as with the cherries, so that, although the fruit was saved, less stress

laid upon the results. 2

In 1889 the cherry experiment was duplicated, the vari,

orchard being reversed to eliminate any possible effect upon tí

that might be due to the situation. In 1888 the west half was

and the east half left as a check ; in 1889 the east half was

and the west left as a check. London purple was applied three

in the proportion of one pound to 160 gallons of water. A

Tipening, 1,000 cherries were picked from each of twenty-four

ach half of the orchard—a total of 48,000 cherries—and %

~ Was 6.17, while on the treated trees it was 1. 5. This gives a pë

x 12 Seventh Annual Rept. Ohio Agr. Exp. Station, pp. 134-150.

1891.] Entomology. 7I

of benefit of 75.6,—just .2 per cent less than. in 1888. Plums sprayed

with a combination of London purple and the Bordeaux mixture

matured a full crop, while unsprayed trees a few rods distant lost all

their fruit. The record of this year’s work will be found in the Bul-

letin of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station for September, 1889

(Vol. II., pp. 133-143).

While these experiments were made as complete and satisfactory as

the circumstances would permit, and every essential detail was inserted

in the records, they were open to three objections, namely: First, that

while the remedy might work in a region like Central Ohio, where

fruit-growing forms only a small proportion of the agricultural interests

of the inhabitants, and where the Curculio, though abundant, is not

so overwhelmingly present as in a region almost exclusively devoted to

fruit production, it might be impracticable in the latter region ; second,

that the plum orchard was not sufficiently large to make a test under

the conditions of the commercial orchardist; and third, that the

cherries upon which some of these experiments were conducted ripened

before the season of egg deposition of the Curculio was over. ,The

force of these objections was fully appreciated while the experiments

were in progress, but the work was done in the belief that results of

_ value could be so obtained, and with the expectation of giving the

method a thorough trial, from the standpoint of the commercial

orchardist, if the preliminary tests were sufficiently encouraging.

The present season a plum orchard of goo bearing trees in Ottawa

county, Ohio, right in the heart of a great fruit-growing region, was

selected for the experiment. In the north half of it the method of

catching the Curculios by jarring on a sort of inverted umbrella

mounted on wheels was employed, while the south half was sprayed

four times with pure Paris green mixed with water, in the proportion

of four ounces to fifty gallons.

The first application was made May 8th, just after the blossoms had

falen from the late-blooming varieties. There was a heavy rain the

same night, and it rained almost continuously until May 15th, when

there was a short cessation. The second spraying was done on that day.

The third spraying was made May 26th, and the fourth and last, June 2d.

On the jarred portion of the orchard a great many Curculios were

caught, showing that they were present in numbers. A careful ex-

amination of both parts of the orchard was made on June 3d. Between

_ One and two per cent, of the fruit on the sprayed trees had been stung,

while about three per cent. of the plums on the jarred trees were in-

jured. No damage to the trees was then perceptible.

72 The American Naturalist. (January,

Early in July the orchard was again examined. Some of the sprayed —

trees showed that the foliage had been damaged by the spraying, but —

the injury was not very serious. Not over three per cent. of sprayed —

fruit was stung at that time, while about four per cent. of that on the

jarred trees were injured. But on both the fruit was so thick that arti- ~

ficial thinning was necessary to prevent overbearing.

A large crop of fruit was ripened on both parts of the orchard, and —

so far as could be judged from one field experiment, it showed that

spraying is as effective as jarring.

Professor Cook, referring to this experiment, has asked: ‘‘ Would

the crop have been a failure had he not sprayed? And, if so, willhe —

get equal results every season ? °’ 14 To the first question I can only |

answer that in the jarred half of the orchard large numbers of Curcu-

lios were obtained,—enough to ruin the crop had they not been —

caught. It is fair to presume that they were equally abundant in the —

sprayed half. The second question is easily answered. If the crop —

= would have -been a failure without spraying, obviously the spraying |

saved it. And if the succéss was due to spraying alone—a condition

involved by the query itself—future experience must conform to that .

of the past. I do not say that this is all demonstrated, but simply |

answer the question with the premise involved in it. Professor Cook

continues: ‘‘ Occasionally we secure a crop, with no effort to fight

the Curculio. Does not this suggest an explanation why some wī

have given this remedy a limited trial speak so highly of it.” If o :

‘“‘ limited trial” refers to the Ohio experiments, which have been cat-

ried on for three successive seasons, and in which an aggregate of

1,200 fruit trees have been employed, I would venture to inqur

what constitutes an extended trial? There is certainly nothing

in the record of the Michigan experiments to indicate that pe:

number of trees have been employed. ae

I had intended briefly to summarize the records concerning JE

feeding habits of the Curculio, and the laboratory experiments ©

poisoning it, but the limits of space forbids so doing. Suflice

say, that Dr. Riley in his earliest articles showed conclusively thet ot

adult beetles feed freely upon the fruit and foliage, and that the a

sequent observations of Forbes, Comstock, Cook, Gillette, os

Atwood, and others abundantly confirm his account ; while the Ta

ing of poisoned fruit and foliage to beetles in confinement '

13 This experiment is recorded in Bulletin Ohio Agr. Experiment Station, Vol- ing

225~228 ; September, 1890,

M Bulletin No. 66, Mich. Agr. College, p. 6.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 73

Forbes, Cook, and Alwood have rendered it certain, to use the words

of the first-named experimenter, that ‘‘ there can be no further ques-

tion of the liability of the Curculio to poisoning by very moderate

amounts of either London purple or Paris green while feeding on the

leaves and fruit of peach and plum.” !

It is sincerely to be hoped that future experiments upon this subject

will be conducted with a proper understanding of the razionale of the

method, and on a sufficiently extended scale to give results of value

to the commercial orchardist. The experience of another season has

strengthened my conviction of the force of the following statement

(written nearly a year ago, and published in the Agricultural Science

letter already referred to), with which this review may well be ended: ‘*It

seems to me that the evidence now in hand is sufficient to point to the

conclusion that spraying with the arsenites is a complete and practical

remedy for the Plum Curculio, at least in good-sized orchards of

cherries, plums, and apples ; and that the experiment stations can best

serve horticulture by encouraging the practice among commercial

orchardists, and carefully recording the results obtained, so that they

may be collated in the future, and a definite conclusion be reached.

If the simple process of spraying is effective, it is useless to complicate

matters by advising jarring in wet seasons, planting plum trees in apple

orchards, or various other modifications of the treatment that have

been suggested.’ —CLARENCE M. WEED.

ARCHÆOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

The Societe d’Anthropologie ‘at Paris.—A Sketch of Its Or-

ganization and Work.—The year 1859 was one memorable in the

science of anthropology. In this year was published Darwin’s work

on the “‘ Origin of Species.”” Whatever may be the truth of the theory

announced by him, whatever degree of opposition it may have received,

its appearance in the world marked an era in science.

In 1859 was also discovered, or rather was acknowledged as true,

the discovery by Monsieur Boucher de Perthes of the paleolithic im-

plements in the gravels of the river Somme. He had made this dis-

eae originally in the year 1836, and had published as a result thereof

several brochures, but they were not generally accepted or received in

the Scientific world until 1859.

15 Forbes. Jnsect Life, Vol. IL., p.7; July, 1889.

74 The American Naturalist. [January

I cannot do better than to quote from some of those who were his

contemporaries and assisted in that discovery a short sketch thereof.

In the year 1859, or rather in November of 1858, was organized the

Societe d’Anthropologie at Paris. It did not get into working order

until the beginning of the year 1859. There were six members at the

first reunion ; when it was completed and perfected there were nine- aa

teen. M. Philip Salmon, in his article on the Societe d’ Anthropologie |

in the Dictonaire d’ Anthropologie, gives their names: MM. Anthelme,

Beclard, Bertillon, Broca, Brown-Sequard, de Castelneau, Dareste, Del-

asiauve, Fleury, Follin, Isidore-Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Godard, Gra-

tiolet, Grimaux-de-Caux, Lemercier, Martin- Magron, Rambaud, Robin,

Verneuil. They commenced their work much the same as our own |

society, and with much the same success. In 1862 they numbered 102 —

paying members. This society passed through much the same stages

_ of growth as has our own. It limited its active members to its own neigh- —

borhood,—the city of Paris,—and made certain distinctions between

active and associate members. In the year 1863 they did what we —

have just done,—abolished such distinctions,—and it was in that year —

that the society entered upon the successful course which has marked

its history to the present time. Broca early conceived the idea of the

establishment of a laboratory of anthropology in connection with the

society. He had already organized such a laboratory, which was in-

stalled in the ancient church of the Cordeliers, in which was instaled

the Musée Dupuytren. He had brilliant hopes for this society, cand

desired to attach to it a series of public scientific lectures. This he

called the Ecole d’Anthropologie. Of this I will speak further < pe

There was such success in this establishment that the cit

d’ Anthropologie transferred itself from the Faculty of Medicine, W

it was first installed, to the Musée Dupuytren, 15 Rue de l'Ecole

Medicine, where it is now established. This change was made, in the

year 1876, and here were established the three organizations, t

Society of Anthropology, the School of Anthropology, and the Lab

_atory of Anthropology, to which is now to be added, by reason O° ©

legacy of Broca, the collection of his lifetime relating to anthrop

and called the Musée Broca. These organizations were princi

work of Broca. He was the head and front, the organizer, the

To the director ; yet he never held any higher office than t

S . It was his hope, and afterwards his pride, to 5¢° ©

= [Paizations established and united, and it was a part of his pie

~ Call them the Institut d’Anthropologie. Broca died the gth of

-a - after the society had been organized twenty-one years:

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 75

universally regretted, and the society of which he was secretary re-

ceived various testimonies from the anthropological societies of the

world. Broca probably did more than any other man of his time to

advance the science of anthropology. It was his life’s labor. He was

a profound student, an indefatigable worker, a close and accurate ob-

server, reported his conditions with great detail, and was thoroughly

enamored of his science. He had that aptitude for the management

of men, for the harmonizing of those annoying differences of opinion

which are sometimes unfortunately made public by scientific men.

Broca harmonized these inharmonious elements, and was recognized as

a friend of all parties. He was entitled to and received their confidence.

If his influence in this regard was great, his wisdom and good sense

were greater. The society determined to erect a monument to his

memory. The funds were furnished by public subscription, and the

monument was installed the 29th of July, 1887, and now stands at the

triangle between the Boulevard St. Germain and the Rue de I’ Ecole de

la Medicine, in front of the Faculty of Medicine. It is of bronze, is of

life size, and stands on a granite pedestal about ten or twelve feet from

the ground. It represents the great master holding in his left hand a

human skull, and in the other the instruments of anthropometric

measurement.

It is only fair to the Senate of France to say that it recognized ‘the

claims of science to a share of the government ; that it recognized the

important part played by scientific men in elevating France to the high

position which she has occupied among nations. In accordance with

this idea, and having confidence in the great good sense and wisdom

of Broca, they elected him a senator for life. He continued in this

office, and performed its duties, without neglecting the demands of his

science, until the day of his death. Not only was this appointment a

proper recognition ai wpe but it was a compliment to Broca

directly, and incid iete d’ Anthropologie,—one which its

members and painted te generally in France always remember

with pride.

The Societe d’Anthropologie early determined upon a practical

course to make known to the world, in a permanent form, the results

of the investigations of its members in the new science. This was by

the publication, first of bulletins, and afterwards of memoirs. The

bulletins were commenced on the roth of May, 1859, and have con-

tinued until the present time. The memoirs commenced soon after,

and have also continued until the present time. Both are published

quarterly. The bulletins are divided into three series: the first is six

76 The American Naturakst. [January,

volumes from 1859 to 1865, the second is twelve volumes from 1866 to

1877, the third is eleven volumes from 1877 to 1888. They comprise

about 500 or 600 pages per volume, and are for sale for the price of

$2.00 a volume.

The members of the society who pay their yearly dues, consisting of

thirty francs, or $6.00, are entitled to receive the bulletins without

further payment: The memoirs are published much the same as are

the bulletins, The members are not entitled to them except on pay-

ment. They are divided into two series as are the bulletins. They

average from 500 to 600 pages per volume, and are sold at sixteen

francs each.

The Revue d’ Anthropologie was published by Broca during his life-

time. He was succeeded by Dr. Topinard. But it has ceased as the

Revue, and has been consolidated with the Materiaux and the Revut

d’ Ethnographie, and will have for its three editors, Topinard, Cartai i

hac, and Hamy.

The Musèe Broca contains all the objects gathered by Broca durig

his lifetime bearing upon the science of anthropology. It is inst

in one of the rooms of the society. It possesses several hun

skeletons and about five thousand skulls. These belong to every

country, and include those of every epoch from the prehistoric to the

modern, and likewise every race of people. o

The Societe d’Anthropologie also possesses a considerable library. :

It receives and exchanges with other societies and organizations, pur- u

chases, etc., the various books, and now numbers in its catal !

about 7,000 volumes relating to anthropology and its kindred sciences. 4

Prizes Offered by Various Members of the Society. —Dr. Godard was

one of the original organizers of the Societe d’ Anthropologie. He ait :

in 1862. He provided by will for a prize of the value of 500 francs, t0 e

given each two years to the author of the best memoir on the subject >

belonging to anthropology, and left the decision and l

thereof to the society. Regulations were adopted govana the sl

Petition. Any one could compete except the m of the ous

2357) ee 2

members, who were to be elected four months in se The man ie

script should belong to the society, and in case no prize was awarded §

any competition, the sum should be added to the next.

another prize of 1,500 francs, to recompense the author of

memoir on human anatomy, or that branch of physiology

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 77

related to anthropology. The rules governing this are much the same

as those of the Godard prize.

In 1883 Monsieur Adolphe Bertillon, called Bertillon pére to recog-

nize him from his distinguished sons, also instituted a prize, which

should be given for the best memoir concerning anthropology, and

notably for demography. This prize was a value of 500 francs, and is

given under much the same rules as the foregoing.

These prizes are all distributed under the direction of the society,

and the days of competition are made gala days.

Laboratory of Anthropology.—After the establishment of the Society

of Anthropology, which served as a common ground on which the

various scientists could meet, read papers, argue, discuss, and elaborate

and make known their theories, it was found that the needs of this

great science required a laboratory or workshop, in which experiments

could be instituted and methods practiced necessary for proper scien-

tific investigations. Broca was the first to discover this, and he insti-

tuted such a one in his private apartment and for his own use; but it

soon outgrew its environment. In 1876 he procured quarters in the

Convent of the Cordeliers, which he maintained at his private

expense. In 1868 Broca was gratified by receiving the recognition of

his laboratory as one of those belonging to the Ecole des Hautes

tudes. The state from that moment paid a portion of the expense,

and gave small subsidies to Broca by which he was enabled to carry on

his work. This was continued until the year 1876, when the School of

Anthropology and the Laboratory were recognized by the government

as a public utility, and received a place in the governmental budget.

Broca directed the laboratory until his death. His various assistants

were MM. le Docteurs Topinard, Manouvrier. At his death, Mathias

Duval was appointed as director.,

The laboratory is organized so as to carry on the study of cranio-

metry, anthropometry, comparative anatomy of the human race, and

the primates. It has its halls for dissection, making casts or moulds

for drawings and for study. Dr. Manouvrier is at present, and has

been for several years, the principal officer in charge. There are also to

be seen here, and used, the instruments of anthropometry which were

largely invented by Broca, and also a collection of all the French and

European instruments for a like purpose.

The extent to which this laboratory is employed shows in the num-

ber of students and the amount of work performed, which can be

approximately understood by a list that might be given at great length,

oe E e

78 The American Naturalist. [January,

The students who have occupied the laboratory, and profited by its

existence to follow their various branches in the science of anthro-

pology, aggregated from 1881 to 1888 a total of 293. This does not

include the visitors nor those who did sporadic work, but only those

who devoted themselves seriously to the study of some branch of

anthropology. The following gentlemen have performed work in the

laboratory and library, more as professors than as students, the princi-

pal results of which have been recorded in memoirs, some of which

have been read before the society, and all have been published in the

scientific journals, principally in those related to the Societe d’Anthro-

pologie, to wit: the bulletins, memoirs, and Revue. The best of

such published memoirs are as follows:

Broca (died in 1880), 8; Mathias Duval, 90; Manouvrier, 59)

Topinard, 41 ; Chudzinski, 39; G. Hervé, 22; Deniker, 19; Gold-

- stein, 7; Mahoudeau and Zuborowski, each 5 ; Kuff, Tenkate, Mere-

schowski, Bordier, and Mondeires, each 3; Blanchard, Real, Toroch,

and Fére, each 2. The following gentlemen each produeed one:

Drs. Dally, Rey, Renard Calmette, Ujfalvy, Pasteau, Bouvier, MM.

Girarde, Rialle, Golstein, Drs. Weisgerber, Ducatte, Ribe, Deblemé,

Marcano, Bajenoff, Felix Regnault, Orchansky, Baron d’Hercoutt,

Danillo, Carriere, Neis, Chambellan, and Cauvin ; making a total of —

345 memoirs, theses, or notes, published as aforesaid.

M. Chudzinski is one of the most successful artists in Europe for the — :

reproduction in plaster of objects belonging to anthropology. He

has made, and they are now to be seen in the museum, 157 pieces of

this work. re:

It would not be practicable to give any complete list of the publica- a

tions of these gentlemen in connection with the Laboratory of Anthro- ae

pology. I may, as a sample, and because he is a personal friend, pr

a list of the publications of Dr. Manouvrier, together with the J S

of publication. ee

1. Measurements and Record of 1,500 Skulls from the Catacombs z

Paris. In the Public Register of the Laboratory of Anthropology, 188

2. On the Cubic Index of the Skull. Association Frangais®

Rheims, 1880. ee

~ 3- Comparative Study of the Skull and the Skeleton. Congrès 7

d’Algier, 1881.

4. Weight of the Skull. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthropologie, 1881.

5- Craniology. Revue Scientific, 1881.

6. Torsion of the Humerus. Revue d ’ Anthropologie, 1881.

7- The Fuegians. Bull. Soc. d’ Anthropologie, 7 Nov., 188%

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 79

8. Weight of the Brain. Acad. des Sciences, 6 Jan., 1882.

9. Height and Weight of Body and Brain. Ibid., 2 Feb., 1882.

10. The Brain and the Skeleton. Soc. Zool., 1882.

11. Force of Muscles and Weight of Brain. Ibid., August, 1882,

12. Grand Regions of the Skull in the Two Sexes. Ibid., 1882.

13. Relation between Intelligence and Weight of Brain. Revue

Scientific, June, 1882.

14. The Galibis. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Oct., 1882.

15. Skulls of Some OT Ibid., seha 1883.

16. Plagiocephaly. Ibid., June

17. The Weight of the DAEL its ae the Bulb. Congrés de

Rouen, 1883.

18. The Skull in Its Relation to Age and Height. Ibid.

19. The Cingalese and the Araucams. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1883.

20. The Relations between Domestic Animals. Bull. Soc. Zool.,

1883.

21. Dynamometric Errors, Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1884.

22, A Comparative Study of the Sexes. Progress Française, Jan.

6th, 1884.

23. The Function of the Psycho-Motor. ev. Philosoph., 1884.

24. The Profile of the Brain Compared with the Cavity of the

Skull. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., Bordeaux, 1884.

25. Ethnology and Ethnography. Z’ Homme, March 25th, 1884.

26. Vitrified Fort of Puy de Gaudy. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1884.

27. Three Cases of Congenital Idiocy. Congrès Blois, 1884.

28. Idiots and Imbeciles of Hospital Blois. Ibid.

29. Character of the Skull and the Brain. Second paper. Interpre-

tation of the Weight of the. Brain, Memoirs Soc. d’Anthrop, 1885.

30: The Indian Tribe of Omahas. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885.

31. Graphic Display of Anthropological Series. Z’ Homme, Feb.,

1885.

32. Prehistoric Trepanations. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885.

33- Physio-Pyschologic Dynamometry. Soc. Biology, 1885.

34. Prehistoric Skulls of Grenoble. Conggren Grenoble, 1885.

35- The Skeleton of Members of Man and of the Anthropoid. Ibid.

36. Dolichocephaly. Soc. Anthrop., Lyons, 1885.

37- Capacity of the Skull of Sixty Assassins, 1885.

38. Skull of an Imbecile. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1885.

39- New Variety of the Wormian Bones. Ibid., 1886.

40. Five Skulls of Senegambiens. Ibid.

41. Craniology of Three Lunatics. Ibid.

80 The American Naturalist. [January,

42. Consecutive Movements of Mental Images. Rev. Philos., 1886.

43- Skulls of Executed Criminals. Archives of Anthrop., Crim-

inal, 1886.

44. Importance of Craniology. 1886.

45. The Greek Profile. Congrès of Nancy, 1886.

46. A Micro-Cephalic Idiot. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1887.

47. Seance of Spiritism. Z’ Homme, 1887.

48. Neolithic Skull of Crecy-en-Brie. Bull. Soc. Anthrop., 1887.

49. The Brain of M. Bertillon. Ibid., 1887.

50. Prognathism and Its Measure. Congrés of Toulouse, 1887.

51. Platyenemy. Memoirs Soc. Anthrop., 1887.

52. Cerebral Comparisons. Rev. Phil, 1887.

53- Vitrified Forts, Walls, and Tumuli, 1887.

54. Studies of a Rickity Dwarf. Congrés of Oran, 1888.

55. The Temporal Convolution of a Deaf Person. Bull. Soc.

Anthrop., 1888. ee

56. The Flattening of the Sous-trochanter. Ibid.

57. Frontal Circonvolutions, à masse du Corps. Ibid.

58. Heights of the Parisians. Ibid.

School of Anthropology.—As I have already said, the School ot An-

thropology, like the society and laboratory, was indebted to Broca for

its establishment. From almost the beginning of his labors in behalt

of this science, Broca was of the opinion that the people should b

educated in it, He believed that, in addition to all other oppo! m

ties, there should be provided that which is so popular in France,-

courses of lectures for the public. In 1870 he obtained from the Dean

of the Faculty of Medicine permission to deliver a course of lectt

on anthropology in the public hall of the chemical school. In :

nection therewith he carried on clinical conferences in the la

ets

wy “In a project for the reorganization of the Faculty of Sciences

oo Presented to the National Assembly, Prof. Paul Bert propos®

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 81

institute at the Sorbonne a chair of anthropology. This thought is

excellent, and I hope that it will sooner or later be realized. It is still

possible that other chairs of the same nature will be established at the

College of France and in certain faculties of the provinces. But no

matter how many of such single or isolated chairs of anthropology we

may have, they will never respond to the needs of education. Good

to instruct and to interest the public auditor, and consequently of

great utility, they will never serve the needs of the student. If the

course is to be accomplished in one or two years, it will be superficial.

If it should last for five or six years, like that at the museum, it can be

complete and excellent ; but then it will be necessary for students to

consecrate to the study of anthropology more time than for law or for

medicine. Anthropology is not yet a profession, it does not lead to

any public or scientific career, it has no hopes for the future ; it will

be rare to find scholars or students who are sufficiently impressed: with

this science to persevere to the end. They must also be rich.in money,

that they may maintain so long an initiation, It is necessary to form

a school of anthropology where each of the principal branches can

have a chair and a professor, to the end that the entire science can be

taught each year in a simultaneous course, by men specially trained

therefor.’’

This was a vast programme, and presented enormous difficulties, but

they did not daunt Broca. His indomitable will, seconded by his

ardent love for his science, caused him to push his endeavors until he

arrived at a happy result. If it was necessary to obtain authorization

from the government, he obtained it; subscribers, he gathered them ;

money, he found it. Carried away by his convictions, he took as

founders around him Bertillon, Chudzinski, Collineau, Mortillet, Top-

inard, Manouvrier, Hamy, etc. The government of France, the De-

_ partment of the Seine, and the city of Paris combined to furnish each

a part of the money needed for the establishment of this School of

Anthropology. A generous scientist, Dr. Jourdanet, himself provided

the expense of one of these c

On the 30th of October, be everything was completed, and the

ministerial authorization received, The 15th of November following,

the course of lectures and teaching commenced. Broca’s pride was

Satisfied when he said, upon that occasion, ‘the foundation of a School.

ar Anthropology at Paris enables us to state with pride that anthropol-

ogy is a science altogether French.”

Other countries might have established chairs of anthropology and

aught it in their educational establishments before this, but this was

anuary.—6

` Am, Nat.—J

82 The American Naturalist. [January,

the first successful attempt to establish a course of anthropology, with

numerous lecturers and professors who should codperate and endeavor

to teach the entire science in a single series.

Broca, as director, charged himself with the course of anatomic

anthropology, and delivered two lectures per. week. Dr. Dally was

professor of ethnology, Hovelacque of language, G. de Mortillet of

prehistoric anthropology, and Dr. Topinard of biologic anthropology:

In 1877—78 Monsieur Bertillon took charge of the course of demog-

raphy ; in 1878—’79 Monsieur Bordier commenced a course of medical

geography, which chair had been established and paid for by Dr.

Jourdanet. ;

On the death of Broca, the gth of July, 1880, Monsieur Mathias

Duval was designated to succeed him in the chair of anatomic anthro-

pology ; and Monsieur Gavarret, a professor of the Faculty of Medi-

cine and Inspector-General of Superior Education, was denominated

director of the school. i

At the death of M. Bertillon, the 28th of February, 1883, the chait

of demography was suppressed. In 1884~’85 Monsieur Dally was taken

sick, and Dr. Manouvrier supplied his place ; and the same year MM.

Blanchard and Hervé were designated to make supplementary courses:

In 1885~’86 the chair of the history of civilizations was created,

Dr. Letourneau was designated as professor. The rst of January

1888, Monsieur Dally being dead, Monsieurs Hervé and Mani

were called respectively to the chairs of zoologic anthropology u

physiologic anthropology, and Monsieur Lefevre was charged to wi

plement Monsieur Hovelacque. Finally, in 1889, supplementary

courses were added, of which MM. Chudzinski, Mahoudeau, 4

Adrien de Mortillet had charge.

The programme of the lectures for the year 1888-89 will give an idea

of the scope of the science of anthropology as thus taught. Lee ;

follows :

Anthropogeny and Comparative Embryology—The Fecundation ©

the Egg; The Laws of Heredity, Prof. Mathias Duval.

Zoologic Anthropology—The Anatomy of Man Compared with ut :

Vertebrates ; The Members. Prof. M. Georges Herve.

Anthropology General—Parallel between the Characters of SUS! '

ority and Inferiority of the Human; Genealogy of those Chal" ” —

in the Animal Kingdom. Prof. Dr. Topinard.

Prehistoric Anthropology—Origin of Hunting, Fishing, and Agi”

culture. Monsieur Gabriel de Mortillet.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 83

Physiologic Anthropology—The Evolution of Psychology ; Parallel

between the General Doctrines of Metaphysics and the Doctrines of

Science. Prof. Dr. Manouvrier.

History of Civilizations—The Evolutions of Political Institutions in

the Different Races of Human Kind,—Government, War, Justice.

Prof. Dr. Letourneau.

Medical Geography—Comparative Pathology; Parasitic Maladies ;

These Among the Different Races. Prof. Dr. Bordier.

Ethnography and Language—Their Relations to Mythology. Prof.

M. Hovelacque, with M. Andre Lefevre as assistant.

The supplementary course for the same year was:

The Cerebral Convolution. M. Chudzinski.

The Principal Phases of the Evolution of the Brain. M. Mahoudeau,

Paris and its Environs in Prehistoric Times. M. Adrien de Mortillet.

The programme of lectures before the School of Anthropology for

the current year 1889—’90 is as follows

Prehistoric Anthropology—The Origin, Development, and Consti-

tution of the French People; Autochtones; Ligurians and Iberians ;

Celts or Gaulois ; Bergundians and Franks; Divers Elements. Prof.

Gabriel de Mortillet ; Monday and Wednesday, 4 o’clock.

Anthropogeny and Comparative Embryology—The Blastoderm of

the Vertebrates, and the Theory of the Gastrula. Prof. Dr. Mathias

Duval; Monday, 5 o’clock.

Ethnography and Language—The Myths and Gods of the Atmos-

phere, of the Stars, and of the Heavens, from the Times of Antiquity

Until the Present. Prof. Andre Lefevre ; Tuesday, 4 o’clock.

Zoologic Anthropology—Anatomy of Man Compared with that of

the Vertebrates ; The Members (continuation). Prof. Georges Hervé;

Tuesday, 5 o’clock.

Medical Geography—Action of the Environments; Transformism

(Evolution) ; Effect of Climate on Man and upon Organized Beings.

of. Dr. A. Bordier; Friday, 4 o’clock.

Physiologic Anthropology—Human Anatomy in Its Relation to

Psychology. Prof. Dr. L. Manouvrier ; Friday, 5 o’clock.

History of Civilization—The Evolution of Jurisprudence in the

Different Human Races, Prof. Dr. C. Letourneau; Saturday, 4

o'clock,

Comparative Ethnography—The Industry of Modern Savages Com-

pared with that of the Prehistoric e Poe. Prof. Adrien de Mortillet ;

oy, 5 o'clock.

84 The American Naturalist. [January,

Histologic Anthropology—Histology of the Nervous System and Its

Principal Relation with other Systems of Organism. Prof. Dr. P. G.

Mahoudeau ; Wednesday, 5 o’clock.

Anatomic Demonstrations—Done at the Musée and Laboratory.

Prof. Chudzinski ; Saturday, 3 o’clock.

The card on which the foregoing announcements are made has this

note at the foot:

“A register for inscription is at the school for the auditors of the

course who may desire a certificate of attendance.’’

Because of my greater interest in that branch of anthropology

belonging to the prehistoric, the course of lectures which were given

by Monsieur G. de Mortillet attracted me most. I give the divisions

of his course during the two or three later years.

The Origin of Man: Man during the Tertiary Geologic Pertod—

A glance at the history of the theories of the origin of the earth and

of man; geology, general notions; geologic revolutions and their

causes; continued movements of the surfaces; theory of earthquakes;

laws of paleontology ; succession of living (or created) beings; Prt

cursor of man, fossil monkeys ; indication of the existence of an in-

telligent being during the Tertiary period ; incised bones from Mount :

Operto, Italy ; depot of Thenay (Loir and Cher), flints, burnt oF

retouched ; depot of Puy-Courny (Cantal), split flints, fauna; depot 5

of Otta (Portugal), flints chipped, fauna and flora; human skua

veras, California; skeletons of Brescia, Italy; jaw of Monin i

Quignon ; subdivisions and climatology of the Quaternary period;

Neanderthal skull and race ; skulls of Engis (Belgium), of Oo a

(Italy), Laugerie-Basse and Cro Magnon (Dordogne) ; transf a

and filiation of man ; date (approximate) of the appearance of ee y

chronometers ; glaciers, a proof of the antiquity of man. ee

Origin of the Arts, Agriculture, and Industry —Heat, fire, lighting:

beaux arts—engraving, sculpture, painting, music, architecture; M="

cine, surgery, sculpture, and religion; arms—hatchets, a

swords and poignards, bows and arrows, defensive arms ; instrumen®™

knives, Scrapers, razors, saws, etc., etc. ; hunting, fishing, navigation r

agriculture, horticulture, domestication ; dress and omane a

allurgy—gold and copper, bronze and tin, iron, silver, and | ;

ceramics—pottery, glass, enamel, foo

_This has lasted two years in the course, and will be published

separate volume. es

1891.] Microscopy. 85

Some of these lectures were illustrated by means of lantern slides.

Those of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archeology were as follows:

Silex tertiare otta<SAG- SOU a ws 65

Cromlechs maneret- n a SG ee 54

Roche Montonneess.: {406 34) wa Gite avapers 14

Glaciers: dé: fornai 4 cae ek aa we 6

Portraits (P. Broca and others) 4::.2..0.. hee 7

Quarternaire stratigtanbie s-r isc A ils es 48

Archæolóogic (Drone) oy) si ee Ve 9 gee 83

Paleothologic (ston@) < jon 5 io 0 +s Oe

Megalethiqus (dele) © 60. oss o hee ae 19

Ethnogtaphic (char) -s 6... <6 ss a 4 ® 30

417

In addition ‘to the courses of lectures, which have now been con-

tinued for fourteen years past, and of which the foregoing are given as

an example, there have been other lectures, either delivered by special

lecturers or upon special subjects under the direction of the Society of

Anthropology :

Eulogy of Dr. Paul Broca, by Monsieur Dally, 1884.

The Distinctive Characters of the Human Brain, by Monsieur Pozzi,

1885.

A Study of the Races of Mankind in the Lower Valley of the Nile,

by Monsieur Hamy, 1886.

Aphasy Since the Time of Broca, by Monsieur Mathias Duval, 1887.

The Nervous Centers, by Monsieur Laborde, 1888.

(To be continued.)

MICROSCOPY.!

Medullated Nerve-Fibres.?—Prof. Kultschitzky offers the fol-

lowing methods designed to take the place of Weigert’s hematoxylin

method. Kultschitzky’s method permits of washing the preparation

after fixation, and so avoids, to a great extent, the precipitation of

chromic salts in the tissues.

_ The material must lie in Erlicki’s fluid 1-2 months, then be washed

in water 1-2 days, and hardened in alcohol. Then follows imbed-

1 Edited by C. O. Whitman, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

* Kultschitzky. Anat, Anz., September 12, 1890, No. 18, p. 519-

86 The American Naturalist. [ January:

ding in celloidin, and sectioning with the microtome in the usual way.

The sections thus obtained are stained in

ACID HEMATOXYLIN. .

Hematoxylin, 1 g., dissolved in a small quantity of absolute alco-

hol, added to acetic acid (two per cent.) 100 g.

ing, the sections are to be placed in a :

LITHIUM SOLUTION.?

Ferricyanide of potassium (one per ee solution) . ro ccm.

In this solution the sections generally remain from 2-3 hours.

The time required for decoloration may be reduced by adding more

ferricyanide of potassium. After decoloring, the sections are to be

well washed in water, passed through alcohol, and mounted in balsam

in the usual way. |

Instead of the above hematoxylin solution, we may use with equal

success

Lithium carbon. (saturated solution 100 ccm.

ACID CARMINE.

CE eee aa a so ee a a e eee

Acetic acid (to per cent) > 2. e koeni E e OCC

The powdered carmine is heated 2—4 hours in the acid, and the

solution, after cooling, is then filtered. The time for staining is 24 —

hours. Decoloration is effected in the same manner as before. The

process, however, is more rapid than with hematoxylin, and hence it

must be closely watched.

Henneguy’s Methods with Pelagic Fish-Eggs.‘—The eggs

_ may be killed in water strongly acidulated with acetic acid. In the

course of a few minutes the embryo becomes quite distinct, and ue

eggs are then transferred to chromic acid, one per cent. At the ene

of three days they are placed in water, and the chorion removed. After

24 hours in water, they are placed in ninety per cent. alcohol,

then in absolute alcohol. Such preparations are excellent for surface

views, but difficult to section on account of the hardness of the yolk. —

€ isolation of the germ from the yolk may be accomplished in 6"?

Ways : i . i

1. The egg is placed in osmic acid, one per cent., for a few est

utes, until it has acquired a light brown color, then transferred to 7"

_ler’s fluid, and the chorion cut open with sharp scissors. In this fuid

$ Dr. J. Schaffer (Anat. Anz., V., 22, November ed Weigett®

OE aaa » V., 22, 2x, 1890, p. 643) employe

a ie A Si al fathia lihi SNR UPT Pea nd with perfect success

: * Journ. d Anat, et de Physiol., 1888, pp. 416-7.

1891.] Microscopy. 87

the yolk dissolves, and the cortical layer with the germ can thus be

easily isolated. After several days the preparation is to be carefully

washed and passed through several grades of alcohol.

This process does very well for the earlier stages, but not so well for

the later ones, as the osmic acid does not penetrate the more advanced

embryos sufficiently. :

2. The method that proved the best was as follows: The egg is im-

mersed for ten minutes in Kleinenberg’s fluid, to which has been added

one-tenth its volume of glacial acetic acid ; it is then opened in ten

per cent, acetic acid, which dissolves the yolk, and thus enables one to

isolate the germ. The germ is next placed in Kleinenberg’s fluid for

several hours, then in alcohol.

Bryozoa.’—In studying the process of budding in Pedicellina,

Loxosoma, and other Bryozoa, Dr. Oswald Seeliger made use of cor-

rosive sublimate (saturated solution in hot sea-water), usually in com-

bination with one-fiftieth its volume of glacial acetic acid. This mixture

was used cold, and allowed to act from five to eight minutes. The

preparation was thoroughly washed and stained with borax-carmine.

To this sublimate-acetic acid mixture was sometimes added chromic

acid (one-tenth per cent.), with the result that the epithelial structure

was well preserved but difficult to stain.

Caryokinesis in Paramecium.'—In the study of Paramecium

Prof. R. Hertwig made use of picro-acetic acid, chromic acid, and

chrom-osmic acid as hardening reagents. Picro-acetic acid followed by

borax-carmine was the principal method. The staining process was

aided by the heat of an incubator, and decoloration was effected by

alcohol acidulated with “hydrochloric acid. The preparation was

mounted in glycerine or in clove oil. Clove oil is preferable to

Isam, as it reveals more clearly the fibrous structure of the spindle,

and allows of turning and pressing the object at any time.

Clove oil causes the cytoplasm to become brittle, so that the body

of the infusorian may be broken up by pressure or blows on the cover-

glass, and thus the nuclear spindles be set completely free. In this

isolated condition they can be studied to the best advantage, as they

are not obscured by overlying cytoplasm.

For the study of the achromatic figures clove oil is too strong a

clarifying medium. Glycerine or water will serve better. Hertwig

figures, washed in alcohol, and mounted in glycerine. He was thus

able to study all parts of the figures under most favorable conditions.

Š Zeitschrift f. wiss. Zoologie, XLIX., 1, 1889, pp- 168-9; and L., 4, 1890, p. 561.

ëR. Hertwig. Conjugation d. Infusorien. Abhl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., II. Cl.,

88 : The American Naturalist. [January,

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES,

Biological Society of Washington, D. C.—November 29,

1890.—Dr. T. H. Bean read a paper upon ‘‘ The Death of Salmon

after Spawning.’ He called attention to the fact that the species of

salmon upon the northwest coast belongs to a different genus from the

salmon on the Atlantic coast, and one of the distinguishing features of

the former was the dying of the fish after spawning. In the smallest

species, known as the ‘little humpback,”’ the mortality is excessive,

for every individual seems to die after spawning. It isa very abundant

and widely spread species. It ascends the smaller streams and de-

posits its spawn, often a rod or less, or even within ten feet, of salt

water, and yet it does not live to reach it again. The reason for this -

is unknown, but the fact is of great practical importance, for if the

species spawns but once in its lifetime, if it is not to become extinct

the mouths of the streams must be kept free from obstructions. This

is not the case, so that if the fish cannot spawn naturally, it remains :

only for the Fish Commission to take the matter in charge, and rear

the fish artificially. -

In the largest species on the coast, when the individuals ascend the é

streams only about 75 miles, some return to the ocean ; but when, as 18 oe

sometimes the case, they penetrate 500, 1,000, and even 1,500 miles in-

land, the evidence all goes to show that none ever return to the ocean —

the fish entered fresh water, and suggested it might be this structaral

ality. 2

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 89

Dr. Theobald Smith spoke of ‘‘Species among Bacteria.” He

stated it to be possible to separate and study the various forms in a

nutrient fluid. The species or forms can be separated by both morpho-

logical and biological characters. Among the former were enumer-

ated form, size, formation of spores, method of germination, flagella,

and staining. The biological characters are the results of culture,

both in liquid and upon solid media, The forms can be distinguished

by habitat, by the formation of ferments which liquify gelatine, by

fermentation, by affinity for oxygen, by coloring matter, and by their

occurrence in disease.

As examples of these differences the bacillus of anthrax and of hay

were compared. They were long supposed to be closely related, and

under the microscope both look alike, both grow in the same way, and

both have spores of the same kind. But when the two are cultivated in a

liquid the hay bacillus will form a scum upon the top of the liquid in a

short time ; the liquid will then become cloudy throughout, and finally

clear up. With the anthrax, on the contrary, the cloud makes its

appearance at the bottom of the culture tube. In germination of the

spores, the anthrax grows in the direction of the larger diameter, while

the other grows at right angles to it. If the hay bacillus be placed

under the skin of an animal, it is innocuous. But if the anthrax be

injected, it will kill in twenty-four hours.

gain, in the typhoid fever and the hog cholera bacillus there is

great similarity in morphological characters ; but when cultivated they

assume different colors. In the fermentation tube hog-cholera germ

evolve gases, while the typhoid do not. One form of the comma ba-

cillus cultivated on gelatine liquifies it; another similar form does

not.

In the discussion Mr. True thought the morphological characters

were those which characterized higher groups than species ; they were

rather family, perhaps ordinal, characters. Dr. Smith, in replying

to this, stated that it was impossible to say what were family,

what were generic, what were ordinal characters, but those he had

mentioned were of use in distinguishing the various forms one from

another.

[In the course of the discussion the fact that the organisms under

consideration were of vegetable rather than animal nature was lost

sight of. While, therefore, the morphological characters of form, size,

Spores, etc., referred to would not do to separate species of animals,

they are exactly the characters used by botanists to separate species of

plants, Dr. Smith, therefore, in stating that species could be separated

go The American Naturalist. [January,

upon the morphological characters of form, size, etc., gave characters

which are of specific value in plants, though they may not be’so in ani-

mals.—J. F. J.]

Geological Society of America.—Second annual meeting,

Washington, D. C., Dec. 29, 30, and 31, 1890.—The following papers

were read: On the Geology of Quebec and its Environs; Henry M.

Ami. Antiquities from under Tuolumne Table Mountain, California;

On the Early Cretaceous of California and Oregon ; The Structure of a

Portion of the Sierra Nevada of California; George F. Becker. The

Nickel and Copper Deposits of Sudbury District, Canada; Robert Bell.

The Chazy Formation in the Champlain Valley ; Ezra Brainerd. Re-

marks on a Fallen Forest and Peat Layer Underlying Aqueous Deposits

at Naaman’s Creek, Del. ; Hilborne T. Cresson. Mineral and Chemical

Composition of Certain Igneous Rocks from the Mesozoic Area in Cul-

pepper County, Virginia; H. D. Campbell and W. G. Brown. A Pro-

posed System of Chronologic Cartography on a Physiographic Basis;

T. C. Chamberlin. An Account of the Geology of the Washington

Region ; On a Jointed Earth-Auger for Geological Exploration in Soft

Deposits ; Nelson H. Darton. The Geological Date of the Origin of

Certain Topographic Forms on the Atlantic Slope of the Eastern United

States; W. M. Davis. Two Fossil-Bearing Belts in the Triassic Foris

tion of Connecticut; W. M. Davis and S. W. Loper. Illustrations

of the Structure of Glacial Sand-Plains; W. M. Davis and H. L. Rich. oe

Note on the Geological Structure of the Selkirk Range, in the Vicinity

of the Line of the Canadian Pacific Railway; George M. Dawson. -

Note on the Carboniferous Flora of Newfoundland; Sir William 3

Dawson. The Triassic Sandstones in Massachusetts; B. K. Emerson. ae

Glacial Grooves South of the Terminal Moraine ; F. Max Foshay and ne :

Richard R.Hice. The Overthrust Faults of the Southern Appala Sn

Beds of the Texas-Arkansas Region, Coastward of the Present Paleozoic

W. L; E..V. D'Invilliers. The Structure of the Blue Ridge Næ

graphical Microscopes; A. C. Lane. Notes on Variations i ie

Tertiary and Cretaceous Strata of Alabama; Daniel W. Lang ae

On Tertiary and Post-Tertiary Changes in Physical Geography ees

1891] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. gl

Western as Compared with the Eastern Side of the American Continent ;

A Note on the Mutual Relations of Land Elevation and Ice Accumulation

During the Quaternary Period; Joseph LeConte. Geology of the

Environs of Quebec; Jules Marcou. The Coal Fields of Alabama ;

Henry McCalley. The Melting of the Northern Ice Sheet in North-

eastern Iowa; W J McGee. Contribution to the Geology of Georgia ;

P. H. Mell. The Post-Archean Age of the White Limestones of Sussex

County, New Jersey; Frank L. Nason, Relations of Secular Rock Dis-

integration to Certain Crystalline Schists ; Ralph Pumpelly. Glaciers

of the St. Elias Region, Alaska; I. C. Russell. On the Geology of

Little Falls, New York; N. S. Shaler and H. S. Williams. The Rail-

roads and the Geology Classes in Alabama; Eugene A. Smith. Notes

on Two Moraines in the Catskill Mountains, New York ; J.C. Smock.

Post-Pliocene Continental Subsidence; J. W. Spencer. Geological

Notes on Mount Diablo, California; H. W. Turner. Glacial Lakes in

Canada; Warren Upham. The Cinnabar and Bozeman Coal Fields of

Montana; Walter H. Weed. A Last Word with the Huronians ; Alex-

ander Winchell. On the Structure and Petrography of the Piedmont

Plateau in Maryland ; George H. Williams. Graphic Field Notes for

Areal Geology ; Bailey Willis. On the Lower Cambrian Age of the

Stockbridge Limestone at Rutland, Vermont ; J. E. Wolff. Observa-

tions Upon the Lava Deposits of the Snake River Valley, Idaho; G.

Frederick Wright. (To be continued.)

Industrial and Scientific Society of Alabama.—The Alabama

Industrial and Scientific Society was organized at the University of

Alabama, Thursday, December 11th, 1890, with 70 members. Its

objects are the promotion of the industries of the State, and the fur-

therance of scientific investigations of the problems arising in civil and

mining engineering, geology, smelting, and the manufacture of coke.

The officers for 1891 are: President, C. Cadle, general manager,

Cohaba Coal Mining Co., Biocton. Six vice presidents, viz., Thomas

Sedcon, president Sloss Iron and Steel Co., Birmingham; C. P. Wil

iamson, president Williamson Iron Co., Birmingham ; W. E. Rob-

ertson, city engineer, Anniston; J. W. Burke, president, Tredegar

Co., Jacksonville; M. C. Wilson, professor natural science, No

School, Florence; Col. Horace Harding, U. S. engineer, Tuskaloosa ;

Treasurer, Henry McCalley, Alabama Geological Survey, University

Alabama; Secretary, Wm. B. Phillips, professor Chem. and Met.

University Alabama. The annual fee is $5.00. The society will

"meet three or four times a year at different places in the State for the

92 The American Naturalist. (January,

reading and discussion of papers, which will afterwards be published.

The next meeting will be held in Birmingham, January 28th, 1891.

The American Morphological Society.—A_ well-attended

meeting for the inauguration of an American Morphological Society

was held in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, on

December 29th and 3oth, 1890. Officers for the meeting were elected

as follows:

President, Professor E. B. Wilson ; Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. J.

Playfair McMurrich ; Executive Committee: Professor E. L. Mar

Dr. C.-S. Minot, and Dr. E. A. Andrews.

After the details of meeting had been completed, the following papers

were read and discussed: On the Development of the Scypho-

medusee ; J. Playfair McMurrich. On the Intercalation of Vertebræ;

G. Baur. The Heliotropism of Hydra: a Study in Natural Selection;

E. B. Wilson. The Early Stages of the Development of the Lobster;

H.C. Bumpus. Some Characteristics of the Primitive Vertebrate

Brain; H. F. Osborn, The Development of Nereis and the Mesoblast

Question ; E. B. Wilson. The Preoral Organ of Xiphidium; W. H.

Wheeler. A Review of the Cretaceous Mammalia; H. F. Osborn.

Spermatophores as a Means of Indirect Impregnation ; C. O. Whit

man. The Phylogeny of the Actinozoa ; J. Playfair McMurrich. a

The following are the officers of the society for the ensuing ree :

President, C. O. Whitman; Vice President, Professor E. L. M ; E

Secretary and Treasurer, Dr. J. Playfair McMurrich ; Executive Com < :

mittee : The Officers of the Society, Professor E. B. Wilson, and Proe

fessor H. F. Osborn |

Third Annual Meeting of the Association of American :

Anatomists.—Held at Boston, Mass., on December 2gth, 30th, and =

31st, 1890.—Monday, December 29th.—The Homology of the Cerebro: os

Spinal Arachnoid with the other Serous Membranes; F. W. Langdon) .

M.D., Cincinnati, Ohio. Something Additional About the pire .

Sternum ; D. S. Lamb, Washington, D. C. The Merits and Defects

Owen’s Account of the Cerebral Fissues ; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithac®

N. Y. On the Teeth of Cheiroptera; Harrison Allen, M.D., *

delphia, Pa. Studies on the Spine; Thomas Dwight, M.D., F

ton, Mass. Corrosive Preparations by Different Methods; > E

Mixter, M.D., Boston, Mass. The Relations of the Olfactory to E

Cerebral Portion of the Brain; Burt G. Wilder, Ithaca, N. Y- =

Unusual Case of Platycnemy in the Negro; Frank Baker, M.D

Washington, D. C,

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. -93

Tuesday, December 30th.—Subfrontal Gyri and Problems Connected

with the Cerebral Fissures; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithaca, Nok

Comparison of the Fibrine Filaments of Blood Lymph in Mammalia

and Batrachia, with Methods of Preparation ; Simon H. Gage, M.D.,

Ithaca, N. Y. The Semilunar Bone; Francis J. Shepard, M.D., Mon-

treal, Canada. On the Structure of Protoplasm and Mitosis (Demon-

stration); Carl Heitzmann, M.D., New York City. A Specimen,

George McClellan, M.D., Philadelphia. Corrections of the Article

“Gross Anatomy of the Brain,’’ in Wood’s Reference Hand-Boo

of the Medical Sciences ; Burt G. Wilder, M.D., Ithaca, Ni Yu

The American Ornithologists’ Union.—The Eighth Congress

of the American Ornithologists’ Union was held in the Lecture Hall

of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., on No-

vember 18th, roth, and 2oth, 1890, and was attended by a large num-

ber of active and associate members from all parts of the country. The

first day’s session was devoted to business. Dr. J. A. Allen, of New

York, who has been president of the Union since its foundation, de-

clined reélection, and Mr. D. G. Elliot was elected to succeed him in

the presidency. The succeeding days were set apart for the reading

of scientific papers, of which the following i; a list :

November 19th.—1. The American Ornithologists’ Union: A Seven

Years’ Retrospect ; J. A. Allen. An interesting review of the work

done in American ornithology since the founding of the Union. 2.

Seed-Planting by Birds ; Walter B. Barrows. A valuable contribution

to economic ornithology based upon the system of stomach examina-

tions now being conducted by the Department of Agriculture. 3. A

Study of Bird Waves in the Delaware Valley during the Spring Migra-

tion of 1890; Witmer Stone. This paper gave a brief review of the

work done by the Delaware Valley Ornithological Club, of Philadelphia,

in the investigation of bird migration, and illustrated by a system of

a new method for the graphic arrangement of migration data’

4. Our Present Knowledge of the Neotropical Avifauna ; Frank M.

Chapman. An excellent review of the work that has been done on

the birds of the western tropics, up to the present time. 5. “ie

Present Status of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker; E. M. Hasbrouck.

By carefully-prepared maps Mr. Hasbrouck contrasted the former ex-

tensive distribution (nearly throughout the Austro-riparian fauna) of

this elegant bird, and its present restricted range in Florida and the

southernmost portions of some of the other Gulf States, and showed

that in the near future this species will become a thing of the past. 6.

Phalaropes at Swampscott, Mass; Wm. A. Jeffries—read by Mr. Chap-

94 The American Naturalist. [January,

man. 7. The Spring Migration of the Red Phalarope ; Harry Gordon

White—read by Dr. Allen. This paper gave the results of observations

on this bird during a voyage from Massachusetts to the Gulf of St

Lawrence, and indicated that the birds, in the spring of 1890, after

following the southern coast of Nova Scotia, passed through the Gut

of Canso, instead of rounding Cape Breton Island. 8. Some Observa-

tions on the Breeding of Dendreca vigorsii at Raleigh, N. C.; C5.

_Brinley—read by Mr. Chapman.

November 20th.—9. The Trans-Appalachian Movement of Birds

from the Interior to the South Atlantic States, Viewed Chiefly from

the Standpoint of Chester Co., S. C.; Leverett M. Loomis. ro. The

Birds of Andros Island, Bahamas ; John I. Northrop. An interesting

account of the birds of this (ornithologically) little-known island,

where Mr. Northrop was fortunate enough to discover a fine new

species of Icterus (Z. northropi Allen.) Dr. Allen made some addi-

tional remarks upon the birds collected by Mr. Northrop, exhibiting a

number of specimens, 11. Some Bird Skeletons from Guadalupe

Island ; Frederic A. Lucas, 12. On the Tongue of Humming-Birds;

F. A. Lucas. 13. Remarks on the Primary Faunal Divisions of North

America; C. Hart Merriam. In this able paper Dr. Merriam ex-

plained his recently-published Faunal Map of North America, and

gave his grounds for abolishing the generally-adopted system of dividing

the continent into three great provinces,—Eastern, Central, and

Western,—and for deriving the various faunal districts from tw?

primary regions—Boreal and Sonoran. The paper was illustrated by &

large series of maps showing all the faunal divisions of the No

American continent that have hitherto been proposed by authors.

After this paper, Mr. William Brewster exhibited a number of excel

lent lantern slides from photographs of wild birds taken in the field.

The following Papers were presented, but were not read for lack of

time : An Experimental Trial of a New Method for the Study of Bird :

Migration ; Harry Gordon White. The Case of Colaptes auratus and C

cafer 7 J. A. Allen. Observations upon the Classification of the United

States Accipetres—Based upon a Study of their Osteology ; R. d

Shufeldt. Some Notes Concerning the Evening Grosbeak ; Amos ~:

Butler, Owls of Illinois; W. S. Strode. Instinct, Intuition, and "

p Sence; C. F. Amery. The Habits of the American Golde

Plover in Massachusetts; Geo. H. Mackay. Correction to Revised

the White-Faced Glossy Ibis in Kansas ; N. S. Goss.—W. S.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR DECEMBER, 1890.

tor Jo oa

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THE RECENT ELECTION BO EY ary lee cor lee G Bid iol y

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THE PARTITION OF AFRICA Oa a ‘ee eee e

AND MATRONS IN ' AMERICAN “tg bd “ Angioma

vi wh Harrison, Author of a Brastet

-PRODUCTION N Securit IES, . Pasteur S

- Kocn’s Discovery, . . Paul Gibier, MD D., Director of b the À NY, n. Ignatius LO

MORE TEs rae “ SHAKESPERE, : . ae ry Wee rat

SHALL OUR = ete olks

eee Mrs. atten} Prescott 1 paperi, pit MarS Afnan

Novis LiD. Gon Mrs. Amelia E. Bar r. , Ausit.

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I TES OF THE Erare HEAD,

H. W. Norris,

E ies AND agai OF POLYGAMY

THE PINNIPEDIA, we ce E. Oy NS

THE “sae OF THE _CitkomatorHones

ustrated], . Carl H. Eigen

ave IN Western New Yor

» Hewes, M D.,

ae ecent Progress in the Study of the

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tS ae

103

SCIENTIFIC NEWS, —

Botany — The Relative ‘ised of the Rocky ind

is a alae gh pr Systems as Influencing the

peer ok em P rie, m oe on Work

n the Fun nate asistim dia PAA

Zoology. —New California Fishes—The Epiglottis

in Coane < pe ae rated] — Nores on the

Class heer of t eons—Description of *

New es of vde ts eons Me; sc T ie Love

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XAV. FEBRUARY, 1891. , 291.

RECENT STUDIES OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD.

BY H. W. NORRIS.

HE view that the vertebrate head is composed of several seg-

ments, comparable to those of the trunk, has of late years

formed the basis of almost innumerable essays; but the problems

connected therewith cannot yet be regarded as solved. It is,

indeed, universally admitted that the head is composed of seg-

ments or metameres; but the number of segments and the limit

of each segment are points upon which there is far from una-

nimity of opinion. A study of the skull, as was first pointed out

by Goethe, leads to one conclusion, while a study of the muscle-

plates or myotomes of the embryo gives greatly different results.

Then the brain itself in its early stages shows marked evidence of

metamerism, while the nerves arising from the brain can be more

or less clearly divided into segmental groups which can be com-

pared to the undoubtedly segmental spinal nerves.

In the following pages I have presented, in a very condensed

form, the results of some recent studies in this direction. In these

abstracts the nerves are referred to by Roman numerals, in accord-

ance with the commonly received ideas of their sequence: I.,

olfactory; II., optic; III., oculomotor; IV., trochlearis ; V., tri-

geminus; VI., abducens; VIL, facial; VIIL, auditory; IX.,

glossopharyngeal; X., vagus; XI., spinal accessory ; XII., hypo-

glossal.

In the lizard, according to Hoffmann ('88-'89), the myo-

tomes of the head agree very closely with the same in the chick

96 The American Naturalist. [February,

and Selachians. But the fourth seems to be wanting, and corres-

ponding in position to the third myotome are two small cellular

masses, not connected with each other, out of which are devel-

oped the muscles externus rectus and retractor bulbi. Between

the vagus nerve and the first cervical spinal nerve are four myo-

tomes, the cephalic of which is rudimentary. The oculomotor,

trochlear, and abducens nerves are not described in their earliest

stages. The III. with a broad origin springs from the base of

the midbrain, and innervates the muscles derived from the first

head-cavity. The IV. arises as a large cellular outgrowth from the

place where the roof of the midbrain passes into the hindbrain,

and’ resembles in every respect the “ Anlagen” of the dorsal

cranial nerves, sending an extension to the epidermis. The

absence of a trochlear ganglion in the serpent, bird, and Selachians,

and its presence in the lizard, gives rise to the query whether the

trochlear nerve may not primarily have been the motor nerve of

the protective organs of the parietal eye. The VI. springs by

10-12 fine fibres from the base of the medulla oblongata, and

innervates the muscles derived from the two cellular masses that

appear to belong to the third head-cavity. The V., VIJ—VIIL,

[X.,and X. nerves take their origin from the neural ridge, ina

manner similar to the dorsal roots of spinal nerves, and their

respective ganglia unite with the epidermis above the branchial

arches. Between the V. and VII—VIII. the neural ridge early

aborts. The ophthalmic ganglion of the V., from its development

on a dorsal root and its anastomosing with the III. nerve, #

ventral root, is regarded as homologous to a dorsal ganglion ;

The ganglion of the VII—VIII. nerve divides into two portions,

the anterior part being the proper ganglion of the facial nerve,

the other forming the auditory ganglion. The accessorio-vagus :

nerve arises by a broad base extending from the IX. nerve to the

second cervical spinal nerve. Later the neural ridge loses its

connection with the brain, and becomes a commissure between the

second cervical nerve and the caudal vagus root, so the X:

-then arises by 5-6 roots. The hypoglossus originates by fo

roots, the caudal root being a branch of the first cervical spinal n

nerve. Anterior to the roots of the hypoglossus are two rudi- oe

bad

1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 97

mentary somites, to the caudal of which apparently belongs a

nerve of transitory duration. Froriep had already discovered

four somites in the occipital region of the chick, but it will be

seen that in the lizard there are five somites in this region. The

two cephalic roots of the hypoglossus possess neither ganglia nor

dorsal roots; the condition of the third root in this respect has

not been determined; the first cervical nerve has a transient gan-

glion, and the second cervical a permanent ganglion. The hypo-

glossus thus seems to represent a complex of true spinal nerves,

whose ganglia and dorsal roots have partially or completely

degenerated. According to Hoffmann (’89), on the hinder portion

of the lizard’s brain appears an evident segmentation. Other

authors had previously noticed this. Hoffmann finds in the hind-

brain and medulla seven segments. From the caudal of these

springs the X. nerve; from the next, or sixth, the IX.; opposite

the fifth is the ear vescicle; from the fourth arises the VIL-VII. :

from the third none; from the second the V.; from the cephalic

border of the first segment the trochlear nerve primarily takes its

origin, though later shifting over to the midbrain.

Rabl (’89) considers the vertebrate head as consisting of two

regions: a cephalic or Bo unsegmented, and a caudal or

distal segmented region.! The ear vescicle forms the boundary

between the two portions, but is to be reckoned with the prox-

imal. The mesoderm of the proximal section may be divided

into segments which neither in mode of origin nor in further de-

velopment can be compared with protovertebre. The five distal

somites arise exactly as the protovertebre. The first protoverte-

bra to appear is the fifth head somite of Van Wijhe, or the first

distal somite. The musculature and connective tissue of the dis-

tal somites develop in the same portions as in the protovertebre

of the body. Dorsal and ventral nerve roots occur in this region

as in the body. In their origin the proximal somites show scarcely

even a distant relationship with the structure of protovertebre.

The proximal somites cannot be called primary, for they appear

later than the Tans The muscles of the proximal re-

l Kastschenko had d obse lin b r p sad did the meso-

derm of the anterior portion of the head appear segmented

98 The American Naturalist. [February,

gion arise almost entirely in portions where in the protovertebra

connective tissue originates, and vice versa. There is no differ-

entiation of myotomes and sclerotomes in the proximal somites.

There are two primary nerves in the cephalic portion, the V. and

VII—VIII., but these do not arise from a continuous neural ridge,

The cephalic border of the neural ridge forms a delicate strand

uniting with the triangular part of the trigeminus Anlage, which

becomes the ciliary ganglion. In later stages, answering to the

direction of this delicate strand, extend the oculomotor and troch-

lear nerves. The oculomotor and trochlear nerves are thus to be

considered as secondarily derived from the trigeminus, and the

eye-muscles perhaps from the musculature of the first branchial

arch innervated by the V. From researches on Selachians, birds,

and mammals it is concluded that the III. and IV. nerves arise on

the dorsal border of the midbrain. The primary nerves of the

caudal region of the head are the IX., X., and hypoglossus, the

latter consisting of the ventral roots of the region. The IX. ani

X. arise from a continuous neural ridge in a series with the dorsal

roots of the true spinal nerves. The opinion of Beard, that the

“ Anlagen ” of the dorsal cranial and spinal roots develop prior

to and independent of the neural tube, is erroneous. The homol-

ogy of the spinal ganglia to the parapodial ganglia of Annelids

cannot be established till it is proved that the spinal ganglia grow

out of the ectoderm independent of the neural tube. Rabi bases —

his observations on embryos of Torpedo ocellata. The unseg

mented mesoderm of the head in the Craniota he compares with *

the unsegmented forward extension of the first primitive segment

in Amphioxus. In the head region of Amphioxus are two stout |

nerves, which cannot be compared with spinal nerves. Rabi mee oe

they may be homologous with the V, and VII.—-VIL of the Craniota.

In reply to Rabl, Dohrn (90a) notes that the former repeats:

the mistake of Balfour in deriving the dorsal roots of the spinal

nerves from the neural ridge. In all Selachians the dorsal roo

_ of the spinal nerves grow out of the ganglia into the neural tube.

_ The sensory fibres of the cranial nerves (V., VIL-VIL, 1X. and)

grow out from the ganglia into the brain, while the motor fibres

spring from the cells of the lateral columns and enter the ganglia.

r89r.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 99

The neural ridge arises as a cell-growth from the closing portion

of the neural tube, as Rabl says. Neither His’s “Zwischenstrang”

nor Beard’s ectodermal ganglion-anlage theory is tenable. The cells

of the neural ridge, that do not form ganglia, atrophy. The neural

ridge may thus be regarded as merely the forerunner of the ganglia.

The gaps between the Anlagen of the V., VII-VIII., and IX.

nerves do not prove the absence of a continuous neural ridge in

that region, but rather are points of atrophy. Rabl is correct in

saying that a nerve-strand arises at the cephalic border of the

neural ridge. The cell-mass from which this springs is anterior

to the ciliary and gasserian ganglion Anlagen. In Torpedo a true

ganglion is found derived from this cell-mass, but it later loses

connection with the neural tube and neural ridge. After isolation

nerve-fibres grow out from this ganglion, thus proving that

sensory nerve-fibres and sensory root-fibres arise not from the

neural tube, but from the cranial and spinal ganglia. The fibres

of this isolated ganglion enter into such close relation with the

trochlear nerve as to appear to belong to it. This ganglion and

its outgrowth of fibres appear to represent the nerve ophthalmicus

superficialis minor. The III. nerve arises by 3-7 roots from the

base of the midbrain, and no medullary cells pass out with it.

The ganglion, which seems to belong to this nerve, is really

derived from the ciliary ganglion. The III. and IV. do not have

their origin in the cephalic portion of the neural ridge. The VLE;

as well as the III., spring from the anterior column of the medulla

oblongata. It arises by 4—6 roots. The hypoglossus is in no

way connected with the vagus. It is to be regarded as formed

from the ventral roots of one or more spinal nerves, as Balfour

thought. Van Wijhe found extending over the eighth and ninth

myotomes an outgrowth of the neural ridge, interpreted by him

as representing rudimentary ganglia of the second and third

hypoglossal roots. Froriep first established the existence of

rudimentary ganglia of the hypoglossus. Ostroumoff finds in

Pristiurus two spinal ganglia answering to the last two roots of

the hypoglossus. Dohrn states that the hypoglossus has as

many ganglio Anlagen as there are ventral roots, the first being

merely a thickening of the neural ridge. It is impossible to

100 The American Naturalist. [February

classify the V. and VIL-VIII. nerves in contrast to the IX. and

X. All four are connected with the organs of the lateral line,

while the spinal nerves take no part in the latter structures. The

motor roots of all four spring from the lateral column, and pass

into the ganglia, while no motor fibres go into the spinal ganglia.

In Selachians, at the time the sensory roots of the glossopharyn-

geus and vagus enter thé medulla oblongata, there appears in this

region a folding or furrowing of the walls of the neural tube,

similar to that seen in the spinal cord. In this segmentation the

roots of the IX. and X. nerves correspond in position to the

: furrows separating the metameres, just as the furrows in the

metamerism of the spinal cord answer to the sensory nerve-roots.

The probability that the vagus is a polymere whose components

were originally similar to spinal nerves, the similarity of the V.

and VII—VIII. nerves to the IX. and X.in development and

functional differentiation, and the fact that the neural ridge can

be traced anteriorly into the VII.—-VIII. anlage, render Rabl’s

hypothesis of unsegmented cranial mesoderm untenable.

Dohrn’s recent contributions ('904) to our knowledge of

primitive cranial segmentation must be regarded as epoch-

making. In embryos of Torpedo marmorata, stage F of Bal-

four, 12-15 myotomes are found anterior to the glossopharyn-

geal region. Rabl refused to refer any segmentation to this

region. Van Wijhe found four somites, These 12-15 myotome

pass ventrally into the lateral plates, which “form the cranial

cœlom, and out of which come the “head-cavities.” In stage

G the myotomes are considerably coalesced, and the more te z

development goes on the more the obliteration of myotome

boundaries. Van Wijhe’s mandibular somite is made up of 3 eo

myotomes, the hyoid of 3, and the fourth somite of pe 3

The segmentation recognized by Van Wijhe is thus appar-

ently secondary. The myotomes of the head are throughout

comparable to the myotomes of the body. The cranial motor

nerves show a metamerism. The III. nerve arises by si

separate fibres, and innervates the muscles of the premadi

head-cavity, which is a multiple of myotomes. The KE

originates also as a multiplex of fibres, and innervates "©

1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. IOI

muscles of the third head-cavity, which is also composed of

several myotomes. Both nerves spring from the anterior

columns, and are homodynamous with motor spinal nerves. The

IV. nerve emerges on the dorsal border of the brain, but

whether it is homodynamous with the cranial ganglionic motor

fibres, or with the motor spinal nerves, is uncertain. The gan-

glionic motor fibres, viz., those of the V., VII—VIIL., IX., and

X., arise from the lateral columns. These fibres greatly converge

in passing to the ganglion-anlagen of the respective nerves, and

it may be assumed that at one time the fibres arose as separate

nerves, each belonging to its myotome. Marshall believes the

olfactory nerve to be an outgrowth from the anterior portion of

the neural ridge. Beard advances the same view. His found

that in human embryos the olfactory ganglionic cells and nerve-

fibres originated from the epithelium of the nasal vescicle.

Dohrn confirms the same in Selachians. Rudimentary ganglia

are found in the anterior part of the V. Anlage, in the anterior

part of the VII. Anlage, and in the anterior part of the IX.and X.

We see indications of a centralizing process which has resulted

in the reduction in number of the primitive ganglia. Displace-

ment and suppression has taken place in the visceral mesoderm

of the head. The premandibular, mandibular, and hyoid head-

cavities are to be considered as multiples of original head-cavi-

ties, in which serial origin the lateral plates share. The fact that

the embryonic vascular system is similar throughout would

indicate that it originated at a time when the body was not yet

differentiated into metameres. The difference in direction of the

blood-currents in the aorta and the carotids can be explained by

the hypothesis that the current in the latter has been reversed by

the suppression of preoral arterial arches. By this hypothesis it

may be assumed that at one time there was no separation be-

tween aorta and carotids. In consequence, the existing mouth is

derived from the coalescence of one or more pairs of gill-clefts,

and there must have been a time when the present mouth did not

exist. Thyroid and hypophysis must have.had a bilateral struc-

ture, so that a median passage could be left for the conus arte-

tiosus. The aorta shares in two segmentations: one that of the

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ni af tegen

102 The American Naturalist. [February,

branchial arches, the other that of the vertebral arteries ; the one

of the branchiomeres, the other of the myotomes. The existing

branchiomeres do not appear to be secondary to the myotomes,

but secondary to primary hypothetical branchiomeres. In the

hyoid and mandibular arches, and in the region of the head-

cavity supplied with the III. nerve, are to be assumed a greater

number of primitive branchial clefts. Hyoid and spiracular clefts

are to be considered as multiples of branchial clefts. The irregu-

larity seen in the posterior branchial arches is connected with the

changes that have caused the coalescing of branchial arches.

Thyroid, mouth, hypophysis, and nose are evidently related to

the branchial system. Gegenbaur holds that the branchial skele-

ton is secondarily derived from ribs. But the ribs are dorso-

lateral structures, and the branchial arches ventral. If the latter

are secondary articulations of the vertebral column, then traces of

the apophyses should be found. But as this does not occut,

the branchial skeleton is to be regarded as of independent origin.

The hyoid and mandibular cartilages then represent multiples,

and cartilaginous girdles, which have functioned as branchial

arches, now enter into the composition of the skull.

LITERATURE.

goa. Dourn, A. Bemerkungen über den neuesten Versuch yor

Lösung des Wirbeltierkopf-Problems. Amat. Anz., V., Nos. 2 and e adi

‘900. DOHRN, A. Studien zur Urgeschichte des Wirbelthierkörpers-

XV. Neue Grundlage zur Beurteilung der Metamerie des Kopfs. Mittheil.

Zool. Station, Neapel, IX., Heft 3, 1890. ER

'89. HOFFMANN, C.K. Ueber die Metamerie des Nachhirns und Hinter

hirns, und ihre Beziehung zu den segmentalen Kopfnerven bei Ree

. HorrMann. In Bronn’$ Klassen und Ordnungen 2 = i

Reichs. Bd. VI., Abth. IIL, pp. 1907-1914, 1938-2000, 1888-'89-

bryos. Anat. Anz. IIl., p. 445, 1888.

’89. RABL, C. Theorie des Mesoderms. Morph. Jahrbuch, >r ar

2, 1889.

88. KASTSCHENKO, N. Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte des Selachierem —

, . bei

89. VON OSTROUMOFF, A. Ueber die Froriep’schen ganglien Y

Selachiern. Zool. Anz., No. 311, 1885.

(To be continued.)

1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 103

SOME OF THE CAUSES AND RESULTS OF POLYG-

AMY AMONG THE PINNIPEDIA’

BY..C.:C. NULTTING,

oe geen years ago the writer was much struck by the great

sexual differences met with among the Gallinæ, and had

noted the fact that there was a relation between sexual disparity

in size and polygamy.

During the last summer an opportunity was afforded to care-

fully observe one species of the Pinnipedia, and these observations

led to a perusal of all the available literature for facts concerning

the relation between sexual disparity and polygamy in this order.

The results of this study had already been outlined for a paper

to be read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, when an article

appeared in the November number of the Natura cist entitled

“Probable Causes of Polygamy Among Birds,” by Samuel N.

Rhoads.

The above facts are mentioned to show that the conclusions as

to the cause of polygamy among birds on the one hand, and Pin-

nipedia on the other, were the result of independent investigations,

and hence will serve to strengthen each other in some important

particulars. _

True polygamy is something of a rarity among the Mammalia.

It must not be confounded with mere promiscuous sexual inter-

course, suchas is often met with among the Herbivora. The

term polygamy, in its strict sense, can properly apply only to those

species in which a single male habitually copulates with several

females, and jealously and persistently defends them from the

approach of other males.

The most typical examples of this state of affairs are met with

among the Pinnipedia, and ultra polygamy is exemplified by the

northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus).

Two striking facts at once arrest the attention of even the most

cursory observer of this species :

Ist, The astonishing extent to which polygamy is carried.

1 Paper read before the Iowa Academy of Sciences, Jan. rst, 1899.

104 The American Naturalist. [February,

Mr. Elliott thinks “ that it will be nearly correct to assign to each

male from twelve to fifteen females, occupying the stations nearest

the water, and those back in the rear from five to nine. I have

counted forty-five cows all under one bull.’”

2nd, The no less astonishing disparity in size between the

sexes. The average length of the male is 7 14 feet, while that of

the female is 4 feet.. The male weighs 450 lbs., while the female

weighs only 85 lbs. It will thus be seen that the male weighs

nearly six “mes as much as the female.

Two questions arise in view of the above facts:

Ist, Is there any relation between polygamy and sexual dis-

parity in size? 2nd, If so, what is that relation?

The Pinnipedia are fortunately sufficiently numerous in species

and individuals to furnish an ample field for the study of both of

the above questions. They are all eminently gregarious in habit,

a condition favorable to polygamy. The order furnishes ex-

amples of both monogamous andpolygamous species, and almost

every degree of sexual disparity in size to be found in the Mam-

malia. We can easily construct a series of species, ascending from

those exhibiting the least sexual disparity to those exhibiting the

greatest. We can then see what, if any, relation exists between

sexual disparity and polygamy. We shall presently see that pug-

nacity on the part of the males plays a not unimportant rôle. in

our discussion, and for that reason the fighting proclivities of the

males will also be noted.

The following arrangement, then, illustrates what might be

termed the ascending series of sexual disparity. The relation of

the sexes (monogamy, promiscuity, or polygamy) and the relative

pugnacity of the males in relation to other males of the same

species will also be noted in each case.

Odobenus rosmarus (Walrus).

(2) Sexes nearly equal in size, the female not being notably

smaller than the male. (2) Monogamous, according to the only

? Quoted from “ Monograph of North American Pinnipeds” (Allen). Nearly all

Material used in the above article has been taken from that work.

1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 105

information at the disposal of the writer.’ (c) Disposition not

at all quarrelsome, the animals of both sexes being singularly

good-natured and peaceable, “ huddling together like so many

swine,” although they will fight fiercely in defence of their young.

Cystophora cristata (Hooded Seal).

(a) Considerable sexual disparity. The male is eight feet

long, and the female seven feet. Weight of male, 450 pounds;

of female, 200 pounds. (4) Probably monogamous, although

there is no direct evidence at hand. There is at least nothing to

indicate that they are polygamous in the sense used in this paper.

Erignathus barbatus (Bearded Seal).

(a) Considerable sexual disparity. Length of male, ten feet;

length of females, seven feet four inches. Weight of males, two-

and-one-half times that of females. (4) Strictly polygamous,

according to the single authority found. (c) Males often have

Severe battles, the strongest males driving away the younger.

Macrorhinus angustirostris (Sea Elephant).

(a) Great sexual disparity. The weight of the male is three-

and-one-half times that of the female. (4) Polygamous.* Elliott

Says that they “resemble the sea lions in their breeding habits.”

Eumetopias stelleri (Steller’s Sea Lion)..

(2) Great sexual disparity. Length of males, twelve feet; of

females, eight-and-one-half feet. Weight of male, three times that

of female. (6) Strictly polygamous. This species maintains a

regular harem, but “does not maintain any such regular system

in preparing for and attention to its harem as is illustrated on the

breeding grounds of the fur seal” (Elliott). (c) “The bulls

fight savagely among themselves, and turn off from the breed-

ing ground all the younger and weak males.”

y Monograph of North American Pinnipeds, p. 107.

*“ The sea elephants appear to be exceptional among the Phocidæ in the great dis-

Parity of size between the sexes, in which, as we// as in their breeding habits, they-

Ty emble the Otaries.” Monograph of North American Pinnipeds (Allen), p. 755-

j : ine.

106 The American Naturalist. [February,

Callorhinus ursinus (Northern Fur Seal).

(a) Extreme sexual disparity. The males weigh three times

as much as the females. (4) Ultra polygamous, the males main-

taining a large harem, and guarding the females with the great-

est vigilance and courage. In fact, this animal is the most

polygamous of all the Mammalia. (c) Males fight with greatest

desperation and persistence for females.

A consideration of the above series will disclose the fact that

there is a close and constant relation between polygamy and

disparity in size among the Pinnipedia. It also indicates that

this relation is a direct one, the disparity increasing part passu

with the polygamy throughout the series. Another fact is ren-

dered evident by this series, and that is that the combativeness of

the males increases pari passu with sexual disparity and polygamy.

These facts having been reasonably well established, it is pos-

sible to construct a hypothetical history of events which will

illustrate the successive stages by which a species might pass

from a simply gregarious habit, in which monogamy, or at least

promiscuity, prevails, to the extreme of polygamy practiced by

the northern fur seal. Such a transition may be conceived to —

take place by the following steps or gradations:

Ist, An eminently gregarious species would offer more favor-

able conditions for the introduction of polygamy than a non-

gregarious species. Our point of departure in this part of the

discussion would then be a gregarious, monogamous species. It

the principles deduced from an examination of the series presented

in the first part of this paper be correct, this species should also

be one in which.there is little sexual disparity, and little or no

fighting among the males for the possession of the females. All

of the above conditions seem to be fulfilled in the case of the

walrus (Odobenus rosmarus). This species will then stand for our

point of departure. :

2nd, The gregarious habit of the walrus offers a constant

opportunity for a departure from the path of monogamous recti-

tude. This fact is well illustrated in human affairs by the great

6 Rikkase y 4. 4 a RA i 3 fight fifty or sixty battles during a single

season.,

1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 107

amount of social immorality found among the crowded tenements

of our large cities. Constant opportunity offers the most power-

ful temptation to gratify desire, and this is doubtless as true among

Pinnipedia as among men. The result of this is a departure from

strict monogamy in the direction of promiscuity. The harbor

seal (Phoca vitulina) illustrates this stage in the process. So far

as I can ascertain, this species is simply promiscuous in sexual

affairs, but does not attain to polygamy in the sense used here.

The sexual disparity is slight, the males being somewhat heavier,

and but little, if any, longer than the females,

3d, The departure from monogamy in the direction of pro-

miscuity results in constant rivalry on the part of the males to

possess the most attractive, or the greatest number, of the females.

Rivalry begets warfare, the world over. This purely individual

and personal rivalry among the male Pinnipedia results in indi-

vidual combats, in which courage, ferocity, and size are the con-

trolling factors. We thus have instituted the most rigorous

kind of sexual selection, by means of which the above desirable

qualities are secured, propagated, and intensified on the part of the

males. The females, on the contrary, seem to be practically

passive. The writer has been unable to find any evidence that the

female Pinnipedia exercise any choice in the matter of accepting

or rejecting individual successful males. The sexual selection

_ thus instituted is true sexual selection as defined by Darwin

as follows: “This [sexual selection] depends on the advantage

which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same

sex or species, in exclusive relation to reproduction.” ™ It differs,

however, from a vast majority of instances of sexual selection in

apparent absence of choice on the part of the female.

This stage in the development of polygamy is illustrated by

the hooded seal (Cystophora cristata), which appears to be pro-

miscuous in sexual matters, and in which the males fight fiercely

for the possession of the females. The divergence in sex has

become considerable, as already indicated, the males being more

than twice as heavy as the females.

_ §This word, although questionable, is the only one known to the writer by which

the meaning, indiscriminate intercourse, can be tersely exp

1 The Descent of Man, p. 248. The italics are mine. ,

108 The American Naturalist. [February,

4th, The struggle for the possession of the females having

become a fixed and intensified habit, and the sexual disparity

continuing to grow more pronounced, the following results might

be expected :

(a) The larger and lustier males would have their desire greatly

intensified and their sexual powers appreciably increased.

(2) The smaller and weaker males would be crowded to the

. wall, and, in many instances, entirely deprived of all conjugal

rights, which would be usurped by the larger and stronger animals.

As a result of these conditions, certain males would obtain

possession of several females, and deprive all other males of —

access to them. This would be polygamy in the sense used in

this paper. The whiskered seal (Erignathus barbatus), in which

the male weighs two-and-one-half times as much as the female,

and polygamy prevails, would illustrate this stage in the process.

5th, Polygamy having become a fixed habit, all the conditions

would tend to accelerate the divergence in size between the sexes.

The selection by which the bulkiest and most pugnacious males

would succeed in obtaining the females would be as rigorous as

could well be conceived, and would result in very great sexual dis-

parity. The males would become remarkably fierce and aggressive.

The females, on the contrary, would become less and less disposed —

to offer any resistance to the males, and hence a remarkable

_ difference in temperament would eventually separate the sexes.

The males would be intensely pugnacious, jealous, and aggressive,

while the females would be gentle, indifferent, and passive.”

Polygamy having become established, the causes or conditions 7

which aided in its establishment would tend to its intensification

to such an extent that some males would have scores of | Id ne Z

in their harems, while others, indeed the majority, wou

entirely deprived of marital rights. Such, in brief, is the state of

* Curiously enough, Darwin quotes Captain Bryant to the effect that the gemei a

ding her g piace.

1891.] Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. 109

affairs among the sea lions, of which the fur seal (Ca//orhinus

ursinus) is the best example.

The above hypothetical history of events will serve to convey

the writer’s opinion as to what may have been the stages by

which polygamy has arisen and become intensified among the

Pinnipedia. For the sake of the non-scientific reader, it may be

well to say that there is no intention to convey the idea that the

fur seal was first a walrus, then a seal, and finally evolved into a

sea lion or fur seal.

Two other points deserve mention in connection with this

highly interesting animal. ;

The question naturally arises, Why do not the females in-

‘crease in size by inheriting the increased bulk of the male?

There are few more interesting and perplexing laws than those

of inheritance, and among these one of the most elusive is*the

inheritance of certain characteristics by one sex alone. Darwin

attempts to explain these facts by the hypothesis of pangenesis,—

a theory which seems to have few, if any, supporters at present.

Whatever may be the cause of the transmission of certain char-

acters to one sex only, there are two facts that may help us to.

understand the disparity between the sexes of the fur seals:

Ist, The great size of the male is purely a secondary sexual

character, and as such would not be expected to be inherited by

the female, whatever may be the reason or an ultimately found

to explain the fact.

2d, Small size is of direct advantage to the female in this case,

and hence a watural selection? would tend to intensify this fea-

ture, or what is practically the same thing, to keep the females

from sharing in the increased size of the males.

The advantage referred to arises from the manner in which the

females are handled by the males upon the landing of the for-

mer, which is described as follows by Elliott:

“The little cows have a rough-and-tumble time of it when they

® The selection here spoken of can hardly be termed a sexual selection, as the advan-

tage accrues directly to the mother, and does not have the direct and exclusive bearing

upon the reproductive act which is the essence of sexual selection. It is, of course,

true that one sex alone is affected; but this fact alone is not sufficient to stamp it as

Sexual selection as set forth by Darwin.

IIO The American Naturalist. [February,

begin to arrive ; for no sooner is the pretty animal fairly estab-

lished on the station of bull number one, when bull number two,

seeing bull number one off his guard, reaches out with his long,

strong neck and picks the unhappy but passive creature up by the

scruff of hers, just as a cat does a kitten, and deposits her on his

seraglio ground; then bulls numbers three, four, etc., in the

vicinity, seeing this high-handed operation, all assail one another,

and especially bull number two, and have a tremendous fight, per-

haps for half a minute or so, and during this commotion the cow

generally is moved or moves farther back from the water, two or

three stations more, where, when all gets quiet, she usually re-

mains in peace.”

Allen also quotes Captain Bryant as follows: “ Frequently

a struggle ensues between the two males for the possession

of the same female, and, both seizing her at once, pull her

in two or terribly lacerate her with their teeth.”

It is evident that the more easily and quickly the females

can be moved the better for them, as they are thus more likely

to avoid being lacerated by the males, either in being stolen from

one by another, or in being fought over as described in the last

quotation. If this is true, the lighter females would be less likely

to be injured by the savage males, and hence the heavier ones

would be weeded out by a natural selection, which by its com

stant action would go far toward accounting for the great sexual

disparity exhibited by these animals.

The remaining fact demanding explanation is the wonderful

ability of the male sea lions to endure long-protracted fasts. On

this point Mr. Elliott says that they “abstain entirely from food

_ of any kind or water for three months at least, and a few of thet

stay four months before going into the water for the first time —

since hauling up in May.” a

“ This alone is remarkable enough, but it is simply wonderful

when we associate the condition with the increasing activity, reste

lessness, and duty devolving upon the bulls as heads and father x

of large families. They do not stagnate, like bears 1n jose ioe

It seems highly probable that this astonishing ability to «n°™

1891.] . Polygamy Among the Pinnipedia. III

protracted fasts is one of the results of the ultra polygamy prac-

ticed by these animals.

A marked intensification of desire seems to be one of the

immediate concomitants of polygamy among animals. A writer

in a recent number of the NaTurAList™ says, in speaking of

monogamous birds adopting a polygamous habit: “We may

infer, therefore, that sexual power and high sexual characters go

hand in hand, and that in proportion to the advance toward

organic perfection virility increases.”

The virility of the sea lion is probably more excessively

developed than that of any other mammal, The sexual organi-

zation is of the most highly specialized type, and differs in some

important particulars (e.g., external scrotum) from most other

Pinnipedia."

This excessive virility might lead to the habit of abstaining

from food in order to secure and then guard the females. This

abstinence in its incipiency would not be of very great duration, but

the period might be lengthened by almost imperceptible incre-

ments throughout hundreds of generations, until the surprising

results noted above would be reached. The animals live on

their own blubber during their long fast, and it is reasonable to

suppose that the male progenitors of the sea lions which were

the strongest and lustiest and possessed the most blubber would

be able to outstay their rivals, and hence obtain possession of a

-greater number of females and beget a greater number of off-

spring than those having less strength and blubber. Thus a

process of selection would be instituted whereby animals would

eventually be produced possessed of sufficient blubber and

endurance to survive the effects of even such phenomenal fasts as

are endured by the fur seal of the present day.

In the preceding pages the writer has endeavored to account

for the following peculiarities met with among the Pinnipedia :

Ist, The relation between great sexual disparity in size and

10 AMERICAN NATURALIST, November, 1890, p. 1030.

1 For further interesting particulars, see Monograph of North American Pinnepeds,

- Pp. 382-405.

Am. Nat.—February.—2.

112 The American Naturalist. [February,

2d, The manner in which polygamy may have originated.

3d, The origin and effect of excessive pugnacity.

4th, The origin and advantage of great sexual disparity.

5th, The origin and advantage of the ability to endure long-

protracted fasts.

The sexual disparity, excessive pugnacity, and ability to en-

dure*protracted fasts are all intimately related to polygamy,

either as cause or effect.

Up to a certain point pugnacity and disparity seem to have

acted as causes of polygamy. Beyond that point they seem to be

effects of polygamy, or at least are accelerated or intensified by it.

The ability to endure long fasts would seem to be purely an

effect of polygamy.

ON THE GENESIS OF THE CHROMATOPHORES

IN FISHES.’

BY CARL H. EIGENMANN.

FoR several reasons pelagic eggs are more available for a study

of the phenomena of color-formation than fixed eggs. Pigment

is nearly always formed in pelagic eggs some time before hatching,

and as the embryonic life is usually short and the eggs are trans-

parent, the whole process from fertilization to hatching can be

observed, without any great inconvenience, in the living egg- :

In all pelagic ova with oil-globules observed by me pigment 1s

deposited in certain cells before the time of hatching. In the

eggs of three species of pelagic ova (Stolephorus) without oil-

globules no pigment is formed several hours after hatching, while

in Mierasfer dubius (?) without oil-globules, pigment is present

the time of hatching.

Only three colors have been observed in the eggs examined, vr

black, a brownish-yellow, and bright yellow. In the vanont.

species of Sebastodes (viviparous) only black pigment is formed, | ;

while in Atherinopsis black pigment alone is observed until pase :

1 Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, IV.

1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 113

the time of hatching, when bright yellow pigment appears. In

the pelagic ova observed, excepting Stolephorus, black pigment

was always formed, but never in great quantity. In Serranus

nebulifer (Fig. 34) only black pigment is formed before hatching,

while in Serranus maculofasciatus, Sciena saturna, and Hypsopsetta

guttulata the few black cells are almost obscured by the great

number of brownish-yellow cells. In those cases in which both

black and yellow cells appear the black cells soon collect on the

lower surface of the oil-globule and on the lower surface or back

of the embryo, while the yellow cells are aggregated on top of the

oil-sphere and on the ventral surface of the embryo,—a fact

already observed by others.

Figs. 32 to 41 will give a fair idea of some of the various

patterns the color-cells form in early stages. ‘Figs. 33 to 40 rep-

resent nearly homologous stages of various embryos. The time

required to reach thése stages differs, however, vary greatly in

the various species. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 represent larve between

two and three days old, while Figs. 35 to 39 represent larve as

many, or more, weeks old. The conditions of development also

vary greatly in the larve selected for illustration. Figs. 33, 34,

and 40 are all hatched from pelagic ova ; Fig. 36 from ova which

adhere together and are thus hatched in masses; Fig. 38 from

ova with a mycropylar circlet of filaments; and Fig. 39 from

ova with isolated filaments scattered over the entire zona; while

Fig. 37 represents a viviparous fish just at the time of birth.

Viviparity does not affect the chromatophores immediately.

In the rock cod (Sebastodes), Fig. 37, color is as well formed at

the time of parturition as in some related viviparous species. In

the Holconotidz, on the other hand, color is not formed until

quite late stages are reached, and the eyes are the first to be

pigmented. .

. In all cases observed the chromatoblasts originate in the meso-

blast surrounding the embryo. This condition was considerably

modified in Scigna saturna, in which they are formed along the

entire margin of the embryonic ring ; but the difference is one of

degree only.

112 The American Naturalist. [February,

2d, The manner in which polygamy may have originated.

3d, The origin and effect of excessive pugnacity.

4th, The origin and advantage of great sexual disparity.

5th, The origin and advantage of the ability to endure long-

protracted fasts.

The sexual disparity, excessive pugnacity, and ability to en-

dure*protracted fasts are all intimately related to polygamy,

either as cause or effect.

Up to a certain point pugnacity and disparity seem to have

acted as causes of polygamy. Beyond that point they seem to be

effects of polygamy, or at least are accelerated or intensified by it.

The ability to endure long fasts would seem to be purely an

effect of polygamy. |

a oet

ON THE GENESIS OF THE CHROMATOPHORES

IN FISHES:

BY CARL H. EIGENMANN.

FOR several reasons pelagic eggs are more available for a study

of the phenomena of color-formation than fixed eggs. Pigment

is nearly always formed in pelagic eggs some time before hatching,

and as the embryonic life is usually short and the eggs are trans-

parent, the whole process from fertilization to hatching can be

observed, without any great inconvenience, in the living egg. ;

In all pelagic ova with oil-globules observed by me pigment 1$

deposited in certain cells before the time of hatching. In the

eggs of three species of pelagic ova (Stolephorus) without m

globules no pigment is formed several hours after hatching, while

in Fierasfer dubius (?) without oil-globules, pigment is present at

the time of hatching. po

Only three colors have been observed in the eggs examined, Vi2

black, a brownish-yellow, and bright yellow. In the various

species of Sebastodes (viviparous) only black pigment is e s :

while in Atherinopsis black pigment alone is observed until near

1 Notes from the San Diego Biological Laboratory, IV.

1891.] The Genests of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 113

the time of hatching, when bright yellow pigment appears. In

the pelagic ova observed, excepting Stolephorus, black pigment

was always formed, but never in great quantity. In Serranus

nebulifer (Fig. 34) only black pigment is formed before hatching,

while in Serranus maculofasciatus, Sctena saturna, and Hypsopsetta

guttulata the few black cells are almost obscured by the great

number of brownish-yellow cells. In those cases in which both

black and yellow cells appear the black cells soon collect on the

lower surface of the oil-globule and on the lower surface or back

of the embryo, while the yellow cells are aggregated on top of the

oil-sphere and on the ventral surface of the embryo,—a fact

already observed by others.

Figs. 32 to 41 will give a fair idea of some of the various

patterns the color-cells form in early stages. - Figs. 33 to 40 rep-

resent nearly homologous stages of various embryos. The time

required to reach thése stages differs, however, vary greatly in

the various species. Figs. 33, 34, and 40 represent larve between

two and three days old, while Figs. 35 to 39 represent larvae as —

‘many, or more, weeks old. The conditions of development also

vary greatly in the larvæ selected for illustration. Figs. 33, 34,

and 40 are all hatched from pelagic ova; Fig. 36 from ova which

adhere together and are thus hatched in masses; Fig. 38 from

ova with a mycropylar circlet of filaments; and Fig. 39 from

ova with isolated filaments scattered over the entire zona; while

Fig. 37 represents a viviparous fish just at the time of birth.

Viviparity does not affect the chromatophores immediately.

In the rock cod (Sebastodes), Fig. 37, color is as well formed at -

the time of parturition as in some related viviparous species. In

the Holconotidæ, on the other hand, color is not formed until

quite late stages are reached, and the = are the first to be

pigmented.

In all cases observed the P originate in the meso-

blast surrounding the embryo. This condition was considerably

modified in Sciæna saturna, in which they are formed along the

entire margin of the embryonic ring; but the difference is one of

sree only.

114 The American Naturalist. [Fete oe

To follow the species observed separately :

In Sciæna saturna (Figs. 1-7) the chromatoblasts are first noticed

when the gastrula covers about one-third of the yolk; that is,

they appear quite early. They are formed along the entire mar-

gin of the embryonic ring. When first noticed they are slightly

separated from the surrounding cells, and their outlines become

well defined. They thus appear larger than the cells surrounding — 3

them, which are closely packed and whose outlines are not sharply

defined. They either move toward the outer rim of the embry- .

onic ring or remain stationary, while the embryonic ring moves cae

over the yolk. At any rate, they soon come to lie entirely in the — a

segmentation cavity, (see Figs. 1—7). At this time they are quite

regular in outline, with probably one or two angular prolonga-

tions. Their depth is usually equal to that of the segmentation

cavity, and much greater than the epiblast below them or the

ectoderm above them. As soon as they have reached the seg- ao

mentation cavity they migrate in it, most of them being intended

for the embryo, while many remain on the yolk, and others cover

the oil-globule. Se

~ While the individual cells undergo amceboid changes, their

locomotion is not necessarily caused, as some observers supposed,

by their amoeboid changes. One cell, which was smaller than

usual, was seen to move quite rapidly towards the oil-globule, with

a motion not unlike that of ciliate Infusorians caught under a

cover-glass; z.e., it moved quite rapidly, and then seemed to be

momentarily arrested by some-invisible barrier, when it would

again dartalong. When the cells are first freed from the embry-

onic ring no color is seen in them ; but before long fine granules

are observed, resembling in most respects the minute oil-globules :

covering the yolk. Individually these are apparently colorless,

but collectively they form yellow or black pigment. On the bs

globule and embryo, and later over the yolk also, the cells hecam

flattened, more densely pigmented, and at the same time gain w

power of contracting the pigment to a dot (Fig. 15), or expanding

_ it to the dendritic form of the cell itself (Fig. 17). ae

I have not observed any other cells than the migratory ones if

this species; if others exist, they were obscured by the i

PLATE [IE

ae cH)

(7 4, =e

Gann eg Oona es?

1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 115

quantities of. migratory cells. I have not had an opportunity of

reéxamining this species or Hypsopsetta since the species of Serra-

nus were observed.

In Hypsopsetta guttulata the color-cells appear much later and

not nearly in such large quantities as in Sciæna. They are first

noticed when the gastrula covers only one-half or two-thirds of

the yolk, and the migratory ones are formed only at or near the

union of the embryonic shield and the embryonic ring (Fig. 14).

Numerous cells are soon after seen along the entire embryo. I

am not certain whether they originate i» situ or whether they

migrate to their position. Later, when the embryonic shield is

contracted to form the embryo, these cells move toward it, and

finally cover it. Later other cells again move out from the em-

bryo to cover the yolk (see Figs. 15-17).

The observations on Serranus nebulifer (Fig. 34) were not very

complete. Only black cells are formed, and very few cells become

free from the embryo, all of which migrate to the oil-sphere.

In Serranus maculofasciatus (Figs. 18—28) the chromatoblasts

were observed about sixteen hours after fertilization. There were

at that time a few free ones on either side of the embryonic shields.

In fifteen minutes the number of free ones on one side had

increaséd from nine to fifteen (see Figs. 18-22). These cells

moved rapidly away from their place of origin, and most of them

finally, in about two hours and a half, were found on the oil-

sphere. A few probably returned, and finally lodged in the region -

of the head. Besides these migratory cells, there is a broad band

- of mesoblastic cells along either side of the embryo in which color

is soon formed. These cells never become nomadic in the seg-

mentation cavity, but remain attached to the embryo, over which

they are finally nearly evenly distributed. By far the greater portion

are yellow cells, but a few being black. Before hatching these

cells become collected into definite masses, and some time after

: hatching they assume the remarkable condition observed in Fig. 33.

So far as I am aware, nothing has been written concerning the

origin of the color itself, As stated above, the color is not due

to the color of the protoplasm of the chromatophores but to the

aggregation of small granules, most probably oil-spherules. The

scientific libraries, After they had been prepared for the m .

116 The American Naturalist, [February,

protoplasm is colorless. The color-granules are not. found in the

nucleus of the cells. They are sometimes scattered through the

whole of the remainder of the cell, but can be withdrawn from

the pseudopods of the adult chromatophore and collected ina

small spot. It is to the ability on the part of the chromatophores

to thus distribute or collect the color-granules that the larva owes

its power to rapidly change color.

The individual spherule of the chromatophores does not pos-

sess any definite color. It is only, as has been stated, whena

humber of them are aggregated that color is evident. These

granules are either a secretion of the cell itself, or they are formed

otherwise and appropriated by the cell. The process of the forma-

tion of the granules in the chromatophores would, of course, be dif-

ficult to follow if they were secreted by the cell. On examining the

medium surrounding the migratory cells for a possible explana- —

tion of the color-spherules, it was found that the epiblast was full

of granules or oil-spherules, similar in size and but slightly, if any,

different in refractive index. Such spherules were especi i

abundant in Sciæna, in which there is also an unusual number

of color-cells. Especially towards the closing of the blastopore,

a large number are seen over the entire portion of the yolk not

covered by the gastrula, and it seems as though the advancing

embryonic ring were heaping them up at the entodermic pole of ; :

the egg. nae

I have frequently observed individual chromatophores while ee

the segmentation cavity, and have seen them put forth pseudopods :

and withdraw them independently of their locomotion ; but I bat 1

never seen them in the act of appropriating -any of the spherules ioe

of the epiblast. ie

There is a difference between the spherules of the yellow a Z

of the black cells. The granules of the black cells are sal =

and less refringent. aia?

When first freed from the embryonic ring the color-cells usually oe

approach the typical cell in shape, but later they become ae

and assume the dendritic form so characteristic in the larv®- all

These observations were made while at a distance from ©

PLATE: -IV

EMBRYOS OF FISHES.

1891.] The Genesis of the Chromatophores in Fishes. 117

; Š

I was enabled, through the courtesy of Dr. C. O. Whitman, to

examine the records of previous observations during my stay at

the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Holl. Although I

then found that many of my observations were but verifications

of those of others, it has seemed best to publish my account

because I have examined new material, have worked out the

matter in greater detail in several species, and do not agree with

the previous observers in all points.

Aubert? Kupffer’ Agassiz and Whitman,‘ Wenkebach,’ and

List ê all seem to agree in deriving the chromatophores from the

mesoblast; as to when and where they arise these authors

naturally vary with the different species examined.

All the figures, excepting 37, were made from living eggs or

larvæ, with a Zeiss microscope and Abbe camera. The letters

A and D refer to the objectives, the 2 and 4 to the oculars, ot

Ziess.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

PLATE I,.—Sciena saturna, Figs. 1-6, a portion of the embryonic ring,

showing the chromatophores. In Fig. 1 they are all still contained in the

embryonic ring. In Fig. 2 a few are seen entering the segmentation cavity.

Figs. 3 and 4 show a portion only of the region covered by Figs. I and 2,

with more cells in the segmentation cavity, Fig. 4 being drawn five minutes

later than Fig.2. Figs. 5 and 7 show still later stages, in which a still larger

number of cells have been freed; Zeiss, D and 4. Fig. 7, an optical section

of the segmentation cavity (s. c.), near the embryonic ring, showing the

large chromatophores, the thin ectoderm lying above them, and the parablast `

below them. Fig. 74, the same at some distance from the embryonic ring,

the chromatophores being much less numerous. Fig. 8, a series of eight

free chromatophores of Aypsopsetta guttulata; D and 4. Fig. 9, the same

cells 134 minutes later. Fig. 10, a series of five chromatophores. Fig.

2? Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Fische. Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool., VIIL,

1856,

8 Beobachtungen über die Entwickelung der Knochenfische.

IV., 1868.

* The Pelagic Stages of Young Fishes. Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool., pp. 7and 40, 1885.

5 Beiträge zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Knochenfische. Arch. f. mikr. Anat.,

XXVIII., 1886,

ê Zur elgg Ns der Knochenfischen (Labriden). Zeitschr. f. wissensch. Zool.,

XVL., x

Arch f. mikr. Anat.,

138. The American Naturalist.

II, the same two minutes later. Fig. 12, the same three minutes later than S

Fig 11. Fig. 13, a single chromatophore, more highly magnified after pig- _ L

ment has begun to be formed. Fig. 14, outline of embryonic shield and

ring, with chromatophores beginning to be freed; A and 4. Fig. 15,a larva

just freed from the membrane, 1.4 mm.; the chromatophores contracted.

A ae

Ray tee ee ae ae Mee

oe eget E aR

PLATE II.—The same larva-(Fig. 15) twenty hours afterwards, I. 6 mm.

Fig. 17, another more advanced larva, 1.7 mm. long.

Serranus maculofasciatus.—The aim being to show the chromatophores,

the details of the embryo were not as well attended to as they otherwise —

would have been. Figs. 18-28 represent the successive positions of the free

chromatophores from the time they become free till they have nearly a

the ahaha The exact times when the drawings were made are indicated

the figures. The egg figured was probably fertilized at about 5 P.M :

the day preceding the stages represented. Figs. 19-22 and 24 show

merely one side of the embryonic shield. In Fig. 25 the lateral cells

have begun to be pigmented Figs. 18-26, Zeiss, A and 4; Figs. bes

A and 2.

PLATE III.—Fig. 29, slightly older egg than Fig. 28; A and 4. Fig. Ks

the free chromatophores have reached the oil-sphere, the yellow cells lying

on the upper surface, the black on the lower surface; the chromatophores

of the body have become more densely pigmented ;'A and 4. Fig. 304,

chromatophore (the nucleus is not seen), with the color-granules from the 01

sphere of Fig. 30; D and 4. Fig. 30%, another chromatophore, she

nucleus, also from oil-sphere of Fig. 30; D and 4. Fig. 31,a l later stage,

‘the yellow cells having aggregated in large masses; A and 4. Fig.

immediately after hatching, the yellow cells being large, the black 3

small, all the cells contracted; A and 4. Fig. 33, twelve hours after h

ing, the cells expanded to their utmost and constantly changing:

4, 2.2 mm

frase Vtg 34, a newly hatched larva of Serranus nebulifer ; 2.67

__ Fig. 34a, one of the chromatophores from the tail,«nore enlarged; Da

Fig. 35, Oligocottus analis, twelve hours after hatching ; dorsal ae

SG s somewhat older ee analis, two aay after hatching

A ment ; x 68. Fig. 39, Atherinopsis californiensis, after the yolk

sorbed; Jan 9, 1889; X12. Fig. 40, Stolephorus ringens,

after hatching ; ; no color is formed in the latest stages observ

Hemis rosæ, 12.5 mm. long, showing the distribution $ of the

- m the cells of the posterior part of the body and of the

PLATE,

Kapa FY YY

f Uk ` : s

w EN AN os A Fo NWA

D A / AO Ps

Wa E a in See. Pa

A en a

CMO hal

EMBRYOS OF FISHES.

FLAIRE Vi

TOAS

7 À S Bieanuas cu we

ae A hoi = i

Wudeuncnanadwadane

a a

Be << IPT LEE

—— oe

PI ge sR an

hee

EMBRYOS OF FISHES.

1891.] An Indian Grave in Western New York. 119

AN INDIAN GRAVE IN WESTERN NEW YORK.

BY A. L. BENEDICT, M.D.

OUTH of Lake Ontario, between the Genesee River on the

west and Canandaigua Lake and its outlet on the east, lies a

fertile country, studded with knolls and hills from twenty to two-

hundred-and-fifty feet in height. West of the Genesee River, as

far as Buffalo and Lake Erie, the land is level, with only occa-

sional elevations to relieve the monotony. East of Canandaigua

Lake the hills enlarge into miniature mountain ranges, five to fif-

teen miles long, four or five miles from valley to valley, and five

or six hundred feet- in height.

Nearly the whole of this region west of Seneca Lake was in-

habited by the Seneca nation of the Iroquois, but only in the mid-

dle portion was there much communication between the Europeans

and the Indians untillate in the eighteenth century, when the

usurpation of the land by the white settlers was accomplished in

a comparatively short time. Hence, as a rule, the Indian village

sites and burial places of the western and eastern portions of the

Seneca territory yield relics of genuine aboriginal workmanship,

whereas in the central portion, in which the Indian population

held its own against foreign encroachment for more than a cen-

tury, European influence is indicated by an abundance of iron

axes and knives, glass beads, copper ornaments, brass kettles, and

a variety of other articles found in connection with flint arrow-

heads, stone tomahawks, wampum, and unglazed pottery.

One of the largest and best-known sites of Indian occupancy

in this region is on a large hill near the thriving village of Victor.

Some idea of the importance of this Indian village may be derived

from the following considerations: The hill is one of the most

commanding localities in the whole middle territory, descending

so abruptly on the west and north as to make it a vantage-point

in case of war, sloping more gradually in other directions. At

least ten acres of the hill-top were so densely populated that even

at this late day, after half a century of cultivation and the visits of

120 The American Naturalist. [Februiy,

two generations of relic-hunters, it still yields ample recompense

in the form of beads, pipe-stems, pottery, and other implements

to any one who will take the pains to search for them. On and

near this village site so many iron tomahawks were found by the

early settlers that they were of commercial value as old iron, and

were by no means an insignificant source from which the black-

smiths derived the material for horseshoes and other articles of

farm use.

The writer had made several visits to this place, and had gath-

ered from the surface a considerable number of relics. In the

spring of 1885 a young man of the locality exhumed a skeleton

with which were buried two or three silver rings, and in Septem-

ber following the writer opened a grave almost adjoining the

first one, with such rich results that he has thought it worthy of a

descriptive article.

_ The graves were situated at the extreme western edge of the

hill, four or five rods beyond the field in which the relics were s0

plenty, and a few feet before the slope, already begun, becameso

steep that ascent was difficult. aot

The writer, availing himself of the work of excavation which

had been done in the spring, dug into the side of the grave,

reaching, after a short time, a woodchuck hole, which for-

tunately led him to another skeleton. This skeleton, whose.

immature bones and teeth showed that it had belonged a

a person between sixteen and twenty years old, was 1P ~

crouching attitude, with elbows at the sides and knees drawn T ,

to meet them, characteristic of Indian burial. Strange to $ay, n ;

ever, the skeleton was turned head downwards, a circu

which has never been duplicated in the writer’s experience. =

One of the first. objects exhumed was a bone head-comb, ee a

dently either of European manufacture, or an imitation by T

Indians of some similar ornament which they had seen the tm

women use. Several of the teeth of the comb had pee

broken, but otherwise it was well preserved. At the top of ae :

comb there is a rudely cut figure of a man standing and rest >

his hand on the shoulder of another person who is on hor ak

Beside the skeleton was a partially overturned brass kettle,

1891.] An Indian Grave in Western New York. 121

taining a hard discoid stone, presumably used to heat water, for

only a few years previous to the time when this village was

destroyed the Indians used clay kettles, which could not stand the

heat of a fire, and they therefore heated water in them by throw-

ing in hot stones. In and just outside the kettle was a quantity

of large, red glass beads, of smaller glass beads, white, blue,

green, and yellow, some spherical, some cylindrical in shape, and

which, when strung, measured thirty feet. There was also a flat,

white shell ornament in the shape of an isosceles triangle, with a

hole near the apex. At the bottom of the kettle was a mass of

decayed organic matter, which showed faint traces of interlacing

fibres, and which was probably the remains of a basket or mat.

The bail of the kettle was of iron, much corroded, for that metal

is not nearly so enduring as copper or brass. The spongy frag-

ments of a wooden handle were also found.

Seven slender bone or shell tubes were also found, some

almost perfect, some worn and decayed so as to require the most

careful handling. The longest of these measured four-and-one-

eighth inches, the shortest unbroken one three-and-three-eighths

inches. Nearer yet to the skeleton was genuine Indian wampum,

both white and purple, showing in places, as it rolled out of the

earth, the original arrangement into parallel rows of five or six

beads. This when strung measured sixty feet, and when stitched

-on to cloth, in imitation of its arrangement at the time of burial,

it would reach from one shoulder to the opposite hip, or several

times around the waist of a small person.

Part of the upper rounded shell and most of the jointed under

shell of a good-sized turtle were also exhumed. This turtle skel-

eton may have been part of a rattle, or it may have been a pet of

the Indian girl, or, again, it may have been the symbol of the clan

to which she belonged, for running through the six nations of

the Iroquois were clans or brotherhoods taking their names from

animals, and one of these clans was named from the turtle.

This grave was one of a number opened in the vicinity, and

all, while differing in detail, agreed in presenting evidences of

European civilization in conjunction with aboriginal customs.

Buffalo, N. Y.

_ ink have been wasted over the attempts to reconcile two

nothing very surprising in this. In the case of two sci

lieve that the one has been pillaging from the other.

In the case of the discovery of vaccination, no serious

"ever arose, and Jenner stands out alone without challenge

pute. The same can be said with regard to the z

122 The American Naturalist.

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

Now that the first excitement regarding the new remedy for

tuberculosis has subsided, the time seems opportune to —

glance back at the events of the past eighteen months, which |

have proved rich in scientific research in relation to the tubercle —

bacillus, and to place on record, not only for our own satis :

tion, or even for those more immediately concerned, but espe

for the benefit of succeeding generations, the announcements

have been made public from time to time in regard to that

crobe, and the means that have been discovered for combati its ;

ravages on the animal economy. ; :

The endless and often embittered controversies which f 9)

stantly occupy the literary world almost invariably arise from

fact that no plain contemporaneous record was made at the tir

which would have placed the question beyond the range of argu-

ment. To cite a case in point, the circumstances surroundin the

sale by Oliver Goldsmith of the “ Vicar of Wakefield” have provee

an inexhaustible field for conjecture and surmise, and gall

ently conflicting accounts of that transaction.

In almost all cases of discovery there are rival clai

some instances, where the evidence seemed most coniiich

has been afterwards proved beyond question that the same

has come to two workers, hundreds of miles apart, at. ;

identical moments. A little consideration will. show tha Me eis

pursuing an investigation on similar lines and with x :

goal in view, it is perfectly possible for them to hit upon ©”

conclusion at nearly the same time, and for both of them

1891.] ` Editorial. 123

Pasteur; nor is there any doubt as to the claims of Professor

Koch to the discovery of the tubercle bacillus.

In the month of March, 1882, Dr. Koch announced to the

medical world that he had discovered the existence of a microbe

hitherto unknown, and to which was given the name of the tuber-

cle bacillus. He described how he had subjected diseased or-

gans of numbers of men and animals to microscopic examination,

and found, in all cases, the tubercles infested with a minute, rod-

shaped parasite, which, by means of a special staining process, he

differentiated from the surrounding tissue. He says: “ It was in

the highest degree impressive to observe in the center of the

tubercle cell the minute organism which had created it.”

Professor Klein differs from this view. He says: “I cannot

agree with Koch, Watson Cheyne, and others, who maintain that

each tubercle owes its origin to the immigration of the bacilli, for

there is no difficulty in ascertaining that, in human tuberculosis,

in tuberculosis of cattle, and in artificially induced tuberculosis of

guinea-pigs and rabbits, there are met with tubercles in various

stages, young and old, in which no trace of a bacillus is to be

found, whereas in the same section caseous tubercle may be

present containing numbers of tubercle bacilli.”

Transferring directly by inoculation the tuberculous matter

from diseased animals to healthy ones he in every instance re-

produced the disease. To meet the objection that it was not the

parasite itself, but some virus in which it was embedded, he cul-

tivated his bacilli artificially for long periods of time and through

many successive generations.

This was confirmed by reliable investigations, and thus was

established the existence of the tubercle bacillus and its discovery

by him, and up to this time everything is plain sailing.

From the date of this announcement (1882) by Professor Koch,

up till October, 1889, nothing particularly new was heard on the

subject, and as far as the literature on the tubercle bacillus goes,

_ we have every reason to believe that the search for a toxic agent

to combat the disease of tuberculosis and the ravages of the

tubercle bacillus has been fruitless. Indeed, to all outside appear-

ances, the tubercle bacillus, having been once discovered, was to

124 The American Naturalist. [February,

be left unmolested to pursue its ravages on helpless humanity,

But in reality it was being followed up by tireless and relentless

foes.

On October 19th, 1889, was published in the Medical News,

of Philadelphia, by Dr. Samuel G. Dixon, at that time Professor

of Hygiene to the University of Pennsylvgnia, a monograph

announcing his discovery of the hitherto-unknown forms of the

tubercle bacillus.

In the previous summer, whilst investigating different methods

of technique and manipulation abroad, Dr. Dixon was led to

believe that the bacillus could be cultivated so as to show lower

forms of virulent life; and following this idea up by a series of

experiments, he was in a short time able to produce the hitherto-

unnoticed forms of the bacilli, some club-shaped, others curved,

and others again branched.

From the growths thus obtained he proceeded to make a series

of tube inoculations, from which he grew bacilli corresponding ™

every respect to the ordinary rod-shaped tubercle bacillus.

Having obtained these results, he propounded two hypotheses:

Ist, That by a thorough filtering out of bacilli from tuberculous

material a filtrate might be obtained and attenuated, so that ws

systematic inoculations a change might be produced in living

animal tissues that would enable them to resist virulent tubercle

bacilli. 2d, To bring about a chemical change or physical change

in living tissues that would resist tubercular phthisis, it is possible

that inoculation with the bacillus would have to be made; ee

before this could be done, the power of the virulent bacilli would ,

have to be diminished, otherwise the result would be most disas-

trous. He added further that he had reduced the tubercle bacilli

to a condition that, when inoculated into the animal economy

caused a resistance to the disease. ae

To use a military metaphor, this was the first note proclait 1

that an active campaign had been opened on the tubercle pee

and specifying in terms as definite as possible the means se T

the war was carried into the enemy’s country. = a

The announcement of this discovery was widely circulated

commented upon, and reprints of the article were fo sae

1891. Editorial, 125

Drs. Von Pettenkofer, Koch, Louder-Brunton, and other scientific

investigators.

The International Medical Congress was appointed to meet in

Berlin in August, 1890, and more than usual interest attached to

its meeting, as it was generally rumored that some important

papers on the subject of the tubercle bacillus would be read on

that occasion. |

Nor was this rumor falsified, and the interest of the meeting

may be said to have culminated as Professor Koch rose to ad-

dress the assembled physicians, and when he stated that he had

hit upon a substance which had the power of preventing the

growth of the tubercle bacillus, it was greeted with loud applause.

It was then stated that the bacillus of tuberculosis in man and

chickens was very similar, and he inferred that the latter is a

special species of the organic matter supposed to lie at the root

of pulmonary consumption. He also announced that the direct

action of solar light on the tubercle bacillus destroys in a cer-

tain length of time, varying from a few minutes to several hours,

the virulence of this microbe.

It will be convenient to quote verbatim from that portion of

the paper proclaiming his discovery of a toxic agent: “In spite

of this failure—to effect any result on tuberculous animals with

chemical substances—I have not allowed myself to be discouraged

from prosecuting the search for growth-hindering remedies, and

I have at last hit upon a substance which has the power of pre-

venting. the growth of tubercle bacilli, not only in a test tube, but

in the body of an animal. All experiments in tuberculosis are,

as every one who has had experience of them has sufficiently dis-

covered, of very long duration. My researches on this substance,.

therefore, although they have already occupied me for nearly a

year, are not yet completed, and I can only say this much about

them, that guinea-pigs, which, as is well known, are extraordi-

narily susceptible to tuberculosis, if exposed to the influence of

this substance, cease to react to the inoculation of tuberculous

virus, and that in guinea-pigs suffering from general tuberculosis,.

even to a high degree, the morbid process can be brought com-

pletely to a standstill without the body being in any way inju-

126 The American Naturatst.

_riously affected. From these researches I in the meantime do

not draw any further conclusions than that the possibility of ren-

dering pathogenic bacteria in the living body harmless without

injury to the latter, which has hitherto been justly doubted, has — .

been thereby established.” (Address before the Medical Con-

gress in Berlin, August, 1890.)

It will be observed that Professor Koch in his paper makes

two points: 1st, The action of solar light and a high degree of ;

heat in destroying the virulence of the microbe; 2d, The fact

that he had produced a substance the effect of which was to

prevent the growth of the tubercle bacilli in the body of an

animal, and that he produced a condition in that animal that was-

immune to the virulent tubercle bacilli; also that he by the same

process could overcome tuberculosis already established.

[February, ;

There are also two facts that cannot fail to strike the observer. :

The first is, that a period of over seven years had elapsed from

the date of his first publication on the tubercle bacillus and that

_announcing his discovery of the toxic agen

that his researches after the substance must

t; and the second,

have commenced

about the period of Dr. Dixon's publication of October, 1889, of ; a

which, however, no mention is made in his address. It dos

not seem unfair to infer that Professor Koch had been mam

this substance,

therefore, although they have occupied me for nearly a yeah

cessful during the preceding years in arriving at any sati

results. His own words, “ My researches on

ver, popos®

etc., seems conclusive on this point. We do not, howe

to do more than call attention to the coincidence of his r pgs

after the toxic agent and the publication of Dr. Dixon’s, OC re

1880, the importance of which would be obvious to iy mE

ologist, and the unfruitful nature of the former’s investigati

previous to that date. : aa

There was, perhaps, a feeling prevalent in the medical wT

incompleteness in the terms of Professor Koch’s announce”

and it seems as if he had only stimulated curiosity in order

deny it satisfaction. Nor was this allayed when the ee l

from Berlin that the scientist, having brought his researche

point sufficiently advanced to justify the use of his E

a, o

1891.] Editorial. 127

corpore vili, was prepared to inoculate the human subject. But

the nature of his remedy and the method of its composition were

to be kept a profound secret.

The first inoculation into the human economy took place on

September 22d, in a case of lupus, but it was not until the first

week in November that it was given out that Professor Koch

was ready to make inoculations on a general scale Itis not ger-

mane, however, to our purpose to do more than refer in passing

to these events, or the exodus to Berlin, which is fresh in the pub-

lic mind.

On November 15th Dr. Dixon, in the Philadelphia Zim? and

result of his experiments up to that date. He wrote: “ The

hypothesis advanced in my terse article in the Medical News of

October, 1889, have given the most brilliant results; yet I have

"never felt that the time had arrived for me to experiment on the

human subject. Nor do I mean to be tempted to take any risks

until the act would be purely an unselfish one. Even with the

results that have been obtained in my laboratory, I would be

sorry to have the general public stimulated with the idea that

inoculation for tubercular phthisis had been perfected.

“Owing to the rumored report that Professor Koch has been,

and is, inoculating human beings, it behooves me to await his re-

sults and understand his methods. If, however, it should appear

that he is working on different lines, and that his plan is less dan-

gerous than mý own, it will be welcomed and adopted by me.”

On November 18th Dr. Dixon laid before the Academy of

Natural Sciences a report summarizing in more detail his work of

investigation on the tubercle bacillus. After alluding to the

capability of the bacillus of changing from its commonly recog-

nized rod-form to that of a more compound one, club-shaped,

curved, or branched, which he believed to be either involution or

degenerate forms, he went on to say: “ There would appear to

be in this homogeneous mass something other than the bodies of

the micro-organisms, This may be the residue of the pabulum

remaining after the bacilli have selected what was necessary for

their existence, or a digestive secretion, or again it may be an

Nat.—February.—3. ;

128 The American Naturalist. (February,

excretion of the live organism. Let this be as it may, I hoped to

find a changed functional action in the organism, in secretion or

its excretion, that would combat tuberculosis in animal life, either

by stimulating the cells or by causing a chemical reaction in the

tissues that were susceptible to the digestive secretion of the

tubercle bacillus.

An attempt to explain its probable action appears in an article

I wrote for the Medical News of October 19th, 1889,and also in the

Medical and Surgical Reporter and the Times and Register of this

year. The views expressed are, however, purely hypothetical.

When the mass that I have already spoken of as being found

on the pabulum was subjected for a considerable length of time

to various degrees of heat, and injected into the guinea-pig, the

animal seemed to sicken, yet only for a short time. The anima

so treated appear to resist injections of virulent bacilli, Whether —

this would produce immunity for any length of time, provided we

discontinue the administration of the remedy, I am not sure

Some animals injected with the virulent matter after the treatment

with the changed mass had been discontinued appear to be 1m- —

mune, and experiments on animals suffering with tuberculosis -

have resulted most satisfactorily. Goa:

It is evident from this report that Dr. Dixon had pushed we

ideas advanced on October 1gth, 1889, to a stage promising ef

confirm in a remarkable degree the hypotheses laid down in : RS

monograph, and that inoculation by the toxic agent had

most satisfactory results.

It cannot fail also to be remarked that there is a definiten

Statement, as far as the circumstances will admit, in Dr.

announcements which are lacking in those of his German

league.

to the profession was likely to defeat its own object. Ber

fore published on January 15th, 1891, a statement disclosing

nature of the remedy. l

In this communication, after speaking of the ae

curative effects of inoculating by living tubercle bacilli, z

yielded

ess of

Dixons

; : a

It soon became evident to Professor Koch that the attempt ee

withhold the composition of his remedy after it had been SURF”

. may ;

preventive and

bso

Pe AS eS ee, af maT

x na f g

1891] Editorial. 120

“ This effect is not exclusively produced with living tubercular

bacilli, but is also observed with the dead bacilli, the result being

the same whether, as I discovered by experiments at the outset, the

bacilli are killed by a somewhat prolonged application of a low

temperature or boiling heat, or by means of certain chemicals,

This peculiar fact I followed up in all directions, and this further

result was obtained—that killed pure cultivations of tubercular

bacilli, after rinsing in water, might be injected in great quantities

under healthy guinea-pigs’ skin without anything occurring beyond

local suppuration. If the injections are continued at intervals of from

one to two days, the ulcerating inoculation wound becomes small-

er and finally scars over, which otherwise it never does; the size of

the swollen lymphatic glands is reduced, the body becomes better

nourished, and the mortiid process ceases, unless it has gone too

far, in which case the animal perishes from exhaustion. By this

means the basis of a curative process against tuberculosis was

established.”

We have italicized these words in order to call the reader's

attention in connection with their identical nature with the following

statement by Dr. Dixon, published months before: “ That by sub-

mitting a mass of growing bacilli to different degrees of heat, etc.,

and injecting the mass into animals, he not only prevented tuber-

culosis, but also cured the same.”

Compare this with Koch’s just-published claim, that by inject-

ing tubercle bacilli that had been submitted to solar light, heat,

etc., he had produced in guinea-pigs immunity, and also cure, and

Moreover that by this the curative process against tuberculosis

was established, and if there is any difference between the two,

we have not been able to detect it.

With this last utterance of Prof. Koch the literature on the

Subject of the cure for tuberculosis for the present ceases.

We have endeavored to lay before our readers a succinct and

- Chronological account of the history of this great discovery.

_ The important question as to whom belongs the credit for it,

and to whom should be awarded the priority, may well be left to

m. We venture to think that the material is present here

7 befor re them to enable them to form a correct judgment.

130 The American Naturalist. [February,

That the use of the remedy has not yielded the results expected

from it by Prof. Koch is very probable, and it is difficult to-

avoid the reflection that a more conservative policy, such as

that persistently advocated and followed by Dr. Dixon, would

have been wiser, and moreover kinder to those whose hope of

cure had been unduly raised. There is abundant work to be

done yet in the laboratories before definite conclusions can be

reached, and the inoculation into the human system is therefore

to be deprecated as premature. That the main principle has

been arrived at seems beyond doubt, but much yet remains before

the discovery can become of permanent benefit to suffering

humanity.

—lIn these days of object teaching, science made easy, and

German taught by the lightning method, it is not surprising to

find that there are philanthropic men who will undertake to

see a college graduate through commencement day—for a con-

sideration,

That this long felt want has been filled is due to the enterprise

of two Ohio men. Their circular announces that “ the student of

the present day finds that in doing justice to the physical man 5

has little time for literary work.” -There are those of us ya

had a lingering fancy that colleges were endowed and professors

engaged to stimulate young men to mental labor. We are g%

to be corrected, and shall, after this, adopt the more advanced

views upon the subject. ;

These philanthropists admit “there may be students 10 eve?

college who enjoy literary work,” but their sympathies g0 me

“those who are obliged by a tyrannical college faculty to west ,

both mortal time and parental money in gorging a brain with :

material that is as essentially foreign to that particular intelle

as is sawdust to the human system.” With a coms” —

born, perhaps, of experience, they agree to furnish to p K a

sessors of these overworked brains already digested food, ae

that in the end they may put to shame the tyrannical | ae

who are such fossils that they think a man goes to college # o

_. The price of show brains is quite reasonable. Orations, €853? S

faculty —

;

“a

1891.] Editorial. 131

debates, eulogies, invectives, sermons, political speeches, and

lectures range from $3 to $50,—a graduated scale of prices to

suit the parental pocket,—and all written by “two of the most

prolific writers of the age,” who will write anything and every-

thing, on any and all subjects. These two men must belong to -

that misguided, behind-the-age set who enjoyed literary work at

college. However, the point of it all is just this, now that the

public know there is learning in the land to be had at so much

per foot or yard of foolscap, it will no longer submit to the

imposition of stupid, prosy essays on commencement days.

Do men gather grapes of thorns, or figs of thistles? Yea,

verily, if they can pay for them.

—Proressor J. W. Spencer has had the usual difficulty ex-

perienced by all scientific men who hold political positions. The

Treasurer of the State of Georgia forced a‘ geological ignoramus

on him as a subordinate, who calls quartz magnetite, silicified

wood as lignite, slabs of feldspar as quartz, etc. The assistant’s

brother is a representative, and has been trying to groom the

young man for State Geologist. He defeated the geological bill

which abolished the political board. His testimonials were

obtained under false pretences. But these are now exposed.

The Governor is at Professor Spencer's back. What the

Legislature will do in July is not yet known, but if it knows the

true interest of the State it will permit Dr. Spencer to select his

Own assistants.

132 The American Naturalist. ' . [February,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

ALBRECHT, Dr.—Uber den Stammbaum der rieg ee der Phy-

` sikalisch-Gkonomischen Gesellschaft zu Königsberg, June, i m the author.

ALLEN, J. A.—On Seasonal Variations in Color in SA budeoulah —A Review

of Some of the North American Ground —, e the Genus Tamais. Exts, Bull-

Am. Mus, Nat. Hist., Vol. III., sen From

Annual Report of the Kan periment ae Skk Agri. College, 1888. .

Atlas of Northern Ama Cond Field; Atlas to Reports HH and HHH.

From the Penna. Geol. Survey.

A A, M.—Informe sobre el Estado Actual del Volcan de Colima. From the

author.

BAUR, G.—Neue Beiträge zur Morphologie des ER e Säugetiere. Sonder- ;

Abdruck aus Anzatomischer Anzeiger, IV. Jahrgang (18 !

—— Bemerkungen über den Carpus der ek ee sas: eo ye im All

gemeinen. Separat-Abdruck aus Morpholog. f. Jahrbuch, XV. Bd.,

—Die Systematische Stellung von eee ae Blainv. Sone Abdruck austen

Biologischen Centralblatt, } March, 1 :

—— Ueber den Ursprung der A der ramte (8)

Sera Vereins zu Metzingen in Wiirtemberg, April, 1887. From the author.

BAXTER, S.—Berlin: A Study of em Government in Germany. Bull. Essex

Institute, Apii, May, June, 1889. From the a ken

BEAN 4 w Fishes Collected of op Coast of Alaska and the Adjacent pe

ve sian Ba Peec U.S. Nat . Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 37745: Frome

aa ECKER, G. F.—The Washoe Rocks. Ext. Bull. No. 6, Cal. Acad. ‘Sei From :

the author.

BEECHER, C. E.—On the Development of the Shell in the Genus Tonoceras noceras Hyatt

BOULENGER, G. A a n C., W. De Vis’s Recent — to the Her

petology of.Australia. Ext. and Mag. Nat. Hist., Nov. Hist,

the Varieties of ey ocellatus Forsk. Ext. ps ad Mag. Nat. J

June, 1890. en

——An Account of the Batrachians pram in Burma by M. L. Fea, " the See

Civic Museum. Ext. Annali del Museo Civico, 1887. and Mag.

——A Reply to M. De Betta’s Remarks on i Rida temporaria. Ext. Aan.

Nat. Hist., March, 1886 _First

——Fourth ourth Contribution to the ee gees of the Solomon Islands — List of

port on Additions to the Lizard Collection in the British Museum (Nat. ch

the Reptiles, Batrachians, and a ai Fishes Collected by Prof. Moesch y

Iversen in the District of Deli, Sumatra. Exts. Proc. London Zool. Soc., 189%:

the author.

Archean Areas of Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New Yor

S., 1887. From the the aut thor.

Bulletin ~ Z Penna. State College Agri. Station.

Bulletin de l'Academie Sape des Sciences des Lettres et des Beaux

gique, 18go

CARLSSON, A.—Untersuschungen ueber Gle ligaman -Reste pei Schlangen: 1

Till K. Svenska Vet. Aked, Handlingar. Band II., No. 1 ;

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Cross, W., and L. G. peU —On Ptilolite, a New Mineral. Ext. Am. Jour

Sci., Aug., 1886. From Whitman Cross.

Dana, J. D.—Volcanic pet Ext. Am Jour. Sci., Feb., 1887.—A Dissected Vol-

canic Mountain; Some of its Revelations. Ext. dm, Jour. Sci., Oct., 1886. . From the

author.

DAWSON, W. J., and G. J. HINDE.—New Species of Fossil Sponges. Ext. Canadian

Record wy ome 1888. From the authors

DoLLo, L.—Troisiéme Note sur les Dincensdenn de Bernissart. Extrait du Bulle

du Musée Royal de Belgique, 1883.

— Notes sur les Vertébrés Fossiles, Récemment Efferts au Musée de sa

par M. Lemmonier. Extrait du Bull. de la Société Belge de Geol., 1889. Fro

author.

NN, C. H., and R. S. EPEE =A wee of the South American

cena, or Cat-Fishes. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., July From the authors.

EUDES-DESLONGCHAMPS, E.—Notes cane poset sur les Fossi

Oxfordiens de la Collection Jarry. From the author

F w, W. G.—The Task of American Bot airiai. Ext. Popular Sci., July, 1887.

FRAZER, P.—The Horizon of the South Valley Hill Rocks in Pennsylvania. Read

before the Am. Philos. Soc 15, 1882.

——The Philadelphia Maig of the International Congress of Geologists. Ext.

Am. sc ap 1890. From the author.

N, S.—Reptiles and Batrachians from the Caymans and from the Bahamas.

Bull. Eset ost, oa o Dec., 1888. From the author.

TE te , Endings, and Relations of Striated Muscular Fibres in the

M tee of Minute shana (Mouse, oe Bat, and English Sparrow). Ext. from The

Microscope, Aug., 1888. From the a

GEINITZ, H. B.—Ueber die sin ph bunten Mergel der oberen Dyas bei

Manchester. Ges. Isis in Dresden, 1889. From the author

GILL, T.—On the Psychrolutidæ of Günther. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1888.

From the author.

- HALSTEAD, B. D.—Notes upon Stamens of Solanac Ext. Bot. Gaz., aws"

1890.—Rusts, Smuts, Ergots, and Rots. pees before N. J. Board of Agri

Jan. 31, 1890. From the author.

HANSTEIN, J.—Christian Gottfried peek ein Tagework, aui dern Felde der

rschung te :

HEILPRIN, A.—The Animal Life of Saas From J. a So & Co.

HEINRICH, C. F.—Death from Electrical Currents. From the

JaMEs, J. F.—A Cave in the Clinton Formation of Ohio. xi Jen Cin.

Nat. Hist., May, I

Soc.

On the hanet Shales, and their Correlation with the Cincinnati Group of

oo Ohio. Postscript to above Article. Exts. Am. Geol., 1890. From the

Beka. J. S—The Development of Crangon vulgaris. Third Paper. Bull.

Essex Institute, Jan., Feb., March, 1889. From the author.

Lawson, A. C.—Note on the Pre-Palesoic Surface of the Archean Terranes of

T LECHE, W.—Uber einige E stadien der Hypophysis cerebri. Ext. Proc.

fos

: TERSA EER on the Ohio. Ext. Am. Antiguary, May, 1889.

134 The American Naturalist. _ (February,

-— Stone Monuments in Northwestern Iowa and Southwestern Minnesota, a i

Am. Baie. July, 1890. From the author. me

MARTIN, L. J.—Preliminary Analysis of the Leaves of Juglans nigra. sa x

Jour. Phar., Oct., 1886. From the author. :

MERRILL, G. P.—Notes ‘on the Composition of Certain ‘ Pliocene Sandstones ”

from OO and Idaho. Ext. Am. Jour. Sci., Sep., I 1886. From the author.

MONACO, ALBERT, PRINCE DE.—Sur n Appaieil Nouveau pour la R

des Organismes Pelagiques a des Prolon pas Déterminées. Extrait des Comptes

"e des Séances de la Société de Biologie, Juin, 1889.

eum Catalogue of aanita Geological Survey.

aa; LE MIS —Les Premières Populations de l' Europe. From the

th Report of the Committee on the Metric System of Weights and Measures:

1884.

RICE, W. N.—Science-Teaching in the Schools. From the author. j

RYDER, J. A—The Origin of Sex through Cumulative Integration, and the Rela- |

tions of Sexuality to the Genesis of Species. Ext. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., May, 1890.

From the author. :

SPENCER, J. W.—Ancient fy Boulder Pavements, and High-Level Gravel

Deposits in rigs ‘ge n of the Great Lakes. Ext. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. I. 189.

STERED, F. B.—A Summary of Holsti's Views on Anterio-Capillary Sclerosis. 4 ;

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Vol. X., 1888. From theauthor. —

Transactions of the Boskim Pathological Society. Ped

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WATSON, J.—Caird’s Philosophy of Kant. Ext. The Week, m ness 1890. é

WHITEAVES, J. F—On Some Fossils from the Hamilton Forma of Ouni

The Fossils of the Triassic Rocks of British Columbia.—On some cael ie

from British Columbia, the Northwest Territory, and Manitoba. Geol. an and Nat. :

‘Survey of Canada. From the author

WIEDERSHEIM, R. VON. Weitere Mitteilungen iiber die Entwickl ey

des Schulter und Beckengürtels. Sonder-Abdruck aus Anatomischer pe £ i a

TOR No. pr From the author. Dar

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rs. ones ‘he seat on Pree

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Conditions.—Douglass Houghton.—Exts. Am Geol., ge prow, Gel ASOE A

Ae age A. S.—On the Paleontology of Sturgeons. Ext. Proc. ro

From the author. New Jersey: Et |

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Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. Sci., March, 1890. From the author.

1891.] Recent Literature. 135

RECENT LITERATURE,

Justus Roth’s ‘‘ Allgemeine Geologie ’’ ' treats of the original

crust of the earth and of the theory of metamorphism. In that part of

the volume now before us the author maintains his position as one of

the most indefatigable investigators of geological literature. As the

result of his labors he has produced a book which at the same time is

almost a complete index of the literature of metamorphism and a

cyclopedia of the facts learned or surmised with respect to the

phenomenon. To the plutonist it serves as a very welcome antidote to

the great mass of neptunistic doctrine now penetrating the body of

geological thought. In it is denied i _ oto the possibility of the

alteration of a sediment into a crystalline-schist. The origin of those

crystalline-schists that are not members of the original crust is ascribed

in all cases to the dynamo-metamorphism of plutonic rocks. At the

same time it is denied that pressure without attendant chemical action

is able to produce such changes as are necessary in a rock to transform

it from a granite or gabbro into a gneiss or a hornblende-schist. The

necessary chemical action is thought to be sometimes the direct con-

sequence of the pressure, and sometimes to be merely the ordinary

processes of complicated weathering. No reliance is placed in the

conclusion that the granulites of Saxony are regularly metamorphosed

granites, or that the hornblende-schists are (as is supposed to be the

case by Rosenbusch) ‘‘ metamorphic facies of gabbro.””

After discussing briefly the constitution of the original crust, of

which the crystalline-schist formation is supposed to be the survival,

the author plunges at once into the subject of metamorphism, which

he takes up and treats with the same thoroughness as is evinced in the

first two volumes of his work, The principal topic of the portion of

the volume before us is the description of metamorphic phenomena,

under which are described the action of lightning on rocks, the

products of the action of coal burning underground (Erdbrande), and

the changes produced in rocks by the intrusion through them of

eruptives (contact-action). Under contact-action are treated the

effect of igneous rocks upon coals, their effect upon inclusions caught

up in them during their progress to the surface, and the result of their

action upon eruptive and sedimentary rocks through which they break.

1 Allgemeine und Chemische Geologie. 3 B.1 Abt. Hertz (Besser’ sche Buchhand-

; lung), Berlin, 1890, 210 pp.

136 z The American Naturalist.

The effects upon inclusions of various kinds are discussed

kne oe son crystalline-schists, inclusions of younger eru

inclusions of clastic rocks, of sandstone, of quartzite, of basalt-

and of contact-rocks. Contact-action proper is treated under

heads: first,the action upon intruded eruptives ; second,upon T

schists; and third, upon sedimentaries. Endomorphous cont

is next described, and the articles relative to it are briefly extra

The action of pressure upon rocks is next taken up, and the discu

of the changes produced in them by gaseous emanatious conclude

portion of the volume under review. Practically all the results

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 137

eneral Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

Discovery of Fish Remains in Ordovician Rocks.—At a

meeting of the Biological Society of Washington on February 7th,

1891, Mr. Charles D. Walcott, of the U. S. Geological Survey, an-

nounced the discovery of vertebrate life in the Lower Silurian (Ordo-

vician) strata. He stated that ‘‘ the remains were found in a sandstone

resting on the prepaleozoic rocks of the eastern front of the Rocky

Mountains, near Cafion City, Colorado. They consist of an immense

number of separate plates of placoganoid fishes and many fragments

of the calcified covering of the notochord, of a form provisionally re-

ferred to the Elasmobranchii. The accompanying invertebrate fauna

has the facies of the Trenton fauna of New York and the Mississippi

valley. It extends upward into the superjacent limestone, and at an

horizon 180 feet above the fish beds. Seventeen out of thirty-three

species that have been distinguished are identical with species occurring

in the Trenton limestone of Wisconsin and New York.

« Great interest centers about this discovery from the fact that we

now have some of the ancestors‘of the great group of placoderm fishes

which appear so suddenly at the close of the Upper Silurian and in the

lower portion of the Devonian group. It also carries the vertebrate

fauna far back into the Silurian, and indicates that the differentiation

between the invertebrate and vertebrate types "probably occurred in

Cambrian time.”

of America, in August, 1891.

138 The American Naturalist. [February,

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.!

Petrographical News.— Among the several brochures lately pub-

lished explanatory of the new map of France, one by Lacroix? con-

tains two articles. The first is descriptive of the metamorphic and

eruptive rocks of Ariége, and the second is on the acid inclusions in the

volcanic rocks of the Auvergne. In the former the marbles of Mercus

and Arignac are carefully described. In them occur two varieties of-

humite, brucite, amphibole, phlogopite, scapolite, spinel, corundum,

sphene, rutile, zircon, and many other less common minerals. One

variety of the humite occurs in rounded crystals of a clear yellow

color, that becomie colorless in thin section. The other variety is

light orange, becoming golden yellow in the section. Both possess the

same optical properties, except that the orange crystals are pleochroic

in pale yellow and light golden-yellow tints. They are classed by the,

author with the clino-humites. Their alteration products are inter-

esting. The most usual alteration is into brucite, found either in little

plates, often several millimeters in length, or in fibres forming aureoles

around unaltered cores of humite. Another alteration is into chryso-

tile. ‘This is rare, and the change is usually incomplete. A third

method of decomposition is into a granular mixture of secondary

calcite, dolomite, and small grains of the original mineral. The

= amphibole in the rocks is pargasite. Two varieties of spinel were ob-

served, one a violet and often transparent variety, and the other ge

pleonast. The violet spinel often accompanies the pargasite and

. humite. Both spinels are almost always surrounded by a circle of col-

orless chlorite in thin plates, and this in turn by a zone of secondary =.

calcite and an outer rim of brucite. The rutile merits special a |

tion, because what appears to be the ordinary black variety iS found in

thin section to be sometimes this, and sometimes like the violet rutile

of the amphibole and pyroxene gneisses of Norway. The ye

and amphibole gneisses of this region and the wernerite gneisses

present few peculiarities. The marbles, pyroxene gneisses, and gare

lites of St. Barthélemy are all marked by interesting features: >

accessory components of the marbles are almost exclusively graphite

scapolite, pyroxene, and occasionally oligoclase, the last three forming

rounded grains rarely surpassing a millimeter and a half in diameter:

Edited ited by Dr. W, S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me.

2 Bull. des Serv. d. 1. Carte. gèol. d. France, No. 11, T. II.

1990] Mineralogy and Petrography. 139

The peridotite contains hypersthene and amphibole, Its olivine is

perfectly fresh, and is in irregular grains imbedded in the amphiboloids.

Some of the granulites contain corroded crystals of bright red andalu-

site, and also black tourmaline, sphene, muscovite, and garnet dissemi-

nated in a ground-mass of feldspar and quartz. Other granulites are

very rich in cordierite, and these are in general less rich in quartz than

are those bearing andalusite. Micaceous and quartzitic schists from

the neighborhood of Ax embrace zircon, apatite, sphene, magnetite,

and numerous other materials, thought to be due to the action of the

‘granulite on the schists. On the granulite side of the contact this

rock is found to be charged with andalusite, and often with cordierite.

Pyroxenites consist of a colorless diopside, zoisite, garnet, calcite,

occasionally quartz, and frequently vesuvianite, of which latter it is

possible to isolate beautiful amber-yellow crystals of the variety egeran.

In the second article by the same author is a discussion of the changes

effected in acid inclusions by the basaltic and acid rocks of Auvergne.

Two classes of these inclusions are recognized, viz., those found in

lava streams, and those occurring in volcanic necks. Both classes in-

clude granites and gneisses rich in quartz, and frequently containing

cordierite, sillimanite, garnet, corundum, diaspore, and zircon. The

ges effected in them by the basic lavas varies in intensity, but not

materially in kind. In extreme cases the inclusion has been entirely

dissolved, with the exception of the insoluble substances, such as silli-

Manite, zircon, and diaspore, which remain as grains in the volcanic

glass. ‘The cleavages of the original feldspars have been accentuated,

any liquid and gaseous inclosures have been developed in them, and

the optical properties of the orthoclase have been changed. Quartz

fragments in the altered forms have been surrounded by aureoles of

| DA aa minerals developed in the surrounding rock by the

i Ante = = Inclusion are spinel, hypersthene, and sometimes labra-

: pee Sg forming holocrystalli. e aggregates, and at other

aos : oe. as individual grains bathed in a vitreous paste. “In

an ae case the minerals are met with only in the lava that has been

: a oae tie components of the inclusions. They are not

of the region are gneisses and kersantites. In most

= i Sa the changes that have been produced in them are analogous to

FER Produced by the basalts. Much new feldspar has been generated

them a

ii a: TER is usually optically continuous with the original feld-

mo. is attached. ridymite is also an abundant new

ae ‘ieee spinel and hypersthene. All these minerals are

140 The American Naturalist. [February, _

produced in the inclusion ; whereas in the case of the basaltic altera- —

tion the last two are found in the metamorphosed rock. In a later

article Lacroix 3 summarizes the results of his study of inclusions, with

reference especially to those of the Haute-Loire. When the inclusions

are of the same composition as the enclosing rock, the former have in

general been{well preserved. If, on the contrary, the inclusion differs

in its silica content from the surrounding rock, it is easily destroyed,

merely traces of it remaining to mark its former presence.——Gray-

wacke in contact with granite in the~Lausitz, Saxony, is changed to

knotty (Knoten) graywackes, in which muscovite, biotite, quartz, feld- _

spar, and tourmaline occur as new products, and finally into a quartz-

mica rock with cordierite, tourmaline, and some other new products.

On the granitic side the rock has assumed a gneissic aspect, thought by

Herrimann and Weber‘ to be the result of flowage. The micro

structure of several calcareous odlites from Iowa, and of siliceous

odlites from Pennsylvania, is represented by Messrs. Barbour and

orrey® as concretionary in most cases, while in others the spherules |

have a brecciated or mosaic appearance. Analyses of several kinds ot

odlites are given in the paper.

New Minerals.—Cassanite, biad with barite occurs on å

copiapite specimen from Sierra Gordo, Chili, in the form of large,

brown, prismatic crystals, without well-developed faces. According to

Darapsky ê their streak is orange, hardness 3, and density 2. 18. They ;

are but slightly soluble in water or in cold hee acid, but easily :

dissolve in hot acid. Their composition (SO, = ; Fe,0, =

H,O = 30.76; barite = 1.15) corresponds to Fe = (Fe0)(S0).+ 80.

The crystallization is probably monoclinic, Manganopectolite 5 Beer

associated with ozarkite and other decomposition products of eleolite- : oe

syenite at Magnet Cove, Ark.” On a fresh fracture the mineral. is ;

light gray and transparent. On its exterior it is covered with an-

- Opaque coating of brown manganese oxide. The crystals are pounded `

by oP, Pæ, + 2P% and Po » and their axial ratio is @ ee

1.0731: 1: 4840. Their habit i is thick tabular. Cleavage is

STE to oP and œ Pæ. Hardness = 5, and density 2.845- Compo-

“ab, FeO, CaO MnO Na,O H,O cO, !

53-03 .I0 30.28 4.25 8.99 2.43

è Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 100. ee

- * Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, II., p. 187. vee

. Min., etc., 1890, II., p. 267.

7 Me F. Williams, ` Zeits, Í. Kent, XVIL, 1890, p. 386.

ie ee ae

optical methods. In order to show their relations to

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 141

Correcting for the small amount of calcite present, the analysis cor-

responds with the formula (48; Ca, 745 Mn), Na H (SiO,),—a pectolite

with a tenth of its calcium replaced by manganese.- In its optical

properties the new mineral agrees well with the view that it is closely

allied to pectolite. Its axial plane is Po, With ò the acute

bisectrix. The double refraction is positive, and the dispersion

is strong s> p. Pinakiolite and trimerite are both new miner-

als from the Manganese Mines in Sweden. The name of the first

refers to its occurrence in small, tabular crystals. It was found by

Flink ê in granular dolomite at Langbanshyttan, associated with haus-

mannite. The density of the new mineral is 3.881, and its hardness

is 6. It is soluble in strong hydrochloric acid with evolution of

chlorine, and before the blowpipe it fuses with difficulty to a black

bead. An analysis of the hydrochloric acid solution yielded : :

BO, MgO Mn,O, - FeO,” CaO PbO SiO, H,O

15.65 28.58 49-39 2.07, 1.09. A0 1,28 +47

Correcting for silica and water, the formula becomes R,BMnQ,, or a

manganese /udwigite. The black, lustrous crystals are usually ortho-

rhombic, rectangular tables, in which the brachypinacoid is most

developed. In addition to this there is present in the mineral only

» P3. A definite termination of the ¢ axis is lacking, but since twins

with a brachydome as a twinning plane are common, the axial ratio

was calculated with this as the unit form, and the following result ob-

tained: a: 6: c—=.83385: 1: -58807 Cleavage is parallel to

»Po- The optical axial plane is oP, with å the negative acute bisec-

trix. The absorption is B> 4> C, with B= ¢ = opaque ; A=b=

reddish-brown, and C= a = reddish-yellow. 7) rimerite (tprp phs =

three-fold) was found at the Harstigsgrube associated with friedelite

etc. The density — 3.474, and hardness = 6-7. The pulverized

mineral dissolves in hot hydrochloric acid, with the separation of

gelatinous silica. Its composition :

SiO, BO MnO FeO CaO MgO

39.77 17.08 26.86 3-87 12-44 61

corresponds to (MnBe)SiO,, a manganese phenacite. The tans

parent bright red crystals have an hexagonal habit, due to twinning of

triclinic individuals, whose triclinic nature is discoverable only by

the Willemite

® Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 361.

142 The American Naturalist.

group the author describes the crystals in terms of the hexagonal sys-

tem with a: c — 1: .7233. They are thick, tabular forms, bounded by

oP, ota oP, $ P2, $ P2 and 4 P 5, and other pyramids with com-

plicated symbols. . Brégger finds that sections parallel to „P2 extin-

guish at about 4° from c. 2V = 83° 29’, with a very slight dispersion.

The angles a, 2 and y are all nearly go°, so that the combination is

somewhat similar to the combination of orthorhombic aragonites to

produce an apparently hexagonal form. The axial ratio on the

assumption of triclinic symmetry becomes a: 6: ¢=.5744: Ti . 5425,

end the forms OP Poo s co Fy co P PLP, Po als plz, 2 Pa

Mineral Syntheses.—Boracite has been produced by Gramont’

in the wet way. One part of borax and two of magnesium chloride

were moistened with water and heated to 275°—280° in a sealed tube.

Little crystals of the mineral thus obtained are bounded by tetrahe-

drons, octahedrons, and other forms apparently belonging to the regular

_ system. Each tetrahedral face, however, is observed, upon examina-

tion, to be composed of small sectors, indicating a grouping of indi-

viduals of lower symmetry to produce a pseudo-regular form. When

the mixture was heated at a temperature below 265° (the temperature

at which natural boracite becomes isotropic) no boracite was obtained,

but in its stead there resulted elongated hexagonal crystals of somè =

substance not yet investigated. One part of alumina and two of ue

Silica, according to Vernadsky,” unite ata white heat to form a glass

which, under the microscope, is seen to be filled with little needles of SS

sillimanite, with the composition : SiO, = 37.3! ; Al,O, = 63-65- Pote: o.

celaine consists essentially of the same substances, viz., a glass holding >? =

acicular crystals of sillimanite. Many of the most important zeolites =

have been manufactured by Doelter," who at the same time has solved i

some of the problems as to their composition, His method of pr% .

cedure was to dissolve suitable substances at moderately high fi

tures under pressure, and allow them to cool gradually and crystallize.

In this way he succeeded in making apophyllite, chabazit cue

natrolite, and skolecite. The author next proceeded to investigate i

composition of the minerals formed by heating some specimens to ae

temperature beyond which they lose water, occasionally a

them chemically and optically, and by fusing others and studying Ae

decomposition products, At 260° apophyllite loses 19 P&T cenh

9 Bull. Soc. Franç. d. Min., XIIL, 1890, p. 252.

w Tb., p. 256. ;

u Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1., 1890, p. 118.

1801.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 143

water, and above this temperature is decomposed. Just below 260°

the hydrate is biaxial, while above this temperature the anhydrous

residue is uniaxial. Other zeolites yield similar results, These lead

to the conclusion that they all consist of a nepheline, pyroxene, or

feldspar-like silicate, combined with meta- or orthosilicic acid, and

also an amount of water varying with the temperature. The crystal

water may be driven off at high temperature, and taken up again at a

lower one, and the various hydrates obtained by the successive steps

may possess different crystallographic properties. After a certain

amount of loss the minerals refuse to part with more water, which is

regarded as chemically combined with silica in the silicic-acid portion

of the combination. The author determines incidentally the solubility

of several of the zeolites in different solvents, and concludes his paper

with a table giving the supposed composition of the members of the

group. Heulandite is represented as CaAl,Si,O,,+2H,SiO,+34q ;

natrolite as Na,A1,Si,O,+H,SiO,, etc. Messrs. C. and G. Friedel,”

by the action of lime on mica in the presence of calcium chloride,

obtained small crystals of anorthite, and by the action of soda and

sodium sulphate on the same mineral produced little prismatic crystals

of a substance differing from nosean in the addition of two molecules

of water.

Physical Mineralogy.—The discussion as to the caùse of optical

anomalies in uniaxial crystals has: received another addition in a late

article contributed by Martin," in which the writer attempts to show

that the Mallard theory with respect to these phenomena is faulty.

Mallard believes that the crystals are pseudo-uniaxial ; that they consist

of several twinned individuals, which by their combination build up a

form possessing a geometrical symmetry of higher grade than that be-

longing to its individual constituents. Martin has examined several

organic compounds, and is thereby led to the conclusion that in these

the anomalies are due to strain or pressure exerted on some parts of the

crystal by the more rapid growth of other parts. It is well known that

in many crystals a skeleton is formed first in the act of crystallization,

and that this skeleton is subsequently filled in by the deposition of

material within its arms. ‘The skeleton thus grows faster than the in-

terstitial substance, and exerts in this latter a strain whose effect is

exhibited in the anomalies. Other important thoughts are brought

Out in the investigation, which appears to have been conducted in a

_ ™ Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 233-

1 Ib., p. 238. :

Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B.B. VIL., p-1.

-—4.

Am. Nat.—February

_ and that the conclusions reached by him comprehend no new notio

the values of the optical constants, and the fifth contains a

follows: The rapidity of solubility is equal along equivalent €

18 Miner. u, Petrog. Mitth., X1., 1890, P- 349 =

144 The American Naturalist. [Febr

careful and conscientious manner. ‘W yrouboff,® in a reply to N

tin’s article, states that the latter’s results differ but little from his ox

The writer last referred to (W.) has recently 16 completed a series

of experiments on circularly polarizing substances, by which he seems

to have shown that the peculiar property of these bodies is due to their

structure, which is described by Mallard as an irregular piling of very _

small biaxial plates. In this way a high grade of symmetry is imitated,

while the plates are really of a low grade. He also adds a nineteenth

substance to the list of rotatory polarizing bodies, viz., (NH,)LiS'

which is apparently biaxial and positive. The effect.of tempe

upon the optical and crystallographic constants of prismatic su

has been thorougly investigated by Schrauf,” who records his results |

an excellent paper of fifty-nine pages. The first part discusses the

values of the interfacial angles at different temperatures. The

is confined to refractive phenomena, such as the refractive index

different wave lengths. The third and fourth contain calculati l

of the relations existing between the refractive indices

length of the transmitted light, temperature, and other facto

concludes with remarks on the constancy of the refractive and d l

ive power, and upon the crystal form of prismatic sulphur.——A paper

by Becke ! on the etching of fluorite is a remarkable exhibit of caret!

and painstaking work in this branch of physical mineralogy. The

author has subjected both natural and prepared faces of crystals

various localities to the action of acids and alkalies of various

and at different temperatures, and has studied the results

The symmetry of the figures obtained indicate a tetragonal

for the mineral. Anomalous figures on some crystals, found oniy

planes that show double refraction, are explained as due to the

of growth. Many new ideas are gathered from the study, one

‘most important of which is embodied in a restatement of t

symmetry of etched figures. ‘These possess the symmetry 0

on which they occur only when this is a natural one free from

vicinal planes, etc. Experiments on the solubility of the!

different directions lead to the expression of a law of s

3 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p. 94-

m Ib., p. 215. i ~-

11 Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 114.

r891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 145

graphic directions, and different along unequivalent directions,

Further, the author finds that elevations due to etching (aetzhiigel)

occur on faces least capable of resisting solution, while depressions

(aetzgriibchen) are produced in the least soluble faces. Etching zones,

he defines as those containing the planes with the greatest capacity for

resisting solution. Many more results of interest are contained in the

paper, the character of which is sufficiently indicated by the conclusions

above referred to. The natural etched figures on the topaz of San

Louis Potosi, Mexico, correspond in symmetry with the faces on which

they occur, with the exception of those on the brachypinacoid 2P%,

which are unsymmetrical. According to Pelikan ™ they resemble the

figures produced by Baumhauer upon treating the mineral with molten

potassa. Dufet” obtains 1.54421 as the value of the refractive index

of quartz, based on the examination of seventeen different specimens

of the mineral.

Miscellaneous.—The cosmic dust (kryokonite) collected by Nor-

denskjéld in Greenland, in 1883, has been submitted to Wiilfing *! for

investigation, by whom it has been found to consist in greater part of

feldspar, quartz, mica, and hornblende. There are present in it also

garnet, zircon, magnetite, augite, and sillimanite, and with them is

mixed a nitrogenous organic substance. The most interesting con-

stituents of the dust are little chondri of opaque, isotropic transpar-

ent, and double refractive material. The larger part of the dust is

thought to be a sediment from the air, and to have been obtained by

‘it from a region of crystalline schists. The chondri, on the other

hand, are thought to be of cosmic origin, since they are similar to the

chondri obtained in deep-sea soundings. If the amount of the dust

time is 125 million kilograms, equivalent to a cube of thirty-one yards

on a side. A new crystal refractometer has been devised by

Czapski. Its construction and use is carefully described by 9

inventor in a recent paper in the Neues Jahrbuch ——That —

relation exists between the habits of crystals of certain minerals and

their mode of formation has long been recognized, but it has been left

for Arzruni to undertake a systematic study of this relation. In a

-= SIb, XE, 1890, p. 331.

- 2 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 271-

21 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B., VII., p. 152.

2 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B., VII., p. 175.

B Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 44-

146 The American Naturalist. [Febrony,

late paper this writer communicates the results of the examination of

crystals of hematite produced by sublimation in smelting furnaces and

those from San Sebastiano, Italy, that are supposed to have been formed

in an analogous manner. In all of these the habit is the same,

although different combinations of nearly related forms occur on them.

Sublimed valentinite and senarmontite are likewise studied. Cuprite

produced by slow oxidation at a low temperature has an octahedral or

dodecahedral habit, while that produced at a high temperature is

probably hexahedral. Struvite obtained from a solution of Koch's

peptone differs materially from the natural mineral, but the differences

have not yet been carefully enough studied to warrant any general

conclusion being drawn from the observations. Further articles from

Prof. Arzruni will be looked for with interest.

BOTANY.

The Relative Altitudes of the Rocky and Appalachian

Mountain Systems as Influencing the Distribution of

orthern Plants.—In the study of the geographical distribution of :

North American plants certain difficulties have been apparent smo —

the adoption of three ‘‘regions,’’ extending north and south, ny

denominated respectively the eastern, central, and western. A per

ba . » . . i 1

better division of the continent is that proposed by Britton,

recognizes a northern region, including British America, the Sier:

the Rockies, and the Alleghenies; and a southern region, DE

the Atlantic coast, Mississippi valley, and a part of California. N

only does such an arrangement of regions make it possible to gro

more correctly the known facts of spermaphytic distribution, but, 1o i

certain extent, it corresponds more exactly with the probable me"

of original distribution of all plants over the continental area oF pean j

America. Since the glacial period the great drift-covered gery

been covered with vegetation, spreading slowly from Siberia and Uae

dinavia on the north, and from Mexico and South Amei

south. The flora of North America, then, exclusive of ef oe

the south,

rE en

the most part, a resultant of the greater or less comminglin

two currents of vegetation, the one flowing constantly to ne Si

other as constantly flowing northward. east

_ 1 The General Distribution of North American Plants; by N. S. Britton- —

of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 1890.

18yr.] Botany. 147

That a group of plants developed most abundantly in high northern

latitudes should extend southward along north and south mountain

ranges is precisely what one would expect, for in Such localities con-

ditions resembling the normal would be obtained. Consequently a

large number of distinctively boreal plants may be found on the tops

of high tropical mountains, With this well-known fact of distribution

in mind, it will be plain that one should expect a high mountain range

to bring south a greater number of northern plants than could be

brought by a low mountain range. Such a hypothesis would find

some support, at least, if one considers the distribution of Canadian

spermaphytic genera in the southwestern United States, and then in

the southeastern. Of the two great mountain systems of North

America, the western is much higher and extends farther to the south,

Throughout Colorado the elevation of Rocky Mountain peaks is some-

what over 13,000 feet, while the highest peak of the Alleghenies is

barely 8,000 feet, above sea-level. The Rocky Mountain range from

Montana to New Mexico averages about twice the height of the

Appalachian chain frbm New York to the Carolinas.

The accompanying table is compiled to exhibit what seems to be the

clearly preponderant massing of typically northern: plants southwest

rather than southeast. In the compilation only the more compendious

lists have been employed. These are those of Macoun, Watson,

Coulter, Chapman, Gray, and Porter. The table shows the number

of species and varieties of several distinctively northern and south-

bound genera in Canada, in the southern Colorado-and New Mexico

regions, and in the southern Appalachian regions, respectively. For

the most part, genera which have their greatest North American devel-

opment in British America are the ones which have been selected. In

the majority of cases, too, the genera chosen are those of wide range,

east and west, in the Canadian region. It is possible that the figures

are not exactly accurate for many of the entries, since only a little

critical work on the nomenclature has been attempted, and some

synonyms may have crept into the totals. Again, especially in the

southwestern region, some entries should doubtless be made from the

smaller plant lists, not given by the larger lists, which alone were €m-

i ployed. This source of erròr, as will be seen, would not at all tend

_ to vitiate the general results.

148 The American Naturalist. [February,

A TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION SOUTHWESTWARD

AND SOUTHEASTWARD OF CERTAIN DISTINCTIVELY BOREAL GENERA

or NORTH AMERICAN SPERMAPHYTES:

Po oe Ee o ae zp

B FE gE p FES

fe as B Se 88

: z5 F 3 zs 53

Anemone, fe co 3 Potentilla, 46. ee

Ranunculus, oa: y i Rosa, I9 o See

Caltha, 5 I I Saxifraga, 38 a

Aquilegia, 5 7 I _ Mitella, 5 fai

Delphinium, et ee Huchera, ye

Nymphea L., 4 2 2 Parnassia, 5 Reece

Cardamine, ~~ 5 3 Epilobium, 17

Draba, 26 14 E. Peucedanum, 9 r a

Arabis, t5 8 6 Lonicera, 12 koe

Lepidium, ay Eee Galium, 17: ee

Sisymbrium, i 4 3} Valeriana, 6 Ae

Nasturtium, & > i Campanula, ro Fa

Viola, mo oG 16- Vaccinium, “apo Aa :

Silene, ir. 6.6 Bryanthus, ee Sac

Lychnis, II 3 o Kalmia, 4 te :

Arenaria, w i 2 Ledum, 4 Pe

Stellaria, D 8:3 Pyrola, 14 eee

Cerastium, 12 4 4 Primula, gs

Sagina, a yg Gentiana, 299 H

Claytonia, 13 5 2 Veronica, 6. a :

Geranium, 9 7 2 Castilleja, 6S -

Oxalis, 4 3 3 Plantago, 17 6 45 i

Lupinus, io Ti 3 Betula, E e 3 re

Trifolium, 20 fto 6° Alnus, Me re a.

Vicia, 5 4 Salix, 62:10 ae

Spiræa, 8 3 2 Populus, Lo 4 = oe

DalibardaL. 22 6 % Habenaria, no aao

m, i o i Cypripedium, eee co

Fragaria, - 4 3 I Unifolium, 7 oe a

In glancing over this table it will be seen that such larger ¢ r and m

widely distributed genera as Ranunculus, Draba, Stellaria, 17

Potentilla, Saxifraga, Epilobium, Pyrola, aT ang

very clearly extended southwestward much mor abun

1891.] Botany. 149

southeastward. The same_is true, less noticeably, of the smaller

genera. Marked exceptions, however, will be noted in the genera

Viola, Vaccinium, and Kalmia. These are all northern genera, and

their anomalous distribution demands explanation. Of Viola it might

be said with reason that many of the species have entered from the

east rather than from the west. It is a cosmopolitan genus at the

present day, and may have entered the continent by other paths than

the ordinary passage across Bering Strait. In Europe, according to

Nyman,! there are fifty-six species of Viola, while in the Russian Em-

pire, according to Ledebour? there are but forty. This would indicate

an eastern expansion in North America, corresponding with the west-

ward expansion in the old world. At any rate, the present diffused

condition of Viola species makes the problem of the general distribu-

tion much more complicated than it might at first appear. The genus

Viola, then, although probably northern in point of origin, has been

= fedistributed from southern stations, ‘it may be, and the position of

= Species over continental areas is due to a more complicated interaction

i of Causes than the present writer is able to explain. With reference to

Vaccinium and Kalmia, however, no such argument can be employed.

Of Vaccinium there are but ten species in the Russian Empire and but

three in Europe. The genus is seen, therefore, to center in North

America. Kalmia is a North American genus, one species ranging to

Cuba, but none found native in the Eastern Hemisphere. Both of these

genera, then, are somewhat differently situated from Pyrola, which, al-

though centering in British America, has five species in Europe and

fve in the Russian Empire. Kalmia and Vaccinium, being typically

ye American, may have originated far eastward on the continent,

and this would give an explanation of the greater distribution south-

: —e than southwestward. It is a fact that even the Canadian

n Dore these two genera are principally in the eastern provinces.

i ‘Ba Y one species and one variety of Kalmia range west of Hudson

Tal

<i yan fifteen of the twenty-two species and varieties of Vaccinium

‘ ‘ ate the eastern provinces. A similar state of affairs on the west

i ic. “sie the genera Arenaria and Peucedanum. Both of these

Wa = < Upon me western plateau-regions of the continent.

& up the column which shows the southeastern extension it

up the t the total is just about half of that obtained by add-

; R y column which shows the southwestward extension ; that is,

2 eae peces of northern genera come south along the Rocky

150 The American Naturalist.

Mountains as along the Appalachians. This would seem to indicate

very strongly a law of distribution such as noted above. It is

probable that an exactly similar line of tabulation would be offered

the southern and northbound genera, notably those of the Composite,

of southern species along the slower river. At any rate, it is compar

atively clear that some sort of a proportion may be assumed between

the heights of two north-and-south mountain systems, and the num

of species of northern genera in the more southern extensions of eac!

FO —Conway MACMILLAN.

An Important Work on the Fungi.—North American be

ists already owe much to J. B. Ellis and B. M. Everhart for the excelle

work they have done in the preparation of the great collection of

specimens, the “ North American Fungi.” They are now about to

deepen this obligation by the publication of a volume to be dev

to the systematic description of the North American Pyrenom

The volume will be illustrated by many full-page plates, giving

external or gross anatomy, together with the internal micros

Structure. A personal inspection of many of these plates warrants,

in saying that this feature of the work will prove of inestimable value

to the student of the fungi, Winter’s system of classification wl

followed in the text. The volume will contain about five

pages, and may be expected some time during the year. —

Ringing Trees.—Hartig gives the following account i

periments in ringing the bark from trees. Trees from whic a

_ bark has been taken are affected differently, according to the Kl

tree and the thickness of the trunks. Some die rapidly, wh

probable effects must he Fei ae ike to or in at)

may have taken place between the roots of the tree under

and those of the untouched trees around, If the roots,

tion of nourishment and of growth, and the formation of

ee soon lose the faculty of absorbing water and the

: RSS from the soil, the death of the plant must be the «

quence of the operation, unless there are underground u

Toob of neighboring trees by which life is sustained

3 R

1891.) Botany. 151

part of the trunk becomes impermeable to water. But if the roots do

not entirely lose the power of absorbing water, even in their oldest

parts, as in the case of maples, lime trees, etc., the trees continue to

thrive without underground union, so long as the denuded trunk is in a

fit state to allow of the passage of water. The following interesting

example will therefore be easily understood: A spruce fir tree, a hun-

dred years old, divided at a height of about twenty-three feet from the

ground into two almost equal trunks. In 1871. a complete ring of bark

was removed from one of these trunks. The tree was cut down in the

winter of 1888—’89; the two crowns were quite green, that of the

ringed side being rather less abundantly provided with leaves. The

roots of the injured side had ceased to grow; but in spite of that the

ringed branch continued to grow for seventeen years, nourished by the

roots of the uninjured side.— Gard. Chron., from Ann. Agronomiques.

Botanical News.—The “ Index to North American Mycological

Literature,” in the Journal of Mycology, will prove a most valuable aid

to students of the fungi. In the last number no less than ninety-eight

titles are given for the three months of May, June, and July. Although

many of these papers were of slight importance, yet their number indi-

cates a good deal of activity among the workers in this country.——

Hereafter the Journal of Mycology will appear at least four times a year,

but not at regular intervals, the intention being to issue it whenever

there is sufficient material for a number.——The elevation of the

section of Vegetable Pathology to the rank of a division, thereby

placing it on an equal footing with the other branches of the depart-

ment, is a most gratifying indication of progress in botanical science

in the National Capital. The November number of the Zorrey

Bulletin tes sixty-two papers in the excellent ** Index to Recent’

American Literature.” At this rate (which is not unusual) the whole

number of papers on botany published in America ina year must now

be somewhat more than seven hundred! Surely ** of making mney

books (botanical ones) there is no end,” and the ‘‘much study

_ required by them will most assuredly prove “a weariness of the flesh.’’

——Dr. Britton’s “List of State’ and Local Floras of the United

States and British America” contains nearly eight hundred entries.

Every state and territory has had one or more catalogues made of some

portion of its plants. Naturally the older states have more such lists

-than the newer ones; but some new states have been more favored than

some old ones, Thus, while Minnesota has 21, Kansas 30, and Colo-

some others have still fewer.——Theodore Holm, of the United States

Te eee > The American Naturalist.

National Museum, publishes in the proceedings of that instit

suggestive paper on the leaves of Liriodendron, being a stud

leaf-forms observed on individual trees, Thirty-eight figures

forms of fossil leaves may have little real foundation. Certainly tl

are as marked differences between some of the leaf-forms fig

Mr. Holm as there are between those often regardad ass

paleobotanists——Two ‘‘garden scholarships” will be award

the director of the Missouri Botanical Garden prior to the fi

the well-known mycologist.

Generale de Botanique, Henri Jumelle publishes an interesti

on the influence of anesthetics on the transpiration of plants.

ingenious apparatus plants were subjected to the fumes of ether,

it was found that although assimilation was stopped, the transpit

of water was greatly increased.—Part V. of Macoun’s Catal

Canadian Plants has just come to hand. It is devoted to the Ac

_and a long list of “‘ additions and corrections’’ to the precs

~ Thirteen species of Equisetum are enumerated, sixty-four

ferns and adder-tongues, and twenty-two Lycopods and

ee This | part completes volume II. of the catalogue. In part

will begin a new volume, we are promised the Characee,

“Hepaticee. —In a recent number (January, 1891) of t

ceutische Rundschau Dr. Power and Mr. Cambier oe e

their chemical examination of two “ Loco-Weeds,”’ viz

~ mollissimus Torrey, and Crotalaria sagittalis L. —A rec

Ta m the rien cs Chronicle contains figures of the fungus

- Jæticolor which causes the k ates on grapes in England.

1891.} Zoology. 153

ZOOLOGY:

New California Fishes.—PERKINSIA (genus nov.,) CLUPEIDÆ.

Type: Perkinsia othonops:—Like Etrumeus, except that the pectoral and

ventral fins are shielded, the scales of the breast adherent forming a

ventral buckler, which covers the closed pectoral fins, leaving only the

dorsal edge and the extreme tip of the fins visible. The closed ven-

tral fins, likewise slip under a posterior buckler. The capillary scales

are large, that of the pectoral extending very nearly to its tip, while

the ventral axillary scale reaches slightly farther than its fin. Caudal

deeply forked, the lateral scales extending continuously upon the cen-

ter of the fin almost to margin of central rays. Adipose eyelid cover-

ing the eye wholly, without a pupillary slit.

Perkinsia othonops ; one specimen, 320 mm. long. The single speci-

men known was caught November 2oth, 1890, off Point Loma, by fish-

ermen taking mackerel. It belongs to the British Museum.

Form of Clupea sagax, or of a mackerel with a stout tail.

Head 4 (44); depth 5 (6); D. 17; A. 10; P. 15; V. 8. ; Scales 50. -

Head compressed forward, eye longer than snout, 3 in head. Inter-

orbital a little less than snout, 434 in head, the frontals narrowing for-

ward. Occiput with ridges forming a W, the top of the head with a

long, lanceolate depressed area anteriorly, with a median ridge, and a

triangular area between anterior part of the W.. This region filled

with adipose tissue in life. Maxillary 3 in head, not reaching the

pupil, the supplemental bone very narrow, the maxillary sublinear,

deeply ground. Cheeks opercle, preopercle, lateral portions of occi-

put and an enlarged humeral scale with multifurcate mucous canals,

which, especially upon the cheeks, form conspicuous dendritic markings,

the canals being unpigmented against closely dotted interspaces.

Isthmus triangular, the gill covers not emarginate below. Scales

large, deciduous. Teeth as in Etrumeus. Pseudobranchia large, ex-

posed. Gill rakers long and slender. Form of dorsal fin similar to

that of Clupea sagax. The insertion of the fin equidistant between

‘tip of snout and end of the anal.- Anal small. Caudal with minute

scales. Ventrals entirely posterior to the dorsal fin, short, 334 in the

head. Pectoral fins placed very low, 13 in head.

Silvery below, steel-blue above, checks golden. Dorsal and caudal

fins dusky. Ventral fins with a median blackisk blotch gnterion'y-

~ Inner surface of pectoral fins chiefly black, the ends of the posterior

preopercular conical, directed backward, the other 2 flat, tiag

with black,

X hich extend upon the membrane of soft dorsal a per

> ~” the first dorsal. Series of confluent bronze spots form

aa streaks a bands on sides of head ; one extends from

154 | The American Naturalist. [Febeuary,

rays hyaline. Adipose eyelid transparent in life, preorbital regions 5

translucent ; the adipose tissue becoming opaque in apin: .

SEBASTODES GILLII, sp. nov. :

Types: Two specimens, 555 and 580 mm. long, taken off Point

Loma, November 19th, 1890. Collection of = British Masenm,

Related to S. cos, chlorostictus, and rhodoch

Head, 3 (3% to lip of caudal) ; depth, 3 ie ; ~” XIIL, ie he |

HI., 734. Lateral line (pores), 44-45 k

Lower jaw projecting and entering the. profile without eymplgih

ob. Profile nearly straight to origin of dorsal fin, not steep, Snout

very broad, blunt. Maxillary reaching posterior edge of pupil, 2 in

the head. Mouth very oblique, the premaxillary on a level with

superior edge of the pupil. Orbit 1 in snout, 414-434, in head, a little

greater than interorbital. Interorbital concave.»

Pre-, supra-, and postocular, occipital, and nuchal spines san

the first four very short and broad, the supraocular spiné about 234

the interorbital. Occipital spines very high and stout; the n

spines almost continuous with the occipital. 5

Opercular and preopercular spines long and strong, the 3

downward and backward. - Preorbital with a sharp,

anterior spine, and terminating posteriorly in a similar but larger 7

xillary with a few scales superiorly on its median third. S

either naked or with a few scattered patches of scales. Mandible: 7

Spinous dorsal low, the highest spine 23-2 ee in heat

deeply notched, the highest ray about equal to highest spine.

- Caudal truncate. Second anal stouter and about as long 4 ™®

Buccal and opercular cavities and peritoneum white, e

1891.) Zoology. 155

tinued upon the shoulder as a conspicuous blotch, one to lower angle

of opercle, one downward and slightly backward across cheeks ; lower

lip and anterior pgrt of maxillary dusky. A few conspicuous spots on

base of pectoral.

All the dark markings becoming blackish and persisting in spirits,

the radiating streaks of the head especially conspicuous in the alcoholic

specimen. A light spot under last dorsal spine; one on opercular flap.

spinous dorsal fin blackish.

‘Teast so. A dark-blue axillary spot.

S. cos.

Mandible, maxillary, and snout,

except a median triangular spot,

scaly.

Preorbital with a single, flat,

downward-directed spoe at its

posterior angle.

Interorbital deeply concave,

grooved medially.

cond preopercular spine di-

rected downward.

Second anal spine 224 in head.

Color-markings having a washed

or faded appearance.

A prominent symphyseal knob.

Intermaxillary band of teeth

very deep in front, 3 in orbit,

projecting beyond the mandible.

es of head strongly ciliate,

with upturned edges, the breast

scales similar.

Palatine band of teeth long, 14

in orbit.

GERRES CINEREUS, Var, NOV. —One specimen,

Probably taken in the bay. —

specimen collected for us by Mr. Medina, at San Diego,

California, summer of 1890.

S. gilli.

Mandible entirely naked ; max-

illary with a few scales medially.

Preorbital with an anterior and

a posterior spine.

Interorbital nearly evenly con-

cave, the median groove shallow.

Upper three preopercular spines

directed backward.

Second anal spine 334 in head.

Peritoneum nearly white.

Color-markings conspicuous,

No symphyseal knob,

Intermaxillary band of teeth

shallow in mre? 5 in orbit, the

lower jaw projecting.

Scales of ea slightly ciliate,

depressed.

Palatine band of teeth short, 4

in orbit.

185 mm. San Diego,

The single

is interme-

diate between G. californiensis and G. cinereus.

. The caudal fin is slightly longer than the head, while the second

Ventral fins 134 in head.

cept on the ventral surface.

anal spine is short, about 334 in the head.

Dark seem

No dark lateral bars.

All the fins finely punctate, the pectorals

everywhere, €X-

pper portion of

156 The American Naturalist. — [February,

Head, 32 ; depth, 225 ; scales 6-45-10.

Eye equal to interorbital space, 5 in head. Maxillary just reaching

front of eye. Predorsal distance 234 in the lengthy -

SCOMBRESOX BREVIROSTRIS Peters.—One specimen of this rare species

was also collected for us by Mr. Medina in the vicinity of San Diego.

ALOPIAS VULPES (Gmel.).—This shark is also to be added to the

fauna of San Diego.—R. S. EIGENMANN, San Francisco, Cal., Jan.

8th, 1891. ; ea

The Epiglottis in Colubrine Snakes.—In the AMERICAN :

Naturatist for January, 1884 (p. 19), Dr. Chas. A. White describes

the epiglottis of the pine-snakes (Pitydphis), and figures it as it

appears in the P. sayi bellona B. and G. He shows that instead of

having the horizontal form found in the higher Vertebrata, it is a |

vertical lamina standing erect in front of the rima glottidis. He states

a s l AN AAN

“o ne - A ; i G, (Pi EE

Pityophis sayi bellona, B and G, natural size; a, sheath of tongue; b, epee a

c, glottis. From Dr. Shufelot. ip ae ; |

- that he has found it in all of the species of Pityophis, bit Hi i:

wanting in all other serpents which he has examined. Dt

does not specify which these species are, I have made an d

of many genera found in all parts of the world, with the na

ascertaining its presence in any of them other than in Pityophis:

The result of my examinations is that it is either distinctly preset

In a few 10-

1891.] Zoology. 157

(Bulletin U. S. Nat. Museum, 32, 1887, P. 72). It is, however, wanting

in Spilotes proper, and curiously enough in the Rhinechis elegans, which

is otherwise a good deal like Pityophis. It is not present in any other

American snakes, harmless or venomous. It appears to me to bea

character of generic importance, so I propose to separate the two

Mexican snakes referred to from Spilotes on account of its presence

under the name of Epiglottophis, with Æ. deppei as the type.

Among old-world snakes it is wanting in all types, both venomous

and harmless, The rudiment in the form of a small tubercle is present

in the Sprlotes helenae, S. melanurus and S. samarensis ; also in the

Rhinechis scalaris.—E. D. COPE.

Notes on the Classification of the Pigeons.—Quite recently

the writer has very thoroughly compared the characters presented on

the part of the skeletons of specimens of nearly all the genera of the

United States Columbide. There appears to bea difference of opinion

as to how these birds should be classified. Coues, in his “ Key”

(second edition), states it as his opinion that ‘‘ the order Columba:

may be separated into three groups or suborders: Didi, Pterocletes,

and Peristerze,—the first two certainly, the last probably, of a single

family. The Peristerze alone are American. These he divides in the

following way:

Subfamilies.

Suborder. . Family. 1. Columbine.

PERISTERZ. Columbide. 2. Zenaidine.

> ; 3. Starnænadinæ.

In the Columbinæ he includes the genera Columba and Ectopistes ;

in the Zenaidine, the genera Engyptila, Zenaidura, Zenaida, Melo-

pelia, Columbigallina, Scardafella, and Geotrygon ; and finally, in the

tarncenadinz, the genus Starnoenas.

The American Ornithologists’ “Union, in its official check-list, pre-

sents the order Columbz to contain the family Columbidz, and cre-

ates no subfamilies for the genera just named above.

Mr. Ridgway, in his “ Manual,” adopts the same scheme of classi-

fication,

Coues primarily bases his division of the Columbide into sub-,

families upon the following characters :

Tarsi scutellate, feathered ....:- Columbine.

Tarsi scutellate, naked . .. +--+: -> Zenaidine.

Tarsi reticulate, naked . .-.- - . . Starncenadine.

‘The remaining characters, in so far as we have any knowledge of

them at present, except in the case of the Starncenadinz, do not go to

158 The American Naturalist.

support this division, and it breaks down utterly when we come to take

into consideration the osteology of the various species. ao

The skeleton of Geotrygon has not been examined by me; but I am

of the opinion that it will not militate against the classification sug-

gested below, judging as I do from its external anatomy. ee

My studies of the osteology of the group convince me that our

“United States pigeons naturally make a very good suborder, containing |

the family Columbide. Now, if we take the characters presented on

the part of the skeleton of such a species as Lctopistes migratorius, We

find that they are essentially repeated by all the other genera save

Starncenas. When we come to osteologically compare Starncenas wè

find that it differs very materially and in a number of points, as in

the general pattern of its sternum, the number and arrangement of its

vertebree and ribs, some of its cranial characters, and in the characters”

of its pelvic limbs. os

From osteological premises, then, our family Columbide divides

naturally into two subfamilies: the Columbine, containing the genera

Columba, Ectopistes, Engyptila, Zenaidura, Zenaida, peli

Columbigallina, Scardafella, and Geotrygon ; and the subfamily Star-

nænadinæ, containing the genus Starncenas. | ae

In another connection it is my intention to present these. osteolo

cal characters of the Columbide in detail.—R. W. SHUFELDT, +

sonian Institution, January 22d, 1891. fz

Description of Two New Species of Rodents from Mexico.

—While recently classifying and arranging the collections of naa

belonging to the Natural History Section of the Comision

Exploradora of Mexico, I found two species apparently nê

characters I now give : a

S , Sp. nov——Apparently quite similar gil

Merriam’s recently described S. cryptospilotus, which 1 T i

from the description. Above, head and body fawn color, with :

indications of spots. Individual hairs with extreme bases lack,

lowed by a narrow ring of straw-yellow, subterminally oadl Lag,

with walnut-brown (which color occupies more than co

covered by the two preceding colors), and tipped with cre

Something like one per cent. of the hairs have the walnut-DrO™

placed by black ; but these are so relatively few in number

~ sensibly affect the general tone, Color gradually shading

_ sides, where it meets, in a sharp line, the white of under parts:

_ of decidedly lighter fawn color, 3 mm. in width, comm

1891.] ‘ Zoology. 159

back of the nose, passes between the darker shade of the crown and a

superorbital white area, terminating at the ear.

The upper border of the white of under parts is defined by a line

drawn from the nostrils, passing over the eyes and through centers of

ear openings, across shoulders and along sides of body to the groins.

The white area also includes the inner surfaces of legs and dorsal sur-

faces of hind feet, which latter are slightly washed with rufous, Hairs

of under parts entirely white, but so thin in the specimen before me

that the color of the skin shows through, giving a plumbeous cast to

most of this surface.

Outer surface of fore limb, from elbow to bases of toes, white, more

or less washed with rufous. Outer surfaces of hind legs concolor with

dorsum.

First third of upper surface of tail the same as back; thence the

center is fawn color, bordered bya black zone that, in turn, is bordered

by a wĦitish rufous. On its under surface the black line is. scarcely

` perceptible, the whole of this surface being pale rufous.

Ears, in dried skin, a mere rim,

Lower surfaces of pes densely haired ; of manus,

Claws medium sized, black, with white R Upe; s oE Homb. as well de-

veloped as in S. mextcanus.

Mystacial hairs mostly black ; a few white ones interspersed.

Measurements of dried skin, in millimeters: Total length, 220;

head and body, 155; tail vertebra, 65; hairs beyond vertebre, 20;

hind foot, 33; fore foot, 21; longest mystacial hairs, 32.

Measurements of skull: Length from point of nasals to upper edge

of foramen mgnum, 38; greatest width at auditory bullæ, 18; least

interorbital width, 9 ; length of molar series, 8.5 ; transverse diameter

of first premolar, 1.25 ; the same of second, 2; of first molar, 2.5.

The zygomz and hinder edge of palate are broken, so as to allow of

no measurements being taken from them.

The only noticeable differences between this skull and that of .S.

cryptospilotus (vide North American Fauna, No. 3, Pl. 1x., Figs. 1,

2, and 3) is that in this the hamular processes of the pterygoids abut

against the auditory bullæ posterior to the suture of the basisphenoidum

with the basioccipitale, instead of in front of it, as in cryptospilotus ;

and in that the transverse diameter of the first premolar is fully equal

to its longitudinal diameter.

_ _ Type: No. 517 8ad., Museum of the Comision Geografica-Explora-

dora de México. Taken by Zenon Cordova, at Hermosillo, Sonora,

November, 188 87.

Am. Nat.—February.—5.

160 The American Naturalist. [ February,

This species belongs to the Spilosoma group, and in all probability

finds its closest affinity in S. cryptospilotus, from which it appears

separable by some slight differences in size, color, and the cranial

characters noted.

NEOTOMA TORQUATA, sp. nov.—Above, head and body light Van-

dyke-brown, washed with black; more intensely in the mesaldorsal

line, insensibly becoming entirely obliterated before reaching the white

of lower parts. Hairs of all parts, except ears, feet, tail, and a small

patch on chin, slate-gray for the greater part of their length. Above

ringed for about 3 mm. with Vandyke-brown, followed by a slight

tipping of black. In the dorsal line are interspersed longer hairs

nearly or completely lacking the rufous ringing, whose place being

occupied by the greater extension of the black tips, gives to this part

its darker tone, which may be described as hair-brown. Belly nearly

pure white, slightly tinged with yellow, and in parts soiled by the slate-

gray of roots showing through the white tips of hairs. Breast occupied

by a well-defined collar, 20 mm. in width, of same color as sides of

body. Under surface of neck grayish-white, gradually shading for-

ward to slate-gray to form an ill-defined band, about 4 mm. in wi !

that covers the upper lips, excepting a narrow line of white encircling

the mouth parts. A small, circular area on chin of pure white, includ-

ing roots of hairs. Upper third of circumference of tail clove-brown,

sharply separated from the dirty white of its sides and under parts.

The tail is closely covered with short, stiffish hairs, through which only i

upon very close scrutiny can the annyli be seen on sides and beneath. a

Feet white, slightly washed with drab a trifle below carpus and ure : 7

Outer surfaces of legs and arms shading from Vandyke-brown above ee

to drab below. Inner surfaces as belly. Ears seal-brown, nearly naked oat

on posterior external surfaces, rather scantily covered with short seal- `

brown hairs on internal and anterior external surfaces. ' ystacial hen &

black for half or two-thirds of their length, terminating in white; “o

longest being 65 mm. Soles of fore feet entirely naked, ©" z

warts ; of hind feet, well covered with hair for posterior half, having

six warts. Eyes blue-black, very large and exserted. Their diame

in the dried skin is about 8 mm. oa ee

Measurements, taken in flesh: Length from tip of nose ' cae

tail vertebrae, 338 mm. (13.33”); tail vertebre, 160 (6.37')3 ig tee

16 (.69”) ; pes, 35 (1-41”); ear, 21 (.84"). e

The skull shows no peculiarities of note. Length, 45> 3

width of zygomæ, 23; length of both upper and lower yee” á

9; length of inferior mandibula from arthral bead to simi

— Zoology. 161

alveola of incisor, 25. The skull and teeth are nearly precisely as

figured by Baird for Veotoma mexicana (U. S. Mex. Boundary Survey,

Mammals, Pl. xxiv., Figs. 1 4 to g-)

Type specimen : No. 380, Museum of Comision Geografica-Explora-

dora; adult female, taken between Tetela del Volcan and Zacualpan

Amilpas, State of Morelos, Oct. 26, 1890. Collector, H. L, Ward.

Found in dark tunnel of an abandoned mine.

According to Coues (Mon. N, A. Rod.), Neotoma is a genus in

which cranial and dental characters count for little or nothing (!), but in

which color appears to be quite constant. We will therefore disregard

the almost exact conformity of the skull and teeth of this species with

those figured by Prof. Baird for mexicana, and will call attention only

to external characters. ÆW. sorquata is at once distinguished from all

known species of Neotoma by its collar ; also from floridana by the

more rufous color of upper parts, and by roots of hairs of belly being

gray instead of white; from fuscipes and ferruginea by this latter dis-

tinction and the tail being bicolor, instead of unicolor ; from cinerea

in general coloration and in not having the tail bushily haired. —Henry

L. Warp, Zacubaya, D. F. Mex., Jan. 22, 1892.

The Entepicondylar Bridge in Man.—M. S. Nicholas, has

observed and recorded (Revue Biologique du Nord de la, France,

1891, p. 121), six cases of the presence of a rudiment of the superior

part of the entepicondylar bridge of the humerus in man. They all

occurred in insane persons who died in the Asylum of Maréville. This

anomaly is interesting as constituting a lemuroid reversion. Struthers

has observed this anomaly in 2 p. c. of skeletons he has examined, and

Gruber in 2.7 p. c. Testut gives 1 p. c. as the proportion of cases,

which Nicholas thinks is the most probably correct figure.

‘ss The American Naturalist. ri [February,

EMBRYOLOGY.!

Development of Mammals.—In so thoroughly worked over and

so narrowly bounded a field as vertebrate embryology we should hope to

find a singleness of plan running through the series, accompanied by

an agreement amongst workers and theorists as to the interpretation of :

the known phenomena. In fact, however, the greatest possible

divergence is found. This is especially marked in the recent attempts

of embryologists to explain the process of gastrulation in the groups of

vertebrates. Of course the problem of the mesoblast is here, as every-

where, a challenge for battle ; but this is not all, for even the origin of

endoderm and ectoderm have their various interpreters. fee

An illustration of this is furnished by the three (and more) hypotheses

which are advanced to account for the early stages of development of —

the mammals. Two of these may be taken here as an example, and

a third will be mentioned below in a review of Hubrecht’s recent papet.

The two which we shall now consider are those of Haddon * and

` Minot.3 These two theories, advanced about the same time, are said ee

by Haddon to be ‘‘somewhat similar hypotheses,’’ and Minot says

that his own is ‘‘ the most satisfactory, and preferable to the similar

explanation advanced. . . by Haddon.” To an outsider the two 7 k

theories seem to contradict each other in all that is essential and pE

to each.

Balfour prophesied that the ancestral mammal had a large | ovum

filled with yolk, and this, by Caldwell’s discovery of the eggs of M

tremes, has been practically demonstrated. Both Haddon and Minot

accept this as their starting point, but immediately diverge in ee

directions in their ‘somewhat similar explanations.’

The two accompanying diagrams have been cop

views : ie

Diagram A gives Haddon’s idea of the meaning of the :

layers of the mammalian embryo. The central cavity (y-5-

-sac of the ancestral vertebrate, which has been covered over A

cociously by ectoderm (e.c.); ancestrally this was accomplished by ee

bole. At the upper pole the blastoderm, owing to the pepe

has fallen into the yolk-cavity, leaving a small’ opening (3! n,

1 Edited by T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore:

2 Elements of Embryology

3 AMERICAN Nan aiios April, 1889.

ied to illustrate t g

1891.) _ Embryology. 163

surface, which Van Beneden mistook for the blastopore. . The blasto-

derm proper consists of ectoderm, several cells in thickness, and below

scattered endoderm cells. The mesoderm is formed later between the

FIG. 1.—(Diagram A.) - Fic. 2.—(Diagram B.)

two. The strong point of this explanation is that it seems to refer the

germ-layers back to a condition found in the reptilian embryo, and

the weak point, it seems to me, is that it does not clearly illustrate the

method by which the yolk has been lost, and what cells originally

contained it.

Minot gives the following hypothetical stage to explain the homolo-

gies of the mammalian germ-layers (see Diagram B). The uei

central cavity, which he calls the segmentation cavity (the yolk-cavity

of Haddon), is surrounded by endodermal cells, which formerly con-

tained yolk. (Hence they do not represent epibolic ectoderm, T

believed by Haddon.) The walled blastoderm (embryonic knob) at

the upper pole of the figure is composed probably entirely of ectoderm

cells. (Again a contradiction to Haddon’s view.) The endoderm

which later appears under the blastoderm comes from the sides where

the endoderm cells around the segmentation cavity pass into the ecto-

dermal blastoderm, Here, it seems to me, is the weakest part of the

hypothesis, and Dr. Minot seems to have expected to find the oy

formation of endoderm as in the teleost. This is flatly contradicted

by well-supported statements. (See Hubrecht below.) The author has

jumped from the frog’s gastrula to that of the mammal, not giving, I

believe, due weight to the intermediate reptilian stage, assuming that

With the loss. of yolk in the ancestral mammal there was a return to

the more primitive condition of the amphibian stage ; but it seems this

is hardly a fair assumption as a basis for further hypotheses. ;

Prof. Hubrecht gives a second paper‘ in his studies Z wee

embryology, entitled “ The Development of the ss cp

t Ouar., Jour. Micro. Science,

164 The American Naturalist. (February, i

Sorex vulgaris.’ The paper is a detailed description of the origin of

the germ-layers. The earliest stage obtained had a single layer of

flattened cells (ectoderm) lying beneath the zona and bounding a cen-

tral cavity filled with fluid. These ectodermal cells he calls the tropho-

blast. At one point in the periphery there is an accumulation of cells

—the embryonic knob—which contains the material for the embryonic |

Se ae ee y ~

ectoderm and endoderm. The cavity in the center surrounded by the

trophoblast and filled with fluid is the segmentation cavity. The em-

bryonic knob gives rise to the early endoderm cells from its more cen-

tral part, and some of these then migrate around the periphery of the

central cavity and apply themselves to the inner side of the trophoblast

(ectoderm). See Diagram C. This contradicts part of Minot’s

hypothesis given above.) The trophoblast cells seem to grow over the |

embryonic knob, causing an “‘ inversion ” of the embryo. After the

differentiation of the endoderm from the embryonic knob the remain-

ing ectoderm is spoken of as the embryonic shield (emd.sh.) The

endoderm first forms part of the notochord and mesoblastic plates.

Thus under the anterior end of the embryonic shield the endoderm —

is spoken of as the protochordal plate (mo,ch’.) The rest of the noto-

chord differentiates later and in a different way. The mesoderm has

not yet appeared, but is now inaugurated by the appearance of the

primitive streak. - The mesoderm originates from three different

points: 1st, from the sides of the protochordal plate (see above) ; 2nd,

from the primitive streak, from which it advances forward between

ecto- and endoderm ; and 3d, from an annular zone of endoderm lyiag

around and under the periphery of the embryonic shield. The details aS a

of this process are shown in a large number of figures. pee A

We may now pass to the theoretical considerations of the gastrula- soa

tion of mammals, (The process of inversion, or the sinking of the oe

embryo into the cavity of the vesicle, may be left out of account, ai

produces no important changes in the germ-layers of the embryo, pe ie

may in a general way be compared with the later formation of "

amnion.) We have seen in the early differentiation of the endoderm =

from the embryonic knob that part of the endoderm is formed TA

the actual process of gastrulation has set in,—that is, before the ap i

ance of the primitive streak. This the author calls precocious #6

gation, and is an ontogenetic phênomenon. Later, when the p pat

streak is formed (the coalescing of the lips of the blastopore), S

endoderm arises in this region and is added to that already pe gees

and this latter is the phylogenetic endoderm, and alone 1$ om

pared to the Sauropsidan type. The remaining part of the 2o

1891.] Embryology. 165

(also the lateral wings of the mesoderm) is formed from the phylo-

genetic endoderm, and may be compared to the formation of noto-

chord’and mesoblast of Batrachia.

We have sufficient evidence to believe that between the Batrachia

and the Mammalia a ‘‘ phylogenetic link has once existed, in which the

actual food-yolk formed a very considerable addition to the early

blastocyst. The case of the Ornithodelphia is most important in this

‘respect.. . . When the nutritive contents of the yolk-sac were no

longer of primary importance, . . . a reduction in size of the blasto-

cyst was not effectuated because another factor came into play, The

vascular area which heredity called forth on the surface of the yolk-sac

. . . must have rendered eminent service for the establishment of a

different mode of nutrition, as soon

as the embryo underwent a con-

siderable part of its development

inside the maternal generative

.”’ Hence the large size of the

blastocyst of the mammal has been

retained not because it once contained

yolk, but because it was an essential

function to perform in the nutrition

of the embryo.

The accompanying diagram (Fig.

3) represents (somewhat modified)

the author’s figure to show the

relationship to each other of the :

mammalian germ-layers. The greater part of the central (fluid)

cavity is surrounded by two layers,—the outer of ectoderm, the tropho-

blast, and within the ontogentic endoderm. The upper part of the

` figure shows the embryonic layers. The endoderm passes under the

ectodermal embryonic shield (black). The posterior part of the lat-

ter (with white streaks) shows the area of the primitive streak, and

from this runs forward under the embryonic shield a prolongation

(no.ch., black with white dots), forming the posterior part of the reset

chord, and laterally, though not shown in the figure, the wings

of mesoblast, In front of this is seen a thickened part of the onto-

genetic endoderm, which forms precociously the anterior end of the

notochord (o.ch.) and to the sides some of the mesoderm. For

further details see the author’s excellent figures. :

The essential difference between this hypothesis and that of —

is at once seen. What the latter speaks of as endoderm cells are sa

EMCR NOCH

H H

$ ;

Fic. 3.—(Diagram C.)

166 The American Naturalist. [February,

trophoblast cells of Hubrecht, which are ectodermal. Hubrecht shows

conclusively that the endoderm originates from the embryonic knob,

and not at its sides as is demanded by Minot’s recent hypothesis.

Hubrecht is more in accordance with Haddon, both as to the origin *

of the endodern from the under side of the embryonic shield, and in

the ectodermal covering of the the early blastocyst.—T. H. M.

The Embryology, of Gecko.—Dr. Ludwig Will gives, in the

- Biologisches Centralblatt, November 15, 1890, a short paper on the

method of gastrulation of this lizard. ‘At the posterior end of the

embryonic shield is a mass of cells, called the primitive plate. The

cells at this point are several rows deep, while over the embryonic

shield the ectoderm is composed of a single layer of columnar cells,

but witha few yolk-cells scattered beneath it. At a later stage the an-

terior end of the primitive plate forms a distinct invagination, the walls

formed of a single row of cells. This sac pushes forward under the

embryonic shield, between the ectoderm and the yolk-cells, The in-

vagination cells spread out into a broad sac. There follows next an

irregular fusion and absorbtion between the invaginated endoderm and

the yolk-cells (endoderm also), so that the general cavity above the

yolk, in which the yolk-cells were scattered, communicates with the in-

vagination cavity, and hence with the outer world by means of the

proximal end of the latter cavity, or blastopore. The upper walls of the

invaginated cells go to form the notochord, and the rest of them go to

form the mesoderm at the sides of the latter, The author believes that

the Gecko furnishes grounds for comparing the reptilian with the am-

phibian gastrulation. The blastopore—or the open mouth of the in-

vagination—extends backwards, and the two lips coming in contact

fuse to form a primitive streak, so that what was previously only a theory

—namely, that the primitive streak was formed by the fusion of the lips

of the blastopore in Sauropsida, and whose opening in these was only

represented by the neurenteric canal—is now shown to be a fact from

the development of the Gecko.

Theory of the Mesoderm.’—Prof. C. Rabl has a long paper on

the origin of the mesoderm of vertebrates. The paper is largely de-

voted to theoretical discussions, although based upon observations on

the germ-layers of Selachians, birds, and mammals. The first part of

the paper deals with the formation of the mesoderm in the above types,

the second with the later differentiations of the mesoderm. It is un-

necessary to give a full review of the paper here,? and we may confine

5 Morphologisches Jahrbuch, No. 15, 1889.

See Journ. Royal. Micro. Soc., Feb., 1890.

_ of the blastopore in the Amniota gastrula as

1891.] Embryology. 167

our attention to that part of it dealing with the gastrulation of the

vertebrates. The Selachian gastrulation arose by the accumulation of

yolk in the cyclostome egg, while the Amniote (reptiles, birds, mam-

mals) gastrula arose from accumulated yolk to the amphibian egg.

The resulting gastrulee of Selachians and Amniota, the author attempts

to show, are therefore fundamentally different. The Selachian (and

Teleost) gastrulz resulted from the addition of yolk to the endoderm cells

of the cyclostome before the ectoderm had grown over the endoderm,

and since the epibolic endoderm does not cover in the yolk, the blasto-

pore in this group is represented by the whole margin of the embryonic

shield. The blastopore mouth then is very large, and the (morpholog-

ical) posterior end of the blastopore lies just in front of the embryonic

shield, and the anterior or upper end of the blastopore lies at its

usual position at the posterior end of the shield. This is, of course, the

general conception. But for the Amniota the author believes the

gastrula to be different in that it is not here represented by the whole

border of the embryonic shield, but has a more limited extent. Rabl

believes that the accumulation of yolk in the amphibian egg has been

also in the endoderm cells, but, so far as he explains it, this must have,

taken place after (ancestrally) the epiblast had covered the (endoderm)

yolk-mass so that the gastrula becomes reduced to the region of the

primitive streak alone. Therefore it follows that one end of the

primitive groove (just behind the embryonic shield) represents the

anterior (upper) end of the amphibian blastopore, and the other end

of the groove the posterior (lower of the amphibian). The anterior

end of the primitive shield would not seem here to represent anything

in particular! Rabl supports his conclusion by arguments drawn from

the formation of the mesoderm.

The author does not account for- the large exposure of yolk outside

we find it in the bird and

lizard ; unless indeed he supposed it to. have actually broken through

the ectoderm covering. Further, that the author’s view is probably

erroneous is shown in the occasional presence of a lengthened primi-

tive streak running posteriorly through the area opaca, as —

figured by Whitman. It has also, I believe, been seen since by others.

168 The American Naturalist. [February,

ENTOMOLOGY.!

Insects in Iowa.—Bulletin No. 11 (issued November, 1890) of

the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station contains four articles by

r. C. P. Gillette, of considerable entomological interest. The first

discusses the injuries .and life-history of the Potato Stalk Weevil

( Zrichobaris trinotata Say), which has been unusually destructive in

Iowa the past season. Mr. Gillette thinks that “half a million of

dollars would fall far short of making good the loss that it has occa-

sioned the state this year. In gardens where potatoes have grown year

after year I have seldom found less than seventy-five per cent. of the

stalks infested, and from this to ninety-three per cent. In field patches

at a distance from where potatoes were grown last year I have found

as few as twenty per cent. of the stalks infested, but in no case have I

found the injuries less abundant than this.” The next article discusses

the Apple Curculio (Anthonomus jiddrigibins Say), and contains the

first extended description of the method of oviposition of this insect.

The two remaining articles discuss the currant-stem boring habits of

Hyperplatys aspersus Say, commonly known as the Cottonwood Borer,

and kerosene emulsion as a sheep dip and destroyer of parasites upon

domestic animals. The experiments reported under this last heading

are of great practical value. The author concludes with this paragraph :

“I must say that after repeated experiments with kerosene emulsion,

along with other substances commonly recommended for the destruction

of vermin upon domestic animals, I feel certain that it is far ahead ot

anything I have tried when cheapness, effectiveness, ease of application,

and freedom from possible bad effects are taken into account.”’

Indiana Insect Notes.—Bulletin No. 33 of the Purdue Univer-

sity Agricultural Experiment Station contains ten pages of entomo-

_ logical notes by Mr. F. M. Webster. The sub-titles are as follows:

Experiments with the Plum Curculio; Notes on Strawberry Insects

(Zyloderma fragrarie, Haltica ignita, and the Field Cricket); Some

Hitherto Unrecorded Enemies of Raspberries and Blackberries (So/enop-

- sts fugax, Limonus auripilis, Carpophilus brachypterus, Tulus impressus,

and Cosmopepla carnifex). Most of these notes are republished from

Tnsect Life. The Plum Curculio experiments were made chiefly to de- `

termine to what extent the insect develops in native varieties of plums,

_ and they showed that the insects do breed freely in them. The eco-

1 Edited by Dr. C. M. Weed, Columbus, Ohio.

walked away without turning about to inspect the

1891.] Entomology. 169

nomic points are summarized as follows: ‘‘ (1) The variety of plum or

apple whose blooming season covers the greatest period of time will

best withstand the work of the curculio; (2) the planting of plum

trees in the apple orchard will not protect the latter, and vice versa ;

(3) if anything is to be gained by using another fruit to draw off the

curculio and protect the plum, the nectarine will probably serve as well

as the apple ; (4) adult curculio beetles eat the pulp of apples ; (5) cur-

culios will deposit their eggs in fruit hanging over the water ; (6) the

indications are that the Strawberry Crown Borer lays its eggs during

March and April in the plants near the surface of the ground ; (7)

burning strawberry"plants after fruit-picking may destroy the Crown

Borer ; (8) the common field cricket will eat strawberries.’’

Oviposition of the Apple Curculio.—Mr. C. P. Gillette has

lately described the process by which the eggs of Anthonomus quadrigib-

are deposited. The description was originally read before the lowa

Academy of Science, September, 1890, and has since been published

in Bulletin No. 11 of the Iowa Experiment Station (pp. 492-493)-

Mr, Gillette says : «I am not aware that any one has published actual

Fic. i, æ, apple infested by the Apple Curculio; 4, egg-cavity, natural size; c, egg

very much enlarged. Redrawn from Gillette.

observations on the method of oviposition of this insect. On the

13th of last June I was fortunate enough to see a female perform the

entire operation, which was done as follows: First, a cavity (Fig. 1, 5)

was eaten in the apple as deep as the beak was long, the bottom being

much enlarged and subtriangular in outline. The walls of the cavity

converge to the opening, which is only large enough to admit the slen-

der beak. When first noticed the beetle had begun her work and it

was 30 minutes before the egg-cavity was completed. The beetle, r

most immediately after withdrawing her beak, turned about an

applied the tip of her abdomen to the small opening into the egg-

: Pi inutes she

cavity. After remaining in this position for about five minu

S work she had done.

I 70 The American Naturalist. (February,

I at once plucked the apple, and examined closely the identical spot

where the beetle had been at work, and was surprised to find that there

was no puncture to be seen in the skin of the apple, but only a minute

brown speck, I found that the beetle had plugged the little opening

with what appeared to be a bit of pomace, probably excrement, and

she had done the work so nicely that I think no one would have sus-

pected that this little speck marked the place of oviposition of this

insect, unless he had seen such specks before, and knew what they signify.

With a sharp knife a section was made through this egg-chamber, which

I have endeavored to represent natural size, at F ig. 1, 5, with the egg

at the bottom. ;

Although it is almost impossible to distinguish newly stung fruit

from external appearances, it becomes very easy after a few days when

the infested apples become gnarly and ill:shapen, as shown in Fig. 1, a.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Professor Moll on Hypnotism.!—This work is a general résumé

of what is known of hypnotism. The exposition by Prof. Moll covers

most of the ground in an adequate manner, and is therefore well

adapted for the instruction of the general reader. The author holds

that suggestion is the efficient cause of the phenomena, and therefore

regards the subject primarily as a’ branch of psychology, rather than of

Physiology. He states that most persons of healthy mental organiza-

tion can be hypnotized, and that susceptibility, except in extreme cases,

1s not a mark of mental weakness. Persons of the nervous tempera-

ment are most susceptible, and idiots and insane persons can be

hypnotized in a small proportion of cases only. Susceptibility is not

confined to any race or nation, so far as known. The statements of the

numerous investigators are subjected to rigid and rational criticism, and

nothing is accepted or rejected without adequate evidence. The ‘author

pursues a judicial course in this respect, and refuses his assent to whole-

Sale and uncritical scepticism, as well as to excessive credulity. Phy-

siological explanations are frequently held in reserve as not proven,

whatever degree of probability may attach to them.

The abundance of well-established facts now recorded in the litera-

_ ture of hypnotism has placed the subject within the domain of exact

___ Hypnotism; by Albert Moll. The Contemporary Science Series, London : Walter

. Seott, New York: Scribner and Welford. 8vo. Edited by Havelock Ellis, 1890.

1891] l Psychology. 171

psychology, and its practical value to both mental and bodily thera-

peutics is admitted. Less attention is given to its importance to psy-

chological science, and hence to philosophy. No support is given to

the rather uncritical assertions frequently made as to the evidence

offered by hypnotism for the existence of double or multiple personality

of a single human individual. Not much space is given to the remark-

able structural changes seen in the formation of red or necrobiotic

figures on the skin, as the result of suggestion, although the reality of

the phenomena is not challenged. The experiments of Jendrassik and

Krafft-Ebing seem to place the facts beyond doubt.

. Suggestibility is regarded as the principal characteristic of hypnosis

as distinguished from somnambulism ; hence most of the book is occu-

pied with an elucidation of its mental and physical implications. Post-

hypnotic suggestion receives a large share of attention. As an expert

the author does not occupy so much space with the detailed accounts

of experiments as with explanations of them in relation to other and

normal mental states. The work is well adapted to enlighten the

reader as to the essential significance of hypnotism. The citation of

authorities is very full.—C.

Was it Hallucination ?—I had a strange experience about nine

o'clock this morning, which I hasten to put on record while all its

details are fresh in my mind. My wife being quite seriously ill, I

went for our family physician, about three blocks distant. I met him

in an apothecary’s shop, and asked him to come to our residence. He

had one call to make near by, but promised to be with us very soon.

I returned in a few minutes, coming into our cross-street at the east

end of the block. As I came across a vacant lot just east of our house

I happened to look out to the westward, when I saw our doctor just

leaving the cross-walk and turning in as if to come straight to our

place. It occurred to me that he was a little ahead of the time I ex-

pected him; but I hurried on to apprise my, wife of his coming. I

then went out to meet him. But mo one was in sight; and at the

moment I believed I saw him he was actually in a distant part of the

town, at least several blocks away. He was detained, and did not

reach us for a couple of hours, and was much surprised “ my ster

ment of having seen him. He said it was some sort of pore

tion, ’—whatever that might be! He asked: “ Was I not apek

about him?’’ Possibly I was, but with no idea of seeing him t ia

_ and then, As to the man, I could not be mistaken. His dress, .

long, flowing, almost white beard—every detail of his personal appear

{72 The American Naturalist. [February,

ance—were just as clear to my vision as when he really called, a little

later. It was clear daylight ; I was as wide awake as I am now while

writing this item. Fifty years ago I listened to just such a story, and

the narrator declared she “‘ had seen a ghost.” I am not in the least

superstitious, and even had this been a “ ghost,’’ and I had known it,

I should have felt no alarm, for I never knew those intangible folk to

harm a living mortal,—even in the days when ghosts were so generally

“believed in.” Thinking the matter over immediately afterwards, I

tried to recall any feature of this “‘second sight’ which was in any

sense abnormal, The only fact I could remember was that the doctor

seemed to walk rather faster than usual, but I thought he only wished

to overtake me before I entered the house. I thought he kept his eye

on me, and continued to look at me ina very interested manner. I

only wish I had kept my gaze upon him, and noted the spot and how

he so completely vanished. I was never more thoroughly taken aback

than when I went out to meet him, not more than thirty seconds after

I saw him, and no one was in sight /—CHARLES ALDRICH, Webster

City, Lowa, December 15th, 1890.

ARCHAOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.

The Societe d’Anthropologie at Paris.—4 Sketch of Its Or-

ganization and Work.\—The theory of evolution, and so the origin of

species, which has been credited by many people to Charles Darwin, is

in France credited, or attempted to be credited, to the naturalist La-

marck, and there was organized in 1884, under the protection, or at

least the shadow, of the Society of Anthropology, an organization

called the “ Réunion Lamarck.”’

Born of the same idea as was the School of Anthropology, the Society

of Anthropology, on the proposition of Monsieur Mathias Duval, in-

augurated a course of lectures, which, under the name of ‘‘ Conferences

Transformiste,”” were intended to popularize the doctrine of evolution

and the mutability of species, and so the origin of man.

In this course have been delivered the following lectures : .

“The Development of the Eye,” by Monsieur Mathias Duval, 1883.

“ The Evolution of Morality,” by M. Letourneau, 1884.

“ Evolution of Language,” by Monsieur Hovelacque, 1885.

“ The Paleontologic Evolution of Animals,” by M. G. de Mortil-

let, 1886. |

1 Continued from Page 8s.

1891] Archeology. and Ethnology. 173

“<The Mental Evolution in the Organic Series,” by Madame Cle-

mence Royer, 1887.

** Microbes and Transformism,’’ by M. Bordier, 1888.

‘Transformism Français, Lamarck,’’ by M. Mathias Duval, 1880.

_ The regular lectures are given usually at four o’clock in the after-

noon, from November to May inclusive, in the audience hall of the

Societe d’Anthropologie at the Musée Dupuytren, 15 Rue de Ecole de

la Medicine. While the lectures are open to the public and any one can

attend, yet it is usual that those who propose attending regularly shall

inscribe themselves, and obtain cards of admission. ‘They can then be

assigned to a particular seat, which they can have without disturbance

during the course. Thus there is obtained a record of the number of

regular attendants. These are shown in the following table :

Number of attendants at the regular courses of lectures given by the

School of Anthropology from 1877 to 1889 inclusive :

Sere 76 ee e eas ee

TBE 1G i oe Oe eee 9,294

1879 Bo a San a a e a . . 10,289

T880 BE ee ee eee er ye a ge 9,719

OST Be int es ee ree Da a 7,611

1882—83 . a eg re ar e a A 8,343

88584 o a a a e a 8,315

en 8S a ee eee oe rene

TORRE o, a a ee eee 8,742

T886- 89 Go Se A eee 8,709

1OSH88 Ce ae a 7,075

1888—89... e ouaa a N eer 11,786

The members of the Societe d’Anthropologie were actuated by a

desire that their felluow-men should reap as much benefit as possible

from their efforts, and so devoted whatever opportunities they might

have, with whatever amount of labor it might be, to spread the news of

their science, and to give such information to the people and education

to the students as they could. So they have organized within them-

_ Selves various societies, and have armed themselves in various ways for

the accomplishment of their much-desired project. I can do no more

with these than simply to mention their names and give a list of the

works published. x

There was organized a library called ‘‘ Contemporancous Science.

A committee of direction and editing was appointed, and M. Rein-

wald, rs Rue des Saint-Peres was chosen editor. The plan agreed upon

174 The American Naturalist. [February,

was to request or obtain from each professor or person having the re-

quisite knowledge a manual, which should be small, compact, com-

plete, clear, easily read. The manual was to be devoted to the science

or specialty for which each professor was best qualified. There have

been completed of this series the following:

Biology, by Dr. Letourneau, 3d edition, 1 vol., 518 pages and 112

engravings.

Language, by Hovelacque, 5th edition, 1 vol., 454 pages.

Anthropology, by Dr. Topinard, 5th edition, 1 vol., 576 pages with

52 engravings. |

Esthetics, by Eugene Veron, director of the Journal of Art, 2d edi-

tion, 1 vol., 524 pages,

Philosophy, by M. Andre Lefevre, 2d edition, 1 vol., 640 pages.

Sociology in Its Relation to Ethnography, by Dr. Letourneau, 2d

edition, 1-vol., 624 pages

Economic Science, by Yves Guyot, ‘2d edition, 1 vol., 600 pages

and 67 engravings.

Prehistoric Antiquities of Man, by G. de Mortillet, 2d edition, 1

vol., 678 pages and 64 figures.

Botany, by de Lanessan, 1 vol., 570 pages, 132 figures.

Medical Geography, by Dr. Bordier, 1 vol., 688 pages, with figures.

Ethics’(la Morale), by Eugene Voren, 1 vol., 516 pages.

Experimental Politics, by Leon Donnat, 1 vol. , 504 pages.

Problems of History, by Paul Mougeolle, 1 vol., 498 pages.

Pedagogy, by Issaurat, 1 vol., 512 pages.

Agriculture and Agrouniic eck by Albert Larbaletrier, 1 vol.,

568 pages.

Physical Chemistry, and its Role in Natural Phelon: in Astron-

omy, Geology, and Biology, by Dr. Fauvelle, 1 vol., 512 pages.

Anthropological Library. —An organization much the same, and for

the same purpose, but divided for convenience, is the one carrying the

foregoing title. It is directed by another committee, much the same

as the former, of which Mathias Duval, Hervè, Hovelacque, Letour-

neau, de Mortillet are respectively members. Their publishers are

Lecrosnier & Babé, Place de Ecole de Medicine, Paris. The vol-

umes which have been published by this organization are eleven :

I. Sociologic Physiology. Thulie, Femme.

H inism. val.

- ILL. Moral Evolution. Letourne

_ IV. Precis d’ Anthropologie, Hovelacque and Hervè.

y. Religions. Vison.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 175

VI. Evolution of Marriage and the Family. Letourneau.

VII. The Family in the Roman Society. Lacombe.

VIII. Evolution of Property. Letourneau.

IX. The Negro of Africa. Hovelacque.

X. Comparative Pathology. Bordier.

XI. Prehistoric France. Cartailhac.

A similar organization was made for bringing out a dictionary of

anthropologic science. The committee of publication or editors were

Hovelacque, Issaurat, Lefevre, Letourneau, de Mortillet, Thulié and

Veron, with a host of collaborators. The publisher was Monsieur

Octav Doin, Place de l’Odeon 8, Paris. It appeared in parts, twenty-

four in number, and has just been completed.

Society of Autopsy.—A party of substantially the same gentlemen,

published, in 1876, their intention to form a society, the principal ob-

ject of which was to receive members who should be willing to bequeath

their bodies to the Laboratory of Anthropology for autopsy, that it

might be dissected and studied in a scientific manner. Whatever may

be said of the project, the aim and intention of these gentlemen was

certainly unselfish.

The declaration published by these gentlemen as a foundation for

the society, and a reason for its existence, was the importance of that

branch of the science of anthropology which they called the physiology

of psychology (psycho-physics), and with this their want of knowledge,

say ignorance, concerning it, coupled with the lack of opportunity for

its successful study. Experiments had been made upon animals, which,

while they contributed largely to elucidate the problems of the physi-

Ologic functions, like the sensations, movements, secretions, etc., had

been of slight avail in the study of the phenomena of human intelli-

gence. They declared that this study was to be made only or first by

investigation of the human brain, and this not only in its size, form,

weight, and composition, but also in its convolutions and folds. The

existing opportunities by means of dissection were meagre and unsat-

isfactory. They mentioned the well-known fact that the professor or

student who now made the dissection was proverbially unacquainted

with the subject during his lifetime, and consequently the powers 0

his mind were unknown. The persons best acquainted with the sub-

ject during his lifetime were last to know of the autopsy ; and there

appeared to be no possibility of, or opportunity for, comparison of

knowledge between those who knew the subject in life and those who

made the dissection. There was, said they, no chance for the living

descendants or relatives ofthe deceased, either through their own

Am. Nat.—February.—6.

176 The American Naturalist. [February,

knowledge or the scientific knowledge of their own medical attendants,

profiting from the discoveries which might be made by the dissection

of the body of their ancestor.

They argued that public health and the interest of science has for

a long period of time recognized the need for autopsy and dissection

in the general education of the medical profession, while, they de-

clared the study of psycho-physics had been largely ignored.

a IAL GAE, Darzel rewa GE

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anor ean El MaL Le are

aAa o E pa 3 ones Ff

es sce o č, aeey

lpg etl pa. rte vA Se

; +

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Bs JEE Lé: enz et Santee A

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a Cliche es grt 172

They adopted a constitution, of which the following was the princi-

pal article :

“ Each member, in pursuance of the end of science and humanity, 22°

. nounces herein the procedure which shall govern his autopsy. In ordet

to avoid every obstacle to the execution of his will he will leave at his

_ aged forty-five years.

1891] Archeology and Ethnology. 177

death his testament declaring in general terms as follows: I will that

after my death there shall be an autopsy practiced upon my body, that

there may be discovered any malformation or hereditary malady,

by means of which there can be employed the proper means to pre-

vent their development among my descendants. I will that my body

shall be utilized to the profit of the scientific idea which I have followed

during my life, and to that end I bequeath my body, and notably my

skull and brains, to the Laboratory of Anthropology, where it can be

‘utilized in such mode as is believed to be best; and this is my wish

spontaneously expressed. The portions of my body which are needed,

after being used as aforesaid, are to be buried according to the usual

method (or any other method may be indicated).”’

A tracing is given on the opposite page of the oleograph testament

of General Faidherbe, who died lately.

There are about 150 members of the Society of Autopsy. It has

received the ministerial and legal authorization, and is now established

upon a firm basis. The fees for membership are one dollar per year.

The importance was early recognized by these gentlemen of know-

ing everything concerning the physical and mental habits ; and life of

the subject, and therefore he was requested to make as full a descrip-

tion of himself and his physical and mental peculiarities as possible.

His senses, sight, hearing, his understanding, his memory, was he a

Visuaire or an auditaire,—that is, could he understand and comprehend

the meaning of words best through the eye or through the ear. So

also, any peculiarities of his sensations, of the powers of his mind,

and any observations upon his temperament or character.

The Laboratory of Anthropology has received several of the mem-

bers of the Society of Autopsy, of which they have made dissection

and investigation :

1. Jules Assezat, literateur, died June 24th, 1876, of heart disease,

2. Louis Asseline, literateur, died April, 1878, of rupture of the

heart, aged forty-nine years. T

3- Dr. Coudereau, died July roth, 1882, of woun

tines, aged fifty years. ;

4. Leon Gambetta, politician and

1884, aged forty-three years.

5. Dr. Adolphe Bertillon, professor, died March 1st, 1883, aged

sixty-two years.

6. Gillet-Vital, civil engineer,

7- Sculptor Sauzel.

8. General Faidherbe.

ds of the intes-

statesman, died December 31st,

died 1887, aged sixty-three years.

178 The American Naturalist. [February,

The brains of the first five have been studied with care, and all their

peculiarities described and written out. The brain of each has been

accurately drawn, and by means of the stereograph they have been

superposed, and drawings made comparing them.

I do not know whether it-is by law or only by regulation, but the

Laboratory of Anthropology has within the last few years received the

bodies of all criminals executed in Paris, and there are to be now seen

suspended from the usual ring in the top of the skull the articulated

skeletons of these individuals, with their moulded brains laid upon the

shelf beside them.

There were displayed either the brain, the skulls, or the busts of the

following assassins who have been executed :

Lemaire, Menesclou, Prevost, Gagny, Marchandon, Rey, called

Pas de Chance, Riviére, Pranzini, Barre, and two others, names un-

known, one executed at Macon, the other at Montpellier.

I do not pursue this subject, for it will take me immediately into a

catalogue and description of the 5,000 skulls and the numberless casts

and studies, with all their numerous examples of anatomy, osteology,

craniology, anthropogeny, which served to form the Musée Broca.

The Institute of Anthropology at the Paris Exposition.—At the Paris.

Exposition of 1867 the science of anthropology was unrepresented.

In that of 1878 the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, on the

proposition of the Commissioner-General of the Exposition, decided

upon a representation of anthropology, and confided its organization

to the Society of Anthropology. It made a creditable, and for that

time an important and instructive exhibit, but nothing to be compared

with that in the Exposition of 1889.

In the Exposition of 1889 the Minister of Public Instruction re-

quested the Society of Anthropology to make such display as was pos-

sible. A commission was organized, which made its appeal to its

members in every part of the world, and to all kindred societies in

France. I remember well in Paris, in the autumn of 1885, four years

before the Exposition opened, the preparations which were being made.

A family of bushmen from South Africa were being exhibited at a

meeting of the society, under the management of Dr. Topinard. They

were afterwards taken to the room for making plaster casts, and a cast

of them made natural size. This was done in preparation for the Ex-

position, and when I visited it I saw the plaster casts of this family.

“he members and societies appealed to for assistance in the Exposi-

tion of 1889 responded with alacrity, and, while the representation

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 179

was not the equal of that of the l'Histoire du Travail Retrospectif,

under the direction of the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture,

with Drs. Hamy, Topinard, and Cartailhac for managers, yet it was an

important display, and coming as it did in the Department of Public

Instruction, it showed opportunities to teachers to educate the people

in this science of anthropology, especially the prehistoric, which might

be productive of greaté#good and more far-seeing in its benefits to the

general public than the finer and more extensive display in the other

section.

Any one who has any knowledge of the subject of this paper can

scarcely fail to have remarked the absence of all note of some of the

most celebrated writers and workers in France on anthropology. The

reason of this can easily be made plain. This paper has been devoted

to the Society of Anthropology and the organization and laborers con-

nected therewith. These other gentlemen, notable by their absence,

while members of the Society of Anthropology and affiliating there-

‘with, belong or are attached to other institutions of the same or kin-

dred sciences, and their work is done in connection with their own

organizations, and so does not appear with the Society of Anthropology.

Monsieur de Quatrefages is the Nestor of the science,—first in time,

first in years, and first in wisdom. He is professor at the Museum of

‘Natural History at the Jardin de Plantes. He delivers three lectures

aweek. His publications upon this subject are numerous, profound,

and of great value.

There are other gentlemen eminent in science: Dr. E. Hamy,

sevateur of the Musée of Ethnography at the Palace of the Troca-

dero ; Monsieur Alexander Bertrand, Member of the Institute and

Director of the Musée St. Germain; M. Solomon Rainach, his assist-

ant; M. le Doctor Emile Riviere; Marquis Nadaillac; M. Emile

Cartailhac. !

A few words as to the members of the Society of Anthropology at

Paris, and their domicil and professors, may not be uninteresting.

he honorary members number ten ; the titular members a four

hundred and twenty-six, of which two hundred and ninety-nine reside

in Paris, and one hundred and twenty-four elsewhere ; the national

correspondents are sixty-three, while correspondents and associate for-

eigners number one hundred and eighty-three ; making a total of six-

hundred and seventy eight members. One-third of the regular mem-

bers reside outside the city of Paris.

1M. Cartailhac, though a resident of Toul , spends egies

: : i scientists.

much of his work in Paris as to be fairly entitled to be classed with

Con-

so much of time, and does so

a Pail

180 . The American Naturalist. [February,

The interest in anthropology on the part of the medical profession

is shown by the fact that of the regular members no less than forty-

eight per cent. are doctors.

The Society of Anthropology of Paris paysno rent. It has a sub-

vention from the government of one thousand francs. Its annual

dues for members are thirty francs. Its receipts amount annually to

between eighteen and twenty thousand franc its expenditures from

one to three thousand francs less. It has invested in the rentes d’ Etat

the sum of forty-three thousand, five hundred and ninety-three francs,

and had enough on hand before it commenced its present work in the

Exposition to increase the amount of its cash capital to fifty-four thou-

sand francs. ?

Permit me a few observations in confidence,—delivered as it were in

executive session. There is no satisfactory reason why the Society of

Anthropology at Washington, should not equal that of Paris. I know

` it will be said that Washington is not so large a city as Paris; but that

is no sufficient reason. If you will but look over the names of the

members who have attended their meetings, will but see the amount

of work which they have done, the seriousness of their study, the pro-

fundity and detail of their investigations, the value to science of their

contributions, and, finally, the zeal and fidelity of their members as

exhibited in their work, you will conclude that if the Society at Wash-

ington should equal in these regards the Society at Paris it will deserve

a higher rank and greater success than it possesses at present. If you

had or would or could take in the ladies as members, that alone would

make considerable increase in your membership, and also in your in-

come. If you would have your meetings,open to the public, and the

needed conveniences provided. for its reception and accommodation,

this would also increase your membership. No person will join a

society of anthropology until after he shall become interested in the

science. All those who have had an original interest have already

joined, and we must now recruit our membership from those in whom

an interest has to be created. This can now be done only by private

solicitation. If the public could be invited and attend the meetings

of the society, we would soon see revived interest ; and I have every

faith that it would result in considerable increase of the membership

roll. We have sufficient evidence to justify the conclusion that the

attendance of the public upon the regular meetings would be large

enough to be called successful. I think it deplorable that papers of

the value and importance of those prepared by our members should be

read before so insignificant a number. Those papers will compare in

~ 1891] Archeology and Ethnology. i, 181

scientific value and in public interest with the average lecture delivered

at the National Museum, and the attendance thereof from 600 to 1000

at each lecture is to my mind proof that if the opportunity were offered

the public would attend in large, if not in equal, numbers the meetings

of this society, to hear the papers and discussions of its members.

think this fact illustrates the possibility of success in throwing open our

meetings to the public. That it did not attend the meetings at Col-

umbia College may have been due to the failure of detail in announce-

“ment, advertisement, ete

I decline to stand as an apologist for our society ; I do not excuse it

in any comparison with that of Paris or London, on account of our

youth as a nation or sparseness of our population. I would not plead

the baby act as a reason for our poverty. We are located at the capital,

and we possess all the advantages to be derived therefrom. We are a

nation of sixty. millions of people. We are as numerous, as rich, as

capable, and have in every way equal opportunities with either the

French, English, or any other nation to study the science of anthro-

pology, whether prehistoric or otherwise, to do serious work which

shall be of equal value; and, repeating what I said at the com-

mencement of this chapter, I know no satisfactory reason why the

Society of Anthropology at Washington should not be the equal in any

and every respect with that at Paris, or with those in any other part of

the world.

It has been an aspiration of mine that our society should be strong

and powerful; that it should be at the head of kindred societies, and

be the acknowledged authority of our science, not only in our own

country, but that it should be its representative in foreign countries. I

have hoped that every discovery of importance made within our coun-

try should be reported to it; that every question arising therefrom

should be sent to it for resolution ; that disputed points should be sub-

mitted to it for its opinion. I desire to see it conservative, dignified,

learned, wise, and that it should occupy such acknowledged rank and

speak with such acknowledged authority as that no anthropologist o

prominence but would feel himself flattered by the use of its means to

make known his opinions to the world, nor would one venture eee:

lish to the world any new or untried theory in regard to the science

except he had first sought to obtain our approval and the weight

of our authority. I confess to a feeling of annoyance when the Hon.

Charles Francis Adams, president of the Pacific Railroad, made or re-

ceived from another the discovery of the statuette, said to be of human

origin, and which came from the’ artesian well in Idaho, he should

182 The American Naturalist. (February,

have sent the object to the scientists of Boston for their opinion, and

should have ignored this society or its kindred organizations in Wash-

ington. This would not have been so in either England, France, Bel-

gium, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal, Spain, or Italy.

On a Certain Gesture of the Mouth Among the American

Indians.—It commonly happens that the Zufii and Navajo Indians

make use of a gesture which has come to have an interest to me. In

indicating that a person, or thing is far away, or where an event has

appened or a person is at the time of speaking, these Indians, instead of

turning the head that way or pointing with the finger, raise the head

and project the lower jaw in the direction which they wish to indicate.

As I am not familiar with the mode of gesticulation of other Indian

tribes, I do not know how widely spread among our,aborigines this

habit is, but certainly it is very different from that of any of the white

races p

When I first observed this peculiar gesture, aside from its unusual

nature it made but little impression on my mind. It seemed quite too

insignificant to be of any use in the study of Indian habits, and would

probably never have occurred to me again but for an interesting ex-

perience among our New England Indians. On my return from the

southwest last summer I went directly to Calais, Maine, to witness a

snake dance, which I had hoped, but in vain, to see celebrated at the

election of the ‘“ Governor ” of the tribe. In talking with an old man

of the tribe, I observed him use the same gesture several times for

identically the same purpose as it is used among the Zuñians. The re-

semblance was so close that one could not imitate it. I was imme-

diately reminded of my former experiences in the southwest. In both

instances the gesture was very different from what would naturally be

made by a white man for the same pur

The resemblance may seem too insignificant to mention, for it may

have been a simple coincidence ; but to me it had an ethnographical

interest, and may not be without the same to others.

I have not studied Indian tribes enough to say how universal this

gesture is among them. It may be characteristic of all our aborigines,

and it may not be confined to them; but I am confident that the

gesture was identical in the two instances mentioned, and it has not

been my experience to see the same among white people.

This note is a plea for information. Is the gesture with the lower

n to PARASE distance or direction a characteristic Indian habit ?

hom I have consulted tell me that it is. If it is, we may well

1891.] Microscopy. 183

wonder why such an insignificant habit should be so tenacious in a

tribe so long in contact with the whites and so much affected by their

civilization in much more important particulars as the Passamaquoddies.

It is conceivable that gestures like this certainly, spontaneous and in

some respects involuntary, may furnish data of ethnological value.—

J. WALTER Fewkes, Boston, January roth, 1891.

MICROSCROPY.!

Methods for the Preservation of Pelagic Organisms.—The

publication of the methods for the preservation of marine animals em-

ployed at the Naples Station? has called forth another contribution on

the subject from Benedict Friedländer.’

Kleinenberg discovered some time since that picrosulphuric acid

gave the best results with marine larva when it contained about 2 per

cent. of common salt. Friedlander experimented on Hydromedusze

and Ctenophores with regard to this point, by placing some individuals

in x per cent chromic acid, and others, of the same species, in an

equal volume of the same solution, to which 2-3 per cent. of salt had

been added ; the results declared unmistakably in favor of the latter

reagent. Still better results were obtained by fixing the specimens in

a solution prepared by adding sea-water to a 30-40 per cent. solution

of chromic acid until it was reduced to a 4-1 per cent. solution, the

animals being exposed to its action for about an hour. An objection

to the method lies in the fact that there is a danger of crystals of cal-

cium sulphate separating out in the tissues when the specimens are

transferred to alcohol. If the salts contained in the tissues are thor-

oughly washed out before the transfer, there will, on the other hand,

be a shrinkage.

Friedlander obtained his best results by the prolonged action (5-10

hours) of an abundant quantity of 30 per cent. alcohol, followed by

50 per cent., 6o per cent., and 70 per cent. He concludes that a nei-

ther too rapid nor too slow extraction of the salts contained in gela-

tinous animals is more important for the prevention of shrinkage than

the use of any fixatives. From many Medusæ, Salpæ, Siphonophores,

etc., the salts can be more or less extracted before treatment with

1 Edited by C. O. Whitman, Clark University. Worcester,

2See AMERICAN NATURALIST for September, 1890.

3 Biolog. Centralblatt. Bd. X., Nos. 15-16.

Mass.

184 The American Naturalist. [February

alcohol by the action of fresh water, or a solution of chromic acid

in distilled water. A trace of hydrochloric or nitric acid added to the

alcohol dissolves some crystal deposits, but not those produced by

calcium sulphate. _

The greatest obstacle in the way of obtaining satisfactory prepara-

tions of Siphonophores is the tendency to split up into fragments

which many of them, especially those with nectocalyces, show. Fried-

lander experimented with various salts in an attempt to discover a

reagent which would kill without producing fragmentation, and ob-

tained the best results with ammonia, zinc sulphate, and copper sul-

phate. The first of these reagents is, however, unsatisfactory for other

reasons.

An interesting observation in connection with the use of these re-

agents is, that to obtain good results the reagent must have a certain

minimal concentration ; below this fragmentation occurs, increasing

in intensity with the weakness of the reagent. This does not seem to

depend on the rapid killing or fixation of the tissues by the strongest

solutions, since such reagents as concentrated corrosive sublimate

and strong nitric or acetic acids are much more rapid in their action

than 15 per cent. copper or zinc sulphate, and yet produce excessive

fragmentation.

The following method of preservation is recommended for the

Siphonophores. The vessel which contains the animal in sea-water is

held in a tilted position, so that the water is almost at the brim on one

side. A solution composed of

Pee ed ees vs 1000 Pa

Oe ene ee a aaa a E

pee ns a a aa a a

is then poured in somewhat gradually, so that it may mix equally with

the sea-water. The amount of the reagent to be used varies with the

species under treatment., For instance, with Physophora it should be of

about equal volume with the sea-water ; but for Forskalia, which has

numerous nectocalyees, it should be at least double that volume.

After the animal is completely dead, it should be placed in a fixing

solution, for which Friedlander recommends 1 per cent. chromic acid

in sea-water, with the addition for more delicate forms of strong Osmic

acid, or else } per cent. osmic acid alone may be used. —

Before transferring to alcohol the animal should be allowed to slip (the

nectocalyces going first) into a glass tube, open only at one end. This

opening should be plugged with cotton, and the tube suspended, the

theļBotanical Gazette, Nol. XV., p- 291,

ing excellent material for the d "e

_ also recommended the beetle Dytiscus for exhibitin

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 185

open end downwards, in 50 percent. alcohol. In about rz hours the

chromic acid will have been extracted, and the tube is then transferred

for another 12 hours to 80—90 per cent. alcohol.

Finally, to get rid of the air-bubbles which sometimes form in the

cavities of the nectocalyces, it is recommended that the specimen,

before being placed in alcohol, should be transferred for a time to well-

boiled sea-water, so that the air contained in the tissues may, to a cer-

tain extent, be dissolved out.—J. PLayraiR McMurricu.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The Western Society of Naturalists held its annual meeting

Noy. 12th and 13th, 1890, in the Physical Laboratory of Purdue

University, Lafayette, Ind. Inthe absence of the president, Prof. C. R.

Barnes occupied the chair. ‘The report of the treasurer showed a bal-

ance on hand of $36.70. The presidential address by Chancellor C. E.

Bessey dealt with ‘General Culture as an Object in Teaching Science.”’

The society then discussed, ‘‘ What science, and how much science,

shall be required for entrance to college classes?’’ The general con-

clusion was that it did not much matter what science was required so

out the nucleus and the cell-wall in a beautiful manner.

is better for plant-tissues than chloroform, while a solution of Bismarck

brown in turpentine stains too diffusely. Professor Hargitt exhibited

a warm stage of his own construction, and described his method o

making permanent mounts of Infusoria. He killed the species

with Lang’s fluid and stained with borax carmine. Dr. Kingsley de

scribed a new method of making serial sections with celloidin. Many

scribed a lens support and directed attention to

= emonstration of muscle growth. He

g the phenomena

186 The American Naturaitst. (February,

of living muscle, using the blood of the beetles for a medium. Dr,

Kingsley described a number of methods for killing marine inverte-

brates for histological purposes and for display. The following officers

were elected for the ensuing year: Pres., J. M. Coulter; Vice Pres.,

S: Calvin, E. A. Birge, C. W. Hargitt; Treas., B- P. Colton; Sec.,

J. S. Kingsley. The next meeting will be held next November, at St.

Louis, Mo. Four states were represented at the meeting.

Indiana Academy of Science.—lIndianapolis, Dec. 3oth and

31st, 1890. T. C. Mendenhall, president.—Eighty-two papers were

read, the following being those relating to the natural sciences: A re-

cent find of Musk Ox remains in Indiana, Joseph Moore. A review of

the Niagara Group in Bartholomew Co., Ind. (by title), J. F. Newsom.

Shelby County ‘‘ Earthquake,’’ J. F. Newsom. Some new Crustacean

Fossils, C. E. Newlin. Geological Section at Vincennes, W. J. Spill-

an. Sections of Drift in Vigo Co., Ind., J. T. Scovell. The high-

est old Shoreline on Mackinac Island, F. B. Taylor. The effect ot

the Great Lakes on the ice sheet, F. B. Taylor. Preliminary notes on

Genus Polygonum, Stanley Coulter. Aberrant fruit of Juglans nigra,

Stanley Coulter. Aberrant forms of Juglans nigra—structural changes,

D. T. McDougal. Value of minute anatomy in plant classification,

Stanley Coulter. Notes on the apical growth of Liverworts, David

M. Mottier. Notes on the germination of spores of Notothylus (by

title), David M. Mottier. A remarkable oscillating movement of pro-

toplasm in a Mucor, J. C. Arthur. Accelerating germination by pre-

vious immersion of the seed in hot water, J. C. Arthur. Notes on

Guatemalan Composite, Henry E. Seaton. Parasitic Fungi of Indiana,

E. M. Fisher. Circulation of sap, John Morgan. Distribution of Peuce-

danum in North America, J. N. Rose. Plants collected by Dr. Palmer

in Arizona in 1890, J. N. Rose. Comparative structure of the rootsof —

Osmunda and Botrychium, D. H. Campbell. Notes on the prothallium

of the Osmundacee, D. H. Campbell. Notes on new Puccineæ,

Henry L. Bolley. On the manufacture of plant infusions for the cul-

ture of Bacteria, Henry L. Bolley. The occurrence of Veratrum

woodii in Decatur, Ind., W. P. Shannon. Some features of the occur-

ence of Viola pedata var. bicolor, Joseph H. Tudor. Preliminary list

of Knox County plants, W. J. Spillman. Introduction of noxious

weeds, W. J. Spillman. Biological surveys, John M. Coulter. The

flora of Texas, John M. Coulter. Weight of the seed in relation to

production, Katherine E. Golden. The identification of Ghost-fishes,

Charles H. Gilbert, The deep-water fishes of the Pacific, Charles H.

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies, 187

Gilbert. The fishes of the interior of Kentucky (by title), A. J.

Woolman. Notes on Indiana Reptiles, Amos W. Butler. Observa-

tions on the habits of Synaptomys cooperit, Amos W. Butler. Chæto-

dontidz of the Sandwich Islands, O. P. Jenkins. Notes on structure

of muscle cells in Salamanders, O. P. Jenkins, Geophili in Jefferson

County, Ind. (by title), Geo. C. Hubbard. Notes on some Actinia,

W. F. Glick. Some notes on Indiana birds, B. W. Evermann. Contri-

bution to the distribution of the fishes of the West Coast of North

America, O. P. Jenkins and B. W. Evermann. Sailor Spiders on Lake

Maxinkuckee, O. P. Jenkins. The Butterflies of Indiana, W. S.

Blatchley. The Batrachians and Reptiles of Vigo Co., Ind., W. S.

Blatchley. The death of Salmon after spawning, D. S. Jordan. The

fishes of the upper Columbia and the Shoshone Falls, D. S. Jordan.

Eels of America and Europe (by title), D. S. Jordan and B. M. Davis.

Food habits of the Blue Jay, C. W. Hargitt. Notes on Hydra fusca,

C. W. Hargitt. Acridiide of Vigo Co., Ind., W. S. Blatchley. On

a bird new to the State fauna, W. S. Blatchley. On Cnicus discolor as

an insect trap, W. S. Blatchley. Relation of the number of vertebræ _

in fishes to the temperature of water, D. S. Jordan. Notes on Indiana

Mammals, B. W. Evermann and A. W. Butler. Audubon’s old mill at

Henderson, Ky., B. W. Evermann. The range of the Evening Gros-

beak in the winter of 1889—’90, Amos W. Butler. Carolina Parakeet

in Indiana, Amos W. Butler. The colors of sounds, Gustaf Karsten.

The colors of letters, D. S. Jordan. A list of the Orthoptera of Illi-

nois, with descriptions of new species and observations on the songs

and habits of little-known species (by title), Jerome McNeill. De

scription of a new zsthesiometer, William Bryan. esearches on the

tactual perception of distance, William Bryan. Researches on reaction

time, William Bryan. Fishes of the Wabash Basin, B. W. Evermann

and O. P. Jenkins. Hypnotism, W. B. Clarke. The presidential

address, ‘‘ The Work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,” was

given on the evening of the 3oth.

The Nebraska Academy of Sciences was organized at Lin

coln, Neb., Jan. rst, 1891, with seventy-three members. A short con-

stitution was adopted, and the following officers were elected: Presi-

dent, Dr. J. S. Kingsley; Vice President, Prof. G. D. Swezey; Sec-

retary and Treasurer, Prof. W. E. Taylor; Custodian, Lawrence

Bruner; Directors, Mrs. E. O. Nettleton, W. H. Skinner. The

Academy will hold its annual meeting in Lincoln, the week following

Christmas, and will hold a field meeting each spring at some interest-

ing point in the state.

188 The American Naturalist, [February,

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

Dr. Clarence M. Weed, editor of the entomological department

of the AMERICAN NATURALIST, and present entomologist to the Ohio

Experiment Station, has been elected professor of zoology and ento-

mology at the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic

Arts, located at Hanover, N. H., in connection with Dartmouth Col-

lege. He will move to Hanover during the coming spring.

Alexander Winchell, Professor of Geology and Paleontology in

Ann Arbor University, Michigan, died on February 20th at Ann

Arbor. Professor Winchell was one of the best-known geologists, and

was a distinguished author of works of original research, as well as

educational books. He was long State Geologist of Michigan, and

during his incumbency he published some important monographs of

the Paleozoic geology and paleontology of his State. He subsequently

assumed the Professorship of Geology in Vanderbilt College, Tennes-

see, from which school he was retired because of his belief in the

doctrine of organic evolution. He was afterwards Chancellor of the

University at Syracuse, New York, from which place he returned to

n Arbor. At the time of his death he was President of the Geologi-

cal Society of America. His latest work has been in the Archean and

Huronian regions about Lake Superior.

Professor Winchell produced a number of works of a popular char-

acter, which have greatly stimulated the taste for geological science in

this and other English-speaking countries. He was a pleasant lecturer,

who instructed his classes, and aroused their interest in his favorite

science. His treatment of the subject was within the reach of popular

audiences, as it was not his specialty to deal with the finest subtleties of

thought. His method was rather bold and comprehensive.

„ Professor Winchell was a handsome man of strong physical build,

and of a quiet and somewhat phlegmatic temperament. He was honest

and amiable, and personally attractive to many people. He has left

many friends. He was born in the State of New York in 1824.

Professor Felipe Poey, the most famous naturalist yet produced

in any Spanish country, died at Havana, Cuba, Jan. 28th, 1891, in the

ninety-second year of his age. Poey was born in Havana, of French-

Spanish parentage, in the year 1799. He was educated for the pro-

fession of law in the University of Havana, but his tastes for the nat-

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 189

ural sciences were very strong, and in 1826 he went to Paris, where he

spent five years in the study of zoology. Here he was a friend of

` Cuvier, and one of the founders of the Entomological Society of

France. After his return to Havana, Poey devoted his life to the study

of the rich fauna of his native island, and especially to making known

its fishes. Of the many new species of Cuban fishes described by

Poey, one hundred and ninety-one are recognized as valid in the latest

catalogues. The writer was told by a fish-dealer in Havana that ‘ for

twenty years Don Felipe was in the markets every day when at noon

the fishes came in from the boats, and that he knew more about the

fishes of Cuba than the fishermen themselves.’’

In 1842 Poey was appointed to the Chair of Comparative Anatomy

and Zoology in the University of Havana, a position which as active

and emeritus professor he held until his death. His publications were

numerous, in Spanish and French, and occasionally in English. e

most important are ‘‘ Memorias Sobre Ja Historia Natural de la Isla de

Cuba,” ‘ Repertorio Fisico-Natural de la Isla de Cuba,” and ‘* Enume-

ratio Piscium Cubensium.”’

The great work of his life, ‘ Ictiologia Cubana,” is still unpublished.

This book contains detailed descriptions and life-size figures of seven

hundred „and fifty-eight species of Cuban fishes. A duplicate of its

manuscripts has been purchased by the Spanish government at a cost

of $5,000, and has been exhibited at several European expositions, but

the prospect of its publication is still remote.

Poey has long been recognized as one of the most intelligent and

faithful workers in faunal zoology. His writings are characterized by

an entire lack of prejudice, his sole purpose being to place on record

the- facts which come before him. His interest was maintained up to

the time of his death, a fact the more remarkable as outside of his

own family not a person in Cuba had any real knowledge or appreci-

ation of his work, His long life has been a very happy one, and few

naturalists of our day have better deserved the good will and respect of

their fellow-workers than the genial and cheery Professor Poey.—

D. S. Jorpan.

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275

nvestigators.

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VOL. XXY. MARCH; 1891. 291.

ARE ACQUIRED VARIATIONS INHERITED?

BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

Opening of a Discussion upon the Lamarckian Principle in Evolution; American

Society of Naturalists, Boston, December 31st, 18gr.

RE acquired characteristics inherited? We admit that indi-

viduals inherit a certain constitution, and that definite varia-

tions from this constitution are acquired during life-time, accord-

ing to well-known laws. The question is: Are these definite

acquired variations in any degree transmitted, or are the congenital

variations in the constitution of the offspring independent of

those which have been acquired by the parents ?

PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION.

Before opening this discussion let us draw up a balance sheet in

biological philosophy for 1890, and determine exactly where we

Stand in point of knowledge of natural causation. Fortunately

Professor Huxley balanced the Evolution account in 1871" in his

usual accurate and candid manner, enabling us to institute a

comparison :

“If I affirm that ‘ species have been evolved by vatiation! (a

natural process, the laws of which are for the most part unknown),

aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,’ it seems to

me that I enunciate a ee which constitutes the Ais pith

* Critiques and Addresses,” p. 299. Contemporary Review, 1871.

- is practically a résumé of the arlene “ Mr. Darwin's Critics,” is ck Kosta

a Including

i a r

under y tr

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV. MARCH; 1891. 291.

ARE ACQUIRED VARIATIONS INHERITED?

BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN.

Opening of a Discussion upon the Lamarckian Principle in Evolution; American

Society of Naturalists, Boston, December 31st, 1891.

AFE acquired characteristics inherited? We admit that indi-

viduals inherit a certain constitution, and that definite varia-

tions from this constitution are acquired during life-time, accord-

ing to well-known laws. The question is: Are these definite

acquired variations in any degree transmitted, or are the congenital

variations in the constitution of the offspring independent of

those which have been acquired by the parents ?

PRESENT STATE OF THE QUESTION.

Before opening this discussion let us draw up a balance sheet in

biological philosophy for 1890, and determine exactly where we

Stand in point of knowledge of natural causation. Fortunately

Professor Huxley balanced the Evolution account in 1871' in his

usual accurate and candid manner, enabling us to institute a

comparison :

“If I affirm that ‘ species have been evolved by variation® (a

natural process, the laws of which are for the most part unknown),

aided by the subordinate action of natural selection,’ it seems to

me that I enunciate a proposition which constitutes the very pith

3 * Critiques and Addresses,” p. Contemporary Review, 1871. This passage.

‘s Practically a résumé of the the articlelentited * Mr. Darwin's Critics,” in which it occurs

+ Hatading under this head hereditary transmission.

192 The American Naturalist. [March,

and marrow of the first edition of the ‘Origin of Species.’ And

what the evolutionist stands in need of just now is not an itera-

tion of the fundamental principles of Darwinism, but some light

upon the questions, What are the limits of variation? and, If a

variety has arisen, can that variety be perpetuated, or even intensi-

fied, when selective conditions are indifferent, or perhaps unfavor-

able, to its existence? ” 3

Thus, twenty years ago, Huxley declared Evolution well estab-

lished, with the Law of Natural Selection as one of its well-

determined factors, while he found that we were merely upon the

threshold of knowledge of the laws of Variation. Some sanguine

biologists of to-day believe we have crossed this threshold in the

patient researches of the two intervening decades; but others are

represented by Professor Lankester, who has now taken the rank

of leading English critic, and has recently summed up our

knowledge in an article‘ presumably written with the greatest

care and deliberation, as follows:

“ Their causes (7. e., the causes of variations) are extremely diffi-

cult to trace in detail, but it appears that they are largely due to a

“shaking up” of the living matter which constitutes the fertilized

germ or embryo-cell, by the process of mixture in it of the sub-

stance of two cells—the germ-cell and the sperm-cell—derived

from two different individuals. Other mechanical disturbances

may assist in this production of congenital variation. Whatever

its causes, Darwin showed that it is all-important. .

Hence there is no necessity for an assumption of the papai

of direct adaptations.’ The selection of the fortuitously (fortui-

tously, that is to say, so far as the conditions of survival are con-

cerned) produced varieties is sufficient, since it is ascertained that

they will tend to transmit those characters with which they them-

selves were born, although it is of ascertained that they could»

transmit characters acquired on the way through life.”

* He then observes that Mr. Darwin formerly inclined to answer these questions in the

rere but latterly in the affirmative.

“ The History and Scope of Zoology.” Enc. Brit. Vol. XXIV. Also “ Advancement

me Science,” pp. 372-73.

53. e., of acquired characters.

1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 193

The emphasis here is upon the contrast between our knowledge

of the fact of variation (op. cit. p. 373) and our indefinite knowledge

. of the causes of variation.’ In other words, we have been accumu-

lating facts, and our present induction from them is that the varia-

tions which have formed the main basis of evolution are fortuitous ;

there may be, indeed, definite causes, but the effects are largely

indefinite. Now if all, or even the great majority, of naturalists

were in agreement with Lankester, we might claim to have madea

distinct advance since 1870, even in having reached such a negative

conclusion—that is, on the principle that we progress when we

recognize that no further progress is possible.

But fortunately, or otherwise, this is not the case, for in oppo-

sition to those who share Lankester’s opinions are an equally large

number who would balance the account differently, and claim

that the distinctive feature of the past twenty years of study is that

we have reached some of the fundamental principles of variation

which Huxley presented as the goal of research.

* But this difference in the accounts does not stop here. We

biologists are obliged to frankly confess to our fellow-scientists in

chemistry and physics, and tothe world generally, that after studying

Evolution for a century we are in a perfect chaos of ae as to ”

factors. Thereisactually no to the pow

selection principle, none as to the laws of ER none as to the

influences of environment! In the very heart ofthis disturbance is

the problem we have come together to discuss. It is the medium

Sy Ee, ona one Ce + thefact f i

LU UE

We may continue to accumulate facts, but no actual advance can be

made in the study of natural causation until this problem is abso-

lutely settled one way or the other. This being the case, Weismann

has done a monumental service in forcing this question to an issue.

It is true a very large number of naturalists consider the question no

longer sub judice ; but as half this number hold one opinion, and the <

other half an opinion directly opposed, we are forced to the criti-

cism that neither side can at present offer such a clear and full

z of the views of all authors

tere quoted, and arm aware that a single passage fin misleading., On he present

subject compare other recent essays and reviews of Prof. Lankester, principally those in

Nature,

194 The American Naturalist. [ March,

demonstration of how evolution works upon their basis as to be

conclusive; nor will either side admit the value of the evidence

furnished by the other. Contrast two of our most vigorous writers

on this point :?

“ This is all the more necessary, in that this author (Weismann)

and his followers repudiate the evidence upon which the claim is

made that acquired characters, taken in the widest Lamarckian

sense, can be transmitted. During a period extending over fifteen

years, the present writer has devoted himself to a study of the

genesis of adaptations, and with the lapse of time the conviction has

grown only the clearer that these authors are laboring undera

delusion. The way in which they have placed themselves upon

record shows that they have not reckoned with the consequences

of their reckless speculations.”

A few segue later Tes echoing Weismann, * writes to

Nature :

“ Naturalists are at ect interested in the attempt to decide

_ whether Lamarck was justified in his statement that acquired

characters are transmitted from the parents so changed to their off

spring. Many of us hold that he was not; since, however plausi-

ble his laws above quoted may appear, it has not been possible to

bring forward a single case in which the acquisition of a character

as described by Lamarck and its subsequent transmission to off

spring have been conclusively observed. We consider that, until

such cases can be adduced, it is not legitimate to assume the truth

of Lamarck’s second law.”

Nature of the Discussion—Before taking up the question of

evidence as to this factor in evolution, let us clearly understand

what we are not discussing at the present time. First, the law of

natural selection is well established and no longer-under discus-

sion; it furnishes, by far the best, in fact the only, explanation

which can be offered for many adaptations,—the question before us

"Ryder. “A Physiological Hypothesis of Heredity and Variation.” AM. NATUR-

ALIST, Jan., 1890, p. 85. :

3" There are no observations which prove the transmission of functional atrophy %

hy, and it is hardly to be expected that we shall obtain proofs in the

_ 1891] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 195

is only as to the extent of its action. Second, we need not discuss

the inheritance of mutilations, for mutilations are not part of the

regular order of nature, and while they might have strong positive,

they have little negative, value; the elaborate arguments which

have been recently directed against them, remind us, therefore, of

Don Quixote’s excursions against the windmills, as if Lamarckism

mainly depended upon such evidence. Nor is it in dispute

whether the effects of general atrophy or hypertrophy of the body

are transmitted, for it is self-evident that an ill-fed organism will

not bear as perfect offspring as a well-fed organism. As to

pathological atrophy or hypertrophy, it is, I believe, admitted on

both sides that in cases where it arises from certain bacilli it is

possible that it may be transmitted with the bacilli. What we are

discussing is whether the special and local variations in function

and structure induced by environment and habit in the life of the

parent tend in any degree to reappear in the offspring. ©

This is the modern or modified form of Lamarck’s law. His

followers admit that he overestimated the rate of inheritance of the

effects of use and disuse in stating that ač that is acquired is trans-

mitted.” The element of rate or time is a secondary one, as it is

with the law of Selection; the main point is whether such effects

are transmitted at all. Of course there are Lamarckians of all

degrees of fervor. The following statement probably reflects the

average opinion :

I. In the life of the individual, adaptation is increased by local

and general metatrophic changes, of necessity correlated, which

take place most rapidly in the regions of least perfect adaptation,

since here the reactions are greatest. 2. The main trend of varia-

tion is determined not by the transmission of the full adaptive

Modifications themselves, as Lamarck supposed, but of the dispo-

sition to adaptive atrophy or hypertrophy at certain points."

“10 Quatritme loi: Tout ce qui a été a. tracé ou changé, dans l’organization

wni individus, , pendent le cours de leur vie, est c la génération et —

cage éprouvé ces changemen’

= Osborn, -Tbe Paleontological Evidence for the Transmission of Acquired Char-

Adv.

acters.” Brit. Assoc. Reports ; : Science; 1889.

Dr. W. H. Dall has nE Bist A castally considered statement in his paper

on“ Drask Influences in Evolution,” May 8th, 1

196 The American Naturalist. [March,

At all events, this involves the Lamarckian principle, with all its

necessary bearings upon our opinions as to Environment, Variation,

Selection, and Inheritance. If we adopt it,we must accept its full con-

sequences. Taking Spencer’s definition of Life as the continuous ad-

justment of internal relations to external relations, we must regard

the race as in part the summation of these individual adjustments, in

part as the summation, by Selection, of favorable fortuitous varia-

tions. Environment must act directly in producing variations in

the organism as a whole; directly also it must produce special

variations wherever it induces changes of function. As these

variations are in a degree transmitted, we will discover some of

the laws of variation in the study of individual adaptation; varia-

tions of this kind will be found in definite lines; indefinite varia-

tions will also arise from the fortuitous combination of individual

characters; the proximate causes of variation must be changing

environment as well as the combination of diverse individual

characters. Selection, so far as it is here involved, will be found

to act mainly upon the ensemble of characters which have their

origin in individual variation by the extinction of unadapted

individuals and races, but its action upon fortuitous variations

will be concomitant. Inheritance must bear the burden not only

of ancestral and race characters, but must accumulate the modifi-

cations of these characters which occur in individuals.

Let us associate the opposite principle, that special individual

variations are not transmitted, with the name of Weismann, for at

a time when Lamarck’s principle was rising in favor’ he boldly

opposed it zz toto. His doctrine of the continuity of the germ-

plasma, and especially of the isolation of the germ-cells from

influences which are exerted upon the body-cells, is a perfect and

necessary complement ‘of the doctrine that Evolution has ad-

vanced by pure Natural Selection; he carries these twin doctrines

out to their legitimate conclusions. Recalling Spencer's definition

and applying Weismann’s principle, we must regard the race not

as the summation of individual adjustments, but as the summa-

tion of the best adjusted germ-plasmata. Environment may act

12 In 1883, when Weismann published his first essay on Heredity, the only English oF

American it it woke ES r af the Lamarckian prin-

ciple was Alfred Wallace,

1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 197

directly in causing the organism to vary as a whole, but none of

the special individual variations which it also produces indirectly

and directly can be inherited ; its influences upon the germ-plasma

are gradual and indefinite. The lines of variation are definite so

far as they are limited by the specific nature of the organism;

within these limits variations must be indefinite and numerous ;¥

the proximate cause of variation is the combination of the diverse

individual characters of the parents. Selection must accumulate

minute existing variations in the required direction, and thus create

new characters ;* it must act upon minute variations in single

characters, as well as upon the ensemble of characters. Inherit-

ance is the unbroken transmission of race and ancestral characters

by subdivision of the germ-plasma; only changes which affect

the body as a whole can be added to the characteristics of the

germ-plasma.

This is a mere abstract of the diverse positions upon every

problem to which these principles of Lamarck and Weismann

lead us. No half-way ground is tenable; the result of this in-

quiry will be a complete rout to one side or the other. By the

former we diminish the powers of Natural Selection, and increase

the powers of Environment; at the same time we greatly simplify:

the problem of Variation, and render far more complex the prob-

lem of Inheritance. By the latter we throw the entire burden of

Evolution upon Natural Selection, and eliminate the direct action

of Environment; we admit definite laws or causes of general

Variability, but no definite laws governing the variations of single

characters ; we greatly simplify the problem of Inheritance. In

short, the vulnerable point with the Lamarckians is in solving the

problem of Heredity, while their opponents are weakest in solv-

ing the problem of variation. From the purely theoretical stand-

point both sides can offer a good working explanation of the

process of Evolution, provided we grant all their premises ; our

duty as professed scientific men should be, therefore, to dispassion-

13 Biological Memoirs, p. 288. " It is the specific nature of an organism which causes it

to respond to external influences along certain definite lines, although these may be very

numerous.”

1 Biological Memoirs, p. 275.

198 The American Naturalist. [Marca

ately examine how far these premises accord with a// the phe-

nomena which we can actually observe in Nature, and then espouse

the side which is most favored by probabilities. Now I have no

hesitation in saying that neither side is showing the disposition to

test their premises by all the observed phenomena, and this is one

of the most hopeless features of the present situation.

Variation, Repetition, Regression —A\ll the factors of Evolution

interact. Variation and Repetition” in inheritance are in con-

stant relation with every other factor. Thus we can accumulate

facts as to variations fer se, but if our observation and induction

enable us to formulate certain laws, these will always involve at

least two factors, —'i. e., Variation as related to Environment, Vari-

ation as related to the life-history of individual organisms, Vari-

ation as related to Inheritance, Variation as related to Natural

Selection.

Variability is, of course, exhibited in organisms as a whole, and

in groups of characters as well as in single characters. All would

be diversely affected by the two diverse principles of inheritance

under discussion, but we are to examine the variable tendency as

exhibited in single characters. Repetition is the conservative or

static condition wherein a character in the new individual most

closely resembles the average development presented by the fra-

ternity,® co-fraternity, race, variety, and species to which it belongs;

let us adopt Galton’s term “ mediocrity ” for this state of average

development. . Variation is the unstable or fluctuating condition

in which a character deviates to either side of mediocrity, either

in the plus or minus direction,—z. e., to greater or less develop-

ment. Regression is the tendency” to revert to “ mediocrity”;

and according to Galton’s statistics we can imagine this law of

regression as acting like gravitation upon the pendulum of vari-

ation : when the pendulum swings in one direction it may repre-

15 Weismann, or his translators, uses the terms Variability and Heredity, as tendencies

equivalent to ae But it seems to me clearer to use Heredity in the 1 sense, So as

to includeVariation = the act of Varying, and Repetition = the act of repeating, ancestral

ers. Variability = ™ tendency to we

16 Galton. “ Natural Inheritance,” P- 94. e offsrpring of the same mid-parne

(= male and female) form a a aii All a seia of a Aiari of mid-parentt

a co- ity.

1 Op. cit., p. 95.

1891. ] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 199

sent a plus-variation, in the other direction a minus-variation ;

mediocrity is the state of rest or balance. When we examine

any species in course of evolution in time and space we find, how-

ever, that a mediocre character is a shifting quantity. An organ,

for example, which is rapidly degenerating presents a certain

“ mediocrity ” at one time and locality, and another “ mediocrity ”

at a later time or another locality. There is, therefore, a clear dis-

tinction between the above terms and the more general terms

“ degeneration,” “balance,” and “ development,” which apply to

characters which are either continuously static or in a downward

or upward direction, not only in individuals but in whole species

and larger divisions. Of course where regression ceases to exert

its full gravitating force upon plus- or minus-variations, througha

series of generations, development or degeneration respectively

set in.

Another source of confusion, which is inevitable in observation

but not in theory, is the difficulty of distinguishing between

“congenital” and “individual variations.” Weismann has

marked the distinction by the useful terms “ blastogenic ” and

“ somatogenic.” * Theoretically these congenital and acquired

variations are quite distinct; but as some blastogenic variations

do not manifest themselves until advanced life, it is extremely

difficult in many cases to decide how far certain variations are

really blastogenic and how far somatogenic in origin ; in other

words, how far they are due to inherited predispositions and how

far due to life habits.” ,

A war of words has recently been waging as to the meaning

to be attached to such adjectives as “fortuitous,” “ chance,”

“kaleidoscopic,” or “indefinite.” My understanding of these

‘terms is that when we see characters fluctuating from mediocrity,

in either the plus or minus direction, according to the ordinary

laws of chance, we may describe them as in a state of indefinite

variability; whereas, when they exhibit a tendency to fluctuate

principally in one direction, we describe them as ina state of

18 j. e., as arising from the germ-plasma and body respectively.

1 In his review of Wallace's ‘‘ Darwinism” Lankester has pointed out this defect im

some of Wallace's observations. Nature, 1889, p. 567.

200 The American Naturalist. [March,

-definite variability. This is the only sense in which the terms

“ definite variations ” and “indefinite variations ” can be fairly used

in this discussion.

In two of his most recent essays Yaon says :

“My theory might be disproved in two seke e by

actually proving that acquired characters are transmitted, or by

showing that certain classes of phenomena admit of absolutely no

explanation unless such characters can be transmitted. Only

if it could be shown that we cannot now or ever dispense

with the Lamarckian principle would we be justified in accept-

mob

We may gather evidence from the data of Embryogeny, or of

Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Itis neither possible nor desirable to

separate these data; but as previous writers have dealt extensively

upon the evidence of embryogeny, I will emphasize the ontological

and paleontological evidence, with which I am, in fact, much more

familiar. I shall endeavor principally to concentrate attention

upon the phenomena to which future observation must be espe-

cially directed. We already have. a number of valuable essays

and criticisms in this line,” but none, so far as I have seen,

examine the question in view of all the difficulties which the

adoption of either principle involves us.

I believe we are far from understanding all the phenomena of

variation, and put the question, therefore, in the following form:

Does our present knowledge of variation in living and fossil forms

lend greater support to Lamarck’s or to Weismann’s principle?

1. What is the Origin of Variability ?—According to Weis-

mann, the ultimate or primordial origin of variability is somato-

genic, *—that is, we must trace variability back to the unicellular

organisms in which the environment acts pay upon the whole

20 Biol. Mem., p. 388.

21 Nature, Feb. 6th, 1890, p. 322.

22 Especially those of Ryder, Cope, Eimer, and iter A very valuable review

of the whole ag is found in C. V. T paper, “ On the Causes of Variation in

Organic Forms.” Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Sc

23 Biol, iaoi p. 277. “ The origin of cae individual variability cannot be

found in the pa — but it must be sought for in the lowest,—the unicellular

organisms. uch organisms reproduce by division, individual acquired characters

will be se oa wo the offspring.”

1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? - 201

organism; in the multicellular organisms the source of variability

becomes restricted to the germ-cells, and the proximate or

secondary origin of variations is in the union of the diverse

characteristics contained in the germ-plasms of the two sexes.

This view as to the primordial origin of variations does not seem

to me to enter directly into the problem we are discussing,

although it is one of the legitimate conclusions from his premises.

But I would like to call attention to one important point, viz., that

it involves the operation of Lamarck’s principle of the transmis-

sion of adaptive reactions to environment ™ in the unicellular, and

therefore to some degree in the lower multicellular, organisms.

I think it can be shown that Lamarck’s principle would be

highly advantageous to every organism by transmitting direct

adaptations (see Query 4); if this be the case, every step in the

gradual loss of this principle by the isolation of the germ-

plasma would have been disadvantageous. Therefore, if Selec-

tion was constantly acting, as Weismann supposes, it would have

preserved this very principle. This is, of course, in the nature of

pure speculation ; but turning this supposed enormous power of

Selection to the service of Lamarckism, we can conceive how the

extremely complex correlation between functional changes in the

somatic and germ-cells, which is an essential part of the La-

marckian theory, may have had its beginnings in these transi-

tional organisms.

The question of the present or proximate origin of variations

does, however, bear directly upon these diverse principles :

(a) All observers must agree that sexual reproduction is one

of the endless sources of indefinite variations.” Weismann’s

theory offers a beautiful idea of the modus operandi, and accords

thoroughly with Galton’s researches. Such variations originate

in the germ-cells; there is no reason why we should trace them

to the somatic cells.

fully elaborated in Spencer's z Principles

24 Thisis, of course, no newidea. It was most P

former is by simple cell division; the

of Biology.” The mode of transmission in the .

„principle of the continuity of original and acquired characters 1S the same.

sé ts ae Eok 1 tation isi st important, but not the

fi -o -nine Metaphyta and Metazoa in a state of variability. Nature, Feb,

only factor which phy

6th, 1890, p. 322. (In answer to Prof. Vines.)

202 The American Naturalist. [ March,

(2) Some plus- or minus-variations must also originate from

the union of germ-cells. If the same character is strongly

developed in both parents, it may appear still more strongly

developed in the offspring; the same rule applies conversely to

weakly developed characters. But this simply puts the question

one stage back, for variations which are indifferently plus, minus,

or mediocre are certainly not definite, although the union of two

similar variations produces a definite result.

Before considering the possible origin of definite variations we

must consider whether there are such variations.

2. What Variations are Definite and What Indefinite ? *—This

is really the most important and central question. Its solution

has a vital bearing upon Weismann’s principle as well as La-

marck’s. Following Huxley,” Geddes * has most clearly stated

these bearings :

“In the absence of any theory of definite and progressive

change,” -and in the presence of multitudinous variations under

domestication and in nature which we can neither analyze, ration-

alize, nor hardly even classify, we are not only justified but

logically compelled to regard variation as spontaneous or indefi-

nite,—7. e., practically indeterminate in direction, and ‘therefore

unimportant, except as the groundwork for Selection to act on.’

Conversely, variation must be indefinite, else the paramount im-

portance of natural selection must be proportionally impaired as

this becomes definite. . . . It would exchange its former

supremacy as the supposed determinant among the indefinite

possibilities of structure and function for that of simply accelerat-

ing, retarding, or terminating the process of otherwise determined

change.”

We cannot emphasise too strongly these cardinal factors of

indefinite Variation (so far as adaptation is concerned) and

paramount Selection as two of the foundation stones of Weis-

Scag Selection trusts to the chapter of accidents in the matter of variation.”

7 Article '‘ Evolution,” Enc. Brit., Vol. VIII,

% Article ‘ Variation,” Enc. Brit., Vol. XXIV.

*9 Such as has been postulated ee ren Mivart, or based upon the La-

_marckian principle by Spencer, Cope, and others.

1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 203

mann’s theory of Evolution. This must be kept in mind in

analyzing every argument advanced by his school. (The idea is

that variations are definite only so far as they are limited by the

specific nature of the organism, by special phenomena of nutrition,

or in some cases by environment acting directly upon the germ-

cells? See Query 3. They are indefinite so far as they arise from

the fortuitous union of diverse germ-plasmata.) *

I have made it clear in the introduction that this is no longer a

matter of ignorance, as it was professedly with Darwin:

“I have hitherto sometimes spoken as if the variations, so

common and multiform with organic beings under domestication,

and in a lesser degree with those under nature, were due to

chance. This, of course, is a wholly incorrect expression, but it

serves to acknowledge plainly our ignorance of the cause of each

particular variation.”

I have already quoted Lankester upon this principle, and refer

below to a passage in which he reiterates it and carefully defines

the sense in which “indefinite” is employed by him. Prof.

Thiselton Dyer, a leading English botanist, has supported this

position : *

“If with Prof. Lankester we say that the combinations are

kaleidoscopic, I do not see that we go beyond the hits -e

area of fortuity is narrowed down to the variable constitution of

the ovum. . . . And this is quite in accord with the remark of

Weismann that variation is not something independent of, and in

some way added to, the organism, but is a mere expression for the

fluctuations in its type.”

30 See Biol. Mem., p. 410.

itely more than

31 See Biol. Mem., p. 275. “ Natural Selection must b ble to do infin

eh: > << a ag | 1 $ t isti Jiffe es (aris ing by these fortuitous

combinations) in the required direction.”

32 “ Origin of Species,” 6th edition, p. 106.

83 The latest is in Nature, March 6th, 1890. ‘‘ This disturbance of the parental body (I

d it to the shaking f a kaleidoscope), and with it of the germs which it carries,

resulting in “ sporting ” or “ variation ” in the offspring, is, it should hardly be needful to

state, a totally different thing to the definite acquirement of a structural character bya

parent, . k and the transmission to offspring of that particular acquired structural

character.”

3 See Osborn. “Paleontol. Evidence,” etc.

204 The American Naturalist. [March,

One reason why I have endeavered to emphasize the unanimity

of opinion upon this point among those who deny Lamarck’s

principle in this: If there are definite lines in blastogenic variation

which cannot be explained by Selection, or by Environment

acting upon germ-cells, we must find some other causes or laws

governing them. Therefore the Lamarckians must first establish

their claim that there are definite lines of variation; second, that

these lines have not been directed by Selection (see Query 6).

The opinions of Lamarckians on this point is that “there are

variations which follow from their incipient stages a certain

definite direction towards adaptation, independent of Selection in

their origin.” * This, it will be observed, does not exclude the

existence of variations of the class accounted for by Weismann,

but it constitutes substantially a distinct class of variations which

Weismann, Lankester, and others do not account for, because,

upon their hypothesis, we have no evidence that there is such a

class” 3

This opinion has frequently been asserted without adequate

support from observation, otherwise we should not find such can-

did writers as those quoted above dismissing it so summarily.

The fact is, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to prove that

there are definite lines of variation (which cannot be explained

by Selection) from the examination of zoological and botanical

collections, for we are, from the nature of the material, princi-

pally examining variations by divergence in space. In such

complete fossil series as are now available paleontologists enjoy

the distinct advantage of following divergence both in space and

time. They are thus in a better position to study lines of varia-

tion than ever before, because they are in at the birth, so to speak,

of many useful and adaptive characters, and can follow the gradual

rise from the minute infinitesimal stages to the advanced condition

in which are constituted what we call specific and generic char-

acters. Not only so, but it is possible to observe pedigrees, since

the condition of surrounding parts prior to their appearance is

known

The history of the teeth of the Mammalia affords the most

* That is, no class of variations which conform to direct individual adaptations.

1891.] Are Acquired Variations Inherited ? 205

direct evidence, since these structures pers not only the most in-

teresting correlations and

also the successive addition of new elements (qualitative variation).

I believe the unanimous opinion of all those who have examined

such series is that such variations follow definite lines from their

incipient stages. This is a positive form of evidence, unless the

observers are at fault, but cannot be considered as proof if it can

be shown that these infinitesimal stages arise indefinitely, for if the

advanced condition is useful the incipient condition must. possess

some degree of utility, and would ex hypothesi be sélected. This

objection is met, however, by the additional fact that the first ap-

pearance of such structures is also not indefinite,—~. e., at definite

adaptive points. In other words, the birth is as definite as the

growth.”

To sum up, the opinions of the two sides as to the nature of

blastogenic variations are as follows:

Both will admit.:

I. That there are general fortuitous variations, which may be

best explained as due to the spontaneous variability of the germ-

cells, especially seen in their union.

II. That there is also a class of variations, also springing from

the germ-cells, which are in one sense definite, —?. e., in certain

directions,—but not necessarily adaptive.

One side denies, the other affirms :

III. That there is also a large class of blastogenic variations

which follow definite lines of adaptation. i

What are the relations of these three classes of variations to

+ me Y -d

var iation), but

ravronment ?

. What are the Direct and Indirect Relations EER Environ-

ment and Variability >—How far does ct the germ

cells directly, and how far through changes in the somatic cells ?

It is well known that a change of environment, especially to

more favorable conditions, as in domestication, increases Varia-

See cea the enormous mass of material available may be gained from the

on that the teeth of all the Mammalia have sprung from a similar type

allt aad aK dies ge. See the papers of Cope, Wortman, and the writer.

206. - The American Naturalist, [March,

bility,?”"—~. e., variations of Class I. In the analysis of such effects

effects we should carefully examine:

(a) Whether this variability in all the characters of the organ- _

ism is an éffect of the action of Environment directly upon the

germ-cells, through the general channels of increased or diminished

nutrition; or, whether the environment produces a general dis-

turbance of the functions of the organism, and this acquired dis-

position to altered functions is transmitted to the germ-cells.*

(6) Whether changed environment produces variability in any

special characters or in all characters alike? Here again the

question as to the mediate action of the somatic cells comes up,

and is not only much more pertinent than in (a), but probably

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CONTENTS.

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En eo OF THE — INDIANS | Mineralogy and Petrography. — Petrographical

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Onicin OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS toplasmic Physics—Alcoholie ictal

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T Hyatt and Arms on Insecta, Archeology and LEthnol one Eia

gress of Archeology a

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

SO XXV. APRIL, 1891. 292.

MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NAVAJO INDIANS.

BY R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D.

WHILE in New Mexico, a few years ago, the writer had

abundant opportunities to study the various modes that

the Navajo Indians resort to for the purpose of disposing of their

dead. Heretofore it has been very generally supposed that this

tribe practices but three well-defined methods of: burial, and it is

never their custom to deviate from them. I find, however, that

the Navajos may choose any one of four means of disposing of

their deceased, and in this matter they are very much controlled

by circumstances.

First and by far the commonest method is the cliff burial,

_ wherein the body of the man, woman, or child is removed from

the lodge or “ hogan” where the death took place, and is carried

to some neighboring cañon, deposited without much ceremony

in any of its semi-horizontal rents or fissures in its sides, and

there thoroughly covered and walled in with pieces of rock and

smaller stones. Most frequently this is performed at dusk, and

the body of the deceased may be dressed in clothes that the indi-

vidual possessed and valued during life. I have often seen their

dead children decked out in’buckskin garments, and wearing both

bracelets and necklace of beads. The “ hogan” in which the

Sick person succumbed is either abandoned or immediately

burned, but in no event is it ever occupied by any of the tribe

304 The American Naturalist. [April,

again. They havea notion that the devil (Chinde) long haunts

the locality where death has taken place, and they all shun it

After a burial the burial party thoroughly wash themselves and-

make a complete change of clothing. Often wolves or other

wild animals may succeed in getting at a body thus placed in a

rocky cleft, and, pulling it dut, devour it, and the bones subse-

quently come to be scattered about in the neighborhood of the

grave. This has led many to believe that the Navajos are.care- —

less of their dead, though there is no truth in this. A few years

ago I remembered very well the danger that attended my efforts

to secure a few Navajo skulls for Professor Sir William Turner,

of the University of Edinburgh. It came to the ears of these

Indians in the vicinity, and I was repeatedly cautioned not to

make the attempt to carry out my designs.

On another occasion I was at the Navajo agency, Fort Defiance,

in Northwestern New Mexico, and while there I learned that

some fifty or sixty of these Indians had been buried at different

times, extending over many years, in a kind of a cave up among

the rocks of aneighboring cafion. I postponed my investigation

of the place until daylight of the last day of my stay there, not

breathing my plans to any one’in the interim. With a large bag

rolled up under my arm, and my ambulance awaiting my return

atthe entrance of the gorge, I climbed up to the place in a blind-

ing snowstorm. Notwithstanding all my precautions, however,

my reputation had gone ahead of me, and I found armed Indians

posted in several localities, evidently there to resist my depreda-

tions at any hazard. They showed their agitation upon a

approach, and I returned unsuccessful. Skulls of these Indians

were, nevertheless, secured by me at a later date, and are now 1m

the anatomical museum at the Edinburgh University. Se

Secondly, we may have what I will call here the brush burial, ee

and it is resorted to principally in those cases where illness has

been long and protracted and no hope for recovery is enterrat

The patient is then taken out of the hogan, especially if P ge

she be old in years, and is carried to some secluded spot 1# the

vicinity of their camp. Here the sufferer is densely surrounc®”

with brush-cuttings as a protection against wild animals, and $

1891.] Mortuary Customs of the Navajo Indians. 305

either at once abandoned to fate, or else may be fed from time to

time by relatives until death comes in relief.

Navajos believe that an evil spirit or devil is at the bottom

of everything that has in.any way anything to do with death,

and they rarely speak of their dead, for fear of offending the evil

„one; and it has been said that one of these Indians will freeze to

death rather than build a fire for himself out of the logs of a

hogan wherein one of their number has died.

Next, or in the third place, the Navajos will resort to grave-

digging as a means sometimes of disposing of their dead, and of

this method I have seen one or two examples. While living at

Fort Wingate, New Mexico, a few years since, there was a

drunken brawl among some of those Indians at a hogan ona hill

within a few steps of my house. During the fracas a Navajo

squaw was shot and killed. The following day the party pulled

down the hogan and burned it, and, wrapping the body of the

woman in some cocoa coffee-sacks obtained at the trader’s, they

buried her on the spot in a grave so shallow that she was hardly

covered from sight. A heavy log or two was placed to protect

the corpse against dogs and wolves, and the place was abandoned.

A year afterwards I secured her skull, and at this writing it

adorns the top of one of the bookcases in my study.

In none of these burials do any ceremonies ever seem to be

indulged in by the Indians; but it has been reported that the

mourners, after the death of a relative, smear their foreheads

and under their eyes with tar obtained from the piñon tree,

leaving it there until it wears off, and do not renew it. I have

never observed any custom of this character.

Others have said that in the event of a Navajo dying and

leaving no kin, the lodge of the deceased is pulled down over his

or her dead body, stones piled over it, with a few branches and

mud, and the vicinity is at once deserted. Instances of this

kind must also be rare, and it has never been my fortune to see a

similar case. Sometimes the shallow grave is dug within the

hogan, and the latter pulled down over it, and the Indians move

away from the place as usual.

306 The American Naturalist. [April,

Fourthly, and last of all, the Navajos may occasionally resort

to a tree burial. This practice with them, however, must be

extremely rare, and up to the present writing I have succeeded

in collecting but one instance of it. This occurred at about a

mile from Fort Wingate, and its locality, as well as the mode of

placing the body in the tree, are well shown in the plate illus-

trating this article, and which is a copy from a photograph.

The deceased was a child, and its body was wrapped in a

Navajo blanket and carried up into a large piñon tree to a

horizontal limb about fifteen feet above the ground, At that point

a rude platform had been constructed of dead and broken limbs,

but the whole so arranged that after the body had been laid in its

final resting. place it supported it perfectly, and that completely

in the horizontal position. I have never ascertained the name of

the family of Indians to which this child belonged, nor why in its

case they were led to make such a remarkable departure from

their more common mortuary customs. Perhaps in times gone

by some of the Navajos may have witnessed the practices of other

tribes who were “tree-buriers,” and thus had the idea suggested

to them. All such theories, however, are purely speculative in

the light of the meagre data now at my hand on this form

burial, though it in no way diminishes the interest that attaches

to the settlement of such a point.

Jae A

PLALE

iy,

-A Navajo TREE BURIAL.

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 307

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

BY G. BAUR.

(Continued from page 229.)

STARTED with the sentence that continental islands must

have a harmonic flora and fauna. Inthe Galapagos we found

absolute harmony; my conclusion, therefore, is: Zhe Galapagos

are continental islands, originated through subsidence ; they all

formed at a past period one large island, and this island itself was

at a still former period in connection with the American conti-

‘nent. This result is in direct opposition to the opinion of all

authors whovhave worked on this group of islands, like Darwin,

Hooker, Salvin, Grisebach, Engler, M. Wagner, Wallace, Peschel.

All declare that these islands are of recent volcanic origin, that

they have emerged out of the sea through volcanic activity,

and that they have become peopled from the continent succes-

sively. Henri Milne-Edwards alone holds a different opinion ; he

believes that the Galapagos represent the remains of a former

continent, and in this opinion I agree. .

The principal reason of the believers of the elevation theory is

the volcanic condition of the islands. But I do not see any diffi-

culty in that. If mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Alps,

the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, could be elevated thousands

and thousands of feet, why could not subsidence take place in

other places? If Central America should disappear by-and-by

through subsidence, the result would be that the tops of the

highest mountains would form volcanic islands, some with still

active volcanoes. This would be exactly the condition we see

to-day in the Galapagos. I think, therefore, that the volcanic

nature of a group of islands is no positive proof of its recent

origin. Such groups of islands can be just as well considered as

formed by the tops of the volcanic mountains of a sunken part of

a continent.

But at first let us consider how the facts of the distribution

of flora and fauna agree with the elevation theory. Islands which

Spang Collection of Mine

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AMERICAN

ATURALIST

A MONTHLY JOURNAL

DEVOTED TO THE NATURAL SCIENCES

IN THEIR WIDEST SENSE.

APRIL, 1801.

CONTENTS

K PAGE

ame OF THE oeer INDIANS Mineralogy and Petrography. — P

rated], . R. W. Shufeldt, 303 News—Mincralogical News—New Minerals, .

ea OF THE GALAPAGO: i Botany.—Protopļasmic Physics—Alco oholic Material

a ees r, 307 | fr Laboratory Workin in = stematic a g pee

; Manual of Botany,

| Zoology. —Reproduction « oft Gauan te Growth

R THE YEAR of Corals—The Changes e 8 yobs E

3 Chas 538 es R. Keyes, 327 | tylus viridescens,. . -

| OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD Embryolo, a e

W. Norris, 334 Bane IF Bonn gitar the Morph

ogy of the Bi meal ral Ciliated Bands gens Echinoderm

343 |. Larvee.. .

Physiology. ee on Japati nstinct in Ani

356 | An Instance of the Black S Sankt Attacking Mao,

TURE —Hiyat and Arms on Insecta, 358 and Bthnole —International Con-

Sere ic Ethnology —The

AND PAMPHLETS, Pe eae ae

Sn On s Collection of

PROCEEDINGS OF ‘Serre Soc

SctENTIFIC NEWS, ate ees pone

PHILADELPHIA: -

RIS BROS., PUBLISHERS

THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

VoL. XXV: APRIL, 1891. 292.

MORTUARY CUSTOMS OF THE NAVAJO INDIANS.

BY R. W. SHUFELDT, M.D.

HILE in New Mexico, a few years ago, the writer had

abundant opportunities to study the various modes that

the Navajo Indians resort to for the purpose of disposing of their

dead. Heretofore it has been very generally supposed that this

tribe practices but three well-defined methods of' burial, and it is

never their custom to deviate from them. I find, however, that

the Navajos may choose any one of four means of disposing of

their deceased, and in this matter they are very much controlled

by circumstances.

First and by far the commonest method is the cliff burial,

wherein the body of the man, woman, or child is removed from

the lodge or “ hogan” where the death took place, and is carried

to some neighboring cañon, deposited without much ceremony

in any of its semi-horizontal rents or fissures in its sides, and

there thoroughly covered and walled in with pieces of rock and

smaller stones. Most frequently this is performed at dusk, and

the body of the deceased may be dressed in clothes that the indi-

vidual possessed and valued during life. I have often seen their

dead children decked out in’buckskin garments, and wearing both

bracelets and necklace of beads. The “ hogan” in which the

sick person succumbed is either abandoned or immediately

burned, but in no event is it ever occupied by any of the tribe

304 The American Naturalist. [April,

again. They have a notion that the devil (C/zude) long haunts —

the locality where death has taken place, and they all shun it

After a burial the burial party thoroughly wash themselves and-

make a complete change of clothing. Often wolves or other

wild animals may succeed in getting at a body thus placed in a

rocky cleft, and, pulling it ðut, devour it, and the bones subse-

quently come to be scattered about in the neighborhood of the

grave. This has led many to believe that the Navajos are. care-

less of their dead, though there is no truth in this. A few years

ago I remembered very well the danger that attended my efforts

to secure a few Navajo skulls for Professor Sir William Turner,

of the University of Edinburgh. It came to the ears of these

Indians in the vicinity, and I was repeatedly cautioned not to

make the attempt to carry out my designs.

On another occasion I was at the Navajo agency, Fort Defiance,

in Northwestern New Mexico, and while there I learned that

some fifty or sixty of these Indians had been buried at different

times, extending over many years, in a kind of a cave up among

the rocks of aneighboring cafion. I postponed my investigation

of the place until daylight of the last day of my stay there, not

breathing my plans to any one*in the interim. With a large bag

rolled up under my arm, and my ambulance awaiting my retu —

atthe entrance of the gorge, I climbed up to the place in a blind-

ing snowstorm. Notwithstanding all my precautions, however, a

my reputation had gone ahead of me, and I found armed Indians oe

posted in several localities, evidently there to resist my depreda- E be

tions at any hazard. They showed their agitation upon as -

approach, and I returned unsuccessful. Skulls of these Indians 5

were, nevertheless, secured by me at a later date, and are now .

the anatomical museum at the Edinburgh University. a

Secondly, we may have what I will call here the brush burial, |

and it is resorted to principally in those cases where illness bas ce

been long and protracted and no hope for recovery is ene

The patient is then taken out of the hogan, especially i

she be old in years, and is carried to some secluded spot ® |

vicinity of their camp. Here the sufferer is densely SUTON i.

with brush-cuttings as a protection against wild animals, oe

1891] Mortuary Customs of the Navajo Indians. 305

either at once abandoned to fate, or else may be fed from time to

time by relatives until death comes in relief.

Navajos believe that an evil spirit or devil is at the bottom

of everything that has in.any way anything to do with death,

and they rarely speak of their dead, for fear of offending the evil

one; and it has been said that one of these Indians will freeze to

death rather than build a fire for himself out of the logs of a

hogan wherein one of their number has died.

Next, or in the third place, the Navajos will resort to grave-

digging as a means sometimes of disposing of their dead, and of

this method I have seen one or two examples. While living at

Fort Wingate, New Mexico, a few years since, there was a

drunken brawl among some of those Indians at a hogan ona hill

within a few steps of my house. During the fracas a Navajo

squaw was shot and killed. The following day the party pulled

down the hogan and burned it, and, wrapping the body of the

woman in some cocoa coffee-sacks obtained at the trader’s, they

buried her on the spot in a grave so shallow that she was hardly

covered from sight. A heavy log or two was placed to protect

the corpse against dogs and wolves, and the place was abandoned.

A year afterwards I secured her skull, and at this writing it

adorns the top of one of the bookcases in my study.

In none of these burials do any ceremonies ever seem to be

indulged in by the Indians; but it has been reported that the

mourners, after the death of a relative, smear their foreheads

and under their eyes with tar obtained from the pifion tree,

leaving it there until it wears off, and do not renew it. I have

never observed any custom of this character.

Others have said that in the event of a Navajo dying and

leaving no kin, the lodge of the deceased is pulled down over his

or her dead body, stones piled over it, with a few branches and

mud, and the vicinity is at once deserted. Instances of this

kind must also be rare, and it has never been my fortune to see a

Similar case. Sometimes the shallow grave is dug within the

hogan, and the latter pulled down over it, and the Indians move

away from the place as usual.

306 The American Naturalist. [April,

Fourthly, and last of all, the Navajos may occasionally resort

to a tree burial. This practice with them, however, must be

extremely rare, and up to the present writing I have succeeded

in collecting but one instance of it. This occurred at about a

mile from Fort Wingate, and its locality, as well as the mode of |

placing the body in the tree, are well shown in the plate illus-

trating this article, and which is a copy from a photograph.

The deceased was a child, and its body was wrapped in a

Navajo blanket and carried up into a large piñon tree to a

horizontal limb about fifteen feet above the ground. At that point

a rude platform had been constructed of dead and broken limbs,

but the whole so arranged that after the body had been laid in its

final resting place it supported it perfectly, and that completely

in the horizontal position. I have never ascertained the name of

the family of Indians to which this child belonged, nor why in its

case they were led to make such a remarkable departure from

their more common mortuary customs. Perhaps in times gone

by some of the Navajos may have witnessed the practices of other

tribes who were “tree-buriers,” and thus had the idea suggested

to them. All such theories, however, are purely speculative in

the light of the meagre data now at my hand on this form of

burial, though it in no way diminishes the interest that attaches

to the settlement of such a point.

PLATE A.

-A Navajo TREE BURIAL.

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 307

ON THE ORIGIN OF THE GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

BY G. BAUR.

(Continued from page 229.)

i STARTED with the sentence that continental islands must

have a harmonic flora and fauna. In the Galapagos we found

absolute harmony; my conclusion, therefore, is: Zhe Galapagos

are continental islands, originated through subsidence ; they all

formed at a past period one large island, and this island itself was

at a still former period in connection with the American conti-

‘nent. This result is in direct opposition to the opinion of all

authors who*have worked on this group of islands, like Darwin,

Hooker, Salvin, Grisebach, Engler, M. Wagner, Wallace, Peschel.

All declare that these islands are of recent volcanic origin, that

they have emerged out of the sea through volcanic activity,

and that they have become peopled from the continent succes-

sively. Henri Milne-Edwards alone holds a different opinion ; he

believes that the Galapagos represent the remains of a former

continent, and in this opinion I agree.

The principal reason of the believers of the elevation theory is

the volcanic condition of the islands. But I do not see any diffi-

culty in that. If mountain ranges like the Himalayas, the Alps,

the Andes, the Rocky Mountains, could be elevated thousands

and thousands of feet, why could not subsidence take place in

other places? If Central America should disappear by-and-by

through subsidence, the result would be that the tops of the

highest mountains would form volcanic islands, some with still

active volcanoes. This would be exactly the condition we see

to-day in the Galapagos. I think, therefore, that the volcanic

nature of a group of islands is no positive proof of its recent

origin. Such groups of islands can be just as well considered as

formed by the tops of the volcanic mountains of a sunken part of

a continent.

But at first let us consider how the facts of the distribution

of flora and fauna agree with the elevation theory. Islands which

308 The American Naturalist. ~ (April,

emerge from the sea can only be peopled accidentally, and must

have a disharmonic flora and fauna. This is seen in all such

islands, like the coral islands, which originated in this way. But

in the Galapagos we found absolute harmony. Besides that we

would have the greatest difficulty in explaining the presence of

such peculiar forms as the gigantic land tortoises and the large

lizards and the snakes, and so on; and again we would have the

greatest difficulty to explain the peculiar distribution of the forms, ~

and their peculiar differentiation on the more peripheral islands. —

To take only one example, how is it imaginable to explain the

presence of these gigantic tortoises, some of which reach a weight

of 700 pounds? They have not been introduced by man. When

the islands were discovered by the Spaniards in the sixteenth cen-

tury they were present in enormous numbers, like the other ani-

mals. According to the elevation theory we can only think of

an accidental importation of these tortoises by some current, be-

cause they are quite unable to swim. After the islands had been

elevated from the sea, and some vegetation had found its place

there, it happened once, by a peculiar accident, that a land tortoise

was carried over to the island. Alone it was helpless; it could

not propagate. This was only possible after a similar accident

imported another specimen of the same species, of the other sex, to

the same island. Or we could imagine that at the same time

animals of both sexes were thus accidentally introduced. By this

we could at least explain the population of a single island. Bot l

how did all the other islands become populated? To explain this —

we would have to invoke a thousand accidents. But how can wê

explain that the members of one genus reached all the islands, —

_ and again those of another genus all the islands? ow can cee

explain that each island has a peculiar form of these genera?

With one word, how can we explain the harmony of distribution i

the theory of elevation? All this is simply unexplainable by this

theory. a

The theory of subsidence, however, explains every point inato

absolutely easy manner. All islands were connected together_at

a former period ; at this time the number of species must bar

been small ; through isolation the peculiar specialization of the

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 309

species began ; an originally single species was differentiated in

many different forms; every island developed its peculiar races.

What seems to me to be a support of the subsidence theory is

the fact mentioned by Wolf, that the flora of the Galapagos at

elevations of about goo feet is typically that of the Andes at an

elevation of 9,000 feet. How could this alpine flora be explained

by the theory of elevation ; what is the reason that plants charac-

teristic of an elevation of 9,000 feet are found at an elevation of

900 feet? This peculiar fact is also explicable by the theory of

subsidence. I have shown above that an elevation of 300 fathoms,

or 550 m., would bring together all the central islands. There

are two lines of soundings made by the Fish Commission Steamer

“Albatross,” one between the Galapagos and Panama, and one to

Acapulco. The deepest sounding of the first line is 1,927 fath-

oms (3,470 m.), at 6° 44’ N., 80° 27’ W.; that of the other is

2,256 fathoms, at 11° 45’ N., 97° 3’ W.

We need only an elevation of about 10,000 feet to connect the

Galapagos with America. This would give the highest mountain

on the Galapagos an elevation of 14,700 feet. This height is

reached by many mountains and very often surpassed. The eleva-

ticn of goo feet on the Galapagos of to-day would correspond to an

elevation of 10,900 feet. This is, of course, only an approximate

value, which may be less or more. But there is no very great

difficulty in adopting such an amount of subsidence.

The next question is, Is it not possible to determine during

which geological period this subsidence of the Galapagos grup,

which we have to accept, has taken place? If any form becomes

isolated for long a time it preserves the original general character

that it possessed at the time of its isolation. This we see very

well exemplified by the study of isolated dialects of a language.

Í believe, therefore, that the peculiar genera we find to-day on the

Galapagos have not originated there, but have been preserved in

their old condition. Let us again take the tortoises as an exam-

ple. The tortoises found on these islands belong to the true land

tortoises Testudinidz ; they represent, together with the forms from

the islands round Madagascar and the peculiar Manouria from

India and the Sunda Islands, the oldest living representatives of

310 The American Naturalist. [April,

the family. The paleontological history of the Testudinide

reaches back to the Bridger Eocene. From this formation the

oldest land tortoise, Hadrianus, has been recorded, which is nearly

related to Manouria, characterized by the double caudal-shield, as

in the Emydide. Forms very much like those from the Gala-

pagos we find in the Miocene. We do not go too far to say that it

is probable that during the Eocene period, and possibly a little later,

the Galapagos were still in connection with the continent.

The important question is, Where was this connection? In

their general characters the fauna and flora of the Galapagos show

resemblances to the great Mexican and Sonoran province, and

also to the West Indies. And it may be that the connection was

with these regions (and it seems more probable than any other),

but of course it is quite impossible to bring to-day any posi-

tive proof for this idea. It would appear that the whole west-

coast of America has undergone subsidence. We find there a

great number of islands: Prince Wales, Queen Charlotte, Van-

couver, Santa Barbara, Guadaloupe, and so on. That all these

islands have been in connection with the continent at a former

period seems to be certain. They appear as the result of

subsidence. The Revilla Gigedo Islands are in the line of this

sunken district. Farther south we find the small island Clipperton,

and in a southeastern direction the Galapagos. Between Clipper-

ton and the Galapagos two islands, Duncan and Galego, have been

: recorded ; but they are of a doubtful nature,—at least they have

not been seen again in latter times. But could we not imagine

that they have disappeared in the course of this and the last

century by subsidence ?

Near the Mexican coast we have the Tres Marias Islands. These

are considered as continental even by Wallace; but the mor

distant Socorro of the Revilla Gigedos are considered by Wallace

_ as oceanic. Wallace believes, therefore, in subsidence in regard

to the Tres Marias, in elevation in regard to the Revilla Gigedos,

simply because there are no mammals on the barren Revita

Gigedos, and because they are placed within the thousand-fathom

line. The fauna of the Revilla Gigedos is typical of that of lowèf

California and the Sonoran province, and I believe also that the =i

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 311

Revilla Gigedos are nothing buta part of the American continent ;

they are also, like the Galapagos, within the 4000 m. line.

South of the Galapagos we have the islands Felice and Juan

Fernandez, with their peculiar flora and fauna. It is not possible

to determine whether there has been any connection between these

islands and the Galapagos, but the fact that we find on the

Galapagos three forms of Antarctic animals, which reach the most

northern limit in this group, is to be mentioned. These animals

are the Otaria jubata, Arctocephalus australis, and the peculiar

penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus Sundev., only found on the

Galapagos. Another interesting point is that the albatross, which

” so far as I know has only been described as breeding from the

southern islands, especially Tristan daCunha, breeds on Hood's

Island, as observed by Delano and Wolf.

Much work remains to be done. A great number of systematic

deep-sea soundings have to be made between these different

groups of islands and the continent. And the islands themselves

have to be examined very carefully. We know nothing at all

about the fauna and flora of the isolated Clipperton Island and

Malpelo; we hardly know anything about Cocos Island, which

seems to be in many respects quite different from the others,

having a more tropical appearance. An enormous and highly

interesting field of research is here open. After all this has been

done, we may be able to discuss fully the question of the

connection of the different islands. One thing, however, we

assume to-day: the probability of the origin of the Galapagos

through subsidence. But if this be probable for the Galapagos,

how is it with the Sandwich Islands, for instance; so far as they are

known they seem to be of the same harmonic nature in flora and-

fauna. Have they not originated in the same way ? How about

the other islands in the Pacific, and how about the theory of the

consistency of the Pacific Ocean? Is this theory really estab-

lished on a sound basis ? |

We now ‘come to another very important question, What is

the reason of the variation of the forms on the different islands ?

In other words, What is the origin of the different species of the

different Tos ?

310 The American Naturalist. [April,

the family. The paleontological history of the Testudinide

reaches back to the Bridger Eocene. From this formation the

oldest land tortoise, Hadrianus, has been recorded, which is nearly

related to Manouria, characterized by the double caudal-shield, as

in the Emydide. Forms very much like those from the Gala-

pagos we find in the Miocene. We do not go too far to say that it

is probable that during the Eocene period, and possibly a little later,

the Galapagos were still in connection with the continent.

The important question is, Where was this connection? In

their general characters the fauna and flora of the Galapagos show

resemblances to the great Mexican and Sonoran province, and

also to the West Indies. And it may be that the connection was

with these regions (and it seems more probable than any other),

but of course it is quite impossible to bring to-day any posi-

tive proof for this idea. It would appear that the whole west

coast of America has undergone subsidence. We find there a

great number of islands: Prince Wales, Queen Charlotte, Van-

couver, Santa Barbara, Guadaloupe, and so on. That all these

islands have been in connection with the continent at a former

period seems to be certain. They appear as the result of

subsidence. The Revilla Gigedo Islands are in the line of this

sunken district. Farther south we find the small island Clipperton,

and in a southeastern direction the Galapagos. Between Clipper-

ton and the Galapagos two islands, Duncan and Galego, have been

` recorded; but they are of a doubtful nature, —at least they have

not been seen again in latter times. But could we not imagine

that they have disappeared in the course of this and the last

century by subsidence ?

Near the Mexican coast we have the Tres Marias Islands. These

are considered as continental even by Wallace; but the more

distant Socorro of the Revilla Gigedos are considered by Wallace

as oceanic. Wallace believes, therefore, in subsidence in regard

to the Tres Marias, in elevation in regard to the Revilla Gigedos,

simply because there are no mammals on the barren Revita

Gigedos, and because they are placed within the thousand-fathom

line. The fauna of the Revilla Gigedos is typical of that of lowe

California and the Sonoran province, and I believe also that YY

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 311

Revilla Gigedos are nothing but a part of the American continent ;

they are also, like the Galapagos, within the 4000 m. line.

South of the Galapagos we have the islands Felice and Juan

Fernandez, with their peculiar flora and fauna. It is not possible

to determine whether there has been any connection between these

islands and the Galapagos, but the fact that we find on the

Galapagos three forms of Antarctic animals, which reach the most

northern limit in this group, is to be mentioned. These animals

are the Otaria jubata, Arctocephalus australis, and the peculiar

penguin, Spheniscus mendiculus Sundev., only found on the

Galapagos. Another interesting point is that the albatross, which

so far as I know has only been described as breeding from the

southern islands, especially Tristan daCunha, breeds on Hood's

Island, as observed by Delano and Wolf.

Much work remains to be done. A great number of systematic

deep-sea soundings have to be made between these different

groups of islands and the continent. And the islands themselves

have to be examined very carefully. We know nothing at all

about the fauna and flora of the isolated Clipperton Island and

Malpelo; we hardly know anything about Cocos Island, which

seems to be in many respects quite different from the others,

having a more tropical appearance. An enormous and highly

interesting field of research is here open. After all this has been

done, we may be able to discuss fully the question of the

connection of the different islands. One thing, however, we

assume to-day: the probability of the origin of the Galapagos

through subsidence. But if this be probable for the Galapagos,

how is it with the Sandwich Islands, for instance; so far as they are

known they seem to be of the same harmonic nature in flora and

fauna. Have they not originated in the same way ? How about

the other islands in the Pacific, and how about the theory of the

consistency of the Pacific Ocean? Is this theory really estab-

lished on a sound basis ? .

We now ‘come to another very important question, What is

the reason of the variation of the forms on the different islands ?

-In other words, What is the origin of the different species of the

different islands ?

312 The American Naturalist. [April,

Of all the forms from the islands, the genus Tropidurus is best

known. The most divergent species of this genus we find on

Abingdon on one side, and on Hood on the other. On Abing-

don we also find a peculiar species of Nesomimus, of Certhidea,

of Cactornis, of Testudo, and probably of Geospiza. On Hood

Island we also find a peculiar species of Nesomimus, of Certhidea,

of Geospiza (Cactornis has not yet been discovered), and of Testudo.

These forms are entirely different from each other, and different

from the forms of the central islands. What is the reason

of this difference? The fact is that a// forms of an island

become modified, and not alone a single species; the plants

and the different groups of animals all at the same time.

There must be a common cause which produces this effect. And .

this cause can only be looked for in the surroundings, in the physical

conditions of each island. That there is a difference among

these islands is evident. All the lower islands do not reach the

damp region; they must be therefore in quite a different physical

state. Some of these islands are without a drop of fresh water;

others are furnished with this element. This difference must have -

a different effect on the same forms of animal and vegetable life.

I have expressed the opinion that when these islands were

still in connection, forming one large island, there was probably

only asingle species of Tropidurus, Testudo, Nesomimus, and so

on. There were probably certain small local variations, but they

were not so expressed, being not separated; and besides that any

new characters appearing were checked by intercrossing. We®

could imagine, for instance, that the large island had the higher

moist region over its whole extent; the effect would have been

that humidity was spread more equally over the whole island. ,

If a certain portion ‘became separated, and lost that upper horizom,

it was at once in a fundamentally different condition. This affect

ed the flora and fauna; and the flora again the fauna. All these

changes, of course, must have gone on very gradually. te

From these considerations we may proceed to get an expe

tion of the variation. Hoffmann and others have succeeded, i

the course of several years, in changing wild plants by cultiva,

tion in gardens. Thus Hoffman could change the wild carrot

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 313

considerably, and this change became inherited. Let us con-

sider what was done in this case. The wild carrot was isolated

from the others, and brought under different conditions ; it received,

for instance, more food, and the effect was the change. It

is exactly in the same way that we have to explain the change

of forms on the different islands ; an arid, dry island must have

a different effect on an organism than a fertile and moist island.

The different condition produces a different effect, and thus a

different form. If the conditions were absolutely the same,

the effect would be the same. Let us imagine that we have a

form A, which has, and so have its ancestors, been for a long

time in the same conditions. This form A will be represented at

a certain moment by very numerous individuals of different age,

between the egg and the senile stage. Now let us change the

conditions; the change will affect this long series of individuals

of the same species in a very different way. The new-born will

react differently from the senile form. But among this long series

of individuals there will be a certain number of organisms which

will be most plastic, as I may express it, to the stimulus of the new

conditions. The senile forms, for instance, probably are not affect-

ed at all; they die out through senility. Between these and the

egg-stage, however, certain members must be in the condition

which I call most plastic. The different individuals may be ex-

pressed according to their age, A’, A?, A7, A‘, A’, .

A", the oldest individual, disappears by senility aaa Am takes

its place ; the whole series is moved one line; the individuals of

the greatest plasticity, for instance, do not remain the same, but are

replaced by the next younger group. In this way a constant

flow takes place, which continues until harmony is rachel

again between the individuals and the conditions.

I may explain this a little better by an example. The different

stages of a plant, from the youngest to the oldest, may be

expressed in a certain moment by A', A?, A’, At, A5, . . A>

Now new conditions begin to appear, for instance, W tie grad-

ual disappearance of water. The result will be that the plant has

to depend on less food than before; the large forms which have

_ become so large through ample food will die out through senility ;

314 The American Naturaust. [April

others come in their place, but these will not develop so highly,

because the necessary food is not given. The younger forms

have to depend from the beginning on less food, and cannot grow

to such extent as their ancestors ; the result probably would be the

evolution of a smaller race. This will become constant as soon as

it is in harmony with the surroundings. We can easily imagine

a differentiation on the same spot, through the change of condi-

tions ; but great effects are produced by isolation. Ifa part of

the individuals of a certain form become separated, the slightest

difference in the conditions of the new locality must work on the

individuals, until harmony is produced. The absence of inter-

crossing of the separated forms will preserve the characters of

each. I shall give an example for both cases, taken from the well-

known communications of Vladimir Schmankewitsch.

_ Let us imagine that the brine shrimp (Artemia salina) is liv-

ing in a salt-water lake which is supplied with fresh water by a

river. Through some cause this river may be prevented from —

emptying its waters in the lake, being forced to take another course. —

The result will be that the water will increase gradually in density.

By this gradual change Artemia salina will be transformed into

‘A. muhlhausenti. Of course it is impossible that any adult

Artemia is changeable ; but the changed conditions will have an

effect on the egg and the younger plastic stages; the old forms

will disappear. The young ones will change until harmony with the

surroundings is restored. Exactly the same will take place if 4 a

salina is brought from its original locality to another place, t

which the density of the water is greater than on the original local- De

ity. In the first instance a new species originates on the same

spot, through the change of conditions ; in the second a portion of Ry

the individuals becoming isolated from the original stock devel-

op into a new form,

This whole consideration is based on continuous growth, and

on the fact that members of the same form are in a differel

stage of plasticity at a different age. If the harmony of a certain

group is affected by the intercourse of any disturbing factor,"

other words, if the conditions are changed,—a general alarm

raised in the group until harmony is reéstablished. Imay ©

1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 315

this process the process of harmonic growth, founded on the

plasticity of the younger individuals. I believe that most of the

variation goes on in certain definite directions produced by the

conditions, this word taken in the widest sense. I do not believe

that species originate through indefinite variation, produced by

‘the mingling of different germ-plasmas on which natyral selec-

tion works. I am inclined to: believe that any change must

stimulate the organism, and I think it is this stimulus which

affects the germ-plasma just as well as the somatic plasma, if we

want to make any such artificial distinction.

Perhaps we may be allowed to make some remarks in this con-

nection about the inheritance of acquired characters. If any form

shows a new character produced during the lifetime of the form, and

not dependent upon any portion of the germ-plasma, we speak, in

Weismann’s meaning, of an acquired character of this form. I

may use a very clear example, taken from Darwin: “ The natives

of the Amazonian region feed the common green parrot (Chrysotes

festiva L.) with the fat of large Siluroid fishes, and the birds thus

treated become beautifully variegated with red and yellow

feathers. In the Malayan Archipelago the natives of Gilolo

alter, in an analogous manner, the colors of another parrot,

namely the Lorius garrulus L., and thus produce the Lori rajah

or King Lory. These parrots in the Malay Islands and South

America, when fed by the natives on natural vegetable food, such

as rice and plantains, retain their proper colors.”

Now here we have an acquired character. Will it be inherited?

Certainly not, ifthe animal is fed with its natural food; but it will

appear again when the animal receives the food producing the

peculiar color. Another example: If an alpine plant is trans-

ported to a botanical garden, and has become different from the

alpine form, it has acquired a new character. The question is, Is

this character “ inherited” by the next generation? The answer

will be yes, if the conditions that produced this new character

remain ; for instance, if we leave the plant in the botanical garden.

The answer will be xo, if we change the conditions that pro-

duced that new character; for instance, if we bring the plant back

to its original locality.

316 The American Naturalist. April,

Hoffmann has given to the wild carrot a new character through

long cultivation ; this character has become inherited,—that is to

say, seeds of the plants showing this acquired character show it _

again if placed in the same conditions. But let us plant the

seeds in the original place; they do not receive the food they

had in the cultivated ground, and will in a very short time fall

back to the original wild state; simply, as it seems, because the

conditions under which the character appeared are not given any

more. The word inheritance is very often used in an absolutely

wrong and misleading way. We cannot speak of direct inherit-

ance of an acquired character; what is called here inheritance is

simply the reappearance of the acquired character under the same — i

stimulus; it is not, strictly speaking, inherited. For instance, we

cannot say that the reduction of the biting muscles of lap-dogs

is directly inherited. The biting muscles are simply kept low by

the effect of the peculiar soft food that these animals receive, and —

by their peculiar mode of living ; but if we change the food and ' k

bring the animal into different conditions, these muscles will

increase again.

Inheritanċe is somewhat comparable to reflex motion and

automatic motion. Inheritance in its beginning is comparable to

reflex motion,—that is to say, a certain character appears undera

certain stimulus. Inheritance is comparable to automatic motion oA

when a certain character appears without that stimulus. In other” -

words, the germ is first reflective, then automatic. oe

The difference between my opinion and that of Weismann is this:

According to Weismann, the mingling of germ-plasma of different

individuals produces variation, on which natural selection acis 2

According to my opinion, variation is the product of the stimulus

of the conditions on the germ and somatic plasm ; it is therefore

definite. Variation goes on in certain definite lines. It is the

surroundings which change the germ and somatic plasm, W! s ;

determine variation. E

That variation goes in definite lines, determined by the cond

tions in which the organism lives, is admitted by all those W"

ever studied species; I mean by all those who studied, for instanc®,

all the representatives of a single genus and its g bye ses

a ees

_ 1891.] The Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 317

distribution ; the researches of Joel A. Allen and Dr. Merriam are

highly instructive in this line. It is also admitted by nearly all

paleontologists. I have expressed the opinion that “ inheritance ”

takes place only after a very long repetition of the same stimulus

on an organism. Why is it not imaginable that under certain

conditions, when the organization, instead of receiving an endless

repetition of a stimulus, suddenly receives a single most effective

stimulus, that thé effects are inherited, and appear for some gen-

erations? I do not want to be misunderstood; I do not believe

in the general inheritance of mutilations ; nobody can believe in

such atheory. But that certain mutilations, under certain con-

ditions, may ġe inherited, this I think is a possibility which cannot

be entirely neglected. And we have to consider such cases,

dark and unexplainable as they appear. Of course, in the origin of

species, I do not think that this question is of any importance,

If even certain mutilations in nature weuld become inherited,

they could not have any influence whatever on the great harmonic

number of the same species. I do not think that a species has

ever been developed through inheritance of a mutilation. I think

we are yet far from understanding the true nature of inheritance.

` The objection will be made to me that I do not consider the

sexes at all. To this I may reply that I am not inclined at pres-

ent to lay so much stress on the effects of the mingling of differ-

ent germ-plasmas. This mingling doubtless produces slighter or

greater individual variation, and is certainly one factor of varia-

tion. But we have to consider that nearly all our researches on

variation in this respect are based on domesticated ‘organisms, which

are, of course, under entirely different conditions from those in

free natyre. I can only think that certain even apparently most

useful variations, created by the mingling of the germ-plasmas,

must soon be swallowed up by the governing mass of harmonic

forms, and are thus generally unable to develop a new branch.

I consider sexual union more as a stimulative than a formative

factor. The same causes that produce variation in asexual

must produce variation in sexual animals. What we

have to do is to study species and variation in nature; to study

ir conditions of life, their surroundings; to find out how these

318 The American Naturalist. [April

are in relation to each other. Such a work, in fact, has never

been done. Dr. Merriam has undertaken such a task, however,

for some of the American mammals, n

There is no other place on the whole earth which affords better

opportunities for such a work than the Galapagos. Here we

have the original natural conditions, hardly influenced by man.

If all the variations of the forms on this group of islands, or even

only the variations of a few genera, are studied, and the conditions

of each variation are examined, then we may perhaps be able to

express a more definite opinion on the causes of variation itself.

Such work ought to be done defore it is too late. I repeat, before

it is too late! Or it may happen that the natural history of the

Galapagos will be lost, as it has unfortunately beén lost in so

many islands; for instance, of St. Helena and the Mascarenes,

lost forever, irreparably !

If I can succeed in raising the necessary funds, I shall try to do

something for the solution of this important question. A visit

of several months would bring out a good deal of light. The

question of the origin of the islands themselves could be solved

by the most careful collections of the flora and fauna of each,

even the smallest island. The conditions of the flora and fauna

as well as the domesticated animals which have become wild, could

be studied on the spot. I may make some remarks upon this

point. The following animals have become wild on the Galapagos,

according to Wolf: Cattle, goats, horses, asses, hogs, dogs, cats,

chickens. Cattle are found wild on Charles (8-900); Chatham P

(2-3000); South Albemarle some; horses only on Charles :

Island ; and asses are very numerous on Charles, Chatham, Inde

fatigable, and Albemarle. They live together in troops of ten © i

fifteen. Why, Dr. Wolf asks, have these animals adopted te z

peculiar habit of sitting on the hind legs like a dog ora cat? And

he adds that the most learned man could not help laughing at seeing a

these animals in'this peculiar position. Goats are said to have —

diminished on account of the dogs. They are found on the —

arid mountains of Charles, Chatham, and Barrington. Hogs

occur on all larger islands. Dogs live in droves in the uppe 3

and lower regions. The wild-cats on Charles and Chatham

1891.] Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 319

are all black,—a peculiar fact, since this color is hardly ever

seen in Ecuador. They live in the roughest fissures of the lava

near the coast, hunting for crabs and fishes. Chickens are found

on the highest most inaccessible regions of Charles. Also here

a great field of research is open.

But besides these questions of general interest, some special

points could be studied. For instance, material could be collected

for the embryology of the penguin, the frigate-bird, the albatross,

the seals, the Iguanida, and the large myriapod Scolopendra.

“The ground is classic ground,” says Mr. Salvin, “and the

natural products of the Galapagos Islands will ever be appealed

to by those occupied in investigating the’ complicated problems

involved in the doctrine of the derivative origin of species.”

But beside studies in nature, we need experiments ; biological

experimental stations would be of an enormous help in the ques-

tion of variagion. Our means of communication and transporta-

tion are so highly developed to-day that it is easy to get animals

and plants from very remote places in short time; by bringing

these organisms in different conditions a great anes of very

valuable experiments at least could be made.

I will finish these considerations, which I hope will be taken

for what they are, —ideas—not definite opinions,—with a word from

Darwin, in a letter to M. Wagner:

“In my opinion, the greatest error which I have committed has

been not allowing sufficient weight to the direct action of the

environment,—z. e., food, climate, etc. ,—independently of natural

ection.”

Clark University, Worcester, Mass., December 6th, 1890.

Am. Nat.—April.—2,

320 The American. Naturalist. [April, ?

PRINCIPAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF GALAPAGOS ISLANDS.

I. DESCRIPTIVE.

1. RIBERO, DieGo. J. G. Kohl, Die beiden aeltesten General Karten

von America ausgeführ in den Jahren, 1527 and 1529, auf Befehl Kaiser —

Carls V. Weimar, 1860. (On this splendid map the Galapagos are not

mentioned.)

2. ORTELIUS, ABRAHAM. Typus Orbis Terrarum, 1570 (Karte No. 5).

Second edition, 1580. Theatrum oder Schawbuch des Erdkreys, Autdorff.

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3. The observations of Sir Richard Hawkins Knight, in his voyage into the

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4. Hacke, W. A collection of original voyages, containing Captain Cow-

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5. WAFER, LIONEL. A new voyage and description of the Isthmus of i

America. London, 1699.

6. DAMPIER, G. Nouveau voyaye autour du monde, où l'on a jointes

voyages de Wafer, Wood, Sharp, Cowley, et Robert. 5 vols. Amst., 1711 ;

7. ROGERS, CAPTAIN WoopeEs. A cruising voyage round the world, begun

` in 1708 and finished in 1711. London, 1718. “en

8. Carte de l’ Amérique et des Mers voisins, 1763. I. Galapos, I. de Sante,

I. de Tabac, I. Mascarin. Le petit atlas Maritime, Vol. II., Pl. 2. Soa

Bellin.

9. Harris, Joun. Navigantium atque itinerantium Bibliotheca, or a com-

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10. COLNETT, CAPTAIN JAMES. A voyage to the South Atlantic coast, an®

eee aces = ES: RE eC ae ea ee oat

pl. II., XVI., Feb. 7, 1795. oe

12. THOMPSON, G. A. The Geographical and Historical Dictionary °

America and the West Indies, containing an entire translation of the »

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13. PORTER, CAPTAIN Davip. Journal of a cruise made to aer ie

Ocean by Captain David Porter in the United States frigate “Essex” in ®

years 1812, 1813, 1814. 2 vols. Philadelphia, 1815. Second editt

New York, 1822. Other edition. London, 1823, in New Voyages and 1

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1891.] Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 321

14. DELANO, AMASA. Narrative of voyages and travels inthe Northern and

Southern Hemispheres. Boston, 1817; second edition, 1818.

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servir d’ analyse et d’ explication a’ l’ Atlas de l'Ocean Pacifique. 2 vols.,

4°, St. Petersb., 1824.

16. HALL, CAPTAIN BasıL. Extracts from a journal written on the

coast of Chili, Peru, and Mexico in the years 1820-21-22. Edinburgh, 1824.

17. Byron, Lorp. Voyage of H. M. ship “Blonde” to the Sandwich

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21. THOUARS, CAPTAIN DU PETIT. Voyage autourdu Monde sur la Frigate

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24. HOPKINS, č T. San Fra rancisco Pioneer, I., p.97 1850.

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28. VILLAVICENCIO. Geografia dela Rep. del Ecuador. 1858.

29. PESCHEL, Oscar. Geschichte der Erdkunde. München, 1865, p. 323-

30. THE “Hassler” Expedition. Nature, Aug. 29, 1872, pp. 352-

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31. Acassiz, E. C. A cruise through the Galapagos. The Atlantic

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_ 32. Wotr, Dr. Tueopor. Ein Besuch der eo

Samm. von i Varirkaeed. W. Frommel und Friedr. Tfaff., I., 9-10.

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322 The American Naturalist. Cap

33- PESCHEL, OSKR. Physische Erdkunde. Bd. I., A 1879, p. 39i;

34. WoLF, DR. TEODORO. Apuntes sobre el clim de las islas-

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1879, pp. 245-256. :

35. Nature, Sept. 16th, 1880, p. 480. = ©

36. AMEZAGA, C. DE. Cenni suu’ Arcipelago Gallapagos secondo i

relievi del Dr. Wolf e le TERUNA, del sig Icaza. Bou. Soc.

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38. PANDOLFINI, Rose GRAF: Ein BeSuch auf den Galiga :

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42. FINDLAY. South Pacific Directory. a

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5. GRAY. Zool. Misc., 1831.

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7. WIEGMAN, DR. A. F. A. Amphibien in: Dr. F. J. F. Meyen; Beitrege |

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9. MILNE-EDWARDS, HENRI, Menai, sur la distribution geographique

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11. NEBOUX, . Descriptions d’oiseaux nouveaux recueillis pen-

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320-325.

12. BELL, THOMAS. Some account of the Crustacea of the coasts of

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1843.

I5@. FRESNAYE, BARON DE LA. Magasin de Zool., 1843.

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dobonae, 1843.

17. WATERHOUSE, G. R. Dësrripons of coleopterous insects collected

by Charles Darwin in the Galapagos Islands. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1845,

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18. GRAY, J. E. Catalogue of Lizards in the British Museum. London,

1845.

19: HOOKER, Joser DALTON. Enumeration of the Plants of the

Galapagos Islands, with descriptions of the new species. Linn. Soc. Proc.,

L, 1849, pp. 276-279. Trans. Linn. Soc., XX., 1851, pp. 163-2

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with that of some other tropical islands and of the continent of America.

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Pp. 235-262,

_ 20a. BONAPARTE, Prince C. L. Conspectus Avium, I., p. 479. 1850-51.

Notes Ornithologiques, p. 92. Paris, 1854.

324 The American Naturalist.

g’ Bit nat. de Piris. TEER, 1851. :

22. DUMÉRIL, A. M. C., ET BIBRON, G. Herpetologie generale ou Hia

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25. THOUARS, Du PETIT, ADMIRAL. Observations faite aus es Gale

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26. GUENTHER, ALBERT. On a new snake from the Galapagos Islands

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28. Uber die EEN der Galapagos Inseln. Linnæa, XXXL,

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30. PETERS, WILHELM CARL Hartwic. Uber eine neue Eidec

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31. Pines: Exhibition of a collection of birds from the G ʻi

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273-277.

32. GUENTHER, ALBERT. [Æerpetodryas biserialis and Dromicus che

missonis.] an KRec., 1870, Vol. VL, p. 11 '

33- SCLATER, T. L., AND SALVIN, V. Chacacing of new s

birds aeee i Dr. Habel in the: Galapagos Islands. P. Z9

PP. 322, 327. 3

“34. PETERS, WILHELM CARL Hartwic. Uber einige Arten der l

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35. SUNDEVALL, C. J. On birds from the Galapagos Islands,

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36. BENTHAM, GEORGE. Notes on the classification, pitas i

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37. DARWIN, CHARLES. Reise eines Naturfoschers um die We

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1891.] Origin of the Galapagos Islands. 325

38. WALLACE, A. R. Geograph. distribution of animals. 2 vols., Lon-

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2 Bd., Dresden, 1876, pp. 34-4

39. GUENTHER, ALBERT. spl from a letter received from Comman-

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Galapagos Islands. P. Z. S., 1876, p. 422

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of gigantic land tortoises. Parts I. and II., Introduction and the tortoises

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pl. 33-45. |

41. STEINDACHNER, Dr. Franz. Die Schlangen und Eidechsen der

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pp. 303-339. pl., I.—VII.

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of the oe

44. GUENTHER, A. Account of the zool. coll. made during the visit of

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of the British Museum. London, 1877, 4to, 96 pp., 54 pl.

46. STEINDACHNER, T. VIII., Ueber zwei neue Fischarten von den

Galapagos Inseln. Sitzungsber, K. Ak. Wiss. Wien., 1878.

47. ENGLER, A. Versuch einer Entwicklungschichte der Pflanzenwelt _

2 Thle., Leipzig, 1879-1881.

48. SHARPE, R. BowDLER Notes on Anous. (Anous galapagentis, sp. n.)

Philos. trans., CLXVIII., 1879, 4

49. ALLEN, JoeL AsapH. History of North American Pinnipeds.

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50. MARKHAM, A. H. A visit to the Galapagos. Proc. Roy. Geogr.

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53. Rrpeway, ROBERT. Auk, III., July, 1886, 331.

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55. SHARPE, R. BowDLER. Cat. Birds, Brit. Mus., XII., 1888, 12.

326 The American Naturalist. [April

56. RIDGWAY, ROBERT. Birds collected on the Galapagos Islands in

1888. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XII., pp. 101-128. Washington, 1889.

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61. JORDAN, DAVID STARR, and BOLLMAN, CHARLES HARVEY. (Sc. rep.

expl. St. “Albatross,” IV.) Description of new species of fishes collected at A

the Galapagos Islands and along the coast of the United States of Columbia,

1887-'88. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., XII., 1889, pp. 14

183. ka

62. WAGNER, Moriz. Die Enstehung der Artendurch Fräumliche Son- on

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63. Baur, G. The gigantic land tortoises of the Galapagos Islands. a

Am. NAT., Dec. 1889, pp. 1039-1057.

64. . Das Variiren der Eidechsen-Gattung Tropidurus auf den Gala-

Biol. Centralbl., Vol. X., No. 15, 16. Sept. 1 i5. m Nachtrag, 20.

= Moreno Boll. Mus. La Plata., p. 29, I

66. HEMSLEY, WILLIAM BOTTING. ou on piini state of knowledge

of various Insular Floras. The voyage of H. M. ship “ Challenger.”

Botany, Vol. I., London, 1885.

pagoeTaseln und Bemerkungen iiber den Ursprung der Insel-gruppe. ' T

WE Soe Sas) enaa a a E ea (Terie

1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology 327

REVIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN INVER-

TEBRATE PALEONTOLOGY FOR THE YEAR 1890. `

BY CHARLES R. KEYES.

KENGE the last consideration of the subject in this journal im-

portant contributions to American invertebrate paleontology

have been made. The number of titles is considerably in excess

of that of last year. Several extensive state reports have

appeared ; but the large majority of the papers issued have been

incorporated in serials. With the exception of a few brief pres-

entations on small zoological groups no monographical works

have been distributed during the year just closed. The several

great works alluded to last year as in an advanced state of prepa-

‘ration have been necessarily delayed by the discoveries of much

new material; but the evidence at hand clearly indicates that the

delay will not be unaccompanied by more suggestive results than

could otherwise have been reached.

Excepting those proposed in a single brochure which has not

as yet been generally distributed, the number of new species con-

sidered is very much below that of any similar period during the

past decade, thus greatly emphasizing the statements made in the

last “review.” On a former occasion the fact was mentioned

that the interdependence of the stratigraphical geologist, the

biologist, and the paleontologist is constantly becoming more and -

More intimate. This suggestion has never been more fully cor-

roborated than by the recent appearance of several most valuable

morphological memoirs, based largely upon critical studies of

extinct forms of life. Nor is the reality of the remark less appar-

ent in certain late articles dealing with problems of stratigraphy.

In the annual report (pp. 116-120) of the Geological and Nat-

ural History Survey of Canada, Henry M. Ami has a Systematic

List of Fossils with Localities referred to in Report K.

Charles E. Beecher, has in the American Journal of Science (3),

Vol. XL.: North American Species of Strophalosia, pp. 240-246;

On Leptzenisca, a New Genus: of Brachiopod from the Lower

328 The American Naturalist.

Helderberg Group, p PP. 238—240, I plate; Koninckia and Related x

Genera, pp. 211—219, I plate; and On the Development of the

Shell in the Genus Tornoceras Hyatt, pp. 71-75. ;

` L P. Bishop communicates a note on A New Locality of e -

Silurian Fossils in the Limestone of Columbia County, N. Y. to :

American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX., pp. 69-70. i

Samuel Calvin describes Some New Species of Paleozoic Fos-

sils, in the Bulletin of the Laboratories of Natural History of the

State University of Iowa, Vol. I., 173-181, 3 plates; also, Note

on a Specimen of Conularia missouriensis Swallow with Crenu-

lated Costa, in American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 207-208, i

E. J. Chapman has some Remarks on the Classification of the

Trilobites, with Outline of a New Grouping of These Forms;

Transactions Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VII., Sec. vi, ee

113-120. `

William B. Clark notes the occurrence of certain fossils, in a

Third Annual Geological Expedition into Southern Maryland and

Virginia ; Johns Hopkins University Circulars, No. 81, pp. 6919

J. M. Clarke has: As Trilobitas do Grez de Ereré e Maecurt

Estado do Pará, Brazil, in the Archivos de Museu Nacional e

Rio de Janeiro, Vol. IX., pp. 1—57, two plates. *

E. W. Claypole considers a new form of crustacean in i

Paleontological Notes from Indianapolis; American Geologist :

Vol. VI., pp. 255-260. i

F. W. Cragin, in the Bulletin of Washburn College, Vol. IL,

pp. 65-68, has Contributions to the Paleontology of the Plains.

Coral and Coral Islands (third edition), by James D. Dana, has

appeared, with considerable new material added. The author also

has a note on fossils in the Taconic limestone belt at the west

foot of the Taconic Range in Hillsdale, N. Y., in American Jour

nal of Science (3), Vol. XL., pp. 256, 257.

William H. Dall contributes to the knowledge of the Te-

tiary Fauna of Florida ; Transactions of the Wagner Froe p

tute of Science, Vol. II. , pp. 1—200, 12 plates. :

J. William Dawson be A Note on a Fossil Fish and

Worm Found in a Pleistocene Nodule in Green’s Creek, Oua

in Canadian Record of Science, Vol. IV., pp. 86-88 ; On RiT

1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 329

and Tracks of Invertebrate Animals in Paleozoic Rocks, and

Other Markings, in the Quarterly Journal of Geological Society of _

London, Vol. XLVI., pp. 595-618 ; and On New Species of Fos-

sil Sponges from the Siluro-Cambrian at Little Metis, on the

lower St. Lawrence, in Transactions Royal Society of Canada,

Vol. VIL, Sec. iv., pp. 31-55.

In the Canadian Record of Science, Vol. IV., pp. 104—109,

William Deeks gives a List of Fossils from the Lower Helderberg

formation of St. Helen’s Island.

W. W. Dodge notes Some Lower Silurian Graptolites from

Northern Maine, in the American Journal of Science (3), Vol.

XL., pp. 153-155.

P. Martin Duncan, in the Journal of the Linnazan Society, -

Vol. XXIIL., pp. 1-311, gives a Revision of Generic and Great

Groups of the Echinoidea.

R. W. Ells lists many fossils in his Second Report on the

Geology of a Portion of the Province of Quebec; Annual

Report Geological and Natural History Survey of Canada, Vol.

HI; Report K.

Oliver Everett with E. O. Ulrich describes some new Silurian

sponges, in the Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII., pp.

253-282.

A. H. Foord revises the Group of Nautilus elegans Sowerby;

Geological Magazine (3), Vol. VII., pp. 542-552.

C. H. Gordon gives his Observations on the Keokuk Species

of Agaricocrinus, in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 257-261;

and On the Keokuk Beds at Keokuk, lowa, in the American

Journal of Science (3), Vol. XL., pp. 295-300.

James Hall has an abstract On New Genera and Species of

the Family Dictyospongide, in Bulletin of the Geological Society

of America, Vol. I., p. 22. Also Some Suggestions Regarding `

ing the Subdivisions and Grouping of the Species Usually

Included Under the Generic Term Orthis, in Accordance with

the External and Internal Characters and Microscopic Shell

Structures; pp. 19-21 of same publication.

A Pilisiiaey Catalogue of the Fossils Occurring in Missouri

330 The American Naturalist. [April, |

is given in Bulletin No. 1, Geological Survey of Missouri, pp.

60-85, by G. Hambach.

The Occurrence of Goniolina in the Comanche Series of the

Cretaceous is noted by R. T. Hill in the American Jere of

Science (3), Vol. XL. pp. 64, 65.

Jos. F. James discusses the Maquoketa Shales and their Correla-

tion with the Cincinnati Group of Southwestern Ohio, in the

American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 335-356; and, On Variation,

with Special Reference to Certain Paleozoic Genera, in AMERICAN

NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 1071-1087.

T. Rupert Jones describes Some Paleozoic Ostracoda from North

America, Wales, and Ireland, in Quarterly Journal Geological So-

ciety of London, Vol. XLVI., pp. I-30; also in-the same jour-

nal, pp. 534-556, Some Devonian and Silurian Ostracoda from

North America, France, and the Bosphorus; and Some Fossil

Estheriz, in the Geological Magazine, Vol. IX. , pp. 385-390.

Charles R. Keyes has a Review of the Progress of American

Invertebrate Paleontology for the Year 1889, in the AMERICAN

Natorauist, Vol. XXIV., pp. 131-138; Certain Forms of Stra

parollus from Southeastern Iowa, in American Geologist, Vol. Va

PP. 193-197 ; Genesis of the Actinocrinidae, in AMERICAN NATUR-

ALIST, Vol. XXIV., pp. 243-254; Generic Relations of Platyceras

and Capulus, in the American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 6-9; Note

on the Preservation of Color in Fossil Shells, in Zhe Nautilus, ; ,

Vol. IV., pp. 30-31 ; Synopsis of American Carbonic Calyptræidæ,

in Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, n

1890, pp. 150-181; Discovery of Fossils in the Limestones a

Frederick County, Maryland, in Johns Hopkins University Ce 7

culars, No. 84, p. 32; and The Naticoid Genus Strophostylus, in

the American NATURALIST, Vol. XXIV., pp. 1111-1117. a

Remarks on the Nature of Organic Species are given by Wa

Leidy in Transactions Wagner Free Institute of Science, Vol. Il.

PP: 51-53.

J. P. Lesley has issued Volumes II, and III. of his Dictionary

of Fossils; P 4, Geological Survey of Pennsylvania.

Joshua Lindai has prepared a General Index to the Fight Re

]

1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 331

ports of the Illinois Geological Survey ; Paleontology, pp. 62-151

of appendix.

G. F. Mathew has Cambrian Organisms in Acadia ; Transactions

Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VII., Sec. iv., pp. 135—162.

A Note on Some of the Causes of Extinction of Species

appears in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 100-104, by J. M.

McCreery.

S. A. Miller has the Structure, Classification, and Arrangement

of American Paleozoic Crinoids into Families, in the American

Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 340-357; and with W. F. E. Gurley,

Descriptions of Some New Genera and Species of Echinodermata

from the Coal Measures and Subcarboniferous Rocks of Indiana,

Missouri, and Iowa, in the Journal of Cincinnati Society of Nat-

ural History, April, 1890.

In the AmMEricAN NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 261-266,

Henry F. Osborn gives The Paleontological Evidence for the

Transmission of Acquired Characters.

E. N. S. Ringueberg describes some Crinoidea of the Lower

Niagara Limestone at Lockport, N. Y., in a Annals New York

Academy Sciences, Vol. V., p. 30

Charles W. Rolfe has ene and Distribution of the Genera

of Brachiopoda, in the American Nartura.ist, Vol. XXIII., pp.

983-998.

Studies on Monticulipora are given in the American Geologist,

Vol. VI., pp. 102-121, by C. Rominger.

R. R. Rowley has some Observations on Natural Casts of

Crinoids and Blastoids from the Burlington Limestone, in the

American Geologist, Vol. VI. , pp. 66-67 ; and Batocrinus calvini,

in same journal, Vol. V. , PP- 146, 147.

Samuel Scudder has, in the Memoirs of the Boston Society of

Natural History, pp. 401-472: New Types of Carboniferous

Cockroaches from Carboniferous Deposits of the United States ;

New Carboniferous Myriapods from Illinois; Ilustrations of Car-

boniferots Arachnida of North America, of the Orders Anthraco-

marti and Pedipalpi ; and Insects of the Triassic Beds of Fairplay,

Colorado,

332 The American Naturalist.’

In the 23d Report of the New York State Museum, pp. 230-

239, Charles Schuchert has: On Syringothyris, Winchell, and

its American Specjes; and List of the American Paleozai Orthis, l

Spirifera, Spiriferina, and Syringothyris.

B. Shimek discusses the Löss and Its F ossils, in the Bulletin di T

the Laboratories of Natural History of the State onver of

Iowa, Vol. I., pp. 200-214, and Vol. II., pp. 89-08.

G. B. Simpson has Descriptions of New Species of Fossils i in

the Transactions American Philosophical Society, Vol. XVI, Pe

435-460.

J. B. Tyrrell incidentally refers to certain fossils from the Crate >

ceous of Manitoba; American Journal of Science (3), Vol. Xb i

pp. 227-232. Aiso has Foraminifera and Radiolaria from the

Cretaceous of Manitoba, in the Transactions of the Royal

Society of Canada, Vol. VIII., Sec. iv.; pp. 111-115. 7

American Paleozoic Spoges and Braa are described by E.

O. Ulrich in the Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIIL, pp-

209-678 ; also New Lamellibranchiata, in American Geologist,

Vol. V., pp. 270-284, and Vol. VI. pp. 173-181, and 382-389.

A. W, Vogdes issues as Bulletin 63 of the U. S. Geologiak

Survey, Bibliography of Paleozoic Crustacea.

Charles Wachsmuth and Frank Springer have New Species of

Crinoids and Blastoids from the Kinderhook Group of Lower

Carboniferous Rocks at Le Grand, Iowa, and A New Genus from

Niagara Group of Western Tennessee, in Geological Survey

Ilinois, Vol. VIII, pp. 155-208; also, Peristomic Plates w

Crinoids, in Proceedings Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadel

phia, 1890, pp. 345-392.

Charles D. Walcott has, in the Proceedings U. S. National

Museum, Vol. XIII., pp. 266-279: Descriptions New Forms 0

Upper Cambrian Fossils: and in Bulletin Geological Society d

_ America, Vol. I., pp. 335-356, The Value of the Term “ Hudson

River Group” in Geological Nomenclature; also; A»Review

Dr. R. W. Ells’ Second Report on the Geology of a Portion

the Province of Quebec, with Additional Notes on the

Group, in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX, PP

‘IOI-I15.

1891.] Progress of American Invertebrate Paleontology. 333.

A. Warner notes some casts of Scolithus flattened by pressure,

in the American Geologist, Vol. V., pp. 35-38.

In the AMERICAN NATURALIST, Vol. XXIII., pp. 710-712, C.

L. Webster has a Description of a New Genus of Corals from the

Devonian Rocks of Iowa; and on pp. 621-625, Contributions to

the Knowledge of the Genus Pachyphyllum.

J. F. Whiteaves describes Some New Species of Fossils from

the Devonian Rocks of Manitoba, in the Transactions of the

Royal Society of Canada, Vol. VIII., Sec. iv., pp. 93-110, six

plates.

H. S. Williams has the Devonian System of North and South

. Devonshire, in the American Journal of Science, Vol. XXXIX.,

pp. 31-38; and, The Cuboides Zone and Its Fauna: A Discus-

sion of the Methods of Correlation, in the Bulletin of the Geo-

logical Society of American, Vol. I., pp. 481-500.

L. C. Wooster gives a few notes on the fossils of the Permo-

Carboniferous of Greenwood and Butler counties, Kansas, in the

American Geologist, Vol. VI., pp. 8-18.

A. H. Worthen notes certain Cretaceous fossils in the drift

deposits of Illinois, Geological Survey of Illinois, Vol. VIII., pp.

1-24; also, Descriptions of Fossil Invertebrates, pp. 69-154 of

the same publication.

334 The American Naturalist.

RECENT STUDIES OF THE VERTEBRATE HEAD,

BY H. W. NORRIS.

(Continued from page r02.)

Poon researches on Amphioxus and the Craniata Van Wite

(89) concludes that the skull never consists of metameres; —

that only in the occipital region behind the vagus were there at

one time separate cartilaginous neural arches. The parietal mus-

culature, and the peripheral nervous system, with the exception of a

the I., IL, and III. nerves, were once segmented in the region of

the heat as well as in the body. The number of the myotomes —

of the head is in general nine, but in those Craniata which have —

no hypoglossus, less. To a cranial or a body segment belong

both a dorsal and a ventral nerve, which were originally separate.

Wherever in the Craniata the ventral roots are wanting the cor-

responding myotomes do not appear. The vagus is a complex +

of two dorsal nerves. There are no grounds for assuming that

the Craniata ever possessed more than eight branchial sacks,

unless an additional aborted one belongs to the hyoid arch!

Beard (’89a) states that certain portions of the cranial and spi. a

nerves arise not as outgrowths from the central nervous system

but from the ectoderm just outside the neural tube. This mode

of E oo agrees with that described by Kleinenberg uS i

ectodermal si cculisitons jist above the lateral limit

ventral cord, and like the ganglia of vertebrates arise bs

tally. It is to be noted that Rabl and Dohrn both con

two limbs of the neural plate the neuro-epithelium of one Ii

separated from that of the other by a ciliated groove. Two!

of neuro-epithelium separated by a ciliated groove are chata

tic of Annelids. This ciliated groove in vertebrates’ later

most, if not all, of the ciliated epithelium of the permanent €

ace :

* Iti the above statements of Van Wijhe with the more

O CoO aM par ©

‘headin of D Duties

1891. | Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 335

Beard (’89@) reiterates his former conclusions that the nose, like

the ear, represents a branchial sense organ. The olfactory nerve,

like a typical branchial nerve, develops from two sources: from

the ectoderm just outside the foundation of the central nervous sys-

tem, and from the special neuro-epithelium The latter grows in

length by increase within itself, and later on in development, in

many cases it divides up into a number of smell-buds, comparable

exactly to the sense organs of the lateral line. The origin of the

olfactory nerve in reptiles ıs essentially similar to that in Elasmo-

branchs. In the chain connecting the sensory cells of a verte-

brate sense organ with the central nervous system there are gan-

glion cells arising from three different sources: from the neuro-

epithelium itself; between the lateral ganglion and the central

nervous system ; as a special differentiation in the central nervous

system. Jacobson’s organ is a specially differentiated part of the

nose. , There is nothing in the development of the nose per se to

suggest a gill-cleft.

Golowine (’90a) confirms many of the statements of Beard.

He thinks that in the chick the ectoderm situated at the sides of

the not-yet-closed medullary tube represents two sensitive organs,

and that from these latter the ganglionic system is developed.

Beard had stated that the ganglion Anlagen are, after the first

Stages, independent of the ectoderm, but Golowine observed their

formation from ectoderm cells up to the time the neural ridge is

complete. In most respects he agrees with Beard as to the

origin of the Anlagen. Before the neural ridge segments it be-

comes separated from the sensitive ectoderm by a layer of indif-

ferent ectoderm. Thus in the so-called sensitive organ can be

recognized two distinct portions: ganglion Anlagen and the

Anlagen of the special sense organs. The neural ridge in the

cephalic region divides successively into three ganglion groups.

Kastschenko’s conclusion that the dorsal parietes of the medul-

lary tube deggnerates to such an extent that a second closing

Occurs is erroneous. As the neural ridge divides, to each gan-

glionic se t isa tof sensitive ectoderm, which

has E >

* Beard, it should be remembered, holds that th iral ridge is independent of th

tral nervous system :

Am. Nat.—April.—3.

336 The American Naturalist. ‘[April,

latter is to be regarded as an organ of special sense. The subse-

quent development of the ganglionic system is entirely independ- _

ent ofthe special sense organs. Though later the ganglia in the —

region of the head are directly connected with the branchial sense _

organs, yet the former are never developed at the expense of the _

latter, Beard, Froriep, and Spencer to the contrary. The olfactory —

ganglia are probably formed from the neural ridge. They are not

derived from the cells of the nasal fossa. The posterior roots of

the cranial and spinal nerves are at first cellular, and are formed “

from that part of the neural ridge placed between the dorsal —

borders of the medullary tube. :

Houssay (’90), in his observations on the development of the

Axolotl, agrees with Beard as to the ectodermal origin of the —

Anlagen of the dorsal nerve-roots. The cranial ganglia first

appear as an unsegmented ectodermal band, which afterwards

extends into the trunk, forming the lateral line and nerve. Inthe — |

meantime, while this posterior differentiation is occurring, the

band anteriorly segments to form the cranial ganglia. The cen- —

tral nervous system, though at first unsegmented, is soon meta-

meric, both in brain and spinal cord, and this metamerism is _

called “neurotomy.” The dorsal nerve-roots arise each behind

the “neurotome” of its segment,’ this relation being secondary.

The author thinks there is a complete homodynamy of the periph- :

eral nervous system in all the metameres of the body. Indis

cussing the metamerism of the head he states that the segments

do not appear with any regularity as to time and location. The

neurotomes, neuromeres, branchiomeres, and myotomes agree ©

the manner of segmentation. He believes he finds evidence

the existence of an oculohypophysial, a buccal, a hyomane

lar, and an auditory segment. The IV. and VI. nerves cannot !

certainly identified as ventral roots. ag

Gaskell (89a, ’89é, 90) considers the central nervous sys

of vertebrates as made up of two parts: a non-neryous §

ing tube, and a nervous portion surrounding that tube. He ba 2

his observations on Ammoccetes, and concludes that the 1 T

nervous tube is the altered alimentary canal of a Crustacea

3 Vide Platt and McClure.

1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 337

ancestor. The functions of the supracesophageal and the infra-

sceophageal ganglia and the ventral chain correspond to the func-

tions of those parts of the vertebrate central nervous system

which are situated in the same anatomical position, with respect

to the non-nervous tube, as the corresponding ganglia of the _

Crustacean with respect to the alimentary canal. The Crustacean

cephalic stomach is represented in the brain of the Ammoccetes

by the choroid plexuses, the continuation of the tissue of the

latter that lines the cavities of the brain being the ventral portion

of the stomach walls. The nervous masses lying outside this

lining epithelium are probably composed of tissue arranged in the

same way and of the same structure as the supracesophageal,

infracesophageal, and thoracic ganglia of the Crustacean-like

ancestor. The two nervous masses which form the brain proper

and olfactory lobes are in the position of the supracesophageal

ganglia with respect to the walls of the cephalic stomach, and in

connection with a special optic portion which gives rise to eyes

of a strictly Arthropod type. Rudiments of the old mouth and

cesophagus are seen in the infundibular process. A bilaterally

arranged mass of pigmented tissue that fills up a large portion of

the space around the brain is looked upon as the rudiment of

the Crustacean liver, while its duct is seen in the conus post-

commissuralis. The pigment is regarded as the remains of the

blood channels of the old cephalic liver. The original Crustacean-

like ancestor had a pair of median eyes, represented in the

Ammoceetes by the “ dorsal ” and “ ventral ” pineal eyes, the dor-

sal eye remaining functional much longer than the ventral. The

central nervous system of the Ammoceetes, and therefore of all

other vertebrates, is the direct descendant of the Arthropodnervous

system in all respects. The vertebrate alimentary canal is formed

by the prolongation of a respiratory chamber, the latter contain-

ing the gill-bearing legs of the ancestral form; the legs being

still present in Ammoccetes in the form of branchial bars. The

Segmental cranial nerves are the nerves arising from the infra-

cesophageal and thoracic ganglia. The first'two cranial nerves are

_ the nerves of special „sense arising from‘ the supracesophageal

ganglia.‘

í To fully comprehend tt bove theory ane ve as

338 The American Naturalist.

Miss Platt (’89) finds that in the chick the first mesodermal

cleft occurs anterior to the first protovertebra, and that two proć

tovertebræ are subsequently formed anterior to this cleft. The ;

four pairs of protovertebræ entering into the formation of the

„head are thus evenly divided by the first mesodermal cleft. Dur-

ing the second and third days of incubation the medullary tube

becomes divided by a series of constrictions into vescicles or

neuromeres. Anterior to the first protovertebra there are seven

of these neuromeres. As the protovertebre are successively

formed, neuromeres are added, each opposite a protovertebra; but

of the latter. The anterior neuromere gives rise to the prosen-

cephalon, thalamencephalon, and mesencephalon. The develop-

ment of these three brain vescicles is coincident with the cranial

flexure, and the latter may be due to the rapid development of

the dorsal and lateral walls of the first cerebral vescicle. From

the second neuromere is developed the cerebellum. The succeed-

ing vescicles, including those between the first five protovertebra, :

these medullary folds observed by them in the lizard and chick -

are the same as those observed by Platt in the salmon and c

The, primitive relation in the chick is different. The V. nerve

arises not as Béreneck says, from the outward convexity of the a

neuromere of the medulla, but from the concavity between 7

first and second neuromeres. Opposite this concavity a Tia;

projects into the fourth ventricle, ‘composed of lines of cells í

verging like the rays of a fan toward the point of origin of the

nerve. At the time when the VII. and VIII. nerves have just i

the neural ridge, from the concavities between the second

third and the third and fourth neuromeres spring nerve

which unite in a large ganglion. Thus at an early per

VII. and VIII. nerves are distinct from each other, but as the ti

neuromere is smaller than the others the space between the

5 See Orr. Journ. Morph., Vol. I., No. 2, p. 335.

1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 339

of these two nerves is very slight. The IX. nerve arises from the

concavity between the fourth and fifth neuromeres. The X. nerve

is evidently made up of the fused roots of several spinal nerves. The

latter arise like the cranial nerves from corresponding concavities

in the spinal cord. The cranial neuromeres are to be regarded as

homologous with the neuromeres of the spinal cord. Orr stated

that the internal ridges projecting into the fourth ventricle cor-

responded not to the nerve-roots, but to the spaces between the

nerve-roots. In Acanthias, Platt (’90) describes a pair of head-

cavities anterior to the premandibular cavities. This observation

is of great interest in the light of Dohrn’s recent studies on

Torpedo. : :

While many observers have noted the relations of the cranial

nerves to the neuromeres, McClure (89, ’90) seems to be the first

to attempt to comprehend the entire brain in a schematic, seg-

mental arrangement of neuromeres. Basing his observations on

the embryos of Amblystoma, Anolis, and the chick, he concludes

that the primitive brain consisted of approximately ten neuro-

meres, which, beginning with the anterior, he calls olfactory,

optic, oculomotor, trochlear, trigeminal, abducens, facial, auditory,

glossopharyngeal, and vagus neuromeres respectively. He follows

closely the observations of Orr on the lizard, and quotes his

definition of a typical neuromere.® The forebrain is to be con-

sidered as consisting of two neuromeres and possibly part of a

third, the midbrain of two, and the hindbrain of six. “The

olfactory neuromere is connected with the olfactory nerve.” The

two neuromeres of the forebrain described by McClure are the

same as those described by Orr in the region of the thalamence-

phalon of the lizard posterior to the secondary forebrain. But

Orr says “they never give off any nerves.” As McClure studied

Orr's preparations, this disagreement is interesting. The segmen-

tal nerve belonging to the optic neuromere is assumed to have

degenerated. The midbrain probably consists of two neuromeres,

since the III. and IV. nerves arise from this brain segment, and

the view is further strengthened by the fact that Scott figures i>

Petromyzon an _appearance of neuromeres in the midbrai...

Orr. Journ. Morph., Vol. I., No. 2, p. 335.

340 : The American Naturalist. [Apa

Hoffmann found that the trochlear nerve arises in the lizard from is

the anterior neuromere of the hindbrain, and subsequently shifts _ :

forward to the midbrain. McClure promises to prove that Hof.

man has probably mistaken the posterior segment of the mid- —

brain for the anterior segment of the hindbrain, but as he figures

in the chick and lizard an unnamed neuromere between the mid-

brain and trigeminal neuromere, the promise is not fulfilled r

This ungamed neuromere is described by Orr. Hoffman says it —

forms part of the cerebellum. Miss Platt, with whom McClure

closely agrees in many points, but whose work he utterly ignores,

states essentially the same. Four neuromeres of the hindbrain

give rise to dorsal nerve-roots. The abducens and auditory

neuromeres possess no nerve-roots, and in Amblystoma the

abducens neuromere is wanting. -The VI. nerve cannot be cer-

tainly identified with any neuromere. It should be noticed that

while McClure gives theoretical evidence for the separate origin

of the VII. and VIII. nerves, Miss Platt has already demonstrated

the same. McClure agrees with Miss Platt in homologizing the

neuromeres of the brain with those of the spinal cord. He con-

siders the dorsal roots of the nerves to arise from the outward

convexity of the respective ‘neuromeres, or to be intersomitic.

Miss Platt says that in the chick the spinal nerves spring from

the internal ridge opposite the myotomes or somites. Houssay

says that in the Axolotl the dorsal nerve-roots arise each | ir €

the neurotome of its segment. “Nine myotomes in the bo

region would correspond to the nine spaces between ten net

meres of the spinal cord. Therefore our author says the ) ‘

mesodermal head-somites, or myotomes, of Van Wijhe “the

retically correspond to the nine spaces between the ten enc

alomeres.” 7

Ayers (’90a,’908) sees in Amphioxus, which, as Steiner she

consists of a series of physiologically equal segments, 2 |

comparable to the brain of higher vertebrates. The anem

of the neural axis of Amphioxus is a brain, for it termina

head. Moreover, Dohrn’s recent investigations show conclusively hat

brain consisted of many more than ten segments. ;

1 This statement shows a surprising lack of acquaintance with the morp er

1891.] Recent Studies of the Vertebrate Head. 34I

neural axis anteriorly ; it is intimately connected with the sense

organs, eye and nose; it gives off at least two pairs of sensory

nerves with peripheral ganglia; it possesses ganglionic centers of

coordination ; it has an enlarged central canal with three diverticula,

two optic and one olfactory ; it is the largest part of the nervous

system in early stages ; it possesses a cranial flexure ; it shows a

differentiation into ganglionic and fibrous tracts. The large col-

lections of ganglion cells just posterior to the thalamoccele are

homologous with the medullary nuclei of other vertebrates. In

the ontogeny of other vertebrates the brain passes through a con-

dition which remains as adult in Amphioxus. All the sense

organs of the anterior end of the body of Amphioxus are prob-

ably paired. The eye-spot is the forerunner of the vertebrate

eye, and shows several stages in development. The pigment of

the eye-spot is contained in cells that lie normally inside the

bounds of the nerve-mass. The pigment bodies form a part of

segmental sensory structures. Each of the pigment bodies

forms a deposit in an ameeboid cell. The pigment of the

the axial nervous system of Amphioxus is in process of migra-

tion towards the anterior end of the body. The vertebrate ear

has developed within the phylum above Amphioxus, and arose

from one of the primary sense organs of the lateral line system,

at a period phylogenetically later than the formation of the canal

system of these sense organs. The ear capsula does not separate

two morphologically different p®rtions of the brain. The higher

sense organs of all the Cyclostomata are all paired. The

parietal-pineal eye of the Cyclostomata and other vertebrates has

been developed from a median portion of the pigmented eye of

Amphioxus. The neural axis of all vertebrates is coéxtensive

with that of the chorda. The pituitary prominence of the skull

of vertebrates does not mark a fixed point. The chondro- or

ossicranium possesses no more segmental value than the intestine. |

The head-cavities possess relatively the greatest importance before

a primordial cranium has made its appearance. The hypophysis

arose in the vertebrate phylum long after the appearance of the

chorda, and was connected with the infundibulum. It arose as a

‘See Rabl. Theorie des Mesoderms.

tion, Distribution, and Origin of the Cranial Nerves ; together with

344, 1890.

nebst Bemerkungen iiber die Wirbeltheorie des Sraa

342 The American Naturalist.

taste organ, and the infundibulum was its nerve. The optic

trochlear chiasms have arisen within the vertebrate group

the Amphioxus condition. The large number of gill

Amphioxus is due to physiological conditions, the br

apparatus serving for collecting food as well as for respira

LITERATURE.

'9goa. AYERS, H. Contribution to the Morphology of the Ve

Head. _ Zool. Anz., No. as

‘908. ——. Vertebrate TORAO Lour, Morph., Vol. IV.

1890. ; :

‘89a. BEARD, J. Some Annelidan ears, in the Ontogeny

tebrate Nervous System. Nature, p. 259, 1

894. ——. Morphological Studies, ae vy “The Nose and-

Organ. Zool. Jahrb., Bd. III., Heft. 5, 1889.

‘89a. GASKELL, W. H. On the Relation between the Structures

of the Origin of the Nervous System of Vertebrata. Jour. Physiol Vol

——. On the Origin of the iktisat Nervous System of Ve

Brain, Vol. XII., p. 1, 1889. :

'g0. On the Origin of Vertebrates from a Crustacean-lil

tor. Quar, park Mic. Sci., No. CXXIII., 1890.

‘goa. GOLOWINE, E. P. Sur le développement du système ga

yrs le Poulet. Biss Anz., No. 4, 1890. ve

——. Sur le déviléppement du système ganglionnaire

Poulet, risen de la Société des Naturalistes de St. Pétersbourg,

XXI., 4890. $

"90. Houssay, F. ‘Prades d’embryologie sur les vertébrés.

zool. expér. et gén., VIII., No. 2, 1890.

"89. McCiure, C. F. W. The Primitive Segmentation of the V

Brain. Zool. Anz., No. 314, 1889.

‘90. ——. The eae of the Primitive Vertebrate Brain

Morph., Vol. IV., No. 1,

89. PLATT, JULIA B. sats on the Primitive Axial Seg

the Chick. Bull. Museum Compar. Zool., Harvard College, Vol.

" No. 4, 1889.

90. ——. The Anterior Head-Cavities of Acanthias.

"89. VAN irda eae Die Kopfregion der Cranioten beim

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 343

RECORD OF AMERICAN ZOOLOGY.

BY J. S. KINGSLEY.

(Continued from Voi. XXV., page 259.)

HEXAPODA.

WHEELER, W. M.—On the appendages of the first abdominal

segments of embryo insects. Trans. Wisc. Acad. VIII., p. 87,

1890.—Figures and describe these organs in many forms, and

regards them as glandular.

PATTEN, Wm.—Is the ommatidium a hair-bearing sense bud ?

Anat, Anz., V., p. 353, 1890.

Ritry, C. V.—Some insect pests of the household. IV.,

Cockroaches. /nsect Life, II., 266, 1890.

Hyatt, A., anp Arms, J. M.—Guides for science-teaching.

No. VIII., Insecta. Boston, 1890, pp. xxiii+300, 13 plates.—

See Am. NAT., Jan., 1891.

WEED, C. M.—Partial bibliography of insects affecting clover.

Bull. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Series, I., p. 17.

CockeEritL, T. D. A—Asymmetry in insects. Ent. Mo. Mag.,

XXV., p. 382.

* PACKARD, A. S.—Notes on the epipharynx and the epipha-

tyngeal organs of taste jn mandibulate insects. Psyche, V., p. 222.

. * McNiEtL, JeERomE.—The male element the originating factor

in the development of species. Psyche, V., 269.

-CockERELL, T. D. A.—Entomological notes from Colorado.

Ent. Mo. Mag., XXV., 324, 363, 1889.

Wesster, F. M.—Garden insects. Jnsect Life, III., 148, 1890.

Proceedings of the second annual meeting of the Association

of Economic Entomologists. Jnsect Life, III., p. 180, 1891.

Riley, C. V.—The outlook of applied entomology. Jusect

Life, III., p. 181, 1891.

' Cook, A. J—Work of the entomologists in the experiment

Stations.” Jnsect Life, IIL., p. 212, 1891.

_SMitu, J. B.—Fertilizers as insecticides. Znsect Life, IIL, p.

217, 1891.

344 The American Naturalist. Pi

Bruner, L.—Notes on beet insects. Blanes Life, IIL, p. ag

1891. on

FLETCHER, JAS—Notes upon some injurious insects of the

year in Canada. Jnsect Life, III., p. 247, 1891.

Rivey, C. V.—Report of thesentomologist. Rep. U. S. Dee j

Agric. for 1888, p. 53, 1889. Contains essays upon the fluted —

scale (/cerya purchast), hop-plant louse, and papers by Riley and 3

Howard, Webster, Alwood, Walker, and reports by field agai

of the entomologist. he

* CockERELL, T. D. A—On the variation of insects. Entomol

gist, XXIL, 176, 198, 226, 243, 1889. ;

Hedsoay, S.—The more important writings of B. D. Wie

and C. V. Riley. Washington, 1890.

* CocKERELL, F. D. A——Temperature and melanism. Ente

ar XXIII., 133, 1890. i ae

Evolution of insect galls; Z ¢., 73.

Colorado entomology; /. c., p. 1 ;

C[atvert], P. P.—Elementary tomalo Ent. News,

70, 86, 102, 119, 140, 157, 1890.

Stosson, A. T.—Winter collecting in Florida. Ænt. Neus, bn

p. 81, ror.

SKINNER, H.—Geographical variation ; / c. , p. 84, 1890.

Smitu, J. B—Catalogue of the insects of New _ w

final report of state geologist, Vol. II., p- 486, 1890

Coox, A. J.—Teaching entomology. nsect Life, IIL, p. m

1890. a

Ossgors, H.—On the use of contagious diseases in contenell

with injurious insects. Jysect Life, IIL., 141, 1890.

Scuwartz, E. A—Notes on the comparative vitality of ins :

in cold water. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 208, 1890.

——Stray notes on injurious insects in semi-tropical Fong

4. ¢., p. 221, 1890. |

Howixo, L. O.—A few additions and corrections to >

“ Nomenclator Zoologicus” ; Z c., p. 258, 1890. a

FLETCHER, Jas cf Presidential address before Entomo

Club, A. A. A.S.) Entom. Amer, VI, 1, 1890: —EC

_ entomology. z

1891.] Record of American Zoology. : 34 5

CocKERELL, T. D. A.—Appendix to notes on insect fauna of

_ high altitudes. Can. Ent, XXII., 76, 1890.—Orthoptera and

Lepidoptera.

Wicxuam, H. F.—A month on Vancouver Island. Can. Ent.

XXII., 169, 1890.—Results of collecting.

CockERELL, T. D. A—A suggestion as to the generic nomen-

clature of insects. Can. Ent, XXII., 173, 1890.—Use of section

names.

Coox, A. J—On teaching entomology. Can. Ent, XXII.,

193, 1890.

Proceedings of the Entomological Club of the American Asso-

ciation for the Advancement of Science. Can. Ent, XXII., 193,

213, 1890.—Proceedings of Indianapolis meeting. For papers,

vide infra.

Mortretpt, M. E—Some experiences in rearing insects. Caz.

Ent., XXII., 220, 1890.

CockErELL, T. D. A.—Ndotes on the insect fauna of high alti-

tudes in Custer county, Colorado. Çan. Ent., XXII., 55, 1890.

Frenc, G. H.—Subdivision of genera. Can. Ent, XXII.,

251, 1890.

Rosertson, C.—Flowers and insects. Bot. Gazette, XIV., pp.

120, 172, 297, 1889; XV. pp. 79, 199, 1890.

Flowers and insects. Trans. St. Louis Acad. Sci., V., p.

449, 1890.

WHEELER, W. M.—Two cases of insect mimicry. Proc. Wisc.

N. H. Socy., 1889, p. 217.

THYSANURA.

FERNALD, H. T.—Studies on Thysanuran anatomy. J. H. U.

Circ, IX., 62, 1890.

BercroTH, E.—Note on Lepisma domestica Packard. Ent.

Amer., VI., 233, 1890.—Is Thermobia = Thermophila preoc.

ORTHOPTERA.

: WHEELER, W. M—Uber ein eigenthümliches organ im Locust-

idenembryo. Zool. Ans., XIIL, p. 475, 1890—Disc-liķe organ

in front of head.

346 The American Naturalist.

* PicreT, A.—Mem. Soc. Phys. N. H. Geneve, XXX-

scribes Jdostatus [n. g.| californicus [n. 5.].

Bruner, L.—Local outbreak of grasshoppers in Idaha,

Life, IIl., 135, 1890.

Howarp, L. O.—Note on the. mouth-parts of the

cockroach. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 216, 1890.

TownseNnD, TyLer.—Further note on Dissoi (

carolina; kc, p. 266, 1800.

Gopine, F. W.—A new Orthopter from Tennessee.

Amer., VI., 13, 1890.—Stetheophyma doranit. n

Bruner, L.—Ten new species of Orthoptera from Ne

Notes on habits, wing variation, etc. Can. Ent, XXII

1891.—Cycloptilus borealis, Ceuthophilus pallescens, Udeo

compacta.

PSEUDONEUROPTERA.

CALVERT, P. P.—Notes ona few Virginia dragon-

“Notes, L, p. 22, 1890.

Powerin. M.—List of dragonflies (Odonata) taken at 4

chester, Kennebec co., Maine. nt. Notes, I., pp. 36, 55, I

List of 43 species: _

Casot, L.—The immature state of the Odonata, Pt. His

line. Mem. M. C; Z., XVIL, p. 1, 6 pls., 1890. ie

* Hacen, H. E Semcon of the Odonata of Norti i

1 Payche, V., 2. Vi, 1880.

CALVERT, P. P.—Additional notes on some North

Odonata. Ent. News, I., p. 73, 1890.

BEUTENMULLER, W.—Mode of oviposition of certain §

Odonata. Entom. Amer., VI., p. 165, 1890.

Kirsy, W. F—On some new or little-known 5f

Libellulinæ from Jamaica. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,

1889.

* Kirpy, W. F.—A revision of the subfamily L

descriptions of new genera and species. Trans. z

don, XII., p. 249, 1880.

* Howi H. A.—Synopsis of the Odonata of No

No. H; The genus Anax. Psyche, V., p. 303, Bice |

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 347

COLEOPTERA.

*Van DorssurGH, DE Vrigs.—Nueva especie de Tachys.

Mem. Soc. Cient. Antonio Alzate, Mex., III., 1890.

Rivers, J. J—Habits in the life-history of Pleocoma behrensit.

Zoe., I., p: 24, 1890.

Wesster, F. M.—Injury to grass from Gastroidea polygoni.

Insect Life, LL, p. 275, 1890.

Ritey, C. V.—The rose chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus

Fabr.) Jnsect Life, Il., 295, 1890.

Wesster, F. M.—Experiments with the plum curculio. Jusect

Life, II., p. 305, 1890.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Notes on Languria. Jnsect Life, Il., p.

346, 1890.

WessTer, F. M.—An experiment with Coccinellide in the

conservatory. Jnsect Life, II., p. 363, 1890.—Did not destroy

Aphides, etc.

Weep, C. M.—Food plants of the clover-stem borer. AM.

Nat., XXIV., p. 867, 1890.

* WATERHOUSE, C. O.— Description of two new Central American

Buprestidæ, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., V., No. 27.

Wickuam, H. F.—On the habits of some Meloini. Ænt.

News, I., p. 89, 1890.

S aw Ate: E. A.—Sudden spread of a new enemy to clover.

Trans. Ent. Soc., Wash., I., p. 248, 1890.—Sitones hispidulus.

Lene, C. W.—Synopsis of Cerambycidæ. Entom. Amer., VL.,

PP- 9, 65, 97, 104, 156, 185, 213, 1890.

Ritey, C. V.—Platypsyllus egg and ultimate larva; /. c., p. 27,

1890.

Rivers, J. J.—Description of a new Cychrus; /.¢., p. 71—

C. fuchsianus (Cal.).

Horn, G. H —[Description of Cychrus merkelli, from Idaho] ;

£ c, p. 71, 1890.

Widi H. F.—Remarks on some western Tenebrionidæ ;

l. c., p. 83, 1890.

Cuitrenpen, F. H.—On the habits of Phlceophagus and

ences; l.c., P. 99, 1890.

348 The American Naturalst.

Rivers, J. J—Three new species of Coleoptera ; 2. c., p. 3, 18

—Amblychila baronii (Ariz.), Cychrus (Brennus) oreophilus (C

Necydalis barbare (Cal.).

SMITH, J. B—Notes on Elaphidion; Z. c., p. 136, 1890.

HAMILTON, J.—Notes on Coleoptera. No. 6. Can. Ent,)

P. 237, 1890. `

Harrincton, W. H.—Notes on a few Canadian Rhyne

hora. Can. Ent, XXIL p. 21, 1891. ;

Hory, G. UA synopsis of the Halticini of boreal Amı

Trans. Am. „Ent. Soc., XVI., p. 163, 1889.—Many new s

described. The new genera are Pseudolampis, Phydanis, Hemi-

phrymus, Hemiglyptus, Leptotrix. .

* TowNsEND, T.—Contribution to a list of the Coleoptera :

lower peninsula of Michigan. Psyche, V., p. 231, 1889.

* Rivers, J. J.—A new genus and species of North An

Scarabæidæ. Proc. Cal. Acad., I., p. 100.—Anoplognatha

niana.

CHITTENDEN, F. H.—Remarks on the habits of some species

Cleride. Ent. Amer., VI., 154, 1890.

Notes on the habits df some species of Rhyncl

l.c., 167, 1890.

Wana ite W.—Food habits of some ‘Chrysomelide

L e178, 1800.

HAMILTON, J—[On Leptura]; Zc., 214.

——On the lists of Coleoptera published by the g

survey of Canada, 1842-1888. Can. Ent, XXII,

184, 1890.—Gives catalogue of species.

BEUTENMULLER, W.—On the food habits of North 4

Rynchophora. Can. Ent., XXII., 200, 258, 1890.

Osgors, H.—On a peculiar pra of Coleopterous ary

_ Ent, XXII., 217, 1890.—With dorsal prolegs, in si

anthus ; adult unknown.

1891.) Record of American Zoology. 349

E = 1 j | ° 1

* HEYDEN, L.von

Synonyma. Entom. Zeit., IX. , Pp. 131, t890:

* — Über Epicauta als Fischer, armeniaca Fald., und

dichroa Leconte. Wien. Ent. Zeit., IX., 99, 1890.

* BEUTENMULLER, W —Tiescrighiels of the larva of Megalodacne

fasciata. Psyche, V., 317, 1890

* Hacen, H. A.— Otiorhynchus sulcatus injurious to plants in

greenhouses in Mass. Psyche., V., 333, 1890.

GILLETTE, C. P._—Parasitism of Hippodamia convergens. Psyche,

V., 279, 1889.

WEED, C. M.—On the preparatory stages of the 20-spotted

lady bird. Ohio Exp. Sta. Bulletin., Tech. Series, I., p. 3, 1889.

* Casey, T. L—A preliminary monograph of the North

American species of Troglopheeus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci IV

322, 1889. ' À

GILLETTE, C. P.—Notes on the plum curculio and plum

gouger. Jnsect Life, III., 227, 1891.

Situ, J. B—An invasion by the clover-leaf beetle. sect

Life, TL p. 231, 1891.

Forses, S. A.—On the life-history of the white grub. Jnsect

Life, IIL, p: 239, 1891.

Hart, C. A—tThe life-history of wire worms. /nsect a

III., 246, 1891.

Riley, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—The piam curculio. Rep.

Dep. Agric. ee 1888, p. 57, 1889..

Wenster, F. M.—Experiments in rearing the plum curculio

(Conotrachelus nenuphar) from plums and other fruit; Z. c., p. 78,

1889.

Scuwartz, E. A—On the Coleoptera common to North

America and other countries. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I.,

P. 182, 1890.

——Notes on the tobacco beetle (Lasioderma serricorne).

Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 225, 1890. l

—— Food plants and food habits of some North American

Coleoptera. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 231, 1890

—Myrmecophilus Coleoptera found in Temperate North

America; /. c., p. 237, 1890.—List of known species, etc.

Coleoptera

350 The American Naturalist.

*ScCHMIDT, J.—Ent. Nachrichten, XVI., Feb. , 1890

Saprinus sulcatulus, from California.

LIEBECK, Cuas.—Cicindelide of a season. Lut. Neus, eoo

158, 1890.—Eastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey.

* LEFEVRE, E.—Ann. Soc. Ent. France, VI., 9, 18899

Describes Alethaxius tuberculifer (Mex.) 9

* FLETIAUX, E., AND SALLE, A.—/. c. Catalo 517 species 0

Coleoptera (some new) from Guadeloupe.

* Bates, H. W.—Additions to the Cicindelidæ fauna of M

Trans. Ent. Soc. London, 1890.

SMITH, :J. B.—An experience with rose-bugs. Jnsect Life, [

p. 113, 1890.

Wesster, F. M.—Notes upon some insects affecting corn; y

P- 159, 1890. ;

Smitu, J. B—Notes on the plum curculio. Inset L

p. 219, 1891.

An experience with the rose-bug. Znsect Life,

220, 1891.

HEMIPTERA.

WEED, C. M pa EA of the buffalo tree-hopper. Am. N:

XXIV, p. 785, 1890.

Fourth contribution to a knowledge of the life-history

certain little-known plant lice. Bull. Ohio Exp. Sta., 1 :

I, p. 111, 5 pls, 1890.

WuEELer, W. M—Uber driisenastigen gebilde im

abdominal segment der Hemipterenembryonen. Zool, An

317, 1889. Vide Am. Nart., XXIIL, 644, 1889.

* WEED, C. M.—Second contribution to the a utumnlif

of cun little-known Aphididæ. Psyche, V., p: 208, 1

—The strawberry root louse (Aphis forbesii n-

P- 273, 1889.

*——Notes on Emesa longipes; lc., p. 280, 1889.

* Van Duzer, E. P.—On a new species of Pedic

P: 238.—P. occidentalis,

Woopworrtu, C. W.—North American Typhlocy i

P? 211, 11889.

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 351

AsHMEAD, W. H.—The corn Delphacid (Delphax maidis).

Psyche, V., 321, 1890.

Ossorn, H.—On the metamorphoses of a species of Aleyrodes.

Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci. for 1888, p. 39, 1890.

Rice, G.—Historical sketch of the rise and downfall of the

cottony cushion scale (/cerya purchasi). State Board of Hort.

California, Bull. XIV., 1890.—Controversial.

Van Duzer, E. P.—Descriptions of two Jassids from the

cranberry bogs of New Jersey. Entom. Amer., VI., p. 133,

1890.— Thamnotettix fitchit, Athysanus striatulus ; also figure of

Agallia 4-punctata. n

BERGROTH, E.—Note on the genus Protenor; Z c., p. 217, 1890.

Van Duzre, E. P.—Review of the North American species of

Bythosocopus ; Z. c., p. 221, 1890.—New species are B. distinctus

(N. Y., Md., N. C.), cognatus (Ont., N. Y.)

New North American Homoptera: Can. Ent., XXIL, p.

110, 1890.—/diocerus crategi (Ont., N. Y.), Platymetopius frontalis

(N. Y., Iowa).

Ossory, H.—Period of development in Mallophaga. Can. Ent.,

XXIL, p. 219, 1890.

Van Duzer, E. P—New North American Homoptera; II.

Can. Ent., XXIL., p. 249, 1890.—Pediopsis tristis (Kan., I., Mich.,

N. Y., Ont.), Thamnotettix lurida (Iowa, Mich.)

* UHLER, P. R.—Observations on North American Capside,

with descriptions of new species. Trans. Maryland Acad. Sci.,

1890, p. 73.—Describes as new Ectopiocerus (n.g.) anthracinus,

Teleorhinus (n.g.) cyaneus, Closterocoris (n.g.) ornata, Coquillettia

(n.g.) insignis, Xenetus regalis, X. scutellatus, Rhinocapsis (n.g.)

vanduzeu, Mimoceps (n.g.) insignis, M. gracilis, Macrotylus regalis,

M. tristis, M. vestitus.

Gopine, F. W.—A new apple pest. Ent. News, I, p. 123,

1890.—Empoasca birdii (I1)

Ritey, C. V., and Howarp, O.—Some new Iceryas. Jnsect

Life, IIL, p. 92, 1890.—/. rose (Fla.), 7. montserratensis (W. L),

T. palmeri (Mex.), and a catalogue of the known (6) species.

Ossorn, H—Note on the period of development in Mallo-

phaga. Insect Life, IIL, p. 115, 1890. 3

Am. Nat.—April.—¢,

352 The American Naturalist. re

‘Curtice, C—The animal parasites of sheep. Washin

1890.— Trichodectes limbatus T. climax, T. spherocephalus. I

SmitH, J. B. Some questions relating to Aphididæ. Insect a

Life, E; p. 226, 1891. ae

Forses, S. A.—A summary history of the corn root Aptis ne

Insect Life, H1., p. 233, 1891. .

Riley, C. V.—The flutes scale (/cerya purchasi). Rep. Dep. a

Agr., 1888, p. 80, 1889.

The hop plant louse; Z. c., p. 93, 1889. a

Atwoop, W. B.—Report on experiments with remedii against

the hop louse; /.c., p. 102, 1889. $

SCHWARTZ, E. A.—Notes on Cicada septendecim in 1889. Trans. ae

Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 230, 1890. ae

Van Duzez, E. P.—New California Homoptera. Entom. Amt :

VI., pp. 35, 49, 77, 91, 1890.—Pediopsis nubila (Uhler Mts),

Agallia oculata, Thamnotettix subenea, Th. coguilletii, Th. gem —

inata, Th. flavocapitata, Th. atropuncta, Th. limbata, A

inscriptus, Platymetopus elegans, Deltocephalus coguilletti, D.

minutus, a

Smiru, E. F.—The black peach Aphis; Z c., pp. 101, 201— P

Aphis persica-niger nov. (Mich. to Va.) L

THYSANOPTERA.

Garman, H.—The mouth parts of the Thysanoptera. Ball a

Essex Inst., XXII., p. 24, 1890.

An asymmetry of the head and mouth parts of te

Thysanoptera. Can. Ent., XXII., p. 215,1890. ;

HYMENOPTERA.

* AsnmEAD, W. H.—On the Hymenoptera of Colorado.

Colorado Biol. Assoc., No. 1, 1890, pp. 47.

Howarp, L. O.—Two. spider-egg parasites. /msect Lift, -

269, 1890.—Acoloides (n.g.) saitidis, and Baus amene a

Insect Life, IL, p. 359.

Rutey, C. V., and Howarp, L. O.—The wheat saw-fly.

Life, 11., 286, 1890,—Note on and figure of Cephus HEMET

1891.] Record of American Zoology. 353

Two parasites of the garden web-worm. /nsect Life, Il,

p. 327, 1890.—Figures Limneria eurycreontis.

Some of the bred parasitic Hymenoptera in the national

collection. /nsect Life, II., 348, 1890; IIL, p. 15, 57, 151, 1890.

Howarp, L. O—A North American Axima and its habits.

Insect Life, IL, 365, 1890—Aximi sabriskiei, nov. sp., from New

York.

Matty, F. W.—Monostegia ignota Norton. Insect Life, HI.

9, 1890.—Notes on life-history.

CocKERELL, T. A. D.—What are the uses of bright colors in

Hymenoptera? Ent. News. I., p. 65, 1890.

` Fox, W. J.—Aculeate Hymenoptera new to Pennsylvania and

New Jersey. Ent. News, 1., 83, 1890.

CorDLeEY, A. B.—Sports in venation; Z. c., p. 88, 1890.

Fox, W. J.—Polybia cubursis in Florida, /. ¢., p. 93, 1890.

* SCHLETTERER.—Ann. K. K. Nahrrh. Hofsmuseum Wien.

IV., No. 4, 1889—Monograph of Evaniidæ. 5 American

species of Gasteruption.

* Kout. F. F.—/. c. Describes new N. A. species of Cremonus,

Ammoplanus, and Stigmus.

Fox, W. J.—Descriptions of three new species of Hymenoptera.

Ent. News, 1., p. 106, 1890.—Hoplisus foveolata (Fla.), Philanthus

eurynome (Fla.), Calioxys dolichos (Fla.)

Fox, W. J.—Three new species of aculeate Hymenoptera; Zc.,

P- 137, 1890.—Sphex (Isodontia) macrocephalus (Pa.) Miscophus

americanus (N. J), Photopsis cressoni (N. J) ;

GILLETTE, C. P.—Oviposition of Anomalon. Ænt. News, L., p.

139, 1890.

* Emery, C.—Bull. Soc. Ent. Itala., XXIL., 1890.—Catalogues

107 species of Formicidæ (18 new) from Costa Rica, and describes

new species of Pseudomyrma, Strumigenys, Epiptritis, etc., from

America i

KonL, F. F.—Ann. K. K. Hofmuseum Wien. V., 1890.—First

part of monograph of Sphex; new species are S. morio (Brit.

Columbia), S. prestans (Cal:), S. neoxenus (Vancouv.), S. excisus

a S. clavipes (Cuba), S. maximiliani (Mex.), S. spiniger

Met ee :

354 The American Naturalist.

_ Howarp, L. O.—A new and remarkable Encyrtid: Is it p

sitic? Insect Life, IIL., p. 145, 1890.—TZanaostigma con

n. g. and sp. from Mex. wy

The habits of Pachyneuron, Insect Life, III., 218, 18¢

Note on the hairy eyes of some Hymenoptera. T

Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 195, 1890.

CoviLLE, F. V.—Notes bumble bees ; /.c., p. 197, 1896; 4

Marzatt, C. L.—An ingenious method of collecting Bomb is

and Apathus. Trans. Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 216, 1890.

Howarp, L. O.—Authorship of the family Mymaride.

Ent. Soc. Washington, I., p. 221, 1890.

ASHMEAD, W. Hesa anomalous Chalcid. Trans. Ent.

Washington, I., p. 234, 1890.—Hoplocrepis albiclavis, n.g

sp. from Florida.

Remarks on the Chalcid genus Halidea; 4 c., p.:

Describes as new, H. schwazi (Virginia).

GILLETTE, C. P—New Cympide. Entom. Amer. VI

1890.—Neuroterus flavipes, N. vermes (on bur oak), 4

niger (white oak), Dryophanta liberacellente (on red and s

oaks), Rhodites multispinosa (Rose).

Notes on Sigalphus curculionis and Sigal can

Canad. Ent., XXII., 114, 1890.

ROBERTSON, E- ew North American bees of die

Halictus and Prosopis. Trans. Am. Ent. Soc. pak f

1890.—H. forbesii, H. pectinatus, H. nelumbonis, H. 4-mat

H. gracilis, H. palustris, H. cressonii, H. albipennes, H.

P. nelumbonis.

Comstock, J. H—On a saw-fly borer in wheat. Bull.

Exp. Sta., No. 11, p. 127, 1889.—Cephus pygmaus.

* Bassett, H. F.—A short chapter in the history of om

gall flies. Psyche, V., p. 214, 1889.

* GILLETTE C. P.—Notes on certain Cynipide, with ¢ d

of new species. Psyche, V. , 214, 1889.

* Jack, J. G—Emphytus cinctus in America. PO

= Scuppex, S. H.—Power of vision in Vespide.

279, 1889.

1891] Record of American Zoology. 355

* AsumeEAD, W. H.—On the Hymenoptera of Colorado ; descrip-

tions of new species, notes, and a list of the species found in the

state. Bull. I., Colorado Biol. Assoc.—64 new species. Neolarra

Microbracon, and Dolichopcephalus are new genera.

CLARKSON, F.—Argiope riparia and its parasite; Ichneumon

aranearum and its parasite, a Chalsid fly. Can. Ent, XXIL.,

p. 122, 1890.

HARRINGTON, W. H.—Two interesting monstrosities. Can. Ent.,

XXII., p. 124, 1890.—Fanus tarsitorius with trifid tibia.

Coox, A. J.—Aphidius granariaphis, n. sp. Can. Ent, XXII.

P. 125, 1890.—From grain Aphis in Michigan.

Rosertson, C.—Habits of Empor bombiliformis. Can. Ent.,

XXIL, p. 216, 1890.

AsnmEAD, W. H.—Descriptions of some new Canadian Bra-

conidæ. Can. Ent, XXIII., p. 1, 1891.—Bracon brachyurus,

melanaspis, nigrodorsum, Spathius canadensis, Cenophanes borealis,

Rhogas mellipes, Microplitis cincta, Opius canadensis, O. bicari-

natus, Idiasta macrocera, Aphidius tumacrogas, A. crassicornis, A.

pinaphidis, A. bifaciatus, A. nigriceps, Lipolexis fuscicornis, Hister-

omerus canadensis.

Davis, W. T.—The habits of a ground hornet. Can. Ent.

XXIIL, p. 9, 1891.—Stizus speciosus.

356 The American Naturalist. [Apa

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

Abstract Proceedings Thirty-fifth Annual Meeting Haverford Alumni

Report Arkansas Geological Survey, 1888.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of.the Smithsonian Institution, 1887 and.

1888,

AYERS, H.—Contribution to the Morphology of the Vertebrate Bi: Sepanit-

` Abdruck aus dem PE A Anzeiger, No. , 1890. From the au

BEAN, T. a ew Fishes Collected off the Coast of Alaska EF ps Adjacent

Region Northwar eee Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 37-45. From the author.

BERGEN, J. Jp F. D.—A Primer of Darwinism and Organic Evolution, From

thé authors.

BOETTGER, O.—Bericht iiber die Leistungen in der Herpetologie während | l

Jahres 1887. From the author,

` BONNEY, S. G.—On the Crystalline Schists and Their Relation to the Meso ae

in the Lepontine Ext. Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc., May, 1890. From the ror

E i : i }

etin No, 22, Expt. Stat. Caroll University, Dec., 1890.

CAPELLINI, G.— Ichyosaurus ee e Tronchi di Cicadee Nelle i

Scagliose dell’ ak From the author

CHAPMAN, H. C., and A. P, B ER.—Researches upon Respi iration Made

: the Physical Laboratory of Jefferson Medical 2 Dae ae the Consumption of Oxyget

and the Production of Carbon Dioxide in Animals. ts. Proc. Phila. Acad.

Jan., 189r. From the autho

Cox; C. tinio is Life. From the auth: yar

DALL, Description of a New Species of Sand Shell from Cuba—/

cubana. Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., ma prends = author. E

DAM

ES, W. ilio

arg der deutschen geologischen Caii, Jeki , 1890. From the M

FRAZER, P.—The Philadelphia Meeting of the Tnternational Congress of

_ Ext. Am. Geol., June, 1890. From the author.

FRECH, F—Die Korallen Fauna der Trias. Paleontagraphict g

dunar. A.—Les Enchainements du monde Animal dans le temps £'

Fossiles Secondai daires. From the author.

Surv of New Jersey, Vol. II., Part II., Zoology. Pe

Goong, G. B.—The Origin of the National Scientific and 1 Educational 5

tates.

Vos the a e

; HECTOR, J —Twenty fourth cat Report of the New Zesind Gai

and Laboratory.

1891.) Recent Books and Pamphlets. 357

HouGu, W.—Fire-Making Apparatus in the U. S. National Museum, Ext. Rept.

Nat. Mus., 1887-'88. From the Smithsonian Institution

HYATT, A., and J. M. ARMS.—Guides for Sclence-Teaching. Insecta. From the

authors.

Ives, J. E—Echinoderms from the Northern Coast of Yucatan and the Harbor of

Vera Cruz. Ext. Proc. Phila. Acad. Nat. mie Sept., 1890. From the author.

Jouy, P. L.—The Collection of Korean Mortuary Pottery in the United States

ae mage Rept. Nat. Mus. 1887-'88. From the Smithsonian Institution,

KILIAN, W.—Systéme Crétacé. Ext. de l'Annuaire Géologique Universal, 1888.

From G a

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Dental Cosmos, June, 1890, From the author.

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LUCAS

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MEYER, A. B.—Der. Knochen py des Königlichen Zoologischen

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; — A

a RECENT LITERATURE.

To THE EDITOR OF THE AMERICAN NATURALIST :

Dear Sir: I have just seen the review of the ‘‘ Guide for Science-

Teaching,” No. VIII, on “Insecta,” in the January number of the

ERICAN NATURALIST. One sentence of that review cannot be

passed unnoticed by those who are laboring for the cause of science-

teaching. When Mr. Kingsley says: ‘‘ We cannot help wishing

we had some really first-class text-book of entomology which would

attack the subject from every side,’’ I must reply, emphatically, that

this was the very thing we did not aim to write, and which we did not

think was needed.

As is well known, the “Science-Guides ” are written for the

body of teachers of our public and private schools,—that is, for teaches

of the young from five to eighteen years of age. Do these tea

need a text-book which shall attack the subject from every side, 0f

guide to show them how to make their pupils attack the subject from í

sides? Will boys and girls trained from early childhood to do

text-book when they enter college? I think not. Nowhere along

way is a text-book needed, even if it be “first-class,” and |

should it be placed between nature and the child. It may be tha

special student in college or the professor would find a reference

presenting the subject from every point of view, very convenlenis

it is not for specialists that those most deeply interested in the

science-teaching are working. These recognize the fact that 1 ‘i

science primer, conceived in the scientific spirit, but treating the

ject from a few sides, may shoot far below the minds of spec

reference book, treating the subject from every side, wouie ~

heavy weight upon the teachers of the young, because it would

their imperative needs. | y

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 359

The time has come when we must explain the ways and means

whereby teachers shall be able to make their large classes of children

do independent observational and mental work,—in a word, scientific

work,—and when this difficult task is accomplished we may rest assured

that the power thus gained by the young will enable them to seek and

find for themselves those original sources of knowledge on any given

subject which are contained in many libraries. We may go even a

step farther and make the logical prediction that this same power will

enable some of them, perhaps, to add to the stock of absolute knowl-

edge.

I desire to thank Mr. Kingsley for the expression of his views on

other subjects concerning which naturalists are by no means agreed,

and I write this reply only because the part of his review to which I

have taken exception touches upon what Professor Hyatt and I con-

sider a vital principle of science-teaching.

Respectfully yours, ju MA

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On a Collection of Fossil Birds from the Equus Beds of

Oregon.'—Silver Lake is one of the alkaline lakes of Oregon, and

lies somewhat to the southward of the middle part of the state, or,

approximately speaking, in 43° .05’ N. lat., and 43° 25’ W. long. In

a direct line it is a little more than sixty miles from Fort Klamath... It

is a small lake, not over twelve miles long by some eight or nine wide.

Fresh water passes into it from Silver Creek over a swampy delta near

its northwestern extremity, and a smaller stream of pure water enters

it from the westward. The topography of the country about it, as well

as the geology of the vicinity, is interesting, and the fauna will well

repay the further investigation of the naturalist. So far as at present

known, there is but one species of fish that occurs in this lake, Afy/o-

leucus formosus of Girard, one of the Cyprinide. Numerous species

of aquatic birds are found in numbers on the lake, and frequent its

the western grebe, represents one of the constantly present podicipi-

dine forms found upon this sheet of water; and there they may be

ae se echoed Soaig OF Weataciom, March 21st, 1891.

360 The American Naturalist. a

seen at any time of the day, either singly or in pairs. Probably,

although I have no authority for it, the larger waders and several

species of the limicoline birds are also to be found upon the shores of

Silver Lake during the vernal and autumnal migrations, |

At various distances, and in nearly all directions from it, are to be

found a number of other lakes more or less like the one we have been

considering, though in most instances larger than it, as im the

case of Abert’s Lake, found some forty-five miles to the southward and

eastward.

In the Oregon desert, about forty miles east of Silver Lake, lies

Fossil Lake, so named from the rich deposit of fossil mammals, birds,

fish, and so forth that have been found there. This lake has long

since dried up, though water may yet be obtained by digging, and

that at a depth of two feet or more, anywhere over its former bottom

This latter is a perfect mine of wealth for the paleontologist, as it is

absolutely filled with the fossil remains of many of the former inhab-

. itants of, or animals that resorted to, what at one time must have beet

a sheet of water considerably like Silver Lake. Unfortunately for

science, when the cattle men first went into that country they gathered ;

up as objects of curiosity the majority of the best fossils of this locality,

and they have thus been forever lost to us. This will account, I think,

for nearly the entire absence of bird skulls among that kind of material

subsequently obtained there by naturalists. ee

Professor Thomas Condon, of the University of Oregon, was the

first scientific man that visited Fossil Lake, and he made a very CaF

fully selected and highly valuable collection there; and some of the a

fossil birds found by him are now in my hands for description. A few a

years afterwards, Professor Cope despatched one of his assistants het &

Chas. H. Sternberg, of Lawrence, Kansas, who made an enormous o

collection on the same ground. Later, in the ’80’s, Professor co

visited the region in person, and made another fine collection, includ- i

ing many forms previously found by both Professor Condon p

Sternberg. eee

In the November number, 1889, of the AMERICAN NATURALIST,

Professor Cope, in an article entitled “The Silver Lake of On

and Its Regioni,” to which I am indebted for the information gl

recited, presents us with some of the results of his eminently important

researches in that country. : coe

Setting aside the mammals and other vertebrates, it is my inte of

to say only a few words here about the collection of fossil birds BE

were obtained by the authorities mentioned. he

After these latter were safely transferred east by their disti

1891.) ~ Geology and Paleontology. 361

owner and deposited in his cabinets, he, in various scientific publications,

described a number of them. They were the following species, viz. :

Two forms of Podiceps, P. occidentalis and P. californicus, the first-

named Professor Cope believing to be identical with the now-existing

chmophorus occidentalis of that region, a species referred to above ;

Podilymbus podiceps, Graculus macropus s. n., Anser hypsibatus s. n.,

canadensis, albifrons gambeli, and another species near Anser nigricans ;

also a swan, which he named Cygnus paloregonus, and finally the

fossil remains of Fulica americana. There were many other species

still remaining, and a few years afterwards—that is, early in the present

year—Professor Cope did me the honor to pass all this material into

my hands for full description and illustration. Coming, as it does, just

as I am about to undertake that volume of my ‘“‘ Osteology of the

Birds of the United States”? which has to deal with the water birds,

now in course of preparation, this material is especially welcome to me,

as the fossil forms can be conveniently compared with the existing

species of birds which I shall describe in that work.

This beautiful collection of fossils consists of some fifteen hundred

or more specimens of bones, many of which are perfect, many of

which can be restored, and many fragmentary pieces.? They are all

perfectly clean, the vast majority of them being of a deep leaden hue,

almost black in some instances, and exhibit their characters admirably.

My preliminary examination of this material leads me to believe that

there are still over twenty species of fossil birds represented by it

which still remain to be described. This is interesting in view of the

fact that up to the present time there have been less than fifty fossil

birds of the United States described by naturalists. As we all know,

they constitute the rarest of all vertebrate fossil remains. So far as the

birds are concerned, when the chapter is written and printed on the

Equus beds of Fossil Lake, of later Tertiary times, it may prove that

some of those forms still exist ; others are undoubtedly extinct ; while

the general character of the whole agrees with forms that go to make

up the existing avifauna of that region. t a close study of the de-

partures therefrom is of the highest importance, and it is rendered the

more interesting from the fact that we can compare it with the mam-

malian, reptilian, and icthyian faunæ of the same horizon. I find that _

some of these bones must have belonged to rather remarkable types of

birds, and different from anything now in existence. They were all

found either on or in the loose, friable deposit, the sedimentary

_? The writer here exhibited some fine selected specimens from the collection, and sub-

SOCICLY P

362 _ The American Naturatst. [Apeil,

remains of the former bottom of the lake. Furthermore, such com-

parative studies of this material as a whole is enhanced by the discov-

ery of other relics found commingled with it. Of this Professor Cope

has said that ‘‘Scattered everywhere in the deposit were the obsidian

implements of human manufacture. Some of these were of inferior,

others of superior workmanship, and many of them were covered with

a patine of no great thickness, which completely replaced the natural

lustre of the surface. Other specimens were as bright as when first

made. e abundance of these flints was remarkable, and suggested

that they had been shot at the game, both winged and otherwise, that

had in former times frequented the lake. Their general absence from

the soil of the surrounding region added strength to this supposition.

Of course it was impossible to prove the contemporaneity of the flints

with animals with whose bones they were mingled, under the circum-

stances of the mobility of the stratum in which they all occurred.

But had they been other than human flints, no question as to their

contemporaneity would have arisen. . . . . . . . The probability of

the association is, however, greatly increased by the discovery, by Mr.

Wm. Taylor, of paleolithic flints in beds of corresponding age, on the

San Diego Creek, Texas.” 3

Should, in the future, sufficient evidence come to light to establish

any such theory as this, then there will indeed be opened to us another

important and interesting chapter upon the paleontologic history of

man.—R. W. SHUFELDT, Takoma Park, D. C. i

Flora of the Great Falls Coal Field, Montana.—Prof. J. S.

Newberry gives an interesting account of this flora in the American |

Journal of Science, XLI., March, 1891. A number of specimens —

were submitted to him for examination, which he found without —

exception to be species described by Sir Wm. Dawson from the Koo-

tanie Group, Canada, or by Prof. Heer from the Kome Group, Green-

land. Further examination by Prof. Fontaine showed them to ei

also identical with fossils of the Potomac formation. This proves con

clusively the general identity of the geological horizons of these al ae

groups, and confirms the view that the Potomac group is Lower Cress

ceous, and not Jurassic. A comparison with the Old World forme

leads Prof. Newberry to assert that the Potomac, the Kootanie, and the a

Kome groups represent perhaps distinct but closely related epochs 0 a

the Neocomian or Lower Cretaceous of the Old World. a

The paper closes with a brief description of the new specs: —

Chiropteris williamsii, Chiropteris spatulata, Zamites apertus, Barre —

* AMERICAN NATURALIST, Nov., 1889, PP. 979, 980

1891.] Geology and Pateontology. 363

hronika, Chadophlebis augustifolia, Sequoia acutifolia, Podzamites

nervosa, and Oleandra artica

Secular Disintegration of Rocks.—In a recent paper Mr.

Raphael Pumpelly insists that the recognition of the importance of

secular disintegration is essential to the proper interpretation of some

of the most difficult points in the study of the crystalline schists. It

gives a key to the problem in the Green Mountains, N. H. He

instances Iron Mountain, Mo., as a convincing illustration of a deep-

reaching disintegration in pre-Silurian time, in a region which has not

been folded. A mantle of disintegrated rock would be easily and

quickly removed by the breaching action of the advancing sea line.

“ If we substitute this process.in each period for the accepted one of

slow erosion and breaching of hard rock, we shall,” says the writer,

“have to materially reconsider our time scales, in so far as they depend

upon the rate of accumulation of, detrital materials.” (Bull. Am.

Geol. Soc., Vol. II.)

The Origin of the Bahama Islands.—A careful study of the

geography and geology of the Bahamas leads Dr. Northrop to declare

himself in favor of a theory of elevation of these islands, instead of

subsidence. The main facts that bear on the question of the most

recent movement are as follows:

1. The soft calcareous mud on the west coast of Andros grows

gradually harder and harder toward inland.

2. The depth of the fine calcareous deposit close to shore,

3-. The extension of the pine forest.

4. Mangroves were found high above water-mark apparently dying,

_ but none were seen in situations that indicated that the water was

becoming too deep for them.

Note was taken of the extensive erosion of both the surface and the

shore line of the islands. (Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sciences, Oct. 13, 1890.)

Geological News. — General.—In a recent paper on the

“Resources of the Black Hills,” Mr. Robert T. Hill says that this

region is certainly capable of supporting a large and prosperous popu-

lation. Aside from its agricultural resources and scenic beauty, it

possesses bituminous coal and coke of good quality, lubricating and

illuminating oil, with a possibility of natural gas, ores of precious

metals, and of iron, copper, and tin. (Am. Inst. Mining Engineers,

Sept., 1890)

Paleozoic.—Prof. Alexander Winchell calls attention to some

idin rocks in the vicinity of Echb Lake. They consist of rugged

364 The American Naturalist. April,

strata standing vertically, with a strike east,—a discordance of stratifi-

cation with the Huronian beds, which dip at an angle of 20°, with a

strike mostly northeast and southwest. He is convinced of their iden-

tity with the vertical strata in Minnesota, and the Kewatin system,

Also, they are the prolongation of the ‘“ Lower Slate Conglomerate”

of the Thessalon valley. (dm. Geol., Dec., 1890). Charles Proiser

has examined the records of drilling in western central New York,

and from these well sections has compiled a general section giving the

_thickness of the different geological formations, together with the total

thickness of the series from the lowest Coal Measures down to the

Archean. The results show that the thickness of these formations has

been greatly underestimated. (Am. Geol, Oct., 1890. )——Messts.

H. R. Geiger and Arthur Keith have worked out the structure of the

Blue Ridge near Harper’s F erry, and refer the disputed sandstones to

the Upper Silurian. (Bull. Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. IIL., pp. 155-164.)

The recent studies of C. Willard Hayes in the Southern Appa-

lachians have shown a modification of the well-recognized types

unsymmetrical fold and the reversed fault, namely, broad overthrust

Faults which, as developed in Northwestern Georgia, are comparable

in magnitude with those of the Scottish Highlands and the Rocky

Mountains, as described by Geikie and McConnell. (Bull. Am. Geol.

Soc., Vol. II., pp. 141-154). An Ordovician chert has been found in

the Llandeilo-Caradoc rocks of South Scotland, which is considered by

G. J. Hinde to be due to an accumulation of the tests of Radiolaria. The

beds of fine-grained red and green mudstones associated with the chert

favor the view of a deep-sea origin. Mr. Hinde has described twenty-

five new species from this rock, referable to fifteen genera, for the most |

Part also new. (Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., July, 1890.)——Mr. A.

Winslow states that the flexing of the strata in the coal region of at

estern Arkansas is essentially Appalachian. A study of the various

flexures reveals many features which call for compression and lat oo

movement, and this movement was from the south. The date H

elevation must have been post-Carboniferous and pre-Mesozoic. (Bull.

Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II., pp. 225-242.)——According to Eugene 4.

Smith, the Alabama Coal Measures have an aggregate thickness

5:525 feet. They are characterized by the small amount of sulphur,

y an almost entire absence of limestone, and by having 4 conglom- Ss

erate at the top of the series. (Alabama Geol. Survey, 1890. pik om

A. C. Seward agrees with Dr. Stur that Asterophyllites and Spheno- —

phyllum are parts of the same plant. This idea was first suggested 1

1853 by Newberry, who stated at that time that the difference betwee?

1891.] Geology and Paleontology, 365

the wedge-shaped and filiform leaves on the same plant was due to

emergence and submergence, Newberry’s explanation was subsequently

adopted by Colemans and Kickx, (Journ. Cin. Soc. Nat. Hist., Jan.,

1891.)

Mesozoic.—Mr. Otto Lerch has made a further study of the beds

between the Lower Cretacic, the Trinity sands of R. T. Hill, and the

Permian, a few miles west of San Angelo, Texas, and concludes that

they are pre-Cretacic and post-Permian, and probably may be the con-

tinuation and southward thinning out of the Jura and Trias. (Am.

Geol, Feb., 1891.) The Report of the Yorkshire Philosophical

Society, 1888, contains a description of a head of Hyčodus delabechet

from the Lower Lias of Lyme Regis, Dorsetshire, England, by A.

Smith Woodward, in which he says that the teeth of the Wealden

species differ so much from those of the'Liassic that possibly this later

Mesozoic shark may eventually prove to pertain to a distinct genus.

——In discussing the economic features of the Cretaceous rocks of

Texas, Mr. R. T. Hill urges the necessity of recognizing the chalky

formations of Texas as a distinct geographic region of the United

tates. This individuality must be recognized, and the economic

development based thereon, instead of the conditions of entirely

different non-chalky regions, The agricultural experience of northern

and eastern states will not apply to these soils, but we must go to the

chalky regions of France and England, where there are analogous for-

mations, to learn for what they are best adapted. This region is

especially rich in mineral fertilizers, and there is a great variety an

abundance of building material. Owing to the slightly disturbed

conditions of the formations, the district east of the Pecos is not a

Profitable field for the search of metallic minerals. (Report Texas

Geol. Survey, 1889.)——A. Smith Woodward has figured and de-

scribed two groups of teeth of the Cretaceous Selachian fish Ptycho-

dus found in the English chalk. (Ann. Rept. Yorkshire Phil, Soc.,

1889.)——-Montagu Browne has revised the genus Dapedius,—a

group of fossil fishes not far removed from: Lepidotide. (Trans.

Leicester Lit. and Philos, Soc., Oct., 1890.) A study of the Shasta

Group leads Mr, George Becker to conclude that the conditions and

associations on the British Pacific coast appear to correspond com-

Pletely with those in the United States so far as the Aucella beds are

concerned, and the present indications are that all of them are to be

regarded as equivalent to the Gault. (Bull, Am. Geol. Soc., Vol. II.,

PP. 201-208.) The newly opened oil field of Colorado is located

m the valley of the Arkansas, between Pueblo and Cañon City. At

366 The American Naturalist. “ [Age

present its limits are undetermined. The bituminous shales of the

Colorado group, which are evidently the source of the oil, underlie a —

wide belt of country along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains, _

Along this zone, intermediate between the mountains and plains, oil _

fields will probably be found in places where the shales have been —

somewhat affected by the proximity of the crystalline rocks, and yet

have not been too much disturbed and broken. (Prof. J. S. Newberry,

School of Mines Quart, Vol. X., January, 1889.)—-In a recent —

paper, Prof. Angelo Heilprin has presented the leading facts touching —

the geological and paleontological relations of the Cretaceous deposits

of Mexico. These deposits cover, or are scattered over, the greatest

part of Mexico, from the Rio Grande to (or through) the states of —

Colima, Michoacan, Guerero, and Oaxaca. (Proc. Acad, Nat. Sciences,

Phila., Dec., 1890.) p

Cenozoic.—R. Lydekker has collected circumstantial evidence

which justifies him in regarding the so-called genus Sceparnodon as

based upon the upper incisors of the gigantic wombat known as Phas-

colonus. (Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 49.)——-Mr. George Becker has

published new evidence in favor of the authenticity of the Calaveras

skull, and amply sufficient of itself to prove that man existed during

the auriferous gravel period in California. He has the sworn state-

1891.) Mineralogy and Petrography. 367

the earth’s crust nearly as large as that of Europe. Volcanic dust fell

on an island ninety-five miles to the windward in such quantities that

trees were crushed to the earth by the weight of its mass. During the

eruption subterranean noises were heard at Caracas, and in the midst

of the Llanos, which cover a space of 36,000 square miles. (Proc.

Phila. Acad. Nat. Science, 1890.) '

MINERALOGY AND PETROGRAPHY.*

Petrographical News.—The protogine of Mont Blanc isshown by

Lévy? to be a true eruptive, apophyses from which penetrate the surround-

ing schists and alter them, and break from them fragments which they

hold as inclusions, These fragments have been regarded as basic

segregations, and the surrounding schists have been looked upon as

dynamo-metamorphosed phases of the protogine. Both of these views

the author combats. Among the schists he finds eclogites, with diop-

side in micropegmatitic intergrowths with quartz and feldspar, amphi-

bolites and mica-schists, each of which classes is briefly described. The

segregations mentioned oecur most frequently near the contact of the

granite with the schists. Many of them resemble so closely certain

phases of the schists that Lévy is compelled to regard them as frag-

ments of these caught up by the eruptive during its passage from below.

A microgranite from the periphery of the main mass of granite con-

sists of corroded crystals of the first generation cemented by a granitic

ground-mass. This fact is thought to be an indication of the correct-

ness of the view that the constituents of granite are mainly of the

second generation, those of the first consolidation having disappeared.

To the southeast of Mont Blanc are quartz-porphyries which, accord-

ing to Graeff,3 are genetically related to the granite composing the

body of the mountain. Like the latter, the porphyries have been

subjected to pressure, by which process much sericite has been devel-

oped, resulting in sericite-schists. The present contact of the erup-

tives with the gneisses and mica-schists of the Mont Blanc « massif ”

is thought not to be an original contact, but one brought about by

dislocations. The conclusions of Lévy and Graeff are thus seen to be

in accord in some particulars, while in others they are at variance.

Fuller discussions are promised later.—In the first part of a general

_ 1 Edited by Dr. W. S. Bayley, Colby University, Waterville, Me..

2? Bull. des Serv. d. 1. Carte. gèol. d. la France, No. 9, 1890.

. ie phys. et nat., Nov., 1890. 3

400) = The American Naturalist.

sketch of the geology of the Japanese Islands Harada‘ gives short des

tions of Archean gneisses and schists, and of eruptive rocks of

recent age. Among the schists are mentioned graphitic seri

schists, with well-developed crystals of tourmaline and hematite, 2

chloritic amphibolite whose principal feldspar is albite. Gabbros

peridotites cut the Paleozoic strata. In some specimens of the fi

piedmontite was noticed as an alteration product of hornblende.

the Mesozoic occurs the largest quantity of eruptives. Granite

diorite in many varieties cut through the sedimentary rocks, andc han

contact action. The eruptives, on the other hand, become coarse-

g and porphyritic near the contact, the diorite losing hornble de

Among the effusives of this age are i aeniohed quartz- -porphyries

porphyrites. Weinschenck > communicates additional info

with respect to the rocks of these islands, as a result of the study

some hand specimens. Most of the sections examined by him at

a hypersthene andesite, witha plagioclase full Sf inclusions, and a ple

trachyte containing biotite, garnet, and tridymite in a ground-mass-

the same minerals and zircon, in a trichitic glass. The most interest-

ing rock of the series bears the same relation to the andesites as

augitites do to the basalts. It consists principally of acicular

of bronzite in a ground-mass consisting of clear glass and magnetit

grains, with porphyritic plagioclase and garnets. The author calls

= rock sanukite, from the province in which it is found.

Mineralogical News.—The regular silicates are very few in m

_ ber, and of them eight are orthosilicates,—viz., exlyite, sunyite,

danaiite, garnet, sodalite, nosean and hauyne, and Jasurite. .

Brégger and Backstrém® would include in one group, which

would call the garnet group. The members of this group is divi

two sub-groups, in one of which the tetrahedral habit is predom

and the cleavage is octahedral. This includes the first four min

“mentioned above, and is known as the helvite group. All its me

can be represented by formulas of the garnet type. Helvite

ote Japanischen Inseln., rst Lief., Berlin, Parey, 1890.

5 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VII., p. 133.

$ Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, p. 209.

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 369

written (MnFeCa),(Mn,S)Be,(SiO,),, danalite as (FeZnMn),[(Zn

Fe),S]Be, za zunyite as [(OH),Fe,CIAI,](SiO,),, and eulytite

as Bi (SiO, The second sub-group includes the species with

with dodecahedral habit and cleavage. Embraced in this is the patie

series proper, with a composition R," R," (SiO,),, and the series of

the alkaline garnets. The etched figures on the latter indicate that

they are all tetrahedrally hemihedral, and a discussion of the best

analysis of them leads to the conclusion that they are all of the chemi-

cal type. of common garnet. Sodalite is Na,(AICI)AI,(SiO,), and

= nosean is Na,[Al(NaSO,)]A1,(SiO,,. In hauyne, calcium replaces

some of the sodium in nosean. . Lapis-lazuli, or natural ultramarine, is

a mixture of several minerals, of whith one is bright blue. The

authors have isolated this and found it to contain:

SO: ALO CaO ONG RO a eA

32.652. 3716r 6.47 TOAS “(282 EO L .4F

Upon the assumption that this is a mixture of hauyne, sodalite, and

ultramarine, it is calculated that the latter substance must be represented

by the formula Na [A1(S,Na)]A1,(SiO,), The authors then discuss

the nature of artificial ultramarine, and conclude that it is a mixture

of five isomorphous substances. A microscopical examination of

lapis-lazuli reveals the fact that in all cases this is a mixture of several

substances, among which may be mentioned hauyne, diopside, koks-

charowite, calcite, pyrite, and a muscovite-like mineral, together with

alittle scapolite, plagioclase, orthoclase, apatite, sphene, zircon, and

an unknown, probably positive, uniaxial mineral. The interesting

Chilian minerals continue to be subjects of investigation to those who

are fortunate enough to come into possession of them, Frenzel ?

a yellow color and a metallic lustre, has a density of 2.31, and a com-

position as follows :

a r 0, $ = ie = 2Na,SO,+ Fe,S,0,+6H,O

The mineral is from Sierra Gorda, near Caracoles. It is identical with

the Peruvian sideronatrite described by Raimond,’ which, however,

was regarded by him as possessing but one molecule of Na,SO, to one

of the iron sulphate. It is probably an alteration product of hohman-

nite, occurring associated with it, and found also in the Sierra de la

Caparrosa, as brownish-red, glassy plates and crystals, often arranged

in radial aggregates. Their hardness is 3, and specific gravity 2.17.

7 Miner. u. Petrog. Mitth., XI., 1890, p- 214.

: Zeits. f. Kryst., 1882, VI., p. 627.

_ examined some of these species in more detail. The material in

to be hexagonal, Its indices of refraction are w = I1. 558, t=

370 The American Naturalist.

They remain unchanged in the air, and have the same compositi

amarantite and the specimens of hohmantite ® analyzed a short |

since,—viz., Fe,S,0,+7H,O. Various other minerals from thes

region are briefly alluded to in this paper, and two new ones (quete

and gordaite)"™ are described. Messrs. Genth and Penfield "

possession is from the Mina de la Campania, near Sierra

Amarantite is found to be ruai with @: 5: ¢==.76915: 1: 9

&@— 95° 38 16", B= 90° 23' 42”, y= 97° 13' 4”. The habit oF

crystals is prismatic. The brachy, and macropinacoids are verti¢

striated, and a perfect cleavage is parallel to each. The optical a

= 63° 3’, and the extinction in the macropinacoid is 16°=1

acute, Fibres of sideronatrite show a slight pleochroism, with a

straw-yellow color parallel to the longer axis, and no color at

angles to this. The formula ascribed to the substance differs esi

Frenzel’s formula in lacking one molecule of water. Ferronal i

although obtainable only in white or grayish cleavage masses, is th g

and its composition is SO,=.51.30; Fe,O, = 17.30; NaO = 1

H,O = 11.89 ; specific gravity = 2.547—2.578. Darapsky ” also

a few notes of observations on a few of the minerals from A

Among these are aromite, paposite, amarantite, hohmannite, coquit

aragonite after calcite, from Miisen in Siegen, is one of the few in

described in which the latter mineral is known to have changed i

the’ ayi and subsequent deposition of calcium cz

calcium-bearing solutions containing traces of barium. By € other

tation Bauer has found that barium bearing calcium c

-° Miner. u. Petrog, Mitth., IX., p. 397.

Hiei Gone ie aa 1860, 1 “oD. 40.

TE PAANS Mia. etc., 1890, I., p. ro.

1891.] _ Mineralogy and Petrography. 371

tions deposit crystals with the properties of aragonite. The crystals

of evrite, from Dillenburg, Nassau, fall into two classes. The first

includes well-developed prismatic forms with large macrodomes (P o)

on both terminations. The others are prismatic with P4o and P38

on one termination. The other is attached to the gangue. Their

axial ratio is .6795:1:.4576. In the article by Messrs. Genth and

Penfield “ referred to above appear analyses of picropharmacolite from

Joplin, Mo., of a substance supposed to ————. from near

Georgetown, N. M.; of pitticite from the Clarissa Mine, in the Tintic

District, Utah ; and of giddsite from White Horn Station, Chester Co.,

Pa. The last-named mineral is discovered to be a hydrous aluminium

phosphate. The pitticite corresponds in composition to 4Fe,As,

O, Fe,(OH),+ 20H,O.—=The remarkable nfineral locality, Branch-

ville, has again been reported upon by Messrs. Brush and Dana.”

During the ten years that have elapsed since their previous report 16 `

extensive mining has been carried on at the locality for the purpose of

obtaining quartz and microcline for technical uses, During the past

two years large quantities of rare magnesian phosphates have been

brought to light, and these have been investigated by the mineralogists

mentioned. The’ minerals whose indentification is recorded are

lithiophilite, hureaulite, reddingite, fairfieldite, dickinsonite, ai fillowite.

The lithiophilite is in rudely crystalline masses in a vein, associated

with albite, quartz, and spodumene. It is, as a rule, fresh. Occasionally +

it is extensively altered into hureaulite through the intermediate prod-

uct dickinsonite. The succession in age of its various decomposi-

tion products, among which are all the other minerals mentioned

above, could not be determined, as they seem to occur together pro-

`- miscuously. The hureaulite, heretofore known only at Limoges,

France, is in small monoclinic crystals, varying in color from violet to

Sya red, and mra into parallel agpregatm. Their axial ratio is

$$: ¢=1.9192: 1: .5245 with == 84° 1’, on the assumption of

E plane 4 Ps. eed by Descloizeaux in the Limoges crystals as

the RIN form. The habit of the Branchville crystals is short pris-

matic, with œP and various pyramids well developed. The crystals

have a good cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid, a specific gravity

of 3.149, and a composition as follows :

TO- FO MnO CaO HO ose

38.36 4.56 42.20 -94 12.20 1.76

u Amer, Jour. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 199.

; 15 Amer. Jour. Sci., Mch., 1890, p. 201.

16 Tb., 1880, p. 257.

372 The American Naturalist.

corresponding to H,(MnFeCa),PO,+ 4H,O. Reddingite is in pink

white masses, and in orthorhombic crystals with an octahedral ]

The axial ratio is a: 4:¢—=.8678: 1: .9485, and density 3.

Their analysis yielded Mr. Wells: a

i: a, FeO- MnO CaO HO = Quartz.

34-90 17.13 34.51 -63 13.18 Pe

ture and rhombic tabular habit.——The beautiful chalcopyrite ™ cx

tals from the French Treek Mines, Chester Co., Pa., occur toget

with pyrite ® imbedded in byssolite, thuringite, and calcite in p D

in a magnetic iron ore. The principal type of the chalcopyrite is

sphenoid ae often modified by a scalenohedron. All the fa

striated, and frequently they are so much rounded as to p

measurements of their interfacial angles. Twinned crystals are

common, the combination possessing an hexagonal habit——The

zeolite mordenite has been discovered by Pirsson ¥ in the cavity

amygdaloidal basalt, forming fragments in a breccia near Hood

in Western Wyoming. The mineral is in very small crystals,

specific gravity lying between 2,119 and 2.179. -Their analysis yi

SiO, =“ ALO, FeO, CaO MgO K,O Na,O HO —

66.40 11.17 157 1 17 3.58 2.27 ori

which is equivalent to 3RAL,Si,,O,,+ 20H,O, in which R rept

potassium, sodium, and calcium. The mineral differs from pt

containing more water, In crystallization it is monoclinic,

"7 Penfield. our. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 207.

'* Penfield. Ib., HI, XXXVII., p. 209.

o « Wb. Sep., 1890, p,

-o ES Moye. NL, thos, pay.

1891.] : Mineralogy and Petrography. 373

examined are 3P, 4P, 2P, œP, Poo, Poo, }P$, 3P$, œP2, and œ P3,

making ninety-seven forms now known to occur in the species. ——

Baumhauer*! has discovered some small but good crystals of cryo/if in

a hand specimen from Evigtok, Greenland, so twinned that both

individuals have their basal planes in common, and one appears to

have been revolved about 88° 2’ around an axis normal to the base,

The limestone of Villefranque and of Biarritz, France, contains

long needles of quartz and crystals of dipyr and albite,™ the first of

which must have been formed contemporaneously with the limestone,

while the last two were produced by the influence of an intrusive mass

of diabase upon the enclosing rock. Traube * ascribes the differ-

ences in the values of the axial ratios of different sheedites to the

amounts of molybdenum occurring in them, Analyses of many

specimens reveal the fact that white and light yellow varities contain

but little of this element, while the dark varieties contain quite large

amounts, (I-8%). The axial ratio of the purest scheelite is 1 : 1.5315,

that of calcium molybdenate is 1: 1.5458, and that of most scheelites

between these limits. In the pegmatite veins cutting granite near

Meissen, Saxony, Sauer and Ussing* have found Baveno twins of

microcline in which the gridiron structure is lacking. Lamelle of

albite are intergrown with the microcline, but sufficiently large areas

of the latter mineral were found to allow of careful measurements of

cleavage, angles, etc. The angle between the cleavage lines is 89° 30’,

d the refractive indices for sodium light a= 1.5224, P = 1.5264,

¥= 1.5295. The optical angle is 2V= 83° 41’. A pure white

zinc sulphide is mentioned by Mr. Robertson® as occurring at Galena,

Cherokee Co., Kansas. It is associated with sphalerite, and is in a

form suggesting the moist, freshly prepared substance. It is saturated

with water bearing a trace of sulphuric acid. Its composition is:

Zn = 63.70; S==30.77; Fe,O,= 2.40; Insol.= 2.52. inne *

gives some good illustrations of micreciine structure in the feldspar of

the Stockholm granite and of the Kyffhäuser gneiss, and suggests

reasons for regarding it as a secondary phenomenon produced in non-

Striated feldspar. The phenacite reported by Mr. Yeates” from

21 Ib., XVIII., 1890, p. 355. :

™ Beaugey. Bull. Soc. Franc, d. Min., XIII., Feb., 1890, p. 59.

33 Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., B. B. VIL., p. 232.

* Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIII., 1890, p. 192.

3 Amer. Jour. Sci., Aug., 1890, p. 161.

2 Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1890, IL., p. 66.

7 Amer. Jour. Sci., Sep., 1890, p. 259.

_ from the Devil’s Mining Region, in Idaho, Mr. Melville ® has

_ ered a mineral resembling scheelite in external appearance, but

ing from it in composition. The crystals are small, prismatic, 8

yellow in color, with a hardness of 3.5, and a density of 4.526

374 The American Naturalist.

Hebron, Me., turns out upon analysis to be apatite with a tabul

habit. i

- New Minerals.—A new borate has been discovered imbedded in

the form of small, colorless, transparent, or milky-white crystals in t

pinnolite of Stassfurt, Germany. The crystals are monoclinic, with

12’. The forms observed are tac 5 ae: —P, rm Po, and —3P3

perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, and makes with ¢ an angl of

7° in acute 8. A= 5. 2Hya—=104° 27. The composition of

substance, as found by Baurath, is:

B,O, MgO K,O Na,O Cl. HO

52.13 13.80 8.14 -39 -35 232

which corresponds to H,Mg,K(BO,),+6H,O. The name Hin

has been given it by Milch8 The same mineral is described

the mineral is easily soluble in hydrochloric and nitric acids. A

analysis yielded results different from those above given, as follow

B,O= 60.53; MgO = 12.23; K,O = 7.39; H,O = 19.85. Themel

chosen by Leudecke have the ratios a@:5:c== 1.2912: 1: 1.7572

to #Pcoo. The refractive index for sodium light vibrating

to 4 is 1.354. The other optical properties coincide with those:

termined by Milch. Prof. Groth suggests that neither of the

names suggested for the mineral be accepted until it is found 1

analysis is correct. ——Powe//ite.—In a weathered fragment of bot

have a resinous lustre, and are semi- -transparent and brittle.

ments of angles indicate a tetragonal symmétry with a: c= 1 ;

The planes appearing oP, P, Poo, and œP. The composition is

MoO, WO, SiO, CuO MgO Fe, O, AlO; on

58.58 10. 28 325 26.55 -1p -65

23 Zeits. f. Kryst., XVIIL., 1890, P- 479-

ten

1891.] Mineralogy and Petrography. 375

The mineral bears the same relation to calcium molybdate as scheelite

does to the corresponding tungstate. An isotropic or weakly doubly

refracting mineral occurs in the nepheline-syenite of a ‘‘ massif” in

he Kole Peninsula, Russia. Since its properties have not yet been

fully determined, its discoverer, Ramsay,*! has not yet assigned to it a

name, The mineral is red and transparent. It fuses easily, and yields

water. It is attacked by@etids with difficulty, has a low index of re-

fraction, „Nna = 1.5223, and possesses no cleavage. Its density is

2.753, and composition :

SiO, Al,O,Fe,03 MnO CuO MgO NaO K,O Loss

55-88 15.19 2.69 O83. : 3. OOO GT: aA

—Leverrierite® occurs in small pseudohexagonal prisms that are

twinned orthorhombic forms with a prismatic angle of 128°. They

have a very perfect cleavage parallel to oP, so that they may easily be

mistaken for mica, Often the prisms are twisted so that they resemble

worm tubes to such perfection that they have been mistaken for organic

markings, and have been described under the name ġacilarites. Ac-

cording to Termier, all specimens of bacillarites examined by him

are prisms of the new mineral whose composition is H,,A1,Si,O,,. The

hardness of the substance is 1.5,-and its density 2.3-2.4. The plane

of its optical axes is œP% , with a abe acute bisectrix normal to

oP and an optical angle 2V= 45°-52°. It may be distinguished from

muscovite by its dark color, and from biotite by its weak pleochroism,

and its weak double refraction. Leverrierite is found as a metamorphic

constituent in carbonaceous clay slates, and in interstratified carbonif-

erous eruptives.

3l Ref. Neues Jahrb. f. Min., etc., 1891, I., p. 98-

32 Bull. Soc. Franc. d. Min., XIII., 1890, p- 325-

done by placing a plasmodium in a saturated aqueous <

A a OS, E ee N,

376 The American Naturalist

BOTANY.

Protoplasmic Physics.—Prof. Pfeffer, of Leipzig, has publis

the results of his studies on the taking up and extrusion of soli

stances by the plasmodia of Myxomycetes, cially of Chondn

aifforme. He concludes that, contrary to the more generally accey

the plasmodium. The plasma-membrane closes behind the inclu

object like a film of oil from which a needle is withdrawn. “a

Indifferent or insoluble substances are not infrequently enclosed

vacuoles, from which they may pass back into the protoplasm ; È

vement, Itis, as yet, wholly impossible to explain why one

follows the movements of the protoplasm, while others are thro ut

In the study of protoplasm within the cell-wall the author observed in the

root-hairs of Zrianea bogotensis that precipitates formed in the

modia of Chondroderma, he has observed all the intermediate conc i

betwee pulsating and inactive vacuoles, and has succeeded

ingenious experiments in producing vacuoles artificially.

» OF some other suitable substance, which contained

ufnahme und Ausgabe ungeléster Körper. Abhandl. d. Math.—

- Bd. XVI., p. 149” (Bot. Centralbl., XLIV., 180.)

haut und der Vacuolen, etc; Z. c. p. 185. (Bot. Ce

1891.] i Botany. 377

undissolved granules of the same substance. After it had taken up

some of these granules the plasmodium was removed to pure water,

when a vacuole was slowly formed about each granule, in consequence

of its gradual evolution, These artificial vacuoles differed in no respect,

except in size, from the natural ones, but even showed, in some cases,

slight pulsations. They were seen to divide and to fuse with each

other and with pulsating vacuoles, and were formed even in chloro-

formed plasmodia. It is evident that these vacuoles cannot be depend-

ent on a special organ, the tonoplast of De Vries, for their formation.

Pfeffer considers the hyaloplasm and the granular plasma of the cell

protoplasm to be essentially the same, and to differ merely in the

presence or absence of granules of most various composition, some of

which are foreign substances. He has seen the change from one to the

other condition, and has observed the formation of vacuoles in both

granular and hyaline plasma. He considers the existence of a plasma-

membrane, distinct from the remaining cytoplasm, very probable, in

view of the peculiar osmotic phenomena presented by the cytoplast.

It is uncertain whether this membrane owes its origin to a definite sur-

face stretching or whether the contact of water is also necessary. Vital

activity does not appear to be essential either to its formation or to the

manifestation of plasticity in the protoplast.—J. E. HUMPHREY,

Amherst, Mass.

Alcoholic Material for Laboratory Work in Systematic

Botany.—lIt is now generally recognized that laboratory practice or

field work is indispensable to effective instruction in all the natural

Sciences, Botany deals with material that is especially adapted to

training the powers of observation. The translation of the characters

of a stem, leaf, or flower into appropriate language will give the student

a habit of careful investigation, as well as facility in description.

Plants direct from the field are generally considered to be in the

best possible condition for use in the laboratory. It is a difficult

matter sometimes, however, to shape courses of instruction so as to

have plants in flower just at the time when they are needed. During

the spring there is an abundance ; but in the fall and winter, how shall

material be provided? To furnish a class of thirty or more from a

greenhouse is too expensive ; moreover, plants will not always blos-

- Som in the greenhouse just when desired. The plan is sometimes

adopted of pressing enough specimens to supply each member of the

class with a specimen of the species to be studied. There are serious

objections, however, to this plan. In the first place, specimens col-

lected in such a wholesale way are not apt to be satisfactory. Al

378 The American Naturalist.

specimens should be as complete as possible when they are to

by students. Second, dry material is very difficult to dissect. So

in water will soften the tissue, but renders it too soft and pulpy

dissect nicely. A third objection to this plan is the expense of ¢

ing so large an amount of material every year, for, in most

least one specimen will be used up by a student in a single study.

Having experienced the above difficulties in the laboratory,

_ been trying in various ways to overcome them. The wor

-winter in the laboratory is to make a study of typical species of

orders, among which are the Rosacez, Ranunculaceze, Nymp!

and Leguminose. This work has been preceded by similar s

the orders Composite, Graminez, and Cyperacez in the fall, and

_ general work in plant analysis during the previous spring term.

course is accompanied by lectures. Now, instead of pressing N

specimens of each species as is intended for study each year,

the following plan: The species to be studied are selected. As

board sheets. A convenient size for the sheets is 14x22 inches.

specimens are fastened to the card-board with fish-glue, or

fastened with narrow strips of gummed paper ;_I think the fis

preferable. The mounted specimen shows the whole plant if

The fruit is also shown. When the plant is too large to press

the flower, fruit, various forms of leaves, and a piece of ther

stem are mounted. If the plant has medicinal properties, |

Such ; a set of permanent, aad specimens duplicates

growing fresh in the field sufficiently for the purposes of syste

study, The cards, when in use, are suspended from an arm by

dog hooks,” which may be obtained at any bookstore. The

about one foot long, and, as the tables are arranged in our }

can be fastened to the window casing. Very nice hori

with attachment can be obtained of furniture dealers.

To go along with these mounted specimens a sufficient-

=e and young fruits for dissection to supply the class is

and preserved in alcohol until they are to be used. So fa ouf

ence has been that alcohol is the best preservative for | t

1891] Botany. 379

well as for tissue designed for histological purposes. The fresh material

is put in 50 per cent. alcohol, and then the strength of the alcohol is

gradually increased until it is at. least 80 per cent. A very effective

way of hardening-is to place the material in a straight glass vessel,

such as a straight beaker having a membrane of chamois-skin for a

bottom, This is placed in another jar. This makes a vessel within a

vessel. The outer one contains 95 per cent. alcohol; the inner con-

tains the material and just sufficient 50 per cent. alcohol to cover it.

Gradually the alcohol in the inner vessel will become stronger, until it

is sufficiently strong to preserve the tissue, This is Schultze’s appara-

tus. ardening in this way saves alcohol and time. Where material

is changed from weaker to stronger there is always left over a consid-

erable quantity of alcohol too weak to use for permanent storage. Where

the Schultze apparatus is used, the spirit in which the material is when

hardened is strong enough to preserve it indefinitely. We store our

hardened material in ordinary fruit jars. It is perfect in all respects

except color, the loss of which is more of an advantage than disad-

vantage. The tissue is clear and cuts smoothly. By keeping it slightly

moistened with the preserving fluid while dissecting, it preserves its

shape as long as desired. It is less pulpy than fresh tissue, and much

more manageable than dry.

The sets of mounted specimens are permanent, and with careful

usage will last a long time. The supply of alcoholic material can be

replenished from time to time at slight expense

It is of great value to have a set of microscopical slides on which

are mounted sections of the ovary so cut as to show the insertion of

the ovules ; also their parts and their arrangement. This is a subject

of much importance in the study of systematic botany, and one in-

volved in considerable difficulty. The fresh tissue of ovules is delicate,

and by hardening in alcohol, imbedding, and making permanent micro-

Scopical mounts, a very profitable and interesting course of study may

be arranged. If any teachers have occasion to use specimens for study

during the season when flowers are not in bloom, they will find this

method worth trying.—W. W. Row Ler, Cornell University.

A Field Manual of Botany.—It is announced again that there

will soon be issued a special edition of Gray’ s Manual for field use.

It will be printed on thin French paper, with narrow margins. It will

be bound in full leather, lintp, and cut flush, very much like a foreign

guide-book, The price will be two dollars, which is but a trifle more

than for the ordinary edition. It will prove a useful book to students

_ and collectors.—Cuaries E. BESSEY.

380 The American Naturalist

ZOOLOGY.

Reproduction of Urnatella.—Statoblasts have not hithert

found in this curious type of the Polyzoa, first described by

Mr. Edward Potts has lately succeeded in having the animal reprodu

itself by germination from the jointed stems which remain after

polyp-heads have died down. “About the middle of September

I gathered from the bed of the Schuylkill canal, below Flat Rock D:

some sticks bearing colonies of Leidy’s Urnatella. The heads ast

soon died ; but as no statoblasts have yet been discovered to be

duced by this polyzoon, I kept the jointed stems under the impres

that they took the place of gemmules and would reproduce thems

in the spring: On February 1st I found them thus rejuvenating

selves, and I now have a good stock of Urnatellas.”’ e

is an extract from a note by Mr. Potts to one of the-

editors.—R.

The Growth of Corals.— Alexander Agassiz has figured

specimens of coral, natural size, taken from the shore end

XX., No. 2.)

_ The Changes of the Salamander Diemyctylus virid

—I have now demonstrated the following facts with reference

Amphibian: 1. The eggs are internally fertilized. 2. The

have the form and coloration of the adult aquatic ones.

non-ciliated. 6. In the terrestrial forms the oral epithelium is

-—Simon H. Gace.

1891.] Embryology. 381

EMBRYOLOGY.!

On the Foetal Membranes of Testudinata.—Dr. K. Mitsukuri

has published an elaborate paper in the Journal of the College of

Science, Imperial University of Japan (Vol. IV., pt. 1), on the feetal

membranes of the, turtle. The contribution is a paper of fifty pages,

with ten excellent plates. The amnion arises from an anterior and

two lateral folds,—there is no posterior fold,—and these extend grad-

ually from before backwards.’ The lateral folds meet above the embryo,

but their cavities do not unite across, so that a connection between the

amnion (proper) and the serous envelope—sero-amniotic connection

—always remains along the line of union. The backward growth of

the amniotic folds over the embryo does not stop at the posterior end,

but continues to grow backward, although diminished in width, until

finally there is produced a tube extending from the posterior end of

the embryo, reaching a length as great as the embryo itself, and placing

the cavity of the amnion into communication with the exterior,

In the Testudinata the allantois arises as a diverticulum from the

posterior region of the midgut, and is from the first continuous with

it. The later stages of the foetal membranes are more complicated.

The allantois is obstructed in its growth over the embryo by the sero-

amniotic connection. Ultimately the allantois surrounds the yolk by

means of its three lobes. ‘‘ There is always, even in very much ad-

vanced eggs, a small mass of the white just at the point where the three

lobes of the allantois meet at the lower pole.” It seems that we have

here, in a very primitive condition, the structure described by Duval

as the placenta of birds. The yolk-sac passes into the interior of the

body in hatching, where it lies for a long time, and may be found in

young tortoises late in the spring of the year following.

Mitsukuri thinks that if the embryology of the groups of reptiles and

birds are carefully gone over again many structures which are highly

significant in the light of facts now obtained will be found to have

hitherto escaped notice; for instance, the sero-amniotic connection

and the posterior tube of the amnion. The amnion was probably de-

veloped originally by mechanical causes. In Testiudinata, when the head

fold is produced, there are two reasons why it should sink into the

yolk ; ‘* first, the yolk is very large and liquid, especially beneath the

blastoderm ; and, in the second place, the white disappears from over

* Edited by Thomas H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

382 The American Naturalist.

the blastoderm, which then adheres firmly to the shell-membrane, ht

there is no space for the head fold to grow, except towards below.’

The Placenta of Rodents.—Duval has published a paper in

Journal de l’ Anatomie? giving a clear and interesting account of

discovery of the “‘ inversion ’’ of the germ-layers of rodents, a

theory of the method by which this curious process has beani

indeed, Duval believes that, although often in error, Bischoff

the fundamental meaning of the phenomenon, and had a

knowledge of the process than some of the investigators that

after him.

Primarily the KAKES of the blastodermic portion of the em

vesicle has been the cause of the inversion of the layers. ‘This was clo

connected with the formation of the ectodermic amnion which

up over the embryo as the latter sinks into the vesicle. By thie

of the amnion are there is formed a cavity lined by €

which, owing to the Sinking of the embryo, lies, as it were,

center of the vesicle, but still adove the embryo. This ai

place in its simplest form in the hare, but in the other rodents i

place by an abbreviated condition; for the amniotic (ect

_ Space first appears as a sf/it in the thickened ectoderm above

derm. Subsequently the cavity of the amnion is divid

parts, an upper and a lower, by a constriction formed in t!

This division the author believes primarily to have taken place

early development of the allantois in order that it might

under the upper (attached) pole of the embryo. In many i

amnion divides into its two parts before the appearance of

tois, and this is but a precocious process, caused in the ms

the growth of the allantois.

On the Morphology of the Bilateral Ciliate

‘the Echinoderm Larvæ.!—In a previous work (Die

2? XXVI. Anne., No, 6, 1891.

ČR. Semon, Jenaische Zeitschrift, XXV. (N. F., XVIIL), 1890.

1891.] Embryology. 383

der Synapta digitata (Jen. Zeit, XXII.) the author refers to the

preoral ciliated band as arising from the adoral band (surrounding the

mouth), and not from the other ciliated band, from which it is entirely

separated, thus opposing the older view of Gegenbaur, adopted by

Korschelt and Heider in their Lehrbuch.

But the author’s present work, begun in April, 1890, at Helgoland,

shows that the adoral band arises without connection with the preoral

band, and that the union of their edges is secondary. Thus ontogenet-

ically is given striking proof of the correctness of Gegenbaur’s sup-

position,

The stage where but a single ciliated band is present is called the Auri-

cularia stage of the Bipinnaria,

In older larvæ the postoral and preoral portions of the longitudina}

(circumoral) ciliated band unite at the preoral apical pole, and form a

median unpaired stripe. Later, on a plane parallel to the ventral sur-

face, this median unpaired stripe divides, and thus forms thé preoral

and postoral ciliated bands of the Bipinnaria. í

The ciliated bands are formed by a loss of cilia and flattening of the

cells over the rest of the body, thus leaving the bands as the only

ciliated part. This process begins on the ventral side; the cilia dis-

appear last at the apical pole. ;

The adoral ciliated band is formed in a similar way, and at its

anterior part comes into close relation, secondarily, with the preoral

band.

Thus is solved the only difficulty to Job. Miiller’s plan to derive the

body form and arrangement of the ciliated bands for all Dipleurula

larvæ from a fundamental type, since it is shown that the Asterid larva

passes through an Auricularia stage, and that the preoral ciliated band

is separated from an ancestral single ciliated band. This stage

with a single ciliated band is the typical form, ontogenetically repro-

duced in sufficiently young larve of all classes of Echinoderms.

The author notes as an interesting fact that in Joh. Miiller’s com-

parison the Ophiurid pluteus, by the increase of the posterior dorso-

ventral bendings (auriculz of the Auricularia and Bipinnaria), to long

and characteristic projections, in this important point stands nearer the

typical form than the Echinid pluteus to which in other respects it is

more comparable.

He points out the close relation existing in all larvae between the

upper transverse border of the preoral band and the adoral ciliated

band. He believes that the Dipleurula larva cannot be traced back to

the “ypical trochophore with preoral ciliated rings; probably not to the

Am. Nat.—April_—6,

384 - The American Naturalist.

mesotrochal larva ; possibly it may be compared to a ¢elotrochal la

but it must be shown that the bands arise in a similar way in

This is only a tentative suggestion. s

In Tornaria the arrangement of two longitudinal ciliated bands

ees throughout with the Asterid larva, as does also its i

the mature animals, it is difficult to show more than a very di

genetic SSA a

As a t of these observations, we believe that the Diple ir

the hie and lower worms, as well as molluscs. An homologiing

the circumoral ciliated bands of Echinoderms with the cilia a

of the other larval types cannot be carried out.

Asterid and Echinid larva were negative.

The author speaks of a bilateral fibre-system, united by a cross

missure, lying in the dorsal skin under the epithelium. It

tainly more branched. This may be regarded as a well-developed

mal musculature.—GrorcE W. FIELD.

PSYCHOLOGY.

Note on Imperfect Instinct in Animals.—On a num

occasions I have observed that the instinct of animals is someti

shown to be imperfect, and reading Mr. George J. Romanes’s bo

“ Mental Evolution in Animals,’’ where mention is made of w

fection of instinct ” (page 167), his illustrations quoted recal

interest of this subject. Regarding insects, on July 4th,

noticed among the fireworks displayed upon an open stand,

corner of a vacant lot in Chicago, a number of bunches of ;

sized fire-crackers with their bright crimson covers Consp

distributed among the other pieces of similar explosives.

was standing close by a pretty, bright, reddish-brown

with silver spots on the under surface of the wings,

supposed to be the larger species of Argynnis, came flying |

1891.] Psychology. 385

the ground from the north. When nearly opposite, attracted by the

bright color, it changed its course quickly and flew directly to the

fire-crackers, trying one bunch and then another, as I have noticed the

same species of butterfly do in a field at Hyde Park while feeding,

going from one bright red flower to another. Then suddenly recovering

itself, and as if coming to a point of realization of a mistake, the

insect continued its headlong journey southward until lost to view, I

find in my diary on June 24th, 1884, while I was standing on a street

corner in Chicago waiting the arrival of a car, an Alypian moth

(Adypia octomacudata) was attracted by the clothes which I wore at that

time. The specimen was a beautiful male, and when I stood still it

flew about my body in the air repeatedly, and persistently alighted on

my clothes, although it was gently brushed away several times with my

d. e black and white on the moth coincided closely with the

small St och of the same in my suit, the significance of which im-

pressed me strongly atthe time. Last summer (1890) I noticed several

times that small white butterflies were attracted by bits of white pieces

of paper which had been carelessly thrown upon the ground. An

instance bearing upon this point is recorded in the AMERICAN NAT-

URALIST (Vol. XX., page 976), in which many Ajax butterflies

(Papilio ajax), which are wary and ordinarily captured with great

difficulty, became attracted by dead specimens of the same species

which I pinned upon the ends of twigs and stuck in the ground to

serve as decoys. I was allowed to increase my collection with a num-

ber of additional specimens in this way by the use of a net, which

could not have been otherwise taken.

In the matter of birds, it is an every-day experience of hunters to

attract wild ducks and some other birds within gun-range by artificial

decoys placed at a point where the birds can see them in passing

over on the wing, and I have myself shot American golden plover

frequently which were attracted by flat tin pieces ‘which I had painted

in imitation and cut in the shape of these birds, and stuck upon sticks

which elevated them from the ground. In the latter case almost every

individual in a flock of twenty to thirty have been shot in this way ; and

imitating their call-note would again and again call them back, although

each time a number shot from the flock would fall to the ground, which

were probably noticed by the birds that escaped the fire, for they some-

times dove down from above in the direction of the falling birds, It is

interesting, although digressing a little from the subject in hand, to note

that in localities where these birds frequented by thousands in their

migrations ^ some years ago, but few are seen now, and are fast follow-

_ tioned, I was hunting in a piece of heavy hemlock timber about

itasa large black snake (B. constrictor), and he was hold

coil or two of his tail, while his head was several feet above

straight as could be. It took but an instant for me to appt

extraordinary behavior on the part of a species of snake with ¥

Was quite familiar. I was about to reach up and strike him

386 The American Naturalist.

ing in the path of the Carolina paroquet and wild pigeon, o

a great measure to their inability to adapt their imperfect and |

instinct to the sudden encroachment of civilized man. I once att

a great fire which consumed a number of large warehouses and a gr

quantity of lumber. The fire occurred in the dead of the night, lig

ing up the surrounding vicinity brightly, and the heat was i

While thus gazing at this spectacle I noticed dozens of tame doves a

English sparrows, irresistibly drawn by the intense light, fly direc

into the flames, and hundreds were consumed in less time than it tak

to relate the observation. Similarly, « on July 7th, 1890, I noticed

different species of beetles heedlessly plunging into the globe that

rounds the light, and were destroyed. Mr. Romanes says (page 17

that under the general heading of ‘“ Imperfection of Instinct” “

may include two very distinct classes of phenomena ; for instinc

be imperfect because they have not yet been completely developed,

they may appear to be imperfect because not completely answe:

some change in those circumstances of life with reference to

they have been fully developed.”” To which of the two pheno

the above notes will belong requires but little reflection on the pat

the reader.—Dr. JosrpH L. HANCOCK.

An Instance of the Black Snake Attacking Meanie

autumn of 1867 I was residing at Stamford, Conn., being at that

about seventeen years of age. Apart from my college studies,

entire time was given over to the subject of biology and the fo

of collections of various animals. The country about Stam

admirable ground for the collecting naturalist, and by the

advantages were not neglected. One day, during the time above

miles from the town, and upon passing under a tall tree my

from its lower limb, immediately overhead. In an instant I

of my outstretched arm and hand. His body was straight

gum- zos when in a twinkling he let go his hold, and |

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 387

all in a loose coil on my head and shoulder, but as quick as a flash

twined himself about my neck, with the hinder third of his body twisted

about my arm at the arm-pit. Rearing his head within a few inches

of my face, and rapidly quivering his tongue at me, he was quite a

picture to behold. It required but a moment or two, however, for me

to demonstrate to this hardy and soot-tinted representative of the

reptilian race that he had attacked a quarry entirely too big for his

powers,—though I confess he warped down his constricting coils in a

manner not to be despised as coming from so small a snake. Seizing

him near the head, and leaning my gun against a tree, by three or four

vigorous pulls I soon disengaged him, and his disappointed snakeship

was taken home alive. He measured something less than six feet.—

R. W. SHUFELDT, Zakoma, D. C., February 24th, I8QI.

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.!

International Congress of Anthropology and Prehistoric

Archeology.— Tenth Session, Paris, August 19 to 27, 1889.—This

congress grew out of the meeting at Spezzia, in Italy, in September,

1865, of four gentlemen of high reputation in connection with studies

relative to prehistoric anthropology: Capellini, of Bologna ; Gabriel

de Mortillet, of Paris ; Steenstrup, of Copenhagen ; and Stoppani, of

Italy. To further the organization, a meeting was agreed upon to be

held at Neuchatel, in Switzerland, in the year following, 1866, and

the organization was completed and the congress established at the

meeting in Paris in 1867. The subsequent meetings were as follows:

1868, London and Norwich; 1869, Copenhagen ; 1871, Bologna;

1872, Brussels ; 1874, Stockholm ; 1876, Budapest ; 1878, Paris; 1880,

Lisbon. Subsequent meetings were arranged for Rome and Athens,

but were defeated by rumors of pestilence and war. The tenth session

was organized to be held at Paris in the year 1889, thereby taking

advantage of the French exposition and the many opportunities

for study afforded, as well as the number of foreigners who would be

in attendance.

The meetings were well attended, and brought together the most

illustrious scientists of various nations. ‘The influence of the congress

was highly beneficial, and it deserved support. Not only did distant

_ anthropologists and prehistoric archeologists become acquainted with

" Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

388 The American Naturalist.

each other, but they had a chance there to present new discoveries 2

announce new theories. The congresses act as an internati

` clearing-house, and enable the scientists of the world to com

notes, and, if needs be, correct their errors, That the importan

these congresses has been recognized by the European anthropolo,

is demonstrated by the numbers in attendance, the average of wl

has been 588 members, while the session at Stockholm counted

adherents. The foreigners usually number about one-half the attene

ance. The average representation, stated by countries or nations, hi

been as follows : France, 126; Sweden, 115; Great Britain, 70

gium, 68 ; Italy, 45 ; Déimárk, 41; Austria-Hungary, 35 ; Germany,

20; Portugal, ro; Russia, 8; Netherlands, Norway, and Finl

each 6 ; Switzerland and Roumania, each 5 ; United States of Am

4; Luxemburg, 2; Brazil, Greece, Turkey, Argentine Republic, each

I ; all other nations taken together, 4. i

A permanent council had general supervision of the affairs o

congress, but a committee of organization was charged with the

of preparation.

The program for this session, as agreed upon by this commit

and published in advance, was as follows: Monday, August

1889, 2 o'clock P.M. Address of the president. Report of

secretary-general, Election of the bureau and council. it

by-laws.—Tuesday, August 20th, 1889, 9.30 A.M. Visit to

Museum of Natural History in the galleries of anthropology a l

paleontology. 2.00 P.M., regular meeting in the amphitheatre | of!

College of France. —Wednesday, August 21st, 1889, 9.00 4

meeting at College of France. 1.00 P.M., reception of the mel

of the congress by the municipality of Paris at the Hotel de vV

4.00 P.M.—Thursday, August 22d, 1889. Visit to the colonia

play at the exposition. Rendezvous on the Esplanade des Inv:

k oo seduce on pr Seine, and visit to he n

—Sunday, August aoe 1889. Meeting at College of Fr

A.M., and closing session at 2,00 P.M.—Monda ay, August

Excursion by rail to Chelles, the great paleolithic station. _

_ The questions proposed by the committee for discussion

were as follows: 1, Denudation and filling of the

ling of the caverns, and their relations to the antiquity of 1

x891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 389

The periodicity of glacial phenomena. 3. Art and industry in the

alluvial and in the caverns. Paleontologic and archeologic classifica-

tions, and their value as applied to the Quaternary period. 4. The

chronological relation between the civilization of the ages of stone, of

bronze, and of iron. 5. The relation between the civilizations of

Hallstadt and similar Danubian prehistoric stations, and the civilization

of Mycene, of Tiryns, of Hissarlik, and of the Caucasus. 6. A

critical examination of the skulls and bones of the prehistoric man

belonging to the Quaternary period discovered within the past fifteen

years. The ethnic elements properly belonging to the ages of stone,

bronze, and iron in Central and Western Europe. 7. Ethnographic

survivals which may throw light upon the social state of primitive

populations of Central and Western Europe. 8. How far do the

analogies of archeology and ethnography authorize or sanction the

hypothesis of relations between the peoples, and how far of prehistoric

migration ?

There were 450 members of the congress enrolled, though not all

were present.

Twenty-seven countries were represented, of which nineteen were

European, six of the two Americas, and one each from Asia an

Oceanica. The congress at Lisbon was nearly as large as that at Paris.

It had 417 enrolled members, of which 330 were foreigners to that

country.

Monsieur de Quatrefages, the president, opened the congress by an

address of welcome, and recalled to his hearers, in a few words, the

history of the work of Forchammer, Worsaae, and Steenstrup in 1847,

making a happy accord of natural history and archeology. These

were founded upon modern sciences regarded up to that time as having

a relation together, but which were nevertheless united by an alliance

that has become more and more fruitful. From this the past of the

human race plunged in an immense unknown, far beyond the reach of

history or even the most” obscure legends, and embracing only the

geologic times with which their investigations had to deal, These

investigations were published, and soon it was recognized that one

branch more had been developed òn the tree of human knowledge.

M. de Quatrefages followed the International Congress of Anthro-

pology and Prehistoric Archeology from its foundation and commence-

ment in 1865 or 1867 through each one of its sessions. The session

then opened at Paris had among the others an extreme importance,

first question on the program, ‘‘The Geology of Prehistoric

Times, ” was a declaration of our profession of faith. In adopting the

390 The American Naturalist.

sixth question, ‘‘Our Notions Anthropologic,’’ the congress i

that one of its subjects of investigation is attached to antiquity,

becomes an object essential to its studies, and one to be followed :

paths of the science. Comparative ethnography throws light mn

primitive ancestors, while geography comes in as an important

efficient aid. :

The congress in dealing with the question of fossil man would:

sustain on the one part dogmatism, nor on the other philo

This will explain its es in the different countries in wh

met,

The secretary-general, Dr. Hamy, then told of the steps w

been taken in order to protect this meeting of the congress

the difficulties encountered at Lisbon, and augmented by the d

that M. de Quatrefages would be the president. He then named

committee of organization, and announced the bune and

as follows :

President, M. A. de Quatrefages; vice presidents, MM.

(G.), Beneden (J.-L. van), Bertrand (Alex.), Bogdanoff,

(N.), Evans (J.), Hilderbrand (H.), Gaudry (Alb.), Mason (

Muller (Soph.), Schliemann (H.), Vilanova ; secretary-general,

(E. T.); secretaries, MM. Boule (M.), Cartailhac (Em.),

(J.), Fraipont (J.), Vasconcellos-Abreu Verneau (Dr.);

. Benedikt, Cotteau, Gosse (Dr.), Hovelacque, Lumholtz, 3

(Ladislas), Odobesco, Riedel (J. F.), Schmidt (Valdemar), Szabo Szabo

e first question proposed by the committee of organiz

“The Cutting and Filling of the Valleys, the Filling- of

erns, and These in Their Bearing upon the Antiquity of Ma

M. Gaudry was the reporter. ‘‘It is not certain,” said

greatest experience with the objects made and used by early n

in entire accord.” A good thing from which to determine

stage of man ducking the prehistoric times is s rap!

There are three points in the Plistocene geologic paiid

rina important to establish the age of the strata which

the tacts of man -

1. The. glacial- and interglacial formations ;

The observations in divers places in Germany E

strates that there have been several interglacial formations.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 391

2. The great Glacial age. In England and in Norfolk the boulder

clay, that is evidence of the grand Glacial epoch, is above the forest

n consequence, the depots at Chelles and Montreuil, which con-

tain the animals of a warm temperate climate, do not correspond with

the earlier epoch of Plistocene that followed the age of the forest

bed. M. Gaudry supposed this to be a depot of the interglacial age of

Rixdorf ; and that it is, in any event, a Plistocene deposit, not rela-

tively of antiquity. :

3. The cutting of the valleys, The theory of Prestwich was that

the Plistocene deposits, the most elevated, are the most ancient. In

general this ought to be true in France. The locality of Vaucresson,

150 metres above the sea, of Montreuil-sous-Bois, too metres, both of

a Quaternary period, very ancient, contemporaneous with the grand

glaciers of the north of Europe, and characterized by abundant

remains of reindeer, mammoth, and the wooly rhinoceros associated

with chipped flints, are illustrations, The Chelléen of Bas Montreuil,

and of Chelles with deer, Rhinoceros merkii, Elephas antiquus, are

grand interglacial depots, during which the climate became warmer,

and the melting of the gigantic masses of glacial ice produced immense

erosion. Finally, M. Gaudry believed that the alluvium of the lower

level, where they find the mammoth, reindeer, and the Rhinoceros

tichorhinus, represents a return of the cold.

It was contested that if the valley of the Seine was cut in the begin-

ning of the Quaternary epoch, the Chelléen ought to be more

ancient than the depot of Haut-Montreuil. It was necessary that the

Stratigraphic geologist should mark in a precise and indisputable man-

ner the age of the cutting and the depots of our valleys of the Seine.

Professor Geikie, the Scotch geologist, sent a paper on this subject,

which was read. The relative positions of the fluvial strata of a valley

do not necessarily indicate their antiquity, and the elevated strata are

not necessarily the most ancient. In certain cases there have been

grave exaggerations of fluvial cutting accomplished during the Pleisto-

cene times. Our grand valleys in Scotland were cut before the

Glacial period, and at an epoch which M. Geikie does not dare to fix

with precision. These valleys continued to be cut during the

Pleistocene period. Those which are in the region covered by the

iers have naturally escaped this action. As for the levels of the

gravels, the inferior or lower ones simply indicate a normal state of the

water-course, as the superior or higher ones testify to the torrential

action of the river. We do not possess any serious or certain knowl-

edge that will permit us to calculate the degree of cutting operation in

| 392, The American Naturalist.

the valleys of the northwest of Europe during the time these

were occupied by paleolithic man. We can only affirm thai

ma is the result of alluvial action very much prolonged.

argued at length: ‘‘ The Great Ice Age,” and “ Prehistoric Ei

and said he was content with conclusions he had therein anno

favor of that periodicity. Eo

M. Adrien de Mortillet was of the opinion that the theory

from Belgrand. This theory was not affected by the fact that-

had been found at the bottom of the gravel the bones of the Rhin

the lower strata, by which the latter were changed in their charac

appearance.

Dr. Gosse presented certain Chelléen implements, the first

Mr. John Evans visited, now thirty years ago, Saint Acheul

pany with Prestwich, and he adopted with all his heart that

been said by that great geologist. The paleontologic i evid

uncertain and sometimes founded in error. At Norfolk, fi

there is in one stratum Z/ephas antiquus, in the same the

and it is impossible to establish in the stratum a proper di

M. Gabreil de Mortillet defended the geologists against the

of neglect in investigations into the prehistoric. The ¢

valleys is a question difficult to solve. The wisest man Y

extensive knowledge seems unable to harmonize all the fi

;

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 393

It can only be done by extensive acquaintance with facts. The Tertiary

plateau of Paris at the beginning of the Miocene was horizontal and

intact and 170 metres in elevation. It was profoundly affected by the

Seine during the Tertiary, which made a colossal cutting compared

with that of the Plistocene, which in Paris is only 40 metres in eleva-

tion. The movements of the soil explain perfectly the conclusions as

to the filling of the valleys at the periods of depression, and of cutting

during the periods of elevation.

Monsieur Mourlon, of Brussels, said that diversity of views and dif-

ferences of opinion proved that the solution of this problem is yet far

distant. He recommended that each person should take up his own

proper study in his own country, and pursue it without any precon-

ceived ideas or opinions. He explained the situation at Mons and —

Ixelles as identical with that of Igtham presented by Mr. Prestwich,

and said that the deposits were doubtless Pliocene, yet they found

chipped flints of the Moustier type.

M. Marellin Boule said that he had studied the fossil bones of Ixelles

at the museum, and that all the species belong to the fauna of the primi-

genius. The deposit at Ixelles is probably not older than the com-

mencement of the Plistocene as we know it in France. In any event,

it does not belong to the Pliocene.

Gosselet, of Lille, objected that Mr. Prestwich was too uncertain. He

always said “It is perhaps” pre-Glacial, etc. Yet M. Gosselet was

opposed to M. Mourlon in his opinion that the deposits at Mons were

anterior to the Plistocene.

M. Max Lohest said that none of the numberless depots yet discov-

ered in the caverns were characteristic of any determined geologic

epoch. Fauna of the mammoth and Rhinoceros tichorhinus are found

as well in the red plastic clay, the rolled pebble, and the stratified mud

as in the clay full of sharp stones which came from the roof of the cav-

ern. He attacked the theory of M. Dupont, and declared that the

height of elevation of a cavern above the level of the river was not evi-

dence of its antiquity, and that the formation of the Belgium valleys

` had begun anterior to the Cretaceous epoch, The clay of the plateaux

in the east of Belgium that came from the cutting of the valleys was

deposited probably anterior to the age of the mammoth. On the

arrival of man the face of the country presented much the same appear-

ance as now.

Monsieur van den Broeck, of Belgium, responded to his colleagues,

MM. Mourlon and Max Lohest. In his opinion the Belgium val-

leys were not cut until after the Pliocene, because we found the sedi-

304 The American Naturalist.

ment of that epoch crowning the hills and plateaux in the neig

hood of the valley. In the valley of the Meuse, M. van den B

cited evidence to prove that the lower levels were much more :

than the high levels. Localities cited by M. Mourlon were not

Plistocene, because both were situated on the flank of the valley, an

not on the Plistocene of the plateaux. The fauna of a cavern

only be the same as that of the valley.

Mr. John Evans was in accord with those who said that the

valleys had been cut before the Plistocene, but we should not f

that there may be valleys of all epochs. He approved the o

and conclusions of Prestwich, but only in regard to that which c

cerns the Plistocene, and said that neither himself nor other gec

gists of England could follow Mr. Prestwich in his theory o

worked flint being pre-Glacial. In his opinion the d

worked flint at Igtham was a superposition well established.

omas Wilson said a few words upon the progress

American geologists on the subject of the Plistocene period

discovered on the surface in his country, as had been those

implements found by Mr. Prestwich at the locality of Igtham i

On the subject of the cutting of the valleys and their su

filling, he remarked that the rivers of France and England es

have been carried out to its conclusion by the courses of

he invited the geologists of Europe who were interested in st

this question not to neglect the opportunity of visiting

States upon the occasion of the next geologic congress, to

1891, that they might investigate our rivers; those flowmg

mountains to the Atlantic seaboard, some of them passing thr

glacial moraine, like the Connecticut, Hudson, and Delaware, ¢

others coming from mountains unaffected by the glaciers, as tae

quehanna, Potomac, and James ; or go to the west, where ’

found rivers from 1,000 to 4,000 miles in length, as the Ol

land, Tennessee, Mississippi, and Missouri, on the banks

_ to be found cut the same kind of caverns as those of Be

also the terraces of the high, low, and middle levels of F

grand, and Mortillet; they were thus to be found, not

Positions, but stretched out for hundreds of miles. ‘The earth

one place would be carried to another further down, and

and redeposited many, many times before reaching the 0c

1891,] Archeology and Ethnology. 395

Monsieur Judge Piette described at length the position, condition,

and geologic formation of the great cavern of Mas d’Azil, Ariege;

how it was found in a tunnel made under or through the mountain by

the passage of the river l’Arize, and how it had been inhabited by

prehistoric man during all epochs. He had visited this cavern, which is

a stupendous and wonderful work of nature, his interest being corres-

pondingly excited because in it were to be found in great quantities and

great thickness, in different parts of the caverns the evidence of the

occupation by prehistoric man in all his epochs ; the paleolithic, the

earliest cavern epoch, down to and including the neolithic and even

bronze age. ;

M. Chambrun de Rosemont and Madame Clemence Royer gave

their opinions. Monsieur Gosselet confined himself to the question

which was being discussed, and gave it as his opinion that there were

to be found the following phenomena in the cutting of the valleys :

1. A first cutting anterior to the deposit of the lower or earliest Plis-

tocene. 2. A second cutting posterior to the deposit of the yellow

clay, but anterior to the upper diluvium. These repose indifferently

on the strata of the lower Plistocenc, and which may have been more

or less eroded. Sometimes the gravels of the two epochs are super-

posed. 3. A third cutting posterior to the Plistocene period.

Sometimes this finds the Plistocene in the valleys; but it is not

infrequent to find the Tertiary and even the secondary deposit

€xposit exposed by the cutting. 4. After this last cutting the water of

the rain and the rivulets produced a heterogeneous clayey deposit that

covered the slopes and descended even to the bottom of the valleys.

In this one can find the dééris of the age of polished stone, of

Roman objects, and others similar. The relations of the divisions in

the fauna and the human industry of the Plistocene epoch have not

been determined.

M. de Szabo described the Plistocene formations in Hungary.—

Tuomas Witson. (Zo be continued. )

The Munich Association for the study of anthropology, eth-

nology, and prehistorics is publishing its transactions in an organ called

Beiträge sur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns, which has now

reached its ninth volume. Professors J. Ranke and N. Riidinger are

the editors, and a series of most important papers have filled its pages

since publication began.

The fourth number of Volume VIII., which is now before us, con-

tains an elaborate inquiry into the racial groups now forming the pop-

_ ulation of the Bavarian province Oberfranken, northeastern part, com-

396 The American Naturalist.

ed by Ludwig Zapf. The article i is accompanied by a map sł

observed there, four dialects being spoken in that section,

In the same number Dr. Höfler discusses Bavarian dialectic

for diseases and for the parts of the human body, and Hugo

gives an illustrated report on recent excavations made at Pfiin

Faimingen, which resulted in the discovery of Roman temples

for the worship of Jupiter Dolichenus and of idols representi

deity.

The numbers 1 and 2 of Vol. IX, of the Beiträge are united in

fascicle, and contain in eighty-five pages much that is of

though the contents refer more to local than to general topics

eology and ethnology. Ten plates illustrate the articles,

may be mentioned as the most likely to attract attention:

Inhabitants of Southern Bavaria, by Sopp; Prehistoric Ske

the Tract between Inn and Salzach Rivers, by Weber; The H o1 m

- the Bajuwarian Landholder, by Tresel; On the Difference of 4

Population Statistics, by G. von Mayr ; Hill Tomb near Dec

by A. Er ; New Prehistoric Discoveries in Bavaria, by

The appendix of thirty-four pages gives the minutes of the

of the Anthropologic Society of the Bavarian capital during the |

months of 1889.

The Map of Prehistoric Bavaria, in fifteen sheets, }

ous work of Prof. F. Ohlenschlager, is now completed, tor

two years, and the publication of the whole map was €

period from 1879 to 1890. The important discoveries :

the latest years made it possible for archeologists to establish

chronology for the objects of the Hallstatt and La a

of which is facilitated by copious indexing. The colo:

ing to the places of discovery are twenty-three in nvumbee

_ graphic data are all entered upon the military survey map

western Germany.

1891.] Microscopy. 397

MICROSCOPY. !

The Pycnogonids.?—Three genera of Pycnogonids, each with a

single species, are to be found at Wood’s Holl,—viz., Pallene empusa,

Phoxichilidium maxillare Smith (Anoplodactylus lentus Wilson), and

Tanystylum orbiculare. During July, August, and September these

are found with eggs. Pallene inhabits the hydroids (Tubularia,

Pennaria) on the piles of the wharves, and is also common on the red

sea-weeds below low-tide mark. The hydroids or sea-weeds as soon

as collected were bfought into the laboratory and worked over piece

by piece. Each bunch was in turn swished rapidly backward and for-

ward in a dish containing a small amount of water, so that the Pycnog-

onids were shaken loose and could be easily picked out. The other

genera were more easily found, and on separating the masses of

hydroids, etc., could be readily seen clinging to the stems. The males

of Pallene carry on each pair of ovigerous legs a small bunch of eggs.

Each bunch contains from one or two to fifteen or twenty eggs. The

eggs of Phoxichilidium and Tanystylum are individually much smaller

than the last, but are very numerous, so that the bunches are much

larger, especially so in the former. Phoxichilidium carries several

lunches strung along on the ovigerous legs; the bunches are white,

and very conspicuous against the purple color of the adult. Tanysty-

lum has smaller bunches of eggs, with the individual eggs larger than

the former, and the masses are carriéd so that they form a circle of

clusters held against the ventral side.

The adults with eggs were put into alcoholic picro-sulphuric acid for

several hours, and then gradually carried through different grades of

alcohol. Other methods of hardening gave far less satisfactory results,

—#.e., boiling water or Flemming’s solution.

To prepare the eggs and embryos for study they were passed through

absolute alcohol (one hour), turpentine (two to four hours), soft

paraffine (one hour), hard paraffine (one to two hours). They were

cut in paraffine, and fixed to the slide with albumen fixative; then

back again through turpentine, alsolute alcohol, ninety-five per cent.,

eighty per cent., seventy per cent. alcohol to Kleinenberg’s hematoxy-

lin, where they were left for a very long time (twelve to forty-eight

hours); then washed fifteen minutes in acid alcohol, and up again

1 Edited by C.O. Whitman, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

T. H. Morgan. Studies Biol. Lab., V., 1, 1891, pp. 2, 3.

This difficulty was overcome by Barrois? b se of ce

_ tion, a little expedient may be recommended which the

_Teagent. After the long narcosis in poor water, the pol

given the most uniformly good results. In this way the!

398 - The American Naturalist,

egg was in many cases pricked with a very sharp need before.

into Seales alcohol. It is necessary to do this undera

the only satisfactory one. In Pallene the larger size of the egg1

a study of the earlier stages much easier, but the other gente

much simpler development.

Method of Rendering Opaque Nemertean Eggs

parent.—The eggs of Nemerteans which have a direct deve

are opaque, and cannot be rendered aap cle ro

glycerine. The m xture must be allowed to fice: gradually th

causes a Three mixtures, containing glycerine in ine

proportions were used, the first consisting of one part glycerine

parts water ; the second, equal parts of glycerine and water

three parts of glycerine to one of water. Enough carmine aad

to give the mixture a wine color. Each mixture was allowed

to kill Hydroids, Actiniz, and similar forms in an expan

tried in many places and on many forms, and has uniformly

of value. The animals to be killed are left i ina small aa

effect of i e ites: This manifests itself in one or

some forms draw themselves completely together, while ¢ y

half expanded and limp in the water. They are t

colonies or in large groups into fresh salt water which is at the

time cool, The effect of a mass of cool, pure water is such as ti

the animals to expand fully and promptly. Immediately

sion is seen to reach its maximum, in. the course

seconds, they are transferred by a quick motion to some

lack energy enough to contract forcibly, as is usually the €

ing reagents, alcoholic corrosive sublimate and picro- 5

* Recherches sur l'embryologie des Némertes, Lille., 1877, P- 191-

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 399

Actiniz may be easily preserved expanded and intact, and Hydroids

of all genera yield good specimens. The transfer to fresh sea-water is

the only point requiring care. No time limit can be given, as the

factors are too variable ; but a little practice is sure to show the charac-

ter and advantages of this method.—H. B. Warp, Cambridge, Mass.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

Boston Society of Natural History.—December 3d, 1890.—

Dr. J. Walter Fewkes spoke of ‘ The Summer Ceremonials of the Zuñi

Indians: a Study of Aboriginal Religion.”

December 17th.—Prof. A. E. Dolbear read a paper on “ The Physics

of Crystalline and Cellular Structure.” A communication on ‘‘ Kame

Ridges and Hillocks of Hingham,” by Mr. T. T. Bouvé, was also

presented,

January 7th, 1891.—Business: Election of members, Final action

on the: proposed new by-laws was taken by the society. Mr. J. G.

Owens read a paper on “ʻA Few Games of the Zuñi Indians.”

January 21st.—Prof. A. E. Dolbear read a paper on “ The Physics

of Crystalline and Cellular Structure ”’

February 4th.—Mr. G. H. Barton described ‘“ The Hawaiian Islands:

Their Natural History and Inhabitants.”’ The paper was illustrated with

astereopticon. Mr. J. H. Emerton exhibited a new model of Oahu,

which he has lately made for the museum of the society.

February 18th.—Mr. Warren Upham spoke of ‘“ Walden, Cochituate,

and other Lakes Enclosed by Modified Drift.’’ Prof. W. H. Niles

presented a paper on ‘‘ Notes upon Asphaltum Deposits in California.”’

March 4th.—Prof. W. M. Davis presented a paper entitled ‘ Illus-

tration of the Faulted Monoclinal Structure and Topographic Devel-

opment of the Triassic Formation of Connecticut by a Working

Model.” Prof. N. S. Shaler spoke on the ‘‘Antiquity of the Glacial

Period.” Prof. Shaler called the attention of the society to the Dorkin

photographs.

March 18th.—Dr. G. Baur read a paper on “‘ The Importance of a

Scientific Investigation of the Galapagos Islands.” Prof. W. O.

Crosby made a communication *‘ On the Colors of Soils.”

April 1st.—Dr. H. C. Ernst spoke on the latest developments in the

“ Germ Theory of Disease,’’ illustrated by stereopticon and exhibition

of tube-cultures.—J, WaLTER FEWKES, Secretary.

Am. Nat.—April.—7,

400 The American Naturalist. [April

Biological Society of Washington.—December 13th, 1890.—

The following communications were read: The Occurrence of an

Asiatic Cuckoo on the Pribylov Islands; Mr. William Palmer. New

Notes on the Genus Phylloxera ; Prof. C. V. Riley. The Teeth of the

Muskrat; Mr. F. W. True. The Wing of Metopidius; Mr. F. A.

ucas.

December 27th.—The following communications were read: A Pre-

liminary Study of Ticks in the United States; Dr. Cooper Curtice.

Exhibition of a New Rabbit from the Snake Plains of Idaho; Dr. C.

Hart Merriam. On the OTE of Florida, with Reference to Its-

Bearing on Fossil Faunas; Mr. W. H. Dall.

February 7th, 1891.—The following were read: Dis- —

covery of Vertebrate Life in Lower Silurian (Ordovician) Strata ; Mr.

C. D. Walcott. A Review of the Discovery of the Cretaceous Mam-

malia; Prof. Henry F. Osborn.

March 7th.—Communications: Exhibition of Young Hoatzins; A

Specimen of Bison latifrons from Florida; Mr. F. A. Lucas. The

Fishes of Great South Bay, Long Island; Dr. T. H. Bean. A New

Aster from Southern California ; Mr. J. N. Rose. Color and Odor of

Flowers in Attracting Insects ; Mr. Geo. B. ae Embryo of a

Chick with Two Protovertebre ; Mr. J. M. Stedm

March 21st.—Dr. W. H. Dall spoke upon the mre of the Peace

Creek Bone-Beds of Florida.” Reference was made to the discovery

of bones of various sorts by the Coast Survey and other exploring

parties, while the recent explorations for phosphates have brought

many more to light. In some counties the sticky clay esp the

bones occurs in cavities of Eocene and Miocene rocks.

of bone’ in these localities indicates that the animals had nd become

mired in attempting to cross swampy ground ; and their pie >

indicates that they had been gnawed by carnivorous animals. Evi-

at lightning, A

Jed the strata

dences of fire are also present, but it was considered th

and not man, was the probable cause. Some authors

containing the bones Miocene, some Pliocene, and some Quatre

The bones found are those of the Elephas, Rhinoceros, fi

Llama, Deer, Hippotherium, Equus, Tiger, Tapir,

therium, Megalonyx, Glyptodon, Porpoise, and Alligator,

fish fragments. Professor Cope had made a comparison :

Florida remains and those of the west, particularly the ieee

beds, of Miocene age. Some forms, however, were similar

the Equus beds, of Pliocene age. The Florida remains a

thought, of an epoch between the Loup Fork and the Equus

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 401

Dr. Dall stated that he had lately visited the Peace Creek locality

for the special purpose of settling the age of the deposit. He explained

the method of dredging for the phosphate in the river, stating that

200 tons per day were obtained. It is mostly in the form of pebbles

about the size of marbles. Above Arcadia he found a section along

the river bank which showed a bed with the bones ¿n situ. The layer

was about 11% feet thick, overlying strata of Pliocene age (as shown

by marine shells) ; and the bone bed was in turn overlain by a deposit

of phosphatic material. The bones, therefore, could not be older

than the Pliocene, and as the marl above them was covered in turn by

astratum which also contains Pliocene marine fossils, the conclusion

was inevitable that the bone beds of that locality, at least, were of

Middle Pliocene age.

Dr. R. W. Shufeldt read a paper ‘‘ On a Collection of Fossil Birds

from the Equus Beds of Oregon,” from the collection of Prof. E. D.

Cope. He first described the features of Silver Lake, a beautiful sheet

of water frequented by great numbers of water birds. ‘‘ Fossil Lake”

was the bed of a dried-up lake, not many miles distant; and in the

fine silt of this locality many bird remains had been discovered by

Prof. Condon and Prof. Cope. He thought there were at least twenty

undescribed extinct species. Indian relics, implements of obsidian,

were found in the same bed as the bird remains, though it could not

be asserted positively that the two were contemporaneous.

Mr. F. A. Lucas spoke of the anatomy of Hesperornis, the gigantic,

extinct, toothed bird. He compared it with various living birds, and

concluded the evidence indicated a foot patterned after that of the

grebe, but more highly specialized. With Marsh he did not think it.

was a land bird, or that it used its wings in swimming, but that it was

a highly specialized aquatic.

r, F. H. Knowlton discussed the function of cypress knees. He

referred to the idea advanced in 1848 that these knees, which vary in

height from one inch to two, four, and even ten feet, performed the

function of aération. This idea had been later on fully elaborated by

Prof. N. S. Shaler. Another theory, advanced by Dr. Lamborn, is

that the knees buttress the trees, and so prevent violent winds from

uprooting them. The latter idea seemed very plausible, as it was an

undoubted fact that no one had ever seen an uprooted cypress tree.

Prof. Shaler had contended that when the knees were submerged the

tree invariably died, but this was stated not to be the case.

of. L. F. Ward, in discussing the paper, expressed his disbelief in

the theory that the knees were for the purpose of increasing the areat-

402 The American Naturalist. [April,

ing surface, He described the appearance they presented, and stated

his belief that they certainly furnished support to the tree in many

cases. He questioned the fact of this being their original purpose, but

thought it might be the after result. He mentioned a tree planted by

Bartram, near Philadelphia, which grew in dry ground, and had knees

too yards from the trunk. This tree was probably one hundred years

old, and had never grown in or near the water. He advanced the

idea that the knees were only aborted shoots, thrown up fiom the roots |

like the suckers of the silver poplar and ailanthus. Water he didnot

consider necessary for the growth of the knees. He had not seen any |

tree actually arising from a knee and so connected with the parent,

but ‘he believed investigation would show that the knees were of the

nature of aborted sprouts.—JosEpu F. JAMES. ee

Proceedings of the Natural Science Association of Staten

Island.—November 8th, 1890.—This being the annual meeting, Te-

ports of officers for the past year were read and accepted. The treas-

urer reported an income of $168.08 and expenses amounting to $1 16.83,

leaving a balance of $51.25 in the treasury. ;

The election of officers for the ensuing year resulted as follows :

President, Dr. N. L. Britton ; treasurer, Eberhard Faber; recording

secretary, Chas. F. Simons ; corresponding secretary, Arthur Hollick;

curator, Jos. C. Thompson. ' ;

Dr. Britton alluded to his recent proposition (see Bulletin Torrey

Botanical Club, Vol. XVIL, p. 121) to recognize plants which, with

greater or less frequency, bear flowers of a color other than the n weer

hue under the rank of “ forms,” the difference not being sufficient to

Class them as varieties. Thus the common salt-marsh pink (Sabbatis

stellaris), whose flowers are normally red, occasionally produces air

of a pure white color, and this albino condition was therefore described

under the name Sadbdatia stellaris forma albiflora. This form hoe

recently been collected in considerable quantity in the meadows owe

of South Beach, where it grows with the ordinary red-flowered form, es

and in certain patches is equally abundant. Another salt-marsh speci

acts, their ordinary color being scarlet. The same OcCurTy™ © —

been reported in other districts.

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 403

Some years ago Mr. Hollick collected a plant of the New England

aster (Aster nove-angli@) at West New Brighton, which, instead of

having the ordinary purple rays, had them rose-colored. This h

been described by Dr. Gray as var. roseus, but it manifestly falls into

the rank here alluded to as “forms,” and I should propose to call it

A. nove-anglie forma roseus Gray.

Mr. Hollick exhibited specimens of lignite and pyrite from the

recently opened fire-clay beds at Green Ridge. This clay has been

mined in this locality to a depth of about thirty feet. It is covered

by from six to ten feet of drift, and is undoubtedly of Cretaceous age,

the same as the Kreischerville clays, the two no doubt being continuous.

About three-fourths of a mile to the eastward, at Fresh Kills, drift clay

is being mined to as great a depth, but there is as yet no indication of

the Cretaceous clay being near at hand. Both these localities were

visited on election day on the occasion of the annual field day with

the Torrey Botanical Club and Brooklyn Institute, at which time the

specimens were collected. Mr. Hollick also reported that on the same

day a new locality was discovered for wintergreen ( Gaultheria procum-

bens), near Giffords, where there was a large patch full of berries.

March 14th, 1891.—A paper was read by Mr. Charles W. Leng,

“Notes on Some Species of Donacia,” as follows :

It has been my task during the past few months to make a

revision of the genus Donacia, in the prosecution of which I have,

with the assistance of my fellow coleopterists, Messrs. Davis and

Thompson, collected considerable numbers of those species inhabit-

ing Staten Island. Their specific identity has thus become known

to me, and certain facts respecting their habits which have not

been elsewhere definitely recorded seem to be proper matter for these

proceedings. :

There are about twenty species inhabiting the United States and

Canada, of which five only are known to occur here. It is possible,

however, that additional species may be found by sweeping damp

meadows with a net in June and July, a method not adopted by us last

year.

The genus is quite homogeneous, and the species are indeed so much

alike that most collections are in some confusion. The body beneath

is more or less flattened and densely clothed with decumbent hairs,

; Tous and resembling silk or satin, according to the fancy of the

describer. These hairs serve as a protection against the moisture to

which their pond-frequenting habits expose the insects. The color

i varies from coppery bronze to testaceous, more or less mottled

404 The American Naturalist.

with metallic green. The length is about half an inch. The antenne —

and legs are comparatively long, and the variation in the length of the

joints of the one and in the spinous processes which adorn the other

afford the most convenient characters, combined with the form of the

elytral apices, for the separation of the species. They may be known

as follows

Prothorax not tuberculate, scarcely punctulate ;

Third joint of antennz little, if any, larger than

second ;

Elytra squarely truncate, lucida.

Third joint of antenne at least twice as long as í

second ;

Elytra squarely truncate, palmata.

Elytra more convex, subtruncate, piscatnix.

Prothorax not tuberculate, coarsely, densely punctate ;

Third joint of antennz little longer than second ; z

Elytra squarely truncate, subtilis.

Prothorax evidently tuberculate, scarcely punctate ;

Third joint of antennz little longer than second ;

Elytra more convex, subtruncate, tuberculata.

In addition to the above, the sexual characters assist in separating :

the species. All the males have the last dorsal segment, called the

pygidium or podex, short and truncate; the females have the sam”

part longer and rounded at apex. The male of /ucéda has the posterior

femora spinose, often armed with two or three spines; the female has A

but one spine. The sexes of panata and piscatrix differ similarly 10

the femora; the male pa/mata is further distinguished by 4 dilation

of the first joint of the anterior tarsi, and the male of piscainix yy :

excavation of the first ventral segment. The sexes of subtilis :

but little ; both have the posterior femora unidentate. The male of

tuberculata has but one spine, but the female is without any. x

From the results of last season’s collecting I am satisfied that o

above-described species affect different aquatic or subaquatic plants ; o

the first three appertaining to the water-lilies, sud#lis to the pers

growing at the pond margin, and ‘¢uderculata to the Sagittaria. = a

evidence I have is as follows: Our collections were made principally

at Britton’s ice pond, at the small pond on top of T A ee

at Butler’s or Galloway’s pond near Garretson station. In Lee

the yellow water-lily grows abundantly, mingled with the

lily, but only at Butler’s pond do gradually shelving banks ator

odt Hill, amd

891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 405

marshy stretch necessary to a free growth of the rushes. At all of

these ponds the first three species of Donacia were abundant, but only

at Butler’s did we find swué#z’s. At that pond were many specimens,

some resting on the lily pads, but the greater number on the stalks of

the rushes. (Identified by Mr. Arthur Hollick as Juncus effusus L.)

Mr. C. M. Weed, in the Bull. Ohio Ex. Sta., Oct., 1889, describes the

abundance of subtilis in a similar situation near Columbus. My friend,

Mr. E. M. Hulbert, tells me it is abundant near New Britain on sweet

flag, and ‘‘no water-lilies within a mile, and no other species found.”’

In regard to ucida, palmata, and piscatrix, all three have been taken

often on the leaves of the lilies and within the flowers, and there is a

further confirmation of their lily-frequenting habits derived from an

observation of the roots of that plant. In the operation of cleaning

the ponds for winter, the icemen drag out the ranker growth of lilies

and throw them, roots and all, on the banks. I have found in Novem-

ber oval cases of a thin but tough material attached to these roots and

containing Donaciæ in the imago and larval stages. These cocoons

are waterproof, and enable the beetle to pass the winter under two or ©

three feet of water, or perhaps, when near the bank, imbedded in ice.

The larvee of our American Donaciz have not been described, and

though I have dried specimens I cannot venture to make a complete

description. They appear to be whitish grubs, about half an inch in

length, with the head darker, but not otherwise conspicuous. The body

appears to taper slightly beyond the head.

I have searched about the plants inhabited by swé#%s for similar

cocoons, but hitherto unsuccessfully. Many of the stems are now

€aten, possibly by its larva, and among the roots are empty cases, but

these might have been washed up from the pond.

The last species, *cdercudata, is known to us on Staten Island by a

single specimen taken on Sagittaria. It was however, taken in numbers

by Mr. Davis and myself in the cranberry bog at Jamesburg, N. J.,

on the same plant. Water-lilies occurred a few hundred yards away,

and on their leaves were a few specimens of /ucida, but on the Sagit-

taria only ¢udberculata.

The life-history indicated by these observations is certainly a curious

chapter in coleopterology. The parent beetles hover about the food

plant proper for their offspring. They lay thereon their eggs, and the

larvæ hatching, eat and grow fat until the approach of winter warns

them to prepare the waterproof case for their coming transformation,

within which the perfect insect develops and lies dormant until

following summer, when. he emerges to repeat the cycle. It is, of

406 The American Naturalist. [April,

course, no more than all the butterflies do, but possesses a special —

interest from the accompanying adaptation to an aquatic career.

Mr. Arthur Hollick presented a specimen of soapstone rock from

the Clove road outcrop, showing well preserved glacial striations, or

ossibly ‘‘slickenside’’ markings, neither of -which had been pre-

viously noted from such rock, probably on account of its being so soft

and easily weathered.

January roth, r891.—Mr. Arthur Hollick read the following notes

upon additions to the flora of the Island, illustrated by specimens:

Since the last appendix to the ‘‘ Flora of Richmond County” was

published, about two years since, a number of important finds have

been made. Some of these are of plants not previously found on the

Island, others are of plants which had been previously reported but

not verified by specimens, while others are of importance as new

localities for’ rare species, I take pleasure in acknowledging our

indebtedness to the members of the T orrey Botanical Club, who are

responsible for seven of the finds, discovered during several field-day

excursions to the Island.

Ranunculus lacustris Beck and Tracy. Abundantina pond on Ocean

Terrace, near the Vanderbilt mausoleum ; only known previously from

a pond near Court House Station.

Tilia americana L. Richmond (Wm, T. Davis.) These trees were |

discovered May 3oth, 1888, but it was not until the following year that

the flowers were obtained and the species positively identified. +hé

trees are few in number, and grow in the woods near the defunct North

and South Shore R. R. So far as we know, they are the only native -

lindens on the Island. oe

Euonymus europeus L. Escaped along a roadside near Richmond —

ley.

an AEE tees Sere EN Ta

Val

Eupatorium hyssopifolium L. Pleasant Plains.

Aster radula Ait. Arlington. (Dr. R. G. Eccles.)

Hieracium aurantiacum L, Rossville; in grassy grou

shore.

Veronica chamedrys L. Prince’s Bay. (Mrs. N. L. Britton.)

Salix purpurea L. Abundant along roadsides near Rossville.

ably the relics of old basket-willow plantations.

Habenaria ciliaris (L.) R. Br. Old Place (Wm.

Bogardus’s Corners.

Habenaria blephariglottis (Willd.) Torrey. Arlington. (Dr.

Eccles.)

nd, near the

Prob-

T. Davis) and

B e

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 407

Microstylis unifolia (Michx.), B. S. P. Near Egbertville (Mrs. N.

L. Britton), and Ocean Terrace, near Four Corners. This inconspicu-

ous little orchid has recently been found in comparative abundance at

both localities, and may probably be looked for in similar situations

elsewhere. It was admitted into the original “Flora of Richmond

County,” published in 1879, upon the strength of a single rather poor

specimen found by Judge Addison Brown “in a glen near New Dorp,”

and until another specimen was found by Mrs. Britton about three

years ago this was the only voucher which we had to show as evidence

of its occurrence here.

Liparis leselii (L.) Rich. Garrettson’s ; onespecimen only. (Miss

Millie Timmerman.) This species was admitted into the original cata-

logue on the authority of I. H. Hall, in the Bulletin of the Torrey

Botanical Club for April, 1874, where there is a note to the effect that

it was found ‘on Staten Island, in the gravelly bank of a railroad

cutting.”

Cypripedium acaule Ait., forma alba. A single specimen of this

albino was found by Mrs. Edward Heylyn. The exact locality is not

known to me.

Belamcanda chinensis (L.) Red. Tottenville ; along a brook.

Tradescantia virginica L. Bogardus’s Corners ; evidently spreading.

Eleocharis palustris (L.) R. Br., var glaucescens (Willd.) Gray.

Common, r

Scirpus olneyi Gray. New Dorp.

Glyceria distans (L.) Wahl. New Dorp

Panicum miliaceum L. Todt Hill road, near Moravian Church.

Association of American Anatomists.—The next meeting

will be held at Washington, D. C., in September, 1891, at or about

the time of meeting of the Congress of American Physicians and

Surgeons. The officers for that meeting are as follows: President,

Joseph Leidy ; vice presidents, Frank Baker, F. D. Weisse ; secretary

and treasurer, D. S. Lamb; executive committee, Harrison Allen,

Thomas Dwight, and B. G. Wilder.

408 The American Naturalist.

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Royal Society of Canada announces its annual meeting in

Montreal, May 27th, the session lasting one week. In the words of the

preliminary circular, which has been mailed to us, it is anticipated

that the meeting will be attended by many distinguished persons, emi-

nent in literature and science, from Europe and the United States, as

well as from the Dominion of Canada. The ordinary sessions of the

society will be held in the buildings of the McGill University, and

the popular evening lectures will be delivered in the Queen’s Hall on St.

Catherine Street. The museums and art galleries, with the educational,

industrial, and other institutions of the city will be opened to visiting

members and associates. Local excursions to places of interest in the

neighborhood will be arranged for, and receptions, garden parties, and

entertainments of various kinds will also be provided. It is also pro-

posed to keep a directory, wherein the names and addresses of all

those attending the meeting will be registered, and thus members and

associates will be enabled to communicate one with another without

delay. The committee are engaged in the preparation of a hand-book,

for gratuitous circulation among intending visitors, which will include

an historical account of the society, together with other interesting

scientific and local information, a copy of which will be sent on appli-

cation. Sir Donald A. Smith is chairman, and J. A. Beaudry, CE,

and W. J. Smyth, Ph.D., honorary local secretaries. All E

interested in literature and science may become associates for aa

meeting, and are cordially invited by the local committee to be

present thereat.

Joseph Leidy, M. D., Professor of Human Anatomy in the Ve

versity of Pennsylvania, and president of the Academy of : eoo

Sciences of Philadelphia, died April 30th. He was born in Eae < o

phia, September gth, 182 3- His father, Philip Leidy, was 4 — eo

Montgomery county, Pa., and his ancestors on both sides were GONT

from the valley of the Rhine. a

His taste for natural history was exhibited at a very early oo o

received judicious encouragement from the master of the school = x

he acquired the rudiments of an English education. At the a

sixteen he left school with the intention of becoming an a 7 - oe

father proposed. aes

1891.] Scientific News. 409

In the meantime, however, much of his leisure had been passed in a

wholesale drug store near his home. His time here was so well spent

that the proprietor did not hesitate, when an opportunity offered, to

recommend him as competent to take temporary charge of a retail

drug store belonging to a customer. He was encouraged by his success

in filling the trust thus reposed in him to study the properties and art

of compounding drugs as a profession. His study of nature, while

thus occupied, had not been neglected. To botany and mineralogy

he had added comparative anatomy, his first practical studies in that

branch having been made on a barn-door fowl and a common earth-

worm. So absorbed did he become in his anatomical studies that, at

the suggestion of his mother and with the consent of his father, he

gave up all intention of becoming either artist or apothecary, and

resolved to devote himself to that profession which would afford him

the best opportunity for pursuing those studies from which it was now

evident he could not easily withdraw himself. In the autumn of 1840,

therefore, he began the study of medicine, devoting his first year to

practical anatomy.

Having entered the office of Dr. Paul B. Goddard, he attended .

three full courses of lectures in the University of Pennsylvania, pre-

sented a thesis on ‘‘The Comparative Anatomy of the Eye of Verte-

brated Animals,” and graduated as doctor of medicine in the spring

of 1844. Immediately after receiving his degree his first work in con-

“nection with the university was as assistant in the chemical laboratories

of Drs, Hare and James B. Rogers. He began the practice of medicine

in the fall of 1844, and continued it for two years, when he resolved

to devote himself entirely to teaching. He -was elected Professor of

Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania in 1853. In 1871 he was

appointed Professor of Natural History in Swarthmore College. In

1845 he was elected a member of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural

Sciences, and in 1846 the chairman of its board of curators. In 1882

he. became its president.

Dr. Leidy’s work covered a wide range of subjects. He was a good

mineralogist, botanist, and zoologist. His original work was done in

$ logy and in the paleontology of the Vertebrata. He first deter-

mined the identity of the Zrichina spiralis of man with that of the hog,

and discovered many new forms of Entozoa. His early researches into

the anatomy of insects and of other invertebrates are well known. His

later work was in the field of vertebrate paleontology, of which science

in America he laid the foundations. His most important work outside

of this field is his Monograph of the Fresh-Water Rhizopoda of North

410 The American Naturalist. [April,

America, which is especially valuable for its admirable illustrations, —

drawn and colored by himself.

Dr. Leidy received the Walker prize of the Boston Society of Natural -

History, and the Lyell medal of the Geological Society of London.

He received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard University. At

the time of his death he was president of the faculty of the Wagner

Free Institute of Science, and of the Department of Biology of the

University of Pennsylvania; also of the American Anthropometric

Society, to which body his brain has been committed for examination —

and report,

Professor Leidy was a man of fine presence, and was possessed of

a sonorous voice. He was an admirably lucid lecturer, and had excel-

lent artistic skill. In his disposition he was retiring and even timid,

and his sympathies were easily roused. His interest was readily enlisted

on behalf of ‘the under dog in the fight’’; and the person who

appealed to this side of his character was rarely disappointed. From

an intellectual point of view, he was an acute and accurate observer,

and a tireless investigator. Of the systematic and generalizing faculties

he possessed little, and for this reason he was no organizer of men. In

fact, he was indifferent to this aspect of human relations, being a?

‘‘ individualist ’’ in this respect, as he was in his scientific pursuits.

American science has sustained a severe loss in the death of Leidy.

His life has been a stimulus to the progress of intellectual pursuits 1

this country, and it will produce much fruit in the future, as ithasm

the past. Honors came to him and his fellow-citizens will honor thém-

selves by erecting to him a permanent memorial in some conspicuous

part of the city of his birth.

WE regret to announce the sudden death, on February 13th, at e i

age of 77 years, of Mr. William Davies, F.G.S., for forty yeas

the Geological Department of the British Museum, from which he :

retired as senior assistant some two or three years ago. This nET

paleontologist was widely known and highly esteemed by scientists e

all countries for his great knowledge of the fossil back-boned an m 2

and for the genial readiness with which he imparted it to students a"

world to the great shrine of natural history in London.

tions went back to the days of Dean Buckland, Agassiz, Ow

Phillips, Hugh Miller, and other great pioneers and founders

sciences of geology and paleontology. No one, perhaps,

1891.] Scientific News. 411

more than he did the removal of the natural history collections from

the historic galleries in Bloomsbury. It is certain none labored more

strenuously to effect their safe transfer to their new home at South

Kensington, and the arrangement of the gallery of fossil fishes, con-

taining the finest collection of fossil fishes in the world, was his especial

pride and care. Mr. Davies was remarkable for his unaffected sim-

plicity of manner and modesty of character. He occupied the some-

what rare position in these scribbling days, of knowing more than he

wrote, instead of writing more than he knew. Nevertheless, Mr.

Davies contributed several instructive and interesting papers to the

Geological Magazine. In one, ‘‘On the Omosaurus,”’ he described the

removal to the museum workshops of the huge septarian nodules from

the Kimmeridge clay of Swindon, Wiltshire, and the subsequent devel-

opment therefrom of the remains of ‘‘ that gigantic British dragon of

old time,” the Omosaurus armatus of Owen, one of the finest speci-

mens of its class in the National Museum. The descriptive catalogue

of the Plistocene mammalian remains from Ilford, Essex, of Sir Antonio

Brady’s collection in the British Museum, was also from his pen.

Some rather sensational journalistic articles were published at the

time about this fine collection, comprising the remains of parts of the

skeleton of a considerable number of individual specimens of various

Rhinoceri (2. Zptorhinus), primeval oxen (Bos primigenius), deer, and

especially of the mammoth (Ziephas primigenius) from the Pleistocene

deposits of the valley of the Thames. Mr. Davies used to relate that

for some time afterwards people came to the museum ‘and inquired

anxiously for the British elephants, and went away quite angry an

disappointed when they were shown the series of detached bones, not

in the least realizing that a simg/e bone often sufficed an anatomist for

the reconstruction of an individual animal. They really seemed to

expect to see the one hundred and fifty Essex elephants set up all in a

row.

Mr. Davies wasa great lover of nature, and enjoyed many a botanical

ramble over the South Downs; but even when out for a holiday it was

not easy to keep him long out of a museum. Then nothing delighted

him more than to pore over a nondescript heap of old bones that every

one else had given up as hopeless. It was marvelous to watch the

patience and skill with which he would select and fit such rough frag-

ments together, and finally build up the limb bone of a rhinoceros or ”

or the spinous processes of the vertebra of an Iguanodon. Mr. Davies

will be sincerely regretted by his former chiefs and colleagues, and by

many friends. His end was doubtless hastened by anxieties concerning

412 The American Naturalist. [April, r891]

the illness of his only son, Mr. Thomas Davies, F.G.S., senior assistant

of the Mineralogical Department of the British Museum.—AGngs

CRANE. «

Dr. John LeConte, Professor of Physics in the University of

California, died April 29. He belonged to a distinguished scientific

family. His father and uncle were both naturalists. His younger

brother is a prominent geologist and chemist, and his nephew was an

explorer and naturalist and served as chief clerk in the United States

mint in this city for the five years preceding his death.

John LeConte was born in Liberty county, Georgia, on the 4th day

of December, 1818, graduated at Franklin College, University of

Georgia, in 1838, and studied medicine at the College of Physicians

and Surgeons of New York, where he graduated in 1841. He settled

in Savannah, Ga., in 1842, and there began the practice of his pro-

fession, but in 1846 was called to the chair of Natural Philosophy and a

Chemistry in Franklin College, which he held until 1855. He lectured

on chemistry at the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York,

in 1855-56, and in 1856 became Professor of Natural and Mechanical —

Philosophy in South Carolina College, at Columbia. “In 1869 he

was appointed Professor of Physics and Industrial Mechanics in the

University of California, and after holding the office of president of

the university, in addition to his chair, from 1876 until 1881, he

retired to the chair of Physics, which he retained up to the time

his death. His scientific work extended over fifty years. ;

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-FOSSILS

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Of S. Dakota, Nebraska, and Wyoming, as

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CONTENTS.

PAGE |

LIOTROPISM OF HYDRA,

Eo Edmund B. Wilson,

oli THE T n bt oe

aur,

“ss Sex 0 OLD Fort ss ve Ee,

TH ap

Growra-Preroprerry OF THE POTA

- Conway Macuithiw.

Sevens Complete al eee —

ee s Report U

i th

— Pary West of the ne One- Hu iar

453

434

455

452

a egies Period—Submarine aie of A

EE —— aes :

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Nebraska Plains

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THE

AMERICAN NATURALIST

THE HELIOTROPISM OF HYDRA?

BY EDMUND B. WILSON.

I. /ntroductory—Every observer of Hydra is familiar with the

fact that the animal possesses considerable power of locomotion,

and under certain circumstances may creep restlessly about the

aquarium; it is not so generally known that its wanderings,

which on superficial examination seem vague and meaningless,

are in reality directed towards a definite end, and play an im-

portant part in the life of the animal. Trembley observed as long

ago as 1791 that the movements of Hydra viridis show a definite

relation to the source of light (heliotropism), the animal manifest-

ing a marked tendency to collect on the illuminated side of the

aquarium. Although this heliotropism is now well known, it has

not received the attention it deserves; as far as I know, indeed,

nothing has been added to Trembley’s account by later observers.

I find no mention of the subject in any of the more recent papers

on heliotropism, except in Loeb’s very interesting work,” and

this gives no more than a brief review of Trembley’s results.

The subject is, however, one of considerable interest for several

reasons. Hydra is not known to possess any kind of differen-

tiated visual apparatus; the animals can be kept under observation

for a long time and their behavior closely studied ; the comparison

of H. fusca with H. viridis enables us to determine how the

l Read before the American Morphological Society, December, 1890.

*Heliotropismus der Thiere. Würzburg, 1890.

414 The American Naturalist. (Mey, -

movements are affected by the presence of chlorophyll; on account

of their slowness, the movements may be accurately followed step

by step.

Although the observations recorded in the following pages

have occupied my attention at intervals for several years, they are

still far from exhaustive, and I offer them only as a beginning.

They indicate, however, that the purpose of the creeping move-

ments and the stimuli that call them forth have not hitherto

received any satisfactory explanation, and that a number of very

interesting physiological questions connected with them have in

consequence been overlooked. Since the heliotropic movements

are complicated by-other actions, I will first describe the general

character of the movements as a whole.

Il. General Character of the Movements—Marshall has given

a very good account of the mode of locomotion of Hydra,

though he makes no attempt at an accurate analysis of the

movements, and does not mention heliotropism. I shall there-

fore treat only of the general character of the movements. The

following account applies both to H. viridis and to H. fusca,

unless otherwise stated. Ina light of moderate intensity (ina

north room) the animals, after wandering more or less irregularly

about, gradually collect on the side turned towards the window,

usually not far from the surface of the water, though here and

there a straggler lags in the background or along the sides of

the aquarium. The movements then become less active; the

animals may remain for a considerable time with only slight

changes of position, and, if the food be abundant, rapidly increase

in number by growth and budding. It appears, therefore, that in

moderate daylight Hydra is positively heliotropic, and its |

behavior is the same with lamplight, even if it be of very p

intensity. If the intensity of the light be increased, a points

ultimately reached at which the action is reversed and the animals

move away from the light (z. e., the heliotropism becomes negative),

though this action is less striking in its resu $

movement, since the animals do not collect on the side bee S

to the light, but move into the shadow of leaves, etc, OF 3 z

3 Zeitschrift für Wiss. Zoologie, XXXVII., 1882.

its than the advance

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 415

bottom. It is, however, difficult to determine the precise character

of the negative: heliotropism, since it only occurs at an intensity

that is unfavorable to the general condition of the aquarium, and

thus indirectly injures the Hydras.

Up to this point there is no essential difference in the behavior

of the two species, although, as many observers of Hydra have

pointed out, the.movements of H. viridis are more rapid than

those of Æ. fusca, so that the former species almost invariably

leads the march towards the light. If now the aquarium be

allowed to stand for a long time undisturbed (the water remaining

unchanged, but maintained at a constant level), until the food

supply of Daphnia, Cypris, etc., becomes scanty, a very interesting

series of movements may be observed in H. fusca, (They are

only occasionally performed by H. viridis, and never, so far as I

have observed, with the same regularity as in the former species.)

After a prolonged stay near the surface the animal detaches itself

from the the glass, and with tentacles widely outstretched sinks

slowly to the bottom, often floating for a time at the surface before

the descent. Arrived at the bottom, it slowly crawls once more

to the light side, gradually, and with many deviations from the

straight course, reascends to the surface, ultimately sinks again

to the bottom, and so on. Thus the movements pass through a

cycle, extremely variable in its details, but on the whole maintain-

ing the character of a slow and regular rotation. The duration

of the cycle is extremely variable; it may be only one or two days,

or it may be as many weeks.‘

What is the use of these movements, and by what stimuli are

they called forth ?

HI. Purpose and Cause of the Movements.—It appears to be

commonly assumed that Hydra moves towards the source of

light “ for the sake of warmth, ’—ż e., that within suitable limits

a higher temperature is more agreeable to the animal or more

* In order to realize the truth of this description it is necessary to have under obser-

vation a large number of individuals in a large aquarium, to which they have become

thoroughly accustomed by a residence of weeks or months. Many of my observations

have been made on a fraternity of Hydras from five hundred d strong, @

ch had arisen in the aquarium from a group of three or four

course of about two months. In this fraternity the cyclical character of the movements

was very marked, and the descent of the animals might be observed al ——

the

416 The American Naturalist, [May,

favorable to its physiological processes. Whether the animal has

any “preferences” or exercises any conscious choice is an open

question ; but this question aside, the assumption that it is stimu-

lated to move towards the light by the invisible heat-rays is

clearly without foundation. The light, before impinging upon

. the animal, must as a rule traverse a considerable thickness of

water, by which the heat-rays are almost wholly absorbed, and

thus rendered inoperative. Experimentally the same result is

given as follows: If in the winter season an aquarium be placed

close to a north window, in a warm room, the animals collect as

usual on the light side, although, as shown by a thermopyle, the

other sides may receive a much greater supply of heat-rays. Ex-

periments with Bunsen flames or heated objects placed close to the

aquarium and kept in a fixed position for days show no percep-

tible movement of the Hydras towards the source of heat, pro-

vided no luminous rays are given off from it. The most con-

vincing evidence is afforded by the behavior of Hydras towards

rays that have passed through water as compared with rays that

have passed through liquids absorbing the same amount of heat

but transmitting fewer light-rays. Thus it is easy to arrange

an apparatus such that a group of Hydras is offered the choice

between rays that have passed through water (transparent to the

visible rays, but nearly impervious to heat-rays) and a strong

solution of iddine which, as shown by the thermopyle, is practi-

cally the same as water in respect to the transmission of

heat-rays, but absorbs a large proportion of the visible rays.

Under these circumstances the Hydras invariably move ™ the

direction of the rays that have traversed the water, thus p

ing that the attractive influence must be exerted by the visible

rays. ;

It is certain, therefore, that notwithstanding their complete lack

of definite visual apparatus, both species of Hydra are not only

very sensitive to the visible rays, but pe

response to the stimuli afforded by them.

that the heliotropism cannot have the same part to p

life of green plants, since it is not peculiar to

In this regard Hydra differs strikingly from

rform definite actions if a i

It seems certain, 2%

the green Hydra

the Protozoa, s

1891.] The Heltotropism of Hydra. 417

which, as a rule, it is only the chlorophyll-containing forms that

seek the light.

The main purpose of the heliotropic movements, as I am

convinced, is simply to place the animals in the position of

maximum food supply, and the entire cycle of movements of

which heliotropism is a factor may be explained on the same

basis. The favorite and usual food of Hydra consists of various

minute Crustacea,—Daphnia, Cypris, and other Entomostraca,

especially the first named,—though it will readily devour insect

larvæ and many other small animals. It is a well-known fact

that Daphnia and related forms manifest ina high degree a helio-

tropism of the same character as that of Hydra,—i. e., positive

in moderate light, negative in strong light—and it must result

from this that so far as the movements of the two animals are

determined by light the tendency will be, in the long run, for the

Hydras to collect in the localities most frequented by their prey.

It is impossible to study an aquarium well stocked with the two

animals without being struck by the immense advantage secured

to the Hydras by their position on the illuminated side near the

surface. In this region the Crustacea often swim in swarms,

darting about through a forest of outstretched Hydras, many of

which are gorged with food and actively budding, while in other

parts of the aquarium both animals are far less abundant. The

power of seeking the light, or of avoiding it when too strong,

thus confers upon the blind, sluggish Hydra a means of pursuing

and capturing its active and highly organized prey, and a vague,

diffused sensibility to light becomes in this way of vital importance

to its possessor, and may be brought under the action of natural

selection. It cannot be doubted that individuals possessing a

sensibility higher than the average will have a distinct advantage

over the others, so that natural selection will tend to perpetuate

them. An interesting feature of the case is that the increased

food supply directly increases the rate of reproduction, —Ż. €., by

budding,—so that, in the long run, individuals of high sensibility

will multiply more rapidly than those of low sensibility, and leave

a larger number of descendants in increasing proportion from

generation to generation. It may be noted, further, that the

420 The American Naturalist. [May,

add that A. viridis is far more hardy than H. fusca, being

` able to live for many days or weeks in foul water that would

quickly prove fatal to the latter species. This power of endur-

ance may be due to the liberation of oxygen through the assimi-

lative action of the chlorophyll.

En résumé, the movements of Hydra may be resolved into three

actions, which, taken together, insure to the animal a supply of

food and air. These are’(1) heliotropism, (2) aérotropism, and

(3) detachment from the support ; and the three are so combined

as to form on the whole a cycle. Each movement appears to be

called forth bya particlar stimulus,—the first by light-rays, the

second by dissolved air, the third apparently by diminished food

supply of a certain kind. The entire series of movements is useful

to the animal, is in large part even of vital importance, and

at first sight gives the general impression of consciousness and

design; yet a careful analysis of the action weakens this

impression, and indicates that it may be regarded as a series of

rather complex reflexes, into which the element of consciousness,

and a fortiori intelligence, need not enter at all.

We may perhaps push the matter a step further back.

Granting that the heliotropism of Hydra has been acquired because

of the similar heliotropism of Daphnia, we may next seek an ex-

planation of the latter action. The explanation lies close at hand,

though I have never seen it stated. There can be little doubt that

Daphnia, like Hydra, seeks the light because it there finds the

maximum food supply. It is well known that a large number of

microscopic green plants possess a considerable power of loco-

motion, and that they are positively or negatively heliotropi¢

according to the intensity of the light, This is true, for instance,

of the zodpores of numerous species of fresh-water alge, of many

desmids, and other forms. These plants form a part—probably

an important part—of the food of Daphnia, and the animal would

accordingly gain a great advantage by acquiring a similar helio-

tropism. Lastly, the heliotropism of the plants is no doubt 3

provision for placing them in the optimum position for assimilation"

It appears, therefore, that the ultimate reason for the heliott a

of Hydra may lie in the mode of assimilation in green plants, ai

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 421

the case seems to me an interesting one, as illustrating both the

correlations between associated organisms, and the nature of the

conditions that may enable natural selection to operate at or near

the beginning of a series of physiological and morphological

modifications.

IV. Color Discrimination —Like many other heliotropic forms,

Hydra is chiefly affected by the blue rays. If strips of glass of

various colors be fastened to the illuminated side of an aquarium,

both species of Hydra show a very marked tendency to collect

under the blue, and an equally marked avoidance of the red, green,

yellow, or any combination of colors containing no blue. This

preference for the blue is (within rather wide limits) independent

of intensity. This is strikingly shown by the comparison of a

light “ yellow” glass with a dark blue cobalt glass,’ the former

being of high, the latter of low, intensity. If equal areas on the

light side of an aquarium be covered (see Table IL.) (a) with

yellow, (4) with blue, (c) with an opaque screen, anda fourth area

(d) be left uncovered, the result is invariably that in the course of a

few days the greatest number of Hydras will be found under the

blue (allowance being of course made for the initial differences) ;

the uncovered area stands next, and the shaded and yellow areas

contain fewest, with no constant difference between them. That

is, the areas compare as follows, as regards:

HIGHEST. LOWEST.

INTENsITY, (d) White, (a) Yellow, (4) Blue, (c) Dark,

i llow,

ATTRACTIVENESS, (4) Blue, (æ) White, f a be

1 The colors of the glasses used in the experiments, as tested by the spectroscope, were

as follows : -

RED.—Transmits red and a little orange. Complete absorption of the upper end down

to a little beyond the Dline. Lower end just percéptibly shortened.

YELLow ; i

absorption of upper end down to å in the green. Red end very slightly shortened. Two

layers cut out of the upper end as far as E, but still transmit some green. Three

BLUE.—Transmits blue, indigo, and violet, and a very little green and red. Ina single

int transmissio between E and

green nearly. With three or four layers nothing is visible below F.

422 The American Naturalist. [May,

The same result is reached if two or even three layers of blue

glass are used (see Table II.), although in the last case the blue

color is so dark that at a short distance it appears nearly opaque

to the eye. It.is, moreover, immaterial whether the four (three)

areas constitute the only source of light (the top and other sides

being in this case covered with black paper) or the diffused light

of the room enter from behind and above; the result remains the

same. Red and green glass agree nearly with yellow, the Hydras

treating them practically as if they were opaque. (This statement

will require some modification hereafter.)

The result thus obtained is rendered still more striking if the

yellow and blue glasses be interchanged. Within an hour or two

the Hydras begin to move out of the yellow light and into the

blue, and in a day or two, more or less according to circumstances,

the numbers under the blue are far in excess. Thus the Hydras

may be driven from one area to another and back again by inter-

changing the glasses, as often as may be desired (see Table HI). —

For further details the reader is referred to the explanation of

the tables and the ‘chart.

BF, E ae Mh wo ott gee EA Siw SAES NNA AL

The Heliotropism of Hydra. 423

1891.]

TABLE 1,—//ydra fusca.

AREAS . ca 3 Mla ees E fice ni. IV. Y VE. VIL ViN IX

jason OF THE Torns 6 4 es ee ke O a B2 R2 G2

Date. Hour, Weather. Temperature, F.

March 9, 10.30 A.M. Bright. 11 17 19 18 9 27 11 25 16

“ 9, 12.30 P.M. s 10 15 18 19 19 17 24 16 22

“ 10, 10.30 A.M. Cloudy. 67° 14 8 21 22 23 10 27 9 33

“10, 4.30 P.M. si 75° 15 7o a 35 4 7 230 72 y

"o 11, 9.30 A.M. “ 14 4 23 30 27 9 25 9 32

* 12, 10.30 A.M. Bright. 74° 21 11 15 34 29 14 28 $ 35

“ 13, 10.30 A.M. Cloudy. 26 6 21 41 20 13 33 43

“o ih 1230 P. “a 72° 33 8 25 30 31 7 30 5 46 >

REARRANGEMENT OF THE COLORS . > o a ayo +++ S B4 B2 Bı

Date. Hour, Weather. Temperature, F.

March 15, 9.30 A.M. Cloudy. 70° 21 16 22 21 21 27 18 25 26

u” 56, 3.30PM. Bright. 70° 15 27 15 26 20 30 II 33 26

‘+ 7642890 A i 62° 17 23 18 22 23 38 15 41 25

“ 417, 10.30 A.M. a 70° 21 25 23 17 27 41 20 47 21 '

« 18, 11.30 A.M. n 68° 13 36 20 22 15 43 14 50 18

« . 38 §.00 PM a 68° 13 39 10 2I 18 45 14 52 21

REARRANGEMENT. OF THE COLORS . p >. sere eb ee as we A G2 R

Date, Hour. Weather, Temperature, F.

March 19, Noon. Cloudy. 66° 29 7 34 17 39 24 42

“o 19, 3-45 P.M as 35 6 3 26 ak A ee f

“ 20, 10,.00A.M. Bright. gar 36 10 31 19 33 27 53

“ 90,° 3.45 P.M. 39 II 35 14 42 21 63

“ 21, 9.45 AM. Foggy. 70° 33 10 4! 13 38 40. Ó%

egal! GOO PAL X 66° 35 8 48 17 52 18 64

“ 23, 10,00 A.M. Cloudy. pate 34 14 33 25 35 24 58

424 The American Naturalist. ae

EXPLANATION OF TABLE I.

The areas marked I.-IX. were vertical parallelograms of equal size (34

by 125 mm.), extending from the bottom to the surface, consecutively

placed on the side of a large square aquarium, which was placed at a dis-

tance of fourteen feet from a window three feet wide and eight feet high,

facing the northeast, so that direct sunlight never fell upon the aquarium.

The top of the aquarium was covered, the ends and rear side uncovered, so

as to admit the diffused light of the room. Area IX. extended to within

nine mm. of one end of the aquarium. I. was nearly in the middle. The

Hydras had lived for about two months in the aquarium, and were very

large and vigorous, many of them actively budding. Throughout the

experiment there was a moderate supply of crustacean food, but the ani-

mals nevertheless often descended to the bottom and filled themselves with

sediment. The alternate areas II., IV., VI., VIII., were first covered with

double layers of colored glass (for the color-test see page 421), as in the

table, and these were allowed to remain for five days. The results were as

follows: The total number of Hydras increased from 153 to 215,—#. ê., 40

percent. The record of the colored areas (taking the mean of the first two

and the last two observations) was:

. Yellow ... . . decrease (percent)... .++ 56

Red Ke a m E A

Green . 5 eas ae Sa ae ae 7°

Hoe So ks eae n ge

The record of the light areas was :

Ps +++ +. «increase cent.) <0 o tee

ie oy ee on, Iert

LA eee i “ “ . 89

ooo “ u . 80

Cee “ “ ek eee

Thus all of the colors except the blue show a large dec ERT

and all of the light areas a large increase. The increase in the blue is more —

than double the general rate of increase, but less than that of the two

areas, I. and IX. The colors are now rearranged, one layer of blue bees

substituted for the green, two layers of blue for the red, three layers ee

for the yellow, and four layers of blue for the former two layers of me bet

Results, after four days, as follows (taking, as before, the mean a

two observations) :

sie) = The Heliotropism of Hydra. 425

Total increase 215 to 233,—z.¢., fo per cen

Single blue (after green), . . rease (per cent) 692

Double blue (after sr 3

Triple blue (after yellow) " 436

Quadruple blue Sen double blue), PR "a 40

Every light area shows a heavy decrease. The experiment seems to show

that under the existing conditions the limit of attractiveness, as determined

by intensity, lies between three and four layers of blue glass. On replacing

the various blues by red, green, and yellow, as in the table, every colored

area shows a heavy decrease, and every light area a large increase.

The general result is that, allowing for all variations of weather, tem

ture, and irregular movements, Æ. fusca shows a very marked “ preference

for blue in comparison either with light of other colors or with white light ;

and an equally marked “ praka ” for white light as compared with any

color except blue.

426 The American Naturalist. [May,

a’ > s

= pam]

KS e e | BA gi

BN F S HN x

* e | 6

ae T

B x z 2? 5 a

The above diagram shows in graphic form the same results set forth j

Table I. Vertical distances from the base denote the numb peo.

horizontal distances to the right of the left-hand vertical line de enote t

date (see Table I.) The colors were changed at the vertical double

1891.] The Helotropism of Hydra. 427

The curves show very strikingly, along with the indefinite diurnal fluctua-

tions, the immediate fall in the number of Hydras when placed under any

color except blue. The curve IV., as compared with that of II., shows

that the attractive influence of blue, under the conditions of the experi-

ment, ceased when the intensity of the blue was diminished beyond three

layers of glass.

The comparison of curves II., VI., and VIII. shows a remarkable simi-

larity between them, and indicates that, under the conditions of the experi-

ments, the actions of red, green, and * yellow”’ did not materially differ.

EXPLANATION OF TABLE II. (page 428.)

This experiment gives a comparison of blue, yellow, white, and the

shadow of an opaque screen (II.), and shows the amount of fluctuation

from day to day. The general arrangement is the same as in Table I., the

same aquarium, Hydras, position, and areas being used as before, but the

areas are increased in number, so as to extend over nearly the whole illu-

minated side, area I. being three mm. from one end, and area XVI. nine

mm. from the other. The comparison is made between the first and last

observations

Total increase, = to oe é., 60 op cent.

Blue, increas . à a 2387 per cent.

Yellow, Pien crys 30

Dark screen, decreas 37

Light (a mean of V., Vi. VIL, increase L et:

An inspection of the table shows that although these figures express the

broad general result with sufficient accuracy, they are not to be taken

to mean more than this, since there is a wide margin of apparently

fortuitous variation from day to day. The table shows a marked “pre refer-

ence ” for the blue, and a much less marked but still distinct “ preference

for ordinary daylight, as compared with the light of diminished intensity

ka the opaque screen. The yellow glass acts practically as if it were

opa

z9 l Sz

o So Mite ne ve Se Gt lH a

A a 4

TAX ‘AX ‘AIX ‘IIIX‘IIX ‘IX ‘X ‘XI A ‘IA ‘A N

8 | coe wy H—W ATV

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. ` 429

TABLE IIIl.—Aydra viridis.

EN E E Il. HE ORE: Wa VEL VIL

ARRANGEMENT. . .... G merg y R

March 24, 5.30 P.M. I o 6 2 8 2 2

*: 8.30 P.M I I 7 6 5 5 I

Mo, 945 AN. o o 14 o o 7 o

REARRANGED pe o Y B R

March 25, 2.00 P.M o 3 4 5 5 4 o

H + 26, 5.00PM ° 5 I 6 6 4 o

©. 20- 5.00 P.M o 7 > 3 6 6 o

way, 4.00 P.M o 3 o 4 9 6 2

a 38,4200: 7M o 3 o 5 9 6 2

; s 29, _ 3.00 P.M. o 3 o 2 I5 4 o

REARRANGED ERER E T y R B

March 29, 9.45 P.M. o 4 o 9 6 8 2

-g0 9.45 AM. o 4 o 10 I 6 8

" 31, 9.00 A.M. ce) 4 o 12 o 5 9

REARRANGED ole Fas -B B

March 31, 12.30 P.M. I I 7 4 6 6 4

Ame. 1... O30 AM. s I II 2 9 4 4

REARRANGED ee SoS i: tee Bı

prl 2,1000AM. 5 cw o- 13 6

=e GOP 4 2 7 to F :

7 oe trea. 6 3 3 Ceara 6 5

EXPLANATION OF TABLE III.

General conditions of the experiment, as in Tables I., II., but the ani-

mals were in a cylindrical aquarium, eight inches in diameter, and the areas

were much smaller (colored areas, 20 by 70 mm. ; light areas, 10 by 70 mm.).

The middle area (IV.) was turned towards the window. The end areas

(L, VII.) would therefore tend to receive any Hydras advancing towards the

light around the sides.

e results show a complete avoidance of all colors except blue, and a

marked “ preference ” for blue as compared with ordinary daylight.

The results obtained by the use of colored glasses are con-

firmed by tests with the actual spectrum.’ If a spectrum

produced by passing a beam of light from an Argand lamp

through a prism be thrown upon a group of Hydras, they show

a very marked tendency to collect in the lower blue. It is

*For this purpose I have used an Argand gas-burner, the light from which was passed

; rgan ;

first through a narrow slit, then through a biconvex lens to render the rays approximately

Parallel, and finally through a large prism (bisulphide bottle). The spectrum thus ob-

ium rul

tained was projec za ed in small squares, and at

Aa A migi im — the side of a square aquari

430 The American Naturalist. [May,

difficult to fix exactly the limit of the attractive rays. As nearly

as can be determined they extend over the lower third of the

blue end,—i. e., from G nearly to F—and for a short distance

into the green.

The results of these experiments leave no doubt that, irrespec-

tive of intensity; Hydra prefers’ blue light to all other colors

and to white light (ordinary daylight). My observations indicate

further that, although the blue rays are by far the most efficient,

a slight attractive influence is also exercised by the green. Under

ordinary circumstances—/. ¢., when diffused daylight is not cut off

from behind or above—Hydra appears to be as indifferent to green

as to red or to an opaque screen. If, however, the animal be

enclosed in an aquarium so arranged as to offer it the choice

between green and either red or “ yellow,” a distinct though slight

preference is shown for the green, and the animals very gradually

accumulate behind it. The green glass used in this experiment

shows no trace of blue under the spectroscope. If the choice be

offered between red or “ yellow” (the latter = red + yellow +

green), no perceptible preference is shown, even if the experiment

be continued for weeks. This result is of some interest, for It

seems to show that the slight attractive influence of green ©

nullified by the admixture of red and yellow, just as the attrac-

tiveness of blue is diminished by the admixture of the other —

colors, as has been shown. ‘ 2

The preference of Hydra for blue as compared with white

light is a very remarkable fact; for the animal can never have

had any experience of pure blue, but only of white, light, t t»

blue plus the other colors of the spectrum. Neither can ti

preference for blue glass be due simply and solely to the attractive =

influence of the blue rays, for the ordinary daylight ente =

the aquarium contains at least as many blue rays 8S her

valaenes Arcee {about two feet from the prism) was about the inches ee

meats nated n e onto ark terest a

hee

hy th. g

iat i

that proceeding from the prism. Eo

?The word “ prefer” is perhaps objectionable as implying an act of gee

the part of Hydra. I do not wish to make such an implication, h ' ae

word only for the sake of brevity.

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 431

light after its passage through the blue glass. The conclusion-

would seem to be inevitable that the lower rays exercise an

injurious or repellant action, and thus tend to produce negative

heliotropism, or to counteract the effect of the blue rays. Itis a

tempting hypothesis to suppose that the blue rays are most

efficient in light of low intensity, and the lower rays most efficient

in high,—a view which would explain in the clearest manner the

reversal of heliotropism with the change in intensity. Experiment,

however, does not sustain this conclusion, but indicates that the

animal is wholly indifferent to the lower rays. Hydras supplied

only with light that has passed through red or yellow glass do

not noticeably move either away from or towards it, but behave

as though the glass were opaque. Tested with the actual

spectrum, they appear to be quite indifferent to all of the rays

except the lower blue and the upper green. I have also tested

this question by the comparison of nearly pure blue glass with

purple (aqueous solutions of methyl-violet of various intensities),

which is a mixture of blue and red. Any repellant action on

the part of the red might reasonably be expected to counteract

more or less completely the attractiveness of the blue. Experi-

ment shows, however, that purple is as attractive as pure blue,

—neither more nor less, as far as can be determined.

It appears, therefore, to sum up, that although the lower rays

are without any perceptible action on Hydra, by themselves or

when mixed singly with the upper rays (as in purple), yet they

partially counteract the attractiveness of the blue rays when

mixed with them as they are in ordinary daylight, and of the

green rays when mixed with them so as to form yellow (é. e., white

light minus blue). This paradoxical result I am at present

unable to understand, but the problem is undoubtedly worthy of

the most careful investigation.

Why the blue-green rays alone should be operative it is

impossible to say. The recent works of Loeb and Groome upon

animal heliotropism, -and the earlier work of Sachs, de Bary

and others upon plants, show that in all probability the blue rays

are the effective ones in all cases of heliotropic action, whatever its

Purpose or mode of origin, whether in plants or animals, whether

432 The American Naturalist. [May,

guided by differentiated visual organs or not. If this conclusion

be well founded, the efficiency of the blue rays must depend upon

some fundamental characteristic of protoplasmic action, and the

sensibility to the lower rays, as manifested by differentiated visual

end-organs in higher forms, has probably been secondarily ;

acquired by an extension of the original blue-sensibility.

It seems hardly necessary to point out that this conclusion by

no means implies that all forms of heliotropic action have the

same physiological meaning. It relates solely to the mode of

stimulus, not to the purpose of the actions called forth by the |

stimulus. Sneezing and winking may both be produced by a

sudden visual stimulus, but we do not for this reason conclude

that these actions must play the same physiological 7ô/e.

To the ultra-violet rays the animals, as far as can be deter-

mined, are as indifferent as to the ultra-red. -

V.—The last point to be considered relates to the mode in which

the stimulus acts,—a question of greater importance than appears

at first sight. There seems to be no doubt that blue rays imping- :

ing upon Hydra exert a directly attractive influence; for if an |

aquarium be supplied with blue light only (entering through a

small window) the animals move pretty directly towards it, and :

do not simply wander aimlessly about until they reach the blue :

by accident. The case is different when a number of the ant-

mals, already situated on the illuminated side of a square aqua-

rium, are offered the choice between a number of differenty

colored slips fastened to that side. a

Under these conditions, as has been shown, the animals

decrease under the red, yellow, and green glasses, and steadily

accumulate under the blue, although no unmixed blue light m aa?

pinges upon those individuals not actually behind the blue ga ee

The lower rays, however, exert no repellant action in themselves,

and we must therefore assume that the animals tend to wander

irregularly about until the blue areas are accidentally discovered. : :

Observation shows, moreover, that the tendency to wander eee -

under every condition of illumination. By marking off thet”

of an aquarium into small squares it is easy to follow and sts

‘rately record the individual movements of a group of Hy ene

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 433

a long time. The results show that even after the animals have

thoroughly established themselves in the usual position on the

illuminated side they are to some extent continually on the march,

and seldom remain in one spot more than a day or two, and the

time is usually much less than this.. I cannot make out that the

movements are more active under the red, yellow, or green, or in

darkness, than in daylight or under blue, though a sudden change,

whether of color or of intensity, is apt to stimulate the movements

for a time. This latter fact probably explains the comparatively

rapid dispersal. of the animals upon the substitution of a neutral

color for blue (see tables), which at first sight s seems to point to a

direct repellent action.

On the whole, the facts seem to warrant the conclusion that

Hydra has an innate (automatic ?) tendency to wander, and that

light and oxygen_operate not so much by calling forth new move-

ments as by the modification of indefinite movements that tend

continually t® recur irrespective of external stimuli. If this be so,

the case shows an interesting analogy to the movements of plants,

many of which (including heliotropism), as Darwin has so strikingly

shown, have arisen through the modification by special stimuli

of an innate circumnutatory movement. Some of these move-

ments in plants, though no doubt unconscious, have an extraor-

dinary likeness to purposive, intelligent acts. It would be difficult

to say in what lies the superior claim of Hydra to recognition as

a conscious, not to say intelligent, being.

Bryn Mawr, Pa., April, 1891.

432 The American Naturalist. [May,

guided by differentiated visual organs or not. If this conclusion

be well founded, the efficiency of the blue rays must depend upon

some fundamental characteristic of protoplasmic action, and the

sensibility to the lower rays, as manifested by differentiated visual i

end-organs in higher forms, has probably been secondarily

acquired by an extension of the original blue-sensibility. |

It seems hardly necessary to point out that this conclusion by |

no means implies that all forms of heliotropic action have the ;

same physiological meaning. It relates solely to the mode of

stimulus, not to the purpose of the actions called forth by the

stimulus. Sneezing and winking may both be produced bya

sudden visual stimulus, but we do not for this reason conclude

that these actions must play the same physiological vé/e.

To the ultra-violet rays the animals, as far as can be deter-

mined, are as indifferent as to the ultra-red. - f

V.—The last point to be considered relates to the mode in which |

the stimulus acts,—a question of greater importance than appes

at first sight. There seems to be no doubt that blue rays imping- :

ing upon Hydra exert a directly attractive influence; for if an

aquarium be supplied with blue light only (entering through a

small window) the animals move pretty directly towards it, and :

do not simply wander aimlessly about until they reach the blue :

by accident. The case is different when a number of the ani-

mals, already situated on the illuminated side of a square aqu

rium, are offered the choice between a number of differs

colored slips fastened to that side. a

Under these conditions, as has been shown, the animals

decrease under the red, yellow, and green glasses, and steadily

accumulate under the blue, although no unmixed blue light = a

pinges upon those individuals not actually behind the blue a oe

The lower rays, however, exert no repellant action in themselves,

and we must therefore assume that the animals tend to wander oe

irregularly about until the blue areas are accidentally discat :

Observation shows, moreover, that the tendency to wan :

under every condition of illumination. By marking off the oe

of an aquarium into small squares it is easy to follow „i

rately record the individual movements of a group of Hydras

1891.] The Heliotropism of Hydra. 433

a longtime. The results show that even after the animals have

thoroughly established themselves in the usual position on the

illuminated side they are to some extent continually on the march,

and seldom remain in one spot more than a day or two, and the

time is usually much less than this.. I cannot make out that the

movements are more active under the red, yellow, or green, or in

darkness, than in daylight or under blue, though a sudden change,

whether of color or of intensity, is apt to stimulate the movements

fora time. This latter fact probably explains the comparatively

rapid dispersal. of the animals upon the substitution of a neutral

color for blue (see tables), which at first sight s seems to point to a

direct repellent action.

On the whole, the facts seem to warrant the conclusion that

Hydra has an innate (automatic ?) tendency to wander, and that

light and oxygen operate not so much by calling forth new move-

ments as by the modification of indefinite movements that tend

continually t® recur irrespective of external stimuli. If this be so,

the case shows an interesting analogy to the movements of plants,

many of which (including heliotropism), as Darwin has so strikingly

shown, have arisen through the modification by special stimuli

of an innate circumnutatory movement. Some of these move-

ments in plants, though no doubt unconscious, have an extraor-

dinary likeness to purposive, intelligent acts. It would be difficult

to say in what lies the superior claim of Hydra to i es as

a conscious, not to say intelligent, being.

Bryn Mawr, Pa., April, I89I.

434 The ‘American Naturalist. [May,

REMARKS ON THE REPTILES GENERALLY

CALLED DINOSAURIA. ae,

BY G. BAUR.

HE name Dinosauria was proposed by Prof. Richard Owen (1),

in a paper on “ British Fossil Reptiles,” read before the ninth

meeting of the British Association, at Birmingham in 1839. In

this order were placed the genera Megalosaurus, Hylaeosaurus,

and Iguanodon. Already in 1830, however, Hermann v. Meyer (2)

had placed Megalosaurus and Iguanodon in a peculiar group of

the fossil saurians, with “ Extremitaeten wie bei den schweren

Landsaugethieren.” Kaup (3) follows H. v. Meyer, and calls the

order containing Iguanodon and Megalosaurus : Rieseneidechsem,

Megalosaurier.

Owen gave the following characters for the group he had called

Dinosauria (/.¢., p. 102, 103):

DINOSAURIANS,

“This group, which includes at least three well-established —

genera of saurians, is characterized by a large sacrum, compe

of five anchylosed vertebra of unusual construction, by the height

and breadth and outward sculpturing of the neural arch of the

dorsal vertebræ, by the two-fold articulation of the ribs to me

vertebrz, viz., at the anterior part of the spine by a head and

tubercle, and along the rest of the trunk by a tubercle attached to

the transverse process only, by broad and sometimes complicated

coracoids and long and slender clavicles, whereby crocodilian r

characters of the vertebral column are combined with al ee

ian type of the pectoral arch; the dental organs also exhibit

same transitional or annectent characters in a greater p~

degree. The bones of the extremities are of large proportional

size, for saurians; they are provided with large medullary er

_ties and with well-developed and unusual processes, ae

terminated by metacarpal, metatarsal, and phalangeal bones, ™ 5

with the exception of the ungual phalanges, more or less f

1891] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 435

those of the heavy pachydermal mammals, and attest, with

the hollow, long bones, the terrestrial habits of the species.

The combination of such characters, some as the sacral ones,

altogether peculiar among reptiles, others borrowed, as it were,

from groups now distinct from each other, and all manifested by

creatures far surpassing in size the largest of existing reptiles, will,

it is presumed, be deemed sufficient ground for establishing a dis-

tinct tribe or suborder of saurian reptiles, for which I would

propose the name of Dinosauria ” (p. 103).

A few years later, in 1843, Fitzinger (4) placed Megalosaurus in

the family “ Megalosauri,’ among the Loricata; Iguandon we

find under the family name “ Therosauri,” among the order

Sauri. ‘

In 1845 H. v. Meyer (5) introduced the name Pachypodes for the

group he had established in 1830, including Iguanodon, Hylzo-

saurus, Megalosaurus, Plateosaurus.

Paul Gervais (6) established the families Megalosauridz and

Iguanodontide in 1853, without giving definition.

In 1866 Owen (7) characterized the Dinosauria thus :

“ Cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae with par- and diapoph-

yses, articulating with bifurcated ribs; a few anterior vertebrz,

more or less convex in front and cupped behind, the rest with flat

or slightly concave articular ends; dorsal vertebrae with a neural

platform; sacral vertebra exceeding two in number; body sup-

ported on four strong ambulatory unguiculate limbs. Skin in

some armed by bony scutes. Teeth confined to upper and lower

jaws, implanted in sockets.” He names the genera: Iguanodon,

Scelidosaurus, Megalosaurus.

In the same year Haeckel (8) and Cope gave the first classifica-

tion of the Dinosauria.

Haeckel considers the Dinosauria a subclass, which he divides

in two orders :

“ Erste Ordnung der Dinosaurier : Harpagosauria H.; Carnivore

Lindwiirmer. Zweite Ordnung der Dinosaurier: Therosauria H.;

Herbivore Lindwürmer.” :

Haeckel uses the same name as Fitzinger for the herbivorous

forms represented by Iguanodon.

436 The American Naturalist. May,

The Harpagosauria are represented by Megalosaurus, Hylæo-

saurus, Telorosaurus.

Cope’s first note on the classification of the Dinosaurs was

published in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1866, p. 317. He

distinguishes Orthopoda with the genera Scelidosaurus Ow, —

Hylzosaurus Mont., Iguanodon Mont, Hadrosaurus Leidy ;

and Goniopoda with the genera Lælaps Cope and Megalosaurus

Buckl. :

In 1870 Cope (9) characterized these in the following way:

ORTHOPODA.

“Cope, Proc. Ac. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1866, 317. Therosauria

Haeckel, 1866. Proximal tarsal bones distinct from each other

and from the tibia, articulating with a tibia and with a terminal

face of a well-developed fibula. The ilium with a massive, nar-

rowed, anterior prolongation. Hadrosauride, Iguanodontide,

Scelidosauride.”

- GONIOPODA COPE.

“Proc. Ac. Nat Sci, Phila., 1866, 317. Harpagosauria Haeckel,

1866. Proximal tarsal bones distinct from tibia ; the latter closely

embraced by the much-enlarged astragalus, on its inferior and

anterior faces, forming an immovable articulation. Astragalus

with an extensive anterior articular condyle below, above in con-

tact with the fibula, which is much reduced, especially distally :

Anterior part of the ilium dilated and plate-like. Lælaps, Poe-

cilopleuron, Megalosaurus, Cœlosaurus, and perhaps Bathygnathus

and Aublysodon.” ;

In the same paper a third group, SYMPHYPODA, İS established, l

with the genera Compsognathus and Ornithotarsus and the follow-

ing- characters : 2

“ First series of tarsal bones confluent with each other and with

the tibia. Fibula distally much reduced. Anterior piit MARE

dilated, plate-like.” ` aS

Later it was found that Ornithotarsus belonged to the - ~

poda, Compsognathus to the Gonipoda.

Huxley (10) gave the first characteristic of the

1869. “The bony exoskeleton is sometimes more

Dinosauria =

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 437

developed than in the Crocodilia, and sometimes absent. The

centra of the posterior dorsal vertebræ are flat or slightly con-

cave at each end, and they have crocodilian transverse processes

and ribs. The centra of the anterior dorsal and of the cervical

vertebræ are sometimes concave behind and convex in front

(opisthoccelous). There are four or more vertebræ in the sacrum.

The pelvis and bones of the hind limb are in many respects

very like those of birds. No clavicles have been observed, and

the fore limb is sometimes very small in proportion to the hind

limb.”

One year later Prof: Cope (11) gave the following characters :

“Limbs ambulatory or prehensile. Ilium horizontal, support-

ing a long sacrum of five or six vertebre, the anterior derived

from the lumbar series. The acetabulum thrown forwards, and

not complete, but perforate. Ischium long, longitudinal, posterior,

_ Supporting the parts, in front of a process. Ribs free, double-

headed. Neural arches united’ by suture; chevron bones

present.”

The next paper is Prof Huxley’s (12) well-known memoir on

the classification of the Dinosauria. The order Ornithoscelida

is created, with two suborders:

“I. Dinosauria, with the cervical vertebrz irii short, and

the femur as long as or longer than the tibia.

II. The Compsognatha, with the cervical vertebræ relatively .

long, and the femur shorter than the tibia.”

The Dinosaurs are now characterized fully : |

“1. The dorsal vertebrae have amphiccelous or opisthoccelous

centra They are provided with capitular and tubercular trans-

verse processes, the latter being much the longer.

2. The number of the vertebre which enter into the sacrum

does not fall below two, and may be as many as

3. The chevron bones are attached Se ee and their

rami are united at their vertebral ends by a bar of bone.

4. The anterior vertebral ribs have distant capitula and

tubercula.

5. The skull is modeled upon the lacertilian, not on the cro-

Codilian, type. There is a bony sclerotic ring.

438 The American Naturalist. [May,

6. The teeth are not anchylosed to the jaws, and may be lodged

in distinct sockets.. They appear to be present only in the pre-

maxille, maxillæ, and dentary portions of the mandible.

7. The scapula is vertically elongated; the coronoid is short,

and has a rounded and undivided margin. There is no clavicle.

8. The crest of the ilium is prolonged both in front of and

behind the acetabulum, and the part which roofs over the latter

cavity forms a wide arch, the inner wall of the acetabulum having

been formed by membrane, as in birds.

9. The ischium and pubis are much elongated.

10. The femur has a strong inner trochanter; and there is a

crest on the ventral face of the outer condyle, which passes

between the tibia and the fibula, as in birds.

11. The tibia is shorter than the femur. The proximal end is

produced anteriorly into a strong crest, which is bent outwardly:

or towards the fibular side.

12. The astragalus is like that of a bird; and the digits of the

pes are terminated by strong and curved ungual phalanges.”

The Dinosaurs are divided by Huxley into three families:

I. Megalosauride ; Teratosaurus, Palzosaurus, Megalosaurus,

Poikilopleuron, Lzlaps, and probably Euskelosaurus.

II. Scelidosauride ; Scelidosaurus, Thecodontosaurus, Hylæo-

saurus, Polacanthus (?), Acanthopholis.

II. Iguanodontide ; Cetiosaurus, Iguanodon, Hypsilophodon,

Hadrosaurus, and probably Stenopelyx.

With 1877 begin the publications of Prof. O. C. Marsh, based

on the extensive collections brought together by his collecto

In 1877 a new order of reptiles is named Stegosauria, but 4

characters are given (13).

The year following the order Sauropoda of the Din

established (14), to contain the very large reptiles, named by os

Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Morosaurus, and Diplodocus, i

by Cope Camarasaurus, Amphiccelias, etc. The cha i

this order are: r

SAUROPODA.

“1. The fore and hind limbs are nearly equal in size.

2. The carpal and tarsal bones are distinct.

A a

osauria is 2

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 439

3. The feet are plantigrade, with five toes on each foot.

4. The precaudal vertebræ contain large cavities, apparently

pneumatic. ;

5. The neural arches are united to the centra by suture. .

6. The sacral vertebræ do not exceed four, and each supports

its transverse process.

7. The chevrons have articular extremities.

8. The pubes unite in front by ventral symphysis.

9. The third trochanter is rudimentary or wanting.

10. The limb bones are without medullary cavities.”

Cetiosaurus, a member of this group, had always been con-

sidered as one of the Crocodilia, and Owen (15) had placed it in a

special group, Opisthoceelia.

In this Owen was followed by Haeckel, but not by Huxley,

who placed Cetiosaurus among the Iguanodontida. Seeley intro-

duced the name Cetiosauria in 1874.

Another new order of reptiles was created by Marsh (16), under

the name Cceluria, without characters, in 1881.

In the same year the first classification of the Dinosauria is

given by Marsh (17).

The Dinosaurs are considered an order, and divided in five

suborders: Sauropoda, Stegosauria, Ornithopoda, Theropoda,

Hallopoda, Coeluria. The diagnoses are thus given :

Order DrnosauRIA Owen.

“1. Suborder Sauropoda (lizard foot). Herbivorous. Feet

plantigrade, ungulate; five digits in manus and pes. Pubes

united in front by cartilage. No postpubis. Precaudal ver-

tebree hollow; limb bones solid. Family, Atlantosauride;

genera, Atlantosaurus, Apatosaurus, Brontosaurus, Diplodocus,

and Morosaurus.

2. Suborder Stegosauria (plated lizard). Herbivorous. Feet *

plantigrade, ungulate; five digits in manus and pes. Pubes free

in front. Postpubis present. Vertebre and limb bones solid.

Family, Stegosauride ; genus, Stegosaurus.

3- Suborder Ornithopoda (bird foot). Herbivorous. Feet

digitigrade; four functional digits in manus and three in pes.

440 The American Naturalst. [May,

Pubes free in front. Post pubis present. Vertebræ solid ; limb

bones hollow. Family, Camptonotidz ; genera, Camptonotus,

Diracodon, Laosaurus, and Nanosaurus.

4. Suborder Theropoda (beast foot). Carnivorous. Feet

digitigrade; digits with prehensile claws. Pubes coésified in ;

front. Post-pubis present. Vertebræ more or less cavernous;

limb bones hollow. Family, Allosauridæ; genera, Allosaurus,

Creosaurus, and Labrosaurus.

_ 5. Suborder Hallopoda (leaping foot). Carnivorous (?). Feet

digitigrade, unguiculate; three digits in pes. Metatarsals much

elongated; calcaneum much produced backward. Two vertebre

in sacrum. Limb bones hollow. Family, Hallopodide ; genus,

Hallopus.

DINOSAURIA (?)

6. Suborder Cceluria (hollow tail). Carnivorous (?). Family,

Coeluride ; genus, Ccelurus.”

The year following, 1882, the Dinosauria are placed in a sub-

class, with five orders (18). é

a. Sauropoda. 4. Stegosauria. 3. Ornithopoda. 4. Theropoda.

1. Suborder Cæluria. 2, Suborder Compsognatha. 5. Hallopoda.

The subclass Dinosauria is characterized in the following words: ;

“ Premaxillary bones separate ; upper and lower temporal arches;

rami of lower jaw united in front by cartilage only ; no teeth on

palate. Neural ‘arches of _vertebrz united to centra by su

cervical vertebrze numerous ; sacral vertebrz codssified. Cervical

ribs united to the vertebrze by suture or anchylosis ; thoracic m

double-headed. Pelvic bones separate from each other, and from

sacrum; ilium prolonged in front of acetabulum ; acetabulum ;

formed in part by pubis; ischia meet distally on median line.

Fore and hind limbs present, the latter ambulatory and large ee

than those in front; head of femur at right angles to condyles; |

tibia with procnemial crest; fibula complete. First row of wo

composed of astragalus and calcaneum only, which together ee a

the upper portion of ankle joint.” B

After this Cope (19) established the following system, consi d

the Dinosaurs an order, with four suborders. :

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 441

“Feet ungulate; pubis projecting and connected

in front; no postpubis. Opisthoceha.

Feet ungulate; pubes projecting free in front ;

postpubis present. Orthopoda.

Feet unguiculate; pubes projecting downwards

and coossified distally ; calcaneum not pro-

duced. Gontopoda.

Feet unguiculate; calcaneum much produced

backwards; (?) pelvis. Hallopoda.”

In 1884 Marsh (20) again published another classification. He

divided the sub-class Dinosauria into four orders and three sub-

orders :

1. Order Sauropoda.

2. “ Stegosauria.

3. “Ornithopoda.

4. “ Theropoda:

Suborder Cceluria.

“ — Compsognatha.

“ Ceratosauria.

The Hallopoda are now considered an soli of atic not

placed within the Dinosaurs.

In 1885 Cope (21) placed the Criscia among the Dinosauria,

and gave the following character: “Os quadratum immovably

articulated, capitular and tubercular rib articulations distinct.

Ischium and pubis distinct, the latter directed forwards, back- `

wards, or downwards ; two posterior cranial arches; limbs ambu-

latory ; no procoracoid.”

In 1887 (22) Baur divided the Dinosauria in three groups:

“ A. Carnivorous Dinosaurs, Harpagosauria Haeckel, 1866.

I. Goniopoda Cope, 1886 (Theropoda Marsh, 1881).

B. Herbivorous Dinosaurs, Therosauria Haeckel, 1866.

II. Orthopoda Cope, 1866.

1. Ornithopoda Marsh, 1881.

2. Stegosauria Marsh, 1877.

C. Crocodilian-like Dinosaurs, Sauropoda Marsh, 1878.

III. Opisthoccelia Owen, 1859.”

In the same year Prof. Seeley (23) gave a new classification.

442 The American Naturalist. [May,

He reached the result “that the Dinosauria has no existenceas

a natural group of animals, but includes two distinct types of

animal structure.” These two orders are called Ornithischia and

Saurischia.

ORNITHISCHIA.

“Tn this order the ventral border of the pubic bone is divided so

that one limb is directed backward parallel to the ischium, as .

among birds, and the other limb is directed forward. Neither of

these limbs of the pubis appears to form a median symphysis. a

The ilium is prolonged in front of the acetabulum as a more or :

less slender processor bar. The vertebræ are solid, and the skele-

ton is not pneumatic. The basicranial structure is distinctive

differing from that of crocodiles and lizards. The body and

limbs are frequently covered with scutes, which many form a com- J

plete shield or be reduced so as to be unrecognizable. The digits

vary from three to five.”

E a

SAURISCHIA.

“ In this order the pubis is directed forward from its symphysis

with the ischium, and no posterior limb of the bone is developed. i

Both pubis and ischium appear to meet by a median symphysis, 3

so that the arrangement.and relation of the bones are lacertilian. e

The anterior prolongation of the ilium has a vertical expansion. :

The vertebre are more or less pneumatic or cavernous, and in

the dorsal region the neural arch is commonly elevated. The 2

` basicranial structure is sub-lacertilian. No armor has been found.

The digits vary in number from three to five.” o

In 1889 Marsh (24)admits four orders of Dinosauria: Sauropoda,

Stegosauria, Ornithopoda, Theropoda ; Ceratosaurus, Hallopus, ae

and Compsognathus being placed among the Theropoe oe 4

Cope (25) admits, partially at least, Seeley’s classification, be

keeps the order Dinosauria, which he divides in two n coe

Saurischia and Orthopoda; the first with the inferior pe o

elements directed downwards, the second with the pelvic elements a

directed backwards. a

Lydekker (26) divides the order Dinosauria in three sub

Sauropoda, Theropoda, Ornithopoda. In the Ornithopoda ™ .

includes the Stegosauria of Marsh. l :

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria, 443

In 1889 he keeps this arrangement and divides the suborders

in the following families (27):

I. Ornithopoda.—Trachodontidz, Iguanodontidz, Scelidosauridz,

Stegosauride, Cee ;

II. Theropoda.—Anchi gal ide, Compsognathide,

Cceluride.

III. Sauropoda.—Atlantosauridz, Diplodocidae, Cetiosauridz.

In 1890 Prof. Marsh (28) separated the Hallopoda from the

Dinosauria with query, and placed them in a special order; at

the same time he gave the family Ceratopside, which he had

` established in December, 1888 (Am. Journ. Sci.), the rank of a

suborder, with the name Ceratopsia.

After this Baur (29) expressed the opinion that Hallopus is

nearly related to Compsognathus, and that it is unnatural to place

the Ceratopside in a special suborder.

In the latest paper on the subject Prof. Marsh (30) has given

up the suborder Ceratopsia, considering the Ceratopside a

family only. |

Prof. Zittel (31) retains the order Dinosauria, which he divides

in this way :

I. Unterordnung Sauropoda. Families: 1. Cetiosauride. 2.

Atlantosauride. 3. Morosauride. 4. Diplodocide.

II. Unterordnung Theropoda. Families: 1. Zanclodontide.

2. Megalosauride. 3. Ceratosauride.~ 4. Anchisauride. 5.

Coeluride. 6. Compsognathide. 7. Hallopide.

III. Unterordnung Orthopoda. A. Stegosauria. Families:

I. Scelidosauridz, 2. Stegosauride. - B. Ceratopsia. C. Orni-

thopoda. Families: 1. Camptosauridæ. 2. Iguanodontidæ,

3- Hadrosauridæ. 4. Nanosauridæ. 5. Ornithomimidæ.

After this review of the general classification of Dinosaurs

we see that there are quite a number of different ideas. Leaving

the older views aside, we have to-day the following principal

Opinions, taking the latest views of the different authors.

A. The Dinosauria are a Natural Group—1. -~ Dinosauria

form a subclass of reptiles, containing four orders :

2. Stegosauria. 3. Ornithopoda. 4. Theropoda (Marsh,

444 The American Naturalist. ' [May,

2. The Dinosauria form an order of reptiles, containing three

suborders: Sauropoda, Ornithopoda, Theropoda (Lydekker);

Sauropoda, Orthopoda, Theropoda (Zittel).

3. The Dinosauria form an order of reptiles, containing two

suborders : Saurischia, Orthopoda (Cope).

B. The Dinosauria are not a Natural Group—The reptiles

generally called Dinosauria belong to two distinct orders:

Ornithischia and Saurischia (Seeley). ;

The first question to decide is, Do the Dinosauria represent

a natural group or not? To examine this we will proceed to

study a member of each of the three groups, Sauropoda,

Orthopoda, and Theropoda, and compare these members

among themselves. Of the Orthopoda especially we will take

as a type Iguanodon, the structure of which is best known

through the different publications of Dollo in the Bull. Musée

Royal His. Nat. de Belgique; of the Sauropoda we will

take Diplodocus, described by Marsh; and of the Theropoda,

Ceratosaurus, also made known by Marsh. We begin with

the skull, then treat the vertebræ, the shoulder girdle, the

pelvis, the fore and hind limbs, the abdominal ossicles, and

the dermal ossification so far as necessary.

I. THE SKULL. l

/guanodon.—Al\ that I have to say about Iguanodon is based

on the careful descriptions of Dollo (32). ;

1. The brain-case is completely ossified; a very strong xÍ

sphenoid being present. i

2. The premaxillaries are separate, and there is a strong P?

cess extending between the nasals and mandibles, excluding ~ oo

maxillaries from the nasal opening.

3- No epipterygoid (columella). Ses

4. The jugals are Pe toa nie process of the maxilares;

they are not placed in the same level with the alveolar border,

but a considerable distance outside of it. They do pa E

theend of the dental series. They are in connection with da

lachrymals, postfrontals, quadratojugals, and maxillaries. ;

bound the orbits inferiorly, and also somewhat posteriorly-

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 445

5. The quadratojugals are placed between quadrate and jugal,

but do not touch the squamosal.

6. The squamosals do not send down a process to join the

quadratoj ugal.

` 7. The quadrate is very elongate, with its lower end directed

forwards; there is a well-developed pterygoid process.

8. The mandible has a distinct predentary line.

g. The dentary has a greatly developed coronoid process.

10. The externa] nasal openings are limited by the premax-

illaries and nasals.

11. The prelachrymal fossz are small, and limited by the

maxillaries, prefrontals, and lachrymals.

12. The orbits are limited by the supraorbitals, lachrymals,

jugals, and post-fronto-orbitals.

Diplodocus——These notes on Diplodocus are based on the

figures of Prof. Marsh, which, however, are not quite correct, as I

found from the study of the original specimens.

1. The brain-case is completely ossified; a very strong ali-

sphenoid being present.

2. The premaxillaries are separate, and there is no process

extending between the nasals and maxillaries, excluding the

maxillaries from the nasal opening.

3. No epipterygoid (columella).

4. The jugals are placed in the same level with the alveolar

border of the maxillaries. They do not reach the end of the

dental series. They are in connection with the lachrymals, post-

orbitals, quadratojugals, and maxillaries. They bound the orbits

only pre-inferiorly.

-5. The quadratojugals are placed between the quadrate and

maxillary, but do not touch the squamosal. .

6. The squamosals do not send down a process to join the

quadratojugals.

7. The quadrate is elongate with its lower end strongly directed

forward. There is a very large pterygoid process.

_ 8. The mandible has no predentary bone.

9. The dentary is without coronoid process.

Am. Nat.—May.—3.

446 The American Naturalist. May,

10. The external nasal openings are limited by the premaxil-

laries, maxillaries, and nasals.

11. The prelachrymal fossæ are large, limited by the maxillaries,

prefrontals, lachrymojugals. (The suture between jugals ‘and

lachrymals seems to be very indistinct.)

12. The orbits are limited by the post-fronto-orbitals, and

lachrymojugals.

Ceratosaurus——Mostly after Marsh. 1. The brain-case is not

ossified in front ; there are no strongly ossified alisphenoids ; this

region like Sphenodon.

2. The premaxillaries are separate ; there is no process extend-

ing between the nasals and maxillaries, excluding the maxillaries

from the nasal opening.

3. An epipterygoid (columella).

4. The jugals are placed in the same level with the alveolar

border of the maxillaries, and reach the end of the dental series.

They are in connection withthe lachrymals, postorbitals, quadrato-

jugals, and maxillary.

5. The quadratojugal is placed between quadrate and jugal,

and seems to touch the squamosal.

6. The squamosal sends down a small process to join the

quadratojugal. : 3

7. The quadrate is very much like that of Sphenodon, with a

foramen between quadratojugal and quadrate, and directed back-

wards with its distal end. There is a very large ptery goid

process. ;

8. Mandible without predentary bone.

_ 9. Dentary without coronoid process.

10. The external nasal openings are limited byt

illaries, nasals, and maxillaries.

11. The prelachrymal fossz are large, limited by the prefrontals,

lachrymals, jugals, and maxillaries.

12. The orbits are limited by the prefrontals, frontals, ne

orbitals, jugals, and lachrymals. 3 | ae

By comparing these three forms it is evident that Iguanodon an

he premax-

post-fronto-

stands quite isolated. It shows the peculiar lower jáw, thepeeer a

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 447

nasal openings from which the maxillaries are excluded,' and the

peculiar maxillary with the free posterior dentary end.

From the study of the skulls alone it is evident that Iguanodon

has to be separated entirely from Diplodocus and Ceratosaurus ;

that there is no affinity whatever among these animals, which could

permit us to place them in a common group may it be called a

subclass or an order of reptiles. è.

But I have to say exactly the same in regard to Diplodocus

and Ceratosaurus. Diplodocus is of a crocodilian pattern, show-

ing a well-developed alisphenoid; Ceratosaurus, however, is

typically Rhynchocephalian or Proganosaurian in nearlý every

detail, and it is certainly very much more related to these groups

than to any other group of the so-called Dinosauria. The study

of the skull alone would be sufficient to show that the Dinosauria

is an absolutely unnatural group without any right of existence;

it shows that the three members, Iguanodon, Diplodocus, and

Ceratosaurus belong to three distinct groups of Monocondylia,

with very little relation to each other.

II. THE VERTEBRÆ.

The vertebræ are of the character of the Archosauria, the

dorsals having well-developed transverse processes. As is well

known from the study of the Testudinata and* Crocodilia, the

character of the articular faces of the centra of the vertebrz is of

very little value in tracing the phylogenetic relation of groups.

_The sacrum, however, shows peculiarities.

[guanodon—In Iguanodon the sacral ribs are placed more or |

less between the centra of the sacral vertebra. They are united to

distinct diapophyses of the neural arches and to the centrum;

the diapophysis may extend in some forms (Agathaumas) as far

as the end of the sacral rib, but it is never separated from it. In

other words, in Iguanodon the ilium is separated by sacral ribs,

‘which are placed between the centra and to which diapophyses of

the neural arches are suturally united or coéssified.

1 This condition resembles very much that seen in mammals, in which aparra

a process of the premaxillary extending between nasal and maxillary. irds the

rey is Area from api n vpe pa the descending branches a eaa nasal.

448 The American Naturalist. [May,

Diplodocus—In Diplodocus and its allies the sacral ribs are

not intervertebral, but are connected with the centra of the

vertebre only, without diapophyses.

Ceratosaurus—In Ceratosaurus and its allies the sacral ribs

are intervertebral, but entirely free from the well-developed

diapophyses, which also support the ilium. The diagrammatic

figures show these gelations. We see also that the structure of

the sacrum shows greater differencés than we find in a natural

group, and also shows that the Dinosauria must be given up.

: II. THE SHOULDER GIRDLE.

In the shoulder girdle we find, as in all Archosauria, a simple

coracajd and an elongate scapula. So far no clavicles have been

found, and I think that these elements are absent in Iguanodon

and Diplodocus and the allied forms, but I should not be surprised

at all if further discoveries would demonstrate the presence of

_ clavicle and interclavicle in the megalosauroid forms.

IV. THE PELVIS.

Iguanodon.—The pubis of Iguanodon and its allies at once

distinguishes it from all the other groups. As is well known and

now shown without doubt, the ectopubis or pectineal process in

this form is exceédingly developed; the entopubis or true pubis

being directed backwards This character alone is sufficient to i

separate Iguanodon far from Diplodocus and Ceratosayrus. In

the highest specialized members of the Iguanodon group—

Agathaumas (Triceratops), for instance—the ectopubis is enof

mously developed, the entopubis being quite rudimentary. oe

Diplodocus—Here we have the pubis directed forwards, and cs

pierced by the obturator foramen, all the bones of the pelvis

being very massive. a eee

Ceratosaurus.—Also in this form the pubes are directed for-

wards, but are closely united at the distal two-thirds, appe™ g G

like a chevron bone when seen from front; also the ischia n :

united at the distal end; the elements of the pelvis being ende se pi

It is evident that Diplodocus and Ceratosaurus T

other very much more in the structure of the pelvis than they % geet

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 449

in comparison with Iguanodon. The pelvis of these two forms

can be reduced to the type seen in the Rhynchocephalia and

Squamata.

V. THE FORE AND HIND LIMBS.

The structure of the limbs is of very great taxonomic value in a

definite animal group of forms; but if we would take the limbs

alone to establish a system we would be led to the most absurd

results. The order Enaliosauria was established for the Ichthyo-

saurs, and Plesiosaurs which are provided with paddles. But this

is only a parallelism in structure. The Plesiosauria have no re-

lations whatever to the Ichthyosauria. The same we may say in

regard to the Dinosauria. The Iguanodon-like forms resemble

very much the Megalosaurus-like forms; but there cannot be the.

slightest doubt that this resemblance does not mean affinity, but

parallelism.

' VI. ABDOMINAL OSSICLES.

So-called abdominal ribs were present in the megalosauroid

forms, as shown by Deslongchamps. They have not been dis-

covered yet in Iguanodon and Diplodocus, and it is impossible

to determine with our present knowledge whether they were

present or not.

VII. DERMAL OSSIFICATIONS.

Dermal ossifications are known in the Iguanodon-like forms,

especially in the highly developed Stegosaurida and Agathau-

midz; they seem to be absent in the Diplodocus and Cera-

tosaurus forms. I do not consider such ossifications of great

taxonomic value, especially not for ordinal characters.

If we now recapitulate, we have found that the structure of the

skull and sacrum of Iguanodon, Diplodocus, Ceratosaurus, make

it sure that these three animals are in no near relation to each

other ; that they doubtless are the representatives of three different

groups; that the Dinosauria have to be given up. The question

‘Now comes up, What names shall we apply to the three groups of

archosaurian reptiles represented by Iguanodon, Diplodocus, and

Ceratosaurus ?

450 The American Naturalist. [May,

Iguanodon belongs to the group which has been called Thero-

sauri by Fitzinger, 1843; Therosauria by Haeckel, 1866; Ortho-

poda by Cope, 1866; Ornithopoda and Stegosauria by Marsh,

1881; Ornithischia by Seeley, 1887. Of all these names that of

Therosauri or Therosauria has the priority. But I do not believe

that this name will be favored. I think it best to introduce a

new significant name for this group of archosaurian reptiles:

Lguanodontia,—like Crocodilia, Plesiosauria, Ichthyosauria, Aétho-

sauria, etc., the most typical representative of this group being

Iguanodon. To this group belong the families, Iguanodontidæ,

Hypsilophodontidæ, Hadrosauridæ, Ornithomimidæ (?), Sceli-

dosauridæ, Stegosauridæ, Agathaumidæ.?

Diplodocus belongs to the group which has been called

Opisthoceelia by Owen, 1859; Cetiosauria by Seeley, 1874;

Sauropoda by Marsh, 1878. I think it best to use the name

Cetiosauria introduced by Seeley, Cetiosaurus being the oldest

member of the group, and doubtless synonymous with one and

probably more of the American genera. Of this group there is

evidence so far of only one family, the Cetiosauride.

Ceratosaurus is a member of the group which has been called

Megalosauri by Fitzinger, 1843; Harpagosauria by Haeckel,

1866; Goniopoda by Cope, 1866; Theropoda by Marsh, 1881;

I propose to use the name Megalosauria for this group. It is the

oldest name used, and Megalosaurus is the oldest genus known,

and there is no doubt that one or more of the American generte

names will prove to be synonyms of it. ee: ;

In this group the following families can be distinguished:

Zanclodontide, Anchisauride, Megalosauride, Compsognathide, j

Ceeluridz.’ ae

_ As the result of this paper I may state this: ie

1. The group generally called Dinosauria is an unnatural -r

which is composed of three special groups of archosaurian wade

etek

* Ceratops Marsh is the same as Monoclonius Cope, as I know from actual arer ae

the i

study

types. That Agathaumas Cope is the same as Triceratops Mosh wN we

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 451

tiles, without any close relation between each other. The Dino-

sauria do not exist. ;

2. The so-called Dinosauria contain three groups of rep-

tiles, which ought to be called Iguanodontia, Megalosauria, and

Cetiosauria. |

The distinctive character of these three groups are:

IGUANODONTIA.

Brain-case compleétely ossified; a well-developed alisphenoid ;

no epipterygoid (columella) ; premaxillaries with a posterior outer

process extending between nasals and maxillaries, excluding

maxillaries from nasal openings; jugals fixed to a special process

of the maxillary outside the alveolar border; posterior alveolar

end of maxillaries free; not connected with jugals or quadrato-

jugals ; quadrate directed forward; mandible with a distinct pre-

dentary bone; dentary with greatly developed coronoid process ;

sacral vertebrze with ribs and diapophyses united, intervertebral ;

pubis consisting of two branches ; the anterior one ectopubis (pec-

tineal process, prepubis) greatly developed: the entopubis

directed backwards, well developed or rudimentary ; ilium very

much extended in front and also behind.

CETIOSAURIA.

Brain-case completely ossified; a well-developed alisphenoid ;

no epipterygoid (columella) ; premaxillaries not excluding maxil- -

laries from nasal opening; jugal and quadratojugal forming a

continuation of the posterior border of the maxillary in the same

plane; quadratojugal in connection with maxillary; quadrate

directed forwards; mandible without predentary bone; dentary

without coronoid process ; sacral vertebra with ribs only ver-

tebral; pubis consisting of one branch, the entopubis only,

directed forwards.

MEGALOSAURIA.

Brain-case ‘not ossified in front; no ossified alisphenoid; an

epterygoid (columella); premaxillaries not excluding maxillaries

from nasal opening; jugal connected with alveolar end of maxil-

_ lary, on the same plane; quadratojugal free from maxillary ; quad-

452 The American Naturalist. [May,

rate directed backwards; mandible without predentary bone;

dentary without coronoid process; sacral vertebræ with ribs

intervertebral; and diapophyses without connections with ribs;

pubes directed forwards, and strongly united at the ends.

The Iguanodontia appear in the Lias with all characters

(Scelidosaurus), and form an absolutely isolated group so far.

The nearest relations seems to be with birds rather than with

any other groups of the Monocondylia. Whether the peculiar

condition of the premaxillaries and the relations of the jugal to

the maxillary, which remind us of the arrangement in mammals

and some Theromora, indicates affinity to the ancestral forms of

these groups, I am unable to say; but the fact that in mammals

the pubis is also turned back has to be noticed.

The Iguanodontia reach to the Upper Cretaceous, and show in

Agathaumas and Diclonius their highest specialization.

The Cetiosauria are confined to the Jurassic, Wealden, and Cre-

taceous (Cambridge Greensand).* They seem to have their

nearest relatives in the Belodontidz. The Crocodilia, with their

peculiar pelvic arch, seem to be also related to this group.

he Megalosauria extend from the Triassic to the Cretaceous.

_ The skull is of the pattern of Paleohatteria of the Proganosauria

and the Rhynchocephalia, and it seems very probable to-day that

the Megalosauria have developed from the Rhynchocephalia.

Protorosaurus seems to be in this line.

~ The earliest reptiles doubtless go back to the Carboniferous,

from which formation we do not know a single reptile so far.

This is made probable by the existence in the Permian and

Lower Triassic of different groups of Reptilia. :

likely that birds began to be branched off already in B

Lower Triassic, probably from a group which gave also ong”

to the Iguanodontia; but to decide this question is not pos-

sible to-day. I still believe with Hitchcock that a great no

of the tracks in the Connecticut Triassic sandstone afe H*®

tracks of true birds, not of any of the Megalosauria ane :

to-day. All Megalosauria known have a long tail, and we ONS”

aah metatarsals figured by Seéley of a Dinosaur from the Cretaceous Greensand

not be distinguished from those of Morosaurus.

It is very -

1891.] Remarks on Reptiles Called Dinosauria. 453

to expect ‘to find impressions of a tail, with the impressions pro-

duced by the hind limbs, but this we do not. The impressions,

therefore, seem to be produced by an animal having a short tail.

Some characters of birds remind us of the Megalosauria; but

the fact remains that we know hardly anything about the actual

ancestors of this branch of the Monocondylia. The birds have a

well-ossified alisphenoid, no epipterygoid, and there seems to be

little doubt that the avian ancestors of the birds of to-day had

already this character; but the ancestors of these must have had

the brain-case open in front, no ossified alisphenoids, but an

epipterygoid ; and here, again, we reach a form like the Progano-

sauria and Rhynchocephalia.

Clark University, Worcester, Mass., Feb. 11th, 1891.

AUTHORITIES CITED.

1. OWEN, R.—Report on British Fossil Reptiles. Brit. Asso. Rep., Lon-

don, 1840, pp. 102, 103.

2+ MEYER, H. v.—Uber fossile Saurier. Isis, 1830, pp. 517-519. Also

in his Palaeologica zur Geschichte der Erde und ihrer Geschopfe. Frankfurt,

a. M., 1832, p. 201.

3. KAUP, J. J.—Das Thierreich in seinen Hauptformen systematisch

qeschrieben. Vol. II., Part 2, p. 18, Darmstadt, 1836.

4. FITZINGER, LEOPOLDUS. Bere Reptilium. Fasciculus Primus:

Amblyglossæ. Vindobonæ, 1843, p. 1 i

_ 5« MEYER, H. y, —System der eid Saurier. Neues ‘Jahrb. Min.,

1845, pp. 278-285.

6. GERVAIS, P.—Observations Psat ap aux reptiles fossiles de la Fr rance,

Paris, Compt. Rend., XXXVI., 1853, P-

7- OWEN, R.—On the Anatomy of vad Vol. I., London, pp.

14-18.

8. HAECKEL, Ernst.—Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Berlin,

1866, Bd. H. , p. 136.

9. COPE, E. D.—Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia, Reptilia, and Aves of

North Aunérka. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Vol. XIV.. 1870, p- 9°, 99-

HuxLey, T. H.—An Introduction to the Classification of Animals.

ndon, 1869, pp. 110-111.

oe sabe "D .—Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia and Reptilia of

North America. Trans. Amer. Philos. Soc., Phila., 1870, pp- 26-53-

12. HuxLey, T. H.—On the Classification of the Dinosauria, with Obser-

Vations on the Dinosauria of the Trias. Q. J. G. S» Vol. XXVI., pp. 32-36.

454 The American Naturalist. [May,

13. Mars, O. C—A New Order of Extinct Reptilia (Stegosauria) from

the Jurassic of the Rocky Mountains, Am. Jour. Sct., Vol; XIV., Dec.,

1877, P. 513.

14. MARSH, O. C.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs.

Am. Jour. Sci., XVL, Nov., 1878,

15. OWEN, R.—On the Orders of Fossil and Recent Reptilia, and their

Distribution in Time. ‘Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1859, p. 164.

16. MARSH, O. C.—A New Order of Extinct Toran: Reptiles (Cœluria):

Amer. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXI., April, 1881, p. 340:

17. MARSH, o. C.—Principal Characters of American Jurassic Dinosaurs.

Part V. Am. p Sct., XXI., May, 1881, p. 423.

18. MARSH, O. assiGcation of the Dinosauria. Am. Jour. Scis

Vol. XXIII., January, 1882, pp. 81-86.

19. Cope, E. D.—On the Characters of the Skull in the Hadi

Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phil., June, 1883, p. 98.

. 20. Marsu, O. C.—On the Classification and Affinities of Dinosaurian

Reptiles. Brit. Asso. Rep., 1884, Montreal. London, 1885, pp. 763-766.

21. Cope, E. D.—On the Evolution of the Vertebrate, Progressive and

Retrogressive. Am. NAT., March, 1885, pp. 245-247; April, 341

22. BAUR, G.—On the Phylogenetic Arrangement of the Sauropsida.

Jour. Morph., Vol. 1., No. 1, Sept., 1

23. SEELEY, H. G.—On the Climification of the Fossil Animals Com-

monly Named Dinosauria. Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. XLIII., Nov. 24, 1887, PP:

165-271.

24. MARSH, O. C. —Comparison of the Principal Forms of the Dinosauria

of Europe and America. Am. Jour. Sci., Vol. XXXVIL., April, 1889, PP-

323-331.

25. Cope, E. D.—Synopsis of the Families of Vertebrata.

ne 1889 (published March 12, 1890), p. 849. é

. LYDEKKER, R. peaveardd case of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia.

eek , London, 1888.

27. LYDEKKER, R., and H. A. NicHotson.—A Manual of Paleontology:

Vol. II., 1889.

28. Marsu, O. C,.—Distinctive Characters of the Order Hallopoda.

Additional Characters of the Ceratopsidz, with Notice of New Creta: —

ceous Dinosaurs. Am. Jour. Sci, XXXIX., May, 1890. See,

` 29. Baur, G.—Am. Nar., June, 1890, p. 569- North

30.. MARSH, O. C uGlosnte Pike or Horned Dinosaurs of

Am. NAT.

America. Am. Jour. Sci., XLI., p. 167, 1891. 4 Lief, ae |

31. ZITTEL, KARL A.—Handbuch der Palaeontologie. Vol. I,

32. DoLLo, L—Quatrieme Note sur les Dinosauriens de i ee

Bull. Mus. Roy. d’Hist. Nat. de Belgique, Vol. II., 1883, pp- 224-743

IX., X.

1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 455

CUP-STONES NEAR OLD FORT RANSOM, N. D.

BY T. H. LEWIS.

PPARENTLY the earliest mention of cup-stones, in print,

was in 1751, ina historical work on the Province of Branden-

burg, by J. C. Bekmann. The author speaks of certain boulders

there which have on them apfchensteine, or little-bowl-stones, as

he terms them. Next, in 1773, there was found at Lynsfort, in +

North Britain, a druidical altar full of “rock basons,” which was

pictured in Camden’s Britannia, 1789. From that time on, at

intervals, first incidentally, then by purposed search, interesting

discoveries were made until, so far as the rings were concerned,

almost every country on the earth was represented. As regards

the cups, their distribution has not yet proved to be nearly so

widespread. Still they have been found in the British Isles,

France, Switzerland, Bohemia, Austria, Northern Germany, the

Danish Islands, and Sweden; but these are all the European

countries known to possess them, apparently, according to the

authorities. Flitting now eastward over vast kingdoms we meet

with them again in far-off India. Here, in 1867; Mr. Rivett-

Carnac found cup-cuttings upon the stones of the cycloliths of

Nagpoor, and, shortly after, upon rocks 7 situ of the mountains

of Kumaon, where, in one place, he found them to the number

of more than two hundred, arranged in groups of apparently

parallel rows. In the Kumaon region he also found ring sculp-

turing, which very much resembled that which is seen in Europe.

Outside of these named countries, and North America to be

mentioned further on, the world isa blank as regards cup-cuttings

on rocks, so far as our present knowledge goes, or at least to the

extent that I have been able to find recorded information of the

same,

Although met with and described nearly a century and a half

ago, as hereinbefore related, it is only within the last forty-five

years that incised cups on rocks and stones have been particularly

456 The American Naturalist. [May,

written about, either in Europe or in the United States, and specu-

lative theories advanced concerning their origin and uses.

It was in 1847 that Messrs Squier and Davis, partners in

original research in the state of Ohio, brought their operations

to a close by the production of the “ Ancient Monuments of the

Mississippi Valley,” the comprehensive work which methodically

displayed all that was then known of the antiquities of the great

region implied by that geographical expression. In this book

(on page 206) there is a description, with wood-cut illustration, of

a block of sandstone which had been found in some unnam

Ohio mound. The stone weighed between thirty and forty pounds,

and showed several circular depressions, evidently artificial, which

our authors thought were used as moulds for the purpose of

hammering thin plates of copper into small bosses of concavo-

convex shape, such as had been often found. This is the proto-

type of the cup-stones of the western hemisphere.’

Professor Daniel Wilson, of Toronto, in his “ Prehistoric Man,”

(third edition, 1876, Vol. I.), also devotes several pages to the

Subject, and gives drawings of two cup-stones found, too, in Ohio.

Of the first he speaks thus: “ A cupped sandstone block on the

banks of the Ohio, a little below Cincinnati. Others much larger

were described to me by Dr. Hill,” etc. The second one he

describes as a “ cupped sandstone boulder,” found near Tronos

[Ironton] M i8747 The author, in this work, considers that m

use of these cups—everywhere, all the world over—was to grind

the ends of stone implements, and that where they were accom-

panied by concentric circles and other devices the latter were no

more than additions of idle fancy.

The late Professor Charles Rau, of Washington, D. C., icles

however, to be the first writer in the United States to bring ue

ward and collate comprehensively in a special treatise the data os

relating to cup-stones on this side of the Atlantic, and to treat

_| Were the facts concerning the 7eo/o/inga rock, situated sixteen leagues SOT" in the

i Mexico, exactly known, it might with propriety take precedence here

text of the Squier and Davis stone; for it was discovered in 1805 by

who said that on its surface were some circular holes of little depth.

dissimilarity of the published representations of it, however, Professor Rat

that a proper doubt remai 1, not to be removed until the stone had again been

- and reported upon.

1891.] Cup-Stones. Near Old Fort Ransom. 457

their resemblance to those found in the eastern hemisphere. In

his “Observations on Cup-Shaped and Other Lapidarian Sculp-

tures in the Old World and America” (1881) he? describes a few

specimens whose characteristics are undoubted. The best of these

are the “incised rock” in Forsyth County, Georgia; the sand-

stone block with cup-cavities discovered by Dr. H. H. Hill in

Lawrence county, Ohio;* and the sculptures on Bald Friar

Rock in the usquehanna River, Cecil county, Maryland. Toward

the end of the work Professor Rau gives the various speculations

which have been published as to the purpose for which cup-and

ring-cuttings were made, but states that after all that has been

said concerning their significance in the Old World, he hardly

ventures to offer an opinion of his own. Still he thinks that both

kinds of sculpture belong to ove primitive system, of which the

former seems to be the earlier expression. Turning to America,

he considers that here, as yet, the number of discovered cup-stones

is by far too small to permit the merest attempt at generalization.

The author just referred to has shown in his book that true

cup-stones have been found in the United States as far east as

Connecticut and as far west as Illinois, but the fact that rocks

having such incised work exist also far beyond the Mississippi

valley has not yet, apparently, become known to the antiquarian

world. It is therefore for the purpose of describing one so located

that this paper is written.

The rock in question is situated in Ransom county, North

Dakota, and, with others, it came under my observation in the

middle of last August, at which time full notes were taken, and

the pictographs to be described further on carefully copied.

Ransom county derives its name from a post of the United

States army which was formerly maintained on the west side of

the Shyenne River, in that part of its course known as the Great

Bend. The top of the bluff on which the ruined fort stands is

about two-hundred-and-fifty feet above the river. About one-

quarter of a mile to the westward, on the north half of the south-

2 In “ Contributi North American “Ethnology,” Vol. V., Washington, 1882.

3 Thisis th he “ i ist boulder ” already illustrated in Professor.

Wilson's “ Prehistoric Man ” (1876).

458 The American Naturalist. [May,

west quarter of section II, town 135, range 58, there is a large

spring known as the “Fort Springs,” situated in the bottom of a

deep ravine, which is about ninety feet below the fort site. It is

probably formed by a seepage from “ Big Slough,” which starts

about one mile south and extends some fifteen or twenty miles in

a southerly direction. The bluff immediately to the west of the

ravine rises to the height of about one-hundred-and-sixty feet,

and on the top, over a quarter of a mile away in a northwesterly

direction, there is a small knoll which was called “ Bear’s-Den

Hill” by the Indians. On the steep slope of the bluff, about one

hundred yards north of west from the spring and fifty-three feet

above it, there is a large light-colored granite boulder, on which

there are a number of incised lines, cups, and other figures. The

base of the boulder, which is firmly imbedded in the side-hill, is

eight-and-a-half feet in length and four-and-a-half feet in width,

and on the side next to the spring extends out of the ground

about three feet. The top surface on which the carvings occur is

irregular in outline, and is seven feet two inches in length, and

from two feet six inches to three feet ten inches in width, sloping

slightly towards the east. The particular figures seen upon it,

and reproduced here in fac-simile as regards their forms, are

- explainable somewhat as follows, viz.

Fic. 1—Apparently the horns is some animal.

Fic. 2—A nondescript. There is a similar’ figure on the

quartzite ledge near Little Cottonwood Falls, in Cottonwood

county, Minn.

Fic. 3—A crescent. This figure is often found along the Mis-

sissippi River in Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa.

Fic. 4—A nondescript animal.

Fic. 5.—A peculiar-shaped cross. There is one oii

on the face of a cliff a few miles above Stillwater, Minn.

Fics. 6, 6.—‘ Pins,” so-called. There are two of the same shape

on the quartzite ledge, among other figures, near the “

Maidens,” at Pipestone, Minn.

Fics. 7, 7, 7—Three pairs of cups, one set being joined by 4

a ae groove, and the other two by curved gr ooves!"

Balvraid, in Inverness-

in tore

‘Sir J Qi. at f isolated stone near ed grooves.

shire, Scotland, which has five pairs of cups that are joined by straight or

1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 459

Fics. 8, 8, 8, 8.—Are four long grooves with odd-shaped ends.

These grooves are only about one-eighth of an inch in depth,

while the ends are from one to one-and-a-half inches in depth.

Cups (not numbered).—The cups or circular depressions are from

about one-half-inch to nearly two inches in diameter, and one

inch to one-quarter of an inch in depth. Some are perfect circles,

. while others are oblong in outline. There are thirty-four single

cups and twenty-five cups that are connected with or intersected

by grooves, making a total of fifty-nine positive cups, without

considering the terminals of the four long grooves and others —

that are more doubtful. Where grooves intersect the cups an

arbitrary line has been drawn on the illustration, in order to

separate them and to more fully demonstrate the character of the

designs. In every instance where this has been done the cups

are well defined, but yet they cannot otherwise be fully shown on

a tracing giving only surface outlines.

Within a radius of four hundred feet from the spring there are

thirteen incised boulders of various sizes and shapes, the one here

described being the largest and finest of the group. The pictures,

etc., on five of the best ones were copied; the others having only

slight grooves and a few cups were not.

On the bluffs on both sides of the ravine there are a number of

ancient mounds of the mound-building period, one of which is

located on the west side immediately above the spring.

There are other boulders at various places in the northwest on

which these cup-like depressions occur, and they are also occa-

sionally found on the face of perpendicular ledges and on the

walls of caves, but in nearly every instance there are other incised

figures on the same surface. It may be further stated that the

cup-cavities as shown at the terminals of Fig. 5 of the illustration

Now given are also seen in connection with incised figures on rocks

at these other localities referred to.

The cup-stones (large boulders or rocks) are not to be con-

9 Pl p “i —* in or etc., Edin-

reais 2, of his sie sl Sculpturings upo no si

and Sweden. Similar figures also on early British coins prior to iptabolicie’ s

time ( -D. 40), and on the French-Keltic coins of moulded bronze. See Plates LIII. and

LV. of Waring’s “ Stone Monuments,” etc., London, 1870.

460 The American Naturalist. [May,

founded with the smaller stones called “ nut-holders ” or “anvils,”

which are from two to twenty inches in diameter, one to four

inches in thickness, and which have one or more slight cavities or

pits on each face. These cavities average about one inch in diam-

eter, and very rarely exceed one-half inch in depth, the average

being one-fourth of an inch. These relics are found throughout

the west and south along the streams and lakes, and the prairies

are no exception to the rule. Still less should cup-stones proper `

> confounded with the large circular excavations in rocks found

in various regions which have been used as mortars. Mortars are

found in fields. The rocks may be ten inches square and upwards,

and the cavities range from six to fifteen inches in diameter and

from one to five inches in depth. They are also found on the `

upper surface of ledgesand on the tops of very large boulders. —

In one place in this vicinity there are at least twenty-five mortars

on two acres of land.

While the American cup-stones are similar in nearly every

respect to those found in Europe and other portions of the globe,

it would be the best policy to study them as an entirely separate

class of antiquities, for in all probability there is not even 4

remote connection between the two hemispheres in this respect.

After.a thorough comparison has been made and the necessary

links have been found, there will then be ample time in which bo

bring forward the facts to prove relationship. In the meanwhile,

awaiting thorough exploration of the field, all such attempts,

though interesting in a literary point of view, may be considered

somewhat premature in a scientific one.

Since the above was written I have examined a book, just pub-

lished, which treats of the same kind of ancient work. It apes:

nine or ten years after Rau’s, and, so far as known to me, IS the

only general handling of the subject within that period. Its title

is “ Archaic Rock Inscriptions; an Account of the Cup and Ring

Markings on the Sculptured Stones of the Old and New Worlds.

It is of anonymous authorship, but béars the imprint of A. Reader,

London, 1891, and is a 12mo of only 99 pages. The wa ee

evidently one of the mystical antiquarians who, to speak figura-

A tively, have their eyes continually turned to those és fatui the

PLATE Xi.

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ee ae H t , ? +

: t a i oo fo {ao #0 a Pry idaho elevated

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CUP-STONES.

1891.] Cup-Stones Near Old Fort Ransom. 461

elusive and ever unapproachable ancient faiths—the Tree, Ser-

pent, Phallic, Fire, Sun, and Ancestor worships—and delight in

the search for analogies concerning them. As regards the cup-

and ring-markings, he himself adopts the phallic theory for their

origin. His little book, however, admirably fulfills the promise of

its title, for it not only includ t that prior writers collected, but

gives interesting facts not accessible or not discovered when Pro-

fessor Rau wrote. The most striking piece of new information is

concerning the cup- and ring-markings on the rocks in the envi-

rons of Ilkley, Yorkshire,—a new locality. Here the cups have

been counted into the hundreds in all; many of them are con-

nected by grooves.

As regards America, all that this new author finds—and prob-

ably all there is to find—are two articles in the AMERICAN NAT-

URALIST. The first one is contained in the number for December,

1884, and is entitled “ Rock Inscriptions in Brazil,” by J. C. Bran-

ner. The author does not use the word cups at all, nor do his

diagrams show any; he only mentions in his text certain “ points

or indentations,” often arranged in parallel vertical lines, and por-

trays them in the drawings, where also single circles are shown,—

mostly provided with a central point. He found, however, “ mor-

tars ” scooped out on the rocks by the river. The other article

appears in the number for July, 1885, under the heading of

“ Ancient Rock Inscriptions on the Lake of the Woods,” by A.

C. Lawson. Neither does this writer mention cups, but his illus-.

trations show concentric circles which have the usual central dot,

Tupelo, Mississippi, February 11th, IQI.

_ Am. Nat.—May.—4.

462 The American Naturaitst. [May,

ON THE GROWTH-PERIODICITY OF THE POTATO-

TUBER.’

BY CONWAY MACMILLAN.

HILE considerable research has been bestowed upon the

physiology of bulbs, corms, and tubers, it does not appear

that any extended observations have been made upon the method

of. growth of such an organ as the potato-tuber. It is a well-

known fact that the growth in length of upright stems and other

aérial organs is not regular, but exhibits a marked daily perio-

dicity, the time of greatest average growth being in most cases not

far from six o'clock in the morning. Upon this subject, since

the researches of Sachs,? Baranetski,? Pfeffer and others, &

number of observations have been made by various investigators.

‘It appears that in most above-ground organs there is a clearly

marked diurnal period, unless this period is obliterated by etiola-

tion, suffocation, anzesthesia, or some other abnormal condition.

We know, too, that besides the daily periodicity there is a grand-

period of growth for each organ of the plant ; that some organs

reach the grand-period more rapidly or continue in it longer

proportionately than other organs or similar organs on the other

. plant, or in the same plants under different conditions. The gr owth

in length, then, of any organ is not regular, but is to be grap

cally represented as a wavy curve, with an ascending portion, @

climactic portion, and a descending portion. In all of the pe e

this large curve, the climax of which represents the grand-perio

of growth, one must notice the rhythmic pulsations due to a

daily growth-periods, and more or less synchronous with the

alternating periods of light and darkness, of higher ‘and lower

temperature, of less and of greater oxidation.

1 Read before the Minnesota Academy of Science, May 5th, 1891.

? Arbeit. d. Wiirtzb. Institute, 1873.

3 Die tägliche Periodicität d. Langenwachsthums, 1879.

t Physiolog. Untersuchungen, 1873.

1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 463

Seasonal rhythm in the growth in girth of organs is well

known in the ordinary woody stems of Dicotyledons® and

Gymnosperms, where the increasing tensions of later months

reduce the rate of growth below the rate of the earlier months.

This periodicity is a more simple and readily explained form than

those forms which have been alluded to above. It is found

principally in organs provided with a cambium cylinder and a

relatively inextensible bark, and is referred to merely by way of

illustration. While the potato-tuber, which is to be considered,

has a cambium area, it can scarcely be said to have a cortical

area at all analogous to that of the erect tree-trunk, We shall

not find the tuber, protected as it is and growing during a single

Season, affected by the conditions of alternate freezing and

thawing, wind disturbance, stress, flexion, etc., which have so much

to do with seasonal periodicity of growth in girth of woody stems.

A few months ago the writer was struck with what seemed to

be a great dearth of investigations into the manner of growth of

tubers, and forthwith gave some attention to devising a method

by which the gap in our knowledge of tuber-physiology might

be filled in part. After due deliberation a method was formulated

and applied, with but imperfect success at first, but as experience

became wider the imperfections were gradually remedied. In all

of the experiments Mr. C. P. Lommen, student in biology at the

University of Minnesota, gave much assistance in setting up appa-

ratus, and by one or two helpful suggestions concerning certain

technical difficulties which presented themselves in the course of

our investigations. The method of research first adopted by us

has been described elsewhere somewhat in detail? but upon this

method certain important improvements have been made. The

apparatus used was the Baranetski self-registering auxanometer,

with electric clock attachment, manufactured by Albrecht, of

Tiibingen. At first both wheels of the apparatus were not

employed, but afterwards it was found that twe wheels could be

combined in such a way as to multiply the tracings tenfold, and

‘Pfeffer. Pflanzen-physiologie, IT., 89.

*Hartig. Anat. und Phys. der Holzpflanzen, p. 366.

"L.c. Botan, Gazette, May, 1891. -

464 The American Naturalist. [ May,

in our later experiments the wheel attached to the tuber-thread

does not bear the tracing needle, but carries another thread on its

large circumference, which runs to the small circumference of the

tracing wheel. By this means hourly registrations are obtained

instead of three-hour registrations as by the first method.

To recapitulate the method as finally developed: A potato-

plant, grown in a box from which one end had been removed,

was selected and carried to the experimenting room. With due

care a tuber was exposed, and under it, resting upon the bottom

of the box, a wooden block was placed in such a way that down-

ward pressure would not disturb the position of the tuber. The

root-stock umbilicus was protected from desiccation or injury

during these processes of blocking up. Next a wooden jacket

consisting of two squares of cigar-box material, held together by

a number of slightly stretched rubber-bands, was fitted over the

tuber in such a way that one square of the cigar-box wood

clung to the block below and the other piece was parallel, but on

the upper side of the tuber. To the center of this upper square

a small screw was fixed, and to this screw afine silver wire was

tied—since thread was rotted by the soil,—and this wire, after

the whole apparatus of block, tuber, and jacket was covered with

earth again, came to the surface of the soil under the first wheel

of the auxanometer. An inch and a half above the ground a

twisted linen thread, which gave better friction on the wheel, was

attached to the silver wire, and this twisted thread was

over the small circumference of the first wheel and drawn taut

by a weight of about forty grams. Passing from the large

circumference of the first wheel to the small circumference of the

second was a linen thread equally weighted at each end,and over

the large circumference of the second wheel was passed a th nail

bearing at one end the tracing needle and at the other & a

counterpoise. The tracing needle was placed in come K

the vertical smoked cylinder of the registering apparatus. |

rested upon a clock-work in which a ratchet-wheel was "> —

by a lever attached to the clock-work by a spring and Deal”

at the opposite end an armature near the poles of a small clee

magnet. Connected with the magnet was a two-celled Laf

1891. The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Taber. 465

battery, but interpolated in the circuit was the electric clock, so

adjusted that every hour the circuit was closed for a few seconds.

During the closure of the circuit the electro-magnet attracted

the armature, overcoming the tension of the spring and releasing

one cog of the ratchet-wheel. By this means the vertical cylinder

turned about one-sixteenth of an inch with the hands of the

watch, and the tracing needle made a horizontal mark upon the

smoked paper covering the cylinder. The opening of the circuit

as the hands passed by the hour released the armature, allowed

the spring to pull back the lever, and stopped the clock-work until

the next hour, when a similar horizontal mark was made. During

the hours, then, any expansion of the tuber would loosen the string

attached to the jacket. Pulling against this the weights would

turn the first wheel. This would turn the second wheel, and the

indication of growth, one hundred times magnified, but in proper

ratio, would appear as vertical tracings upon the smoked cylinder.

This brief description of the Baranetski apparatus is given that

the exact method of research may be apparent.

The first experiments upon the growing tuber, made in accord-

ance with the method described in the Botanical Gazette, were

Satisfactory in so far that they demonstrated the availability of

e Baranetski apparatus for the purpose for which it was

employed. In one of the early experiments a trace of periodic

growth was distinguished, but it did not seem to be sufficient to

justify any confident assertion of periodicity. The first experi-

Ment continued two weeks. During this time the needle kept

falling ; at the close of the experiment it was about half an inch

below its original level. In the second experiment certain drops

in the tracings, usually in the early morning, were noticed, but I

have since come to believe that not all of these were true growth-

tracings, but were due, at least in part, to changes of temperature

of the soil, the strings, and the atmosphere, with consequent

enings, relaxations, and alterations in the needle-position.

Against such accidental and confusing records there was a con-

stant necessity of guarding. In general, a conservative statement

of conclusions from these experiments with the single wheel is

as follows :

466 The American Naturalist. [May,

1. The apparatus as set up indicated growth by cylinder-

tracings.

2. A possible indication of periodicity in the growth may

have manifested itself.

Further than this one could not go under the conditions of the

experiment.

Desiring to obtain more perfect results, and to solve the

question as to the manner of growth of the tuber, the improved

method of setting up the apparatus was developed as described

above, and the first experiment gave some interesting results.

The method of culture in water employed by De Vries® in the

study of roots was contemplated, but rejected on account of

certain practical difficulties.

The experiment began with a tuber about 34-inch in diameter.

~ At this time the full-sized top of the plant had begun to perish

from the effects of mildew. After attachment the registering

needle gave two or three sharp drops, owing to the stretching of

strings and general getting into equilibrium of the apparatus.

After this stage was passed the needle began dropping very

gradually. This slow descent was continued from eight o'clock

in the evening until about eight o’clock in the morning. At this

time the drop ceased, and horizontal tracings continued until about

1.30 P.M., when a short, abrupt hour’s drop was registered, fol-

lowed by a longer one, then by one shorter than the second but

longer than the first, next by one longer than any, closely

succeeded by another long one. After this the registrations were

short, and the regular, gradual fall until 8 a.m. began. Here

again the horizontal mark began and continued until 2 P. M., when

a second drop began, on a somewhat smaller scale than the ie

registered the first day. The total extent of the second day's

maximum, between 2 P. m. and 8 P. m., was about one-half of the

first day’s maximum. The third day the same tracings COM-

tinued at the same hours,—only the tracings of the maximum

were very much reduced, so as to be not more than onesie

the total length of the second day’s tracings. The fourth day’ |

tracings were like those of the second day in almost ev: ery par

3 Landwirthschaftliches Jahrbuch, 1880, Bd. IX., p. 37.

1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 467

ticular, and those of the fifth day likewise, except that the latter

showed a less maximum growth. The sixth day was péculiar,

During this day no appreciable drop in the tracings was detected.

The explanation of this cessation is not offered. It may be said,

however, that the death of the top was now about complete, so

far as the leaves and the secondary branches were concerned.

Only in the lower part of the main stem was living green tissue

to be found. During the whole twenty-four hours of the sixth

day, then, no divergence of the tracings from the horizontal was

observed ; but during the succeeding twelve hours a slight drop

began. At 7 o'clock a.m. of the seventh day a decided

drop began, continuing until 11 a.m. There then succeeded a

period of gradual dropping, which disappeared about 3 P. M.

Another drop took place in the evening from 6 tog p.m. The

eighth day began with a drop at 7 A. M., continuing until 11 A. M.,

when three hours of horizontal marks followed. At 2 P.M.a

five-hour drop began, and continued as a gradual depression until

IO P.M. At 7 A.M. again another abrupt drop was registered,

terminating at 11.30 A.M. At 3 P.M. a gradual, slight drop, last-

ing until 8 P. m., ensued. During four succeeding days the same

thythm continued, only the drops became slighter and slighter,

Finally, on the fifteenth day the needle ceased to trace.

The explanation of these very curious maxima and minima in

the growth of the tuber isa complicated matter. -It can be given

as yet only conjecturally. Before passing to any such conjectures

it may be well to give in their order the conclusions arrived at

from the line of research described above :

- 1. The increase in diameter of the potato-tuber is not regu-

lar, but is rhythmic.

2. Maxima of growth may occur either once or twice, and

perhaps oftener, during twenty-four hours.

3- Maxima of growth are not of long duration, and are fol-

lowed by periods of slower growth, or of entire cessation of

4. The maxima of some days are greater absolute maxima

than those of other days. This indicates a grand-period for the

tuber. 7 :

468 The American Naturalist. [May,

5. Regular periodicity in the tuber continues after the perio-

dicity*of the aérial stem is suspended.

6. Connected with profound changes of condition in the

_ aérial stem changes in the periodicity of the tuber may be noted.

7. There is some connection between the periodic growth of

the tuber and the periodic growth of the aérial stem. What this

connection is does not appear.

8. There is also, it is probable, an independent periodicity in

the growth of the potato-tuber which is obscured and modified

by the secondary induced periodicity, which is related to conditions

of the aérial stem and its mode of growth.

Passing now to conjectural explanations of the observed peri-

odic growth of the potato-tuber, it may be affirmed that very little

can be expected at this stage of the investigations. Whether like

embryonic shoots of Hedera, with their heliotropic irritability, the

potato-tuber retains, somehow, in hereditary fashion, its above-

ground periodicity, and thus gives hint of the time when its pre-

cursors were exposed to rhythmic alternation of light and dark-

ness, is entirely an open question. On the other hand, it is equally

uncertain whether the induced periodicity is due to one or many

causes. Some lines of attack are indicated below, and it is hoped

that they may be followed to their rational gonclusion. ;

1. The rhythm of assimilation in the above-ground stem ud

affect the growth of the below-ground tuber. The synthesis of

carbohydrates is a diurnal affair. From these carbohydrates the

substance of the tuber is formed. Thus the rhythm above might

induce a rhythm below.

2. The conversion of plastic into reserve materials is character-

istic of an organ like the tuber. This conversion depends upo?

the activity of certain ferments which are results of destructive —

and constructive metabolic changes in the shoot area. Tien

metabolic changes are consequent upon the respiration function,

and this is a rhythmic function. sod

3- The growth of the above-ground stem is strongly pent

and demands, in any plant, the same kind of material which w

be supplied to a growing tuber. This drain upon the piei

rial in one direction might induce a corresponding dearth +

1891.] The Growth-Periodicity of the Potato-Tuber. 469

another, so that the periodic growth of the above-ground stem

might induce a periodic growth in the below-ground tuber.

4. The asynchronous grand-periods of growth of the different

above-ground organs might be reflected in an irregular and erratic

periodicity in the below-ground tuber.

5. Combinations of these various conditions, and : a modifica-

tion of them all by the independent rhythm of the tuber itself,

would have to be considered, and only by the most elaborate and

extended researches could the proximate causes for the observed

tuber-periodicity be detected.

In closing this contribution to the physiology of tubers, one

word may be added by way of note. It is possible, as may be

shown, to apply auxanometer methods to root stocks by uncover-

ing the root stock, attaching a silver thread, running it horizon-

tally to the open side of the box, passing under a horizontal roller

and upward, and finally adding the linen or silken thread which

runs on the small circumference of the first wheel. Or, in this

case, doubtless one wheel alone could be employed. Such study

of underground stems, as in the grass root stock, the potato rhiz-

ome, or any other underground stem, would scarcely fail to throw

some light upon the method of growth of the tuber. A compari-

son of underground organs should be made along this line.

University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, May rst, 1891.

470 The American Naturalist. " [Maş,

EDITORIAL.

EDITORS, E. D. COPE AND J. S. KINGSLEY.

r these pages nearly four years ago (AMERICAN NATURALIST,

XXI., p.549) we made an appeal for some properly qualified

person to write a “Complete Unnatural History.” The neces-

sary conditions of mind were stated at some length. There must

be an instinctive ability to unerringly discriminate between the

false and the true, and to invariably appropriate the former; a

capacity to trace results from no adequate cause ; and a firm con-

viction that all the so-called leaders of science were totally wrong,

while the author is infallible.

Although we have not returned to the subject in the interval,

the editors of the Narurauist have been constantly on the look-

out for the proper person. Numerous claims have been investi- —

gated, for many pretenders have arisen. It is useless to enumer-

ate them all, for until this present year of grace, 1891, nota single

candidate has been proposed who had the necessary grasp of sub-

ject, the proper disregard of cause and effect, and the all-impor-

tant wealth of imagination. The Ohio minister who preached

those celebrated sermons on the Creation in which petroleum was

regarded as “ strong-smelling grease,” fried out from the decom-

_ posing bodies of antediluvian reptiles; the man who claimed that

the Great Lakes are drained by an underground channel into the

Mississippi River ; the Buffalo doctor who maintained that bacteria

are decomposing fibrin; the crowd of “ pyramidologists,’—all were

soon dismissed in short order. We debated longer in the case of

a callow youth whom we found studying the relations existing

between the abundance of birds and meteorological conditions—

not because of any capacity shown in choice of a subject, but

from the methods of thought revealed by a glance at his note-

book. A sample will suffice: “ June 23d, 9 a. M. Saw two er

Sky clear. Wind S. W. June 2 3d, 9.23. Three loons on wae

distant half mile. Sky clear. Wind S.S. W. June 234, 9-37- Wir

son’s tern flying overhead towards west. Sky clear. Wind a little

A 2. ae

pe SE a

1891 ] Editorial. 471

stronger.” And so on page after page. Imagination is here

clearly lacking, and the promising youth was therefore turned

over to the tender mercies of Dr. Chadbourne’s Society for the

Suppression of Useless Knowledge.

Now we believe that we have obtained the long-sought author.

The essay which forms the basis of this opinion was published in

January, 1890, in Vol. III. of Zhe Literary Light, published by

C. D. Raymer, 243 Fourth Avenue, S., Minneapolis, Minn. The

essay is entitled “ The Origin of Life and Species, And Theory by

Which all Phases of Life, and Phenomena in Connection with

Such, can be Readily Explained.” Would we had the space to

reproduce the whole essay ! Excerpts must for the present answer,

for doubtless this brochure will be embodied in the long-looked-

for Unnatural History.

“ An organism is a creature of environment, and has, like all

things, obtained its life and all that belongs to it, and sequently

all the possibilities of its future, during its incipiency by heredity.

Whatever evolved properties and principles an environment may

contain, generation rarely leaves any out. The future growth

determines where and what from they were produced. Sequently

they are species.”

“ A reproduction, like all things, is composed of ponderables

and imponderables. It is an organism with life attached, or com-

posed of an aggregation of lives... . I have yet to learn that

ponderables alone exhibit any activity whatever. They are

invariably produced by, through, and are an organism.”

“ Generation is not a substance. It is a word to express the

workings of the activities of a thing, a substance or a combina-

tion of substances by which phenomena are exhibited or produced.

..... It being the agent in all reproduction, performing the

functions of the activities of a combination or an environment of

material, containing definite substances, in first producing organ-

ized nuclei out of that material through the positive energies, usu-

ally in vast numbers. . . . They are called in the animal king-

dom when fully developed, ‘ episoids’ or ‘ zooids’ ; in the vegetable,

“pollen grains’ or pollen.”

472 The American Naturalist. [May,

“When we are first able to perceive nuclei with the most perfect

lens yet constructed, we find them to be mere specks. By close

observation we are able to perceive that the albuminoid substance

is consumed, and that the nuclei grow, and in a short time are

developed living organisms, just ready to emerge from the first

stage of their existence.”

“ Bacilli by generation are a product of the properties of the

products of the earth, where they first originate. Properties of the

earth’s products are a substance that we can usually taste.”

“Intelligence is an imponderable substance, grown and pro-

duced by the animal kingdom, and as it and bacteria are products

of products of the earth, they may be called kingdoms of growth.

Human intelligence is a product produced by the animal man, the

seat of which is located by phrenologists in his brain, in no less

than thirty-five sections, and like all organisms in nature, may be

classed into genera, species, and varieties.”

“Should any error of fact or otherwise occur in my explana-.

tions, or should any phenomena in nature appear that no place

can be found in my hypothesis, or a desire for further explanation

on the subject, I would like to be informed of the fact, and what it

is. Ifa fallacy, wherein does it lay—GerorGE Davis; address,

2613 First Ave. S., Minneapolis, Minn.”

~ Wecan assure a long-waiting world that if Mr. Davis attempts

the Unnatural History the result will be a complete success.

—TuE commission selected to examine and report on suitable

locations for national reservations of land for the purpose 0

creating public parks has donea good work. They have selected

about one hundred ‘tracts from all parts of the country, whi

will be recommended to Congress for adoption. To the Yellow-

stone, the Yosemite, and the Sequoia Parks will be added z5

or more from nearly every state and territory of the Union.

This is a measure which the scientific sentiment of the country

‚will universally sustain. The preservation of tracts of forest, if

only of limited extent, is highly important ; and the preservation

of game commends itself to everybody. Reasonable hunters are

rare, and a good many men consider themselves sportsmen who

1891.] Editorial. 473

do not deserve the name. Without game reservations like the

national parks, the large game of this continent will soon

become extinct. .

What we need further is an efficient forestry organization which

shall prevent or suppress the forest fires which annually desolate

our country. As our state organizations have shown themselves

incompetent to deal with the question, the national government

should take hold of it. It is to be hoped that the Forestry

Commission of the Agricultural Department will be empowered

to do so. Not only should the forest fires be suppressed, but

their authors should be punished, whether the former are, as in

some instances, at least, of incendiary origin or not. Railroad

companies should be compelled to place spark catchers or ex-

tinguishers on their engines, under heavy penalties for non-com-

pliance. Some action must be taken in the matter immediately,

especially as we are now receiving the scum of Europe, whose

carelessness of all matters of public economy is well known. We

cannot afford to have our mountain regions converted into bare

rocks, as most of the regions inhabited by the earlier civilizations

of Europe now are. First the forests disappear, and then the soil

. from the mountain sides. Fire is a great friend of man, but in the

hands of an unwatched European peasantry it is an evil great

enough to render the punishment inflicted on Prometheus a whole-

some warning to all who misuse this one of the greatest of

nature’s benefits.

474 The American Naturalist. [May,

RECENT BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS.

T, C. C—Annual meso of the Museum of Am. Archzology of University

of sae va I., No. 1, 1 From the author.

Annual Report of the Cornell University Agri. Exp . Station, 1890.

Annual Report (Third) of the Marine Biological Lab oratory, 1890.

nual Report of the Curator of the Museum of Cdiapiitative Zoology at Harvard

T pà A

A Noles on nagar of Mammals made in Central and Southern

PRE by Dr. Audley C. r, with Descriptions of New Species of the Genera Ves-

pertilio, Sciurus, paces of Mammals collected by Mr. Streator in

and

British Columbia, with Descriptions of two New Sub-species of Sciurus.—Notes on a

Small Collection of West Indian Bats, with Descriptions of an separ New Species.

—Description of a New Species and a New Sub- -species of the Genus Lepus.’ Exts. Bull.

Am. Mus. Nat, Hist., Vol. III. From the author.

ad , R. C—The Wild Cattle of Great Britain. From the author

ERS, HOWARD.—Concerning Vertebrate Coptalogetelies: Reprint from foul

Perg Vol. IV., No. 2. From the author

tide ALICE.—Studies in Evolution and Biology. From the author

- G—Klassen und Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs. Vierter Band, Vermes,

15-16 trang Fiinfter Band, Arthropoda, 28 Lieferung; Sechster Band, Reptilien,

69 Li

, MONTAGUE,— — of a Genus of Fossil Fishes—Dapedius. Ext,

pase Leese Literary and Philos. Soc., Oct., tg:

CHAPMAN, F. M.—On a Collection of Birds made e by Mr. Clark P. Streator in =

British Columbia with — soon by the Collector. Ext. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist.,

Vol. IIT. From

yang FRANCESCO nore Malacologiche circa la Nassa semistriata € N.

costulata del Brocchi.

Dawso hes Vis anus an Educator.—The — Group of Logan. Reprints

Canadian eee of Science, July, 1890. From the a

Ducés, A.—Aparato Venenoso del Sam mses Bean). From the author.

DEWA LQUE, G.—Queiques observations au sujet de la Note de M. E. Dupont sur Le

Pondingue de Wéris. From the apo i

FELIX, JOHANNES. Erehags t aves der Gattung Protosphyraena ae

Besonderer Abdruck = der Zech der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft,

XLII., 1890. From

Geological ei ty Minois, Vol. VIII. Geology by A. H. Worthen ; Paleon

Chace Worthen, C. Wachmuth, F. Springer, E. O. Ulrich, and O. Everett. Edited by

GILL, THEODORE. —The Osteological Characteristics of the Families Ranicipitidæ,

dnote Angu re Murzenidz, Murzenesocidz, Simenchlyide, and Syna-

Phobran: Exts. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII. From the author die

i Hance. ERNST ot Ponito Sandton. Vergleichende Untersuchunges sc

g und Zusammensetzung der Pelagischen Fauna und Flora. From capes

HEGELER, hag C.—A Protest against the Legal and Moral Doctrine of the S :

of Illinoi

Ia, yao .—The Geology and Paleontology of the Cretac

of Mexico, Ext, t. Proc. Phila, Acad. Nat. Sciences, Dec., 1890. From the paee

1891.] Recent Books and Pamphlets. 475

LERCH, O.—Remarks on the Geology of the Concho Country, Texas. Ext. Am.

Geol., A 1891. From the author,

LINTNER, J. A.—First, Second, and Sixth PER Reports on the Injurious and

other eee o the State of New York. From the or.

: MERRIAM, C. H.—Descriptions of Sabo pral Species of North American

Few pi U. S. Dept. Agri., Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy. North

ga cee No. 4. From the author.

, OTTO.—Beitrag zur Kennniss der Fauna des Alttertidrs von n Mississippi

roa Alabama Sadir RBA dl aus Bericht über g

ae in Frankfort a. M., 1887. From the author.

oe oes , F. P.—Extraits de la Revista del Museo de la Plata, Tome I., 1890,

Rapide rie d'oeil sur sa fondation et son P REAA a A 'une Exposition

<n Sori are à l'occasion du quatrième Centenaire de la découverate de

Am m the author.

“oie aeii —The Aryan Race: Its Origin and Its Achievements. From

the author. is

NIPHER, F. E.—Electrical Industries in St. Louis—The State Weather Service.

hone od cones

K, J.—Discours de M. le Professeur J. Prestwich, President du Cong.

Gea hie: 1888. From Henry Osborn

OSSER, CHARLES S.—The Thickness of the Devonian and Silurian Rocks of

daisi Central New York. Ext. Am. Geol., Oct., 1890, From the author.

neg of the Australian Museum, Vol. I., No. 4, No

of the Work of the Brooklyn Ethical Associatio | 1890-91

E, ior M. N.—The Degree of fig cong of Scientific Beliefs. Extract New

Bead and Yale Review, Jan., 1891. From the au

SAMSON, F. A.—A Bibliography 0 ‘the Geology of iial Bull. No. II., Geol.

Survey of Se From the author.

‘ SQUIRE, J.—Report on the Cahaba om Field, with an Appendix: On the Geology

of the vac? Regions Adjacent to the Cahaba Coal Field, by Eugene Smith. Part of

the Geol. yate oo From Eugene Sm nith.

STE —Descriptions of New West American Land, Fresh-Water, and

Marine Shens, with one and pem, Ext. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIIL, pp.

205-225. m the Smithsonian Institui

Peasin Wagner Free Institute an Science. Vol. II., 1890.

TRUE, F. W.—Description of Two New Species of Mammals from Mt. Kilima-

Njaro, East Africa. Et Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 227-229. From

Smithsonian eet

j coTr, C pper Cambrian Fossils. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus., Vol. XIII., pp. 266-279, pls. XX., XXI. From the author.

WEBER, MAX.—Zoologische Ergebnisse einer reise Nederlandisch h Ost. Indien

ben. From the author.

WIEDERSHEIM, R. von.—Uber die Entwicklung des Urogenitalapparates

odilen und Schi iiien. tiai anak aus pe Anzeiger, 1890, he

12, From the author.

476 The American Naturalist. [May,

RECENT LITERATURE.

Wheeler’s Report Upon the United States Survey West

of the One-Hundredth Meridian.'—An approximate notion of

the extent of the work of the United States Survey west of the one-

hundredth meridian, and of the labor involved in putting it upon

record, may be had by a consideration of the extent of the territory

involved.

The area within the United States west of the one-hundredth meri-

dian of longitude (1,443,360 square miles) embraces, entire, the basins

of'the Colorado (270,000 square miles), Interior (208,600 square

miles), Coast (100,900 square miles), and Sacramento (64,300 square

miles); also that part of the Columbia (215,700 square miles) south

of the forty-ninth parallel, and portions of the basins of the Missouri

(338,200 square miles), Rio Grande (123,000 square miles), Arkansas

(75,500 square miles), Brazos (34,800 square miles), and the Red River

of the North (3,360 square miles).

Volume I., recently issued, closes the series. It is devoted to the

geographical report, and is a most interesting as well as comprehensive

description of the areas occupied, and their population, with their in-

dustries, their communications, irrigation systems, and artesian wells.

The chapter on the Indians is the result of the author’s personal obser-

vations, and contains advice worth heeding.

Appendix F contains a detailed account of the operations of the

Wheeler survey. The first expedition took the field in May, 1871.

The area embraced was 72,250 square miles, including portions bg

Central, Southern, and Southwestern Nevada, Eastern California,

Southwestern Utah, Northwestern, Central, and Southern Arizona.

The survey of 1872 commenced on July 7th, and was completed r

the 11th of December. The area embraced was 47,866 square miles,

including portions of Central, Western, and Southwestern Utah,

tern Nevada, and Northwestern Arizona. 7

‘In 1873 the expedition took the field in three divisions, organized

respectively at Santa Fé, New Mexico; Salt Lake City, Utah; and

Denver, Colorado. The area embraced was 72,500 square miles,

including portions of Central and Southern Utah ; Northern,

IR, Unc i i t of the One-Hundre®®

Meridian, in Soca doaa eran Ar Wise Coney ae United States

ides

Army,| under the Direction of the Chief of Engineers, United States Army. Volume

Geographical Report.

1891.] Recent Literature. 477

Eastern, and Southeastern Arizona; Southwestern, Western, North-

western, and Central New Mexico; and Central, Southern, and South-

western Colorado. The area of the expedition of 1872 was entered

along certain lines.

The several parties of the expedition in 1874 took the field from the

camp of organization at Pueblo, Colorado, previous to and on the 6th

of August. The territory embraced in the field of operations is

bounded on the north by the latitude of the Spanish Peaks, and on the

south by a latitude line passing through Santa Fé; on the east by

longitude 104° 07’ 30” west, and on the west by the western boundary

of Colorado and New Mexico, approximately.

The expedition of 1875 was organized in two sections of three

parties each, one to operate from Los Angeles, California, and the

other from Pueblo, Colorado, at initial points. The California division

disbanded at Caliente, California, in November, 1875, and the Colorado

section at West Las Animas, Colorado, November 25th. The area

occupied was 39,169 square miles, including portions of Southern

Colorado, Northwestern New Mexico, Southern California, small

sections in Southwestern Nevada, and Western Arizona.

In 1876 the survey was again organized in two sections ; the Colorado

section, of two parties, at Fort Lyon, Colorado, and the California

section, of four parties, at Carson City, Nevada. These sections took

the field during the month of August, and were disbanded late in

November at the above-named points. The areas that had been visited

in 1871, ’72, ’73, 74, and ’75 were again entered along certain lines

when necessary to perfect the continuous belts of triangulation required

to cover entirely the country under examination.

The expedition in 1877 was organized in three divisions ; one, of

“two parties, at Fort Lyon, Colorado; a section, of two parties, at

Carson, Nevada; and a third, of two parties, at Ogden, Utah. The

field of survey comprised 32,477 square miles, in West Central Colorado,

Central New Mexico, Northwestern Utah, Southeastern Idaho, North-

€astern and East Central California, and South Central Oregon

_ The areas embraced by the expeditions of 1873, 1874, 1875, and

1876 were again entered along certain lines when required to complete

triangular observation.

The expedition of 1878 took the field in three divisions of three

Parties each. Of the Colorado division one party was organized at

Fort Stanton, New Mexico, and two at Fort Garland, Colorado. The

two: parties of the California division were organized et at

Am, Nat.—May.—5.

478 The American Naturalist. - [May,

Carson, Nevada, and at Camp Bidwell, California. Ogden, Utah, was

the initial point of the Utah section. An area aggregating 25,550

square miles was occupied, situated chiefly in Southwestern New

Mexico, Northern Utah, Northern, Central, and Southwestern

California, Western Nevada, and Central Oregon.

Areas embraced during the seasons of 1873, 1874, 1875, 1876, and

1877 were again visited along certain lines when rendered necessary in

perfecting triangulation and topographic details.

In 1879 several small parties were sent out to complete details in

certain areas entered during the years 1873, 1875, 1877, and 1878.

The survey was terminated at the same time as that under Dr. E

V. Hayden, by the act of Congress creating the United States Geo-

logical Survey. While it was probably well that the geological survey

should have been undertaken by a bureau of the Interior Department,

it is not so clear that the topographical work should have been so dis-

posed of. That this should be done by the United States Engineers

seems eminently proper, since the educated men and the plant in

instruments, etc., have been in that department of the government

service from its commencement. To duplicate this seems to be an

unwise and unnecessary expense.

The Itinerary of the Colorado Grand Cafion and River trip of 1871

is of absorbing interest.

The text is abundantly illustrated with fine chromo-lithographs, and

the value of the work enhanced by the reproduction of old maps, with

notes and references to geographical codrdinates for a permanent

official topographic atlas of the United States. :

The value of a reliable geographical report on the territory discussed

in this book is inestimable, and the highest praise is due to the dis;

tinguished author for the faithful, accurate, and above all, systematic

production of so great an amount of geographic, geologic, and other

scientific material,

eR ra ag ee RR EOE a

iP A

MEE E VAR EE ON LE

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 479

General Notes.

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.

On the Non-Actinopterygian Teleostomi.—Material is not at

present accessible in the United States from which to learn the struc-

ture of the median fins in the Holoptychiide and Osteolepidide. In

drawing up my Synopsis of the Families of the Vertebrata, in 1889,! I

assumed that these fins had the primitive structure, such as is found in

the oldest members of the Teleostomi (Tarassiidze), Dipnoi, and other

subclasses, viz., that the axonosts are equal in number to, and con-

tinuous with, the neural spines of the Vertebrata. This definition

threw the families in question into the Crossopterygia as distinguished

from the Rhipidopterygia. In the latter the axonosts are much reduced

in number, so that one or two fused into a single piece supports each

dorsal and anal fin.

Prof. Traquair has, however, stated that the dorsal fins of the

Osteolepidide are of the Rhipidopterygian type, and Mr. A. Smith

Woodward in the Volume II. of the Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the

British Museum? confirms this statement, and shows that the Holopty-

chiidz agree with them in this respect. He does not adopt the super-

order Rhipidopterygia, but combines it with the Crossopterygia ; and

he places the families mentioned, together with the Rhizodontide,

which is my Tristichopteridz, in the order to which I referred the latter,

the Rhipidistia. As regards this ordinal reference, it is clearly neces-

sary on the evidence brought forward by Traquair and by Woodward.

I do not, however, see that the Rhipidopterygia can be properly com-

bined with the Crossopterygia, since the structure of the median fins

is radically different, and one which offers as good ground for super-

ordinal distinction as do the paired fins offer ground for the separation

of the Actinopterygia. The Tarassiida and the Polypteridz possess

the characters of the median fins which I viewed as characteristic of

the Crossopterygia, while the paired fins, so far as can be discovered

from the descriptions of the former,’ indicate two distinct orders

within it.

? AMERICAN NATURALIST, p. 856.

? L. c., 189%, p. 321

3 Smith W: Wobduned: E c, IL, p. 317-

480 The American Naturalist. ` [May,

With this new information in our possession, it appears to me that

the relations of these fishes is best expressed in the following way:

Subclass [V.—TELEOsTOMI.

There are four superorders of the Teleostomi or true fishes, which

differ in the structure of the fins.

I. Median fins each with a single bone representing axonosts.

Paired fins unibasal ; Rhipidopterygia.

II. Median fins with numerous axonosts.

Paired fins with baseosts; pectorals with separate

axonosts ; ? uni- or pluribasal ; Crossopterygia. `

. Paired fins with baseosts ; pectoral fins with axonosts

and baseosts confounded ; pluribasal ; ` » Podopterygia.

Pectoral fins only with baseosts, these confounded

? with an axonost, and pluribasal ; Actinopterygia.

Rhipidopterygia.

The orders of Rhipidopterygia are the following. They all have

actinotrichia in place of fin-rays :

I. Paired fins with the basilars arranged on each side of the

median axis, or archipterygial. :

Median fins with basilars ; Taxisha-

II. SRANI fins with the basilars arranged fan-shaped at the end of

shor .

Median fins fg Pois ; Rhipidisha.

Median fins without, caudal fins with, basila Actimsha.

The Taxistia includes but one family, ie “Holopiyehiiaas which is

of Devonic age. The Rhipidistia includes the Tristichopteridz, pr

the Devonic and Carbonic; the Osteolepidæ, from the same; an

possibly the Onychodontidz, which are Devonic ee

The Actinistia includes the single family of the Coelacanthide, whi

appears in the Lower Carbonic and ranges to the Upper Cretacic in

both Europe and America. -

The Croisi includes two orders, as follows:

Dorsal and axonosts well developed ; actinotrichia ;

no fin-rays ; pectorals ? unibasal ; P

Dorsal baseosts rudimental ; fin-rays ; pectorals tribasal ; irom w

But one family is dictated} in the Haplistia, the Tarassiide,

Lower Carbonic of Scotland. The Cladistia are rep

family which is not known in the fossil state, Polypteride, of OF

io:

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 481

rivers of Africa. The vertebrz in this genus are ossified and biconcave.

The Podopterygia has also two orders. They are thus defined :

Branchiostegal rays present ; Lysopteri.

‘No branchiostegal rays ; Chondrostei.

In these orders the notochord is persistent, and there are either

actinotrichia, or fin-rays which are more numerous than the baseosts.

Tail heterocercal or diphycercal.

The location of the Lysopteri in the Podopterygia by Woodward is

due to the discovery by Traquair of the characters of the pectoral and

ventral fins, The order includes four families, which differ as follows :

I. Tail heterocercal,

Teeth acute, external ; Palaoniscide.

Teeth obtuse, on palate and splenial ; Platysomide.

No teeth ; Chondrosteida.

II. Tail diphycercal.

Teeth present ; scuta on body ; Belonorynchide.

The Chondrostei include two families, the Accipenseride and the

Polyodontide, both a which make their first appearance in the

Eocene.—E. D. Cop

Paleontology of Argentina.—A new journal devoted to natural

history has just been established by M. Florentino Ameghino, at Buenos

Ayres, under the title, Revista Argentina de Historia Naturel. Inthe

Bulletin Bibliographic is given the titles of the memoirs in the first

number. Among the notes will be found the following statements

of especial interest to paleontologists : |

Two scientific expeditions are now at work in Southern Patagonia.

One, under the direction of M. Ramon Lista, governor of the territory

of Santa Cruz, which has for its object the geography of the country,

left the Island of Pavon November 5th, 1890, in order to explore the

lakes of the Andes. The other exploration, which is exclusively geo-

logical, under the direction of M. Carlos Ameghino, had for its object

the study of geology, and to collect fossil remains in that region. The

notes received up to this time (February, 1891) warrant us in stating

that the results of this expedition surpass all preceding ones.

Farther north, the oligocene formations in the vicinity of Parana

were explored, during the year 1890, by MM. Scalabrini and Léon

Lelong, who collected an immense quantity of bones of fossil verte-

brates belonging to a type entirely unknown up to this time. A second

formation of the same epoch, equally rich in fossil remains, has been

discovered at Arroyo del Espinillo, about fifteen miles from the city

of Parana. Many of the species are new to science.

482 The American Naturalist. [May,

Finally, the Miocene sands which form the valleys between the spurs

of the Acouquija (Tucuman and Catamarca) have furnished M. Manuel

. B. Zavaleta with remains of fossil mammals indicating a fauna almost

entirely new, and which is badly represented in the formations of the

same epoch hitherto explored.

These fossils will be described in the next number of the Revista

Argentina, as well as the new type of Ungulates named by M. Ame-

ghino Wotohippus toxodontoides.— Revue Scientifique.

_ Water-Marks on Paleozoic Rocks.—In the Quar. Jour. Geol.

Soc., Nov., 1890, Sir Wm. Dawson has figured and described some

peculiar markings of Paleozoic rocks. Bilobites, which have been

regarded by Saporta, Delgado, and others as true algæ, are, so far as

American examples are concerned, undoubtedly the tracks of a marine

animal, probably crustacean. Scolithus, originally placed with fucoids,

represents burrows of worms with castings at their entrances. Sabel-

larites is a name the author proposes for certain elongated tubes com-

posed of grains of sand and calcareous organic fragments associated

with carbonaceous flocculent matter, indicating a horny sheath. They

are formed of the phosphatic dejections of animals subsisting on Lin-

gulz, Trilobites, Hyolithes, and other creatures having coverings of

calcium-phosphate. Certain trunk-like forms in the Potsdam Sand-

stone are now shown to be concretions, the nucleus of which must

have been a Chorda-like alga. ,

In many cases species of fossil plants have founded on rill-marks,

notably the genera Dendrophycus, Delesserites, and Vexillum.

The Mutual Relations of Land-Elevation and Ice-

Accumulation during the Quaternary Period are described

by Professor Joseph LeConte as follows : i Ji

“It is generally agreed that the Quaternary was characterized es

remarkable oscillations of land lével, and corresponding oscillations g

climate and of ice-accumulation. But the most opposite views are

held regarding the time-relations of these two sets of phen i

Some hold that the land-elevation was coincident with the cold ap

the ice-accumulation, and was at least one of its causes ; and that E

moderation of temperature and removal of the ice was coincident e

the depression, and was its effect. Others take exactly the o

view. I believe thatthe two extreme views may. be reconcley oo

all facts satisfactorily explained, by supposing (1) that the corm

elevation which commenced in the Pliocene culminated in the ae

1891.] Geology and Paleontology. 483

Plistocene, and was at least one of the causes of the cold, and there-

fore of the ice-accumulation ; (2) that the increasing load of ice was

the main cause of subsidence below the present level; (3) that the

removal of the ice-load by melting was the cause of the re-elevation

to the present condition ; but (4) that all these effects lagged far behind

heir causes.” (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 223-330.)

Submarine Channels of the Pacific Coast.—JIn a recent

paper in the Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Prof. Joseph LeConte discusses the

submarine channels off the Pacific coast, The researches of Professor

Davidson have brought to light twenty or more submarine channels on

the coast from Cape Mendocino to San Diego. The distinctive feature

of these, as contrasted with those on the eastern shore, is that they

have no obvious relation to existing rivers. They are not a submarine

continuation of any system of river valleys on the adjacent land. On

the contrary, they run in close to shore, and abut against a bold coast,

with mountains rising in some cases 3,000 feet within three to five

miles of the shore-line, and wholly unbroken by any large river valleys.

Mr. LeConte thinks it is impossible to account for this except by

orogenic changes which diverted the lower courses, and places of

emptying of the rivers, since the channels were made. He dates these

changes about the end of the Pliocene or beginning of the Plistocene ;

they were probably coincident with the lava-flows and consequent dis-

placement of the rivers, which took place at that time in the Sierra

region.

Geological News.—Walter Harvey Weed has been working up

the geology of the Cinnabar and Bozeman coal fields of Montana. He

believes that facts warrant him in stating that these Coal Measures are

of Laramie age. They are conformably overlain by volcanic material

containing an abundant fossil flora of recognized Laramie types, in

turn overlain by beds of fresh-water clays and sandstones of undeter-

mined age, but which belong to what has heretofore been considered

as undoubtedly Laramie strata. (Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp.

349-364.) According to E. T. Newton, the rodents now known to

occur in the brick-earth of the Thames valley are: Castor fiber Linn.,

Spermophilus erythrogenoides Falc., Microtus (Arvicola) amphibius,

Linn., Microtus (Arvicola) ratticeps Key. and Bl., Myodes torquatus

Desm., and M. lemmus Linn. (Geol. Mag., Vol. VII., Dec., 1890.)

According to Mr. Robert Bell, ore bodies of the nickel and cop-

per deposits in the Sudbury (Canada) district do not appear to have

been accumulated like ordinary metalliferous veins from mineral

484 The American Naturalist. [May,

matter in aqueous solution, but to have resulted from igneous fusion,

The fact that they are always associated with diorite, which has been

left in its present positions in a molten state, points in this direction.

(Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., Vol. II., pp. 125-140.) According to R.

Etheridge, Jr., there have been no geologic traces of man discovered

in Australia up to the present time. The meagre details in the finds

recorded render their evidence untrustworthy, (Proc. Linnean Soc.

New South Wales, Vol. V., pp. 259-268.) Professor von Ettings-

hausen, the eminent Austrian paleobotanist, has published a memoir

on the fossil plants of New Zealand. This work is now being repro-

duced in English, and will be published with a large amount of addi-

tional information upon the same subject. (Rept. Col. Mus. and Geol.

Surv. New Zealand, No. 20.) The annual appropriation for the

Geological Survey of Texas, made by the Legislature just adjourned,

is $35,000, exclusive of printing. Appropriations were also made

for testing the lignites, for the publication of an accurate map of the-

state, and for the erection of a laboratory building at the University

of Texas, which will contain a suite of rooms for the chemical depart-

ment of the survey.

BOTANY.

North American Diatoms.'—Seven years ago the botanists of

this country were presented by Mr. Wolle with a handy book on

Desmids, and three years later they found themselves again indebted

to the industrious author for an equally useful work on the fresh-water

Algz of the United States, exclusive of the Desmids (treated in r

previous work) and the Diatomaceæ. We have now the pleasure 0

hich the

noticing a volume on the Diatoms of North America, in w

author completes his series of works on the Algæ. d

e plan of the work resembles that of Schmidt's ‘Atlas a

Diatomaceen Kunde,” in which figures serve in place of pe

descriptions. Any one who has worked with these tiny plants He

full well that a good figure is of much more use in the geter

of species than a great deal of descriptive text. The text oer

` 1 Diatomaceze of North America, Illustrated with twenty-three hundred fig" woe

` the author’s drawings on one hundred and twelve plates. ed vse arn States.”

author of “ Desmids of the United States,” “ Fresh-Water Algz of the neces

Bethlehem, Pa., The Comenius Press, 1890

1891.] Botany. 485

but the figures are much more so. Accordingly, our author has given

us an abundance of figures, to represent our fourteen hundred species.

He has also greatly simplified the work of comparison by having all

the figures drawn to the same scale. By a little patience and practice

the student of Diatoms may easily identify any species he may happen

to find.

The book contains in addition to the plates a short preface, in which

a brief historical account is given of the study of Diatomacez in this

country ; following this is a bibliography, including forty-seven cita-

tions ; next follows a short ‘‘ Introduction ” of five pages, devoted to

a summary account of habits, structure, etc. ; after which comes Prof.

H. L. Smith’s ‘‘ Conspectus of the Families and Genera,’’ as published

in Zhe Lens, in 1872. Last of all in the text is an alphabetical

arrangement of genera and the American species under them (also

arranged alphabetically), with references to the plates in which they

are illlustrated.

The work will at once become a necessity to every botanist who

gives any attention to these interesting plants. The low price of

the book ($6.00) is another feature which will commend it to all.—

CHARLES E. BEsseEy.

The ‘Field Edition” of Gray’s Manual.—This new book

weighs fourteen ounces, and measures seven and three-eighths by four and

five-eighths inches, and is but seven-eighths of an inch in thickness, The

old book weighs more than two pounds, is an inch longer and wider, is

is twice as thick, and more than two-and-a-half times the bulk of the

. new one. With exactly the same type, and actually four more printed

pages, the little book is admirably suited to the botanist’s needs. Its

leather cover and strong binding give it much greater durability than

the old one, while its small size enables the collector to slip it easily

into his pocket. Now that such an edition has appeared, we ipa

that publishers did not venture to bring it out sooner.—A. F. W

The Flora of the High Nebraska Plains.—The 2oth of

August, 1890, I set out for Western Nebraska, where I spent a month

in collecting on the plains above 4,000 feet altitude above sea-level.

Waiting for the train at Julesburg, Col., I could not withstand the

temptation to take a walk on the bottomland of Lodge Pole Creek.

The flora was far from rich. The grass here, as well as nearly every-

where in Deuel, Banner, and Cheyenne counties, Neb., was very short,

and, on account of the long drought, dried up. ` The whole valley

reminded me of a pasture in the month of November. A list of a few

486 The American Naturalist. [May,

of the plants I saw I give from memory: Cnicus ochrocentrus, Liatris

punctata, Cleome integrifolia, Cleomella angustifolia, Gaura parvifiora,

G. coccinea, Lygodesmia juncea, Eriogonum annuum, Psoralea tenuiflora.

I spent about two weeks on the high table-lands of Deuel county,

seven to ten miles northeast of Chappel. Here the principal grasses

are the buffalo grass (Buchloé dactyloides) and the grama (Bouteloua

oligostachya). Both, even when dry, make an excellent pasturage for

cattle. The animals graze on them throughout the winter, if the snow

is not too deep.

At first I strolled over the prairies and hills, but found very little of

interest in the way of plants. Everything was dried up. Three kinds

of cactus, viz., Mammilaria vivipara, Opuntia missouriensis, and O.

Jragilis; two thistles, Cnicus undulatus and C. ochrocentrus, Yucca

angustifolia, Erysimum asperum, and Astragalus sericoleucus, were the

most remarkable. :

My trip had been a failure had I not found another field for bot-

anizing, viz., the ‘‘sand-draws.’’ Sand-draw is a word that I have

not seen in any book, and still it is a word in common use among the

settlers of Western Nebraska. The sand-draw is about the same as the

“wady” of Arabia. It is a stream in which the water, as a rule, is -

never seen. The sand-draw looks like a dried-up stream with sandy

or gravelly bottom. . The sand is five to ten, or even up to fifteen or

twenty feet deep. In this sand the water is running, perhaps the year

round. In oneof the smaller I saw a well dug, about fifteen feet deep,

that contained water in the month of August.

In the sand-draws I found many plants which for their beauty are

well worthy of cultivation. Among others I may mention the pink-

purple Jfomea leptophylla (also remarkable for its immense roots

weighing sometimes as much as 100 pounds ) ; the white prickly poppy»

Argemone platyceras ; the yellow Menezelia nuda; the white oF pe i

ŒÆnothera albicaulis ; Lupinus argenteus var. procumbens ; Polanisia

trachysperma ; Cleome integrifolia; Chrysopsis villosa; Asclepias speci-

osa; Croton texensis; Eriogonum annuum and E. corymbosum, etc. —

Also of interest is the little sand cherry (Prunus pumila), a low shrub

with creeping branches and big, juicy, edible berries. Among the

rarer plants I found were Pectis angustifolia, Acerates auriculata, Pet-

alostemon tenuifolium, and another near to P. gracile

I also took a day’s ride out to a cañon near North Platte River. js i

additions to my collection made during the trip contained, amo" 5

others: Psoralea linearifolia, Eriogonum alatum, E. flavum, at

aureum, R. cereum, Dalea aurea, D. laxiflora, and Prunus nse

P. A. RypBerc, Lincoln, Neb. ;

(eh er EVI eh) ERS E E Me Pe

1891.] Zoology. 487

ZOOLOGY.

Plathelminthes.—Dr. Braun in Bronn’s ‘‘ Klassen und Ordnungen

des Thier-Reichs,’’ Bd. IV., catalogues the known species of ectopara-

sitic Trematodes. The following species are enumerated from North

America: These are Zristomum maculatum from Diodon sp. ; ? Plec-

tanocotyle elliptica from Labrax mucronatus; Polystomum coronatum

from Cistudo carolina; Pol. oblongum from Dromochelys odoratus ;

and Sphyranura osleri from Necturus lateralis. As soon as our species

are systematically studied this list will be greatly increased.

Hermaphroditism in the Crustacea.—Dr. Ishikawa! describes

the hermaphrodite glands in Gedia major. The anterior part of the

reproductive organ is male, and the vasa deferentia are much as usual

in Decapods. The posterior half of the organ is female, and is much

larger than the rest. In sections the germinal band in the testicular

portion is seen giving rise to spermatozoa, while in the ovarian part

the same band forms eggs. At the point of junction eggs and sperma-

tozoa are commingled. Grobben thinks that these eggs cannot escape

through the narrow generative opening, and hence must atrophy at

certain seasons of the year. This hermaphroditism was found to occur

in all of twenty males examined.

Observations on a Remarkable Development in the Mud-

fish.—An interesting example of abnormal development may be seen

in some mudfishes (Protopterus annectens), now in the Zoological

Gardens of London. Eight rather young ones, of from six to eight

inches long, were brought to England in the summer of 1889, and

have ever since occupied one capacious tank. It was soon seen that

they viciously snapped at each other, maiming and nipping off each

other’s filamentary fins, then about two inches long, but which, how-

ever, soon grew again. By degrees, and particularly within the last

six months, I observed that, in consequence of frequent mutilation,

the fins did not attain their normal length, but were stouter and flatter,

less and less filiform, and with a more distinct fringe, as if nature were

compensating in breadth what was lacking in length. The fish, being

now much grown, snap at each other with greater force. The biggest

is nearly two feet long.

During our unusually severe winter my observations were suspended,

‘and I was therefore greatly surprised in February to find that one of

1 Zool. Anz., XIV., 70, 1891.

488 The American Naturalist. [May,

the mudfishes had meanwhile developed a trifid member (the left pec-

toral fin) like the accompanying sketch (Fig. a). The keeper informed

me that some weeks previously that fin had been bitten, but not quite

severed, about midway, leaving a jagged wound with terminal portion

pendant. It had now not only healed, leaving no trace of the wound,

but the nearly severed portion had become firm and solid, forming one

direct, tapering line from the body. The two lateral segments were,

when quiescent, at right angles with the middle fin (or branch ?) ; but

Drawn from nature

s, Feh. 82

by the authores

EXACE SI.

ame

His days jater.

Abnormal derelopments im fins of the

Mud-Ash drawn from life, by

the Aulhoress 4b.. & [arth 159.

with the movements of the fish they collapsed or expanded freely as

might be, and as far as I could decide each one appeared to possess

independent action. They were flat, thin, exceedingly pliant and

membranous, especially towards the edges; and when the fish was

detained in a net out of the water, and I attempted to examine “

limb more closely, it was flapped about vigorously, or it clung to ;

net, and to handle it would have invited a vicious and forcible bite,

The segments somewhat resembled the tail of a tadpole. h

Another of the mudfishes had grown a bifid fin (Fig. 4); thong

one cannot affirm positively that a portion had not been nie

before it was observed, for three days afterwards it isles alr z

partially gone (Fig. 2), and the trifid fin had also been bitten, ®

w8or.] Zoology. 489

the. lines cc. Concluding that these singular developments were

worthy the attention of our scientific authorities, I lost no time in

sending a description of them to Dr. Giinther and Mr. Boulenger,

even venturing to suggest that before they were eaten off by degrees

a snip of the professional scissors might preserve the specimen for the

museum, Mr. Boulenger, in consequence, secured the trifid limb, and

in due time the result of his investigations will appear in the Zoological

Society’s ‘‘ Proceedings.’’ I observe, too, that the long, vertical fin

and also the tail, when bitten, now no longer regain their normal form

as they did at first, but remain indented with broad, rounded lobes, and

with an ortet edge, like a cord. The whole development strikes

one as an example of rapid evolution ; as if Protopterus, after many

fruitless attempts to restore its slender limbs, had “improved ” upon

them, growing them stouter and stronger to assist it in swimming,

compensating in bulk what it could not acquire in length. But this is

mere imagination on my part. I must leave to science to account for

the anomaly.

The amputated limb healed entirely, with the angles rounded off, in

in three days. Within three weeks a point (Fig. ¢) grew out from the

truncated limb, but not in the center. In a few days more the point

was nearly three-fourths of an inch long and more in the center (Fig. /).

It will be closely watched.—CaTHERINE C. Hoptey.

The Lower Jaw of Sphenodon.—It seems to me that there

has never been given a correct description of the lower jaw of Spheno-

don, Günther? writes in 1867, in his ‘Anatomy of Hatteria” : “A

part of the sutures between the bones of which the lower jaw of lizards

is generally composed have entirely disappeared (if they ever existed),

so that the following bones only can be distinguished. The dentary

(u) forms nearly entirely the outer surface of the mandible, a compara-

the small articular portion, and the top of the coronoid process

ted. There is a very distinct foramen between the dentary and

articular, penetrating to the inner surface of the mandible. The

‘splenial (v) is narrow elongate, behind twisted downwards to the lower

side of the mandible and terminating about three millims. from its

extremity. The coronoid (x) is triangular, covering with one angle

the cartilage of Meckel, and forming with another the coronoid pro-

cess, The articular bone (w) is very peculiar; if an angular bone was

present at an early age it has now entirely coalesced with the splenial,

there being scarcely any osseous projection behind the articulary

‘Surface. The articular surface itself does not correspond in form with

? Philos. Trans., 1867, pp. 600, 60r, Pl. xXVI., Figs. 6, 7.

490 The American Naturalist. [May,

the condyle of the quadrate bone, being much elongate in the direc-

tion of the longitudinal axis of the body, and, in fact, nearly four

times as long as the opposite articular surface.’’

Exactly the same description is given by Brühl :3 ‘‘ Der Hatteria

Unterkiefer setzen wirklich in jeder Hälfte nur vier elemente ztisammen :

1. dentale, d.; 2. articulare, ar.; 3. coronoideum, cor.; mit einen

massigen processus coron.; und 4. marginale, marg. (mihi = angulare

autor.=spleniale Owen, Günther); die sonst bei Echsen meist vor-

kommenden Mehrstiicke ; 5. ecto-complementare, ec. cp. (mihi supra

angulare autor.) und 6. endocomplementare, en. cp., auch operculare,

Op., fehlen bei Hatteria spurdos.’’ 7

In a lower jaw of Sphenodon (length of each ramus 56 mm.) I find

all the six elements of the Reptilian lower jaw represented. The whole

arrangement, however, is only comparable with that seen in the Testu-

dinata and not with that of the Squamata.

The dentary, coronoid, and angular (splenial Günther, marginal

Brühl) are described correctly by both Günther and Brühl. The

remaining portion of each ramus is considered as articular. In the

specimen before me this portion plainly consists of three elements, —

an articular, splenial, and supraangular.

Thé articular is a small element, only visible from above and very

little from behind. It is surrounded by the splenial on the inner and

the supraangular on the outer side; it is very much like the corre-

sponding element in the Testudinata. The supraangular is that portion

of Giinther’s and Briihl’s articular which is seen on the outside and

inside. It is connected with the articular, the splenial, the angular,

the dentary, and the coronoid. Between this element and the coronoid

the foramen is placed. The splenial is the inner portion of Giinther’s

and Briihl’s articular. It is connected with the articular, supraangular,

angular, and coronoid. We have therefore a condition which 1s

typically that of the Testudinata. In all the Testudinata, however, the

angular separates the splenial and supraangular behind ; in Sphenodon

the splenial and supraangular meet at the posterior lower end of the Jaw.

The structure of the lower jaw in Sphenodon gives another support

to the opinion of the affinity between Rhynchocephalia and Testudi-

nata.—G. Baur, Clark University, Worcester, Mass., April Sth, T89I-

On the Development of the Male Copulatory Organs 17

Snakes.—Although the adult anatomy of the male copulatory organs

in snakes has been carefully worked out by Neumann * and others, very

3 Brühl. Reptilienkopf. Wien, 1886, Tafel p. CXLVIIL., Figs. 12, 13, 17, 18, 19 2°

* Begattungsapparat der Schlangen, Leipzi

1891.] ` Zoology. 491

little seems to be known of their development. Rathke is, so far as

I know, the only one who has studied it; his account deals merely

with superficial appearances, and is therefore very incomplete.

I have been able to make out a few points in the early history of

these organs from specimens collected in July, 1890, at the Marine

Biological Laboratory, at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island. My

specimens were mostly embryos of the black snake (Bascanium con-

strictor), of from the second to the ninth week of embryonic life,

together with a few garter snake (Zuéenia sirtalis) embryos, taken

at a considerably later stage in their development.

First, a word on the general anatomy of these organs. The male

copulatory organ in snakes, as in lizards, is made up of two distinct

parts, Each part is in the form of a long, hollow sack, more or less

irregular in outline, and in some species bifurcated at the end. A

thick layer of connective tissue, containing numerous cavities in its

outer portion, forms the greater part of the walls of this sack. These

cavities are connected by a branch with the dorsal artery, and it is by

a flow of blood into them that erection of the penis is accomplished.

Outside of this connective tissue is the epithelium, a continuation

of that covering the rest of the body. This epithelium consists of two

layers. The inner, called by Neumann the “stratum mucosum,”’ is

made up of large, columnar cells arranged side by side, and containing

prominent nuclei; the outer is a layer of very much flattened cells

with deeply staining nuclei, joined by their edges to form a thin cov-

ering to the whole.

On the inner side of each penis, running obliquely from base to

tip, is the semen canal. This is a deep depression, approximately

anchor-shaped in cross section. During copulation the two parts o

the penis are brought together in such a way as to make of these two

canals one long tube, which then serves to conduct the semen into the

oviduct of the female.

Closely set all over the surface of the penis are numerous cartilagi-

nous teeth-like bodies, which arise in the connective tissue, and pro-

ject out through the epithelium. Their exact function is not known,

though they have been regarded as “‘ wollustorgane,’’ or contrivances

for stimulating the sexual organs. It is possible that they may serve

to hold the sexes more firmly together during the act of copulation.

These penes arise as external appendages. At the close of embry-

onic life, how however, they are drawn back into two pouches, one on

either side of the body just behind. the cloaca, This action is effected

Š Entwicklung. der Natter. Königsberg, 1839.

492 = The American Naturalist. [May,

by a long muscle, the retractor penis, which runs from the point of the

penis through its interior back for a considerable distance in the tail ;

there it is attached to one of the caudal vertebra. The action of this

muscle is such as to turn the penis inside out,—as the finger of a

glove could be turned,—back into its place under the skin. At times

of copulation the organs are everted, chiefly by an influx of blood into

their erectile tissue.

The copulatory organs first appear in embryos of about the sixth

week. At this stage most of the important organs of the body are

formed ; the body has completely closed in, except at the umbilicus,

the food-yolk not being entirely consumed until a much later period.

The wolffian ducts open into the cloaca, but the ureters have not yet

grown so far back. .

The first appearance of the penes takes the form of two ridges,

one on either side of the body, and extending from a point a little

ead of the cloaca to about opposite its posterior end. In sections

across the body at this stage (Fig. 1, ø) these ridges can be seen as

bulgings of the body-wall. These bulgings are filled (Fig. 2) with an

undifferentiated mass of mesoderm cells, similar to and continuous

with those composing the body proper. The whole is covered wit

the characteristic double-layered epithelium. .

The further growth of the penes from these ridges reminds oe

strongly of the manner of formation of the posterior appendages hat

the chick, from the end of the wolffian ridge. The extreme posterior

end of each ridge swells out, forming a rounded prominence, oes

“‘nipple-shaped swellings” of Rathke. The remaining pean fs

week later no trace of them is to be found.

1891.) Zoology. 493

These swellings, however, continue to enlarge, and form the penis

proper. They grow very rapidly in length, and attain their full size

in about three weeks. They are then equal in length to three-quarters

the vertical diameter of the body.

Simultaneously with the growth of these swellings a differentiation

of the mesoderm cells in their interior begins. The ce

exterior gradually lose their round form, become more and more

angular, their ends prolonged more and more into slender processes,

Fig. 1r.

until, in my latest sections of the black snake, they can be seen to

be well on their way toward the formation of connective tissue,

Among these cells clear spaces with a regular outline appear (Fig. 4,7).

These are lined with a layer of flat cells, similar to those Neumann

describes as lining the blood cavities in the adult penis. They are

the beginnings of the blood spaces, which, with their connective tissue

walls, compose the erectile tissue in the adult.

While this change into connective and erectile tissue is going on

among the outer mesoderm cells, those on the interior undergo a

differentation which leads to the formation of the refractor penis. In

embryos of about the seventh week the first rudiments of this muscle

may be seen as a thickening or crowding together of the mesoderm

cells in the middle of each organ (Fig. 3, 7). These cells elongate,

become nearly elliptical in form, and arrange themselves in rows, thus

giving rise to the muscle fibres.

In the adult penis there are two sets of these fibres, a large, inner,

longitudinal band, with an incomplete circular band surrounding it.

Am. Nat.—May.—6.

494 The American Naturalist. [May,

The separation into two sets of fibres can be readily seen in the

manner of grouping of the mesoderm cells, The exact manner in

which muscle fibres arose from mesoderm cells, I was, however, unable

to determine from my specimens. site

Neither semen canal nor cartilaginous ‘‘ teeth ” had been found in the

latest of my black-snake embryos, but both were present in the garter

snakes. From this I infer that they arise at about the same time, and

at about the same stage in the development of the organs. The

semen canal is lined with large cells, continuous with those of the

stratum mucosum, and is undoubtedly formed by an invagination of

the epidermis. The ‘‘ teeth ’’ are modifications of the connective tissue

walls, as Neumann has shown, but the exact manner of this change I

could not determine.

Lying behind the cloaca in the adult snake are two cone-shaped

glands, with ducts opening to the exterior just behind the cloacal

opening. : These are the “‘ anal sacs,” and secrete a stickly fluid, with

a highly unpleasant odor. Rathke thinks this odorous fluid enables

the sexes to find one another during the breeding season.

These glands occupy, in the female, a corresponding position to

that of the drawn-in penis in the male. Hoffmann® quotes Retzius

to the effect that they occur only in the female, and are homologous

with the male penis. Neumann finds them, though much aborted, in

the adult male. In embryos I find them present, and of equal size in

both sexes. They cannot, therefore, be considered homologues of the

penis. Their ducts open to the exterior in the male, —not, as Rathke

states, on the żzner side of each penis, but on the outer side. In the

female they open in corresponding positions.

These glands first appear in the embryos of the seventh week.

Rathke’s statement that they arise as invaginations of the posterior

wall of the cloaca does not agree with my observations. In my

specimens they were formed by an invagination of the outer wall of

the body just above the penis (Figs. 3, 4, s). The gland is formed,

as Rathke states, by a continued growth inward of this invagination-

Both. layers of the epidermis are carried in with it, and enter = the

composition of the sac. In the ‘‘ grosszelligen ‘Plattenepithel, which

rms its outer coating, Neumann recognizes a transformed stratum

mucosum, now exercising a glandular function ; in a thin layer eor?

ing its inner surface he finds the remnants of the original stra

corneum.—AARON L. TREADWELL, Biological Laboratory of Wesleya

University, Feb. 6th, 1891. i

ê Bronn’s Thier Reichs, p. 1557.

1891.] Zoology. 495

; EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

FIGS. 1 and 2 are drawn to the same scale. Figs. 2 and 3 are drawn to

a scale a little larger than 1 and 4.

Fic, 1.—Section through body of embryo of black snake, in front of the

cloaca.

Fic. 2.—Portion of Fig. 1, to right of line 1-2, drawn to larger scale.

FIG. 3.—Right penis of black-snake embryo, two weeks older than Fig. 1.

Section passes through body just behind the cloaca.

Fic. 4.—Section of left penis of black-snake embryo, one week older

than Fig. 3. Section taken just behind cloaca,

P, ridge which marks first appearance of penis; c4, notochord ; a, dorsal

artery; w, wolffian duct; d, alimentary canal; a, mesoderm; æ, stratum

mucosum ; c, stratum corneum (not figured in 1 and 2); 7, retractor muscle ;

$, beginning of anal sac; , blood spaces forming in the mesoderm; 4,

edge of posterior wall of cloaca.

The Quadrate Bone.—R. Broom thinks? that all previous mor-

phologists have been in error in trying to recognize the quadrate

among the bones of the middle ear of mammals. He thinks it forms

the articular cartilage.

“Some of the Causes and Results of Polygamy Among

the Pinnipedia.’’—In the February number of the AMERICAN NAT-

URALIST (Vol. XXV., pp. 103-112), Mr. C. C. Nutting has published

some interesting notes on sexual disparity among polygamous seals,

and deductions from the observations recorded. Mr. Nutting, how-

ever, was not the first to draw attention to such facts and the princi-

ples involved. Over twenty years ago (January, 1871) the subject was

noticed, and the resulting conditions tersely formulated in the AMERI-

CAN Naturatist (Vol. IV.). In a review of Mr. Allen’s then recent

memoir on the eared seals I published the following paragraph

immediately after one on the genetic relationships of the families of

innipeds :

“ In this connection it maybe recalled that while in the monoga-

mous Pinnipeds, or those living in small communities, there is little

difference in size between the males, in the social species, or rather

those of which the males have harems, the males are vastly larger than

the females. Macrorhinus, of the Phocids, and all the Otariids belong

to the latter category. The difference between the sexes would be

readily explained by Mr. Darwin on the principle of natural selection.

It is evident that the larger and more vigorous males would be the

eventual possessors of the females, and the disproportion of the sexes

7 Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., VI., 409, 1890.

496 - The American Naturalist. [May,

would in lapse of time culminate, till it had reached a proportion

when obvious mechanical difficulties would more than balance the

advantages resulting from superior size and vigor, and when, therefore,

farther disproportion would be arrested. It may be added that the

like disproportion of the sexes in the forms above enumerated fur-

nishes not the slightest evidence of more intimate primordial affinity,

for like causes would in each special case, such as this, produce like

effects. —THEODORE GILL.

Errata of article on Chromatophores in fish embryos in February

NATURALIST: Page 113, 9 lines from bottom, read oviparous for vivip-

arous; page 114, 15 lines from top, read periblast for epiblast ; page

116, 16 and 2ọ lines from top, read periblast for epiblast ; page 117,

25 lines from top, read periblast for parablast ; page 118, 2 lines from

bottom, read Hemirhamphus for Hemisbamphus.—C. H. EIGENMANN.

EMBRYOLOGY.

The Later Larval Development of Amphioxus.’ —Mr.

Arthur Willey has published a most interesting account of the later

stages of the larval Amphioxus. It is a continuation of a preceding

paper by Professor Lankester and himself on the younger larva. In

the first paper the larva, with its large mouth on the left side and the

single row of gill-slits on the right, was described ; also the structure

and position of the club-shaped gland and the endostyle were given, and

the origin of the atrial folds, In the present account the author begins

with a larva having fourteen primary gill-slits arrayed in a single ork

and all on the right wall of the pharynx. Above these and on the same

side is to be seen a thickened rod of endodermal tissue with six swell-

ings. These later break through to form six secondary gill-slits, second

to seventh inclusive. The atrium is still open in front. The posen

primary gill-slits now begin seriatim to close and atrophy, beginning

with the fourteenth and continuing until but eight remain.

same time this primary row of gill-slits begins to move around the

ventral surface to the opposite side of the larva (the left), "o :

they assume their adult position. Meanwhile the secondary gill

slits increase in number and size, and occupy the right side

1 Edited by Dr. T. H. Morgan, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md.

2 Quart. Jour. Micro. Sci., March, 1891.

1891.] Embryology. 497

embryo. A single anterior (to the six) slit appears, and others are

also added behind the first-formed slits, ultimately the number of

eight secondary gill-slits being formed. There is then a pause for a

time in the formation of slits, and much later the tertiary slits appear

behind on each side, and the number goes on increaeing during life.

While these changes have been taking place in the gill region other

important organs have been modified. The mouth has moved from

its left lateral position to the mid-ventral line, and the oral hood with

its buccal cirri has appeared. The V-shaped endostyle, at first high up

on the right wall of the pharynx, moves as the primary gills move, from

right to left, as far as the middle line, and at the same time the arms

of the V become parallel, and the apex grows backwards between the

gill-slits. The club-shaped gland, which communicates both with the

cavity of the pharynx and the outer world, atrophies, and at the same

time also the first primary slit. For this or other reasons the author

believes the club-shaped gland to be a modified gill-slit,—the first of

the secondary ones.

In the theoretical part of the paper the asymmetry of the larva,

the change of position of the endostyle, and the homologies of the

club-shaped gland, are discussed. Interesting as this excursion is,

it cannot be given here at all fully. It is assumed that the ancestral

Amphioxus had a mouth opening in the mid-dorsal line, and that the

growth forward of the notochord caused this to shift to the left side.

At the same time the whole pharynx became twisted to the right, cor-

responding to the movement of the mouth, so that the proper gill-slits of

the left side were carried around to the right side. Consequently

when these (the primary) appeared the gill-slits belonging to that side

(right and secondary) were for a time retarded in development ; hence

the asymmetry of the larva.

Several sections deal with the homologies between the Ascidian tad-

pole larva and Amphioxus, and the startling conclusion is reached that

the intestine of the Ascidian is not homologous with the intestine of

Amphioxus, but is to be compared to the club-shaped gland, and

therefore represents the modified first right (secondary) gill-slit of

Amphioxus. : f

Development of the Pancreas in Batrachia.—The origin

of the pancreas in both Urodeles and Anurans has been studied anew

by Göppert.* In the embryos of both groups the pancreas arises by

three evaginations from the intestine. One of these is from the

dorsal surface; the other two from the sides, right and left. The

3 Morph. Jahrbuch, XVII. Band, 1st Heft, 1891.

498 The American Naturalist. [May,

cells of these evaginations fold in and form the tissues of the pan-

creas. ‘The three portions separated at first subsequently fuse into a

single organ. The three openings into the gut, however, undergo

several changes. In the adult Urodeles there is a forward opening for

the pancreatic gland into the intestine near to the pylorus. This comes

from the dorsal evagination of the embryo. ‘There are in the adult

Urodeles two or more other openings behind this, some of which fuse

with the duct from the liver (ductus choledochus). The posterior

openings result from various combinations of the two ventral (right

and left) evaginations. In the Anuran the adult has no anterior

opening of the pancreas near the pylorus. In the embryo, however,

there is one (the dorsal), as in the Urodeles, but it is subsequently

lost. The two ventral (or side) evaginations unite with one another

and form a single opening, which subsequently fuses with that of the

ductus choleodochus, as in the adult.

Embryology of Glires.—M. Duval has published another of his

series of papers on the development of rodents, entitled, ‘‘ Le Placenta

des Rougeurs.’?4 The young stages of the mouse are described.

Sections through the whole gravid uterus were made in most cases.

The earliest stage described had a single layer of ectoderm cells sur-

rounding a central cavity. Underneath one portion of this layer were

-a very few large granular amceboid-like cells, which subsequently spr ead

out beneath the ectoderm to form the endodermal lining of the vesicle.

Above this portion in later stages the ectoderm thickens greatly, result-

ing in a solid plug in which a cavity subsequently appears to fonn a

cavity of the amnion and the ectoplacenta. The relation subsisting

between this ectoplacenta and the allantois on the one side and the

uterine walls on the other form the substance of the latter part of the

paper. The problem of the inversion of the layers in the mouse and

rat were discussed in a preceding paper (see abstract in AMERICAN

NATURALIST for April, 1891).

4 Journal de l' Anatomie et Physiologie, Jan.-Feb., 1891.

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 499

ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY.!

The International Congress of Anthropology and Pre-

historic Archeology of Paris, 1889.—( Continued from page 395.)

Il.— Second Question : ‘* The Periodicity of Glacial Phenomena.”’

Mr. Geikie’s paper had been real earlier in the session.

Marquis de Saporta opposed the theories of Mr. Geikie. He saw no

evidence in the fossil flora of a periodic return of the cold climate.

The periodicity of this phenomona, according to his idea, only showed

the oscillations. ‘‘ There is,” he said, ‘in all this a mass of concord-

`- ant facts which we are at this time far from being able to under-

stand or analyze.” He doubted whether the learning of the geologists

had served to elucidate the question in any degree.

Le Docteur Garrigou presented a memoir by which he sought to

establish the multiplicity of glacial movements in the Pyrenees.

Monsieur Marcellin Boule said it was necessary that the savants of

all countries should make study of this question, and bring closer

together and face to face the accurate evidence of detailed facts which

were necessary to solve the problem. In his opinion the Glacial

epoch had commenced at least as early as the Pliocene ; that it was not

localized, nor did it belong to the end of the Plistocene. The

glaciers had successively covered and abandoned, and again recovered,

vast regions, and instead of being continuous were periodic. The

question could be solved only in a general fashion, but he desired

to put on record his opinion that the question of the glaciers, the cut

ting and filling of the valleys, and the formation of the caverns all

belong together, were but one, must stand or fall together, and any

studies made of the one which neglects the other will only be partial,

and therefore may be erroneous. His (Boule’s) conclusions regarding

the caverns were as follows: 1. That the most ancient deposits are the

alluvials of the water which had eroded and made the valleys, and that

the antiquity of these deposits was in direct relation to the altitude of

the cavern above the valley. 2. That the deposits of the rivers, poor

in fossils, are nearly always cut up, carried down, and replaced by new

deposits coming from later erosions. 3. That the fossils found in this

newer deposit belong to the late Plistocene; those from the earlier

Plistocene are rarely found in it ; and such as are found are, by reason

of the erosion and redepositing, difficult to determine.

1 Edited by Dr. Thomas Wilson, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D. C.

500 The American Naturalist. [May,

Monsieur Gabriel de Mortillet spoke of the glacial phenomena as

being divided into two groups: the one at the far north, and the other

in the Alps, Pyrenees, etc., in the south. The Alps and glacial phe-

nomena could have been produced by only one cause, that of the

increased cold, and this cause would at the same time produce an exten-

sion of the glaciers of the north. He might admit the fluctuations,

oscillation, retreat and advance, appearance and disappearance of the

glaciers, but this was far from admitting a plurality of glacial periods,

and was contrary to this idea.

M. Marcellin Boule took up the question and gave a detailed de-

scription of European glaciers. After late investigations the epochs of

the glaciers of the north and of the Alps could not be separated, and

geologists were not in accord in opposing the ancient hypothesis of

the Plistocene sea of floating ice. The grand glacier coming down —

and through Scandinavia had attained to Erzgebirge, where it had de-

posited erratic blocks geschicbelehm. This was followed by a retreat

corresponding to the melting and opening of the North and Baltic

Seas, during which time was deposited the interglacial alluvium, with a

fauna of a warm country. Alluvium deposits of this epoch were so

extensive that they measured in Brandenburg alone a surface of 200,-

ooo square miles, German. In the Alps the deposits of interglacial

plant at Innsbruck are found at ooo metres of altitude, at the very

top of the chain of mountains. As for paleontology, M. Boule

declared that the stratigraphic facts must dominate, though he doubted

the pretended facts of stratigraphy as given by some of the investiga-

tors, though he was far from saying that the fauna and flora of the

Upper Pliocene, the Plistocene, affected detrimentally or were in opp

sition to the facts found by stratigraphy. MM. Bleicher and Fliche

have just described to the Geologic Society of France a deposit in the

northeast of France, in the plants and mollusks demonstrating the

alternating epochs of cold and heat. 4

Third Question: ‘Art and Industry during the Paleolithic Period

—in the Caverns.’’

Judge Piette, of Angers, who probably headed the list of cavern

investigators in France, had displayed at the great exposition his mag-

nificent and extensive collection, principal among which were his late

finds in the cavern of Mas d’Azil, on the river Avise, in the Depart

ment of Ariège, and so he was entitled par excellence to lead in the

discussion. He gave a description of these latest. discoveries, the

results of three years’ continuous labor in Mas d’Azil, and present

his opinions and conclusions deduced from a study and comparison

_ 1891.) Archeology and Ethnology. 501

of the art works of the period. He said that the most ancient pieces

of flint were worked in an elegant form ; a perception of the beautiful

was evident. There was an extension of art during the Madelenien

epoch ; the sculpture first, and engraving afterwards. Each prehistoric

station in that country had its particular style or manifestation of art.

Along the river Vezere the horses engraved in relief are represented

with such enormous heads as to be veritable caricatures. In the

Pyrenees, at the Grotte Gourdan and Lortet, numerous beautiful

engravings were found. The artists of Lourdes and the Grotte Arudy

had invented the volute, the spiral, and different designs which were

not encountered at any other place. The sculptors of Mas d’Azil

sought out imaginary, apparently mythological beings. Man at that

time had the leisure to pursue his own imagination, the opportunity to

indulge his love for the beautiful according to the best means that art

presented. M. Piette presented different engravings of the reindeer

in certain positions and conditions sustaining his theory. He also

exhibited the advance sheets of his great work on art during this age,

and showed by chromo-lithography the reproduction of a great number

of objects engraved and sculptured.

M. Montelius asked if the spiral exhibited by M. Piette as from

d’Arudy did not belong to the age of iron ; that it would beso if found

in his country,

M. Cartailhac responded on behalf of M. Piette that he had assisted

in its find; that there was no doubt of its authenticity; that it was

made out of the bone of a reindeer, and its contemporaneity with that

age was indisputable.

One of the objects presented by M. Piette he declared to be a sphinx

or winged quadruped. Le Baron de Baye was surprised that it was

found in a deposit of the stone age. But M. Cartailhac responded

that it required much imagination to determine or say that it was a

sphinx. It was incomplete, and the wings were more than doubtful,

and he denied largely the propositions advanced by M. = ee

Praising him for his exceedingly valuable excavations

M. Gabriel de Mortillet also opposed the ioei of M. Piette

upon the subject of the demonstration of the reindeer and the horse.

Monsieur Fraipont ranged himself on the side of Mortillet, and he

criticized mercilessly the fantastic idea that the artist studied art in the

same way that the schools were now conducted at the Academy of

Beaux Arts, or in the studios of the great painters of Paris. He declared -

it to be a common error which substituted for the prehistoric man the

‘cultivated, educated artists of the nineteenth century, making the

502 The American Naturalist. [May,

primitive man to look at art through his eyes, and to study it with his

critical or æsthetic eye, as though the primitive works were to be sub-

mitted to the committee for entrance into the great Salon of Paris: He

declared this to be not scientific nor even sensible, but to be in the

highest degree fantastic; that the sooner it was laid away, and the

students and archeologists of to-day come down to common ground,

and devote themselves to presentation of the actual facts, the better it

would be for the science. He ridiculed the idea put forth by M. Piette

that these artists of the paleolithic age made studies and executed:

sketches of skeletons, whether of man or beast, for the same reason as

do our modern artists,—that is, to study the anatomy and be better

able to render correctly the form in the flesh. ‘‘ No,’’ said he, “the

artist of Mas d’Azil copied the heads which may have been skinned or

flayed, and the bare bones of the skull or skeleton which he may have

had many times before his eyes.’’

M. Piette responded.’ He demanded the proofs that the domestica-

tion of the reindeer was impossible without the dog. He declared his

belief that the engravings of the woman and the reindeer constituted

a true picture, of which we now unhappily have but part. The lines

of the two subjects do not penetrate or interfere with each other ; the

legs of the reindeer, as they cross the picture of the woman, are

brusquely interrupted, while the lines depicting the woman continue

across. It is the case of the one object being represented behind the

other.

Mr. John Evans said the interpretation of a few designs slightly

obscure is not sufficient proof that the reindeer and other animals

were domesticated. The dog would appear to have been the first

animal domesticated, and this was in accordance with logic and reason.

Monsieur Delgado made an elaborate, detailed, and interesting com-

munication upon a series of prehistoric caverns found in Portugal.

y had served as habitations and also as burial places. The objects

of human industry were of worked flint, arrow, and spear-heads, flasks,

pottery, polished stone hatchets, worked bones, ornaments, etc., ner

spersed with weapons or toòls and ornaments of bronze. They were

the same race apparently, so far as could be judged from the human

remains, as had been found in the south of Portugal and Spain. The

skull was dolichocephalic, and the tibia platycnemic. 3

Question III. had a second part: ‘* The Value of Paleontologic

and Archeologic Classifications as Applied to the Plistocene Period.

Doctor Gosse, of Geneva, presented charts of Lake Geneva showing:

the various deposits along its banks made during the Plistocene perio”

1891.] Archeology and Ethnology. 503

and attempted to show the relations between them and the various

ages of man as manifested by the fauna of the mammoth, then of the

reindeer, and finally of historic times. He showed a Chellèen instru-

ment coming from a deposit of the time of the mammoth, from. one of

the highest (altitude) localities.

M. Amerano, Superior of the College of Finalmarini, Liguria, de-

scribed his discovery at the station occupied by prehistoric man in the

cavern of the de la Fée in that neighborhood, and 300 metres above

the sea-level and one-and-a-half hours distant. He found in asingle day,

within the space of four cubic metres, six entire heads of the cave

bear, twenty large fragments of others, eighty under jaws, one hundred

and ten teeth, etc., representing no fewer than fifteen hundred indi-

viduals, There were two human occupations in this cavern; the ear-

liest and lowest contained objects of human industry which Monsieur

Reviere thought were similar to those of the most profound depths of

the Grottes de Menton. The upper and later was entirely neolithic,

with polished stone hatchets, gracing stones, and a piece of copper or

bronze.

The Mexican Tonalamatl of the Aubin collection, and the

other calendars related to it, have been investigated by Dr. Edward

Seler, and described in the ‘t Compte Rendu du Congrès International

des Américanistes,’’ seventh session, Berlin, 1888, his illustrated report

filling not less than 219 octavo pages, The tonalamatl is a representa-

tion of the Mexican astrologic year of 260 days, and exists in several

copies, differing considerably from the copy once in the possession of

the French collector, Aubin. They represent heads of gods and genii,

which are ornamented in various ways with symbols, and arranged in

Squares. Before we can understand these astrologic calendars we have

to discover which god or genius is meant in every instance, and

to this task Seler’s pages are devoted, for the Spanish texts accompany;

ing the pictures are not always clear enough. The erudition which

Seler brings into play i is astonishing, and only a close comparison of

his interpretation with the published pictures can convey to us an

understanding of the astrologic art of the Mexican people. This article

is Composed in German, as is also another publication of his, ‘ Alt-

mexicanishe Studien,” published in the “ Veréffentlichungen aus dem

Königlichen Museum fiir Vélkerkunde,’’ Vol. I., No. 4, fol., Berlin,

1890. The first of Seler’s articles treats learnedly of “ A Chaput from

the Miraris Aztec Materials Supplementary to the ‘ History’ of

Father Sahagun ’’; the second deals with “¢ The So-called Sacral Vases of

504 The American Naturalist. [May,

the Zapotec Indians.’’ These meritorious antiquarian inquiries of the

Berlin savant are profusely illustrated with wood-cuts in such manner

that the original colors are made apparent from the drawings.—A. S. G.

Huastec Language.— Reliable information upon this language

of Eastern Mexico is not easily obtainable. We notice with agree-

able surprise that a treatise of considerable extent has just been

published by a native of that country, by the Statistical Bureau of

Mexico. ` The title runs as follows: ‘(Cartilla huasteca con su

gramatica, diccionario, y varias reglas para aprender el idioma, etc.

por Marcelo Alejandre, Mexico, Calle de San Andrés, numero 15,

1890, Quarto, pp. 179. The Huastec language is the northernmost

of the Maya dialects, and differs very considerably from all others in

the lexicon and in the grammatic portion. This difference is ascribed

by linguists to the archaic character of the language, but other causes

may also have been at work. The nouns do not inflect for case, but

for number only ; for the verb the author establishes two conjugations,

according to the suffixes which are employed in forming the preterit

tense. The personal pronoun is placed separate from the verb. The

dictionary, by Lamberto Asiain, contains about 2900 items, and is

supplemented by a Spanish-Huastec part. There are two principal

dialects of Huastec, the Potosino and the Veracruzano; they are

spoken at Tantoyuca, Chontla, Tantima, Amatlan, San Antonio,

Tancoco, and are heard sporadically also at Ozuluama, in the state of

Vera Cruz, where Alejandré composed his Cartilla or elementary

manual. The volume concludes with some specimens of conversation

and poetry in that language, and makes mention of historic traditions

once current among the ancestors of the present Indian population.

—A. S. G.

Zapotec Language.—The Licentiate Francisco Belmar, of Oajaca,

has composed a juvenile manual for the study of the mountain dialect

of the Zapotec, which is spoken in the central parts of the state of

Oajaca, Mexico. The thirty pages of the little book are filled with

Zapotec words, arranged after the number of syllables which they

contain, and with their Spanish definitions ; the book concludes with

some religious short texts, and although the translation is not added z

, the lexical portion of the Cartilla, which was published in

Oajaca, 1890 (16mo), will be of service to the students of linguistics

at large.—A. S. G.

Mixtec and Mije are two aboriginal nations of Oajaca, mae

Mexico, which have retained their Indian languages in a comparative'y

189t.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. ’ 505

pure condition up to the present epoch, Mixtec is spoken in the

western and northern parts of Oajaca, and also in the adjoining portions

of the state of Guerrero, and is closely related to the Chuchon,

Amusgo, Cuitlatec, and other idiomatic forms of speech heard in these

parts. The Mixtec proper is divided into upper and lower Mixtec, the

majority of the Pueblos speaking the upper Mixtec, or Mixteco alto.

In former times the Pueblos of Tanguitlan and of Tepuzculula were

considered to speak the typical and purest form of the upper Mixtec.

The Spanish grammar (Arte) of the Dominican father Antonio de los

Reyes, printed in 1593, represents the dialect heard at Tepuzculula at

that time, and has just been reédited by Leon Reinisch, at the

expense of Count Hyacinthe de Charencey, in the eighteenth volume

of the ‘* Actes de la Société Philologique de Paris,’’ 1890, making 93

octavo pages. The prologue which precedes the work (eight pages)

contains much that is valuable upon the ethnography and dialects of

the Mixtec people. :

The same eighteenth volume contains a Confessonario en len

Mixe, by the Dominican father Augustin de Quintana, also republished

at M. de Charencey’s expense, and filling 331 pages. It isa reprint

from the edition of LaPuebla, Mexico, 1733, and besides the devo-

tional texts embodies a vocabulary of the parts of the human body,

the names of relationships, the numerals, and some grammatic infor-

mation. Mije or Mixe is spoken in the eastern parts of Oajaca State.

—A. S. G.

PROCEEDINGS OF SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES.

The National Academy of Sciences met at Washington

April 21st. The following papers were read: Further Studies on the

Brain of Limulus polyphemus; A. S. Packard. On Aérodromics ; S.

P. Langley. The Solar Corona, an Instance of the Newtonian Poten-

tial in the Case of Repulsion ; F. H. Bigelow (introduced by S. New-

comb). Report on the Human Bones of the Heminway Collection

in the U. S. Army Medical Museum, prepared by Dr. Washington

Matthews, U. S. A.; J. S. Billings. Application of Interference

Methods to Spectroscopic Measurements; A. A. Michelson. The

Corona from Photographs of the Eclipse of January 1st, 1889 ; H. S.

* Pritchett (introduced by A. Hall). Stellar Motion Problems ; Lewis

Effect of Pressure and Temperature on the Decomposition ot-

506 The American Naturalist. [May,

Diazo-Compounds ; Ira Remsen. Researches on the Double Halides ;

Ira Remsen. Allotropic Silver; M. Carey Lea (introduced by Ira

Remsen). Note on a Paper by M. G. Lippmann ; M. Carey Lea (in-

troduced by Ira Remsen), On the Yttrium Earths, and a Method of

Making Pure Yttrium; H. A. Rowland. Report of the Watson

Trustees, and Presentation of the Watson Medal to Professor Arthur

Auwers, of Berlin. On the Distribution of Colors in Certain North

American Reptiles; E. D. Cope. The Taxonomy of the Apodal

Fishes; Theodore Gill,

Francis A. Walker, of Boston, was elected vice president to fill the

vacancy caused by the resignation of Professor S. P. angley. The

Watson gold medal and $100 in gold were presented to the German

Minister, to be forwarded to Dr. Arthur Auwers, of Berlin, in recogni-

tion of his work in determining the positions of the fixed stars. The.

following gentlemen were elected foreign associates: Dr. Karl Gegen-

baur, of Heidelburg, and Dr. Jean Servais Stas, of Belgium.

Curtice. Abnormal Flowers in Glyceria; Mr. Theo. Holm.—FRED-

ERIC A. Lucas, Secretary.

1891.] Proceedings of Scientific Societies. 507

SCIENTIFIC NEWS.

The Boston Marine Biological Laboratory makes the fol-

lowing announcement for its fourth season:—Corps of instructors:

Director, Dr. C. O. Whitman, Professor of Zoology, Clark University,

editor of the Journal of Morphology; E. G. Gardiner, Instructor in

Zoology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology ; J. Playfair McMurrich,

Docent in Zoology, Clark University ; T. H. Morgan, Bruce Fellow,

Johns Hopkins University; W. M. Wheeler, Fellow in Biology, Clark

University; H. C. Bumpus, Assistant Professor of Zoology, Brown

University; W. M. Rankin, Instructor in Zoology, Princeton Col-

lege. Ryoiche Takano, Artist; G. M. Gray, Laboratory Assistant ;

J. J. Veeder, Collector.

In addition to the regular courses of instruction in zoology, botany,

and microscopical technique, consisting of lectures and laboratory

work under the direct and constant supervision of the instructors, there

will be two or more courses of lectures on special subjects by mem-

bers of the staff. One such course of six lectures will be given by

Dr. McMurrich on the Ctenophora and the Turbellaria. Similar

courses on the Mollusca, Crustacea, and Echinodermata will be given

by Professor Bumpus and Dr. Rankin.

The laboratory is located on the coast at Wood’s Holl, Massa-

chusetts, near the laboratories of the United States Fish Commission.

The building consists of two stories,—the lower for the use of teachers

and’students receiving instruction, the upper exclusively for investi-

gators. The laboratory has aquaria supplied with running sea-water,

boats, a steam launch, collecting apparatus, and dredges; it is also

supplied with reagents, glassware, and a limited number of microtomes

and microscopes. By the munificence of friends the library will be

provided henceforth not only with the ordinary text-books and works.

of reference, but also with the more important journals of zoology and

tany, some of them in complete series.

The laboratory for investigators will be open from June rst to August

29th. It is fully equipped with aquaria, glassware, reagents, etc., but

microscopes and microtomes will not be provided. In this department

there are fourteen private laboratories supplied with aquaria, running

water, etc., for the exclusive use of investigators, who are invited to

carry on their researches here, free of charge. Those who are pre-

pared to begin original work, but require supervision, special sugges-

508 The American Naturalist. [May,

tions, criticism, or extended instruction in technique, may occupy

tables in the general laboratory for investigators, paying for the privi-

lege a fee of fifty dollars. The number of such tables is limited to

ten. Applicants for them should state precisely what they have done

in preparation for original work. For the completion of any.consid-

erable piece of investigation, beginners usually require from one to

three full years. It is not expected, therefore, that the holders of

these tables will finish their work in a single season. The aim is rather

to make a secure beginning, which will lead to good results if followed

up between sessions and renewed, if need be, for several successive

ears.

The laboratory for teachers and students will be opened on Wednes

day, July 8th, for regular courses of seven. weeks in zoology, botany,

and microscopical technique. The number admitted to this depart-

ment will be limited to thirty, and preference will be given to teachers

and others already qualified. By permission of the director, students

may begin their individual work as early as June 15, without extra

charge, but the regular courses of instruction will not begin before

July 8th.

Rooms accommodating two persons may be obtained near the labor-

atory, at prices varying from $2.00 to $4.00 a week, and board from

$4.50 to $6.00. By special arrangement, board will be supplied to

members at The Homestead at $5.00 a week.

Applications for places in either department should be addressed to

Miss A. D. Phillips, secretary, 23 Marlborough Street, Boston.

Laboratory of Marine Biology of the University of Penn-.

sylvania.—The University of Pennsylvania, though the liberality of

Mr. Chas. K. Landis, will be enabled to occupy a modest laboratory

building the coming season at Sea Isle City, New Jersey. A building

80 x 24 feet will be provided with places for advanced workers and

students, and with an equipment of aquaria for the purposes of biologi-

cal study. Larger aquaria will be operated for the purpose of display-

ing to the public the character of the living marine forms found in the

immediate vicinity. It is provided that a biological director and staff

shall control the workings of the laboratory. While popular or ele-

mentary instruction will be given, it is intended that the place shall ve

mainly a laboratory of research. With this object in view, it is le

tended, as soon as possible, to throw open its facilities to all biologists

of repute, American as well as foreign. It is hoped that the establish-

ment may be got under way by the first of July, 1891, at the latest.

1891.] Scientific News. . 509

While the location on the New Jersey coast is not as rich faunally

as that of New England, it is, believed that certain counterbalancing

advantages will be gained. One is the accessibility of the location,

being only two hours by rail from Philadelphia.

Friedlinder’s Mature Novitates for May, 1890, advertises under

Vermes: ‘‘Thomas, C. The Circular, Be et and Octagonal Earth-

worms of Ohio.”

Judging from the plates in the Proceedings for 1890, the new

addition to the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia does

not make an architectural unity with the older portion.

Dr. E. Koken, of Berlin, has been elected ordinary professor of

mineralogy and geology in the University of Kénigsberg.

Dr. M. Braun, of Rostock, has been made ordinary professor of

zoology in the University of Königsberg.

Col. N. S. Goss died at Neosho, Kansas, March 11th, 1891. He is

best known through his papers on the birds of his adopted state.

Professor E. Ray Lankester has been appointed professor of zoology

in the University of Oxford. His former position in the University

. College of London is filled by Mr. W. F. R. Weldon.

Professor O. Frass has been appointed conservator, and Dr. Lam-

pert second conservator, of the Royal Museum of Natural History, at

Stuttgart.

The following choice bit of science is from Atkinson’s translation ot

Ganot’s “ Elements de Physique,” page 5. It d/ustrates the divisibility

of matter: ‘ Blood is composed of red flattened globules floating ina

colorless liquid called serum. In man the diameter of one of these

globules is less than the 3,50oth part of an inch, and the drop of blood

which might be suspended from the point of a needle would contain

about a million of globules. . . Again, the microscope has disclosed to

us the existence of insects smaller even than these particles of blood ;

the struggle for existence reaches even to these little creatures, for they

devour still smaller ones. If blood runs in the veins of these devoured

ones, how infinitesimal must be the magnitude of its component

particles!” , |, «It is, hardly necessary to remind the reader that an

-insect is an HER whether it is an unhatched egg, a growing larva, an

_ apparently lifeless pupa, or a flying or creeping imago.”"—L£ntomologi-

cal News, Vol. I., p. 86, 1890.”

Am. Nat.—May.—7.

510 ; The American Naturalist. [May, 1891.] /

Recent Deaths.—Dr. J. J. Friano, botanist, at Paris, Oct. 31st, |

1890; E. T. Atkinson, entomologist, at Calcutta, Sept. 15th, 1890;

Mathias Auinger, paleontologist, at Vienna, Oct. 11th, 1890, aged

80 years; W. J. Stephens, Pres. Linnean Society, N. S. Wales, Nov.

22d, 1890, at Sydney ; James Croll, author of ‘‘ Climate and Time,”

at Perth, Dec. r5th, 1890; A. Stoppani, geologist, at Mailand, Italy,

Jan., rst, 1891, aged 60 years; John Marshall, anatomist, at London,

Jan. 3d, 1891, aged 70 years ; Adam Handlersch, dipterologist, in

Vienna, Mar. 24th, 1890, aged 27 years; Otto von Meske, lepidop-

terist, in Albany, N. Y., Aug. 13th, 1890, in his 53d year.

Prof. C. L. Herrick, of University of Cincinnati, announces the „'

establishment of a quarterly periodical in the interests of the com-

parative study of the nervous system, entitled Zhe Journal of Com-

parative Neurology. It is the object of Zhe Journal of Comparative

Neurology not only to afford to those laboring in this direction an

avenue for the publication of more descriptive papers than could find

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The nominal dates of publication will be March, June, September,

and December, but fasciculi will be issued at more frequent intervals

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detail of a quarterly.

Each volume will contain about 500 pages. The annual subscription

price has been fixed at $3.00, or $2.50 if paid in advance. Separate |

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page and five cents per plate contained. pe

While the majority of the articles will be original, due attention will —

be given to technique and the discussion of the more suggestive current

papers.

The first volume will contain, among other things, a full account of

the histology of the brain of the opossum, a paper on the histology

of the Avian brain and the taxonomic value of the brain in birds, # a

résumé of the recent results obtained by the application of Golgi mis

method, comparative histology of reptilian brain, suggestions as peg

‘architectonic of the cerebellum, etc., etc. The coöperation of all

interested in this department is earnestly solicited. The first fasciculi

will follow: in the course of a few weeks. Pac.

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and their revisions have been used in the preparation of the Check-List.

Several additional species discovered last year (1890) are included

The price of the list is 50 cents per copy, 3 copies for $1.00.

Address,

JAS. M. MACOUN,

Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada.

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The American Geologist for 1891,

EDITED BY

Pror. S. Catvry, University of Iowa; Dr. E. W. a Buchtel College; Joun — Lafayette College; -

Dr. PERSIFOR Frazer, Fema Institute; Pror. F. W. hoon Washburn College; Pror. C. L. Hexnice,

Cincinnati Unive E A. Lanes, Colorado School of Mines; De. ANDREW Chine wson, late

gical Survey of comune; 0. Ue snag = Geological Survey; Pror. I. C. Wurte,

Uni

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